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Edinburgh, March 6, 1810.
THE FOLLOWING
NEW WORKS
WILL SPEEDILY BE PUBLISHED, BY
ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. EDINBURGH,
AND
CONSTABLE, HUNTER, PARK, & HUNTER, LONDON.
I. CALEDONIA: or an Account, Historical and Topographical, of North Bri¬
tain, from the most antient to the present times. By George Chalmers, Esq.
F. R. S. Vol. II. Quarto.
*** The firet Tulrnne of the above work published (1807), contains the Antient History of North
Britain, •ihe second volume, wfilcir appear in March 1810, will detail, after an introduc ory
chapier ot 26 sections, the Local History or tio «.Uf!rai sliiies ; beginning with Roxburgh, the most
southern snire, and pioceediug, successively, to Berwick, Haouiiuituii, i^a.nhurgh, Linlithgow Reeblesi
Selkirk. Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigton, and perhaps Ayrshire: and the Local History of each
shire will be given in eight distinct sections1. Of its Name ; 2. Of its Situation anfl Extent -
3. Of its Natural Objects ; 4. Of its Antiquities; 5. Of its Establishment as a Shire ; 6. Of its Civil
History; 7. Of its Agriculture, Manufactures, Trade; 8. Of its Ecclesiastical History; the account
of each shire concluding with a Supplemental State, which contains, in a Tabular form, the Names of
the several parishes, and the number of their Ministers; their Extent and Population in 1756 1791
and 1801; with the Ministers’ Stipends in 1755 and 1798, and their Patrons; forming, what Scotland
does not now possess, a sort of Liber Regis.
This most interesting work will be completed by the publication of two other volumes. The third
will contain the Local History and description of the remaining counties, on ihe plan stated above.
The fourth volume will consist of a Topographical Dictionary, containing whatever is interestin'*- re¬
lative to all places and objects of any importance in this part of the United Kingdom. This volume
will be preceded by an Historical View of the different Languages spoken in Scotland.
II. The GENEALOGY of the EARLS of SUTHERLAND, from the origin
of that illustrious House to the year 1630, with the History of the Northern parts
of Scotland during that period, by Sir Robert Gordon of Gordonstone, Baronet,
continued to the year 1651, by Gilbert Gordon of Sallagh. Published from the
Original Manuscript in the possession of the Marchioness of Stafford. Handsomely
printed in Folio.
*** The public is here presented not only with an accurate genealogical history of the antient house
of Sutherland, hut also with a minute detail of the principal transactions which occurred tim ing a pe¬
riod of nearly-600 years, particularly in the counties of Sutherland and Caithness, and the Highlands of
Scotland in general. Tne history of these parts, it is presumed, will receive more elucidation from
this work than from any which the public is at present possessed oft The whole has been carefully
transcribed by the kind permission of the Marchioness of Stafford, from the original manuscript pre¬
served at Dunfobin Castle.
An Appendix will he added, containing an inventory of writs of the Earldom, and the work will be
illustrated by several Engravings.
III. The PEERAGE of SCOTLAND; containing an fl Historical and Genealogi¬
cal Account of the Nobility of that Kingdom, from their Origin to the present Gene¬
ration.^ Collected from the Public Records, and Antient Chartularies of this Nation,
the Charters an(i other Writings of the Nobility, and the Works of our best Histo¬
rians. By Sir iAouticr Gf Glenbervie, Baronet. Continued to the present
time by J. P. VY ood, Esq. Handsomely Printed in Two Volumes Folio, with the
Arms of each Family beautifully Engraven.
*** A few Copies arc printed on Large Paper, forming Two Superb Volumes
with First Impressions of the Plates; and as the Number printed is very limited, No¬
blemen and Gentlemen who wish to secure copies, are respectfully requested to leave
their Names, either with Archibald Constable and Company, Edinburgh, or with
Constable, Hunter, Parr, and Hunter, 10, Ludgate Street, London, where Spe¬
cimens of the Work may now be seen. Ihe Plan of the Work is fully detailed in
the following Advertisement from ihe Editor.—The Peers of Scotland, the Repre¬
sentatives of dormant, attainted, and extinct titles, and persons connected with them
are respectfully informed, that this edition is now in the press.
2
The
2
Works speedily to be Published
The first edition was published in 1764. In the introduction, Sir Robert Douglas
thus expresses himself: a The necessity of publishing a New Peerage of Scotland, and
u the utility of it, is acknowledged by all. The Compiler of the present Work has
attempted it on a more regular and accurate plan than has hitherto appeared. How
far he has succeeded, the world must judge. But if the most assiduous application
6i for many jears; if a painful inquiry into the public records and antient chartularies;
if an unwearied search after every degree of knowledge necessary for carrying on so
tc arduous a task,—if these have any merit, or deserve the favour of the public, the Au-
<4 thor Hatters himself this Work, on perusal, will not be found deficient. The chief
and principal point the Author had in view, and the great object of his attention
44 [was], in a plain and distinct manner, to deduce the history of each family, from
<c its origin to the present generation, and to ascertain their genealogy and chronology
44 by indisputable documents.^
That edition has already become scarce. Subsequent researches have throunno
small light on the histories of particular families ; and, from thp lapeo of time, nume¬
rous alterations have necessarily taken place in tlm «oOle houses. On these accounts,
it has been judged, that a now priUJon or Sir Robert Douglas’s Peerage, with a conti¬
nuation to the present time, may not be deemed unacceptable to the public.
In the preface to the first edition, Sir Robert Douglas states, that 44 notwithstanding
44 all that has been done, there doubtless may and will be mistakes, such as are una-
44 voidable in a work of this kind, though the Author hopes they will not be found
44 numerous, as all manner of pains has been taken to avoid them, as well by the
44 labour bestowed upon the compilation, as by putting it in the power of every Peer
44 to correct or add to the history of his own family, by sending him a manuscript
44 copy some time before publication, they producing sufficient documents in support
44 of any alteration made.”
In conformity to this plan, calculated for the prevention of error, it is proposed,
in the first place, to transmit to the Peers of Scotland, and Representatives of dormant,
attainted, and extinct titles, (or their agents), that part of Sir Robert Douglas’s
Work which treats of their respective families, so disposed on writing paper, as to ad¬
mit of additions and corrections. being made writh facility; and, in the next place,
when the amended account of each family is put to the press, to transmit, in like
manner, the proof sheets of such amended account, before throwing off the impression.
This arrangement, although adding considerably to the expence of the Work, will,
it is hoped, meet with the approbation of all concerned. When it is considered on
how' comparatively trifling a degree of exertion on the part of each family, the forma¬
tion of a full and accurate Peerage of Scotland depends, the Editor flatters himself with
the hope, that the Nobility will be induced to take the trouble of revising, or of giving
directions to their Agents to correct, the accounts of their respective families, from
charters, parish registers, and other authentic sources, to their own satisfaction.
In the continuation of Sir Robert Douglas’s Peerage to the present time, the
Editor has used every endeavour to obtain correct information ; sensible that, if
genealogical histories can pretend to merit, it must consist in their accuracy, for
without that recommendation, they would become reprehensible, from their tenden¬
cy to mislead.
The Editor takes this opportunity of returning his grateful acknowledgements for
the valuable communications received from several of the Nobility am1 iimir con¬
nections, in reference to his original plan of a Poow*Sg of Scotland, from the Union
of Great Britain downward Fnr the reasons already stated, he has been induced
to extend that plan ; and begs leave to solicit such information as may enable him
to carry it into full effect, particularly with regard to the errors of the first edition.
The Editor has only to add, that communications on the subject, addressed to
him at No. 92, Prince’s Street, Edinburgh, in franked covers, not exceeding the
limited weight, or where these cannot be obtained, under cover to the Secretary of
the General Post-Office of Scotland, Edinburgh, will be carefully attended to, and
properly noticed in the Work. „
by Archibald Constable and Company, 3
IV. SWIFT’S WORKS, Edited by Walter Scott, Esq. with a Life of the
Author, Notes Critical and Illustrative, &c. &c. Nineteen Volumes Octavo, hand,
somely printed, with a few copies on Royal Paper. (Edinburgh, March 1809.)
*** The present edition of this incomparable English Classic is offered to the public on a plan differ¬
ent from that adopted by former editors. In the Life of the Author, it is proposed to collate and com¬
bine the various information which has been given by Mr Sheridan, Lord Orrery, Dr Delany, Mr Pii-
kington, Dean Swift, Dr Johnson, and others, into one distinct and comprehensive narrative; which,
it is hoped, may prove neither a libel or apology for Swift, nor a collection from the pleadings of those
who have written either; but a plain, impartial, and connected biographical narrative. By the favour
of distinguished friends in Ireland, the editor hopes to obtain considerable light upon some passages in
the Dean’s life, which have hitherto perplexed his biographers. In preparing the text and notes, no
labour or expence has been spared to procure original information. The Tale of a Tub, for example,
is illustrated with the marginal notes of the learned Bentley, transcribed from manuscript jottings on
his own copy. Although neither long nor numerous, they offer some curious elucidations of the author,
and afford a singular instance of the equanimity with which the satire even of Swift was borne by the
venerable scholar against whom it was so unadvisedly levelled. Some preliminary critical observations
are offered on the various literary productions of the Dean of St Patrick’s; and historical explanations
and anecdotes accompany iu» political treatises. All those pieces which, though hitherto admitted
into Swift s works, are positively ascertained not to be of his composition, are placed in the Appendix
or altogether retrenched. On the other hand, the Kamn is rm-oumgoA to boliove, that by accurate
research, some gleanings may yet be recovered, which have escaped even the laudable and undenia¬
ble industry of Swift’s last editor. So that, upon the whole, he hopes the present edilion will be fully
more complete than those of late years* The work will appear in the course of 1811. ^
V. The WORKS of GAWIN DOUGLAS, Bishop of Dunkeld, with Histo¬
rical and Critical Dissertations on his Life and Writings, Notes and a Glossary.
By the Right Hon. Sylvester (Douglas) Lord Glenbervie. Four Volumes Octavo
elegantly printed.
*** The whole works of Gawin Douglas, consisting of his translation of Virgil’s /Erieid the Palace
of Honour, and King Hart, are now, for the first time, collected into one edition. Two Dissertations
the one on the Family of Douglas, the other, on the Poet’s Life and Writings, will be prefixed and
copious notes added. The text of Rnddiman’s edition ef the Aineid has been collated with the fol
lowing manuscripts: viz. Two in the Library of the University of Edinburgh, another in the posses"
sion of the Marquis of Bath at Longleet, and the fourth at Lambeth Palace. The excellent Glossary
of Ruddiman is made the basis of that in the present work, but considerably enlarged, and extended
to the other poems. ^ a i
VI. LETTERS of ANNA SEWARD, written between the years 1784 and
1807, bequeathed to Mr Constable for publication. Five Volumes Post Octavo
with Portraits, and other Plates. J
VII. METRICAL ROMANCES of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth
Centuries. Published from antient manuscripts, and illustrated by an Introduction
Notes, and a Glossary. By Henry Weber, Esq. In Three Volumes Post Octavo.’
*** The present publication is intended to comprehend the most valuable of those Romances
which have not yet been submitted to the public. The Life of Alexander, attributed by Warton to
Adam Davie and strongly recommended by him for publication, will form the first article: and will
be followed by Richard Cocur de Lion, which, besides its very considerable poetical merit, must excite
a strong national interest; and by others, selected either for the beauty of the tale, or some circum¬
stances rendering them curious; among which a few Comical Romances will be found. To the intro-
uuction, the Editor, at the request of several gentlemen most anxious for the publication, has subjoined
•enii^iniaiy,aCC0'int ot,the German eaily Poetry and Romance ; a subject of high interest, but as yet
shonhfmJ1^0^.11 m° , nS na,10n’ and but little cultivated on tllc Continent. If the present publication
ofEnillueT>Wih ‘^encouragement, which the importance of this species of composition in the history
its fi«rfted^ie8Saap;i5SSt,OD> comprising those excluded from this selection, on account
VUI TheH^TORY and CHRONICLES at SCOTLAND, by Robert Lind,
say of I itscottie. Edited from Antient and Authentic Manuscripts, by John
Graham Dal yell. Esq. One Volume Quarto, handsomely printed, with a Portrait
of King James V. from an Original Picture.
fnAdT DISASTERS at SEA, according to the most An then,
-ic Accounts, An tieu t and Modern. Ihrce Volumes Octavo.
N. The
4
Works speedily to be Published, &Y«
X. The DRAMATIC WORKS of JoHNFoun; with an Introduction and Ex¬
planatory Notes. By Henry Weber,, Esq. In Two Volumes Octavo.
*** Tliis author was coeval with Fletcher and Massinger, and others who succeeded Shakespeare.
He imitated the latter with a success sufficient to provoke the envy of Ben Johnson, and to excite
great admiration from his contemporaries. Notwithstanding their great merit, Ins plays have never,
with the exception of two, been reprinted, and are now, for the first time, collected in a uniform edi¬
tion,
XI. HISTORY of the REFORMATION in SCOTLAND. By George
Cook, D. D. Minister of Laurencekirk, Author of u An Illustration of the General
Evidence establishing the Reality of Christ’s Resurrection.” Three Volumes Octavo.
XII. RESEARCHES into the ORIGIN and AFFINITY of the GREEK
and TEUTONIC LANGUAGES. By A. Murray, F. A.S.E. and Secretary for
Foreign Correspondence. One Volume Quarto.
*** The immediate object of this work is, to illustrate the early state and connexion of these lan¬
guages, on accurate and philosophical principles. The light which i- <lllls thrown on the structure of
the Greek tongue, gives a new and interesting form to tlie whole of classic philology ; exhibits an
extensive view of the piocess ny vvinch me mind invents and improves articulate speech ; and leads to
a developement of the origin of the most antient European nations. The notices ascertained in the
course of investigation depend, not on conjecture, but on a comparison of almost every European
language witli thos'e to which it is respectively allied. In the train of inquiry pursued in the researches
above mentioned, particular regard has been paid to the Oriental tongues; those having been examined
which bear no affinity to the Teutonic, as w ell as those which appear to be related to it. For a plan and
outline of the whole work, reference may be made to page 505 ot an “ Account of the Life and
Writings of James Bruce of Kinnaivd, Esq. Author of Travels to discover the Source of the Nile,
in the years 1768—1773,” published 1808.
XIII. The WORKS of SIR WALTER RALEGH, Knight ; with a Biogra¬
phical and Critical Introduction. Seven Volumes Octavo, handsomely printed.
The Writings of Sir Walter Ralegh, have been highly praised by the greatest Masters of Eng¬
lish Literature, both for solidity of matter, and dignity of style. But these Writings, which consist of
a History of the World, a Voyage to Guiana, and various Discourses upon Government, War, Com¬
merce, and Navigation, besides Poems and Letters, have never yet been published in a uniform shape.
The present Edition is intended to supply this desideratum ; and it is the more necessary, as both the
last edition of his History, by Oldys, and of his Miscellaneous Works, by Birch, have become
equally rare.
In this Edition, the Miscellaneous Pieces will be re-arranged and classified ; and besides occasional
illustrative Notes, there will be added some Letters of Ralegh, which had not appeared at the time
of Dr Birch’s Publication. The Introductory Essay will contain, within moderate limits, a clear,
and it is hoped, interesting Account of the Actions, Fortunes, and Character of this extraordinary Man,
founded upon a thorough examination of all that lias been written on the subject of his Life, and the
transactions in which he was engaged : together with a connected view of the scope and merits of his
literary labours. ,
*** A few Copies will be printed on Royal Paper, and the Work will be embellished with a Por¬
trait of Ralegh, from an Oiiginal Painting, and a Fac-simile of his Writing.
XIV. MEMOIRS of the Most Remarkable Passages in the Life of Sir JAMES
TURNER, Knight, from the Commencement-of his Military career in Germany,
in 1632, (the year in which Gustavus Adolphus was killed), till his Trial for Oppres¬
sion and Extortion, and Acquittal, before the Privy-Council, in 1668; written by
Himself. Published from the Original Manuscript in the possession of the Publish¬
ers. One Volume Octavo; ztith a Portrait of the Author.
The Author of this Narrative served as a Major in Lord Sinclair’s Regiment, during tIl,e Re*
bellion which broke out in Ireland in 1641; and afterwards in the Scotish army m England, tnl he
was made prisoner, with the Duke Hamilton, hy Lambert, ax Cxeter, Obtaining his hbeiiy in 1649,
he withdrew to the Continent, where he remained in Denmark, Germany, Holland, and 1 ranee, till
the Restoration. In 1666, he was smprised at Dumfries by the Covenanters, with whom he continued
a prisoner till their defeat by Dalyell, at Pentium! Hills. His Memoirs, embracing so eventful a period
in the History of Europe, are peculiarly interesting, from the light w hich they throw on mar^y or the most
remarkable events and characters of the time. He also wrote, and published in 1683, “ Padas Aima-
ta,” a series of Military Essays ; was a man of considerable talents, much experience, extensive read¬
ing, and shrewd discernment-; and his writing in the first person gives to his Memoirs, as he has ma¬
naged it, a dramatic effect, by which the Reader is made not only a Spectator, but also an Auditor or
all that passes.
Printed by George Ramsay & Co.
Edinburgh, 1810.
THE
[ 401 ]
THE
Thermo¬
meter.
16
Table form¬
ed from the
ntlcj
Equation of the Boiling Point.
Barometer.
51.0
3°-5
50.0
29 5
29.0
28.5
28.0
27-5
27.0
Equation.
+ I>57
-f 0.79
0.00
— 0.80
— 1.62
~ 2-45
— 3*31
— 4.16
— 5-°4
Difference.
0.78
O.79
0.80
0.82
0.82
c.85
0.86
0.88
. x7
Sir George
Shuck-
burgh’s ob-
fervations
compared
with De
Lee’s rules.
The numbers in the firfi: column of this table e.vprefs
heights of the quickhiver in the barometer in Engliih
inches and decimal parts: the fecond column (hows the
equation to be applied, according to the fign prefixed,
to 212° of Bird’s Fahrenheit, to find the true boiling
point for every fuch Hate of the barometer. The boil¬
ing point for all intermediate flares of the barometer
may be had with fufficient accuracy, by taking propor¬
tional parts, by means of the third column of differences
of the equations. See Philofophical Tranfadfions, vol.
Ixiv. art. 30. j alfo Dr Mafkelyne’s Paper, vol. Ixiv.
art. 20.
In the following table we have the refult of fif¬
teen different obfervations made by Sir George Shuck-
burgh compared with the refult of M. de Luc’s
rules.
Height of
the Baro¬
meter redu¬
ced to the
fame tem¬
perature of
50°.
Mean
Boiling
Point by
Obferva-
Boiling 1 TT . ,
Point by ^ht
De Luc’ of Bal 0~
Rules.
meter.
Inch.
26.498
27.241
27-954
28.377
28.699
28.898
28.999
29.447
29.805
207,
208,
209,
210,
21 X.
21 I.
21 I,
212,
212,
,07
,64
87
50
27
50
60
551
95|
208.54
208.84
2I0.03‘
210.81!
211.34
21 I.67
211.8 i;
212.74
213.!5
Boiling Boiling
Point by Point by
Obferva-iDe Luc’s
Rules
Inch.
30.008
30.207
30.489
3°-76.3
30.847
30-957
213.22 213.47
213.58 213.79
214.15: 214.23
214.37! 214.66
214.83: 214.79
214.96 214.96
Sir George Shuckburgh has alfo fubjoined the follotv-
ing general table for the ufe of artifls in conftrudting
the thermometer, both according to his own oblerva-
tions and thofe of M. de Luc.
Height of the
Barometer
26.0
26.5
27.O
27-5
28.0
28.5
29.0
29-5
30.0
3^-5
31.0
Cor re (ft. of the
Boiling Point.
— 7.O9
— 6.18
— 5-27
— 4-37
— 348
— 2.59
— 1.72
— c.85
0.00
+ 0.85
-f 1.69
Differ¬
ence.
.91
•91
.90
.89
.89
.87
.87
.85
.85
.84
Correct, ac¬
cording to
M de Luc.
-6.83
— 5-93
— 5.04
— 4.16
— 3-31
— 2.45
— 1.62
— 0.80
0.00
+ 0.79
+ I-57
Differ¬
ence.
.90
.89
.88
.87
.86
.83
.82
.80
•79
.78
18
The Royal Society, fully apprifed of the importance Obferva-
of adjufting the fixed points of thermometers, appointedtions 1T:a'Je
a committee of feven gentlemen to confider of the heft ^ a com‘
method for this purpole ; and their report is publilhed j-he ^oyd
in the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. part ii. art. 37. Society for
They obferved, that though the boiling point be pla- adjufting
ced fo much higher on fome of the thermometers nowtlle fixect
made than on others, yet this does not produce any con-1X)iritS’
fiderable error in the obfervations of the weather, at
leal! in this climate 5 for an error of i-J0 in the pofition
of the boiling point, will make an error only of half a
degree in the pofuion of 920, and of not more than a
quarter of a degree in the point of 62°. It is only in
nice experiments, or in trying the heat of hot liquors,
that this error in the boiling point can be of much im¬
portance.
In adjufting the freezing as well as the boiling point,
the quickfilver in the tube ought to be kept of the fame
heat as that in the ball. When the freezing point is
placed at a confiderable diftance from the ball, the
pounded ice fhould be piled to fuch a height above the
ball, that the error which can arife from the quickfilver
in the remaining part of the tube not being heated
equally with that in the ball, {hall be very fmall, or the
obferved point muft be corredled on that account ac¬
cording to the following table :
Heat of the
Air.
42u
52
62
72
82
Corre&ion.
.00087
.00174
.00261
.00348
•0°435
I9
Table for
cor edhng
the freezing
point.
The corre&ion in this table is expreffed in 1 oooth
parts of the diftance between the freezing point and the
furface of the ice : e. gr. if the freezing point Hands
leven inches above the furface of the ice, and the heat
of the room is 62, the point of 320 (hould be placed
7X00261, or .or8 of an inch lower than the obfer¬
ved point. A diagonal fcale will facilitate this correc¬
tion.
3E
Vol. XX. Part II.
The
20
'the qukk-
filver in
the tube
ought to be
heated to
the fame
degree as
that in the
ball.
21
The tubes
ought to
be cylindri¬
cal and ca¬
pillary.
* L.eco??sde
Phyf. Exp.
tom. iv.
P 37<>-
•22
The num¬
ber of de¬
grees into
which the
feale ought
to be divi¬
ded.
T H E [ 402 ] THE
that in trying the heat of feelings, for it is what few can ever experience. There
would be feveral great advantages gained, we allow, by
adopting the freezing point of mercury. It is the low-
eft degree of cold to which mercury can be applied as a
and it would render unneceffary the ufe of the
23
At what
po'nt the
fcale ought
to com¬
mence.
The committee obferv , „ ^
liquors, care Pnould be > iken that the quickfilver in the
tube of the thermometer be heated to the fame degree as
that in the ball •, or if this cannot be done conveniently,
the obferved heat flrould be co:reeled on that account ;
for the manner of doing which, and a table calculated
for this purpofe, we mull refer to their excellent report
in the Phil. Trank vol. Ixvii. part ii. art. 37.
With regard to the choice of tubes, they ought to be
exactly cylindrical. But though the diameter ftiould
vary a little, it is eafy to manage that matter in the
manner propofed by the Abbe Nollet *, by making a
{mall portion of the quickfilver, e. gr. as much as fills
up an inch or half an inch, Hide backward and forward
in the tube j and thus to find'the proportions of all its
inequalities, and from thence to adjuft the divifions to a
fcale of the moft perfefl equality. 'The capillary tubes
are preferable to others, becaide they require fmaller
bulbs, and they are alfo more fenfible, and lefs brittle.
The moft convenient fize for common experiments has
the internal diameter about the 40th or 50th of an
inch, about nine inches long, and made of thin glafs,
that the rife and fall of the mercury may be better
feen. _ <r
The next thing to be confidered, is of what number
of degrees or divifions the fcale ought to confift, and
from what point it ought to commence. As the number
of the divifions of the fcale is an arbitrary matter, the
feales which have been employed differ much from one
another in this circumftance. Fahrenheit has made 180
degrees between the freezing and boiling water point.
Amontons made 73, and Sir Ifaac Newton only 34.
There is, however, one general maxim, which ought to
be obferved : That fuch an arithmetical number Jbould
be chojcn as can eajily be divided and Jubdiv ded, and
that the number of divifions fhould be Jo great that
there foal/feldom be occafwn for frail ions. I he num¬
ber 80 chofen by Reaumur anfwers extremely well in
this refpeft, becaufe it can be divided by fevetal figures
without leaving a remainder 5 but it is too Imail a num¬
ber : the confequence of which is, that the degrees are
placed at too great a diftance from one another, and
fraftions muft therefore be often employed. We think,
therefore, that 160 would have been a more convenient
number.’ Fahrenheit’s number 780 is large enough,
but when divided its quotient foon becomes an odd num¬
ber.
As to the point at which the fcale ought to com¬
mence, various opinions have been entertained. ‘ If we
knew the beginning or loweft degree of heat, all phi-
lofophers would agree, that the loweft point of the ther¬
mometer ought to be fixed there •, but we know neither
the loweft nor the highett degrees of heat j we obferve
only the intermediate parts. All that we can do, then,
is to begin it at feme invariable point, to which thermo¬
meters made in different places may eafily.be aeljufted.
If poffible too, it ought to be a point at which a natural
well-known body receives fome remarkable change from
the effsfts of heat or cold. Fahrenheit began his. fcale
at the point at which fnow and fait congeal. Kirwan
propofes the freezing point of mercury. Sir Ifaac
Newton, Hales, and Reaumur adapted the freezing
point of water. The objeftion to Fahrenheit’s loweft
point is, that it commences at an artificial cold never
known in nature, and to which we cannot refer our
meaSure 5 and it would r<
figns plus and minus, and the extenfion of the Scale be¬
low o. But we objedt to it, that it is not a point well
known ; for few, comparatively fpeaking, who ule
thermometers, can have an opportuity of feeing mercury
congealed. As to the other advantage to be gained by
adopting the freezing point of mercury, namely, the
abolition of negative numbers, we do not think it would
counterbalance the advantage to be enjoyed by ufing
a well-known point. Eefides, it may be alked, Is there
not a propriety in ufing negative numbers to exprefs the
degree of cold, which is a negative thing ? Heat and
cold we can only judge of by our feelings: the point
then at which the fcale ftiould commence, ought to be
a point which can form to us a ftandard oi heat and
cold } a point familiar to us from being one of the moft;
remarkable that occurs in nature, and therefore a point
to which we can with moft clearnefs and precifion refer
to in our minds on all occafions. This is the freezing
point of water chofen by Sir Ifaac Newton, which of all
the general changes produced in nature by cold is the
moft remarkable. It is, therefore, the moft convenient
point, for the thermometers to be ufed in the tempe¬
rate and frigid zones j we may fay over the globe,
for even in the hotteft countries of the torrid zone
many of the mountains are perpetually covered with
fnow. . . 24
The thermometers which are at prefent in meft ge-Thermome-
neral ufe, are Fahrenheit’s, De Rifle’s, Reaumur’s, andters gene-
Celfius’s. Fahrenheit’s is ufed in Britain, De Rifle’sra^’ u^‘
in Ruftia, Reaumur’s and the thermometre centigrade
in France, and Celfius’s, the fame as the laft named, in
Sweden. They are all mercurial thermometers. For
their defeription and the method of comparing them to¬
gether, fee Chemistry, N° 198—201. See alfo Plate
DXXXIV. 25
As in meteorological obfervations it is neceffary to at- Account
tend to the greateft rife and fall of the thermometer, at-”f lelf~reSI“
tempts have been made to conftruft a thermometer^^ters
which might regifter the greateft degree of heat, or
greateft degree of cold, which took place during the ab- 2(j
fence of the obferver. In 1757 Lord Charles CavendiftiLord
prefented to the Royal Society of London a thermome Charles
ter in two different forms j the one contrived to mark
the greateft degree of heat, and the other the greateft ^re
degree of cold. Plate
The firft confifts of a glafs tube AB, with a cylin-DXXXlII,
drical bulb B at the lower end, and capillary at the top, Hg. 3*
over which there is fixed a glafs ball C. ft he bulb and
part of the tube are filled with mercury, the top of which
fhows the degrees of heat as ufual. 1 he upper part of
the tube above the mercury is filled with fpirit of wine 5
the ball C is alfo filled with the fame liquor almoft to
the top of the capillary tube. When the mercury rifes
the fpirit of wine is alfo raifed, and falls into the ball C,
w'hich is fo made that the liquor cannot return into the
tube when the mercury finks ; confequently the height
of the fpirit of wine in the ball, added to that in the
tube, will give the greateft degree of heat to which the
thermometer has pointed fince laft obfervation. When
a new obfervaticn is to be made, the inftrument muft be
inclined
THE
C 403 ]
THE
Fi2. 4.
-7
Mr Six’s
thermome¬
ter.
FiS- 5-
28
Ruther¬
ford’s ther¬
mometer.
- inclined till the liquor in the ball cover the end of the
capillary tube.
In this thermometer it is evident that the mercury
mult be affiefted by the weight and elafticity of the fpi-
rit of wine, and therefore it will not correfpond to any of
the common mercurial thermometers.
The thermometer for Ihowing the greateft: degree of
cold is reprefented in fig. 4. by the crooked tube
A BCD. This inftrument is filled with fpirit of wine,
with the addition of as much mercury as is fufficient to fill
both legs of the fyphon, and about a fourth or fifth part
of the hollow ball C. We are not told what the pro¬
portion of mercury wTas to that of fpirit of wine. The
degrees of heat are fhown by the rife or fall of the mer¬
cury in the leg AB. The thermometer marks the
greateft fall by means of the hollow ball C. When the
mercury in the longer kg finks by cold, that in the
Ihorter will rife and run over into the ball C, from
which it cannot return wdien the mercury fubfides in the
fhorter and rifes in the longer leg. The upper part of
the Ihorter leg will therefore be filled with a column of
f'pirits of a length proportional to the increafe of heat;
the bottom or lower furface of which, by means of a
proper fcale, will (how how much the mercury has been
lower than it is j which being fubtrafled from the pre¬
lent height will give the loweft point to wThich the mer¬
cury has fallen. That the thermometer may be fitted for
a new obfervation, the mercury muft be made to run
back from the ball into the Ihorter leg, by inclining the
tube and heating the ball.
In 1782 Mr Six propofed another felf-regiftering
thermometer. It is properly a fpirit of wine thermome¬
ter, though mercury is alfo employed for fupporting an
index, a b is a thin tube of glafs 16 inches long, and
xjths of an inch caliber: ede and are Smaller
tubes about -/5-th of an inch caliber. Thefe three tubes
are filled with highly rectified fpirit of wine, except the
fpace between d and g, which is filled with mercury.
As the fpirit of wine contrafts or expands in the mid¬
dle tube, the mercury falls or rifes in the outfide tubes.
An index, fuch as that reprefented in fig. 6. is placed
on the furface, within each of thefe tubes, fo light as to
float upon it. £ is a fmall glafs tube £ths of an inch
long, hermetically fealed at each end, and inclofing a
piece of fteel wire nearly of its own length. At each
end /, m, of this fmall tube, a (hort tube of black glafs
is fixed, of fuch a diameter as to pafs freely up and down
within either of the outfide tubes of the thermometer
c e or f h. From the upper end of the index is drawn a
fpring of glafs to the finenefs of a hair, and about 4ths
of an inch long ; which being placed a little oblique,
preffes lightly againft the inner furface of the tube, and
prevents the index from defeending when the mercury
defeends. Thefe indexes being inferted one into each
of the outfide tubes, it is eafy to underftand how they
point out the greateft heat or cold that has happened in
the obferver’s abrence. When the fpirit of wine in the
middle tube expands, it prefles down the mercury in the
tube h f and confequently raifes it in the tube ec ; con-
kquently the index on the left hand tube is left behind
and marks the greateft cold, and the index in the right
hand tube rifes and marks the greateft heat.
In 1790 a paper was given in to the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, deferibing two thermometers, newly invent¬
ed, by Dr John Rutherford of Middle Eaililh ; the one
lor regiftering the higheft and the other for regiftering
the loweft degree of heat to which the thermometer
has rifen or fallen during the abfence of the obferver.
An account of them may be found in tire third volume
of the Tranfadlions of the Society.
A new felf-regiftering thermometer has been in- Mr Keith’s
vented by Mr Keith of Raveiftone, which we confider thermome-
as the moft ingenious, fimplc, and perfect, of any which ter'
has hitherto appeared. Its fimplicity is fo great, that it
requires only a very ftiort defeription to make it intelli¬
gible.
AB is a thin glafs tube about 14 inches long and Fig'7*
^ths of an inch caliber, clofe or hermetically fealed at
top. To the lower end, which is open, there is joined
the crooked glafs tube BE, feven inches long, and i%ths
of an inch caliber, and open at top. The tube AB is
filled with the ftrongeft fpirit of wine, and the tube BE
with mercury. This is properly a fpirit of wine ther¬
mometer, and the mercury is ufed merely to fupport a
piece of ivory or glafs, to which is affixed a wire for
raifing one index or depreffing another, according as the
mercury riles ov falls. E is a fmall conical piece of
ivory or glafs, of fuch a weight as to float on the furface
of the mercury. To the float is joined a wire called
the float-wire, which reaches upwards to H, where it
terminates in a knee bent at right angles. The float-
wire, by means of an eye at a, moves eafily along the
{mail harpfichord wire GK. LL are two indexes made
of thin black oiled filk, which Hide upwards or down¬
wards with a force not more than two grains. The one
placed above the knee points out the greateft rife, and
the one placed below it points out the greateft fall, of
the thermometer.
When the inftrument is to be prepared for an obfer¬
vation, both indexes are to be brought clofe to the knee
H. It is evident, that when the mercury rifes, the float
and float wire, which can be moved with the fmalleft
force, will be puffied upwards till the mercury become
ftationary. As the knee of the float-wire moves up¬
wards it will carry along with it the upper index L.
When the mercury again fubfides, it leaves the index
at the higheft point to which it was raifed, for it will
not defeend by its own weight: As the mercury falls
the float-wire does the fame; it therefore brings along
with it the lower index L, and continues to deprefs it
till it again becomes ftationary or afeend in the tube j
in which cafe it leaves the lower index behind it as it
had formerly left the upper. The fcale to which the
indexes point is placed parallel to the {lender harpfi¬
chord wire. It may be feen more diftindlly in fig. 8.
That the {bale and indexes may not be injured by
the wind and rain, a cylindrical glafs cover, clofe at
top, and made fo as to exablly fit the part GF, is placed
over it.
The ingenious inventor has another, improvement in
contemplation, which, if upon trial it be found to an-
fwer, will make this thermometer as perfect as can be
defired, provided there do not arife fome errors from the
variable preffure of the atmofphere. He propofes to
adopt clock-work to this thermometer, in fuch a way
as to regifter with the utmoft precifion the degrees of
heat and cold for every month, day, and minute in the
year. The principles on which this clockwork is to be
formed we ffiall forbear to deferibe, hoping that the au¬
thor himfeif, after his experiment has met with the fuccefs
3 E 2 which
THE
[ 4°4 ]
THE
„ 30
M DeLuc’s
i'uppoi'ed
improve¬
ments.
31
Mr Cavallo
32
The ther¬
mometers
d< fcribed
above too
limited.
Tliermo- which tve ardently wiflt, will favour the world with his
meter~ own account ot it.
’ " y The fame ingenious gentleman has invented a felf-re-
gitlering barometer, upon the fame principles with his
icU-regitiering thermometer. We have had the plea-
lure of feeing both •, and are convinced that they will
fully gratify the willies of all who are engaged in meteo¬
rological itudtes. He is alio in expectation of being
foon able to produce an air-thermometer free from the
defeats of thole which were formerly made, as he has
found out a w7ay of preventing it from being affeCted by
the prefl'ure of the aimolphere.
M. de Luc has defcribed the belt method of con-
Itructing a thermometer, fit for determining the tempe¬
rature of the air, in the menfuration oi heights by the
barometer. He has alio Ihown how to divide the fcale
of a thermometer, fo as to adapt it for aftiGnomical pur-
pofes in the obfervation of refraCtions.
Mr Cavallo, in 1781, propoied the conflruCtion of a
nicf^ thermometrical barometer, which, by means ot boiling
metricalba-water> indicate the various gravity of the atmo-
rometer. fphere, or the height of the barometer. But as he does
not fay that the inlfrument has been tried with the de-
fired fuccefs, we forbear to delcribe it. Thole who wilh
to know his ideas refpeCting it may confult the Philofo-
plucal TranfaClions, vol. Ixxi. p. 524.
The thermometers hitherto delcribed are very limited
in their extent; they indeed point out to us the lowell
degrees of heat which are commonly obferved even in
cold climates, but they by no means reach to thole de¬
grees of heat which are very familiar to us. 'I he mer¬
curial thermometer extends no farther than to 6co of
Fahrenheit’s fcale, the heat of boiling mercury } but we
are lure that the heat of folid bodies, when heated to
ignition, or till they emit light, far exceeds the heat of
boiling mercury.
In order to remedy this defeCl, Sir Ifaac Newton,
whofe genius overcame thofe oblfacles which ordinary
„ m:n(is could not approach, attempted by an ingenious
the fcale of experiment to extend the kale to any degree required,
the thermo-Having heated a mafs of iron red hot, and expoled it
to the cold air, he ooferved the time which elapfed till
it became cold, or of the fame temperature with the
air ; and w1'en the heat fo far decreafed that he could
apply fome known meafure (as a thermometer) to it,
he obferved the degrees of heat loft in given times •, and
thence drew the general conclufion, that the quantities
of heat loft in given fmall fpaces are always proportional
to the heat remaining in the body, reckoning the heat
to be the excefs by which it is warmer than the ambient
air. So that taking the number of minutes which it
took to cool after it came to a determined point in an
arithmetical progreffion, the decrements of the heat of
the iron would be continually proportional. Having
by this proportion found out the decrements of heat in a
given time after it came to a- known point, it was eafy,
by carrying upwards the fame proportion to the begin¬
ning' of its cooling, to determine the greateft heat which
the body had acquired. This proportion of Sir Ilaac’s
was found by Dr Martine to be fomewhat inaccurate.
The heat of a cooling body does not decreafe exafUy in
proportion to that which the body retains. As the re-
fult of many obfervations, he found that two kinds of
proportion took place, an arithmetical as well as the
geometrical proportion which Sir Ifaac Newton had
33
Sir liaac
Newton’s
method of
sneter.
Mi’tine’i
EJJuys.
Thermo¬
meter,
Thermopy-
Ise
34
adopted ; namely, that the decrements of heat were
partly proportional to the times (that is, that quantities
of heat are loft in equal times), as well as partly in
proportion to the remaining heat ; and that if thefe two
are added together the rule will be lufficiently accurate.
By the geometrical proportion which Sir liaac Newton
adopted he difeovered the heat of metals red hot or in
fufton.
This method, fo fuccefsfully purfued by Sir Ifaac, Mr Wedg-
was lufticient to form a fcale of high degrees of heat, wood’sther-
but was not convenient for pvadtical purpofes. ^_c_ mometer tor
cordingly the ingenious Mr Jofiah Wedgwood, who isj.*^
well known for his great improvement m the art of pot- gibes of
tery, apphed himfelf in order to difeover a thermometer heat
which might be eafily managed. After many experi¬
ments recorded in the Phiioiophical Tranfadfions, but
which it is unneceflary to detail in this place, he has in¬
vented a thermometer which marks with much precifion
the diffe'rent degrees of ignition from a dull red heat vi-
fible in the dark to the beat of an air-lurnace. This
thermometer is extremely fimple. It confifts of two
rulers fixed upon a fmooth flat plate, a little farther
afunder at the one end than at the other, leaving an
open longitudinal fpace between them. Small pieces of
alum and clay mixed together are made of fuch a lize
as juft to enter at the wide end ; they are then heated
in the fire along with the body whole heat we with to
determine. The fire, according to the degree of heat
it contains, diminiflies or contracts the earthy body, fo
that when applied to the wide end of the gage, it will
Hide on towards the narrow end, lefs or more according
to the degree of heat to which it has been expofed.
That this inftrument may be perfectly undeiflood, vve
have given a reprefentation of it in fig. 9. ABCD is a ^ ^
fmooth flat plate •, and EF and GH tw© rulers or fiat b
pieces, a quarter of an inch thick, fixed fiat upon
the plate, with the fides that are towards one another
made perfecfly true, a little farther afunder at one end
EG than at the other end FH : thus they include be¬
tween them a long converging canal, which is divided
on one fide into a number of fmall equal parts, and
which may be confidered as performing the offices both
of the tube and fcale of the common thermometer. \\. PhllofopM-
is obvious, that if a body, fo adjufted as to fit exa6fly ca^ 1 ranf-
at the wider end of this canal, be afterwards diminifhed
in its bulk bv fire, as the thermometer pieces are, it
will then pafs further in the canal, and more and more
fo according as the diminution is greater j and converfe-
ly, that if a body, fo adjufted as to pafs on to the nar¬
row' end, be afterwards expanded by fire, as is the cafe
with metals, and applied in that expanded ftate to the
fcale, it will not pafs fo far j and that the divifions on
the fide will be the meafures of the expanfions of the
one, as of the contraftions of the other, reckoning in
both cafes from that point to which the body was adjuft¬
ed at firft.
I is the body whofe alteration of bulk is thus to be
meafured. This is to be gently pufhed or flid along to¬
wards the end FH, till it is flopped bv the converging
fides of the canal. See CHEMISTRY, N° 141 2.
THERMOPYLAE, in Ancient Geography, a nar¬
row pafs or defile, between the wafh of the Sinus Mali-
acus on the eaft, and fteep mountains, reaching to Oeta,
made dreadful by unpaflable woods, on the weft \ lead¬
ing from Theffuly to Locris and Boeotia. Thefe moun¬
tains
THE [ 405 ] . T .H E
Thcr«i tains divide Greece in the middle, in the fame manner troop from village to village in a waggon, from which Thelklian
11 as the A pennine does Italy j forming one continued they pertormed their pieces. Alceltis was the hr it Theurgy>
ThelPis- j-idge from Leucale on the welt to the i'ea on the eait, tragedy they performed at Athens, 536 iJ. U bee
* ' with thicket* and rocks interfperfed 5 that perfons even Theatre. .
prepared for travelling, much lefs an army encumbered THESSALIAN CHAIR, To ca.led from Ineiiilyr
with barrcxaae, cannot eafily find a c immodious palfage. where chairs of this figure were moil in ufe j it is re-
In the valley verging towards the Sinus Maliacus, the commended by Hippocrates * in place ot a machine tor dc
road is only fixty paces broad ; the only military way reducing a recent luxation of the ihoulder bone. *he' 7 •
for an army to pals, if not obftruaed by an enemy; and back of this chair is perpendicular to the feat, as Galen
therefore the place is called Py/.e, and by others, on ac- tells us; by which conitruftion it is diftmguiihed and
count of its hot water, Thermopylce Ennobled by the accommodated to the operation.
brave (land made by Leonidas and 300 Spartans againft 1HESSALY, a country of Greece, \shofe ooun a~
the whole army of Perfia ; and by the bold refolution ries have been different at different periods. Properly
of blind Euthycus, choofing rather to fall there in fpeaking, Iheffaly was bounded on the iouth by the
fiyht, than return to Sparta, and efcape the common louthern parts of Greece, or Grtecia Propria ; call, by
danger. Famous alfo for the Amphiayones, the com- the iEgean ; north, by Macedonia and Mygdonia; and
nion council or dates general of Greece, affembling well, by Illyricum and Epirus. It was generally di-
there tivice a-year, fpring and autumn. For an account vided into four feparate provinces, I heffiliotis, Pehtfgi-
of the battle of Thermopylae at which Leonidas with otis, Idiaeotis, and Phthiotis, to which lome add M^j*
a handful of men engaged the Perfian army, fee nefia. It has been feverally called JEmonia, Pe/cfgi-
Sparta. cum-> Argos, Hellas, Argeia, Dryopis, Pelafgia, Pyr-
THESE A, in antiquity, feads celebrated by the A- rhcea, &c. The name of Theffaly is derived from L»mpri-
thenians in honour of 1'hefeus, confiding of fports and Theffalus, one of its monarchs.^ Theffdy is famous for
games, with mirth and banquets. Such as were poor a deluge which happened there in the age of Deucalion.
and unable to contribute to them were entertained at Its mountains and cities are alfo celebrated, fuch as
the public expence. Olympus, Pelion, Offa, Lariffa, &c* _ Argonauts
THESEUS, a famous hero of antiquity, ranked were partly natives of Theffaly. The inhabitants of the
among the demigods, whofe hidory is fabulous. He country palled for a treacherous nation, fo that fake mo-
was the reputed fon of ASgeus king of Athens. He ney was called Thejfalian coin, arid a perfidious aftion a
threw Sciron, a cruel robber, down a precipice ; faden- Ihejfalian deceit. 1 heflaly was originally governed by
ed Procrudes tyrant of Attica to a bending pine, which kings, till it became fubjeft to the Macedonian mo-
being let loofe tore him afunder ; killed the Minotaur narchs. The cavalry was univerfally edeemed, and the
kept in the labyrinth by King Minos, in Crete ; and people were fuperditious and addifted to the dudy of
by the aflidance of that prince’s daughter, Ariadne, magic and incantations. See Lucan, lib. vi. ver. 438*
who gave him a clue, efcaped out of that labyrinth, &c. ; Dionyf 219 ; Curt. lib. iii. cap. 2. •, JElian, Var.
and failed with his deliverer to the ide of Naxos, where Hi/l. lib. iii. cap. 1.; Pauf. lib. iv. cap. 36. lib. x. cap. 1.;
he had the ingratitude to leave her. Meta, lib. ii. cap. 3.; Jujhn, lib. vii. cap.6.; Diod. iv.
Thefeus afterwards overcame the Centaurs, fubdued l heffaly is now called Janna, a province o( Euiopean
the Thebans, and defeated the Amazons. He affided Turkey, bounded by Macedonia on the north, by the
his friend Pirithous in his expedition to the infernal re- Archipelago on the ead, by Achaia or Livadia on the
gions to carry off Proferpine ; but was imprifoned by fouth, and by Epirus on the wed.
Pluto, till he was releafed by Hercules. He is alfo faid IHE1 IS, in Pagan mythology, the \vife of Ocea-»
to have edablifhed the Idhmean games, in honour of nus, and the mother of Nereus ami Doris, who were
Neptune ; to have united the twelve cities of Attica ; married to eacli other ; and from this marriage fprung
and to have founded a republic there, 1236B. C. Some the nymphs of the earth and foa.. Among the fea
time after, taking a voyage into Epirus, he was feized nymphs there w’as one named Thetis the Younger, who
by Aidonius king of the Molodians ; meanwhile Me- excelled all the red in beauty, and for whom Jupiter
nedheus rendered himfelf mader of Athens. But at conceived luch a padion, that he relolved to efpoule
length Thefeus being releafed from prifon, retired to her : but being informed by the Dedinies that die
Scyros, where King Lycomedes eaufed him to be would bring forth a fon who would rife above his 'atlur,
thrown from the top of a rock. Thefeus had feveral he married her to Pe’eus. To their nuptials all die
wives ; the fird of whom was Helena the daughter of gods and goddeffes were invited except D-fcord, who,
Tyndarus ; the fecond, Hypolita queen of the Ama- to be revenged for this contempt, threw a golden apple
zons ; and the lad, Phedra dder to Ariadne, who pu- into the affembly, on which was engraven, For the fair~
nifhed him for his infidelity to her filler, by her incedu- cjl. Juno, Pallas, and Venus, difpuied for this apple ;
ous paffion for his fon Hippolitus. but Paris being chofen to decide the difference, adjudged
THESIS, a general pofition which a perfon advan- it to \enus. From this marriage of Thetis and Peleus
ces, and offers to maintain. In taking- degrees in uni- fprung Achilles.
verfities, the candidates are generally obliged to write a THEURGY, a name which the ancients
thefis, which they mud afterwards defend. gave to that facred part of magid which we fometimes
THESIUM, Base Fluellin ; a genus of plants call white magic, or the white art.
belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and order of mo- The word is formed from ©soj, “ God,” and egyovf
nogynia. See Botany Index. “ work q. d. the art of doing divine things, or \\ru s
THESPIS, a famous Greek tragic poet, and the which God alone can do: or the power of workj >g ex*
fird renrefenter of tragedy at Athens. He carried his traordinary and fupernatural things, by invokin ' tee
names-
T H I [ 4o6
Theurgy names of God, faints, angels, $t'c. Accordingly, thofe
Ti !ije W^° ^ave w“tten ot niagic in general, divide it into
- -,-i- -- ' »three parts: the firrt whereo is called theurgy, as ope¬
rating by divine or celeftial means; the fecond, natural
magic, performed by the powers of nature ; and the
third, comprehending necromancy, forcery, and witch¬
craft or magic, performed by the affiftance of demons or
departed men. See Magic.
THIBET. See Tibet.
THIGH. See x^lnatomy, N° 58.
THINKING, a general name for any aft or opera¬
tion of the mind. See Metaphysics.
THIRLAGE. See Law, N°clxx. 12—18.
THIRST, an uneafy fenfation arifing from a defici¬
ency of the faliva to moiflen the inward parts of the
mouth. Hence arifes a Tlrong defire for drink; and
third; is a fymptom generally attending fevers of all
kinds.—Third is bed allayed by acids •, water kept a
while in the mouth, then fpit out, and repeated as re¬
quired ; a bit of bread chewed with a little water,
which latter may be gradually fwallowed ; if the perfon
is very hot, brandy is the bed for holding in the mouth,
but diould be fpit out again : except in fevers, large
draughts of cold water are hurtful.
Prefervation againjl Hunger and THIEST. See
Hunger.
THISTLE, a name applied to different genera and
fuecies of plants belonging chiefly to the fyngenefia
clafs. See Carduus, Onopordum, Serratula, Son-
CHUS, and alfo Dipsacus, Botany Index.
Order of the THISTLE, or of St Andrew, a military
order of knighthood in Scotland, the rife and inditution
of which is varioufly related by different authors. Lef-
ley bifliop of Rofs reports, that the night before the
battle between Athelflan king of Northumberland and
Hungus king of the Pifts, a bright crofs, in form of
that whereon St Andrew (the tutelar faint of Scotland)
fuffered martyrdom, appeared to Hungus •, who having
gained the viftory, ever after bore the figure of that
crofs on his banners. Others aflert, that Achaius king
of Scotland fird indituted this order, after having made
the famous league offenfive and defenfive with Charle¬
magne king of France. But although the thiflle had
been acknowledged as the fymbol of the kingdom of
Scotland from the reign of Achaius, yet fome refer the
beginning of this order to Charles VII. of France.
Others place the foundation of it as low as the year
15°°.
The chief and principal enfign is a gold collar com-
pofed of thidles and fprigs of rue interlinked with amu¬
lets of gold, having pendent thereto the image of St
Andrew with his crofs, and the motto, Nemo me im-
pune lacesset. “ No body fliall provoke me writh
impunity.”
The ordinary or common enfign worn by the knights
is a dar of four filver points, and over them a green cir¬
cle, bordered and lettered with gold, containing the
faid motto, and in the centre is a thidle ; all which is
embroidered on their, left bread, and worn with the col¬
lar, with a green ribband over the left flioulder, and
brought under the right arm ; pendent thereto is the
image of St Andrewq with his crofs, in a purple robe,
within an oval of gold enamelled vert, with the former
motto •, but fometimes they wear, encircled in the fame
manner, a thidle crowned.
Thifde
, II
Thomas.
] T H O
About the time of the Reformation, this order was
dropped, till James II. of Great Britain refumed it, by
creating eight knights. The Revolution unfettled it , _
again ; and it lay neglefted, till Queen Anne, in 1703,
redored it to the primitive defign, of twelve knights of
St Andrew.
I HL APSI, Bastard-cress, or mithridate-mufard;
a genus ol plants belonging to the clafs of tetradynamia.
See Botany Index.
THOLOUSE. See Toulouse.
THOM ALANS, Thomists. See Christians of
St Thomas.
IHOMAS Aquinas. See Aquinas.
St Thomas's Day, * feflival of the Chridian church,
obferved on December 21. in commemoration of St Tho¬
mas the apoflle.
St THOMAS of Canterbury's Day, a feflival of the
Romifli church, obferved on December 29. in memory
of 1 homas Becket archbifliop of Canterbury, who was
murdered, or, as the Romanifls lay, martyred, in the
reign of King Henry II.
THOMAS the Reymour, called alfo Thomas Lermont,
and Thomas of Erceldon, was born at Erceldon, a vil¬
lage near Melrole in LVeedale, in what year is uncer¬
tain ; but he w'as an old man when Edward I. was car¬
rying on war in Scotland.
The charafter of Lermont as a prophet, and which
wTas common to him with Linus, Orpheus, and other
early poets in many countries, arofe, if we may believe
Mackenyie in his Lives of Scottilh Writers, from his
having conferences with Eliza, a nun and prophetefs at
Haddington. Lermont put her prediftions into verfe,
and thus came in for his lhare of the prophetic fpirit.
None of thefe ancient prophecies now remain ; but the Pinker tort's
following, which pretends to be one of them, is given Account of
from a manufeript of the time of Edward I. or II. The seottiJh
countefs of Dunbar is the lady famous for the defence o{^oets-
her cafile againd the Englidi. Her proper title was
Countefs of March ; but it was common in thefe times
to Ryle a nobleman from his chief refidence. Thus Gil¬
bert Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, is called Earl of
Striguil, from his refidence at Striguil-caflle, near Chep-
dow, Monmouthlhire, &c.
La Counteffe de Donbar demande a Thomas de Effe-
doune, quant la guere d'Efcoce prendreit fyn. E yl la
repoundy, et dyt.
When man as mad a kyng of a capped mon.
When mon is levere other mons thyng than is owen.
When londe thouys forefl, and fored ys felde.
Wrhen hares kendles othe herflon.
When Wyt and WTille werres togedere.
Wrhen mon makes flables of kyrkes: and deles caflles
wyth dyes.
When Rokefbourh nys no burgh ; ant market is at
Forwyleye.
Wrhen the aide is gan, and the newx is come that
doue noht.
WTen Bambomme ys donged with dede men,
WThen men ledes men in ropes to buyen ant to fellen.
When a quarter of vvhaty whete is chaunged for a colt
of ten markes.
WThen prude prikes, ant pees is leyd in prifoun.
WThen a Scot ne may hym hude afe hare in forme,
that the Englydi ne dial hym fynde.
When
/
Thomas
II
Thomfon.
T H O [
When ryht ant wrong aftente the togeJere.
When laddcs weddeth lovedie'.
When Scottes flen fo fade, that for faute of fhip, by
drouneth hemfelve.
When fhal this be ?
Nouther in thyne tyrae, ne in myne.
Ah comen, ant gone,
Withinne twenty wynter ant on.
In fact, the prophecies of Lermont appear to have
been merely traditional ; nay, it feeins doubtful if he
ever pretended to fuch folly, notwithdanding Mac-
kenyie’s dory of Eliza. The reverence of the people
for a learned and refpectable charafter feems to have
been the foie foundation of Thomas’s claim to prophecy.
But, in the 16th century, prophecies were made, and
afcribed to him, as well as others given to Bede, Mer¬
lin, Stc. (a). They were printed at Edinburgh, 1615 j
reprinted 1680, and 1742.
THOMISM. See Aquinas.
THOMSON, James, an excellent Britifh poet, the
fon of a . Scotch divine, was born in the diire of Rox¬
burgh in 1700, and was educated in the univerfity of
Edinburgh with a view to > the minidry. But his ge¬
nius inclining him to the dudy of poetry, which he
foon found would be incompatible with that of theology,
or at lead might prevent his being provided for in
that way in his own country, he relinquiihed his views
of engaging in the facred fundtion, and repaired to
London in confequence of fome encouragement which
he had received from a lady of quality there, a friend
of his mother.
The reception he met with wherever he was intro¬
duced, emboldened him to rilk the publication of his
excellent poem on Winter.—This piece was publidied
in 1726 ; and from the univerfal applaufe it met with,
Mr Thomfon’s acquaintance was courted by people of
the fird tade and fafhion. But the chief advantage
which it procured him was the acquaintance of Dr
Bundle, afterward bilhop of Derry, who introduced
him to the late lord chancellor Talbot; and fome years
after, when the elded fon of that nobleman was to make
his tour on the continent, Mr Thomfon was chofen as
a proper companion for him. The expectations which
his Winter had raifed, were fully fatisfied by the fuc-
cedive publications of the other feafons •, of Summer, in
the year 1727 •, of Spring, in the following year.*, and
of Autumn, in a quarto edition of his works, in 1730.
Bebde the Seafons, and his tragedy of Sophonilba,
written and aCted with applaufe in the year 1729, he
had, in 1727, publidied his poem to the memory of
Sir Ifaac Newton, with an account of his chief dif-
coveries; in which he was adided by his friend Mr
Gray, a gentleman well verfed in the Newtonian philo-
fophy. That fame year the refentment of our merchants,
for the interruption of their trade by the Spaniards in
America, running very high, Mr Thomfon zealoufly
took part in it, and wrote his Bwtannia, to roufe the
nation to revenge.
407 ] T H O
With the honourable Charles Talbot, our author vi- Thomfon.
dted mod of the courts in Europe, and returned with v—
his views greatly enlarged j not only of exterior nature
and the works of art, but of human life and manners,
and of the conditution and policy of the feveral dates,
their connexions, and their religious inditutions. How
particular and judicious his obfervations were, we fee in
his poem on Liberty, begun foon after his return to
England. We lee at the lame time to what a high
pitch his care of bis country was raifed, by the com¬
panions he had all along been making of our happy go¬
vernment with thofe of other nations. To infpire his
fellow-fubje61s with the like fentiments, and fhow them
by what means the precious freedom we enjoy may be
preferved, and how it may be abufed or lod, he employ¬
ed two years in compofing that noble wrork, upon which
he valued himfelf more than upon all his other writings.
On his return to England with Mr Talbot (who loon
after died), the chancellor made him his fecretary of
briefs j a place of little attendance, fuiting his retired
indolent w'ay of life, and equal to all his wants. From
this office he w7as removed, when death, not long after,
deprived him of his noble patron. He then found him¬
felf reduced to a ftate of a precarious dependence. In
this fituation, having created fome few debts, and his cre¬
ditors finding that he had no longer any certain fuppoit,
became inexorable; and imagined by confinement to
force that from his friends, which his inodeffy would
not permit him to alk. One of thefe occafions furniffi-
ed Quin, the celebrated aXor, with an opportunity of
difplaying the natural goodnefs of his heart, and the dff-
intereffednefs of his friendffiip. Hearing that Thom¬
fon was confined in a fpunging houfe for a debt of
about 70I. he repaired to the place 5 and, having inquir¬
ed for him, was introduced to the bard. Thomfon was
a good deal difconcerted at feeing Quin, as he had al¬
ways taken pains to conceal his wants j and the more
fo, as Quin told him he was come to fup with him.
His anxiety upon this head was however removed, upon
Quin’s informing him, that, as he fuppofed it would
have been inconvenient to have had the fupper drefl'ed
in the place they were in, he had ordered it from an
adjacent tavern ; and, as a prelude, half a dozen of
claret was introduced. Supper being over, and the
bottle circulating pretty brifkly, Quin laid, “ It is time
now7 we ftiould balance accounts.” This aftonilhed
Thomfon, w'ho imagined he had fome demand upon him j
but Quin perceiving it, continued, “ Mr Themfon, the
pleafure I have had in perufing your works I cannot
effimate at lefs than a hundred pounds, and I infill upon
now acquitting the debt.” On faying this, he put
down a note of that value, and took his leave, without
wailing for a reply.
The profits arifing from his works were not inconfider-
able ; his tragedy of Agamemnon, aXed in 1738, yield¬
ed a good fum. But his chief dependence was upon
the prince of Wales, who fettled on him a handfome
allowance, and honoured him with many marks of par¬
ticular favour. Notwithftanding, this, however, he
was
(a) Sibilla and Baniffer Anglicus are mentioned in the time of Edward IV. (MSS. Cot. Dom. A. IX.) A
long Latin prophecy of Bridlington is there given. Waldhave and Eltraine feem alfo Englilh prophets. In the
whole colleXion, therefore, Thomas is the only Scottilh one.
T HO [ 408 ] T H O
iTliomfon. was refufed a licence for his tragedy of Edward and
Eleanora, which he had prepared for the itage in the
year 1736, for fome political reafons. Mr Thomfon’s
next performance was the Malque of Alfred, written
in the year 1740 jointly with Mr Mallet, by the com¬
mand of the prince of Wales, for the entertainment of
his royal highnefs’s court at Clifden, his fummer refi-
dence.
Mr Thomfon’s poem, entitled the Caftle of Indo¬
lence, was his laft work publiihed by himfelf; his tragedy
of Coriolanus being only prepared for the theatre, when
a fatal accident robbed the world of one of the bell of
men and bed of poets. He would commonly w7alk the
diftance between London and Richmond (where lie
lived) with any acquaintance that offered, with whom
he might chat and red himfelf, or perhaps dine by the
way. One fummer evening being alone in his walk
from town to Hammerfmith, he had over-heated him¬
felf, and in that condition imprudently took a boat to
carry him to Kew; apprehending no bad confequence
from the chill air on the river, which his w^alk to his
houfe, towards the upper end of Kew-lane, had always
hitherto prevented. But now the cold had fo feized
him, that the next day he was in a high fever. This,
however, by the ufe of proper medicines, was removed,
fo that he was thought out of danger •, till the fine
wTealher having tempted him to expofe himfelf once
more to the evening dews, his fever returned with
violence, and with fuch fymptoms as left no hopes of
a cure. His death happened on the 27 th of Augufl
I743' •
Mr Thomfon had improved his tafte upon the fined
originals, ancient and modern. The autumn was his
favourite feafon for poetical compofition, and the deep
filence of the night he commonly chofe for his fludics.
The amufement of his leifure hours wTere civil and natu¬
ral hiflory, voyages, and the bed relations of travellers.
Though he performed on no indrument, he was paffion-
ately fond of mufic, and would fometimes liden a full
hour at his window to the nightingales in Richmond
gardens 5 nor w7as his tade lefs exquifite in the arts of
painting, fculpture, and architecture. As for the more
didinguidung qualities of his mind and heart, they bed
appear in his waitings. There his devotion to the Su¬
preme Being, his love of mankind, of his country, and
friends, diine out in every page j his tendernefs of heart
was fo unbounded, that it took in even the brute crea¬
tion. It is not knowm, that through his whole life he
ever gave any perfon a moment’s pain, either by his
writings or otherwife. He took no part in the political
fquabbles of his time, and was therefore refpeCted and
left undidurbed by both fides. Thefe amiable virtues
did not fail of their due reward ; the applaufe of the
public attended all his produdions, and his friends loved
him w ith an enthufiadic ardour.
“ As a writer (fays D> Johnfon), he is entitled to
one praife of the highed kind j his mode of thinking,
and of expreffing his thoughts, is original. His! lank
verfe is no more the blank verfe of Milton, or of any
other poet, than the rhymes of Prior are the rhymes of
Cowley. His numbers, his paufes, his diCfion, are of
his own growth, without tranfcription, without imita¬
tion. He thinks in a pecubar trail , ai d thinks always
as a man of genius j he looks round on Nature and on
life with the eye which Nature beftows only on a poet j
jfobnf'jn's
Lives of
t,bg_ Loots.
the eye that didinguiffies, in every thing reprefented to Thomfon
its view, whatever there is on which imaginat’on can de¬
light to be detained, and with a mind that at once com- ^10rnliu!,f
prebends the vad, and attends to the minute. The
reader of the Seafons wonders that he never faw before
what Thomfon (hews him, and that he never yet has felt
wffiat Thomfon impreffes.”
His tedamentary executors were the lord Lyttelton,
whofe care of our poet’s fortune and fame ceaied not
w’ith his life; and Mr Mitchell, a gentleman equally
noted for1 the truth and condancy of his private friend-
drip, and for his addrefs and ipint as a public miniller.
By their united interelis, the orphan play of Coriolanus
was brought on the dage to the bed advantage ; from
the profits of which, and the fale of manufcripts and
other effeCts, a handfonre fum was remitted to his fiders.
His remains wTere depofited in the church of Richmond,
under a plain done, without any inlcription. A hand-
feme monument was ereCted to him in Wedminder
abbey in the year 1762, the charge of which was de¬
frayed by the profits arifing from a fplendid edition of
all his w'orks in qto; Mr Millar the bookfeller, wTho
had purchaled all Mr Thornton’s copies, giving up his
property on this grateful occafion. A monument has
alfo been ereCted to him at the place of his birth.
THOR, the elded and braved of the fons of Odin
and Frea, was, after his parents, the greated god of the
Saxons and Danes while they continued heathens. They Henry's
believed, that Thor reigned overall the aerial regions, Hiftory of
which compofed his immenfe palace, confiding of 54° ^ Fir
halls; that he launched the thunder, pointed the light-part’4. !
ning, and direCted the meteors, winds, and dorms. To
him they addreffed their prayers for favourable winds,
refrediing rains, and fruitful feafons ; and to him the
fifth day of the week, wffiich dill bears his name, was
confecrated.
THORAX. See Anatomy.
White 01 Haw THORN. See Crategus, Bcr-
TANY Index.
Thorn, a torvn of Poland, in Regal Pruffia, and in
the palatinate of Culm. It wras formerly a Hanfeatic
tow'n, and dill enjoys great privileges ; is large and
w^ell fortified ; but part of the fortifications, and a great
number of houfes, were ruined by the Swedes, in 1703.
It is feated on the Vidula, and contains 10,000 inhabi¬
tants. E. Long. 18. 42. N. Lat. 53. 6.
THORNBACK. See Raia, Ichthyology Index.
THORNHILL, Sir James, an eminent Englidi TyiEiLnary
painter, was born in Dorfetdiire in 1676, of an ancient of Painters.
family ; but was condrained to apply to fome profeffion
by the didreffes of his father, who had been reduced to
the neceffity of felling his family edate. His inclina¬
tion direCted him to the art of painting; and on his
arrival at London he applied to his uncle, the famous
Dr Sydenham, who enabled him to proceed in the dudy
of the art under the direction of a painter who was not
very eminent. However, the genius of Thornhill made
ample amends for the inlufficiency of his initruCtor, and
by a happy application of his talents he made fo great
a progrefs, that he gradually rofe to the highed reputa¬
tion.
His genius was well adapted to hidorical and allego-
ncal compofitions; he pollened a fertile and fine inven¬
tion ; and he Iketched his thoughts with great eafe,
freedom, and fpirit. He excelled alfo equally in por¬
trait,
T H R r 409 ] T H R
Tliornliill trait, peifpective, and architedure j Jliewed an excel-
Thrnce ^Cnt ta^e ^°r ^e^gn» an<^ a ^ree an^ ^rm Penc^*
1 ‘Had he been fo fortunate as to have ftudied at Rome
and Venice, to acquire greater correftnefs at the one,
and a more exact knowledge of the perfedlion of colour¬
ing at the other, no arlift among the moderns might
perhaps have been his fuperior. Neverthelefs, he was
fo eminent in many parts of his proteflion, that he mult
for ever be ranked among the belt painters of his time j
and his performances in the dome of St Paul’s church
at London, in the hofpital at Greenwich, and at Hamp-
ton-court, are fuch public proofs of his merit as will con¬
vey his name to pofterity with great honour.
This painter lived in general efteem ; he enriched
himfelf by the excellence of his works 5 was appointed
flate-painter to Oueen Anne, from whom he received
the honour of knighthood ; had the Angular fatisfadtion
to repurchafe his family eftate j and was fo much di-
ftinguilhed as to be eledted one of the members of par¬
liament. He died in 1732.
THOROUGH-wax, in Botany. See Bupleurum.
THOTH, or Theut, (called by the Phoenicians
Taaut, by the Greeks Hermes, and by the Romans Mer-
cunj'), was a Phoenician of very fuperior talents, and
one of the civilizers of mankind. He was prime mini-
fter to Ofiris, whom, after his death, he deified 5 and
he was himfelf deified by his countrymen the Egyptians,
for the benefits that he had rendered to the human race.
See Mercury, Mythology, N° 34. and Polythe¬
ism, N° 18.
TPIOUGHT, a general name for all the ideas con-
fequent on the operations of the mind, and even on the
operations themfelves. See Metaphysics.
Thought, in compofition. See Oratory, Part I.
and II.
THOUINIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of diandria, and order of monogynia. See Botany
Index.
THRACE, a country very frequently mentioned by
the Greek and Latin writers, deriving its name, ac¬
cording to Jofephus, from Tiras one of the fons of Ja-
phet. It was bounded on the north by Mount Haem us j
on the fouth, by the .ffigean fea j on the weft, by Ma-
cedon and the river Strymon \ and on the eaft, by the
Euxine fea, the Hellefpont, and the Propontis.—The
Thracian Cherfonefus is a peninfula inclofed on the
foulh by the iEgean lea, on the weft by the gulf of
Melas, and on the eaft by the Hellefpont; being join¬
ed on the north to the continent by a neck of land
about 37 furlongs broad. The inland parts of Thrace
are very cold and barren, the fnow lying on the moun¬
tains the greateft part of the year ; but the maritime
provinces are produflive of all forls of grain and necef-
faries for life 5 and withal fo pleafant, that Mela com¬
pares them to the moft fruitful and agreeable countries
of Alia.
The ancient Thracians were deemed a brave and
warlike nation, but of a cruel and favage temper ; be¬
ing, according to the Greek writers, ftrangers to all hu¬
manity and good nature. It was to the Thracians,
however, that the Greeks were chiefly indebted for the
polite arts that flouriftied among them j for Orphaeus,
Lmus, Mufaeus, Thamyris, and Eumolpus, all Thra-
ci-ijis, were the firft, as Euftathius informs us, who
charmed the inhabitants of Greece with their eloquence
Vol, XX. Part II.
and melody, and perfuaded them to exchange their Thrace,
fiercenefs for a focfable life and peaceful manners j nay, lina.l-mg.,
great part of Greece was anciently peopled by Thra- v
cians. Tereus, a Thracian, governed at Daulis in Pho->
cis, where the tragical ftory of Philomela and Progne
w;as adled. From thence a body of Thracians piffled
over to Euboea, and pofleflfed themfelves of that illand.
Of the lame nation were the Aoncs, Tembices, and
Hyanthians, who made themfelves mailers of Boe. tia :
and great part of Attica itfelf was inhabited by Thra¬
cians, under the command of the celebrated Eumolpus.
It is not therefore without the utmoft ingratitude and
injuftice that the Greeks ftyle them Bariarians, fince
to them chiefly they were indebted both for the peo¬
pling and polilhing ol their country.
Thrace was anciently divided into a number of petty
ftates, which wrere firft fubdued by Philip of Macedon.
On the decline of the Macedonian empire, the country
fell under die pow'er of the Romans. It continued
under fubjedlion to them till the inuption of the Turks,
in whofe hands it ftill remains.
THRASHING, in Agriculture, the operation by
which corn is feparated from the ftraw. This opera¬
tion is performed in a variety of w'ays, fometimes by the
feet of animals, fometimes by a flail, and fometimes by
a machine.
The moft ancient method of feparating the corn from
the ftraw w^as by the hoofs of cattle or horfes. This
was pradlifed by the Ifraelites, as we find from the
books of Mofes; it wras alfo common among the Greeks
and Romans*. Flails and thrafhing machines were al-* Pliny,
fo not uncommon among thefe nations f. The flail xv“‘*.^c"
which was ufed by the Romans, called bcculus, fujlis,;;;
or pertica, was probably nothing more than a cudgel or^. Col. ii.
pole. The thralhing machine, which was called tribula 21 • Tibull.
or tribulum, and fometimes traha, was a kind of fledge’; 5;
made of boards joined together, and loaded with ftone
iron. Horfes were yoked to this machine, and a man W'as//S,,.er> ii.,
feated upon it to drive them over the Iheaves of corn. xx. 495.
Different methods are employed in different countries
for feparating the corn from the ftalk. In the greateft:
part of France the flail is ufed ; but in the foutheru
diitridts it is generally performed by the feet of animals.
Animals are alfo ufed for the fame purpofe in Spain, in
Italy, in the Morea, in the Canaries, in China, and in the
vicinity of Canton, where the flail is alfo fometimes ufed.
It appears that in hot climates the grains do not adhere
lo firmly to the ftalk as in cold countries, and therefore
may be more eafily feparated. This will explain the
reafon why animals are fo frequently employed in hot
countries for treading out the corn *, whereas in cold
climates we know they are feldom tried, and have no
reafon to fuppofe that they would anfwer the purpofe.
In the Me of France in Africa, rice and wheat are
thraftied wuth poles, and maize with flicks ; for it has
not been poflible to teach the negroes the ufe off the
flail.
The animals ufed for treading out corn are, oxen,
cows, horfes, mules, and even affes when the quantity
is not great. The operation is performed in this man¬
ner : The {heaves, after being opened, are fpread in
fuch a manner that the ears of the corn are laid as
much uppermoft as poflible, and a man, Handing in the
centre, holds the halters of the cattle, which are made
to trot round as in a manege j whiift other men with
3 F forks
THU [41
,Hiraflung, forks (hake the ftraw up from time to time, and the cat-
v tie are trotted ovef it again and again till they have
beaten out all the grain. This method is expeditious
enough ; but befides bruifing a confiderable quantity of
corn, it requires a great many cattle, and injures the legs
of the horfes and mules, which are preferred before cows
and oxen for this work.
The flail is undoubtedly a much better inftrument for
thrafliing corn than the feet of animals, for it feparates
the grain from the ftraw and hulks both more effectual¬
ly and more expeditioufly j yet it is liable to many ob¬
jections. It is a very laborious employment, too fevere
indeed even for a ftrong man ; and as it is ufually the
intereft of the thralher rather to thrafti much than to
thralh clean, a good deal of corn will generally be left
upon the ftrawn It is therefore an objeCt of great im¬
portance in hulhandry to procure a proper machine for
feparating the corn from the ftraw.
The firft thralhing machine attempted in modern
times, of which we have received any account, was in¬
vented in Edinburgh by Mr Michael Menzies about the
year 1732. It confifted of a number of inftruments like
flails, fixed in a moveable beam, and inclined to it at an
angle of ten degrees. On each fide of the beam in
which the flails were fixed, floors or benches were pla¬
ced for fpreading the fheaves on. The flails were mo¬
ved backwards and forwards upon the benches by means
of a crank fixed on the end of an axle, which made
about 30 revolutions in a minute.
The fecond thralhing machine was invented by Mr
Michael Stirling, a fanner in the parilh of Dunblane,
Perthlhire. Of this difeovery we have received a very
accurate and authentic account from his fon, the reve¬
rend Mr Robert Stirling minifter of Crieff.
It is an old proverb, that neceflity is the mother of in¬
vention. This was verified on the prefent occafion. Be¬
fides his ordinary domeftic fervants, Mr M. Stirling had
occafion fometimes to hire an additional number to
thralh out his grain, and frequently found it difficult to
procure fo many as he needed. This naturally led him
to refleft whether the operation of thralhing could not
cafily be performed by machinery. Accordingly, fo
early as the year 1753, under the pretence of joining in
the amufements of his children, he formed in miniature a
Water mill, in which two iron fprings, made to rife and
fall alternately, reprefented the motion of two flails, by
which a few ftalks of corn put under them might be
fpeedily thraffied. This plan he executed on a fcale
fufficiently large within twro years after, making the
fprings about ten feet long, each of which had one end
firmly ferew^ed into a folid plank, and the other termi¬
nated in a round batoon of folid iron, two feet long and
above an inch in diameter. Under thefe the (heaves
were conveyed gradually forward in a narrow channel
or trough, by paffing between twx> indented horizontal
cylinders, fimilar to thofe now ufed in the moft of the
thralhing mills in that part of the country, and called
feeders. In this manner the thralhing was executed
completely, and with confiderable rapidity 5 but as the
operation was performed on a low floor, and no me¬
thod contrived for carrying off the ftraw, the accumu¬
lation of it produced fuch confufion, and the removal
of it w^as attended with fuch danger, that this fcheme
was very foon entirely abandoned. The mortification
arifing from difappointment, and efpecially the feoffs of
0 ] T H R
his neighbours, for what was univerfally accounted an Thrafliing.
abfurd and ridiculous attempt, ferved only to ftimulate ' v——'
the exertions of the inventor to accomplilh his defigns
on another plan.
Laying afide therefore the iron fprings with the feed¬
ers, and all the apparatus adapted to them, he retained
only an outer or water wheel, with an inner or cog
wheel moving on the fame axle: to this inner w heel,
which had 48 teeth or cogs, he applied a vertical trun¬
dle or pinion, with feven notches, the axle of which
paffed through a floor above the wffieel, and having its
upper pivot fecured in a beam fix feet above that floor.
At the diftance of three feet three inches above the
floor two ftraight pieces of fquared wood, each four feet
long, paffed through the axle of the trundle at right
angles, forming four arms, to be moved round hori¬
zontally. To the extremities of thefe arms w ere fixed
four iron plates, each 20 inches long, and eight broad
at the end next the arms, but tapering towards a point
at the other end. This large horizontal fly, conftitu-
ting four thraffiers, was inclofed within a wooden cylin¬
drical box three feet and a half high and eight in dia¬
meter. On the t®p of the box was an opening or port
(two or three ports were made at firft, but one was
found fufficient) eight inches wdde, and extending from
the circumference a foot and a half towards its centre,
through which the corn (heaves defeended, being firft
opened and laid one by one on a board with two ledges
gently declining towards the port j on which board
they were moderately preffed down with a boy’s hand,
to prevent them from being too haftily drawn in by the
repeated ftrokes of the thraffiers. Within the box w^as
an inclined plane, along which the draw' and grain fell
down into a wide wire riddle two feet fquare, placed
immediately under a hole of nearly the fame fize. The
riddle received a jerk at every revolution of the fpindle
from a knob placed on the fide of it, and w’as inilantly
thruft backward by a fmall fpring preffing it in the op-
pofite dire&ion. The (liort ftraw, wuth the grain and
chaff which paffed through the wide riddle, fell imme¬
diately into an oblong ftrait riddle, which hung with
one end raifed and the other depreffed, and was moved
by a contrivance equally fimple as the other; and ha¬
ving no ledge at the lower end, the long chaff which
could not pafs through the riddle dropped from thence
to the ground j while the grain and moft of the chaff
falling through the riddle into a pair of common barn-
fanners that flood under it on the ground floor, the
ftrong grain, the weak, and the chaff, were all fepa-
rated with great exaftnefs. The fanners were moved
by a rope or band running circuitoufly in a (hallow
niche cut on the circumference of the cog-wheel. The
ftraw collefted gradually in the bottom of the box over
the wide riddle, and through an opening two and a
half feet wide, and as much in height, left in that fide
of the box neareft the brink of the upper floor, was
drawn down to the ground with a rake by the perfon or
perfons employed to form it into (heaves or rolls.
Such was the thraftiing mill invented by Mr Michael
Stirling, which, after various alterations and improve¬
ments he completed in the form now deferibed, A. D.
1758. By experiment it was found that four bolls of
oats, Linlithgow meafure, could be thralhed by it in 25
minutes. From that period he never ufed a common
flail in thrafhing, except for humbling or bearding bar-
THRASHING MACIHINK
Tlute PA'XXN
-
T H R [ 41
Thrafliing. ley. In every other kind of grain he performed the
L“—V" whole operation of thrathing with the mill j and con-
' tinned always to ufe it till 1772, when he retired from
bufmefs, and his thralhing mill became the property
of his fecond fon, who continues to ule it with, equal ad¬
vantage and fatisfa&ion. Several machines were con-
ftru&ed on the fame plan, particularly one near Stir¬
ling, under Mr Stirling’s direction, for Mr Moir of
Leckie, in 1765, which, we underhand, has been ufed
ever fince, and gives complete fatisfa&ion to the pro¬
prietor. There was another erefted in 1778 by Mr
Thomas Keir (in the parilh of Muthil and county of
Perth), wTho has contrived a method of bearding barley
with it: and by the addition of a fmall fpindle with
Ihort arms contiguous to the front of the box, and moved
by a band common to it and the great fpindle to which
it is parallel, the ftraw is fliaken and whirled out of the
box to the ground. That this machine did not come
immediately into general ufe, was owing partly to the
fmallnefs of the farms in that part of the country, whofe
crops could eafdy be thrafhed by the few hands necef-
farily retained on them for other purpofes; and chiefly
to an apprehenfion that the machine could only be
moved by water j an apprehenlion which experience
proves to be entirely groundlefs. The machine how¬
ever, w’as, ingenious, and did great credit to the worthy
inventor, and certainly deferved a better fate than it was
deftined to undergo.
A third thrafhing mill was invented in 1772, by two
perfons nearly about the fame time, and upon the lame
principles. The inventors were, Mr Alderton who
lived near Alnwick, and Mr Smart at Wark in North¬
umberland. The operation was performed by rubbing.
The Iheaves were carried round between an indented
drum of about fix feet diameter, and a number of in¬
dented rollers arranged round the circumference of the
drum, and attached to it by means of fprings; fo that
while the drum revolved, the fluted rollers rubbed the
corn off- from the ftraw by rubbing againft the flutings
of the drum. But as a confiderable quantity of the
grain was bruifed in palling between the rollers, the ma¬
chine was foon laid afide.
In 1776 an attempt was made by Mr Andrew Mei-
kle, an ingenious millwright in the parilh of Tyning-
ham, Eaft Lothian, to conftruft a new machine upon
the principles which had been adopted by Mr Menzies
already mentioned. This confifted in making joints in
the flails, which Mr Menzies had formed without any.
But this machine, after much labour and expence, was
loon laid afide, on account of the difficulty of keeping
it in repair, and the fmall quantity of work performed,
which did not exceed one boll or fix Winchefter bulhels
of barley per hour.
Some time after this, Mr Francis Kinloch, then junior
of Gilmerton, having vifited the machine invented
in Northumberland, attempted an improvement upon it.
He inclofed the drum in a fluted cover •, and inftead of
making the drum itfelf fluted, he fixed upon the outfide
of it four fluted pieces of wood, which by means of
fprings could be raifed a little above the circumference
of the drum, fo as to prefs againft the fluted covering,
and thus rub off the ears of corn as the Iheaves palled
round between the drum and the fluted covering. But
not finding this machine to anfwer his expe&ation (for it
bruifed the grain in the fame manner as the Northum-
1 j t H R
berland machine did), he fent it to Mr Meikle, that he 1
might, if poflible, rectify its errors. ~»' ‘
Mr Meikle, who had long directed his thoughts to
this fubjeft, applied himfelf with much ardour and per-
feverance to the improvement and correction of this ma¬
chine j and after fpending a good deal of time upon it,
found it was conftruCted upon principles fo erroneous,
that to improve it was impracticable.
At length, however, Mr Meikle’s own genius invent¬
ed a model, different in principle from the machines
which had already been conftruCted. This model was
made in the year 1785 5 and in the following year the
firft thralhing machine on the fame principles was ereCt-
ed in the neighbourhood of Alloa, in the county of
Stirling, by Mr Gedrge Meikle the fon of the inven¬
tor. This machine anfwered completely the wilhes of
Mr Stein, the gentleman for whom it was ereCted, who
gave the molt ample teftimony of his fatisfaCtion both
to the inventor and to the public. The fame of this
difeovery foon fpread over the whole country, and a
great many farmers immediately applied to Mr Meikle,
defiring to have thralhing mills ereCted on their farms.
The difeovery, it appeared, would be profitable, and it
was reafonable that the inventor Ihould enjoy the profits
of his invention. He accordingly applied for a patent-,
which, after confiderable expence, arifing from the op-
pofition of fome perfons, who claimed a lhare in the dil-
covery, was granted.—Thefe machines are now becom¬
ing very common in many parts of Scotland, and are
increafing very confiderably in number every year over
all the united kingdom.
We will now endeavour to deferibe this machine iu
its moft improved ftate j which is fo fimple that with
the afliftance of a plate, exhibiting the plan of eleva¬
tion, fig. 1. the ground plan, fig. 2. and the 3d Ihowing
its effential parts in a diftinCt manner, we hope it will DXXX' *
be eafily underftood by all our readers who have not
had an opportunity of feeing it. The power employed
for turning that part of the machine which feparates the
corn from the ftraw is produced by four wheels (when
moved by horfes), the teeth of which move in one ano¬
ther and turn the drum, on which four fcutchers are
fixed. The Iheaves are introduced between two fluted
rollers, which hold them firm, and draw them in gradual¬
ly, while the fcutchers ftrikeoff the grain from the ftraw
as it paffes through. This will fuifice for a general
idea of this machine. We will now be more parti¬
cular.
The large fpur-wheel A, fig. 1. and 2. which has Fig. 1. an*
276 cogs, is horizontal, and moves the pinion B, which *•
has 14 teeth. The pinion B moves the crown-wheel
C, which has 84 teeth $ the wheel C moves a fecond
pinion D, which has 16 teeth ; and the pinion D moves
the drum HIKL. The drum is a hollow cylinder three
feet and a half diameter, and placed horizontally ; on
the outfide of which the fcutchers are fixed by ftrong
ferew bolts. The fcutchers confift of four pieces of
wood, faced on one fide with a thin plate of iron, placed
at an equal diftance from each other, and at right angles
to the axis of the drum.
The iheaves are fpread on an inclined board F, fig. 3*
from which they are introduced between two fluted rol¬
lers GG made of cart iron, about three inches and a
half in diameter, and making about 35 revolutions in a
minute. As thefe rollers are only about three quarters
3 F 2
T HR [4
c- of an inch diftant from the fcutchers or leaves of the
drum HIKL, they lerve to hold the iheaves faft, while
the fcutchers a, b, c, d, moving with prodigious veloci¬
ty, feparate the grain completely from the draw, and
at the fame time throw out both grain and draw upon
the concave rack M, lying horizontally with Header
parallel ribs, fo that the corn paffes through them
into a hopper N placed below. From the hopper it
paffes through a harp or riddle O into a pair of fanners
P, fnm which, in the mod improved machines, it comes
out clean and fit for the market. The draw, after be¬
ing thrown by the fcutchers a, b, c, d, into the rack, is
removed from it by a rake QRST into a place contigu¬
ous V. The rake confids ot four thin pieces of wood
or leaves ; on the end of each ol thele leaves is ranged
a row of teeth e,fg,h, five inches long. The rake
moves in a circular manner in the concave rack, while
the teeth catch hold of the draw, and throw it out of
the rack. Thefe are all the effential parts of the ma¬
chine ; the red may be eafily underdocd by the refer¬
ences to the Plate. W is the horfe-courfe, N° I, which
is 27 feet diameter. X is the pillar for lupporting the
beams on which the axle of the fpur-wheel is fixed.
YYY are three fpindles for moving the two fluted rol¬
lers, the rake, and fanners. To the defcription now
given we have only to add, that the drum has a cover¬
ing of wood Z at a fmall didance ^bove it, for the pur-
pofe of keeping the {heaves clofe to the fcutchers.
The advantages of this machine are many. As the
drum makes 300 revolutions in a minute, the four
fcutchers together make 200 drokes in the fame fpace
of time. From fuch power and velocity, it is evident
that much work mud be performed. When the horfes
go at the rate of two and one-third miles per hour, from
three to fix bolls will be thralhed ; but as the quantity
thradied will be lefs when the draw' is long than when
it is fhort, we lhall take the average at four bolls. One
gentleman, whofe veracity and accuracy we can depend
on, affures us, that his mill thradied 63 bolls in a day j
by which, w'e fuppofe, he meant 10 hours. To prove
the fupeiior advantage of this machine to the common
method of thrafhing with flails, a gentleman ordered
two equal quantities of oats to be thraflied by the mill
and by flails. When the corn was cleaned and meafur-
ed, he obtained one-fixteenth more from the flieaves
thradied by the mill than from thofe thraflied by the
flail. We are alfo informed by another gentleman who
has dudied this machine with much attention, and cal¬
culated its advantages with care, that, independently of
having the corn much cleaner feparated from the draw
than is ufually done by dails, there is a faving of 30 or
40 per cent, in the expence of thrafhing.
‘ The number of perfons requifite for attending the
mill when working is fix: One perfon drives the horfesj
a fecond hands the fheaves to a third, who unties them,
while a fourth fpreads them on the inclined boards and
preffes them gently between the rollers; a fifth perfon
12 ] T H R
is neceffary to riddle the corn as it falls front the fanners, Tlirajliine
and a iixlh to remove the draw (a). || ^
This machine can be moved equally well by water , Tbr01ie-
wind, or hories. Mr Meikle has made fuch improve-  '
ments on the wind-mill as to render it much more ma¬
nageable and convenient than formerly; and wre are in¬
formed many wind-mills are now erecting in different
parts ot the country. As to the comparative expence
of thefe different machines, the ereftkin of the horfe
machine is leaft j but then the expence of employing
hories muff be taken into confideration. One of this
kind may be erected for 70I. A water mill will cod
10I. more on account of the expence of the water-wheel.
A wind-mill will cod from 200I. to 300I. iterling.
THRAVE of COHN, an expredion denoting 24
fheaves or four fhocks of fix fheaves to the fhock ; though
in fome countries they only reckon 12 dieaves to the.
thrave.
iHRASYRULUS, a renowned Athenian general
and patriot, the deliverer of his country from the yoke
of the 30 tyrants, lived about 294 B. C *. * See At~
THRASYMENUS lacus, in Ancient Geography,tica, N°
a lake of Etruria, near Perufia, and not far from the^S—174*
Jiber, fatal to the Romans in the Punic war. Now //
Logo de Perugia in the Ecclefiadical State.
iHREAD, a fmall line made up of a number of fine
fibres of any vegetable or animal fubdance, fuch as flax,
cotton, or filk j from which it takes its name of linen,
cotton, or filk thread.
THREATENING LETTERS. Knowingly to fend
any letter without a name, or with a fidtiiious name,
demanding money, or any other valuable thing, or
threatening (without any demand) to kill or fire the
houfe of any perfon, is made felony without benefit of
clergy. And fending letters, threatening to accufe any
perfon of a crime punifliable with death, tranfportation,
pillory, or other infamous punifhment, with a view to
extort from him any money or other valuable chattels,
is punifliable by flatute 30 Geo. II. cap. 24. at the dif-
cretion of the court, with fine, imprifonment, pillory,
whipping, or tranlportation for feven years.
rl HRESHING. See Thrashing.
THRIFT. See Statice, Botany Index.
IHRINAX, Small Jamaica Fan-palm, a genus
of plants belonging to the clafs of palmse. See Botany
Index.
THRIPS, a genus of infe&s belonging to the order
of hemiptera. See Botany Index.
THROAT, the anterior part of an animal, between
the head and the flioulders.
'1 HROAT-wort. See Campanula, Botany //*-
dex.
THRONE, a royal feat or chair of date, enriched
with ornaments of architedlure and fculpture, raifed on
one or more deps, and covered with a kind of canopy.
Such are the thrones in the rooms of audience of kings
and other fovereigns.
THROSTLE.
(a) We add, on the authority of an experienced farmer, that of the fix perfons neceffary to attend the thrafhing
machine, only two can in judice be charged to the account of the machine ; namely, the perfon who manages
the horfes, and the one who feeds the machine : For in the ufual mode of thradiing by the dail, it requires the
fame number of perfons as the thradiing machine does to clear an equal quantity of corn from the chaff in the fame
time.
THU [ 413 ] THU
Throftle
!!
Thucy¬
dides.
Lernpri-
ere's Dic¬
tionary.
THROSTLE. See Turdus, 1 Ornithology In-
THRUSH. SeeTuRDUs, | dex.
Thrush, or Aphtha. See Medicine Index,
i THRYALLIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs decandria, and order of monogynia j and in the
natural fyftern ranging under the 38th order, Tricoccce.
See Botany Index.
THUANUS, Jacobus Augustus, youngeft fon of
the prefident de Thou, was tamous for hjis erudition.
He was born in 1553 and having finilhed his Itudies
and travels, was made prefident a-mortier, and took
poffeflion thereof in 1595. He was employed in feveral
important offices of Hate, and in reforming the univer-
fity of Paris. He wrote the hiflory of his own time in
Latin, from the year 1543 to 1608, in 138 books j a
wrork, both for fubjefl and ftyle, worthy of the ancients.
He alfo left memoirs of his own life, belides poems $
and died at Paris, 1617.
TPIUCYDIDES, a celebrated Greek hiftorian, was
born at Athens 471 B. C. He was the fon of Olorus,
and grandfon of Miltiades, who is thought to have been
defcended from Miltiades the famous Athenian general,
and to have married the king of Thrace’s daughter.
He was educated in a manner fuitable to his quality,
that is, in the Itudy of philofophy and eloquence. His
mailer in the former was Anaxagoras, in the latter An¬
tiphon 5 one, by his defcription in the eighth book of his
Hiltory, for power of fpeech almoft a miracle, and
feared by the people on that account. Suidas and Pho-
. tius relate, that when Herodotus recited his hiltory in
public, a falhion in ufe then and many ages after, Thu¬
cydides felt fo great a Hing of emulation, that it drew
tears from him j infomuch that Herodotus himfelf took
notice of it, and congratulated his father on having a
fon who Ihowed fo wonderful an affeftion to the Mufes.
Herodotus was then 29 years of age, Thucydides a-
bout 16.
When the Peloponnelian war began to break out,
Thucydides conje&ured truly, that it would prove a
fubjedl worthy of his labour j and it no fooner com¬
menced than he began to keep a journal. This explains
the reafon why he has attended more to chronological
order than to unity of delign. During the fame war he
was commiffioned by his countrymen to relieve Amphi-
polis } but the quick march of Bralidas the Lacedaemo¬
nian general defeated his operations j and Thucydides,
unfuccefsful in his expedition, was banilhed from A-
thens. This happened in the eighth year of this cele¬
brated war 5 and in the place of his banilhment the ge¬
neral began to write an impartial hiftory of the import¬
ant events which had happened during his adminillra-
tion, and which Hill continued to agitate the feveral
Hates of Greece. This famous hiflory is continued only
to the 21H year of the war, and the remaining part of
the time till the demolition of the walls of Athens was
defcribed by the pen of Theopompus and Xenophon.
Thucydides wrote in the Attic dialed!, as being poffef-
ied of moH vigour, purity, elegance, and energy. He
fpared neither time nor money to procure authentic ma¬
terials •, and the Athenians, as well as their enemies,
furniffied him with many valuable communications,
which contributed to throw great light on the different
tranfadlions of the wTar. His hiflory has been divided
into eight books 5 the lafl of which is imperfedt, and
fuppofed to have been written by his daughter.
The hiflorian of Halicarnaffus has often been com- Ttmcy-
pared with the fon of Olorus, but each has his peculiar <h<les
excellence. Sweetnefs of flyle, grace and elegance of -phuiingia
expreffion, may be called the charadteriflics of the for- ' y *
mer; while Thucydides Hands unequalled for the fire of
his defcriptions, the concilenefs, and at the fame time
the flrong and energetic manner of his narratives. His
relations are authentic, as he himfelf was interefftd in
the events he mentions j his impartiality is indubitable,
as he nowhere betrays the leafl refentment againff his
countrymen, and the fadfious partizans of Cleon, who
had bamfhed him from xMhens. The hiflory of Thu¬
cydides was fo admired by Demofthenes, that he tranf-
ciibed it eight different times, and read it with fuch at¬
tention, that he could almoff repeat it by heart. Thu¬
cydides died at Athens, where he had been recalled
from his exile about 411 years B. C.
The belt edition of Thucydides is that of Oxford,
publilhed in 1696, folio, and that of Duker, publiffied
at x'lmfterdam in 1731, folio.
THUJA, the Arbor Vit/E 5 a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of monadelphia, and order of mo-
noecia j and in the natural fyflem ranging under the 5 ift
order, Coniferce. See Botany Index.
THULE, or Thyl^s, in Ancient Geography, an
ifland in the moft northern parts of the German ocean.
Its lituation was never accurately afeertained by the an¬
cients, hence its piefent name is unknown by modern
hiflorians. Some fuppofe that it is the ifland now called
Iceland, or part of Greenland, and others that it was
Fou/a. See Foula.
THUMB, in Anatojny, one of the extremities of the
hand.
THUMB-Cap, an uninhabited ifland in the South fea,
lies about leven leagues north-wed of Lagoon ifland ; it
is low, woody, of a circular form, and not much above
a mile in compafs.
THUMMIM. See Urim.
THUNBERGIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of didynamia. See Botany Index.
THUNDER, the noife occafioned by the explofion
of a flafh of lightning echoed back from the inequalities
on the furface of the earth, in like manner as the noife
of a cannon is echoed, and in particular circumflances
forms a rolling lengthened found. See Electricity.
THUNDERBOLT. When lightning adds with ex¬
traordinary violence, and breaks or fhatters any thing,
it is called a thunderbolt; which the vulgar, to fit it for
fuch effefts, luppole to be a hard body, and even a
ftone. But that we need not have recourfe to a hard
folid body to account for the effefts commonly attribu¬
ted to the thunderbolt, will be evident to any one who
confiders thofe of the pulvis fulminans and of gunpow¬
der ; and more efpecially the aflonifhing powers of elec¬
tricity. It has been fuppofed that meteoric Hones may
have given rife to the notion of a thunderbolt.
THUNDER-Houfe. See ELECTRICITY.
THURINGIA, a divilion of the circle of Upper
Saxony in Germany. It is a fruitful traft, abounding
in corn, efpecially wffieat 5 in black cattle, fheep, and
horfes. It is about 73 miles in length, and as much in
breadth. It contains 47 towns, 14 boroughs, betwixt
700 and 800 villages, 300 noble eftates, 7 fuperinten-
dencies, and 5 under-confiftories. Thuringia, the coun¬
try of the ancient Thuringi, or Catti, a branch of the
Vandals,
TIB [ 414 ] TIB
Thuringia Vandals, mentioned by Tacitus, was formerly a king-
t dom, afterwards a county, then a landgravate, and was
t ‘ . governed by its own princes for many ages, till 1124,
when it devolved to the marquis of Mifnia, and, with
that country, afterwards to the duke of Saxony. But
the modern Thuringia is only a part of the ancient, nay,
but a part of the ancient South Thuringia, which com¬
prehends belides, a large fhare of the modern Franconia,
Heffe, &c. On the extin&ion of the male line of the
ancient landgraves in 1247, it came to the margraves
of Meiflen, ancellors to the prefent electoral family.
The ele£l:or has no voice in the diet, on account of his
fhare in the landgravate or circle of Thuringia. Erfurt
is the capital.
THURSDAY, the fifth day of the Chriflian week,
but the fixth of that of the Jews.
THUS, Frankincense, a folid brittle refin, brought
to us in little globes or maffes, of a browniih or yellow-
ilh colour on the outfide, internally whitilh or variega¬
ted with whitilh fpecks. It is fuppofed to be the pro¬
duce of the pine that yields the common turpentine,
and to concrete upon the furface of the terebinthinate
juice foon after it has iffued from the tree. See In¬
cense.
THUYA. See Thuja.
THYMUS, Thyme j a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of didynamia, and in the natural fyftem ran¬
ging under the 42d order, Vertici/latce. See Botany
Index.
Thymus. See Anatomy Index.
THYRSUS, in antiquity, the fceptre which the
poets put into the hand of Bacchus, and wherewith they
furnifhed the menades in their Bacchanalia.
Thyrsus, a mode of flowering refembling the cone
of a pine. It is, fays Linnaeus, a panicle contrafted
into an oval or egg-lhaped form. The lower footftalks,
which are longer, extend horizontally, whilft the upper
ones are Ihorter and mount vertically. Lilac and but¬
ter-bur furnifh examples.
TIARA, an ornament or habit wherewith the an¬
cient Perfians covered their head j and with which the
Armenians and kings of Pontus are reprefented on me¬
dals ; thefe lafl, becaufe they were defcended from the
Perfians. Latin authors call it indifferently tiara and
cidaris. Strabo fays, the tiara was in form of a tower j
and the fcholiaft on Ariftophanes’s comedy,
aft i. fcene 2. affirms, that it was adorned with peacocks
feathers.
Tiara is alfo the name of the pope’s triple crown.
The tiara and keys are the badges of the papal dignity j
the tiara of his civil rank, and the keys of his jurifdic-
tion : for as foon as the pope is dead, his arms are re¬
prefented with the tiara alone, without the keys. The
ancient tiara was a round high cap. John XXIII. firft
encompaffed it with a crown. Boniface VIII. added a
fecond crown ; and Benedift XII. a third.
TIARELLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of decandria j and in the natural fyftem ranging
under the 13th order, Succulentce. See Botany Index.
TIBER, a great river of Italy, which runs through
the pope’s territories, paffing by Perugia and Orvietto j
and having vifited Rome, falls into the Tufcan fea at
Oftia, 15 miles below that city.
TIBET, called by the Tartars Baranto/a, Bootan,
or Tangooti and by the Chinefe Tfang, is fituated be-
1
tween 270 and 350 north latitude j and is reckoned to Tibet,
be 1350 miles from eaft to welt, and 480 from north to
fouth. It is bounded on the north by the country of
the Mongols and the defert of Kobi 5 on the eaft by
China; on the weft by Hindoftan, and on the fouth by
the fame country and the kingdom of Ava. In the
valleys lying between the lower mountains are many
tribes of Indian people j and a difpute happening be¬
tween the heirs of one of the rajahs or petty princes,
one party called to their affiftance the Boutaners, and
the other the Britiffi. The latter prevailed 5 and the
fame of Britiffi valour being carried to the court of Ti¬
bet, the Teeffioo Lama, who ruled the ftate under the
Delai-Lama, at that time in his minority, fent a depu¬
tation to Bengal, defiring peace for the prince who had
been engaged in war with the Britiffi. This was rea¬
dily granted by the governor ; and Mr Bogle was fent
ambaffador to the court of Tibet, where he refided fe-
veral months j and after an abfence of a year and a
quarter, returned to Calcutta. The account of this
gentleman’s expedition hath not been publiihed by him-
felf j but from Mr Stewart’s letter to Sir John Pringle,
publiihed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, vol. Ixvii.
we learn the following particulars, collefted from his
papers.
“ Mr Bogle divides the territories of the Delai-Lama
into two different parts. That which lies immediately
coptiguous to Bengal, and which is called by the inha¬
bitants Doopo, he diftinguiffies by the name of Bootan ;
and the other, which extends to the northward as far as
the frontiers of Tartary, called by the natives P«, he
ftyles Tibet. Bootan is ruled by the Dah Terriah, or
Deb Rajah. It is a country of fteep and inacceffible
mountains, whofe fummits are crowned with eternal
fnow j they are interfefted with deep valleys, through
which pour numberlefs torrents that increafe in their
courfe, and at laft, gaining the plains, lofe themfelves
in the great rivers of Bengal. Thefe mountains are co¬
vered down their fides with forefts of ftately trees of va¬
rious forts; fome (fuch as pines, &c.) which are known
in Europe 5 others, fuch as are peculiar to the country
and climate. The valleys and fides of the hills which
admit of cultivation are not unfruitful, but produce
crops of wheat, barley, and rice. The inhabitants are
a flout and warlike people, of a copper complexion, in
fize rather above the middle European ftature, hafty
and quarrelfome in their temper, and addifted to the
ufe of fpirituous liquors ; but honeft in their dealings,
robbery by violence being almoft unknown! among
them. The chief city is Taffey Seddein, fituated on the
Patchoo. Tibet begins properly from the top of the
great ridge of the Caucafus, and extends from thence in
breadth to the confines of Great Tartary, and perhaps
to fome of the dominions of the Ruffian empire. The
woods, which everywhere cover the mountains in Bou-
tan, are here totally unknown ; and, except a few
ftraggling trees near the villages, nothing of the fort is to ,
be feen. The climate is extremely fevere and rude.
At Chamnanning, where he wdntered, although it be
in latitude 31® 39', only 8° to the northward of Cal¬
cutta, he often found the thermometer in his rnom at
290 by Fahrenheit’s fcale 5 and in the middle of April
the Handing waters were all frozen, and heavy ffiowers
of fnow perpetually fell. This, no doubt, muft be
owing to the great elevation of the country, and to the
vaft
TIB [415] TIB
Tibet, vaft frozen fpace over which the north wind blows un-
—V interrupted from the pole, through the vaft deferts of
Siberia and Tartary, till it is flopped by this formidable
wall.
“ The Tibetians are of a fmaller fize than their
fouthern neighbours, and of a lefs robuft make. Their
complexions are alfo fairer, and many of them have even
a ruddinefs in their countenances unknown to the other
climates of the eafl. Thofe whom Mr Bogle faw at
Calcutta appeared to have quite the Tartar face. They
are of a mild and cheerful temper j the higher ranks are
polite and entertaining in converfation, in w'hich they
never mix either {trained compliments or flattery. The
common people, both in Bootan and Tibet, are clothed
in coarfe w'oollen fluffs of their own manufadture, lined
with fuch fkins as they can procure : but the better or¬
ders of men are dreffed in European cloth, or China
filk, lined with the finefl Siberian furs. The ufe of
linen is totally unknowm among them. The chief food
of the inhabitants is the milk of their cattle, prepared
into cheefe, butter, or mixed with the flour of a coarfe
barley or of peafe, the only grain which their foil pro¬
duces j and even thefe articles are in a fcanty propor¬
tion : but they are furnilhed with rice and wdieat from
Bengal and other countries in their neighbourhood.
They alfo are fupplied wnth fifli from the rivers in their
owm and the neighbouring provinces, failed and fent in¬
to the interior parts. They have no want of animal
food from the cattle, flieep, and hogs, which are raifed
on their hills 5 and are not deftitute of game. They
have a Angular method of preparing their mutton, by
expoAng the carcafe entire, after the bowels are ta¬
ken out, to the fun and bleak northern winds which
blow in the months of Auguft and September, without
frofl, and fo dry up the juices and parch the Ikin, that
the meat will keep uncorrupted for the year round.
This they generally eat raw, without any other prepara¬
tion.
“ The religion and political conftitution of this coun¬
try, which are intimately blended together, wTould make
a conAderable chapter in its hiftory. It fufAces to fay,
that at prefent, and ever Ance the expulAon of the Eluth
Tartars, the kingdom of Tibet is regarded as depending
on the empire of China, which they call Cathay; and
there adtually reAde tw'o mandarins, with a gairifon of
a thoufand Chinefe, at Lahaffa the capital, to fupport
the government ■, but their power does not extend far :
and in fatt the Lama, whofe empire is founded on the
fureft grounds, perfonal affeftion and religious reverence,
governs every thing internally with unbounded au¬
thority. Every body knows that the Delai Lama is
the great objedf of adoration for the various tribes of
heathen Tartars, who roam through the vaft traft of
continent which ftretches from the banks of the Volga
to Correa on the fea of Japan, the moft extenAve reli¬
gious dominion, perhaps, on the face of the globe. See
Lama.
“ It is an old notion, that the religion of Tibet is a
corrupted Chriftianity: and even Father Difederii, a Je-
fuit (but not of the Chinefe miflion) who viflted the
country about the beginning of this century, thinks he
can refolve all their myfteries into ours; and afferts,
with a truly myftical penetration, that they have cer¬
tainly a good notion of the Trinity, Ance in their ad-
drefs to the Deity, they fay as often konciok-olk in the Tibet,
plural as konciok in the Angular, and with their rofaries1 v 1 J
pronounce thefe w'ords om, ha, hum. The truth is,
that the religion of Tibet, from whatever fource it
fprung, is pure and Ample in its fource, conveying very
exalted notions of the Deity, with no contemptible fy-
flem of morality : but in its progrefs it has been greatly
altered and corrupted by the inventions of worldly men j
a fate wTe can hardly regret in a fyftemof error, Ance w«
know that that of truth has been fubjeft to the fame.
Polygamy, at leaft in the fenfe we commonly receive
the word, is not in practice among themj but it exifts
in a manner flill more repugnant to European ideas j
for there is a plurality of hufbands, which is Armly efta-
blifhed and highly relpefted there. In a country where
the means of lubAfling a family are not eaAly found, it
feems not impolitic to allow a fet of brothers to agree in
raiAng one, which is to be maintained by their joint ef¬
forts. In fliort, it is ufual in Tibet for the brothers in
the family to have a wife in common, and they general¬
ly live in great harmony and comfort with her j not but
{ometimes little diffenAons will arife (as may happen in
families conflituted upon different principles), an in-
ftance of which Mr Bogle mentions in the cafe of a mo-
deft and virtuous lady, the wife of half a dozen of the
Teeflioo Lama’s nephews, who complained to the uncle
that the two youngeft of her hulhands did not furnifli
that {hare of love and benevolence to the common flock
which duty and religion required of them. In fliort,
however ftrange this cuftom may appear to us, it is an
undoubted fa6t that it prevails in Tibet.
“ The dead are expofed on the pinnacle of feme neigh¬
bouring mountain, to be devoured by wild beafts and
birds of prey, or wailed away by time and the vicifli-
tudes of the weather in which they lie. The mangled
carcafes and bleached bones lie fcattered about 5 and
amidft this feene of horror, feme miferable old wretch,
man or woman, loft to all feelings but thofe of fu-
perftition, generally fets up an abode, to perform the
difmal office of receiving the bodies, afligning each a
place, and gathering up the remains when too w idely
difperfed.”
To the account of Tibet W’hich we have given from
the communications of Mr Bogle, we may add the in¬
formation which we have obtained from a later traveller,
Mr Saunders* furgeon at Boglepoer in Bengal, w\\o * Paper itt
made a journey into Tibet in the year 1783. His oPa.the Phil.
fervations chiefly refpedt the natural productions and dif-^rf^ .
tales ot the country.
The plants which Mr Saunders found wTere almoft all
European plants, a great number of them being natives
of Britain. From the appearance of the hills he con¬
cludes that they muft contain many ores of metal and
pyrites. There are inexhauftible quantities of tincal
or borax, and rock-falt is plentiful j gold-duft is found
in great quantities in the beds of rivers, and femetimes
in large maffes, lumps, and irregular veins ; lead, cinna¬
bar containing a large proportion of quickfllvcr, copper,
and iron, he thinks, might eaAly be procured. But the
inhabitants of Tibet have no better fuel than the dung
of animals. A coal mine would be a valuable difeo-
very. We are told, that in feme parts of China border¬
ing on Tibet coal is found and ufed as fuel.
It is remarkable that the fame difeafe prevails at the:
— foot.
TIC [4
Tibet fx>t of the mountains of Tibet as in Switzerland at the
Tickell. ^00t ^Ps> a glandular fwelling in the throat
— V ‘ . commonly called goitre.
The language fpoken in Tibet is different from that
of the Tartars. The aftronomers are acquainted with
the motion of the heavenly bodies, and able to cal¬
culate eclipfes; but the lamas are generally ignorant;
few of them can read, much lefs underhand Their an¬
cient books.
11BULLUS, Aulus Albius, a Roman knight, and
a celebrated Latin poet, was born at Rome 43 B. C.
He was the friend of Horace, Ovid, Macer, and other
great men in the reign of Auguftus. He accompanied
Meffala Corvinus in his expedition againft the ifland of
Corcyra : but falling lick, and being unable to fupport
the fatigues of war on account of the weaknefs of his
conlfitution, he quitted the profeflion of arms, and re¬
turned to Rome, where he died before the year 17 j
when Ovid fhowed his grief for his death by writing a
fine elegy upon him. Tibullus wrote four books of ele¬
gies, which are hill extant: they are written in a ten¬
der and agreeable ftyle, and in very elegant Latin. Mu-
ret and Jofeph Scaliger have written learned and curi¬
ous commentaries on the works of this poet. The belt
edition of Tibullus is that of Janus Bronckhufius, pu-
bhihed at Amfterdam in 1708, in one volume quarto.
We have an Englifh poetical verfion by Mr Grainger.
TIBUR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Latium,
pleafantly fituated on the Anio. Here Horace had his
villa and houie j and here he wifhed to end his days.
Here Adrian built an extraordinary villa called Tibur-
ttna, inferibed with the names of the provinces and of
the moft confiderable places, (Spartian) 5 near which
Zenobia had a houfe called Zenobia, (Trebellius, Pollio).
Hither Auguftus often retreated on account of its falu-
brity, (Suetonius): for which it is greatly recommend-
-ed, (Martial). Anciently, when the Romans had far
extended their territory, it was the utmoft place of ba-
nilhment, (Ovid). It had a temple of Hercules 5 and
therefore called Hercu/eum. In the temple was a li-
brary, (A. Gellius). Now Tivoli in the Campagna
di Roma, on the Teverone.
1ICINUS, in Ancient Geography, a river in Infubria,
rifing in Mount Adula, traverfmg the Lacus Verbanus
fouthwards, and falling into the Po near Ticinum. Be¬
tween this river and the Po Hannibal gained his firft
viaory over the Romans under P. Scipio. The general
himfelf efcaped with the utmoft difficulty, and that by
the bravery of his fom the firft S. ipio Africanus. Now
the lejino, rifing in Mount Godard, running fouth
through the Lago Maggiore and Milan, by Pavia, into
the Po.
TICK. See Acarus, Entomology Index.
TICKELL, Ihomas, an excellent Engliffi poet,
was the fon of the Reverend Richard Tickelf, and was
born in 1686, at Bridekirk in Cumberland. He was
educated at Queen’s college, Oxford, of which he was
made fellow j and while he continued at that univerfity,
he addreffed to Mr Addifon a complimentary copy of
verfes on his Opera of Rofamond, which introduced him
to an acquaintance with that gentleman, who difeover-
ing his merit, became his fincere friend. On Mr Ad¬
difon being made fecretary of ftate, he appointed Mr
J ickell his under-fecretary 5 and on his being obliged
to refign that office on account of his ill health, he xe-
1
6 ] T I D
commended him fo effectually to Mr Craggs his fuccef- Xi. keIi
for, that he was continued in his poft till that gentle- |j *
mans death. In 1724, Mr Jickell was appointed fe- Tide,
cretary to the lords jufticts in Ireland, and enjoyed that
place as long as he lived. He wrote feme poems,
which, when feparately publiftied, met with a favourable
reception, and paffed through feveral editions : they are
now printed in the fecond volume of the Minor Poets.
After Mr Addifon’s death Mr Tickell had the care
of the editioB of his works printed in 4 vols. 410 j to
which he prefixed an account of Mr Addifon’s life,
and a poem on his death. Mr Tickell died in the’
year 1740.
IICKERA, a confiderable article of merchandile in
Jezzan in Africa j it is valued by travellers as a porta¬
ble and highly falubrious food. It is a preparation of
pounded dates, and the meal of Indian corn, formed into
a pafte, and highly dried in an oven.
TrCKSEED, Sun-flower. See Coreopsis, Bo¬
tany Index.
TICUNAS. See Poison.
TIDE, is a word which expreffes that rifing and
falling of the waters which are obferved on all maritime
coafts.
There is a certain depth of the waters of the ocean
which wmuld obtain if all were at reft : but obfervation
(hows that they are continually varying from this le¬
vel, and that fome of thele variations are regular and
periodical.
\ft, It is obferved, that on the fhores of the ocean, and
in bays, creeks, and harbours, which communicate freely
with the ocean, the waters rife up above this mean height
twice a-day, and as often fink below it, forming what
is called a flood and an ebb, a high and low water.
The whole interval between high and low w^ater is call¬
ed a tide ; the water is faid to flow and to ebb j and
the rifing is called the flood-tide, and the falling is
called the EBB tide.
id, It is obferved, that this rife and fall of the wa¬
ters is variable in quantity. At Plymouth, for inftance,
it is fometimes 21 feet between the greateft and leaf!
depth of the water in one day, and fomelimes only 12
feet.
Thefe different heights of tide are obferved to fuc-
ceed each other in a regular feries, diminifhing from the
greateft to the leaft, and then increafing from the leaft
to the greateft. The greateft is called a spring tide
and the leaft is called a neap tide. ’,
^d. This feries is completed in about 15 days. More
careful obfervation (hows that two feries are completed
in the exatt time of a lunation. For the fpring tide in
any place js obferved to happen precifely at a certain in¬
terval of time (generally between two and three days)
after new or full moon ; and the neap tide at a certain
interval after half moon : or, more accurately fpeaking,
it is obferved that the fpring tide always happens when
the moon has got a certain number of degrees eaftw’ard
of the line of conjundlion and oppofition, and the neap
tide happens when ftie is a certain number of degrees
from her firft or laft quadrature. Thus the whole feries
of tides appears to be regulated by the moon.
4*//, It is oblerved that high water happens at new
and full moon, when the moon has a certain deter¬
mined pofition with refpedt to the meridian of the
place of obfervation, preceding or following the moon’s
fouthing
t i d r 41
Tide, fouthing a certain interval of time; which is con-
 fiant with refpett to that place, but very different in
different places.
$t/i, The time of high water in any place appears to
be regulated by the moon j for the interval between the
time of high water and the moon’s foitthing never
changes above three quarters of an hour, whereas the in¬
terval between the time of high water and noon changes
fix hours in the courfe of a fortnight.
6//q The interval between two fucceeding high wa¬
ters is variable. It is leaft of all about new and full
moon, and greatefl when the moon is in her quadra¬
tures. As two high waters happen every day, we may
call the double of their interval a tide day, as we call
the diurnal revolution of the moon a lunar day. The tide
is fhorteft about new and full moon, being then about
,24h 31''■> about the time of the moon’s quadratures
it is 25h 27'. Thefe values are taken from a mean
of many obi'ervations made at Barbadoes by Dr Mafke-
lyne.
llh, The tides in fimilar circumdances are greateft
when the moon is at her fmallefi diftance from the earth,
or in her perigee, and, gradually diminifhing, are fmall¬
efi when (lie is in her apogee.
8^, The fame remark is made with refpeft to the
fun’s diftance, and the greateft tides are obferved during
the winter months of Europe.
9//;, The tides in any part of the ocean increafe as the
moon, by changing her declination, approaches the ze¬
nith of that place.
10th, 'The tides which happen while the moon is
above the horizon are greater than the tides of the fame
day when the moon is below the horizon.
Such are the regular phenomena of the tides. They
are important to all commercial nations, and have there¬
fore been much attended to. It is of the tides, in all
probability, that the Bible fpeaks, when God is faid to
fet bounds to the fea, and to fay, “ thus far fhall it go,
and no farther.”
Homer is the earlieft profane author who fpeaks of
the tides. Indeed it is not very clear that it is of them
that he fpeaks (in the 12th book of the Odyffey) when
he fpeaks of Charybdis, which rifes and retires thrice in
, every day. Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus fpeak more
diftinftly of the tides in the Red fea. Pytheas of Mar-
feilles is the firft who fays any thing of their caufe. Ac¬
cording to Strabo he had been in Britain, where he muff
have obferved the tides of the ocean. Plutarch fays ex-
piefsly that Pytheas aferibed them to the moon. It is
fomewhat wonderful that Ariftotle fays fo little about the
tides. The army of Alexander, his pupil, were ftart-
led at their firft appearance to them near the Perfian
gulf; and w^e ftiould have thought that Ariftotle
would be well informed of all that had been obferved
there. But there are only three paffages concerning them
in all Arirtotle’s writings, and they are very trivial. In
one place he fpeaks of great tides obferved in the north of
Europe , in another, he mentions their having been aferi¬
bed by fome to the moon ; and in a third, he fays, that
the tide in a great fea exceeds that in a fmall one,
I he Greeks had little opportunity of obferving the
tides. The conquefts and the commerce of the Romans
gave them more acquaintance with them. Csefar fpeaks
of them in the 4th book of h!s Gallic War. Strabo,
arter Pofidonius, claffes the phenomena into dailv.
VOL. XX. Part II.
7 ] T I D
ly, and annual. He obferves, that the fea rifes as the Tide,
moon gets near the meridian, whether above or below v—
the horizon, and falls again as (he rifes or falls; alfo, that
the tides increafe at the time of new and full moon, and
are greateft at the fummer fclftice. Pliny explains the
phenomena at fome length ; and fays, that both the fun
and moon are their caufe, dragging the rvaters along
with them (B. II. c. 97). Seneca {Nat. ^ucjl. III. 28.)
fpeaks of the tide with corredlnefs ; and Macrobius
{Sonin. Scip. I. 6.) gives a very accurate defeription of
their motions.
It is impoftible that fuch phenomena ftiould not exer-
cife human curiofity as to their caufe. Plutarch {Plant.
P/uV. UL 17.), Galileo {Sy/l. Hand. Dial. 4.), Ric-
cioli in his Ahnagejl, ii. p. 374, and Gaffendi, ii. p. 27.
have collefled moil of the notions of their predeceffors on
the fubje£t; but they are of fo little importance, that
they do not deferve our notice. Kepler fpeaks more like
a philofopher {De Stella Mortis, and Epit. AJlron. p.
555-)* He fays that all bodies attraft each olher, and
that the waters of the ocean would all go to the moon
were they not retained by the attra&ion of the earth ;
and then goes on to explain their elevation under the
moon and on the oppofite fide, becaufe the earth is Ids
attracted by the moon than the nearer waters, but more
than the waters which are more remote.
"The honour of a complete explanation of the tides
was referved for Sir Ifaac Newton. He laid hold of this
clafs of phenomena as the mod inconteftable proof of
univerfal gravitation, and has given a moft beautiful and
fynoptical view of the whole fubjedt ; contenting him-
felf, however, with merely exhibiting the chief conic-
quences of the general principle, and "applying it to the
phenomena with lingular addrefs. But the wide (teps
taken by this great philofopher in his inveftigation leave
ordinary readers frequently at fault : many of his af-
fumptions require the greateft mathematic xl knowledge
to fatisfy us o( their truth. The academy of Paris there¬
fore propofed to illuftrate this among other parts of the
principles of natural philofpphy, and publiftied the the¬
ory of the tides as a prize problem. This produced three
excellent diflertations by M‘Laurin, Dan. Bernoulli,
and Euler. Aided by thefe, and chiefly by the lecond’
we fhall here give a phyfical theory, and accommodate
it to the purpofes of navigation by giving the rules of
calculation. We have demonftrated in ©ur diflerta-
tions on the phyfical principles of the celeftial mo¬
tions, that it is an unexcepted faft, that every particle of
matter in the folar fyftem is actually ckflefted toward
e\ery other particle ; and that the defiedlion of a parti¬
cle of matter toward any diftant fphere is proportional
to the quantity of matter in that fphere dire&ly, and to
the fquare of the diftance of the particle from the centre
of that fphere inverfely : and having found that the hea-
vmels of a piece of terreflrial matter is nothing but the
fuppofed. opponent to the force which we exert in car¬
rying this piece of matter, we conceive it as poffefiing a
property, that is, diftinguifhing quality, manifelted by
its being gravis or heavy. This is heavinefs, gravitas
gravity ; and the manifeftation of this quality, or the
event in which it is feen, whether it be diredly falling
or defleding m a parabolic curve, or firetching a coiled
fpnng, or breaking a rope, or fimply preffing on its fup-
P0iT is gravitatio, gravitation ; and the body is faid to
gravitate. When all obftacles are removed from the
3 G body,
T I D [ 418 ] T I D
Tide, body, as when we cut the ftnng by which a (lone is
1 V— ' hung, it moves direftly downwards, tendit ad terrain.
Si dijcindatur funis tenderet lapis ad terrain. Dum vero
funis integer perfet, lapis terrain verfus niti cenfetur.
By fome metaphyiical proceis, wilich it is ncedleis at
prei'ent to trace, this ni/iis ad motum has been called
a tendency in our language. Indeed the word has
now come to fignity the energy of any adlive quality in
thole cafes where its limpiel! and molt immediate mani-
feilation is prevented by fome obltacle. The ftone is
now faid to tend towards the earth, though it does not
actually approach it, being withheld by the firing. The
ftretchmg the tiring in a diredlion perpendicular to the
horizon is conceived as a lull manifeltauon of this ten¬
dency. This tendency, this energy ol its heavinefs, is
therefore named by the word which diitinguilhes the qua¬
lity ; and it is called gravitation, and it is faid \.ogravi¬
tate.
But Sir Ifaac Newton difeovered that this defledtion
of a heavy body differs in no refpedl from that general
delleCtidn obfeived in all the bodies of the folar lyllem.
For 16 feet, which is the defledlion of a llone in one
fccond, has the very fame proportion to -rg-th of an inch,
ivhich is the limultaneous deiledtion of the moon, that
the fquare of the moon’s dillance from the centre of the
earth has to the fquare of the Hone’s diftance from it,
namely, that of 3600 to 1.
Thus we are enabled to compare all the effedls of the
mutual tendencies of the heavenly bodies with the ten¬
dency of gravity, whole effedls and meafures are fami¬
liar to us.
If the earth were a fphere covered to a great depth
with water, the water would form a concentric fpherical
(hell 5 for the gravitation of every particle of its furface
would then be diredied to the centre, and would be
equal. The curvature of its lurface therefore w’ould be
every where the lame, that is, it would be the uniform
curvature of a fphere.
It has been demonflrated in former articles, after Sir
Ifaac Newton, that the gravitation of a particle C
Plate (fig- I-) t0 centre O, is to that of a particle E at
iDXXXVI. the furface as CO to EO. In like manner the gravita-
Fig. 1. tion of 0 is to that of / as 0 to p O. If therefore EO
and Op are two communicating canals, of equal lengths,
the water in both would be in equilibrio, becaufe each
column w-ould exert the fame total pieffure at O. But
if the gravitation of each particle in / O be diminilhed
by a certain proportion, fuch as -rl^th of its whole
weight, it is plain that the total preffure of the column
p O will be x^th part lefs than that of the column
EO. Therefore .they will no longer be in equilibrio.
The weight of the column EO will prevail y and if a
hollow- tower be built at the mouth of the pit p ot
the w-ater will fink in EO and rife in Op, till both are
again in equilibrio, exerting equal total picffures at O.
Or we may prevent the finking at E by pouring in
more w-ater into the tower Pp. The fame thing mull
happen in the canalperpendicular to EO, if the gra¬
vitation of every particle be diminilhed by a force adting
in the diredhon CF, and proportional to the dillance of
the particle from C, and fuch, that when c C is equal
to 0 O, ihe force adling on c is equal to the force adling
on 0. In order that he former equilibrium may be re-
flored after this diminution of the gravitation of the co¬
lumn yC, it is plain that more water mult be poured in¬
to the oblique tow-er fF. All this is evident when we
confider the matter hydroflatically. The gravitation of
the particle c may be reprefented by 0 O ; but the dimi¬
nution of the preffure occafioned by this at O is repre-
fented by C c.
Hence we can colledt this much, that the whole di¬
minution of prelfure at C is to the whole diminution of
preffure at O as the fum of all the lines c C to the fum
of all the lines 0 O, that is, as fC* to PO2. But the
weight of the fmall quantity of w-ater added in each
tower is diminilhed in the lame proportion y therefore
the quantity added at F/mult be to the quantity added
at P/> asyC to p O. Therefore we mult have Fy:
Bp=fC : p O, and the points E, F, P, muff be in the
circumference of an elliple, of which PO and EO are
the tranfverfe and conjugate ftmx-axes.
What w-e have here fuppoied concerning the diminu¬
tion of gravity in thefe canals is a thing which really
obtains in nature. It w-as demonllrated, when treating
of tiie PRECESSION of the Equinoxes, that if the fun or'
moon lie in the diredtion OP, at a very great diftance.
there refults from the unequal gravitation of the differ¬
ent particles of the earth a diminution of the gravity of
each particle ; which diminution is in a diredtion paral¬
lel to OP, and proportional to the diftance of the par¬
ticle from a plane palling through the centre of the earth
at right angles to the line OP.
Thus it happens that the waters of the ocean have
their equilibrium difturbed by the unequal gravitation
of their different particles to the fun or to the moon ;
and this equilibrium cannot be reftored till the waters
come in from all hands, and rife up around the line
joining the centres of the earth and of the luminary.
The fpherical ocean mull acquire the form of a pro¬
late fpheroid generated by the revolution of an ellipfe
round its tranlverfe axis. The waters will be highelt
in that place which has the luminary in its zenith, and
in the antipodes to that place 5 and they will be moll
depreffed in all thofe places which have the luminary in
their horizon. P and P' will be the poles, and EO£)
will be the equator of this prolate fpheroid.
Mr Fergufbn, in his Aftronomy, affigns another caufe
of this arrangement, viz. the difference of the centrifu¬
gal forces of the different particles of water, while the
earth is turning round the common centre of gravity of
the earth and moon. This, however, is a miftake. It
would be juft if the earth and moon were attached to
the ends of a rod, and the earth kept always the fame
face toward the moon.
it is evident that the accumulation at P and P', and
the depreffion at the equator, muft augment and diminiflr
in the fame proportion with the difturbing force. It is
alfo evident that its abfolute quantity may be difeovered
by our knowledge of the proportion of the difturbing
force to the force of gravity.—Now this proportion is
known 5 for the proportion of the gravitation of the
earth’s centre to the fun or moon, to the force of gravi¬
ty at the earth’s furface, is known ; and the proportion
of the gravitation of the earth’s centre to the luminary,
to the difference of the gravitations of the centre and of
the furface, is alfo known, being very nearly the propor¬
tion of the diilance of the luminary to twice the radius
of the earth.
Although this reafonii.*, by which we have afeertain-
ed the elliptical form of the watery fpheroid, be fuffi-
ciently
/
T I D [ 41
Title, ciently convincing, it is very imperfeft, being accom-
—V modated to one condition only of equilibrium, viz. the
equilibiium of the canals/V and c 0. There are feveral
other conditions equally neceflary to which this lax rea-
foning will not apply, fuch as the dire&ion of the whole
remaining gravitation in any point F. This mull be
perpendicular to the furface, &c. &c. Nor will this
mode of inveftigation afcertain the eccentricity of the
fpheroid without a molt intricate procefs. We muft
therefore take the fubje£l mare generally, and (how the
proportion and dire£tions of gravity in every point of
the fpheroid. We need not, however, again demon-
ftrate that the gravitation of a particle placed any where
without a perfc-ft fpherical fhell, or a fphere confining
of concentric fpherical Ihells, either of uniform denlity,
or of denfities varying according to fome fun&ion of the
radius, is the fame as if the whole matter of the {hell
• or fphere were colledled in the centre. This has been
demonftrated in the article Astronomy. We need
only remind the reader of fome confequences of this the¬
orem which are of continual ufe in the prefent inveftiga¬
tion.
1. The gravitation to a fphere is proportional to
its quantity of matter direftly, and to the fquare of the
diftance of its centre from the gravitating particle in-
verfely.
2. If the fpheres be homogeneous and of the fame den-
fity, the gravitations of particles placed on their furfaces,
or at diftances which are proportional to their diame¬
ters, are as the radii j for the quantities of matter are
as the cubes of the radii, and the attractions are inverfe-
ly as the fquares of the radii j and therefore the whole
. . rs
gravitations are as —, or as r.
3. A particle placed within a fphere has no tendency
to the matter of the {hell which lies without it, becaufe
its tendency to any part is balanced by an oppolite ten¬
dency to the oppofite part. Therefore,
4. A particle placed any where within a homogene¬
ous fphere gravitates to its centre with a force propor¬
tional to its diftance from it.
It is a much more difficult problem to determine the
gravitation of particles to a fpheroid. To do this in ge¬
neral terms, and for every fttuation of the particle,
would require a train of propofitions which our limits
will by no means admits we muft content ourfelves with
as much as is neceffary for merely afcertaining the ratio
of the axes. This will be obtained by knowing the ra¬
tio of the gravitation at the pole to that at the equator.
Therefore.
fig. 2. Let N S y N (fig. 2.) be a feaion through the axis
of an oblate homogeneous fpheroid, which differs very
little from a fphere. NS is the axis, m q is the equato¬
rial diameter, O is the centre, and NMSQ is the fec-
tion of the infcribed fphere. Let P be a particle fi-
tuated at any diftance without the fphere in its axis
produced ; it is required to determine the gravitation
of this particle to the whole matter of the fpheroid ?
Draw two lines PAC, PBD, very near to each other,
cutting off two fmall aiches AB, CD; draw GA a,
HB b, IC c, KD d, perpendicular to the axis; alfo draw
OE and AL perpendicular to PAC, and OF perpendi¬
cular to PD, cutting PC in f. Join OA.
Let OA, the radius of the infcribed fphere be r, and
OP the diftance of the gravitating particle be d, and
9 ] TIB
M ot, the elevation of the equator of the fpheroid,
or the ellipticity, be e. Alfo make AErzAr, and
OE~?/, rzjy/V*—a*. Then AE—BF= x and F/izry.
Tide.
Suppofe the whole figure to turn round the axis OP.
The little fpace AB b a will generate a ring of the re¬
dundant matter 5 fo will CD dc. This ring may be
confidered as confifting of a number of thin rings gene*
rated by the revolution of A a. The ring generated by
A a is equal to a parallelogram whofe bafe is the cir¬
cumference defcribed by A and whofe height is A a.
Therefore let c be the circumference of a circle whofe
radius is 1. The ring will be A oX^X AG. But be¬
caufe a N is an arch of an ellipfe, we have Mm : A«
—MO : AGrzrr : AG, and A a=M m X ——, = ~
r r
€
AG. Therefore the furface of this ring is — c - AG*
We have fuppofed the fpheroid to be very nearly
fpherical, that is, e exceedingly fmall in comparil’on of
r. This being the cafe, all the particles in A a, and
confequently all the particles in the ring generated by
the revolution of A a, will attra6I the remote particle P
with the fame force that A does very nearly. We may
fay the fame thing of the whole matter of the ring gene¬
rated by the revolution of AB b a. This attraction is
exerted in the direflron PA by each individual particle.
But every aftion of a particle A is accompanied by the
aClion of a particle A1 in the direflion PA'. Thefe two
compofe an attraftion in the diredtion PO. The whole
attradtion in the diredlions fimilar to PA is
AG*
PA*
plates
e
= cX-
X GH, for GH meafures the number of parallel
of which the folid ring is compofed. This
(>
being decompofed in the diredtion PG is zz c x ~ X
AG* • PG
A Cr *
XGH. But—-
OE*
PO*’
and^ =
PE
PO*
PA3 ~ PA*— PO*’ PA
Therefore the attradlion of the ring, eftimated in the di-
e OE* . PE
X GH.
redtion PO, is zr r X ~ X
r PO3
Further, by the nature of the circle, we have HG :
ABzz AG : AO; alfo AB : BLz= AO : OE. But PA:
a n v. po
AGzzPO : OE, and OErz —Therefore
AB : BLssAO:
AG . PO
PA
z=AO. PA : PO
AG
: PE.
PA .
PA
Alfo BL : LAzzEO : EA,
And LA : Fy— PA : Py :z= ultimately PA
Therefore, by equality, HG : FfzzAG . AO
EO . PA : AO . PO'. AG . EA . PE.
Or HG : Fy=EO . PA* : PO . EA . PE.
. , TJ„ „ - EO . PA*
n H - yx po p£ . EA’
Now fubftitute this value of HG in the formula ex-
preffing the attradlion of the ring. This changes it to
* OE* . PE OE . PA* ^ e
c t'^13 ^ a ^ Fy or e -• X
OE3
PO4 . EA
PO3
PA* -j-i r
X F/
PO.PE.EA
In like manner, the altradlion of
3 G 2 the
Tide.
T I D
the ling generated by the revolution cf CD ac is c - x
OE3 . PC*
EA X
OE3
PU4
Therefore the attraction of both is
crxF/x
*/3
EAJ
X PA* -f- PC*.
x P£*4-.v*.
C TT* */
2C-—-X F/—
r A a;
Therefore F_/ A, — ^
X
FO^EAX 1>A,+PC''= A >< FT
But PA* -f PC* = 2 PE* +
Therefore the attraction is
But
2 PE* 2 ar
r/J
F/=y, =-P.
y
y
— y x, ~ r
h herefore the attraction of the two rings is 2 c  - x
     . r a'4
xl X PE* -f ** X a:. But PE*—PO* — OE*,—
(r* — x1).—d3 — r*-j-.v*. Therefore the attrac¬
tion ot the two rings is
e
2c
v/4
X r1 — x* X d1 —>l + 2x3x, — 2c
r1 d3 x — r* x-\-2 r* .vs
•d*'
■d3 x3x-\-r%x1 x— 2x* x~7c
—--x —  ^     * 
/ ' r3 d3 x-\-$ r3 x3x — r*x — d3x3 x—2\*x.
I he attraction of tne whole fhell of redundant mat¬
ter will be had by taking the fluent of this formula,
which is
2 c —r-X
r d* A
d3
3 r3 x3
d3
2
and then make x~r. This gives 2c—(d3 r3 -\-r* 
420 1 t I D
fmali in comparifon of r, a particle on the equator of
the oblong fpheroid will be ns much attracted by thefe '
cncles of equal areas, with their correfponding eliiples,
as by the ellipfes. Now the attraction at the pole of an
oblate fpheroid was \ c r-\- c e. Therefore putting
4 e in p'ace of e, the attraction on the equator of the
oblong fpheroid will be equal to *- c r-f yt c e.
I bus we have afcertained the gravitations of a parti¬
cle fituated in the pole, and of one fituated in the equa¬
tor, of a homogeneous oblong ipheroid. This will en¬
able us to lolve the following problem ;
If the particles of a homogeneous oblong fluid Ipheroid
attraCt each other with a force inverfely as the fquares
of their diltances, and if they are attracted by a very
diltant body by the fame law, and if the ratio of the
equatorial gravity to this external force be given •, to
find what muit lie the proportion of the femi-axis, fo
that all may be in equilibrio, and the fpheroid preferve
its form ?
Let r be the equatorial radius, an dr-fe be the polar
femi-axis. Then the gravitation at the pole m is ^ c r
+ tV c c, and the gravitation at the equator is ^-cr-p
tt c e- Now by the gravitation towards the ditfant
body placed in the direCHon of the polar axis, the polar
gravitation is diminifhed, and the equatorial gravitation
is increafed j and the increafe of the equatorial gravita¬
tion is to the diminution of the polar gravitation as NO
to 2 to O. Therefore if the whole attraCHon of the ob-
long fpheroid for a particle on its equator be to the force
which the diftant body exerts there, as G to P, and if
the fpheroid is very nearly fpherical, the abfolute weight
P
And
—d3 r3—J-rs), which is
4 c ^ r* 4 ?-4
d3
5 d* *
infcribed fphere, wdiich is
traCIion of the whole fpheroid
_ c r3
To this add the attradion of the
c r3
and w7e have the at-
d3
+
c e r*
d3 _r7 dl b d*
Cor. i. If the particle' P is fituated precifely in N,
tbe pole of the fpheroid, the attraftion of the Ipheroid
Is 4 c ;-q- r8j c c.
If the fpheroid is not oblate, but oblong, and if the
greater femiaxis he r, and the depreflion at the equator
be e, the analyfis is the lame, taking e negatively.
I. aeiefoie the attradion for a particle in the pole, or
the gravitation of a particle in the pole, is | c r 4rce.
But if the polar femiaxis be r-f <?, and the equatorial
radius be r, fo that this oblong fpheroid has the fame
axis w’ith the former oblate one, the gravitation of a
particle in the pole is ^ c c e.
Cor. 2. If a number of parallel planes are drawn per¬
pendicular to the equator of an oblong fpheroid, wbofe
longer femiaxis is r-f-e, and equatorial radius r, they
wilt divide the fpheroid into a number of fimilar ellipfes;
and, finee the ellipfe through the axis has r-fe and r for
its two femiaxes,^ and the radius of a circle of equal area
with this ellipfe is a mean proportional between r and
and therefore very nearly —*>, when e is very
at the equator will be | c ?•-}-TA c e-f
the abfolute weight at the pele will be
2 P
-c r —.
Gr
Tcr+-xh
P
Their difference is ■r\ce+2cr
G ^ g
Now if we fuppofe this fpheroid to be compofed of
fimilar concentric fhells, all the forces will decreafc in
the fame ratio. Therefore the weight of a particle in a
column reaching from the equator to the centre will be
to the weight of a fimilarly fituated particle of a column
reaching from the pole to the centre, as the weight of a
particle at the equator to the weight of a particle at the
pole. But the whole weights of the two columns muft
be equal, that they may balance each other at the cen¬
tre. Their lengths mult therefore be reciprocally as the
weights of fimilarly fituated particles ; that is, the polar
femi-axis mult be to the equatorial radius, as the weight
of a particle at the equator to the weight of a particle at
the pole. Therefore we muft have t^c c-j-2c r~ ;
, , . P
c r-y-
Hence we derive 2 r — T*x <?, or 4 G : 1 r P— r :
Ct j
This determines the form of the fluid fpheroid when the
ratio of G to P is given.
It is well known that the gravitation of the moon to
the earth is to the diflurbing force of the fun as 178,723
to 1 very nearly. The lunar gravitation is increafed as
Ore approaches the earth in the reciprocal duplicate ratio
of the diftances. The diflurbing force of the fun dimi-
nifhes in the Ample ratio of the diftances; therefore the
weight of a body on the furfa.ee of the earth is to the
difturbing
Tide.
T I D [ 421 ] T 1 D
didurbing force of the fun on the lame body, in a ratio
compounded of the ratio of 178,725 to 1, the ratio of
360c to 1, and the ratio of 60 to 1 ; that is, in the
ratio of 38604600 to x. If the mean radius of the earth
be 2093 4500 feet, the difference of the axis, or the ele¬
vation of the pole of the watery fpheroid produced by
the gravitation to the fun, will be V X If ro'l #§§ feet,
or very nearly 24 § inches. This is the tide produced
fcv the fun on a homogeneous fluid fphere.
It is plain, that if the earth confrlb of a folid nucleus
of the fame denGty with the water, the form of the folar
tide will be the fame. But if the denfity of the nucleus
be different, the form of the tide will be different, and
will depend both on the denfity and on the figure of the
nucleus.
If the nucleus be of the fame form as the furrounding
fluid, the whole will (fill maintain its form with the
lame proportion of the axis. If the nucleus be fpherical,
its aftion on the furrounding fluid will be the fame as if
all the matter of the nucleus by which it exceeds an
equal bulk of the fluid were colieffed at tit centre. In
this cafe, the ocean cannot maintain the fame form : for
the affion of this central body being proportional to the
kpaare of the diitance inveifely, will augment the gravity
of the equatorial fluid more than it augments that of the
circumpolar fluid ; and the ocean, which ivas itr equi-
librio (by iuppofition), mult now become more protu¬
berant at the pole*. It may, however, be again ba¬
lanced in an elliptical iorin, when it has acquired a
juft proportion of the axes. The procefs for deter¬
mining this is tedious, but piecifely ftmiiar to the pre¬
ceding.
If the denfity of the nucleus exceed that of the fluid
about —we fhall have r : G : 3 P, which is nearly
S'z
the form which has been determined for the earth, by
the menfuration of degrees of the meridian, and by the
vibration of pendulums. The curious reader will do
well to confult the excellent diflfertations by Clairaut
and Bofcovich on the Figure of the Earth, where this
curious problem is treated in the rcoft complete manner.
Mr Bernoulli, in his differtation on the Tides, has com¬
mitted a great miftake in this particular. On the other
hand, if the nucleus be lels denfe than the waters, or if
there be a great central hollow, the elevation produced
by the fun will exceed 24-y inches.
It is needlefs to examine this any farther. We have
collected enough for explaining the chief affections of
the tides.
It is known that the earth is not a fphere, but fwelled
out at the equator by the diurnal rotation. But the
change of form is fo very fmall in proportion to the
whole bulk, that it cannot feniihly affeff the charge of
form afterwards induced by the fun on the waters of the
ocean. For the difturbing force of the fun would pro¬
duce a certain protuberance on a fluid fphere ■, and this
protuberance depends on the ratio of the difturbing force
to the force of gravity at the furface of this fphere. If
the gravity be chflnged in any proportion, the protube¬
rance will change in the fame proportion. Therefore if
the body be a fpheroid, the protuberance produced at
any point by the fun will increafe or diminifh in the
fame proportion that the gravity at this point has been
changed by the change of form. Now the change of
gravity, even at the pole of the terreftrial fpheroid, is
extremely fmall in ccmparifon with the whole gravity.
Therefore the change produced on the fpheroid will rot
fenfibly difl'er from that produced on the fphere ; and
the elevations of the waters above the furface, which
they would have affirmed independent of the fun’s aftion,
will be the fame on the fpheroid as on the fphere. For
the fame reafon, the moon will change the furface al¬
ready changed by the fun, in the fame manner as Ihe
would have changed the furface of the undifturbtd
ocean. Therefore the change produced by both thtfe
luminaries in any place will be the fame when a£iing to¬
gether as when aefting feparately ; and it will be equal
to the firm, or the difference of their feparate changes,
according as thefe would have been in the lame or in
oppoffte directions.
Let us now confider the mofi interefting circumftanct.-;
of the form of an elliptical tide, which differs very little
from a fphere.
Let T (fig. 2.) be a point in the furface of the in-
feribed fphere, and let Z exprefs the angular diffance
TO£> from the longer axis of the furroundir.g fpheroid
S N 7. Let TR, TW be perpendicular to the equa¬
torial diameter and to the axis, fo that they are the co¬
fine and the fine of TO(^ to the radius TO or QO.
Let S'.7 N7 be a feftion of the circumfcribed fphere.
Draw OT cutting the fphtroid in Z and the circum¬
fcribed fphere in t. Alfo let r 0 « be a feclion of a fphere
which has the fame capacity with the fpheroid, and let
it cut the radius in r. Then,
1. The elevation TZ of the point Z of the fphertid
above the inferibed fphere is ~Q q X cof.2 Z, and the
deprefiion t Z below the ci cumfcribed fphere is —£) 7
X fine2 Z. Produce R F till it meet the furface of the
fpheroid in V. The minute triangle VTZ may be con-
fidered as retlilineal, right-angled at Z, and iherefore
fimilarto OTR. Therefore OT : TRrrTV : TZ. But
in the ellipfe 0<^, or OT : TR—(^7 : TV. There¬
fore OT2 : TR2—(I q : TZ, and TZ-
Q <7 X cof.2 Z
= 0.7 :   > =Q 7X cof.2 Z.
And in the very fame manner it may be fhown, that
t Z—O 7 x find Z*
2. The elevation of the point T above another point
T', whole angular-diftance TOT' from the point T is
90°, is — O 0 X cold Z—fin.2 £. Call the angle QOT'
Z'. Then T'Z'—Q 7 X cof.2 Z', and TZ—T', Z',
— 0.7 Xcol.2Z—cof.2 Z'. But the arch QT' is the
complement of QT, and therefore cof.2 Z'— fin.2 Z.
Therefore TZ—T', Z'=r(^7 X coldZ—tin.2 Z.
3. O 0^7. For the inferibed fphere is to ihe
fpheroid as 0() to O 7. But the infcrlbed fphere is to
the fphere j 0 n as OQ3 to O o3. Therefore becaufe the
fphere son is equal to the fphereid S 7 N, we have
OQq O 7—OQ3 : O 03, and O 0 is the fir ft of two mean
propoilionals between OQ and O 7. But £>7 is very
final] in comparifon with OQ^. Therefore Q^o is very
nearly y of Q7.
Since .r 0 « is the fphere of equal capacity, it is the
form of the undifturbed ocean. The belt way therefore
of conceiving the changes of form produced by the fun
or moon, or by both together, is to confider the eleva¬
tions or depreflions which they produce above or below .
this furface. Therefore, .
4. The
T I D
T 1 D [42
4. The elevation r Z of the point Z above the equi-
capacious fphere is evidently =rO ^Xcof.*Z—-fQ.?'
Alfo the depreflion r'7J of the point Z'isrr
fin.* Z —4 Q q.
N. B. Either of thefe formulge will anfwer for either
the elevation above, or the depreflion below, the natural
ocean : For if cof.* Z is lefs than 4» the elevation given
by the formula will be negative 5 that is, the point is
below the natural furface. In like manner, when
fin.* Z' is lefs than 4* the deprefiion is negative, and
the point is above the furface. But if cof.* Z be =4? or
fin.* Z' be —4, the point is in the natural iiirface. This
marks the place where the fpheroid and the equal fphere
interfeft each other, viz. in P', the arch P' 0 being
540 44' very nearly, and PS=35° 16'.
Let S reprefent the whole elevation of the pole of the
folar tide above its equator, or the difference between
high and low water produced by the fun 5 and let M
reprelent the whole elevation produced by the moon.
Let x and y reprefent the zenith diftances of the fun
and moon with refpedl to any point whatever on the
ocean. Then x and y will be the arches intercepted
between that point and the fummits of the folar and
lunar tides. Then the elevation* produced by both lu¬
minaries in that plane is S • cof.* x-—4^ + ^'c0^*y
— 4 M $ or, more concifely, S • cof.* ar-f-M • cof.*y — 4
S-f-M, and the depreflion is S • fin.* #-{-M • iuPy—4
S+M.
Let the fun and moon be in the fame point of the
heavens. The folar and lunar tides will have the fame
axis; the cofines of x and y will each be 1, and the
elevation at the compound pole will be S-}-M—4
S-|-M=4b-j-M. The depreflion at any point 90°
from this pole will be 4 S-f-M, and the whole tide is
S + M.
Let the moon be in quadrature, as in a (fig. 3.). The
appearance at s will be known, by confidering that in this
place the cofine of x is 1, and the cofine of y is o. There¬
fore the elevation at r = S — 4 S + M, —4 S—4 M.
The depreflion at a ~ S — 4 S+M =4 S—4 M.
The difference or whole tide = S— M.
In like manner, the whole elevation at a above the in-
fcribed fphere is M—S. *
Hence we fee that the whole tide, when the moon is
in quadrature, is the difference of S and M. We alfo
fee, that if M exceeds S, the water will be higher at a
than at j. Now it is a matter of obfervation, that in
the quadratures it is high water under the moon, and low
water under the fun. It is alfo a matter of obfervation,
that in the free ocean, the ebb tide, or the water at s,
immediately under the fun, is below the natural furface
of the ocean. Hence we muft conclude, that 4 S is lefs
than 4 M, or that M is more than double of S. This
agrees with the phenomena of nutation and precefiion,
which feem to make S=4 of M.
In all other pofitions of the fun and moon, the place
of high water will be different. It is high water where
the fum of the elevations produced by both luminaries
above the natural ocean is greateft ; and the place of
low water is where the depreflion below the natural
ocean is greateft. Therefore, in order that it may be
high water, we muft have S • cof.* at + M • cof.* y—4
S+M a maximum; or, neglecting the conftant quan-
4
]
tity
S+M
maximum.
we muft have S • cof.* # + M • cof.* y
In like manner, to have low water in a place where
the zenith diftances of ihe fun and moon are v and w,
we muft have S • fin.* zi+M • fin. % w a maximum.
Lemma 1. If we confider the fines and cofines of
angles as numeral fractions of the radius 1, then we
have cof.* Z=z-|+i cof.* Z, and fin.* Z=:^— i cof.* Z.
Let a m s (fig. 3.) be a quadrant of a circle of which
O is the centre, and O j is the radius. On O r de-F!^3'
feribe the femicircle OMS, cutting O m in M. Draw
s M, and produce it till it cut the quadrant in n. Al¬
fo draw MC to the centre of the femicircle, and MD
and « d perpendicular to O s.
It is plain that j- M is perpendicular to OM ; and if
O r be radius, j- M is the fine of the angle s OM, which
we may call Z; OM is its cofine : and becaufe O r r
OM=OM : OD, and O j : OD =:Of* : OM*, and
OD may reprefent cof.* Z. Now OD—OC+CD.
If O s=z 1, then OC=:+ CD=CM • cof. MCD, —
CM • cof. 2 MOD, =4 * c°f 2 Z. Therefore cof.* Z
= 4 + | cof. 2 Z.
In like manner, becaufe Oj: J-Mrrj-M.-j'D, j-D
is =: fin * Z. This is evidently = 4 — 4 cof. 2 Z.
Lemma 2. Cof.* Z—fin.*Z=cof. 2 Z. For, becaufe
j M is perpendicular to OM, the arch j- « is double of
the arch s m, and becaufe MD is parallel to n d, s d i$
= 2s D, and dD— fin.* Z. Therefore Od= cof.*Z
—-fin.* Z. But Od'is the confine of ns. —cof. 2Z and
cof.* Z—fin.*Z=cof. 2 Z.
By the firft Lemma we fee, that in order that there
may be high water at any place, when the zenith di¬
ftances of the fun and moon are x and y, we muft have
S * cof. 2x +M • cof. 2y a maximum.
That this may be the cafe, the fluxion of this for¬
mula muft be = o. Now we know that the fluxions of
the cofines of two arches are as the fines of thofe arch.es.
Therefore we muft have S • fin. 2 A'+M • fin. 2 y=o, or
S • fin. 2x~ — M*fin. 2y, which gives us fin. 2x :
fin. 2y M : S.
In like manner, the place of low water requires fin.
2 v : fin. 2 = M : S.
From this laft circumftance w’e learn, that the place
of low water is o, removed 900 from the place of high
water ; whereas we might have expe&ed, that the fphe¬
roid would have been moft protuberant on that fide on
which the moon is: For the fines of 2^ and of 2 w have
the fame proportion with the fines of 2 * and of 2 y.
Now we know that the fine of the double of any arch is
the fame wdth the fine of the double of its complement.
Therefore if low water be really diftant 90° from high
wrater, we {hall have fin. 2 x : fin. 2y= fin. 2v : fin. 2 w.
But if it is at any other place, the fines cannot have this
proportion.
Now let s be the point of the earth’s furface which
has the fun in the zenith, and m the point which has
the moon in the zenith. Let h be any other point.
Draw O h cutting the femicircle OM j in H. Make
CM to CS as the difturbing force of the moon to that
of the fun; and draw Si< parallel, and S/, M r per¬
pendicular to HH\ Join MH and MH'. The angle
HC j- is double of the angle FIO s, and MCH is double
of MH'H, or of its equal MOH. Becaufe HMH is
a femicircle, HM is perpendicular to MO. There¬
fore
T I D
[ 423 ]
T I D
Fig. 4.
«ld 5-
Tice, fore if HH' be confidered as radius, HM is the fine,
""V**' and H'M is the cofine of MH'H. And C r is = MC*
cof. 2y, zz M • cof. 2y. And C / is SC • cof. 2x.
Therefore tr or is cnS • cof. • cof. 2 y.
Therefore / r or Sv will exprefs the whole difference of
elevation between h and the points that are 90 degrees
from it on either fide (by Lemma 2.) ; and if h be the
place of high water, it will exprefs the whole tide, be
caufe the high and low waters were fhown to be 90°
afunder. But when h is the place of high water, S v is
a maximum. Becaufe the place of the moon, and
therefore the point M, is given, S v will be a maxi¬
mum when it coincides with SM, and CH is parallel
to SM.
This fuggeftcd to us the following new, and not in¬
elegant, folution of the problem for determining the
place of high water.
Let s Qo q s (fig. 4. and 5 ) be a feftion of the ter¬
raqueous globe, by a plane palling through the fun and
moon, and let O be its centre. Let J' be the point
which is immediately under the fun, and m the place
immediately under the moon. Bifeft Or in C, and
defcribe round C the circle OM j- LO, cutting O m in
M. Take C j to reprefent the dillurbing force of the
moon, and make C r to CS as the force of the moon to
that of the fun (fuppofing this ratio to be known). Join
MS, and draw CH parallel to it. Draw GH^, and
/ OL /' perpendicular to it. And laftly, draw Cl per¬
pendicular to SM. Then we fay that m and its oppo-
fite ni are the places of high water, / and /' are the
places of low water, MS is the height of the tide, and
MI, SI are the portions of this tide produced by the
moon and fun.
For it is plain, that in this cafe the line S v of the
laft propofition coincides with MS, and is a maximum.
We may alfo obferve, that MC : CS=fin. MSC : fin.
SMC, =rfin. HCS : fin. MCH, —fin. 2tOs : fin.
2 A O m, = fin. 2 x : fin. 2y, or M : S — fin. 2 x :
fin. 2 y, agreeably to what was required few the maxi¬
mum.
It is alfo evident, that MI—MC • cof. CMI, =
M • cof. 2y, and SI =; SC • cof. ISC, — S • cof. 2x;
and therefore MS is the difference of elevation between
fi and the points / and which are 90° from it, and is
therefore the place of low water j that is, MS is the whole
tide.
The elevation of every other point may be determin¬
ed in the fame way, and thus may the form of the fphe-
roid be completely determined
If we fuppofe the figure to reprefent a fe£lion through
the earth’s equator (which is the cafe when the fun and
moon are in the equator), and farther fuppofe the two
luminaries to be in conjunftion, the ocean is an oblong
fpheroid, whofe axis is in the line of the fyzigies, and
whofe equator coincides with the fix hour circle. But
if the moon be in any other point of the equator, the
figure of the ocean will be very complicated. It will
not be any figure of revolution j becaufe neither its
equator (or mod depreffed part) nor its meridians are
circles. The moft depreffed part of its equator will be
in that feftion through the axis which is perpendicular
to the plane in which the luminaries are fituated. And
this greatefi: depreffion, and its ihorteff equatorial dia
meter, will be conftant, while its other d’menfions vary
¥i’ith the moon’s place. We need not inquire more mi¬
nutely into its form } and it is fufficient to know that
all the feftions perpendicular to the plane palling through
the fun and moon are ellipfes.
This conftruftion will afford us a very fimple, and,
we hope, a very perfpicuous explanation of the chief
phenomena of the tides. The well informed reader will
be pleafed with obferving its coincidence with the alge¬
braic folution of the problem given by Daniel Bernoulli,
in his excellent differtation on the Tides, which {hared
with M‘Laurin and Euler the prize given by the Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris, and with the eafe and per-
fpicuity with which the phenomena are deducible from
it, being in fome fort exhibited to the eye.
In our application, we (hall begin with the fimpleft
cafes, and gradually introduce the complicating circum-
flances which accommodate the theory to the true ffate
of things.
We begin, therefore, by fuppofing the earth covered,
to a proper depth, with water, forming an ocean concen¬
tric with its folid nucleus.
In the next place, we fuppofe that this ocean adopts
in an inllant the form which is confillent with the equi¬
librium of gravity and the ditlurbing forces.
Thirdly, We fuppofe the fun ftationary,and the moon
to move eaftward from him above 1 27° every day.
Fourthly, We fuppofe that the folid nucleus turns
round its proper axis to the eaftward, making a rotation
in 24 folar hours. Thus any place of obfervation will
fuccelfively experience all the different depths of water.
Thus we lhall obtain a certain Succession of pheno¬
mena, precifely limilar to the fucceflion obferved in na¬
ture, with this foie difference, that they do not cor-
refpond to the contemporaneous fituations of the fun and
moon. When we ftiall have accounted for this differ¬
ence, we ftiall prefume to think that we have given a-*
juft theory of the tides.
We begin with the fimpleft cafe, fuppofing the fun
and moon to be always in the equator. Let the
feries begin with the fun and moon in conjunction in
the line O J. In this cafe the points j, m, and h coin¬
cide, and we have high water at 12 o’clock noon and
midnight.
While the moon moves from s to £), Om cuts the
upper femicircle in M 5 and therefore CH, which is al¬
ways parallel to MS, lies between MC and C j. There¬
fore h is between m and s, and wre have high water
after 1 2 o’clock, but before the moon’s fouthing. The
fame thing happens while the moon moves from 0 to y,
during her third quarter.
But while the moon moves from her firft quadrature
in Q to oppofition in 0 (as in fig. 5.), the line m Q
drawn from the moon’s place, cuts the lower femicircle
in M and CH, parallel to SM, again lies between M
and s, and therefore h lies between m and 0. The jdace
of high water is to the eaftward of the moon, and we
have high water after the moon’s fouthing. The fame
thing happens while the moon is moving from her
laft quadrature in q to the next fyzigy. In Ihort, the
point H is always between M and s, and the place of
high water is always between the moon and the tiearejl
fyzigy. The place of high water overtakes the moon
in each quadrature, and is overtaken by the moon in
each fyzigy. Therefore during the firft and third quar¬
ters, the place of high water gradually falls behind the
moon for fome time, and then gains upon her again, fo
as
Tide.
/
T I D
as to overtake her in the next quadrature. But during
the fecond and fourth quarters, the place of high wa¬
ter advances before the moon to a certain diftance, and
then the moon gains upon it, and overtakes it in the next
fyzigy.
If therefore we fuppofe the moon to advance uniform¬
ly along the equator, the place of high wTater moves un¬
equally, floweit in the times of new and full moon, and
Twifteft in the time of the quadratures. There muft
be fome intermediate fituations where the place of
high water neither gains nor lofes upon the moon, but
moves with the fame velocity.
The rate of motion of the point h may be determined
as follows : Draw C z, S «, making very fmall and equal
angles with HC and MS. Draw' n C, and about S,
with the diftance S zz, deferibe the arch n i/, which may
be confidered as a ftraight line perpendicular to n S, or
to MS.
Then, becaufe SM and S n are parallel to CH and
C /, the points n and i are contemporaneous fituations
of M and H, and the arches n M, z’H, are in the ratio
of the an gular motions of m and h. Alfo, becaufe n v
and n M are perpendicular to « S and n C, the angle
v « M Is equal to the angle S rz C, or SMC. Alfo, be¬
caufe the angles nv M and MIC are right angles, and
the angles v n M, CMI, are alfo equal, the triangles
v n M, CMI, are fimilar. Therefore
n M : zzu—MC : MI. And
n v : z'H— n S : z C, or — MS : MC ; therefore
«M : zH= MS : MI. Therefore the angular
motion of the moon is to the angular motion of the
place of high water as MS to MI.
Therefore, when M'S is perpendicular to SC, and the
point I coincides with S, the motion of high water is
equal to that of the moon. But when M'S is perpen¬
dicular to SC, H'C is alfo perpendicular to C,r, and the
angle h'Os is 450, and the high water is in the oftant.
While the moon paftes from ,r to m’, or the high water
from s to //, the point I falls between M and S, and
the motion of high water is flower than that of the
moon. The contrary obtains while the moon moves
from m' to p, or the high wrater from the odlant to the
quadrature.
It is evident, that the motion of /i in the third quar¬
ter of the lunation, that is, in pafling from 0 to y, is
fimilar to its motion from s to Q. Alio, that its mo¬
tion from Q to 0 mu^ relarc^ by the fame degrees as it
accelerated in pafling from s to Q, and that its motion
in the laft: quarter from q to s is fimilar to its motion
from Q to 0.
At new and full moon the point I coincides with C,
and the point M coincides with j-. Therefore the mo¬
tion of the high w'ater at full and change is to the mo¬
tion of the moon as j C to j- S. But when the moon is
in quadrature, I coincides with C, and M with 0.
Therefore the motion of the moon is to that of high
water as OS to OC or sC. Therefore the motion of
high water at full and change is to its motion in the
quadratures as OS to S J-, or as the difference of the
difturbing forces to their fum. The motion of the tide
is therefore floweft in the fyzigies and fwifteft in the
quadratures •, yet even in the fyzigies it paffes the fun
along with the moon, but more flowdy.
Let the interval between the morning tide of one
day and that of the next day be called a tide-day.
T I D
This is always greater than a folar day, or 24 hours, Tide,
becaufe the place of high W'ater is moving iafter to t—-v”-
the eaftward than the fun. It is lefs than a lunar day,
or 24b, 50', while the high water paffes from the fe¬
cond to the third obfant, or from the fourth to the firft.
It is equal to a lunarday when high water is in theoftants,
and it exceeds a lunar day while high w'ater paffes from the
firft to the fecond oftant, or from the third to the fourth.
The difference between a folar day and a tide day is
called the priming or the retardation of the tides.
This is evidently equal to the time of the earth’s de-
feribing in its rotation an angle equal to the motion of
the high water in a day from the fun. The fmalleft of
tbefe retardations is to the greateft as the difference of
the difturbing forces to their fum. Of all the pheno¬
mena of the tides, this feems liable to the feweft: and
moft inconfiderable derangements from local and acci¬
dental circumftances. It therefore affords the beft
means for determining the proportion of the difturbing
forces. By a comparifon of a great number of obferva-
tions made by Dr Maikelyne at St Helena, and at Bar-
badoes (places ficuated in the open fea), it appears that
the fhorteft tide day is 24]!. 3'7', and the longeft is 25b.
27'. This gives M—S : M-f-S=37 : 87, and S : M
~2 : 4 96 j which differs only 1 part in 1 24 from the
proportion of 2 to 5, which Daniel Bernoulli collebled
from a variety of different obfervations. We (hall there¬
fore adopt the proportion of 2 to 5 as abundantly exa£l.
It alfo agrees exactly wdth the phenomena of the nuta¬
tion of the earth’s axis and the preceflion of the equi¬
noxes 5 and the altronomers affeft to have deduced this
proportion from thefe phenomena. But an intelligent
reader of their writings will perceive more finefie than
juftice in this affertion. The nutation and ‘precef-
fion do not afford phenomena of which we can aflign the
ftiare to each luminary with fufficient precilion for de¬
termining the proportion of their difturbing forces 5 and
it is by means of many arbitrary combinations, and
without neceflity, that D’Alembert has made out this
ratio. We cannot help being of opinion, that D'Alem¬
bert has accommodated his diftribution of the pheno¬
mena to this ratio of 2 to 5, which Daniel Bernoulli
(the beft philofopher and the moft candid man of that
illuftrious family of mathematicians) had, with fo much
fagacity and juftnefs of inference, deduced from the phe¬
nomena of the tides. D’Alembert could not but fee
the value of this inference ; but he wanted to fhow his
own addrefs m deducing it propria marte foriooth from
the nutation and preceftion. His procedure in this re-
fembles that of his no lefs vain countryman De la Place,
W'ho affefts to be highly pleafed with finding that Mr
Bode’s difeovery that Meyer had feen the Georgium
Sidus in 1756, perfeftly agreed with the theory oi its
motions which he (De la Place) had deduced from his
own do&rines. Any w'ell informed mathematician will
fee, that De la Place’s data afforded no fuch precifion j
and the book on the Elliptical Motions of the Planets,
to which he alludes, contains no grounds for his infe¬
rence. This obfervation we owe to the author of a pa¬
per on that fubjeft in the Tranfaftions of the Royal So¬
ciety of Edinburgh. We hope that our readers will ex-
cufe this occafional obfervation, by which wTe w'ifti to do
juftice to the merit of a modeft man, and one of the
greateft philofophers of his time. Our only claim in
the prefent differtation is the making his excellent per¬
formance
[ 424 1
T I D
T I D [ 425 ]
Tide. - formance on the tides acceflible to an Englifh reader
“-v not much verfant in mathematical reiearches j and we
are forry that our limits do not admit any thing more
than a {ketch of it. But to proceed.
Affuming 2 : 5 as the ratio of SC to CM', we have
the angle CM'S=:230 34' nearly, and m' oh'=ii° 47'}
and this is the greatelf difference between the moon’s
place and the place of high water. And when this ob¬
tains, the moon’s elongation m' 0 s is 56° 47' from the
neared fyzigy. Hence it follows, that while the moon
moves uniformly from 56° 47' weft elongation to 36°
47'eaft, or from 1230 13'eaft to 123* 13'weft, the
tide day is fhorter than the lunar day \ and while (lie
moves from 56° 47' eaft to 123° 13', or from 123° 13'
weft to 56° 47', the tide-day is longer than the lunar-
dry.
We now fee the reafon why
————The fwelling tides obey the moon.
The time of high water, when the fun and moon are
in the equator, is never more than 47 minutes different
from that of the moon’s fouthing (-f- or — a certain
fixed quantity, to be determined once for all by obferva-
tion).
It is now an eafy matter to determine the hour of
high water correfponding to any pofition of the fun and
moon in the equator. Suppofe that on the noon of a
certain day the moon’s diftance from the fun is m s.
The conftrudftion of this problem gives us s h, and the
length of the tide-day. Call this T. Then fay 360° :
s m~T : t, and t is the hour of high water.
Or, if we choofe to refer the time of high water to
the moon’s fouthing, v:e muft find the value o{ m h at
the time of the moon’s fouthing, and the difference d
between the tide-day and a mean lunar day L, and fay
360 : h~d : 3, the time of high water before the
moon’s fouthing in the firft and third quarters, but after
it in the fecond and fourth. The following table by
Daniel Bernoulli exhibits thefe times for every 10th de¬
gree of the moon’s elongation from the fun. The firft
or leading column is the moon’s elongation from the fun
or from the point of oppofition. The fecond column is
the minutes of time between the moon’s fouthing and
the place of high water. The marks — and -f- diflin-
guifh whether the high water is before or after the
moon’s fouthing. The third column is the hour and
minute of high water. But we muft remark, that the
firft column exhibits the elongation, not on the noon of
any day, but at the very time of high water. The two
remaining columns exprefs the heights of the tides and
their daily variations.
Vol, XX. Part II.
The height of high water above the low water confti-
tutes what is ufually called the tide. This is the inte-
refting circumftance in pradlice. Many circumftances
render it almoft impoflible to fay what is the elevation
of high water above the natural furface of the ocean.
In many places the furface at low water is above the na¬
tural furface of the ocean. This is the cafe in rivers at
a great diftance from their mouths. This may appear
abfurd, and is certainly very paradoxical; but it is a
fad eftablilhed on the moft unexceptionable authority.
One inftance fell under our own obfervation. The low-
water mark at fpring tide in the harbour of Alloa W'as
found by accurate levelling to be three feet higher than
the top of the ftone pier at Leith, which is feveral feet
above the high-water mark of this harbour. A little
attention to the motion of running waters will explain
this completely. Whatever checks the motion of water
in a canal muft raife its furface. Water in a canal runs
only in confequence of the declivity of this furface :
(See River). Therefore a flood tide coming to the
mouth of a river checks the current of its waters, and
they accumulate at the mouth. This checks the cur¬
rent farther up, and therefore the waters accumulate
there alfo j and this checking of the ftream, and confe-
quent rifing of the waters, is gradually communicated
up the river to a great diftance. The water rifes every¬
where, though its furface ftill has a flope. In the
mean time, the flood tide at the mouth paffes by, and
an ebb fucceeds. This muft accelerate even the ordi¬
nary courfe of the river. It will more remarkably ac¬
celerate the river now raifed above its ordinary level,
becaufe the declivity at the mouth will be fo much
greater. Therefore the waters near the mouth, by ac¬
celerating, will fink in their channel, and increafe the
declivity of the canal beyond them. This will accele¬
rate the waters beyond them *, and thus a ftream more
rapid than ordinary will be produced along the whole
3 PI river.
Tide.
\
T I D
T I D [426
Tide. river, and the waters will fink below their ordinary le-
  1 vel. Thus there will be an ebb below the ordinary fur-
face as well as a flood above it, however floping that
furface may be.
Hence it follows, that we cannot tell what is the na¬
tural furface of the ocean by any obfervations made in a
river, even though near its mouth. Yet even in rivers
we have regular tides, fubje&ed to all the varieties de¬
duced from this theory.
We have feen that the tide is always proportional to
MS. It is greateft therefore when the moon is in con-
jun&ion or oppofition, being then S s, the fum of the
fe par ate tides produced by the fun and moon. It gra¬
dually decreafes as the moon approaches to quadrature j
and when fire is at £) or q, it is SO, or the difference
of the feparate tides. Suppofing Sr divided into 1000
equal parts, the length of MS is expreffed in thefe parts
in the. fourth column of the foregoing table, and their
differences are expreffed in the fifth column.
We may here obferve, that the variations of the tides
in equal fmall times are proportional to the fine of twice
the diftance of the place of high water from the moon.
For fince M « is a conftant quantity, on the fuppofi-
tion of the moon’s uniform motion, M u is proportion¬
al to the variation of MS. Now M « : M ti—MC :
Cirri : fin. 2y, and M n and MC are conftant quan¬
tities.
Thus we have feen with what eafe the geometrical
conftrudlion of this problem not only explains all the in-
terefting circumftances of the tides, but alfo points them
out, almoft without employing the judgement, and ex¬
hibits to the eye the gradual progrefs of each phenome¬
non. In thefe refpedls it has great advantages over the
very elegant algebraic analyfis of Mr Bernoulli. In
that procefs we advance almoft: without ideas, and ob¬
tain our folutions as detached faffs, without perceiving
their regular feries. This is the ufual pre-eminence of
geometrical analyfis , and we regret that Mr Bernoulli,
who was eminent in this branch, did not rather employ
it. We doubt not but that he would have fhown ftill
more clearly the conneflion and gradual progrefs of
every particular. His aim, however, being to inftruft
thofe who were to calculate tables of the different affec¬
tions of the tides, he adhered to the algebraic method.
Unfortunately it did not prefent him with the eafiefi:
formulae for praffice. But the geometrical conftruffion
which we have given fuggefts feveral formulae wdiich
are exceedingly fimple, and afford a very ready mode of
-calculation.
The fundamental problems are to determine the
angle j O ^ or ot O //, having m O s given j and to
determine MS.
Let the given angle mOf be called a; and, to
avoid the ambiguity of algebraic figns, let it always be
reckoned from the neareft fyzigy, lo that wre may al¬
ways have a equal to the fum of a? and y. Alfo make
X^‘ °—  , which reprefents the
Sr
M*4-S*-}-2MxSxcof. 2a’
S X fin» 2 a
6M-°ffiS-4-or fin-’ ^ a,,dmake'^=M+s3<73^;’
S r
which is the expreflion of of that figure, or of tan,
ay. Then we (hall have.
1. Sin.
For we {hall have ccf.
2y
V
x—d*. But fin.*y =
■cof. 2y:
V1—d'
and fin. y
2. Tan. y =r“
For becaufe /> is = tan.
  I+\Z1 + />*
1-{-is the lecant of 2y, and
—P : tan. y.
Theie proceffes for obtaining y direffly are abundantly
fimple. But it will be much more expeditious and eafy
to content ourfelves wdth obtaining 2y by means of the
. f. . S • fin. 2 a
value or its tangent, viz. . Ur, we may
by means
of fig. 4.
M -f- S ' col. 2 a
of the fimilar value of
its tangent
find x
M d
~S7
There is ftill an eafter method of finding both 2 x
and 2 y, as follows.
Make M-f-S : M — S = tan. a : tan. b. Then b is
the difference of x and y, as a is their fum. For this
analogy evidently gives the tangent of half the differ¬
ence of the angles CSM and CMS of fig. 4. or ol 2 x
and 2 y. Therefore to a, which is half tlfe fum of 2x
a-\-b
-f-2y, add b, and we have 2x—a-{-by or x——
A a~~b
and y—— .
J 2
By either of thefe methods a table may be readily
computed of the value of # or y for every value of a.
But we mult recollect that the values of S and M
are by no means conftant, but vary in the inverfe tripli¬
cate ratio of the earth’s diftance from the fun and moon;
and the ratio of 2 to 5 obtains only when thefe lumina¬
ries are at their mean diftances from the earth. The
forces correfponding to the perigean, medium, and apo-
gean diftances are as follow.
Apogean
Medium
Perigean
Sun.
1.901
2.
2.IO5
Moon.
4.2j8
5-
5-925
Tide.
Hence we fee that the ratio of S to M may vary from
1.901 : 5*925 to 2.105 : 4.258, that is, nearly from
1 : 3 to x : 2, or from 2 : 6 to 2 : 4. The folar force
does not vary much, and may be retained as conftant
without any great error. But the change of the moon’s
force has great effedts on the tides both as to their time
and their quantity.
I. In refpedt of their Time.
1. The tide day following a fpring tide is 24 h. 2^
when the moon is in perigee, but 24 h. 33' when flie is
in apogee.
2. The tide day following neap tide is 25 h. 15', and
25 h. 40' in thefe two fituations of the moon.
3. The greateft interval of time between high wa¬
ter and the moon’s fouthing is 39' and 6x' $ the angle
£
T I D t 427 1 Til)
Tide.
y being 90 45' in the firfl cafe, and 150 ij' in the fe-
cond.
II. In refpeft of their Heights.
I. If the moon is in perigee when new or full, the
fpring tide will be 8 feet inftead of 7, which correfponds
to her mean diftance. The very next fpring tide hap¬
pens when flie is near her apogee, and will be 6 feet in¬
ftead of 7. The neap tides happen when fire is at her
mean diftance, and will therefore be 3 feet.
But if the moon be at her mean diftance when new
or full, the two fucceeding fpring tides will be regular
or 7 feet, and one of the neap tides will be 4 feet and
the other only 2 feet.
Mr Bernoulli has given us the following table of the
time of high water for thefe three chief fituations of the
moon, namely, her perigee, mean diftance, and apo¬
gee. It may be had by interpolation for all interme¬
diate pofilions with as great accuracy as can be hoped
for in phenomena which are fubjeft to fuch a complica¬
tion of difturbances. The firft column contains the
moon’s elongation from the fun. The columns P, M,
A, contain the minutes of time which elapfe between
the moon’s fouthing and high water, according as (he is
in perigee, at her mean diftance, or in apogee. The
fign — indicates the priority, and -p the pofteriority,
of high water to the moon’s fouthing.
fiderable refemblances ; but he will alfo find fuch great
differences as will make him very doubtful of its juftnefs.
In very few places does the high water happen within
three-fourths of an hour of the moon’s fouthing, as the
theory leads him to expeft; and in no place whatever
does the fpring tide fall on the day of new and full
moon, nor the neap tide on the day of her quadrature.
Thefe always happen two or three days later. By com¬
paring the difference of high wrater and the moon’s
fouthing in different places, he will hardly find any
connedfting principle. This fhows evidently that the
caufe of this irregularity is local, and that the juftnefs
of the theory is not affedted by it. By confidering the
phenomena in a navigable river, he will learn the real
caufe of the deviation. A flood tide arrives at the
mouth of a river. The true theoretical tide differs in
no refped from a rvave. Suppofe a fpring tide actually
formed on a fluid fphere, and the fun and moon then
annihilated. The elevation muft fink, preffing the un¬
der waters afide, and caufing them to rife where they
were depreffed. The motion will not flop when the
furface comes to a level j for the waters arrived at that,
pofition with a motion continually accelerated. They
will therefore pafs this pofition as a pendulum paffes the
perpendicular, and will rife as far on the other fide,
forming a high water where it wras low rvater, and a
low water where it was high water ; and this wmuld go
on for ever, ofcillating in a time which mathematicians
can determine, if it were not for the vifcidity, or fome-
thing like fri£tion, of the waters. If the fphere is not
fluid to the centre, the motion of this wave ufill be dif¬
ferent. The elevated waters cannot fink without diffu-
fing themfelves fidewife, and occafioning a great hori¬
zontal motion, in order to fill up the hollow at the
place of low water. This motion will be greateft about
half way between the places of high and low water.
The fliallower we fuppofe the ocean, the greater muft;
this horizontal motion be. The refiftance of the bot¬
tom (though perfe&ly fmooth and even) will greatly
retard it all the way to the furface. Still, however, it
will move till all be level, and will even move a little
farther, and produce a fmall flood and ebb where the
ebb and flood had been. Then a contrary motion will
obtain ; and after a few ofcillations, which can be cal¬
culated, it will be infenfible. If the bottom of the
ocean (which we ftill fuppofe to cover the whole earth)
be uneven, with long extended valleys running in va¬
rious directions, and with elevations reaching near the
furface, it is evident that this muft occafion great irre¬
gularities in the motion of the undermoft waters, both
in refpect of velocity and direction, and even occafion
fmall inequalities on the furface, as we fee in a river
with a rugged bottom and rapid current. The devia¬
tions of the under currents will drag with them the con¬
tiguous incumbent waters, and thus occafion greater fu-
perficial irregularities.
Now a flood arriving at the mouth of a river, muff
aft precifely as this great wave does. It muft be pro¬
pagated up the river (or along it, even though perfect¬
ly level) in a certain time, and we thall have high wa¬
ter at all the different places in fuccefilon. This is di-
ftinftly feen in all rivers. It is high water at the mouth
of the Thames at three o’clock, and later as we go up
the river, till at London bridge we have not high water
till three o’clock in the morning, at which time it is
again high water at the Nore. But, in the mean time,
there has been low water at the Nore, and high water
about half way to London ; and while the high water
is proceeding to London, it is ebbing at this interme¬
diate place, and is low water there when it is high wa¬
ter at London and at the Nore. Did the tide extend
as far beyond London as London is from the Nore, we
3^2 ihoultl
T I D
[ 428 ]
T I D
Tide.
(hould have three high waters with two low waters in-
terpofed. The moft remarkable inftance of this kind is
the Maragnon or Amazon river in South America. It
appears by the obfervations of Condamine and others,
that between Para, at the mouth of the river, and the
conflux of the Madera and Maragnon, there are feven
coexiflent high waters, with fix low waters between
them. Nothing can more evidently {how that the tides
in thefe places are nothing but the propagation of a
wave. The velocity of its fuperficial motion, and the
diftance to which it will fenfibly go, muft depend on
many circumflances. A deep channel and gentle ac¬
clivity will allow it to proceed much farther up the ri¬
ver, and the dillance between the fucceflive fummits
will be greater than when the channel is (hallow and
fteep. If we apply the ingenious theory of Chevalier
Euat, delivered in the article River, we may tell both
the velocity of the motion and the interval of the fuc¬
ceflive high waters. It may be imitated in artificial
canals, and experiments of this kind would be very in-
ftruftive. We have faid enough at prefent for our pur-
pofe of explaining the irregularity of the times of high
water in different places, with refpeft to the moon’s
fouthing. For wTe now fee clearly, that fomething of
the fame kind muft happen in all great arms of the fea
which are of an oblong fhape, and communicate by one
end with the open ocean. The general tide in this
ocean muft proceed along this channel, and the high
water will happen on its {bores in fucceftion. This alfo
is diftinffly feen. The tide in the Atlantic ocean pro¬
duces high water at new and full moon at a later and
later hour along the fouth coaft of Great Brit ain in pro¬
portion as we proceed from Scilly iflands to Dover. In
the fame manner it is later and later as we come along
the eaft coaft from Orkney to Dover. Yet even in this
progrefs there are confideraMe irregularities, owing to
the finuofities of the fhores, deep indented bays, promi¬
nent capes, and extenfive ridges and valleys in the chan¬
nel. A fimilar progrefs is obferved along the ccafts of
Spain and France, the tide advancing gradually from
the fouth, turning round Cape Finifterre, ranging along
the north coaft of Spain, and along the weft and north
coafts of France.
The attentive confideration of thefe faffs will not
only fatisfy us with refpefl to this difficulty, but will
enable us to trace a principle of connexion amidft all
the irregularities that we obferve.
We now add, that if we note the difference between
the time of high water of (bring tide, as given by the¬
ory, for any place, and the obferved time of high water,
we ftiall find this interval to be very nearly conftant
through the whole feries of tides during a lunation.
Suppofe this interval to be 40 hours. We fha'.l find
every other ohenomenon fucceed after the fame inter¬
val. And if we fuppofe the moon to be in the place
where (he was 40 hours before, the obfervation will
agree pretty -well with the theory, as to the fucceffion
of tides, the length of tide day, the retardations of the
tides, and their gradual diminution from fpring to neap
tide. We fay pretty well 5 for there ftill remain feve-
ral (mail irregularities, different in different places, and
not following any obfervable law. Thefe are therefore
local, and owing to local caufes. Some of thefe we
fhall afterwards point out. There is alfo a general de¬
viation of the theory from the real feries of tides. The
neap tides, and thofe adjoining, happen a little earlier Tide,
than the correfted theory points out. Thus at Breft V”
(where more numerous and accurate obfervations have
been made than at any other place in Europe), when
the moan changes precifely at noon, it is high water at
3 h. 28'. When the moon enters her fecond quarter at
noon, it is high water at 8 h. 40', inftead of 9 h. 48',
which theory afligns.
Something fimilar, and within a very few minutes
equal, to this is obferved in every place on the fea-coaft.
This is therefore fomething general, and indicates a real
defe6t in the theory.
But this arifes from the fame caufe with the other ge¬
neral deviation, viz. that the greateft and leaft tides do
not happen on the days of full and half moon, but a
certain time after. We fhall attempt to explain this.
We fet out with the fuppofilion, that the water ac¬
quired in an inftant the elevation competent to its equi¬
librium. But this is not true. No motion is inftanta-
neous, however great the force ; and every motion and
change of motion produced by a fenfible or finite force
increafes from nothing to a fenfible quantity by infinitely
fmall degrees. Time elapfes before the body can ac¬
quire any fenfible velocity and in order to acquire the
fame fenfible velocity by the action of different forces
afting fimilarly, a time muff elapfe inverfely propor¬
tional to the force. An infinitely fmall force requires a
finite time for communicating even an infinitely fmall
velocity *, and a finite force, in an infinitely fmall time,
communicates only an infinitely fmall velocity •, and it
there be any kind of motion which changes by in fenfi¬
ble degrees, it requires a finite force to prevent this
change. Thus a bucket of water, hanging by a cord
lapped round a light and eafily moveable cylinder, will
run down with a motion uniformly accelerated 5 but
this motion will be prevented by hanging an equal
bucket on the other fide, fo as to aft with a finite
force. This force prevents only infinitely fmall accele¬
rations.
Now let ALKF (fig. 6.) be the folid nucleus of the Fig. e.
earth, furrounded by the fpherical ocean bhdg. Let
this be raifed to a fpheroid BHDG by the aftion of the
moon at M, or in the direction of the axis CM. If all
be at reft, this fpheroid may have the form precifely
competent to ifs equilibrium. But let the nucleus, with
its fpheroidal ocean, have a motion round C in the di-
reffion AFKL from weft to eaft. When the line of
water BA is carried into the fituation s q infinitely near
to BA, it is no longer in equilibrio } for s is too eleva¬
ted, and the part now come to B is too much depreffed.
There is a force tending to deprefs the waters at r, and
to raife thofe now at B ^ but this force is infinitely
fmall. It cannot therefore reftore the fhape competent
to equilibrium till a fenfible time has elapfed ; therefore
the difturbing force of the moon cannot keep the fum-
mit of the ocean in the line MC. The force muft be
of a certain determinate magnitude before it can in an
inftant undo the inftantaneous effecl of the rotation of
the waters and keep the fummit of the ocean in the
fame place. But this effeft is poflible j for the depref-
fion at s neceffary for this purpofe is nearly as the di¬
ftance from B, being a depreflion, not from a ftraight
line, but from a circle deferibed with the radius CB.
It is therefore an infinitefimal of the firft order, and may
be reftored in an inftant, or the continuation of the de-
preflion
TIB [ 429 ] T I D
Tide. preflion prevented by a certain finite force. Therefore
—v there is fome diftance, fuch as B y, where the diiturb-
ing force of the moon may have tfie necetTary intenfity.
Therefore the fpherical ocean, inftead of being kept
continually accumulated at B and D, as the waters turn
round, will ne kept accumulated at y and y', but at a
height fomewhat fmaller. It is much in this way that
we keep melted pitch or other clammy matter Irom run¬
ning off from a brufh, by continually turning it round,
and it hangs protuberant, not from the loweft point,
but from a point beyond it, in the di reft ion of its mo¬
tion. The fafts are very fimilar. The following expe¬
riment will illullrate this completely, and is quite a pa¬
rallel faft. Conceive GDH, the lower half of the el-
lipfe, to be a fupple heavy rope or chain hanging from
a roller with a handle. The weight of the rope makes
it hang in an oblong curve, juft as the force of the
moon raifes the waters of the ocean. Turn the roller
very flowly, and the rope, unwinding at one fide and
winding up on the other fide of the roller, will continue
to form the fame curve : but turn the roller very briikly
in the direftion FKL, and the rope will now hang like
the curve uy' v, confiderably advanced from the per¬
pendicular, fo far, to wit, that the force of gravity may
be able in an inftant to undo the infinitely fmall eleva¬
tion produced by the turning.
We are very anxious to have this circumftance clear¬
ly conceived, and its truth firmly eftabliftied ; becaufe
We have obferved it to puzzle many perfons not unaccuf-
tomed to fuch difcuflions: we therefore hope that our
readers, who have got over the difficulty, will indulge
us while we give yet another view of this matter, which
leads to the fame conclufion.
It is certain that the interval between high and low
water is not fufficient for producing all the accumulation
neceffary for equilibrium in an ocean fo very (hallow.
The horizontal motion neceffary for gathering together
fo much water along a (hallow fea would be prodigious.
Therefore it never attains its full height; and when the
waters, already raifed to a certain degree, have palled
the fituation immediately under the moon, they are (fill
under the aftion of accumulating forces, although thefe
forces are now diminifhed. They will continue rifing,
till they have fo far paft the moon, that their fituation
fubjefts them to depreffing forces. If they have acqui¬
red this fituation with an accelerated motion, they will
rife dill farther by their inherent motion, till the depref¬
fing forces have deftroyed all their acceleration, and then
they will begin to fink again. It is in this way that the
nutation of the earth’s axis produces the greateft incli¬
nation, not when the inclining forces are greateft, but
three months after. It is thus that the warmeft time of
the day is a confiderable while after noon, and that the
warmeft feafon is confiderably after midfummer. The
warmth increafes till the momentary wafte of heat ex¬
ceeds the momentary fupply. We conclude by faying,
that it may be demonftrated, that, in a fphere fluid to
the centre, the time of high water cannot be lefs, and
may be more, than three lunar hours after the moon’s
fouthing. As the depth of the ocean diminifhes, this
interval alfo diminifhes.
It is perhaps impoffible to affign the diftance B y at
which the fummit of the ocean may be kept while the
earth turns round its axis. We can only fee, that it
muft be lefs when the accumulating force is greater, and
therefore lefs in fpring tides than in neap tides j but the
difterence may be infenfibie. Ail this depends on cir-
cumftances which we are litile acquainted with : many
of thefe circumitances are local ; and the fituation of the
fummit of the ocean, with refpeft to the moon, may be
dift'erent in different places.
Nor h ave we been able to determine theoretically
what will be the height of the fummit. It will certainly
be lefs than the height neceffary for perfeft equilibrium.
Daniel Bernoulli fays, that, after very attentive conli-
deration, he is convinced that the height at new or full
moon will be to the theoretical height as the cofine of
the angle BCy to radius, or that the height at y will be
p 1 b *
B4*cV
The refult of all this reafoning is, that we muft al¬
ways fuppofe the fummit of the tide is at a certain di¬
ftance eaftward from the place afligned by the theory.
Mr Bernoulli concludes, from a very copious compari-
fon of obfervations at different places, that the place of
high water is about 20 degrees to the eaftward of the
place aifigned by the theory. Therefore the table for¬
merly given will correfpond with obfervation, if the lead¬
ing column of the moon’s elongation from the fun be al¬
tered accordingly. We have inferted it again in this
place, with this alteration, and added three columns for
the times ef high water. Thus changed it will be of
great ufe.
We have now an explanation of the acceleration of
the neap tides, which ftiould happen 6 hours later than
the fpring tides. They are in faft tides correiponding to
pofitions of the moon, which are 20° more, and not the
real fpring and neap tides. Thefe do not happen till two
days after; and if the really greateft and leaft tides be ob¬
ferved, the leaft will be found 6 hours later than the firft
o .
. r
b£ O
O
IO
20
30
40
5°
603
70
80
90
too
110
120
I30
I40
150
1603
170
180
High Water before or after
Moon’s Southing.
Perigee M. Dift. Apogee.
1 8 after
qi do.
o do.
pf bet.
18 do
26
3
37i
384
33t
22
o
22 after
33 4aftei
384
374
3
26
18
22 afte
ni
o
1 if bef.
22
3j4
40
45
464
4°4
25
o
25 after
404
464
45
40
31*
22
27^ after
J4
o
14 bef.
274
394
50
56'
58
5of
31
o
31 after
5°4
58
56
5°'
294
2 74
Time of High Water
Perigee. M. Dill; Apogee
O.lS
0-494
1.20
I-504
2.22
2.54
3- 27
4- 024
4.414
5.264
6.19
7.20
8.21
9-134
9-584
1 o-3 74
11.13
11.46
0.18
0.22
0.5x1
1.20
1.48
2 18
2.48
3.20
3- 55
4- 33
5I9
6.15
7.20
8.25
9.20
10.06
IO-45
11.20
11.51
0.22
o.
o.
1.
1.
2.
2
3
3-
4-
5-
6
?■
8.
9-
10.
10
11
11.
o.
.274
'54
20
46
12
40
10
44
22
°9
09
20
3i
30
18
56
3°
59
27
This table is general, and exhibits the time of high-
watery
Tide.
T I D [ 430 J T I I)
'Tile. water, and their difference from thofe of the moon’s
fouthing, in the open fea, from all local obftrudtions. If
therefore the time of high water in any place on the
earth’s equator (for we have hitherto confidered no
other) be different from this table (fuppofed corredt),
we muft attribute the difference to the diftinguifhing cir-
cumftances of the fituation. Thus every place on the
equator fhould have high water on the day that the
moon, fituated at her mean diftance, changes precifely
at noon, at 22 minutes pafl noon j becaufe the moon
pafles the meridian along with the fun by fuppofition.
Therefore, to make ufe of this table, we muft take the
difference between the firft number of the column, in-
titled time of high water, from the time of high water
at full and change peculiar to any place, and add this to
all the numbers of that column. This adapts the table
to the given place. Thus, to know the time of high
water at Leith, when the moon is 50° eaft of the fun, at
her mean diftance from the earth, take 22' from qh. 30',
there remains 4.08. Add this to 2h. 48' and we have 6°
56' for the hour of high water. The hour of high wa¬
ter at new and full moon for Edinburgh is marked qh.
30' in Mafkelyne’s tables, but we do not pretend to give
it as the exadf determination. This would require a
feries of accurate obfervations.
It is by no means an eafy matter to afeertain the time
of high water with precifion. It changes fo very flowly,
that we may eafily miftake the exadf minute. The belt
method is to have a pipe with a fmall hole near its bot¬
tom, and a float with a long graduated rod. The water
gets in by the fmall hole, and raifes the float, and the
fmallnefs of the hole prevents the hidden asd irregular
ftaris which waves would occafion. Inftead of obferving
the moment of high water, obferve the height of the rod
about half an hour before, and wait after high water till
the rod comes again to that height. Take the middle
between them. The water rifes fenfibly half an hour
before the top of the tide, and quickly changes the height
of the rod, fo that we cannot make a great miftake in
the time.
Mr Bernoulli has made a very careful comparifon of
the theory thus corredfed, with the great colledtion of
obfervations preferved in the Depot de la Marine at Breft
* Se“ Mr an^ Rochefort * j and finds the coincidence very great,
Caffini, and far exceeding any rule which he had ever feen. In-
Mem. Acad.Attd. we have no rules but what are purely empirical, or
Tar. 1734* which fuppofe a uniform progreflion of the tides.
The heights of the tides are much more affedted by
local circumftances than the regular feries of their times.
The regular fpring tide Ihould be to the neap tide in the
fame proportion in all places j but nothing is more dif¬
ferent than this proportion. In fome places the fpring
tide is not double of the neap tide, and in other places it
is more than quadruple. This prevented Bernoulli from
attempting to fix the proportion of M to S by means of
the heights of the tides. Newton had, however, done it
by the tides at Briftol, and made the lunar force almoft
five times greater than the folar force. But this was
very ill-founded, for the reafon now given.
Yet Bernoulli faw, that in all places the tides gra¬
dually decreafed from the fyzigies to the quadratures.
He therefore prefumed, that they decreafed by a fimi-
lar law with the theoretical tides,'and has given a
very ingenious method of accommodating the theory
4o any tides which may be obferved. Let A be the
x
fpring tide, and B the neap tide in any place. Then Tide.
A q_B
form an M and an S from thefe, by making M =. f
A b
and S —-—j fo that M -f- S may be = A, and
M — S = B agreeable to the theory. Then with this
M and S compofe the general tide T, agreeable to the
conftruftion of the problem. We may be perfuaded that
the refult cannot be far from the truth. The following
table is calculated for the three chief diftances of the
moon from the earth.
Obferve that this table is corre&ed for the retardation
arifing from the inertia of the waters. Thus when the
moon is 20 degrees from the fun, the mean diftance tide
is i.ooA-j-o.ooB, which is the theoretical tide corre-
fponding to conjundfion or oppofition.
We have now given in fufficient detail the phenomena
of the tides along the equator, when the fun and moon
are both in the equator, fhewing both their times and
their magnitude. When we recolledl that all the fec-
tions of an oblong fpheroid by a plane palling through
an equatorial diameter are ellipfes, and that the com¬
pound tide is a combination of two fuch fpheroids, we
perceive that every fedlion of it through the centre, and
perpendicular to the plane in which the fun and moon
are fituated, is alfo an ellipfe, whofe fliorter axis is the
equatorial diameter of a fpring tide. This is the great-
eft depreflion in all fituations of the luminaries •, and the /
points of greateft depreflion are the lower poles of every
compound tide. When the luminaries are in the equa¬
tor, thefe lower poles coincide with the poles of the
earth. The equator, therefore, of every compound tide
is alfo an ellipfe : the whole circumference of which is
lower than any other fedlion of this tide, and gives the
place of low water in every part of the earth. In like
manner, the feftion through the four poles, upper and
low'er, gives the place of high water. Thefe two fec-
tions are terreftrial meridians or hour circles, when the
luminaries are in the equator.
Hence
T I D [ 43i 3 TIB
Hence it follows, that all we have already faid as to
; the times of high and low water may be applied to every
place on the furface of the earth, when the fun and moon
are in the equator. But the heights of tide will diminilh
as we recede from the equator. The heights mull be re¬
duced in the proportion of radius to the cofine of the la¬
titude of the place. But in every other fituation of the
fun and moon all the circumfiances vary exceedingly. It
is very true, that the determination of the elevation of
the waters in any place whatever is equally eafy. The
difficulty is, to exhibit for that place a connefted view
of the whole tide, with the hours of flood and ebb, and
the difference between high and low water. This is not
indeed difficult ; but the procefs by the ordinary rules of
fpherical trigonometry is tedious. When the fun and
moon are not near conjunffion or oppofition, the fhape
of the ocean refembles a turnip, which is flat and not
round in its broadeft part. Before we can determine
with precifion the different phenomena in connedtion, we
muff afcertain the pofition or attitude of this turnip ;
marking on the furface of the earth both its elliptical
equators. One of thefe is the plane paffing through the
fun and moon, and the other is perpendicular to it, and
marks the place of low water. And vve muff mark in
like manner its firft meridian, which paffes through all
the four poles, and marks on the furface of the earth the
place of high water. The pofition of the greateft fec-
tion of this compound fpheroid is frequently much incli¬
ned to the earth’s equator j nay fometimes it is at right
angles to it, when the moon has the fame right afcenfion
with the fun, but a different declination. In thefe cafes
the ebb tide on the equator is the greatefl: pcffible j for
the lowTer poles of the compound fpheroid are in the
equator. Such fituations occafion a very complicated
calculus. We muft therefore content ourfelves with a
good approximation.
And firft, with refpeft to the times of high wTater. It
will be fufficient to conceive the fun and moon as always
in one plane, viz. the ecliptic. The orbits of the fun
and moon are never more inclined than 54 degrees.
This will make very little difference ; for when the lu¬
minaries are fo fituated that the great circle through
them is much inclined to the equator, they are then
very near to each other, and the form of the fpheroid is
little different from what it would be if they were really
in conjunftion or oppofition. It will therefore be fuffi¬
cient to confider the moon in three different fituations.
1. In the equator. The point of higheft water is ne¬
ver farther from the moon than 150, when fhe is in apo¬
gee, and the fun in perigee. 'I herefore if a meridian
be drawn through the point of higheft water to the
equator, the arch mh of fig. 4. will be reprefented on
the equator by another arch about of this by reafon
of the inclination of the equator and ecliptic. There¬
fore, to have the time of high water, multiply the num¬
bers of the columns which exprefs the difference of high
water and the moon’s fouthing by -5%%-, and the products
give the real difference.
2. Let the moon be in her greateft declination. The
arch of right afcenfion correfponding to mh will be had
by multiplying mh, or the time correfponding to it in
the table, by
3. When the moon is in a middle fituation between
thefe two extremes, the numbers of the table will give
the right afcenfion correfponding to m h without any
correction, the diflance from the equator compenfating Tide,
for the obliquity of the ecliptic arch m h. ——y—«
The time of low water is not fo eafily found 5 and
we muft either go through the whole trigonometrical
procefs, or content ourfelves with a lefs perfeCt appro¬
ximation. The trigonometrical procefs is not indeed dif¬
ficult : we muft find the pofition of the plane through
the fun and moon. A great circle through the moon
perpendicular to this is the line of high water; and an¬
other perpendicular circle cutting this at right angles is
the; circle of low water.
But it will be abundantly exaft to confider the tide as
accompanying the moon only.
Let NQSE (fig. 7.) be a feftion of the terraqueous j-- „
globe, of which N and S are the north and fouth poles
and EO(^ the equator. Let the moon be in the direc¬
tion OM, having the declination BQ. Let D be any
place on the earth’s furface. Draw the parallel LDC
of latitude. Let B'F b'f be the ocean, formed into a
fpheroid, of which B^ is the axis and f¥ the equator.
As the place D is carried along the parallel CDL by
the rotation of the earth, if will pais in fucceflion through
different depths of the watery fpheroid. It will have
high water when at C and L, and low water when it
croffes the circleyOF. Draw the meridian N G, and
the great circle ¥>db. The arch G(^, when converted
into lunar hours (each about 62 minutes), gives the du¬
ration of the flood dc and of the fubfequent ebb cd,
which happen while the moon is above the horizon : and
the arch EG will give the durations of the flood and of
the ebb which happen when the moon is below the hori¬
zon. It is evident, that thefe two floods and two ebbs
have unequal durations. When D is at C it has high
water, and the height of the tide is CC'. For, the fphe¬
roid is fuppofed to touch the fphere on the equator /OF,
fo that of CC' is the difference between high and low
water. At L the the height of the tide is LL' j and if
we defcribe the circle LNy, Cy is the difference of
thefe high waters, or of thefe tides.
Hence it appears, that the two tides of one lunar day
may be confiderably different, and it is proper to diftin-
guifh them by different names. We fhall call that a/?/-
perior tide which happens when the moon is above the
horizon during high water. The other may be called
the mfenor tide. The duration of the fuperior tide is
meafured by 2G£), and that of the inferior tide by
2EG ; and 4GO meafures the difference between the
whole duration of a fuperior and of an inferior tide.
From this conftruftion we may learn in general,
I. When the moon has no declination, the durations and
alfo the heights of the fuperior and inferior tides are
equal in all parts of the world. For in this cafe the tide
equator f¥ coincides with the meridian NOS, and the
poles ¥>’b' of the watery fpheroid are on the earth’s equa¬
tor.
2. When the moon has declination, the duration and
alfo the height of a fuperior tide at any place is greater
than that of the inferior ; or is lefs than it, according as
the moon’s declination and the latitude of the place are.
of the fame or oppofite names..
This is an important circumftance. It frequently
happens that the inferior tide is found the greateft when
it ffiould be the leaft 5 which is particularly the cafe at
the Nore. I his {hows, without further reafoning, that
the tide at the Nore is only a branch of the regular
tide,.
T I D [ 432 ] T I
The regular tide comes in between Scotland and fupplements of the angle ICB.
'Tide. tide.
' the continent j and after travelling along the coaft
reaches the Thames, while the regular tide is juft coming
in again between Scotland and the continent.
3. If the moon’s declination is equal to the colati¬
tude of the place, or exceeds it, there will be only one
tide in a lunar day. It will be a fuperior or an inferior
tide, according as the declination of the moon and the
latitude of the place are of the fame or oppofite kinds.
For the equator of the tide cuts the meridian in f and
I. Therefore a place which moves in the parallel c f
has high water when at c, and 12 lunar hours after¬
wards has low water when at f. And any place k
which is ftill nearer to the pole N has high water when
at £, and 12 lunar hours afterwards has low water at
tn. Therefore, as the moon’s declination extends to
300, all places farther north or fouth than the lati¬
tude 6o° will fometimes have only one tide in a lunar
day.
4. The fine of the arch GO, which meafures -Jth of
the difference between the duration of a fuperior and in¬
ferior tide, is = tan. lat. X tan. deck For in the
ipherical triangle d OG
Rad. : cotan. </OG rrtan. </G : fin. GO, and
Sin.GO man. </OQ x tan. *fG, man. deck x tan. lat.
Hence we fee, that the difference of the durations of
the fuperior and inferior tides of the fame day increafe
both with the moon’s declination and with the latitude
of the place.
The different fituations of the moon and of the place
of obfervation affeft the heights of the tides no Ids re¬
markably. When the point D comes under the meri¬
dian NBQ in which the moon is lituated, there is a
fuperior high water, and the height of the tide above
the low water of that day is CC'. When D is at L,
the height of the inferior tide is LL'. The elevation
above the infcribed fphere is M X cof. *y, y being the
zenith diftance of the moon at the place of obfervation.
Therefore at high water, which by the theory is in the
place dire&ly under the moon, the height of the tide is
as the fquare of the cofine of the moon’s zenith or nadir
diftance.
Hence we derive a conftruftion which folves all que-
ftions relation to the height of the tides with great fa¬
cility, free from all the intricacy and ambiguities of the
algebraic analyfis employed by Bernoulli.
With the radius CQzrIVI (the elevation produced
by the moon above the infcribed fphere) defcribe the
Fig. 8. circle p QBE (fig. 8.) to represent a meridian, of which
P and p are the poles, and EQ the equator. Bifeft
CP in O; and round O defcribe the circle PBCD.
Lei M be the place over which the moon is vertical, and
Z be the place of obfervation. MQ is the moon’s de¬
clination, and Zp is the latitude of the place. Draw
MC /«, ZCN, cutting the fmall circle in A and B.
Draw AGI perpendicular to CP, and drawCljU, which
will cut off an arch E^—GM. IYjZ and ftN are the
moon’s zenith and nadir distances. Draw the diameter
BD, and the perpendiculars IK, GH, and AF. Alfo
draw OA, PA, AB, ID.
Then DF is the fuperior tide, DK is the inferior tide,
and < H is the arithmetical mean tide.
For the angles BCA, PDA, (landing on BA, are
equal. Alio the angles IDB, /«CN, are equal, being
2
D
Therefore, if BD be
made radius, DA and DI are the fines of the zenith and
nadir diftances of the moon.
But BD : DxA = DA : DF. Therefore DF =
M X cof.'y, — the height Z » of the fuperior tide.
Alfo DK“M • cof. *y, =r the height n n' of the inferior
tide.
Alfo, becaufe IA is bife&ed in G, KF is bifedled in
DK+DF
Tide.
H, and DH:
“ the medium tide.
Let us trace the relation of the confequences of the
various pofitions ot Z and M, as we formerly confider-
ed the refults of the various fituations of the fun and
moon.
Firft, then, let Z retain its place, and let M gradual¬
ly approach it from the equator. When M is in the
equator, A and I coincide with C, and the three points
F, K, and H, coincide in t.
As M approaches to Z, A and I approach to B and
D ; DF increafes, and DK diminifties. The fuperior
or inferior tide is greateft when the moon is in M or
in N 5 and DF is then =rM. As the moon pafles to
the northward of the place, the fuperior and inferior
tides both diminiftr till I comes to D j at which time
MQ is equal to ZP, and there is no inferior tide. This
however cannot happen if P is greater than 30°, be¬
caufe the moon never goes farther from the equator. M
ftill going north, we have again a perpendicular from I
on BD, but below I, indicating that the inferior tide,
now meafured by DK, belongs to the hemifpheroid
next the moon. Alio, as M advances from the equator
northward, DH diminiihes continually. Firft, w’hile
H lies between O and B, becaufe G approaches O j
and afterwards, when G is above O and H lies betw-een
O and D. It is otberwife, however, if ZQ is greater
than 45,/ •, for then DB is inclined to EC^ the other
way, and DH increafes as the point G rifes.
In the next place, let M retain its pofition, and Z
proceed along the meridian.
Let us begin at the equator, or fuppofe £) the place
of obfervation. BD then coincides with CP, and the
three lines DF, DK, and DPI, all coincide with PG,
denoting the two equal tides Qq and Ee and their me¬
dium, equal to either. As Z goes northward from £),
BOD detaches itfelf from COP ; the line DF increaies,
while DK and DH diminifti. When Z has come to
M, F and B coincide with A, and DK and DH are ftill
more diminiftied. When Z paffes M, all the three
lines DF, DK, and DH, continue to diminifti. When
Z comes to latitudes 45*, DB is parallel to IA and
E£) , and the point H coincides with O. This fitua-
tion of Z has the peculiar property that DH (now DO)
is the fame, whatever be the declination of the moon.
For IA being always parallel to DB, OK and OF will
be equal, and DO will be half of DK and DF, how¬
ever they may vary. When Z gets fo far north that
ZP is — MC,) ,. the diameter b d falls on I; fo that dk
vanifhes, and we have only df. And when Z goes
ftill farther north, dk appears on the other fide of I.
When Z arrives at the pole, BD again coincides with
PC, D with C, and DF, DK, and DH, coincide with
CG.
Thefe variations of the points F, K, and H, indicate
the following phenomena.
1. The
Tiro?
Elate 11XXXVI
, (>
rf,'2l  A
y^-/-
\
1 / ^
^ "l
\
Wat \
T~y^
<7
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Ar
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r c
° ]Q
w
cv-
I V. T/yn/i xXcu tn ?
' T 1 D
[ 433 ]
T I D
Tide. i. The greateft tides happen when the moon is in the
■~V ' zenith or nadir of the place of obfervation : for then
the point B coincides with A, and DF becomes DB j
that is, — M, indicating the fall tide BB'.
2. When the moon is in the equator, the fuperior and
inferior tides have equal heights, in ?»! • coi.1 lat. For
then A and I coincide with C, and the points F and K
coincide in z, and D z is ~ DB • col.* BL)C, —hi • col.1
lat.
If the place of obfervation is in the equator, the
inferior and fuperior tides are again equal, whatever is
the moon’s declination : For then B coincides with C,
and the points F, K, and H, coincide with G j and PG
X PC • cof.* APG, = M • cof.* decl. moon.
4. The fuperior tides are greater or lefs than the in¬
ferior tides according as the latitude and declination are
of the fame or of oppofite names. For by making
~QZ, and drawing £ C n, cutting the fmall circle in /3,
we tee that the figure is reverfed. The difference be¬
tween the fuperior and inferior tides is KF, or IA X
cofin. of the angle formed by IA and DB ; that is, of
the angle BD^, which is the complement of twice
ZQ4 becaufe BOC = 2ZCQ. Now IA is 2 GA,
— 2OA • fin. 2 MO = PC 'fin. 2 M£) , — M ' fin.
2 deck Therefore the difference of the fuperior and in¬
ferior tides is M* fin. 2 declin. fin. 2 lat.
5. If the colatitude be equal to the declination, or lefs
than it, there will be no inferior tide, or no fupeiior tide,
according as the latitude of the place and declination of
the moon are of the fame or oppofite names.
For when PZ Mf), D coincides with I, and IK
vaniffies. When PZ is lefs than MO, the point D is
between C and I, and the point Z never paffes through
the equator of the wTatery fpheroid ; and the low water
of its only tide is really the fummit of the inferior tide.
6. At the pole there is no daily tide : but there are
two monthly tides “ M * fin.* declin. and it is loiv wTa-
ter when the moon is in the equator.
7. The medium tide, reprefented by DH, is ~M X
I’+cof. 2to. xrof. sdccii^ For DH=DO+OH.
2
Now OH is equal toOGxcof. GOHmrOG'cof. 2Z£F
And OGzrOA'Cof. GOA, rzOA-cof. 2MO. There¬
fore OHmrOA • cof. 2ZO • cof. 2MQ. Therefore DH
rrOA + OA-cof. 2ZQ^cof. 2M<£ =
- I 4-Cof. 2Z0 " cof. 2 MO 1 • r if
M x — ^ li. Let this for the fu-
2
ture be called m.
N. B. The moon’s declination never exceeds 30°.
Therefore cof. 2MC) is always a pofitive quantity, and
never lefs than which is the cofine of 60®. While
the latitude is lefs than 450, cof. 2 lat. is alfo a pofi¬
tive quantity. When it is precifely 450 the cofine of
its double is 0 ; and when it is greater than 45, the co¬
fine of its double is negative. Hence we fee,
1. That the medium tides are equally affefted by the
northern and fouthern declinations of the moon.
2. If the latitude of the place is 450, the medium tide
is always § M. This is the reafon why the tides along
the coafts of France and Spain are fo little affefted by
the declination of the moon.
3. If the latitude is lefs than 450, the mean tides in-
creafe as the moon’s declination diminifties. The con¬
trary happens if ZO is greater than a;0. For DH in-
VOL. XX. Part II.
creafes or diminifties wdiile the point G feparates from C Tide,
according as the angle COD is greater or lefs than [ v
COB $ that is, according as PCZ is greater or lefs than
zc£-
4. When Z is in the equator, H coincides with G, and
the effeft of the moon’s declination on the height of the
tides is the moil fenfible. The mean tide is then — M
1 -j- cof. 2 MQ
2
All that we have now faid may be faid of the folar
tide, putting S in place of M.
Alfo the fame things hold true of fpring tides putting
M-fS in place of M.
But in order to afcertain the effeffs of declination and
latitude on other tides, we mult make a much more
complicated conftrudfion, even though we fuppofe both
luminaries in the ecliptic. For in this cafe the two de-
preffed poles of the watery fpheroid are not in the poles
of the earth ; and therefore the leffions of the ocean,
made by meridians, are by no means eilipfes.
In a neap tide, the moon is vertical at B (fig. 7. or 8.), Fig. 7. orS.
and the fun at fome point off¥, 90° from B. If O lie
this point, the conftruction for the heights of the tides
may be made by adding to both the fuperior and inferior
tides for any point D, the quantity 1V1 -f- 0 — D'F or DK
Xfin.* z/O, sue M + S — tide X —r;—4re, as is evi¬
cof.* MQ/
dent.
But if the fun be vertical at </, d will be the bigheft
part of the circle /OF, and no correbfion is neceffary.
But in this cafe the circle of high water will be inclined
to the meridian in an angle equal to d BO (fig. 7.), and
neither the times nor elevations of high water will be pro¬
perly afeertained, and the error in time may be confidei-
able in high latitudes.
The inaccuracies are not fo great in intermediate tides,
and refpeft chiefly the time of high water and the height
of low water.
The exa£l computation is very tedious and peculiar,
fo that it is hardly pofiible to give any account of a re¬
gular progiefs of phenomena ; and all we can do is, to
afcertain the precife heights of detached poinfs. For
which reafons, we muff content ourfelves with the con-
ftrueiion already given. It is the exaft geometrical ex-
preftion of Bernoulli’s analyfis, and its confequences now
related contain all that he has inveftigated. We may
accommodate it very nearly to the real ftate of things,
by fuppofing PC equal, not to CO of fig. 4. but to MS,
exhibiting the whole compound tide. And the point B
inftead of reprefenting the moon’s place, muff reprefent
the place of high water.
Thus have we obtained a general, though not very
accurate, view of the phenomena which muff lake place
in different latitudes and in different declinations of the
fun and moon, provided that the phyfical theory which
determines the form and pofition of the watery fpheroid
be juft. We have only to compute, by a very fimple
procefs of fpherical trigonometry, the place of the pole
of this fpheroid. The fecond conftru&ion, in fin. g.
(hows us all the circumftances of the time and height of
high water at any point. It will be recollefted, that in
computing this place of the pole, the anticipation of 20
degrees, arifing from the inertia of the waters, muff be
attended to.
3l
Were
Tide.
T 1 D [ 434 ] T
Weie we to inftitute a comparifon of this theory with of a very large faring tide,
obfervation, without farther confideration, we fhould ftill ^ ■ - -
find it unfavourable, partly in refpedt of the heights of
the tides, and more remaikably in refpeft of the time
ot low water. We muft again confider the effedts of
the inertia of the waters, and recoiled!:, that a regular
theoretical tide differs very little in its progrefs from the
motion of a wave. Even along the free ocean, its mo¬
tion much refembles that of any other w'ave. All waves
are propagated by an ofcillatory motion of the waters,
precifely fimilar to that of a pendulum. It is well
known, that if a pendulum receive a fmall impulfe in
the time of every defcent, its vibrations may be increaf-
ed to infinity. Did the fucceflive aftions of the fun or
moon juft keep time with the natural propagation of the
tiues, or the natural oicillalions of the waters, the tides
would alfo augment to infinity : But there is an infinite
odds agamft this exaft adjuftment. It is much more
probable that the adlion of to-day interrupts or checks
the ofcillation produced by yefterday’s adlion, and that
the motion which w’e perceive in this day’s tide is w7hat
remains, and is compounded with the adtion of to-day.
1 his being the cafe, w*e ftiould expect that the nature
of any tide will depend much on the nature of the pre¬
ceding tide. . Therefore we fhould expedt that the fupe-
nor and inferior tides of the fame day will be more near¬
ly equal than the theory determines. The whole courfe
of obfervation confirms this. In latitude 450, the fupe-
ricr and inferior tides of one day may differ in the pro¬
portion of 2 j to 1, and the tides correfponding to the
greateft and leaft declinations of the moon may differ
nearly as much. But the difference of the fuperior and
inferior tides, as they occur in the lift of Obfervations
at Rochefort, is not the third part of this, and the
changes made by the moon’s declination is not above
one-half. .therefore we fhall come much nearer the
true meafure of a fpring tide, by taking the arithme¬
tical mean, than by taking either the fuperior or in¬
ferior.
We fhould expect lefs deviation from the theory in
the gradual diminution of the tides from fpring tide to
neap tide, and in the gradual changes of the medium
tide by the declination of the moon ; becaufe the fuccef-
iiye cnanges are very fmall j and when they change in
kind, that is, diminifh after having for fome time aug¬
mented, the change is by infenfible degrees. This is
moft accurately confirmed by obfervation. The vaft
colleftion made by Caftini of the Obfervations at Breft
being examined by Bernoulli, and the medium of the
two tides in one day being taken for the tide of that
day, he found fuch an agreement between the pro-
greflion of thefe medium tides and the progfeflion of
the lines MS of fig. 4. that the one feemed to be
calculated by the other. He found no lefs agreement
in the changes of the medium tides by the moon’s decli¬
nation.
In like manner, the changes produced by the differ¬
ent diftances of the mooti from the earth, were found
abundantly conformable to the theory, although not fo
exaft as the other. This difference or inferiority is eafily
accounted for : When the moon changes in her mean
diftance, one of the neap tides is uncommonly fmall,
and therefore the fucceflive diminutions are very great,
and one tide fenfibly affebfs another. The fame circum-
ftance. operates when fti'e changes in apogee, by reafen
I D
^ * CT And the changes corre¬
fponding both to the fun’s diftance from the earth and '
his declination agreed almoft exadfly.
All thefe things confidered together, we have abun¬
dant reafon to conclude, that not only the theory itfelf
is juft in principle (a thing wdiich no intelligent natura-
lift can doubt), but alio that the data which are affumed
in the application are properly chofen ; that is, that the
proportion of two to five is very nearly the true propor¬
tion of the mean folar and lunar forces. If wTe now
compute the medium tide for any place in fucceftion,
from fpring tide to neap tide, and ftill more, if we
compute the feries of times of their occurrence, we
fhall find as great an agreement as can be delired.
Not but that there are many irregularities; but thefe
are evidently lo anomalous, that wTe can afenbe them
to nothing but circumftances which are purely local.
This general rule of computation muft be formed in
the following manner :
The fpring tide, according to theory, being called A,
and the neap tide B, recollect that the fpring tide, ac¬
cording to the regular theory, is meafured by M-f S.
Recoiled! alfo, that when the lunar tide only is confider¬
ed the fuperior fpring tide isMxfm.% ZM (fig. 8.).
But vThen we confider the adfion of two adjoining tides
on each other, we find it fafer to take the medium of
the fuperior and inferior tides for the meafure j and this
1 4-cof.a 2 ZQ Xcof. 2 M£)
is M X
Let this be call¬
ed m. . This being totally the effedt of M as modified
by latitude and declination, may be taken as its pro¬
pel meafure, by w'hich we are to calculate the other
tides of the monthly feries from fpring tide to neap
tide. 1
In like manner, we muft compute a value for S, as
modified by declination and latitude 3 call this s. Then
fay,
M + S : A-m+s : AX—J .
^ AM + S
This fourth proportional will give the fpring tide as
modified for toe given declination of the luminaries, and
the latitude of the place.
Now recoiled!, that the medium tide, when the lumi¬
naries are in the equator, is A X cof.* lat. Therefore
let F be the fpring tide obferved at any place when the
luminaries are in the equator 3 and let this be the me¬
dium of a great many obfeivations made in thefe cir¬
cumftances. This gives A • cof.1 lat. (as modified by
the peculiar circumttances of the place) =F. There¬
fore the fourth proportional now given changes to F X
M-f-S * cof.1 lat.
And a fimilar fubftitute for B is G
M — S’ cof.1 lat.
Laftly, To accommodate our formulae to every di¬
ftance of the eaith from the fun and moon, let D and A
be the mean diftances of the fun and moon, and d and £
their diftances at the given time 3 and then the two fub-
ftitutes become
A3 </3 M-p3 D3 S
d* ^ (M-f-6)
A3 d' M — 23 D3 S
</3 (M — b)
X Fx
ffz-f-r
(M-j-b)col.1 lat.
XGX
l —j—T
Tide.
(M — S) col.,2 iat.‘
The
T I D [ 435 ] T I D
The half fum of thefe two quantities will be the MC,
and their half difference will be the SC, of fig. 4. with
which we may now operate, in order to find the tide for
any other day of the menftrual feries, by means of the
elongation a of the moon from the fun j that is, v/e muft
fay MC-f-CSt MC — CSzrtan. a : tan. b ; then x~
—, and yzz—^—. And MS, the height of the
tide, is MCxcof. 2Xcof. 2x.
Such is the general theory of the tides, deduced from
the principle of univerfal gravitation, and adjufted to
that proportion of the folar and lunar forces which is
mod confident with other celedial phenomena. The
comparifon of the greated and lead daily retardations of
the tides was with great judgement preferred to the pro¬
portion of fpring and neap tides, fele&ed by Sir Ifaac
Newrton for this purpofe. This proportion mud depend
on many local circumdances. When a wave or tide
comes to the mouths of two rivers, and fends a tide up
each, and another tide of half the magnitude comes a
fortnight after ; the proportion of tides fent up to any
given places of thefe rivers may be extremely different.
Nay, the proportion of tides fent up to two didant
places of the fame river can hardly be the fame ; nor
are they the fame in any river that we know. It can
be demondrated, in the drifted manner, that the farther
we go up the river, where the declivity is greater, the
neap tide will be fmaller in proportion to the fpring
tide. But it does not appear that the time of fuccedion
of the different tides will be much affefted by local cir¬
cumdances. \ he tide of the fecond day of the moon
being very little lefs than that of the fird, will be near¬
ly as much retarded, and the intervals between their
arrivals cannot be very different from the real intervals
of the undidurbed tides •, accordingly, the fuccedion of
the highed to the highed but one is found to be the
lame in all places, when not didurbed by different Winds.
In like manner, the fuccedion of the lowed and the
lowed but one is found equally invariable } and the
highed and the lowed tides obferved in any place mujl
be accounted the fpring and neap tides of that place,
whether they happen on the day of full and half moon
or not. Nay, we can fee here the explanation of a ge¬
neral deviation of the thecrry which we formerly no¬
ticed. A low tide, being lefs able to overcome ob-
druftions, will be fooner dopped, and the neap tides
diould happen a little earlier than by the undidurbed
theory.
.With all thefe correftions, the theory now delivered
will be found to correfpond with obfervation, with all
tire exaftnefs that we can reafonably expeft. We had
an opportunity of comparing it with the phenomena in
a place where they are very Angular, viz. in the harbour
of Biffededt in Iceland. The equator of the watery
foheroid frequently paffes through the neighbourhood of
this place, in a variety of pofitions with refpeft to its
parallel of diurnal revolution, and the differences of fu-
perior and inferior tides are mod remarkable and va¬
rious. We found a wonderful conformity to the mod
diverfified circumdances of the theory.
I here is a period of 18 years, refpefting the tides in
Iceland, taken notice of by the ancient Saxons 5 but
it is not didinftly defcribed. Now this is the period
of the moon’s nodes, and of the greated and lead incli¬
nation of her orbit to the equator. It is therefore the Tide,
period of the pofitions of the equator of the tides
which ranges round this illand, and very fenfibly affefts
them.
Hitherto we have fuppofed the tides to be formed on
an ocean completely covering the earth. Let us fee
how thofe may be determined which happen in a fmall
and confined fea, fuch as the Cafpian or the Black fea.
The determination in this cafe is very Ample. As no
fupply of water is fuppofed to come into the bafon, it rs
fufceptible of a tide only by Anking at one end and ri-
fing at the other. This may be illudrated by fig. 6.
where C r, Cy, are two perpendicular planes bounding
a fmall portion of the natural ocean. The water will
fink at and rife at x, and form a furface 0 t r parallel
to the equilibrated furface y s. It is evident that there
will be high water, or the greated podible rife, at r,
when the bafon comes to that pofition w'here the tan¬
gent is mod of all inclined to the diameter. This will
be when the angle t CB is 450 nearly, and therefore
three lunar hours after the moon’s fouthing 5 at the fame
time, it will be low water at the other end. It is plain
that the rife and fall mud be exceedingly fmall, and that
there will be no change in the middle. The tides of
this kind in the Cafpian fea, in latitude 45°, whofe ex¬
tent in longitude does not exceed eight degrees, are not
above feven inches ; a quantity fo fmall, that a fiight
breeze of wind is fufficient to check it, and even to pro¬
duce a rife of the waters in the oppofite direftion. We
have not met with any accounts of a tide being obferved
in this fea.
It diould be much greater, though dill very finall, in
the Mediterranean fea. Accordingly, tides are obferved
there, but dill more remarkably in the Adriatic, for a
reafon which will be given by and by. We do not
know that tides have been obferved in the great lakes
of North America. Thefe tides, though fmall, fliould
be very regular.
Should there be another great bafon in the neigh¬
bourhood of 2 x, lying ead or wed of it, we diould ob-
ferve a curious phenomenon. It would be low water on
one fide of the diore 2 when it is high water on the
other fide of this partition. If the tides in the Euxine
and Cafpian feas, or in the American lakes which are
near each other, could be obferved, this phenomenon
diould appear, and would be one of the prettied exam¬
ples of univerfal gravitation that can be conceived.
Something like it is to be feen at Gibraltar. It is high
water on the ead fide of the rock about 10 o’clock at
full and change, and it is high water on the wed fide,
not a mile didant, at 12. This difference is perhaps
the chief caufe of the lingular current which is obferved
in the Straits mouth. There are three currents obferv¬
ed at the fame time, which change ’their direftions
every 1 2 hours. The fmall tide of the Mediterranean
proceeds along the Barbary diore, which is very ut i-
form all the way from Egypt, with tolerable regularity.
But along the northern fide, where it is greatly ob-
drufted by Italy, the iflands, and the ead coad of
Spain, it fe>s very irregularly •, and the perceptible high
water on the Spanilh coad differs four hours from that
of the fouthern coad. Thus it happens, that one tide
ranges round Europa point, and another along the (Lore
near Ceuta, and there is a third current in the middle
different from both. Its general direftion is from the
3 I 2 Atlantic
T -I D [ 43^ 1 T I D
Atlantic ocean into the Mediterranean fea, but it fome-
times comes out when the ebb tide in the Atlantic is
conliderable.
Suppofe the moon over the middle of the Mediter¬
ranean. The furface of the lea will be level, and it will
be half tide at both ends, and therefore within the
Straits of Gibraltar. But without the Straits it is with¬
in half an hour of high water. Therefore there will be
a current fetting in from the Atlantic. About three
and an half hours after, it is high water within and half
ebb without. The current now fets out from the Me¬
diterranean. Three hours later, it is low wrater wdth-
out the Straits and half ebb within \ therefore the cur¬
rent has been fetting out all this while. Three hours
later, it is half flood without the Straits and low' water
within, and the current is again fetting in, &c.
Were the earth fluid to the centre, the only fenfible
motion of the waters would be up and down, like the
waves on the open ocean, which are not brufhed along
by ftrong gales. But the fhallownefs of the channel
makes a horizontal motion neceflary, that water may be
fupplied to form the accumulation of the tide. When
this is formed on a flat fhelving coaft, the water mull:
flow in and out, on the flats and fands, while it rifes
and falls. Thefe horizontal motions mult be greatly
modified by the channel or bed along which they move.
When the channel contradls along the line of flowing
water, the wave, as it moves up the channel, and is
checked by the narrowing fhores, muft be reflefted
back, and keep a-top of the w'aters flill flowing in un¬
derneath. Thus it may rife higher in thefe narrow feas
than in the open ocean. This may ferve to explain a
little the great tides which happen on fome coafts, fuch
as the coaft of Normandy. At St Malo the flood fre¬
quently rifes 50 feet. But we cannot give any thing
like a full or fatisfaflory account of thefe Angularities.
In the bay of Fundy, and particularly at Annapolis
Royal, the wTater fometimes rifes above ico feet. This
feems quite inexplicable by any force of the fun and
moon, which cannot raife the waters of the free ocean
more than eight feet. Thefe great floods ar'e unqueftion-
ably owing to the proper timing of certain ofcillations
or currents adjoining, by which they unite, and form
one of great force. Such violent motions of wrater are
frequently feen on a fmall fcale in the motions of brooks
and rivers ; but we are too little acquainted with hy¬
draulics to explain them with any precifion.
We have feen that there is an ofcillation of waters
formed under the fun and moon ; and that in confe-
quence of the rotation of the earth, the inertia and the
wrant of perfeft fluidity of the waters, and obftruftions
in the channel, this accumulation never reaches the
place where it would finally fettle if the earth did not
turn round its axis. The confequence of this muff be a
general current of the w'aters from eaft to weft. This
may be feen in another wray. The moon in her orbit
round the earth has her gravity to the earth diminifhed
by tbe fun’s difturbing force, and therefore moves in an
orbit lefs incurvated than flie wTould defcribe independent
of the fun’s aflion. She therefore employs a longer
time. If the moon were fo near the earth as almoft to
touch it, the fame thing would happen. Therefore fup-
pofe the moon turning round the earth, almoft in con-
tad with the equator, with her natural undifturbed pe¬
riodic time, and that the earth is revolving round its
axis in the fame time, the moon would remain continu¬
ally above the fame fpot of the earth’s furface (fuppofe
the city of Quito), and a fpedator in another planet
would fee the moon always covering the fame fpot. Now
let the fun ad. This will not affed the rotation of the
earth, becaufe the adion on one part is exadly balanced
by the adion on another. But it will affed the moon.
It will move more (lowly round the earth’s centre, and
at a greater diftance. It will be left behind by the city
of Quito, which it formerly covered. And as the earth
moves round from weft to eaft, the moon, moving more
(lowly, will have a motion to the weft with refped to
Quito. In like manner, every particle of water has its
gravity diminifhed, and its diurnal motion retarded ;
and hence arifes a general motion or current from eaft
to weft. This is very diftindly perceived in the At¬
lantic and Pacific oceans. It comes round the Cape of
Good Hope, ranges along the coaft of Africa, and then
fets diredly over to America, where it meets a fimilar
ftream which comes in by the north of Europe. Meet¬
ing the (bores of America, it is defteded both to the
fouth along the coaft of Brazil, and to the north along
the North American fhores, where it forms what is call¬
ed the Gulf Stream, becaufe it comes from the gulf of
Mexico. This motion is indeed very (low, this being
fufticient for the accumulation of feven or eight feet on
the deep ocean •, but it is not altogether infenfible.
We may exped differences in the appearances on the
weftern (bores of Europe and Africa, and on the weftern
(bore of America, from the appearances on the eaftern
coafts of America and of Afia, for the general current
obftruds the waters from the weftern (bores, and (ends
them to the eaftern (bores. Alfo when we compare the
wide opening of the northern extremity of the Atlantic
ocean with the narrow opening between Kamtfchatka
and America, we fhould exped differences between the
appearances on the weft ccafls of Europe and of Ame¬
rica. 'The obfervations made during the circumnaviga¬
tions of Captain Cook and others (how a remarkable
difference. All along the weft coaft of North America
the inferior tide is very trifling, and frequently is not
perceived.
In the very fame manner, the difturbing forces of the
fun and moon form a tide in the fluid air which fur-
rounds this globe, confiding of an elevation and de-
preffion, which move gradually from eaft to weft. Nei¬
ther does this tide ever attain that pofition with refped
to the difturbing planets which it would do were the
earth at reft on its axis. Hence arifes a motion of the
whole air from eaft to weft ; and this is the principal
caufe of the trade-winds. They are a little accelerated
by being heated, and therefore expanding. They ex¬
pand more to the weftward than in the oppofite direc¬
tion, becaufe the air expands on that fide into air which
is norv cooling and contrading. Thefe rvinds very evi¬
dently follow the fun’s motion, tending more to the
fouth or north as he goes fouth or north. Were this
motion corfiderably affeded by the expanfion of heated
air, we (hould find the air rather coming northward and
fouthward from the torrid zone, in confequence of its
expanfion in that climate. 'We repeat it, it is almoft
folely produced by the aerial tide, and is neceffary for
the verv formation of this tide. We cannot perceive
the accumulation. It cannot affed the barometer, as
many
T I D [ 437 ] TIL
many think, becaufe, though the air becomes deeper, it
becomes deeper only becaufe it is made lighter by the
gravitation to the fun. Inttead of prefling more on the
ciltern of the barometer, vve imagine that it prefles lefs;
becaufe, like the ocean, it never attains the height to
which it tends. It remains always too low for equili¬
brium, and therefore it fhould prefs with lefs force on
the ciftern of a barometer.
There is an appearance precifely flmilar to this in the
planet Jupiter. He is furrounded by an atmofphere
which is arranged in zones or belts, probably owing to
climate differences of the different latitudes, by which
each feems to have a different kind of Iky. Something
like this will appear to a fpe&ator in the moon looking
at this earth. The general weather and appearance of
the Iky is confiderably different in the torrid and tem¬
perate zones. Jupiter’s belts are not of a conftant lhape
and colour ; but there often appear large fpots or trafts
of cloud, which retain their fhape during feveral revo¬
lutions of Jupiter round his axis. To judge of his rota¬
tion by one of thefe, w’e fhould fay that he turns round
’n 9-55* There is alfo a brighter fpot which is frequent¬
ly feen, occupying one certain fituation on the body of
Jupiter. This is furely adherent to his body, and is
either a bright coloured country, or perhaps a traft of
clouds hovering over fome volcano. This fpot turns
round in 9-5 ^ And thus there is a general current in
Jffs atmofphere from eaft to w’eft.
_ Both the motion of the air and of the water tend to
diminiih the rotation of the earth round its axis 5 for
they move flower than the earth, becaufe they are re¬
tarded by the luminaries. They muft communicate this
retardation to the earth, and muff take from it a quan¬
tity of motion precifely equal to what they w^ant, in or¬
der to make up the equilibrated tide. In all probability
this retardation is compenfated. by other caufes j for no
retardation can be obferved. This would have altered
the length of tne year flnce the time of Hipparchus,
giving it a fmaller number of days. We fee caufes of
compenfation. The continual waffling down of foil from
the elevated parts of the earth muft produce this effeft,
by communicating to the valley on which it is brought
to reft the excefs of diurnal velocity which it had on the
mountain top.
While we were employed on this article, a book was
put into our hands called Studies of Nature, by a IVIr
Saint Pierre. This author fcouts the Newtonian theory
of the tides, as erroneous in principle, and as quite in-
fufflcient for explaining the phenomena ; and he afcribes
all phenomena of the tides to the liquefadion of the ices
and fnows of the circumpolar regions, and the greater
length of the polar than of the equatorial axis of the
earth. He is a man of whom w^e wifli to fpeak with re-
fpedt, for his conftant attention to final caufes, and the
proof thence refulting of the wifdom and goodnefs of
God. For this he is entitled to the greater praife, that
it required no fmall degree of fortitude to reftft; the in¬
fluence of national example, and to retain his piety in
the midft of a people who have drunk the very dregs of
t ie atheifm of ancient Greece. This is a fpecies of merit
rarely to be met with in a Frenchman of the prefent
day ; but as a philofopher, M. de St Pierre can lay
claim to no other merit except that of having colledled
manv important faffs. J he argument which he em¬
ploys to prove that the earth is a prolate fpheroid, is a
direfl demonftration of the truth of the contrary opinion}
and the melting of the ice and fnows at the poles cannot
produce the fmalleft motion in the waters. Were there
even ten times more ice and fnow floating on the northern
fea than there is, and wrere it all to melt in one minute,
there would be no flux from it } for it would only fill
up the fpace which it formerly occupied in the water.
Of this any perfon will be convinced, who (hall put a
handiui of fnowT fqueezed hard into a jar of water, and
note the exaff height of the water. Let the fnow
melt, and he will find the water of the fame height as
before.
7 IDE-lVaiters, or Tide/men, are inferior officers be-
longing to the cuftomhoufe, whofe employment is to
watch or attend upon ftiips until the cuftoms be paid :
they get. this name from their going on board fliips on
their arrival in the mouth of the Thames or other ports,
and fo come up with the tide.
TIEND, in Scots Lazo. See Teind.
. TIERCE, or Ieirce, a mealure of liquid things, as
wine, oil, &c. containing the third part of a pipe, or 42
gallons.
TIERCED, in Heraldry, denotes the Afield to be
divided by any part of the partition-lines, as party,
coupy, tranchy, or tailly, into three equal parts of dif¬
ferent colours or metals.
TIGER. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
TlGER-Wolf, the name of the hyaena at the Cape of
Good Hope. See Canis, Mammalia Index.
1IGRIS, a river of Afia, which has its fouvee near
that of the Euphrates in the mountain Tchildir in Tur¬
komans : afterwards it feparates Diarbeck from Erze-
rum, and Khufiftan from Irac-Arabia 5 and uniting with
the Euphrates at Gorno, it falls into the gulf of Baf-
forab, under the name of Schat el-Arab. This river
paffes by Diaroekir, Gezira, Mouful, Bagdad, Gorno
and Bafforah. - & ’
1 ILI A, Lime or Linden-tree, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of polyandria } and in the natu¬
ral fyftem ranging under the Columnferce. See Bota¬
ny Index.
1ILLEMONT, Sebastian le Nain de. See
Nain.
FILLER o/*SHIR, a ffrong piece of wood faftened
in the head of the rudder, and in fmall flrips and boats
called the helm.
TILLOEA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs
of letrandria } and in the natural fyftem ranging under
the 13th order, Succulents. See Botany index.
IILLOI SON, John, a celebrated archbilhop of
Canterbury, was the fon of Robert Tillotfon of Sower-
by, in the parilh of Halifax in Yorkftfire, clothier }
and was born there in the year 1630. He ftudied in
Clare-hall, Cambridge} and in 1636 left this college,
in order to become tutor to the fon of Edmund Pri-
deaux, Efq. of Ford abbey in Devonlhire. Fie was
afterwards curate to Dr Hacket vicar of Chelhunt, in
Hertfordfliire. In 1663, he was prefented by Sir Tho¬
mas Barnardifton to the reftory of Ketton or Kedding-
ton in the county of Suffolk ; but was the next year .
chofen preacher to Lincoln’s Inn, when he procured
Ketton to be beftowed on his curate. He was greatly
admired in London for his fermons } and in the fame
year was chofen Tuefday-lefturer at St Lawrence’s
church, London, where his leftures were frequented by
sll
J
TIM [ 438 ] TIM
Til lot fon all the divines of the city, and by m&ny perfons of qua-
Jl lity and diftinftion. In 1666, he took the degree of
Time . ©oftor of Divinity at Cambridge •, in 1669, was made
prebendary of Canterbury ; in 1672, was admitted dean
of that cathedral; and three years after, was made a
prebendary of St Paul’s cathedral, London. In 1679,
he became acquainted with Charles earl of Shrewlbury,
whom he converted from Popery 5 and the next year
refufed to fign the clergy of London’s addrefs of thanks
to King Charles II. for not agreeing to the bill of ex-
elulion of the duke of York. In 1683, he vilited the
unfortunate Lord Ruffel when under condemnation 5 and
attended him in his lalt moments on the fcafFold. In
J689, he was inftalled dean of St Paul’s ; made clerk of
the clofet to King William and Queen Mary 5 and ap¬
pointed one of the commiffioners to prepare matters to
be laid before the convocation, in order to a compre-
henfion of all Proteftants, as well diflenters as church¬
men ; but this attempt was fruftrated by the zeal of
thofe members of that body, w’ho refufed to admit of
any alteration in things confeffedly indifferent. In 1691,
Dr Tillotfon was, notwithftanding the warmeft remon-
ftrances and intreaties on his part, confecrated archbi-
fhop of Canterbury, and four days after was fvvorn one
of the privy council; their majelties always repofing an
entire confidence in his prudence, moderation, and
integrity. In 1694, ^ie was ^ei'zecf with a palfy, of
which he died in the 65th year of his age. He was in¬
terred in the church of St Lawrence Jewry, London,
w'here a handfome monument is erected to his memory.
This learned and pious divine, while living, wTas greatly
inveighed againft by the enemies of the revolution. Af¬
ter his death there was found a bundle of bitter libels
which had been publifhed againft him, on which he had
written with his own hand, “ I forgive the authors of
thefe books, and pray God that he may alfo forgive
them.” It is remarkable, that while this truly great
man was in a private ftation, he always laid afide two-
tenths of his income for charitable ufes. One volume
in folio of Dr Tillotfon’s fermons w7as publilhed in his
life-time, and correfted by his own hand ; they were
tranflat?d into French by Baibeyrac. Thofe which came
abroad after his death, from his chaplain Dr Barker,
made tw’O volumes in folio, the copy of which was fold
for 2500k This was the only legacy he left to his
family, his extenfive charity having confumed his yearly
revenues as conftantly as they came to his hands. King
William, however, gave two grants to his widow •, the
Hrft of which was an annuity of 400!. during the term
of her natural life, and the fecond of 200I. as an addi¬
tion to the former annuity. Dr Tillotfon wrote fome
other works befides his Sermons ; and alfo publiftied Dr
Barrow’s works, and Dr Wilkins’s Treatife of the Prin¬
ciples and Duties of Natural Religion, and a volume of
that divine’s Sermons.
TIMBER, wood fit for building, &c. See Tree,
and Strength of Materials.
TIMBERS, the ribs of a (hip, or the incurvated
pieces of wood, branching outward from the keel in a
vertical direiflion, fo as to give ftrength, figure, and fo-
lidity, to the whole fabric. See SHIP-BUILDING, book i.
chap. ii.
TIME, a fucceflion of phenomena in the univerfe,
or a mode of duration marked by certain periods or
4
meafures, chiefly by the motion and revolution of the Time
fun. 1)
The general idea which time gives in every thing to, limon
which it is applied, is that of limited duration. Thus ^
we cannot fay of the Deity, that he exifts in time ; be-
caufe eternity, which he inhabits, is abfolutely uniform,
neither admitting limitation nor fucceflion. See Meta¬
physics, N° 209.
Time, in Mufc, is an affeftion of found, by which
it is faid to be long or ftvort, with regard to its continu¬
ance in the fame tone or degree of tune.
Mufical time is diftinguiihed into common or duple
time, and triple time.
Double, duple, or common time, is when the notes
are in a duple duration of each other, viz. a femibreve
equal to two minims, a minim to two crotchets, a crotch¬
et to two quavers, &c.
Common or double time is of two kinds. The firft
when every bar or meafure is equal to a femibreve, or
its value in any combination of notes of a lefs quantity.
The fecond is where every bar is equal to a minim, or
its value in lefs notes. The movements of this kind of
meafure are various, but there are three common di-
ftimftions; the firftyftno, denoted at the beginning of
the line by the mark ^ ; the fecond brifk, marked
thus and the third very brifk, thus marked ffi-
Triple time is when the durations of the notes are
triple of each other, that is, when the femibreve is equal
to three minims, the minim to three crotchets, &c. and
it is marked T.
TlME.-Kecpers, or Inftruments for meafuring Time.
See Clock, Dial, Watch, &c.
Harrifoti's TlME-Keeper. See Harrison and Lon¬
gitude.
TIMOLEON, a celebrated Corinthian general, who
reftored the Syracufans to their liberty, and drove the
Carthaginians out of Sicily. See Syracuse, N° 5c —
54-
TIMON the Sceptic, who is not to be confounded
with Timon the Mifanthrope, was a Phliafian, a difciple
of Pyrrho, and lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadel-
phus. He took fo little pains to invite difcipleS to his
fchool, that it has been faid of him, that as the Scy¬
thians {hot flying, Timon gained pupils by running from
them. He was fond of rural retirement •, and was fo
much addidled to wine, that he held a fuccefsful conteft
with feveral celebrated champions in drinking. Like
Lucian, he wrote with farcaftic humour againft the
wdiole body of philofophers. The fragments of his fati-
rical poem Silli, often quoted by the ancients, have
been carefully colledled by Henry Stephens in his Poefs
Pltilofophica. Timon lived to the age of 90 years.
Timon, furnamed Mifanthropos, or the Man-hater, a
famous Athenian, who lived about 420 B. C. He was
one day afked, why he loved the young Alcibiades
while he detefted all the reft of the human race ? on
which he replied, “ It is becaufe I forefee that he will
be the ruin of the Athenians.” He carefully avoided
all forts of company ; yet went one day to an affembly
of the people, and cried with a loud voice, “ That he
had a fig-tree cn which feveral perfons had hanged
themfelves;
TIM [ 439 ] TIP
Timon, themfelves but as he intended to cut it down, in order
1 imotheus. tQ a houfe on place where it flood, he gave
v them notice of it, that if any of them had a mind to
hang themfelves, they muft make hafte and do it fpee-
dily.” He had an epitaph engraved on his tomb, filled
with imprecations againft thofe who read it. Shake-
fpcare has formed a tragedy on his ftory.
TIMOR, an ifland of Afia, in the Eaft Indian fea,
to the fouth of the Moluccas, and to the eaft of the
ifland of Java, being 150 miles in length, and 37 in
breadth. It abounds in fandal-wood, wax and honey j
and the Dutch have a fort here. The inhabitants
are Pagans, and are little better than favagesj and
fome pretend they had not the ufe of fire many years
ago.
TIMOTHEUS, one of themoft celebrated poet-mu-
ficians of antiquity, was born at Miletus, an Ionian city
of Caria, 446 years B. C. He was contemporary with
Philip of Macedon and Euripides 5 and not only ex¬
celled in lyric and dithyrambic poetry, but in his per¬
formance upon the cithara. According to Paufanias,
he perfected that inftrument by the addition of four
new ftrings to the feven which it had before; though
Suidas fays it had nine before, and that Timotheus only
added two, the 10th and nth, to that number. See
Lyre.
With refpefl to the number of ftrings upon the lyre
of Timotheus : The account of Paufanias and S«idas is
confirmed in the famous fenatus-confultum againft him,
ftill extant, preferved at full length In Boethius. Mr
Stillingflcet has given an extra£l from it, in proof of the
fimplicity of the ancient Spartan mufic. The fa£t is
mentioned in Athenaeus; and Cafaubon,. in his notes
upon that author, has inferted the whole original text
from Boethius, with corre&ions. The following is a
faithful tranflation of this extraordinary Spartan a£t of
parliament. “ Whereas Timotheus the Milefian, com¬
ing to our city, has dilhonoured our ancient mufic, and,
defpifing the lyre of feven ftrings, has, by the introduc¬
tion of a greater variety of notes, corrupted the ears of
our youth ; and by the number of his ftrings, and the
novelty of his melody, has given to our mufic an effe¬
minate and artificial drefs, inftead of the plain and orderly
one in which it has hitherto appeared •, rendering me¬
lody infamous, by compofing in the chromatic inftead of
the enharmonic : The kings and
the ephori have therefore refolved to pafs cenfure upon
Timotheus for thefe things : and, farther, to oblige him
to cut all the fuperfluous ftrings of his eleven, leaving
only the feven tones ; and to baniftr him from our city ;
that men may be warned for the future not to introduce
into Sparta any unbecoming cuftbm.^ 
The fame ftory, as related in Athenaeus, has this ad¬
ditional circumftance, That when the public executioner
was on the point of fulfilling the fentence, by cutting off
the new ftrings, Timotheus, perceiving a little ftatue in
the fame place, with a lyre in his hand of as many ftrings
as that which had given the offence, and fliowing it to
the judges, was acquitted.
It appears from Suidas, that the poetical and mufical
compofitions of Timotheus were very numerous, and of
various kinds. He attributes to him 19 nomes, or can¬
ticles, in hexameters •, 36 proems, or preludes; 18 dithy-
rambics ; 21 hymns j the poem in praife of Diana j one
panegyric j three tragedies, the Perfians, Phinidas, and
Laertes; to which muft be added a fourth, mentioned Timotheus
by feveral ancient authors, called Niobe, without forget- H '
ting the poem on the birth of Bacchus. Stephen of SY’f
Byzantium makes him author of 18 books of nomes, or
airs, for the cithara, to 8000 verfes j and of 1000
or preludes, for the nomes of the flutes.
Timotheus died in Macedonia, according to Suidas,
at the age of 97 ; though the Marbles, much better au¬
thority, fay at 90 ; and Stephen of Byzantium fixes his
death in the fourth year of the 105th Olympiad, two
years before the birth of Alexander the Great j whence
it appears, that this Timotheus was not the famous
player on the flute fo much efteemed by that prince,
who was animated to fuch a degree by his performance
as to feize his arms; and w ho employed him, as Athe¬
naeus informs us, together with the other great mufi-
cians of his time, at his nuptials. However, by an
inattention to dates, and by forgetting that of thefe two
muficians of the fame name the one was a Milefian
and the other a Theban, they have been hitherto often-
confounded.
TIMUR-beck. See Tamerlane.
TIN, a metallic fubftance. See CHEMISTRY and
Mineralogy Index for an account of its qualities and
ores; and for the method of reducing its ores, fee Ores,
ReduBion of.
TINCAL, the name by which crude or impure bo¬
rax is fometimes known. See Borax, Chemistry Index.
TINCTURE, in Pharmacy. See Materia Me¬
dic a Index.
TINDAL, Dr Matthew, a famous Englifti writer,
was the fon of the reverend Mr John Tindal of Beer-
Ferres in Devonfliire, and wtis born about the year 1657.
He ftudied at Lincoln college in Oxford, whence he
removed to Exeter, and was afterwards ele&ed felldw
of All-Souls. In 1685 he took the degree of debtor
of law, and in the reign of James II. declared himfelf a
Roman Catholic ; but foon renounced that religion.
After the revolution he publiftied feveral pamphlets in
favour of government, the liberty of the prefs, &.c.
His “ Rights of the Chriftian Church afferted,” occa-
fioned his having a violent conteft with the high-
church clergy \ and his treatife “ Chriftianity as old as
the Creation,” publiihed in 1730, made much noife,
and was anfwered by feveral writers, particularly by
Dr Conybeare, Mr Forfler, and, Dr Leland. Dr Tin¬
dal died at London in Auguft 1733. kft *n
manufeript a fecond volume of his “ Chriftianity as old
as the Creation the preface to which has been pu'-
blifhed. Mr Pope has fatirized Dr Tindal in his
Dunciad.
TINDALE, William. See Tyndale.
TINNING, the covering or lining any thing with
melted tin, or tin reduced to a very fine leaf. Looking-
glaffes are foliated or tinned with plates of beaten tin,
the whole bignefs of the glafs, applied or faftened
thereto by means of quickfilver. See FOLIATING of
Looking Glaffes.
TINNITUS aurium, a noife in the ears like the con¬
tinued found of bells, very common in many diforders,
particularly in nervous fevers.
TIPPERARY, a county of the province of Munfter
in Ireland, bounded on the weft by thofe of Limerick
and Clare, on the eaft by the county of Kilkenny and
Queen’s county, on the fouth by the county of Water¬
ford,
T I R
Tipperary ford, and on the north and north-ead by Iving’s-county
.!i and the territory of the ancient O’Carols. It extends
, Tiro1- , about 42 miles in length, 27 in breadth, containing
Goal's 599,5°o acres, divided into 12 baronies, in which are
edn\of feveral market towns and boroughs. It fends eight
Camden's members to parliment, viz. two for the county, two for
Britannia- jjie c;ty 0f Cathel, and two for each of the boroughs of
Clonmell, Fetherd, and Thurles. The north part of it
is mountainous and cold } but in the fouth the air is
milder, and the foil much more fertile, producing plenty
of corn, and good padure for the numerous herds of cat¬
tle and flocks of flreep with which it abounds. The north
part is called Ormond, and for a long time gave the title
of earl, and afterwards of marquis and duke, to the no¬
ble family of Butler, defcended from a After of Thomas
a Becket archbilhop of Canterbury, till, at the acceffion
of George I. the laft duke vras attainted of high-treafon,
and died abroad. In that part of the county, the family
had great prerogatives and privileges granted them by
Edward III. Another diftrift in this county was an¬
ciently called the County of the Holy Crofs of Tippera¬
ry, from a famous abbey in it ftyled Holy Crofs, on
account of a piece of Chrift’s crofs that tvas hud to be
preferved there. This abbey and diftrift enjoyed alfo
fpecial privileges in former times. The remains of the
abbey, or rather the fpot where it flood, are ftill held
in great veneration, and much refortcd toby the Roman
Catholics.
TIPSTAFF, an officer who attends the judges with
a kind of flaff tipped with filver, and takes into his
charge all prifoners who are committed or turned over at
a judge’s chambers.
TIPULA, the Crane-fly-, a genus of infedls be¬
longing to the order of diptera. bee Entomology
Index. / _ ^
TIRE, in the fea language, is a i-ow of cannon
placed along a (hip’s fide, either above upon deck, or
below, diftinguifned by the epithets of upper and lower
tires.
TIROL, or Tyrol, a county of Germany in the
circle of Auftria, under which may be included the
territories belonging to the bifhops of Brixen, I rent,
and Chur, the Teutonic Order, and the prince of Dei-
trichftein, the Auftrian feigniories before the Arlberg,
and the Auftrian diftridls in Swabia. It is 150 miles
in length, and 120 in breadth, and contains 28 large
towns.
The face of the country is very mountainous. Of
thefe mountains^ fome have their tops always buried in
fnow ; others are covered with woods, abounding with
v a variety of game; and others are rich in metals, and
marble of all colours. Of the lower, fome yield plenty
of corn, others wine, and woods of chefnut trees. The
valleys are exceeding fertile alio, and pleafant. In fome
places confiderable quantities of flax are railed, in others
there is a good breed of horfes and horned cattle j and,
among the mountains, abundance of chamois and wild
goats. In this country are alfo found precious ftones of
feveral forts ; as garnets, rubies, amethyfts, emeralds,
and a fpecies of diamonds, agates, carnelians, calcedo-
nies, malachites, &tc. \ nor is it without hot baths, acid
waters, fait pits, mines of filver, copper, and lead, mi¬
neral colours, alum, and vitriol. The principal river of
Tirol is the Inn, which, after traverfing the country,
and receiving a number of leffer dreams into it, enters
4
T I T
Bavaria, in which, at Paffau, it falls into the Danube. Tirol,
The men here are very tall, robuft, and vigorous j the Tltan’
women alfo are flout, and generally fair -, and both fexes ”'v
have a mixture of the Italian and German in their tem¬
pers and cbarafters. As there is little trade or manu¬
facture in the country, except what is occafioned by the
mines and fait works, many of the common people are
obliged to feek a fubfiftence elfewhere. A particular
kind of falutation is ufed all over Tirol. When a per-
fon comes into a houfe, he fays, “ Hail ! Jefus Chriit
the anfwer is, “ May Chrift be raifed, and the Holy-
Virgin his mother.” Then the mafter of the houfe
takes the vifitor by the hand. This falutation is fixed
up in print at all the doors, wdtlr an advertifement tacked
to it, importing, that Pope Clement XI. granted 100
days indulgence, and a plenary abfolution, to thofe who
(hould pronounce the falutation and anfwer, as often as
thev did it. The emperor has forts and citadels fo ad-
vantageoufly fituated on rocks and mountains all over the
country, that they command all the valleys, avenues, and
pafles that lead unto it. The inhabitants, however, to
keep them in good humour, are more gently treated,
and not fo highly taxed as thofe of the other hereditary
countries. As to the dates, they are much the fame in
this country as in the other Auftrian territories, except
that the peafants here fend deputies to the diets. Tirol
came to the houfe of Auftria in the year 1363, when
Margaret, countefs thereof, bequeathed it to her un¬
cles the dukes of Auftria. The arms of Tirol are an
eagle gules, in a field argent. The counts of Trap are
hereditary ftewards 5 the lords of Glolz, chamberlains j
the princes of Trautfon, marfhals , the counts of Wol-
kenftein, mafters of the horfe and caivers; the houfe of
Spaur, cup-bearers ; the counts of Kungl, fewers and
rangers ; the counts of Brandis, keepers of the jewels j
the houfe of Welfperg, purveyors and ftaff-bearers; and
the counts of Coalto, falconers. Befides the governor^
here are three fovereign colleges, fubordinate to the court
at Vienna, which fit at Infpruck, and have their different
departments. Towards the expences of the military
eftablifhment of this country, the proportion is 100,000
florins yearly ; but no more than one regiment of foot is
generally quartered in it.
Tirol is divided into fix quarters, as they are called 5
namely, thofe of the Lower and Upper Innthal, Vintf-
gow, Etch, Eifack, and Pufterthal.
TITAN, in fabulous hiflory, the fon of Coelus and
Terra, and the elder brother of Saturn, fuffered the latter
to enjoy the crown, on condition that he fliould bring
up none of his male iffue, by which ineans th» crown
fhould at length revert to him ; but Jupiter being fpared
by the addrefs of Rhea, Saturn’s wife, Titan and his
children were fo enraged at feeing their hopes fruf-
trated, that they took up arms to revenge the injury;
and not only defeated Saturn, but kept him and his wife
prifoners till he was delivered by Jupiter, who defeated
the Titans; when from the blood of thefe Titans flain
in the battle, proceeded ferpents, fcorpions, and all ve¬
nomous reptiles. See Saturn.
Such is the account given by the poets of this family
of Grecian and Roman gods. From the fragments of
Sanchoniatho, however, and other ancient writers, many
learned men have inferred that the Titans were an early
race oY ambitious heroes, who laid the foundation of
that idolatry which quickly overfpread the world, and
that
r 44° ]
TIT - [ 44i ] TIT
Titan, that by aflumlng the names of the luminaries of heaven
v— “'l they contrived to get themfelves every where adored as
the Dii tnajorum gentium. That the word Titan figni-
bes the lun, there can indeed be very little doubt.
Kvery one knows that fuch was its lignification in the
yfiohc dialeft ; and as it is evidently compounded of
2V, which, in fome oriental tongues, fignifies bright or
cieary and Tan, which figntfies a country or the earth,
it may be lately concluded that Titan was the name of
the lun before the word was imported into Greece. But
the great queltion among antiquarians is, of what coun¬
try was that race wdrich, affuming to themfelves the
names of the heavenly bodies, introduced into the world
that fpecies of idolatry which is known by the appella¬
tion of Hero-worjhif) ?
M. Pezron, in a work publilhed many years ago, and
entitled The Antiquities of Nations, maintains that the
Titans were a lamiiy ot bacae or Scythians, who made
their firft appearance beyond Media and Mount Imaus,
in the upper regions of Alia ; that they w7ere the de .
fcendants of Gomer the fon of Japheth and grandfon of
Noah j and that alter conquering a great part of the
world, upon entering Upper Phrygia, they quitted
their ancient name of Gomerians or Cimmerians, and
aflumed that of Titans. All this, he fays, happened
before the birth of Abraham and the foundation of the
Affyrian monarchy j and he makes Uranus, their fecond
prince in the order of fucceflion, to have conquered
Thrace, Greece, the illand of Crete, and a great part of
Europe. Uranus was fucceeded by Saturn, and Saturn
by Jupiter,wTho flourilhed, he lays, 300 years before Mo¬
les, and divided his valt empire between himfelf, his bro¬
ther Piuto, and his coulin-german Atlas, who was called
Telamon. For the truth ol this genealogy of the Ti¬
tans M. Pezron appeals to the molt approved Greek hi-
ftorians j but unluckily for his hypothecs, thefe writers
have not a Angle fentence by which it can be fairlv fup-
ported. It fuppofes not only the great antiquity of the
Scythians, but Ukewife their early progrefs in arts and
fciences, contrary to what we have proved in other ar¬
ticles of this work. See Sculpture, n° 4 and 5. and
Scythia.
Others, taking the fragment of Sanchoniatho’s Phe-
nician hiftory for their guide, have fuppofed the Titans
to have been the defcendants of Ham. Of this opinion
was Bilhop Cumberland ; and our learned friend Dr
Doig, to whom we have been indebted for greater fa¬
vours, indulged us with the perufal of a manufcript, in
which, with erudition and ingenuhy ftruggling for
the pre-eminence, he traces that impious family from
the profane fon of Noah, and (how's by what means
they fpread the idolatrous worfhip of themfelves over
the greater part ©f the ancient wwld. Cronus, of
whofe exploits fome account has been given elfev here
(fee Sanchoniatho), he holds to be Ham ; and tra¬
cing the progrefs of the family from Phoenicia to Cy¬
prus, from Cyprus to Rhodes, thence to Crete, and from
Crete to Samothrace, he finds reafon to conclude that
the branch called Titans or Titanides flourilhed about
the era of Abraham, with whom, or with his fon Ifaac,
he thinks the Cretan Jupiter muft have been contem¬
porary. As they proceeded from countries wrhich were
the original feat of civilization to others in which man¬
kind had funk into the groflelt barbarifm, it w^as eafy
for them to perfuade the ignorant inhabitants that they
Vol. XX. Part II.
derived the arts of civil life from their parent the fun, Titaor
and in confequence of their relation to him to alfume to [nhes.
themfelves divine honours. To alk how they came to " ^
think of fuch grofs impiety, is a queltion as foolilh as it
would be to alk how Ham their ancellor became lb
wicked as to entail the curfe of God upon himlelf and
his pofterity. The origin of evil is involved in dif¬
ficulties ; but leaving all inquiries into it to be profe-
cuted by the metaphyfician and moralift, it is furely
more probable that the worlhip of dead men originated
among the defcendants of Ham than among thofe of
Shem and Japheth ; and that the fragment of Sancho-
niatho, when giving an account of the origi.* of the
Titans, the undoubted authors of that wrorlhip, is more
deferving of credit than the fabulous and comparatively
late writers of Greece and Rome.
TITHES, in ecclefiaftical law, are defined to be the
tenth part ot the increale, yearly arifing and renewing
from the profits of lands, the Hock upon landsj and the
perlbnalindultry of the inhabitants: the firft fpecies be¬
ing ufually called predial, as of corn, grafs, hops, and
wood ; the fecond mixed, as of wool, milk, pigs, &.c,
confifting of natural products, but nur'ured and pre-
ferved in part by the care of man ; and of thefe the
tenth muft be paid in grofs; the third pcrfonal, as of
manual occupations, trades, filheries, and the like ; and
of thefe only the tenth-part of the clear gains and pro¬
fits is due.
We fhall, in this article, confider, 1. The original of
the right of tithes. 2. In w’hom that right at prefent
fubfifts. 3. Who may be difcharged, either totally or
in part, from paying them.
1. As to their original, we will not put the title of
the clergy to tithes upon any divine right; though fuch
a right certainly commenced, and wre believe as certain¬
ly ceafed, with the Jewifh theocracy. Yet an honour¬
able and competent maintenance for the minifters of the
gofpel is undoubtedly jure divino, whatever the particu- Blnck/ld
lar mode of that maintenance may be. For, befides
the pofitive precepts of the New Teftam nt, natural
reafon wall tell us, that an order of men who are fepa-
rated from the world, and excluded from other lucra¬
tive profeflions for the fake of the reft of mankind, have
a right to be furnilhed with the neceffaries, conve¬
niences, and moderate enjoyments of life, at their ex¬
pence ; for whofe benefit they forego the ufual means
of providing them. Accordingly all municipal laws
have provided a liberal and decent maintenance for their
national priefts or clergy j ours, in particular, have e-
ftablilhed this of tithes, probably in imitation of the
Jewilh law : and perhaps, confidering the degenerate
ftate of the wrorld in general, it may be more beneficial
to the Englifti clergy to found their title on the law> ot
the land, than upon any divine right whatfoever, unac¬
knowledged and unfupported by temporal fanftions.
We cannot precifely afcertain the time when tithes
were firft introduced into this country. Poflibly they
were contemporary with the planting of Chriftianity
among the Saxons by Auguftin the monk, about the
end of the fixth century. But the firft mention of them
which w^e have met with in any written Englifh law,
is a conftitutional decree, made in a fynod held A. D.
786, wherein the payment of tithes in general is ftrong-
ly enjoined. This canon or decree, which at firft
bound not the laity, was effe&ually confirmed by two
g K kingdoms
TIT [ 442 ] TIT
kingdom*, of the heptarchy, in their parliamentary con¬
ventions of eftates, refpedlively confifting of the kings of
Mercia and Northumberland, the bifhops, dukes, lena-
tors, and people. Which was a few years later than the
time that Charlemagne ellablilhed the payment of them
in France, and made that famous divifion of them into
four parts 5 one to maintain the edifice of the church,
the fecond to fupport the poor, the third the bifhop, and
the fourth the parochial clergy.
The next authentic mention of them is in the fadus
Edwardi et Guthruni; or the laws agreed upon between
King Guthrun the Dane, and Alfred and his fon Ed¬
ward the Elder, fuccefiive kings of England, about the
year 900. This was a kind of treaty between thofe
monarchs, which may be found at large in the Anglo-
Saxon laws: wherein it wTas neceffary, as Guthrun was
a Pagan, to provide for the fubfiftence of the Chrillian
clergy under his dominion ; and accordingly, we find
ihe payment of tithes not only enjoined, but a penalty
added upon non-oblervance : which law is feconded by
the laws of Athelftan, about the year 930. And this is
as much as can certainly be traced out with regard to
their legal original.
2. We are next to confider the perfons to whom
tithes are due. Upon their firft introduftion, though
every man was obliged to pay tithes in general, yet he
might give them to what priefts he pleafed 5 which
were called arbitrary confecratwns of tithes; or he might
pay them into the hands of the bithop, who diftributed
among his diocefan clergy the revenues of the church,
which were then in common. But when diocefes were
divided into parilhes, the tithes of each parilh were al¬
lotted to its own particular minilter j firft by common
confent or the appointments of lords of manors, and
afterwards by the wuitten law of the land.
Arbitrary confecrations of tithes took place again
afterwards, and were in general ufe till the time of
King John. This was probably owing to the intrigues
of the regular clergy, or monks of the Benediffine and
other orders, under Archbilhop Dunftan and his fvcef-
fors •, who endeavoured to wean the people from pay¬
ing their dues to the fecular or parochial clergy (a
much more valuable fet of men than themfelves), and
were then in hopes to have drawn, by fandlimonious
pretences to extraordinary purity of life, all ecclefiafii-
cal profits to the coffers of their own focieties. And
this will naturally enough account for the number and
riches of the monafteries and religious houfes w'hich
were founded in thofe days, and which were frequently
endowed with tithes. For a layman, who was obliged
to pay his tithes fomewhere, might think it good policy
to ereft an abbey, and there pay them to his own
monks, or grant them to fome abbey already ere&ed :
fince for this donation, which really coft the patron lit¬
tle or nothing, he might, according to the fuperftition
of the times, have maffes for ever fung for his foul.
But in procefs of years, the income of the poor laborious
parifh-priefts being fcandalcafly reduced by thefe ar¬
bitrary confecrations of tithes, it wras remedied by Pope
Innocent III. about the year 1200, in a decretal epiftle
fent to the archbilhop of Canterbury, and dated from
the palace of Lateran : which has occafioned Sir Henry
Hobart and others to miftakeit for a decree of the coun¬
cil of Lateran, held A. D. 1179, which only prohibit¬
ed what was called the infeodation of tithes, or their be¬
ing granted to mere laymen ; whereas this letter of Tithes.
Pope Innocent to the archbilhop enjoined the payment y—
of tithes to the parfons of the refpeftive parilhes where
every man inhabited, agreeable to what was afterwards
direcled by the fame pope in other countries. This
epiftle, fays Sir Edward Coke, bound not the lay fub-
jthts of this realm ; but being reaionable and juft, it
was allowed of, and fo became /ex terrce. This put an
effedtual Hop to all the arbitrary conlecrations of tithes $
except fome footfteps which ftiil coniinue in thofe por¬
tions of tithes which the parfon of one parilh hath, though
rarely, a right to claim in another: for it is nowT univer-
fally held, that tithes are due, of common right, to the par¬
fon of the parilh, unlefs there be a fpecial exemption. This
parfon of the parilh may be either the ahtual incumbent,
or elle the appropriator of the benefice j appropriations
being a method of endowing monafteries, which feems
to have been deviled by the regular clergy, by way of
fubftitution to arbitrary confecrations of tithes.
3. We obferved that tithes are due of common right
to the parfon, unlefs by fpecial exemption ; let us there¬
fore lee, thirdly, wrho may be exempted from the pay¬
ment of tithes, and how lands and their occupiers may
be exempted or difcharged from the payment of tithes,
either in part or totally ; firft, by a real compofition \
or, fecondly, by cuftom or prefcription.
Firf, A real compofition is when an agreement is
made between the owner of the lands and the parfon or
vicar, with the confent of the ordinary and the patron,
that fuch lands lhall for the futuie be dilcharged fiom
payment of tithes, by realon of fome land or other real
recompenfe given to the parfon in lieu and fatisfaftion
thereofi This was permitted by law, becaufe it wras
fuppofed that the clergy would be no lofers by fuch
compofition 5 fince the confent of the ordinary, whofe
duty it is to take care of the church in general, and of
the patron, whofe intereft it is to protedf that particular
church, were both made neceffary to render the com-
polition effedlual: and hence have arifen all fuch cora-
pofitions as exift at this day by force of the common
law*. But experience Ihowing that even this caution
was ineffedtual, and the pcffelfions of the church being
by this and other means every day diminilhed, the dif-
abling ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 10. was made; which pre¬
vents, among other fpiritual perfons, all parfons and vi¬
cars from making any conveyances of the ertates of their
churches, other than for three lives of 21 years. So
that now, by virtue of this ftatute, no real compofition
made fince the 13 Eliz. is good for any longer term
than three lives or 21 years, though made by confent
of the patron and ordinary : w hich has indeed effedtu-
ally demolilhed this kind of traffic ; fuch compofitions
being now' rarely heard of, unlefs by authority of par¬
liament.
Secondly, a difeharge by cuftom or prefcription, is
wdiere time out of mind fuch perfons or fuch lands have
been either partially or totally difcharged from the pay¬
ment of tithes. And this immemorial ufage is binding
upon all parties; as it is in its nature an evidence of uni-
verfal confent and acquiefcence, and with reaibn fup-
pofes a real compofition to have been formerly made.
This cuftom or prefeription is either de modo decimandi,
or de non decimando,
A modus decimandi, commonly called by the fimple
name of a modus only, is where there is by cuftom a
• particular
TIT [' 443 ] T I T
particular manner of tithing allowed, different from the
general law of taking tithes in kind, which are the
a&ual tenth-part of the annual increafe. This is fome-
times a pecuniary compenfation, as twopence an acre
for the tithe of land : fornetimes it is a compenfation in
work and labour, as that the parfon (hall have only the
twelfth cock of hay, and not the tenth, in confideration
of the owner’s making it for him : fometimes, in lieu of
a large quantity of crude or imperfeft tithe, the parfon
lhall have a lefs quantity when arrived at greater ma¬
turity, as a couple of fowls in lieu of tithe-eggs, and
the like. Any means, in fliort, whereby the general
law of tithing is altered, and a new method of taking
them is introduced, is called a modus decimandiy or fpe-
cial manner of tithing.
A prefeription de non decimando is a claim to be en¬
tirely difeharged of tithes, and to pay no compenfation
in lieu of them. Thus the king by his prerogative is
difeharged from all tithes. So a vicar fhall pay no tithes
to the reftor, nor the redlor to the vicar, for ecclcjla de-
cimas non folvit ccclcjicr. But thefe perfonal privileges
(not arifing from or being annexed to the land) are per-
fonally confined to both the king and the clergy ; for
their tenant or leffee {hall pay tithes, though in their
awn occupation their lands are not generally tithable.
And, generally fpeaking, it is an eftablKhed rule, that
in lay hands, modus de non decimando non valet. But
fpiritual perfons or corporations, as monafteries, abbots,
bilhops, and the like, were always capable of having
their lands totally difeharged of tithes by various ways:
as, i. By real compofition. 2. By the pope’s bull of
exemption. 3. By unity of poffeffion $ as ■when the
redtory of a parifh, and lands in the fame parifti, both
belonged to a religious houfe, thofe lands were difehar¬
ged of tithes by this unity of poffeffion. 4. By pre¬
feription ; having never been liable to tithes, by being
always in fpiritual hands. 5. By virtue of their order ;
as the Knights Templars, Ciftercians, and others, whofe
lands were privileged by the pope with a difeharge of
tithes. Though, upon the diffolution of abbeys by
Henry VIII. moft of thefe exemptions from tithes
would have fallen with them, and the lands become
tithable again, had they not been fupported and upheld
by the ftatute 31 Henry VIII. c. 13. which enadls, that
all perfons who ffiould come to the pofieffion of the
lands of any abbey then diffolved, (hould hold them free
and difeharged of tithes, in as large and ample a man¬
ner as the abbeys themfelves formerly held them. And
from this original have fprung all the lands which be¬
ing in lay hands, do at prefent claim to be tithe-free :
for if a man can (how his lands to have been fuch ab¬
bey-lands, and alfo immemorially difeharged of tithes
by any of the means before mentioned, this is now a
good prefeription de non decimando. But he muft ffiow
both thefe requifites : for abbey-lands, without a fpecial
ground of difeharge, are not difeharged of courfe ;
neither will any prefeription de non decimando avail
in total difeharge of tithes, unlefs it relates to fuch ab¬
bey-lands.
It is univerfally acknowledged that the payment of
tithes in kind is a great difeouragement to agriculture.
They are inconvenient and vexatious to the hufband-
man, and operate as an impolitic tax upon induftry.
The clergyman, too, frequently finds them troublefome
aqd precarious j his expences in colledling are a confi-
derable drawback from their value, and his juft rights Tithes
are with difficulty fecured : he is too often obliged to
fubmit to impofition, or is embroiled with his pariffiion-, V " ^
ers in difputes and litigations, no lefs irkfome to his feel¬
ings than prejudicial to his intereft, and tending to pre¬
vent thofe good effedts which his precepts {hould pro¬
duce. It is therefore of the utmoft: importance to pa¬
rochial tranquillity, and even to religion, that fome juft
and reafonable ftandard of compofition could be fixed.
Land has been propofed, but in the prefent ftate of the
divifion of property this is impoffible : and as money i*.
continually changing in its value, it would alfo be a
very improper ftandard, unlefs fome plan could be form ¬
ed by which the compofition could be increafed as the
value of money diminiffies. A plan of this kind has
been publifhed in the Tranfadlions of the Society infti-
tuted at Bath, vol. iv. which thofe who are interefted
in this fubjedt may confult for farther information.
TITHING, (Tit king a, from the Sax. T/teothungc,
i. e. Decuriam), a number or company of ten men, with
their families, knit together in a kind of fociety, and all
bound to the king, for the peaceable behaviour of each
other. Anciently no man was fuffered to abide in Eng¬
land above forty days, unlefs he were enrolled in fome
tithing.—One of the principal inhabitants of the tithing
was annually appointed to prefide over the reft, being
called the tit/iing-man, the head-borough, and in fome
countries the borfeholder, or borough’s ealder, being
luppofed the difereeteft man in the borough, town, or
tithing. The diftribution of England into tithings
and hundreds is owing to King Alfred. See BoRSE-
HOLDER.
TITIANO Vecellt, or Titian, the moft univer-
fal genius for painting of all the Lombard-fchool, the
beft colourift of all the moderns, and the mod. eminent Pilkingtori’r
for hiftories, portraits, and landfcapes, was born at C?i-
dore, in the province of Friuli, in the ftate of Venice, °f ^aintet r»
in 1477, or in 1480 according to Vafari and Sandrart.
His parents fent him at ten years of age to one of his
uncles at Venice, who finding that he had an inclina¬
tion to painting, put him to the fchool of Giovanni Bel-
lino.
But as foon as Titian had feen the works of Giorgi¬
one, whofe manner appeared to him abundantly more
elegant, and lefs conftrained than that of Bellino, he
determined to quite the ftyle to which he had fo long
been accuftomed, and to purfue the other that recom¬
mended itfelf to him, by having more force, more re¬
lief, more nature, and more truth. Some authors affirm,
that he placed himfelf as a difciple with Giorgione 3 yet
others only fay, that he cultivated an intimacy with
him 3 but it is undoubtedly certain that he ftudied with
that great matter 3 that he learned his method of blend¬
ing and uniting the colours ; and praflifed his manner
fo effectually, that feveral of the paintings of Titian
were taken for the performances of Giorgione 5 and
then his fuccefs infpired that artift with an invincible-
jealoufy of Titian, which broke off their connexion for
ever after.
The reputation of Titian rofe continually 3 every new
work contributed to extend his fame through all Eu¬
rope 3 and he was confidered as the principal ornament
of the age in which he flouriftied. And yet, Sandrart ob-
feryes that amidft all his applaufe, and conftant employment
at Venice, his income and fortune were inconfiderable ;
3 K ^ and
TIT [ 444 ] TIT
Titiano. and be was more remarkable for the extenfivenefs of his
"“—v" talents, than for the affluence of his circumltances. But
when his merit was made known to the emperor Charles
V. that monarch knew how to fet a juft value on his
fuperior abilities *, he enriched him by repeated bounties,
allowed him a confiderable penfion, conferred on him
the honour of knighthood, and what was ftill more,
honoured him wuth his friendfhip. He painted the por¬
trait of that benefaftor feveral times } and it is record¬
ed by Sandrart, tnat one day, wfflile the emperor was
iuling for his pi£lure, a pencil happening to drop from
the painter, he ftooped, took it up, and returned it j
obligingly anfwering to the modeft apology of the artift
(who blulhed at the > ondelcenfion ot lo great a mo¬
narch), that the merit ot a Titian was worthy of the at¬
tendance of an emperor.
The excellence of Titian was not fo remarkably ap¬
parent in the hiftorical compofitions which he painted as
in his portraits and landfcapes, which feem to be lupe-
rior to all competition ; and even to this day, many of
them preferve their original beauty, being as much the
admiration of the prefent age as they have defervedly
been of the ages paft.—It is obferved of Titian by moft
writers, that in the different periods of his life he had
four different manners; one refembling his firft inftruftor
Beliino, which was fomew'hat iiiff; another, in imita¬
tion of Giorgio .e, more bold, and full of force j his
third manner was the refult of experience, knowledge,
and judgement, beautifully natural, and finifhed with
exquifite care, which manner w'as peculiarly his own j
and in thofe piffures which he painted between the years
of approaching old age and his death may be noticed
his fourth manner. His portraits were very differently
finifhed in his early, and in his latter time, according
to the teftimony of Sandrart. At firft he laboured his
pi&ures highly, and gave them a polifhed beauty and
luftre, fo as produce their effedft full as well when they
were examined clofely as when vieived at a diftance ;
but afterwards, he fo managed his penciling, that their
greateft force and beauty appeared at a more remote
view, and they pleafed lefs when they were beheld more
nearly. So that many of thofe artifts who ftudied to
imitate him, being mifled by appearances which they
did not fufficiently confider, have imagined that Titian
executed his work with readinefs and a mafterly rapidi¬
ty and concluded that they fhould imitate his manner
moft tffeflually by a freedom of hand and a bold pen¬
cil : Whereas in reality, Titian took abundance of pains
to work up his pi&ures to fo high a degree of perfec¬
tion ; and the freedom that appears in the handling w as
entirely efft&ed by a fk’dful combination of labour and
judgement.
It cannot be truly affirmed, that Titian equalled the
great mafters of the Roman fchool in defign ; but he al¬
ways took care to difpofe his figuies in fuch attitudes as
fhowed the moft beautiful parts of the body. His tafte
in defigning men w^as not generally fo correft or elegant
as it appeared in bis boys and female figures 5 but his
colouring had all the look of real flefh, his figures
breathe. He was not fo bold as Giorgione, but in
tendernefs and' delicacy he proved himfelf much fuperior
to him and all other artifts. The expreffion of the paf-
fions was not his excellence, though even in that refpedt
many of his figures merited the jufteft commendation ;
but he always gave his figures an air of eafe and digni¬
ty. His landfcapes are univerfally allowed to be un- Titiano
equalled, whether we confider the forms ot his trees, the II,
grand ideas of nature wduch appear in his feenery, or 1 e'
his diftances which agreeably delude and delight the
eye of every oblerver j and they are executed with a
light, tender, and mellow pencil. He learned from
nature the harmony of colours, and his tints feem afton-
ilhing, not only for their force, but their fwreetnefs j and
in that relpedf his colouring is accounted the ftandard of
excellence to all proieffors of the art.
It would prove almoft an endlefs talk to enumerate
the variety of works executed by this illuftrious artift,
at Rome, Venice, Bologna, and Florence, as w7ell as
thofe which are to be feen in other cities of Italy, in
England, Spain, Germany, and France; but there are
twm, which are mentioned as being truly admirable.
One is, a Laft Supper, prelerved in the refe&oiy at the
Efcurial in Spam, which is inimitably fine j the other
is at Milan, reprelenting Chrift crowned with thorns.
The principal figure in the latter has an attitude lull of
grace and digni y more than mortal, and the counte¬
nance (hows a benevolence and humility, combined
with dignity and pain, which no pencil but that of Ti¬
tian could lo feelingly have delcribed. It is admirably
coloured, and tenderly and delicately penciled ; tl>e
heads are wonderfully beautiful, the compofition excel¬
lent, and the whole has a charming effedt by the chiaro-
feuro.
He was of fo happy a conftitution, that he was
never ill till the year 1576, when he died of the
plague, at 99 years of age. His difciples were Paulo
Veronefe, Giacomo Tintoret, Giacomo de Porte Baffa-
no, and his Tons.
TITLARK. See Alauda, Ornithology Index.
TITLE, an appellation of dignity or rank given to
princes and perfons of ditiinftion.
Titles were not fo common among the ancient Greeks
or Romans as they are in modern times. Till the reign
of Conftantine the title of Ilhtftrious wras never given
except to thofe w7ho were diltinguifhed in arms or let¬
ters : But at length it became hereditary in the families
of princes, and every fon of a prince was illuftrious.
The title of Highnefs w-as formerly given only to kings.
The kings of England before the reign of Henry VIII.
were addreffed by the title of your Grace. That mo¬
narch firft affumed the title of Highnefs, and afterwards
that of Majejly. The title of majefty was firft given
him by Francis I. in their interview in 1520. Charles
V. was the firft king of Spain who aflumed the fame
title.
Princes, nobles, and clergy, generally have one title
derived from their territories and eflates, and another
derived from their rank or from fome other remarkable
circumftance. The pope is called the Bijhop of Rome,
and has the title of Holinefs. A cardinal has his name
generally from fome church, and is faluted by the name
ot Eminent, or mof Eminent. An archbilhop, befides
being named from his diocefe, is called his Grace and
mof Reverend: a bilhop is alfo diftinguifhed by the
name of his diocefe, and has the title of his Lordfhip and
right Reverend. Inferior clergymen are denominated
Reverend.
The titles of crowmed heads derived from their domi¬
nions it is unneceffary to mention. It will be fufficient
to mention thofe by which they are addreffed. To an
emperOJE
T O B [ 445 ] T O B
'Title emperor is given the title of Imperial Majefty; to kings,
It that of Majefty ; to the princes of Great Britain, Royal
Tolr.cio. ipighnefs; to thofc of Spain, Infant; to electors, Eleiilo-
ral H’gknefs ; to the grand duke of Tufcany, Mojl Se¬
rene Highnefs ; to the other princes of Italy and Ger¬
many, Highnefii to the doge of Venice, Mojl Serene
Prince ; to the grand-malfer of Malta, Eminence ; to
nuncios and ambaffadors of crowned heads, Excellency;
to dukes, Grace; to marquiffes, cans, and barons, Lord-
(hip.
The emperor of China, among his titles, takes that
of Tien Su, “ Son of Heaven.” The Orientals, it is
obferved, are exceedingly fond of titles: the fimple go¬
vernor of Schiras, for inllance, after a pompous enume¬
ration of qualities, lordfhips, &c. adds the titles of
Flower of Courtefy, Nutmeg oj Conflation, and Rofe of
Delight.
Title, in Law, denotes any right which a perfon
has to the pofl'eflion of a thing, or an authentic inifru-
ment whereby he can prove his right. See the articles
Right, Property, &c.
Title to the Crown in the Britijh Conjlitution. See
Succession.
TITMOUSE. See Parus, Ornithology Index.
TI TULAR, denotes a perfon invetfed with a title, in
virtue of which he holds an office or benefice, whether
he perform 'he funffions thereof or not.
TITUS Vespasianus, the Roman emporer, the fon
of Vefpafian ; of whom it is related, that not being able
to recolleil any remarkable good aftion he had done on
a certain day, he exclaimed, “ I have loll a day !” He
might truly be called the father of his people; and
though Rome laboured under various public calamities
during his reign, fuch was his equitable and mild admi-
niftration, that he conffantly preferved his popularity.
He was a great lover of learning, and compofed feveral
poems. He reigned but two years ; and it is thought
Domitian his brother poifoned him, A. D. 81. aged 41.
See ( Hiftory of) ROME.
TIVIOT hills. See Cheviot.
TIVOLI, the modern name of Tibur.
R OAD. See Rana, Erpetology Index.
TOAD-Fifh. See LoPHIUS, ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
ToAD-Flax. See Antirrhinum, Botany Index.
TOAD Stone, an argillaceous ftone. See Geology.
TOBACCO. See Nicotiana, Botany Index, and
Snuff.
ToeAcco-Pipe-Fifh. See Fistularia, Ichthyolo¬
gy Index.
TOBACCO Pipes, Manufacture of. The art of making
tobacco-pipes, or, as it is commonly called, pipe-making,
though one of the fimpleft fpecies of pottery, isfufheient-
ly curious to merit defeription in a didfionary of arts
and feiences.
The procefs of pipe-making may be divided in¬
to fix ftages ; viz. 1.. Beating or preparing the clay ;
2. Rolling ; 3. Moulding} 4. Trimming*, 5. Drying}
and 6. Burning.
Preparation of the Clay.—The fine white clay em¬
ployed by the pipe-makers, is dug from the quarries in
maffes of about a cubic foot each. Before it can be
ufed in the manufadture of tobacco-pipes, it muff be re¬
duced to the confiftence of a tough pafte. To effedl
this, after its outer furface has been cleared from dirt
pr duft, it is broken into fmall pieces about as large as
a goofe’s egg, and thrown into a tub with fuch a quan- Tobacce.^
tity of loft water as experience has fhewn to be fuffi- v
cent to bring it to the proper confidence. After lying
till it has foaked up all the water, which ufually re¬
quires from 1 2 to 24 hours, it is taken from the tub and
laid on a thick ilrong wooden bench. Here it is beat¬
en by a heavy four-fquare iron initrument, in lucn a
manner as to cut it from one end to the other into very
thin llices. It requires confiderable adtiiefs to perform
this operation and it is furprifing how aha die work¬
men will fometimes cut the flices, and how equally
they Vill thus divide the clay. This beating is con¬
tinued, alternately folding up the clay and flicing it,
till the whole is perfedtly fmootk. It is then ready tor
rolling.
Rolling.—The operation of rolling reduces the clay
into pieces of a proper fize and length for making pipes*
and almoft to the proper form. The roller fits at a
bench with a fmooth board before him, and holds in
his hand another fmooth board about 18 inches long,
four broad, and about half an inch thick, having one
end rounded off on one fide, fo as to produce a corre-
fponding hollow in the clay. He now takes a piece of
the beaten clay, and rolls it out, firll with his hands,
and then with the board, till it acquire the form of a-
long (lender cylinder, with one end confiderably larger
than the reft. This large end is to form the bole, and
the cylinder the (hank of the future pipe. The pieces
of clay thus formed are laid befide each other on a tlat
board, and are nowT ready lor moulding.
Moulding.—This is the molt complex operation, and
requires the greateft number of inftruments. The prin¬
cipal of thefe is the mould, which is compofed of two
long pieces of iron, formed fo as to join together, and
having their correfponding fides cut into the lhape of
half a tobacco pipe, each piece being hollowed fo as to
form half a (lender cylinder, with a larger cavity at the
upper end, and at fuch an angle as it is intended the
bole of the pipe fhall make with the fhank. Juft above
that part of each fide of the mould which Hands be¬
yond what is intended to form the bole, there is a notch
for admitting a knife to cut off the fuperfluous clay.
To receive the united mould there is a vice, having
at one end two upright polls, between which moves a
long lever, and to this lever, near the polls, there is
loofely attached a piece of iron ending below in a fmoothr
conical head, capable of entering the large opening of
the mould, but rather fmaller than that opening, fo as
that when forced down into it, a fufficient thicknefs of
clay may be left between the cone and the fides of the
mould, to form the bole of the pipe. One fide of this
vice is fixed, and the other moveable, towards the form¬
er. The moveable fide has attached to it an iron ferew
with a very long lever as its handle, fo that by turning
the ferew one way or the other, the moveable fide of
the vice may be forced nearer the fixed tide, or fuffered
to return to its original pofition..
Befides thefe principal inftruments, the moulder re¬
quires a {lender fteel wire, fixed in a handle at one end,,
and having its other extremity formed into a very ('mail
head} a faucer containing wool well impregnated with
oil, and a fmall woollen or cotton bruftn
When about to mould his pipes, he lays hold of the
fhank of one of the rolled pieces, and with great dexte-
rity^ which pra&ice alone can teach, he paifes up the
oiled 1
T O B [ 44-6 J T O B
Tobacco, oiled wire through its whole length, till he finds it ar-
y rived at the commencement of the larger extremity of
the clay. This extremity he then bends to the proper
angle, and having oiled the infide of each part of his
mould, he lays the piece of clay with the wire in it, in¬
to one part of the mould, and covers it with the other.
He now puts the mould containing the clay into the
vice, and with the left hand turning round the handle
of the fcrew, fo as to fix the mould firmly within the
vice, he, with the right hand, preffes down the lever with
its conical head, and thus forms the cavity of the bole.
He now withdraws the mould, cuts off with his’knife
the fuperfluous clay from the bole, opens the mould,
takes out the pipe, and now only withdraws the wire.
He then lays the moulded pipe on a fiat board, in the
fame manner as the rolled pieces before defcribed. The
pipes thus moulded require to be trimmed, that is, to
have the prominences arifing from the joining of the
mould, and other fuperfiuous pieces of clay taken off,
fo as to render the furface fmooth and round.
Trimming.—The operation of trimming is generally
performed by boys and girls, as it requires very little
ikill. The trimmer has before him a fmooth block of
wood, about the length of the pipe, and of confiderable
thicknefs, elevated a little at the remote end. He has
alfo a thick piece of fmooth iron, one edge of which
has acrofs it two or more femicylindrical grooves, capa¬
ble of receiving half the (hank of a pipe. Taking one
of the rough moulded pipes, the trimmer carefully paffes
up the hollow of the thank, a wire fimilar to that em¬
ployed in moulding, and holding the pipe by the bole,
while the thank lies before hhn on the wooden block,
he pares off with a blunt knife all the excrefcences of
clay, both from the thank and bole, and rubs the for¬
mer, while lying on the block, with the grooved part
of his iron, fo as to render it as fmooth as pofifible. He
now cuts off the ragged piece at the extremity of the
ftiank, withdraws the wire, and lays the pipe on the
drying frame. One great objeft of the trimmer is, to
fee that the pipe is completely perforated, vvhich he dif-
covers by blowing through it; and if he finds the hole
choked up, he muff open it by pulhing the wire as far
as pofiible. If this does not faceted, he breaks the pipe
as ufelefs.
Drying.—The pipe has now received all the work
that can be beftowed on it by the maker, previous to its
being burned •, but as the expofing of it to heat, while
foft and pliable, would make it crack, it is neceffary
that it be properly dried. For this purpofe, a frame is
prepared, compofed of three or four long pieces of
wood, faftened to two end pieces in fuch a manner, as
that the middle of the frame (hall be the loweft, to give
the fhanks of the pipes that curve which they generally
poffefs. After being trimmed, the pipes are laid befide
each other in this concave frame, with their boles hang¬
ing down over the edges of the frame, and their thanks
bending within its hollow. In this petition they are ex-
pofed to the air till they are dry and firm. They are
then ready for burning or baking.
Burning.—For burning or baking the pipes, there is
to be prepared a kiln of a fimple but peculiar conftruc-
tion. It is built in the form of a cylinder, clofe at the
bottom and on the tides, and open at the top. Below
the bottom is a grate for receiving the fuel, and round
the fides are conilrufted vertical or fpiral Hues, opening
1
at the top, and communicating below with the grate. Tobacco*
The fides of the furnace on its interior are pretty thin, 1 obagQ'
and are formed of a cement compofed of clay mixed ^
with frefh cow dung. In the middle of the cavity is
placed a pedeffal compofed of the fame materials, for
the pipes to lean againft. When the pipes are fuffi-
ciently dried, they are arranged round this pedeftal,
reiling againft it, and againft each other, with their
boles next the bottom of the furnace. They are thus
placed in fuccefiive layers, till the furnace be fufficiently
full, when the open ipace at top is filled up with bricks
placed over each other, fo as to leave interftices for the
free circulation of the air, and of the fmoke and flame
which iffue through the flues. In thefe interftices are
laid feveral pieces of broken dried pipes, to ferve as py¬
rometers for afeertaining the ftate of the included pipes
during the burning. The fire is now lighted, and kept
up, till, on examining the pieces of clay laid in the in¬
terftices of the bricks, it is concluded that the pipes
within the furnace are fufficiently baked. The fire is
then fuffered to go out, and the whole to cool till the
next day, when the bricks are taken down, the pipes
removed, and packed in barrels for fale.
After being burnt, the pipes are fometimes glazed,
which is done by rubbing them, while warm, with flan¬
nel and a little white wax. In fome places the extre¬
mities of the (hanks are rendered fmooth by dipping
them before burning in the ordinary potters glazing,
which prevents that adhefion to the lips fo unpleafant in
new unglazed pipes.
TOBAGO, one of the Caribbee iflands, ceded to
Great Britain by the treaty of Paris in 1763, taken by
the French in 1781, and retaken by the Britifli in
1793. It lies in the latitude of 11 degrees 10 minutes
north, and 59 degrees 40 minutes longitude weft from
London, about 40 leagues fouth-by-weft from Barba-
does, 35 fouth-eaft from St Vincents, 20 fouth-eaft
from Grenada, 12 north-eaft from the Spanifli ifland of
Trinidada, and between 30 and 40 north-eaft from the
Spanifti main. According to the lateft accounts, it is
fomewhat more than 30 miles in length from north-eaft
to fouth-weft, between 8 and 9 in breadth, and from 23
to 25 leagues in circumference. The Englifh vifited
this ifland very early, Sir Robert Dudley being there in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In that of Charles I.
William earl of Pembroke procured a grant of this,
with two other fmall iflands ; but died before he was able
to cany into execution his defign of fettling them. In
A. D. 1632 fome merchants of Zealand fent over a
fmall colony thither, and gave it the name of New Wal-
cheren ; but before they were able thoroughly to efta-
blifh themfelves, they were deftroyed by the Indians af-
fifted by the Spaniards. Ten years after, James duke
of Courland fent a colony thither, who fettled them-
felves upon Great Courland bay, and made a confider¬
able progrefs in planting. A. D. 1654, Meffieurs A-
drian and Cornelius Lampfius, two opulent merchants
of Flufhing, fent a confiderable number of people thi¬
ther, who fettled on the other fide of the ifland, and
lived in amity with the Courlanders, until they learned
that the king of Sweden had feized the perfon of their
duke and difpofleffed him of his dominions, when they
attacked and forced his fubje&s to fubmit. The duke
being afterwards reftored, he obtained from Charles II.
a grant of this ifland, dated the 17th of November
1664.
T O B r 447 ] T O K
Tobago, j 664. In the fecond Dutch war the count d’Eftrees,
Iobohki. order of his mafter, totally ruined it at the clofe of
■—~v“~ the year 1677 j and from that time it continued wafte
till Britain took pofleffion of it after the treaty of Paris.
The climate, notwithflanding its vicinity to the line, is
fo tempered by the breezes from the fea, as to be very
fupportable even to Europeans ; and hath the fame ad*
vantages with that of Grenada, in having regular fea-
lons, and alfo in being exempt from the hurricanes.
There are throughout the iiland many rifing grounds,
though, except at the north-eaft extremity, there is no
part of it that can be ftyled mountainous; and even
there the country is far from being rugged or impalfable.
The foil, if we may credit either Dutch or French wri¬
ters, is as fertile and luxuriant as any of the iflands,
and very finely diverfified. Ground provifions of all
forts have been raifed in great plenty, a vatf variety of
vegetables, excellent in their kind, fome for food, fome
for phyfic. Almoft every Ipecies of ufeful timber is to
be found here, and fome of an enormous fize 5 amongft
others, the true cinnamon and nutmeg tree, as the
Dutch confefs, and of which none could be better
judges j whole groves of faffafras, and of trees that bear
the true gum copal, with other odoriferous plants that
render the air wholefome and pleafant. It is as well
watered as can be wifiied, by rivers that fall into the
fea on both fides, many fmaller ftreams, and fine frdh
fprings in almoft every part of the ifland. The fea-
coaft is indented by 10 or 12 fair and fpacious bays,
and there are amongft thefe one or two ports capable of
receiving as large fliips as ever vifited thofe feas. There
are wild hogs in great plenty, abundance of fowls of
different kinds, and a vaft variety of fea and river fifh.
At the north-eaft extremity lies Little Tobago, which
is two miles long, and about half a mile broad, very
capable of improvement.
TOBOLSKI, the capital of Siberia, is fituated at
the confluence of the rivers Tobol and Irtifti, in N. Lat.
58° 12', E. Long. 68° 18'. The city ftands upon the
afcent of a high hill, the lower part of which is inha¬
bited by Mahometan Tartars, who carry on a confider-
able traffic upon the river Irtifh, and convey their mer-
chandife quite acrofs Great Tartary, as far as China.
The river Irtifti is reckoned as rapid as the Danube j
runs from the fouth, and empties itfelf into the Oby :
the Tobol wafties the other fide of the town, and a lit¬
tle below it falls into the Irtifh. By means of thefe
two rivers, there is a conftant flow of merchandife into
the city during the fummer feafon. Tobolfki is there¬
fore a great mart for the commodities of Mufcovy, Tar¬
tary, and other countries : and here is a great concourfe
of merchants. All forts of provifions are plentiful and
cheap. An hundred weight of rice is fold for 16 co-
pecs, equal to about eightpence fterling j a fturgeon
weighing 40 pounds, for half that money ; an ox for
tivo rix-dollars, and every other article in proportion :
the adjacent country abounds with game in great va¬
riety. rJ'he fupreme court of judicature for all Siberia
is held in this city, which is alfo the feat of a metropo¬
litan, fent hither from Mofcow to exercife fpiritual ju-
rifdiftion over the whole kingdom. ToboHki is well
fortified, and defended by a ftrong garrifon, under the
command of the waiwode, who refides in the place, and
takes charge of the fur tribute, which is here depofited
in proper magazines.. This governor enjoys a very ex-
tenfive command, and can occafionally bring into the Toboliki,
field 9000 men, befides a ftrong body of Tartars on -^°kriy
horfeback, to make head againft the Kalmucks and , ‘j1 ’ j
Coflacks, in their repeated incurfions. A iufficient num¬
ber of Ruffians, called Jemjkoiks, are kept in continual
pay by the government, on the banks of the Irtifh, to
fupply travellers on the czar’s account with men, boats,
or carriages, to convey them as far as Surgut on the
Oby, a voyage of 200 leagues by water. This is the
common method of travelling in the fummer 5 but in
winter the journey by land is not half fo long, being
performed in fleds over the ice and fnow, with which
the country is covered. Thefe fleds are moved by a
pair of dogs, which will draw a load of 300 pounds
with furprifing expedition. They are hired at eaiy
rates, and during one half of the year may be feen fly¬
ing over the fnow in great numbers. The city is fup-
pofed to contain 15,000 inhabitants. It is 800 miles
eaft from Molcow, and 1000 from Peteifburgh.
TODDA Panna. See Cycas, Botany Index.
TODDY, a name given to the juice of the cocoa-
nut tree. See Arack.—Toddy is alio a name given to
a mixture of fpirits, wrater, and fugar.
TODDT-Bird. See Loxia, Ornithology Index.
TODUS, the Tody j a genus of birds belonging to
the order of picae. See Ornithology Index.
TOGA, in Roman antiquity, a wide woollen gown
or mantle, which feems to have been of a femicircular
form, without fleeves j differing both in richnefs and
largenefs, according to the circumifances of the wearer,
and ufed only upon occafion of appearing in public.
Every body knows that the toga was the diiiinguifli-
ed mark of a Roman : hence, the jus togee, or privilege
of a Roman citizen ; i. e. the right of wearing a Roman
habit, and of taking, as they explain it, fire and water
through the Roman empire.
TOKAY wine, derives its name from a town of
Hungary, where it is produced. There are four forts
of wine made from the fame grapes, diftinguifhed at
Tokay by the names of ejfence, oufpruch, majslack, and
the common wine. The effence is made by picking out
the half-dried and fhrivelled grapes, and putting them
into a perforated veffel, where they remain as long as
any juice runs off by the mere preffure of their own
weight. This is put into fmall calks. The aufprucb is
made by pouring the expreffed juice of the grapes from
which the former had been picked on thofe that yielded
the effence, and treading them with the feet. The
liquor thus obtained ftands for a day or two to ferment,
and then is poured into fmall calks, which are kept in
the air for about a month, and afterwards put into calks.
The fame procefs is again repeated by the addition of
more juice to the grapes which have already undergone
the two former preffures, and they are now wrung with
the hands ; and thus is had the mafslach. The fourth
kind is made by taking all the grapes together at firft,
and fubmitting them to the greateft preffure : this is
chiefly prepared by the peafants. The effence is thick,
and very fweet and lufeious : it is chiefly ufed to mix
with the other kinds. The aufpruch is the wine com¬
monly exported, and which is known in foreign coun¬
tries by the name of Tohay.
The goodnefs of it is determined by the following
rules. The colour fliould neither be reddifh nor very
pale, but a light filver ; in trying it, the palate and tip
of
T O L [ 448 ] T O L
Tokay cf the tongue (hould be wetted without fwallowing it,
1'V‘ne and if it manifeft any acrimony to the tongue it is not
Toledo. g0°d > but the tafte ought to be foft afid mild : when
y—poured out, it (hould form globules in the glafs, and
have an oily appearance : when genuine, the (trongeft
is always of the bed quality : when (wallowed, it ihould
have an earthy aftringent tafte in the mouth, which is
called the tafte of the root. All tokay wine has an aro¬
matic tafte, which diftinguifhes it from every other fpe-
cies of wine. It keeps to any age, and improves by
time : but is never good till about three years old. It
is the beft way to tranfport it in calks •, for when it is
on the feas, it ferments three times every feafon, and
thus refines itfelf. When in bottles, there muft be an
empty fpace left between the wine and the cork, other-
wife it would burft the bottle. A little oil is put upon
the (urface, and a piece of bladder tied over the cork.
The bottles are always laid on their fides in fand. Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ixiii. part ii. p. 292, &c.
TOKENS. See ABES MENS Tokens.
TOISE, a French meafure containing fix of their
feet, or a fathom.
TOLAND, John, a famous writer, was born near
Londonderry in Ireland in 1670, and educated in the
Popiftr religion 5 but at 16 years of age embraced the
principles of the Proteftants. He ftudied three years at
the univerfity of Glafgow $ wras created mafler of arts in
the univerfity of Edinburgh j and afterwards completed
his ftudies at Leyden, wEere he refided two years. He
then went to Oxford, where, having the advantage of
the public library, he colledfed materials upon various
fubjefts, and compofed home pieces j among which was,
A Difiertation to prove the received hiftory of the tra¬
gical death of Atilius Regulus, the Roman conful, to
be a fable. He began likewife a work of greater con-
(equence, in which he undertook to (howr that there are
no myfteries in the Chriftian religion. He publiftied it
in 1696 at London, under the title of Chriftianity not
mysterious. This book gave great offence, and was at¬
tacked by feveral writers. He afterward wrote in fa¬
vour of the Hanoverian fucceftion, and many other
pieces. In 1707 he went into Germany, where he vi-
fited feveral courts 5 and in 1710 he was introduced to
Prince Eugene, who gave him feveral marks of his ge-
nerofity. Upon his return to England he wras for fome
time fupported by the liberality of the earl of Oxford
1 rd-treafurer, and kept a country boufe at Epfom •, but
focn lofing his lordftiip’s favour, he publifhed feveral
pamphlets againft that minifter’s meafures. In the laft
four years of his life he lived at Putney, but ufed to
fpend moft part of the winter in London. Mr 'Poland
died at London in 1722. He wras a man of uncommon
abilities, publilhed a number of curious trafts, and was
pe'haps the moft learned cf all the infidel waiters •, but
hu private charafler was far from being an amiable one 5
for he was extremely vain, and w’anted thofe focial vir¬
tues which are the chief ornaments as well as duties of
life. H's pofthumous works, twm volumes oflavo, were
publiftied in 1726, with an account of his life and wait¬
ings, by Mr Des Maizeaux.
TOLEDO, an ancient and trading city of Spain in
Bonrgoan- New7 Caftile, of which it was formerly the capital.
ne'i Tru itt About two centuries ago it is faid to have contained
than 200 oco inhabitants; but they are now di-
minifticd io 20,000, or at moft to 30,000. It is ad-
2
vantageofly feated on the river Tajo, wdiich furrounds it Toledo,
on tw'O fides; and on the land fide, it has an ancient roleratiun.
w7all built by a Gothic king, and fianked with ico
towers. It is feated on a mountain, which renders the
ftreets uneven, and which are narrow7; but the houfes
are fine, and there are a great number of fuperb ftruc-
tures, befides 17 public fquares, where the markets are
kept. The finelt buildings are the royal caftle and the
cathedral church •, which laft is the richeft and mod
confiderable in Spain. It is feated in the middle of the
city, joining to a handfome ftreet, with a fine fquare
before it. Several of the gates are very large, and of
bronze. There is alfo a fuperb fteeple, extremely high,
from whence there is a very diftant profpedf. The ba-
grariro, or piincipal chapel, is a real treafury, in which
are 15 large cabinets let into the wall, full of prodigious
quantities of gold and (iiver veffels, and other works.
There are tw-o mitres of filver gilt, fet all over with
pearls and precious (tones, with three collars of maffy
gold, enriched in like manner. There are two brace¬
lets and an imperial crown of ihe Virgin Mary, confid¬
ing of large diamonds and other jewels. The weight
oi the gold in the crown is 15 pounds. The vtffel
W'hich contains the confecrated wafer is of fiiver gilt, as
high as a man, and fo heavy, that it requires 30 men
to cany it \ within it is another of pure gold enriched
with jewels. Here are 38 religious houfes, moft of
which are worthy a traveller’s notice, with many other
facred buildings, a great number of churches belonging
to 27 parifties, and lome hofpitals. Without the town
are the remains of an amphitheatre, and other antiqui¬
ties.
Toledo is an archbifliop’s fee, and the feat of the pri¬
mate of Spain. His revenue is faid to be wmrth
400,000 ducats, but there are large deduftions to be
made from it. It pays 15,000 ducats to the monks oi,ymin,
the Efcuml, befides feveral other penfions. Toledo has
alfo a univerfity. It was formerly celebrated for the
exquifite temper of the fword blades made there. It is
fituated in E. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 39. 50. and is 37
miles fouth from Madrid.
TOLERATION, in matters of religion, is either
civil or ecclefiaftical. Civil toleration is an impunity
and fafety granted by the (late to every fed! that does
not maintain dotffrines inconfiftent with the public
peace : and ecclefiaftical toleration is the allowance
which the church grants to its members to differ rti cer¬
tain opinions, not reputed fundamental.
As the gods of Paganifm were almoft all local and
tutelary, and as it was a maxim univerfally received
that it was the duty of every man to worftup, together
with his owrn deities, the tutelary gods of the country
in udiich he might chance to refide, there was no room
for perfecution in the Heathen world, on account of dif¬
ferent fentiments in religion, or of the different rites
with which the various deities were woi(hipped. Had
the primitive Chriftians joined their fellow-citizens in
the worffiip of Jupiter, Juno, and the reft of the rabble
of Roman divinities, they wmuld have been fuffered to
worftiip, without moleftation, the Creator of the world
and the Redeemer of mankind ; for in that cafe the
God of the Chriftians w7ould have been looked upon as
a Being of the fame kind with the gods of the empire j
and the great principle of intercommunity would have
remained unviolated. But the true God had exprefsly
prohibited
T O L [ 449 1 T O L
T6lcnaior. prohibited both Jews and Chrifiians from worfhipping
' ^ •r—~J any other god befides Himftlf j and it was their refufal
to break that precept of their religion which made their
Heathen mafters look upon them as Atheifts, and per-
fecute them as a people inimical to the Hate. Utility,
and not truth, was the objeft for which the Heathen
Jegiflatures fupported the national religion. They well
knew' that the dories told by their poets of their differ¬
ent,divinities,, of the rewards of Elyftum, and of the
puni/lnnents of Tartarus, were a colle&ion of fenfelefs
fables; but they had nothing better to piopofe to the
vulgar, and they were not fuch Ihrangers to the human
heart, as to fuppofe that mankind could live together in
. fociety without being influenced in their conduct by
fome religion*
Widely different from the genius of Paganifm was
the fpirit of the Jewifh difpenfation. Truth, which is
in fabf always coincident wdth general utility, was the
great objedl of the Mofaic law. The children of Ifrael
were feparated from the reft of the world, to preferve
the knowledge and worftiip of the true God, at a time
when all the other nations on earth, forgetting the Lord
that made them, were falling proftrate to llocks and
fton'es, and wTorftiipping devils and impure fpirits. Such
was the contagion of idolatry, and fo ftrong the propen-
fity of the Ifraelites to the cuftoms and manners of the
Egyptians, and other polytheiftic nations around them,
that the purpofe of their feparation could not have been
ferved, had not Jehovah condelcended to become not
only their tutelary God, but even their fupreme civil
Magiftrate (fee Theology, N° 151.) ; fo that under
.the Mofaic economy, idolatry was the crime of high
treafon, and as fuch juftly punithed by the laws of the
ftate. Among the .Tews, the church and ftate were not
indeed different focieties. They were fo thoroughly in¬
corporated, that what wras a fin in the one was a crime
in the other; and the forfeiture of ecclefiaftical privile¬
ges w'as the forfeiture of *he rights of citizens.
In many refpefls the Chriftian religion is direffly op-
pofite to the riiual law of Moles. It is calculated for
all nations, and intended to be propagated among all.
Inftead of feoarating one people from another, one of
its principal objects is to dilfeminate univerfal benevo¬
lence, and to inculcate upon the whole human race,
that mutual love wLich naturally fprings from the
knowledge that all men are brethren. Its ultimate end
being to train its votaries for heaven, it concerns itfelf
no farther with the affairs of earth than to enforce by
eternal fanftions the laws of morality ; and the king¬
dom of its Founder not being of this world, it leaves
every nation at liberty to fabricate its own municipal
laws, fo as beft to ferve its own intereft in the various
circumftances in which it may be placed ; and denounces
a curfe upon all who pay not to thofe laws the fulleft
obedience, •when they are not obvioufly inconfiftent
with the laws of piety and virtue, which are of prior
.obligation. The Chriftian church therefore muft always
remain a d'ftinft fociety from the ftate ; and though,
ti1l the prefent age of hazardous innovations, it has been
deemed expedient in everv country, where the truth of
the gofpel is admitted, to give to the religion of Chrift:
a legal eftahl’lhment, and to confer immunities on its
Tninifters, this meafure has been adopted, not to fecure
tl’e nuritv of the faith, which appeals to the private
judgement of each individual, but merely to preferve
^ Vol. XX. Part II.
the peace of iociety, and to put a reftraint upen thofe Toleration,
ablions of which human lawrs cannot take cogmz.i ,ce. ^
With religion, Chriftian governments have no farther
concern than as it tends to promote the prablice of vir¬
tue. The early Clniftians, however, not underftanding
the principle upon which penal laws were employed to
preferve the purity of the Jewilh religion ; and, as our
bleffed Lord obierved to two of his apoftles, not know¬
ing what fpirit they were of—baftily concluded that
they had a right to enforce the dodtrines and w'orlhip of
the New leftament, by the fame means which had
been uled to preferve the Ifraelites fteady to the doc¬
trines and worihip of the Old. Hence, though they
had fuffered the cruelleft -perfecutions themfelves (fee
Persecution), they no fooner got the power of the
ftate in their hands, than they perfecuted the Pagans
for their idolatry ; and afterwards, when herefies arofe
in the church, perfecuted one another for exprefling in
difterent phrafes metaphylical propofitions, of fuch a na¬
ture as no human mind can fully comprehend. The
apoftle had forewarned them that there muft be herefies
in the church, that they who are approved may be made
manifeft ; but it did not occur to them that perfecution
for opinion is the worft of all herefies, as it violates at
once truth and charity.
Hitherto thefe unhallowed means of bringing Chri-
ftians to uniformity of faith and pra&ice, had been only
occafionally employed, from their not accurately diftin-
guifhing between the fpirit of the gofpel and that of the
law ; but as foon as the bifhops of Rome had brought
the inhabitants of Europe to recognize their infallibility
in explaining articles of faith and deciding points of
controverfy, perfecution became a regular and perma¬
nent inilrument of ecclefiaftical difeipline. To doubt
or to deny any do&rine to which thefe unerring inftruc-
tors had given the fanftion of their approbation, was
held to be not only a refitting of the truth, but an aft of
rebellion againft their facred authority ; and the fecular
power, of which, by various arts, they had acquired
the abfolute direftion, was inftantly employed to avenge
both.
“ T. bus Europe had been accuftomed, during many Robertforft
centuries, to fee fpeculative opinions propagated or de- ^j^0,y °f
fended by force; the charity and mutual forbearance which Charles V-
Chriftianity recommends with fo much warmth, were
forgotten, the facred rights of confcience and of private
judgement were unheard of, and not only the idea of
toleration, but even the word ilfelf, in the fenfe now af¬
fixed to it, was unknown. A right to extirpate error by-
force, was univerfally alkwved to be the prerogative of
thofe who poffeffed the knowledge of truth ; and though
the firft reformers did not arrogate to themfelves in di-
reft terms that infallibility which they had refufed to the
church of Rome, they were not lefs confident of the
truth of their own doftrines, and required with equal
ardour the princes of their party to check fuch as prefu¬
med to impugn or to oppofe them. To this requeft too
many of thefe princes lent a willing ear. I fl ittered at
once their pietv and their pride to be confidered as pof-
fefting all the rights of Jewifh princes ; and Henry the
VIII. of England, after labouring to make his divines
declare that all authority ecclefiaftical fvs well as civil
flows from the crown, perfecuted alternately the Papifts
and Proteftants. Many of his fucceffors, whofe charac¬
ters were much better than his, thought thenifdves duly
3 ^ authorized
T O L r 450 ] TOM
Toleration, authorized, in virtue of their acknowledged fupremacy
over all Hates and conditions of men, to enforce by-
means of penal laws a uniformity of faith and worlhip
gmong their fubjefls : and it was not till the revolution
that any fe6t in England feems to have fully under-
Hood, that all men have an unalienable right to worlhip
God in the manner which to them may leem mofl fuit-
able to his nature, and the relation in which they Hand
to him ; or that it is impoflible to produce uniformity
of opinion by any other means than candid difquifition
and found reafoning. That the civil magiflrate has a
right to check the propagation of opinions which tend
only to fap the foundations of virtue, and to diiturb the
peace of fociety, cannot, we think, be queHioned ; but
that he has no right to reHrain mankind from publicly
profefling any fyftem of faith, which comprehends the
being and providence of God, thl great laws of mora¬
lity, and a future Hate of rewards and punifhments, is
as evident as that it is the objeft of religion to fit man¬
kind for heaven, and the whole duty of the magiHrates
to maintain peace, liberty, and property, upon earth.
We have elfewhere obferved (fee Test), that among
a number of different fefts of Chriflians, it is not the
fuperior purity of the fyfiem of faith profeffed by one of
them, that gives it a right to the immunities of an efia-
blifhment in preference to all its rivals $ but though the
legiflature is authorized, in certain circumHances, to
make a lefs pure fyfiem the religion of the Hate, it would
be the height of abfurdity to fuppofe that any man, or
body of men, can have authority to prevent a purer
fyfiem from being acknowledged as the religion of indi¬
viduals. For propagating opinions and purfuing pra£fi-
ces which neceffarily create civil difiurbance, every man
is anfwerable to the laws of his country; but for the
foundnefs of his faith, and the purity of his worfhip, he
is anfwerable to no tribunal but that which can fearch
the heart.
When churches are eflablilhed, and creeds drawn up
as guides to the preaching of the national clergy, it
is obvious that every clergyman who teaches any thing
direflly contrary to the doflrine of fuch creeds, violates
the condition on which he holds his living, and may be
juflly deprived of that living, whether his obnoxious opi¬
nion be in itfelf true or falfe, important or unimportant ;
but his punifhment fhould be extended no farther. To
expel a Chriflian from private communion for teaching
any do&rine which is neither injurious to the Hate nor
contrary to the few fimple articles which comprife the
fum of the Chrifiian faith, is the grofiefi tyranny; and
the governors of that church which is guilty of it, ufurp
the prerogative of the bleffed Lord, w'ho commanded
the apofiles themfelves not to be called mafiers in this
fenfe ; for one (fays he) is your mafler * x»6riyrlns'),
even Chrifi. It is indeed a hardfliip to deprive a man of
his living for confcientioufiy illuftrating what he believes
to be a truth of the gofpel, only becaufe his illufiration
may be different from that which had formerly been gi¬
ven by men fallible like himfelf; but if the eflablifti-
ment of human compilations of faith be neceffary, this
hardlhip cannot be removed, but by making fuch com¬
pilations as fimple as poffible, and drawing them up in
fcripture language. Such a reformation, could it be ef-
fe£!ed peaceably, would ferve other good purpofes ; for
while it would fufficiently guard the purity of the faith,
it would withdraw that temptation which too many efia-
blifhments throw in the way of men, to fubfcribe to the Toleration
truth of what they do not really believe ; and it would >1
effectually banifli from the Chnfiian church every thing , r°mb-
which can be called by the name of perfecution. See J
Nonconformists.
TOLL, a tax or cufiom paid for liberty to vend
goods in a market or fair, or for keeping roads in pro¬
per repair. I he firfi appointment of a toll on highways
of which wfe read, took place in 1346. See Road.
TOLOUSE. See Toulouse.
TOLU, a town of South America in Terra Firma,
and in the government of Carthagena; famous for the
fine balfam of Tolu, brought into Europe from thence,
and produced from a tree like a pine. It is feated on a
bay of the North fea, 60 miles fouth of Carthagena.
W. Long. 72. 55. N. Lat. 9. 40.
TOLU1FERA, the Balsam-oLTolu tree ; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the clafs of decandria. See
Botany, p. 182. and Chemistry, N° 2483.
TOMATOES. See Solanum, Botany Index.
TOMB, includes both the grave or fepulchre wherein
a defunft is interred, and the monument erefted to pre-
ferve his memory. The word is formed from the Greek
rvftQos, tumulus^ “ fepulchre or, according to Me¬
nage, from the Latin tumba, which fignifies the fame.
In many nations it has been cuflomary to burn the
bodies of the dead, and to colled the allies with pious
care into an urn, which was depofited in a tomb or fe¬
pulchre. See Burning. Among many nations it has
alfo been the pradice to lay the dead body in a tomb,
without confuming it, after having wrapped it up de¬
cently, and fometimes placing it in a coffin. See Cof¬
fin.
The tombs of the Jew's w'ere generally hollow places
hewn out of a rock. Abraham buried Sarah in a cave.
Such was the place too in which the kings of Judah and
Ifrael were interred : and fiich wras the place in which
the body of our Saviour was depofited by Jofeph of Ari-
mathea. But it is probable that the common people bu¬
ried their dead in graves ; for our Saviour compares the
Pharifees to “ graves which appear not, and the men that
walk over them are not aware of them.” Over the
tombs, perhaps only of people of difiindion, a Hone or
monument was ereded, to intimate to paffengers that
they were burying places, that they might not pollute
themfelves by touching them. With the fame intention,
as Lightfoot informs us, they whitened them every year
on the 15th of February.
The Egyptians alfo buried their dead in caves, called
catacombs. See Catacomb. The pyramids, as fome
think, were alfo employed for the fame purpofe. Some¬
times alfo, after embalming their dead, they placed them
m niches in fome magnificent apartment in their hou-
fes.
The Greeks and Romans burned their dead, and depo¬
fited their affies in a tomb. The Greeks interred the
affies without the cities, by the fides of their highways.
Sometimes indeed, by way of particular honour, they
were buried in an elevated part of the town; and the
Lacedemonians were allowed by Lycurgus to bury in
the city and round their temples : But this was forbid¬
den among the Romans by the law of the twelve tables,.
In urbe ne fepelito, neve urito ; yet Valerius Publicola,
Poffhuttius Tubertius, and the family of the Claudii,
were buried iu the Capitol. To bury by the fides of
public
TOM [ 45* 1 TON
Tomb, public roads was common among the Romans alfo j
v ' ' hence their epitaphs frequently began with JiJle viator.
Highways were made choice of probably for two rea-
fons: i. That the dead might not be offenfive or injure
the health of the living, which they certainly would if
buried in towns or populous places ; and, 2dly, That
they might hold out to travellers a ieffon of mortality,
and teach the ruftic moralift to die.
As it would fwell this article to too great a fize to de-
fcribe all the difterent kinds of tombs which have been
ufed by different nations and ages, we muft consent our-
felves with Ihortly defcribing the tombs of a few nations,
and adding a few concomitant circumifances.
The tombs of the Parfees are Angular. The deceafed,
after lying a proper time in his own houfe, for the pur-
pofes of mourning, is carried, followed by his relations
and friends, the females chanting a requiem, and depo-
fited in a tomb of the following conftruftion. It is a
circular building, open at top, about 55 feet diameter,
and 25 feet in height, filled to within 5 feet of the top,
excepting a well of 15 feet diameter in the centre. The
part fo filled is terraced, with a flight declivity toward
the well. Two circular grooves three inches deep are
railed round the well j the firft at the diftance of four,
the fecond at ten, feet from the well. Grooves of the
like depth or height, and four feet diftant from each
other at the outer part of the outer circle, are carried
ftraight from the wall to the well, communicating with
the circular ones, for the purpofe of carrying off the
water, &c. The tomb, by this means, is divided into
three circles of partitions : the outer, about feven feet
by four : the middle fix by three : the inner, four by
two : the outer for the men, the middle for the women,
the inner for the children j in which the bodies are re-
fpedtively placed, wrapped loofely in a piece of cloth,
and left to be devoured by the vultures 5 which is very
foon done, as numbers of thofe animals are always feen
hovering and watching about thefe charnel houfes, in
expe&ation of their prey. The friends of the deceafed,
or the perfons who have charge of the tomb, come at
the proper time, and throw the bones into their recep¬
tacle, the well in the centre ; for which purpofe, iron
rakes and tongs are depofited in the tomb. The en¬
trance is clofed by an iron door, four feet fquare, on the
eaftern fide, as high up as the terrace, to which a road
is raifed. Upon the wall, above the door, an additional
wall is raifed, to prevent people from looking into the
tomb, which the Parfees are particularly careful to pre¬
vent. A Perfian infcription is on a ftone inferted over
the door, which we once copied, but have forgotten its
tenor. From the bottom of the wall fubterraneous paf-
fages lead to receive the bones, &c. and prevent the
well from filling.
Of the ancient fepulchres found in Ruflia and Siberia,
fome are perfedt tumuli, raifed to an enormous height,
Archteolo. while others are almoft level with the ground. Some of
g.a, vol. vii. them are encompaffed with a fquare wall of large quarry
Rones placed in an eredt pofition; others are covered
only with a fmall heap of ftones, or they are tumuli
adorned with ftones at top. Some are walled with brick
within, and vaulted over j others are no more than pits
or common graves. In fome the earth is excavated feve-
ral fathoms deep j others, and efpecially thofe which are
topped by a lofty tumulus, are only dug of a fufticient
depth for covering the carcafe. In many of thefe fe- Tomb
pulchres the bones of men, and frequently of horfes, are II
found, and in a condition that renders it probable the , ^ or'e‘
bodies were not burnt before they were inhumed. Other '
bones fhow clearly that they have been previoufly burnt 5
becaufe a part of them is unconfumed, and becaufe they
lie in a difordered manner, and fome of them are w anting.
Urns, in which other nations of antiquity have depofited
the afties of their dead, are never met with here. But
fometimes what remained of their bodies after the combuf-
tion, and even whole carcafes, are found wrapped up in
thin plates of gold. Many dead bodies are frequently
feen depofited together in one tomb ; a certain indication
that either a battle had been fought in the neighbour¬
hood of the place, or that fome families buried their rela¬
tions in an hereditary tomb.
The Moors, like all other Mahometans, hold it a
thing irreverent, and contrary to the fpirit of religion,
to bury their dead in mofques, and to profane the temple
of the Moft High by the putrefa&ion of dead bodies.
In the infancy of the church the Chriftians had the like Chenier’’t
piety, and gave example of the refpedl in which they M°r?cc*>
held temples dedicated to religious worfliip j but ill-vol,1‘
guided devotion, mingled with fuperftitious vanities, and
that contagious fpirit of felf-intereft which pervades all
human affairs, without refpe&ing the altar of God, have>
together, infenfibly perverted men’s ideas. The burial
grounds of the Mahometans are moft of them without
the city ; the emperors have their fepulchres diftinft and
diftant from the mofque, in fandluaries, built by them-
felves, or in places udiich they have indicated : their
tombs are exceedingly fimple * the Moors do not imitate
the oftentation of Europeans, where fuperb monuments
are raifed rather to gratify the pride of the living than
the merit of the dead.
All Mahometans inter the dead at the hour fet apart
for prayer. The defunft is not kept in the houfe, ex¬
cept he expires after f'unfet j but the body is tranfported
to the mofque, whither it is carried by thofe who are
going to prayer. Each, from a fpirit of devotion, is de-
firous to carry in his turn. The Moors fing at their bu¬
rial fervice; which ufage perhaps they have imitated af¬
ter the Chriftians of Spain, for the oriental Mahome¬
tans do not fing. They have no particular colour ap¬
propriated to mourning; their grief for the lofs of rela¬
tions is a fenfation of the heart they do not attempt to
exprefs by outward fymbols. Women regularly go on
the Friday to weep over and pray at the fepulchres of
the dead, whofe memory they hold dear.
Among the northern nations it was cuftomary to bury
their dead under heaps of ftones called cairns, or under
barrows: (See the articles Cairns and Barrow). The
inhabitants of Tibet, it is faid, neither bury nor bum
their dead, but expofe them on the tops of mountains.
See Tibet.
TOMPION; a fort of bung or cork ufed to ftop the
mouth of a cannon. At fea this is carefully encircledi
with tallow or putty, to prevent the penetration of the
water into the bore, wdiereby the powder contained in
the chamber might be damaged or rendered incapable of
lervice.
TON, a meafure or weight. See Tun.
TONE, or Iune, in Mujic, a property of found,
thereby it comes under the relation of grave and acute $
3 L 2 or
TON r 45
Tone or the degree of elevation any found has, from the de-
rr, II gree . f fwiftnefs of the vibrations of the parts of the fo-
ronnaee. 0 ,
^ ^ norous body.
The variety of tones in human voices arifes partly
frotn the dimenfions of the windpipe, which, like a flute,
the longer and narrower it is, the (harper the tone it
gives ; but principally from the head of the larynx or
knot of the throat: the tone of the voice being more or
lefs grave as the rima or cleft thereof is more or lefs
open.
The wmrd tone is taken in four different fenfes among
the ancients : i. For any found ; 2. For a certain in¬
terval, as when it is faid the difference between the dia-
pente and diatelfaron is a tone ; 3. Fora certain locus
or compafs of the voice, in which lenfe they ufed the
" Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian tones 5 4. For tenfion, as when
they fpeak of an acute, grave, or a middle tone.
Tone is more particularly ufed, in muflc, for a cer¬
tain degree or interval of tune, wflrereby a found may be
either raifed or lowered from one extreme of a concord
to the other, fo as ftill to produce true melody.
TONGUE. See Anatomy, N° 102.
TONIC, in Mujic, lignifies a certain degree of ten¬
fion, or the found produced by a vocal firing in a given
degree of tenflon, or by any fonorous body when put in
vibration.
Tonic, fays Rouffeau, is like wife the name given by
Anffoxenus to one of the three kinds of chromatic mu-
fic, whofe divifions he explains, and which was the or¬
dinary chromatic of the Greeks, proceeding by -two
femitones in fucceflion, and afterwards a third minor.
TONIC Dominant. See DOMINANT.
TONNAGE and Poundage, an ancient duty on
wine and other goods, the origin of which feems to have
been this: About the 2ift of Edward III. complaint
was made that merchants were robbed and murdered on
the feas. The king thereupon, with the confent of the
peers, levied a duty of 2s. on every ton of wine, and
12d. in the pound on all goods imported ; which was
treated as illegal by the commons. About 25 years
after, the king, wdien the knights of (hires were re¬
turned home, obtained a like grant from the citizens
and burgeffes, and the year after it was regularly grant¬
ed in parliament. Thefe duties were diminifhed fome-
times, and fometimes increafed j at length they feem to
Blaekft. have been fixed at 3s. tonnage and is. poundage. They
Comment. wrere at firft ufually granted only for a (fated term of
vo1, u years, as, for two years in 5 Ric. II. ; but in Henry
VI.’s time they were granted him for life by a ftatute
in the 31(1 year of his reign ; and again to Edward IV.
for the term of his life alfo : fince which time they
were regularly granted to all his fucceffors for life,
fometimes at the firft, fometimes at other fubfequent
parliaments, till the reign of Charles 1.5 when, as the
noble hiftorian expreffes it, his minifters wTere not fuf-
ficiently folicitous for a renewal of his legal grant. And
yet thefe impofts were imprudently and unconftitution-
ally levied and taken, without confent of parliament,
for 1 5 years together; which was one of the caufes of
thofe unhappy difcontents, juftifiable at firft in too
many in (lances, hut wfljich degenerated at laft into caufe-
lefs rebellion and murder. For, as in everya^ther, fo
in this particular cafe, the king (previous to the com¬
mencement of hoftilities) gave the nation ample fatisfac-
tion for the errors of his former conduct, by palling an
2 i TON
a£l, whereby he renounced all power in the crown of Tonnage,
levying the duty of tonnage and poundage, -without the Tonqum;
exprels confent of parliament; and alio all power of im- ~ - v •
pofition upon any merchandiies whatever. Upon the.
reftoration this duty was granted to King Charles II.
for life, and fo it was to his two immediate fuccellbis j
but now, by three feveral (latutes, 9 Ann. c. 6. I Geo.
I. c. 12. and 3 Geo. I. c. 7. it is made perpetual, and
mortgaged for the debt of the public.
TONQUIN, a kingdom of Afia, in the Eaft Indies,
beyond the Ganges ; bounded on the north by the pro¬
vince of Yunnan in China, on the eaft by the province
of Canton and the bay ofTonquin, on the fouth by
Cochin China, and on the weft by the kingdom of
Laos. It is about 1200 miles in length and 5'co in
breadth ; and is one of the fined and moil coi.fideiable
kingdoms of the Eaft, as. well on account of the num¬
ber of inhabitants as the riches it contains and the trade
it carries on. The country is thick fet with villages j
and the natives in general are of a middle (iature and
clean limbed, with a tawny complexion. Their faces
are oval and flattiih, and their nofes and lips ivell pro¬
portioned. Their hair is black, long, lank, and coarfe ;
and they let it hang down their (houlders. They are
generally dexterous, nimble, adlive, and ingenious iu
mechanic arts. They weave a multitude of fine filks,
and make curious lacker-works, which are tranfported
to other countries. There is fuch a number of people,
that many want employment ; for they feldom go to
work but when foreign (hips arrive. The money and
goods brought hither by the Engliih and Dutch put
them in aftion ; for they have not money of their own
fufficient to employ themfelves } and therefore one-third
at lead muft be advanced beforehand by the merchants:
and the (hips muft (lay here till the goods are finiftred,
which is generaliy-five or fix months. I hey are fo ad-
didled to gaming, that when every thing elfe is loft, they
will (lake their wives and children. The garments of
the Tonquinefe are made either of filk or cotton ; but
the poor people and foldiers wear only cotton of a dark
tawny colour. Their houfes are fmall and low $ and
the walls either of mud, or hurdles daubed ovef with
clay. They have only a ground floor, with two or
three partitions ; and each room has a fquare hole to let
in the light. The villages confift of 30 or 40 houfes,
furrounded with trees ; and in fome places there are
banks to keep the water from overflowing their gar¬
dens, where they have oranges, betels, melons, and la-
lad-herbs. In the rainy feafon they cannot pafs from
one houfe to another without wading through the wa¬
ter *, they fometimes have boats. In the capital city
called Cacho there are about 20,000 houfes with mud-
walls, and covered with thatch j a few are built with
brick, and roofed with pan-tiles. In each yard is a
fmall arched building like an oven, about fix feet high,
made of brick, which ferves to fecure their goods in cafe
of fire. The principal ftreets are very wide, and paved
with fmall (tones. The king of Tonquin has three pa¬
laces in it, fuch as they are j and near them are (fables
for his horfes and elephants. The houfe of the Engiiih
factory is feated at the north end of the city, fronting
the river, and is the bed in the city. The people in
general are courteous, and civil to ftrangers ; but the
great men are proud, haughty, and ambitious ; the fol-
dieis infolent, and the poor thievifti. They buy all
TON r 453 I TOP
■fonquin their wives, of which the great men have feveral ; but
II. the poor are {tinted for want of money. In hard times
Tontine- , the men will fell both their wives and children to buy
rice to maintain themlelves. The women offer them-
felves to flrangers as wives wdiile they flay, and agree
with them for a certain price. Even the great men
will offer their daughters to the merchants and officers
who are likely to day fix months in the country. They
are not afraid of being with child ; for if they are girls
they can fell them w'ell when they are young, becaufe
they are fairer than the other inhabitants. Thefe wo¬
men are faid to be very faithful j and are trulied w’ith
money and goods by the Europeans during their ab-
fence, and will make great advantage with them. The
firft new moon in the year that happens after the mid¬
dle of January, is a great feftival -7 when they rejoice
for'io or 12 days together, and fpend their time in all
manner of fports. Their common drink is tea, but they
make themfelves merry with arrack. The language is
fpoken very much in the throat j and fome of the wyords
are pronounced through the teeth, and has a great re-
femblance to the Chinefe. They have feveral mechanic
arts or trades ; fuch as fmiths, carpenters, joiners, tur¬
ners, weavers, taylors, potters, painters, money-changers,
paper-makers, workers in lacker, and bell-founders.—
Their corhmodities are gold, mufk, filks, calicoes, drugs
of many forts, woods for dyeing, lacquered wares,
earthen wares, fait, anifeeds, and worm-feeds. The lac¬
quered xvare is not inferior to that of Japan, which is
accounted the beft in the world. With all thefe mer-
chandifes, one would expert the people to be very rich,
but they are in general very poor ; the chief trade be¬
ing carried on by the Chinefe, Engliffi, and Dutch.
The goods imported, befides filver, are faltpetre, ful-
phur, Engliffi broad-cloth, pepper, fpices, and great
guns.
TONSILS. See Anatomy, N° 102.
TONSURE, in Ecclefiaflical Hi/lory, a particular
manner of (having or clipping the hair of ecclefialtics
or monks. The ancient tonfure of the clergy was
nothing more than polling the head, and cutting the
hair to a moderate degree, for the fake of decency
and gravity : and the fame obfervation is true with
refpedt to the tonfure of the ancient monks. But
the Romans have carried the affair of tonfure much
farther 5 the candidate for it kneeling before the bi-
ftiop, who cuts the hajr in five different parts of the
head, viz. before, behind, on each fide, and on the
crown.
TONTINE, a loan given for life annuities with be¬
nefit of furvivorlhip ; fo called from the inventor Lau¬
rence Tonti, a Neapolitan. He propofed his fcheme
in 1653 to reconcile the ueople to Cardinal Maza¬
rine’s government, by amufing them with the hope of
becoming fuddenly rich. He obtained the confent of
the court, but the parliament would not regifier the
edi<ff. He made attempts afterwards, but without fuc-
cefs.
It was not till Louis XIV. was diflreffed by the league
of Augffiurg, and by his own immenfe expences, that he
had rccourfe to the plans of Tonti, which, though long
laid afide, were not forgotten. By an edi£l in 1689 he
created a Tontine royale of' 1,400,000 livres annual
rent, divided into 14 claffes. The aftions were 300
livres a piece, •and the proprietors were to receive 10I.
per cent, with benefit of furvivorffiip in every clafs. Ten tine
This fcheme was executed but very imperfeclly j for . II,
none of the claffes rofe to above 25,000 livres, inllead iToP~Sa! ^
of 100,000, according to the original iniiitution •, though
the annuities were very regularly paid. A few years
after, the people (eeming in better humour for projedfs--
of this kind, another tontine was eredfed upon nearly
the fame terms, but this was never above half full..
They both fubfifted in the year 1726, when the French
king united the 13th clafs of the firft tontine with the
14th of the fecond 7 all the adfions of which were-
poffeffed by Charlotte Bonnemay, widow of Lewis Bar-
bier, a furgeon of Paris, who died at the age of 96.
This gentlewoman had ventured 300 livres in each ton¬
tine 5 and in the laft year of her life file had for her
annuity 73,500 livres, or about 3600I. a-year, for about
3°!\
The nature of the tontine is this j there is an annuity,
after a certain rate of intereft, granted to a number of
people ; divided into claffes, according to their refpedlive
ages ; fo that annually the whole fund of each clafs is
divided among the furvivors of that clafs ; till at laft it-
falls to one, and upon the extindfion of that life, reverts
to the power by which the tontine was erected, and
which becomes thereby fecurity for the due payment of
the annuities.
TOOL, among mechanics, denotes in general any
inftrument ufed for making other complex inftruments
and machines, or in other operations of the mechanic
arts.
TOOTH, for a defeription of, fee Anatomy, N°
27.
lOOTHACH. See Medicine, N° 210, and Sur¬
gery Index.
ToothACH-Tree. See Zanthoxylum, 7 Botany
TOOTH WORT. See Plumbago, 3 Index*
TOP, a fort of platform, futrounding the lower
mafthead, from which it projects on all fides like a
fcaffold.
The principal intention of the top is to extend the
topmaft Ihrouds, fo as to form a greater angle with the
maft, and thereby give additional fupport to the latter.
It is fuftained by certain timbers fixed acrofs the hounds
or (houlders of the mafts, and called the tre/lle trees and
crofs-trees.
Befides the ufe above-mentioned, the top is otherwife
extremely convenient to contain the materials neceffary
for extending the fmall (ails, and for fixing or repairing
the rigging and machinery with more facility and expe¬
dition. In ffiips of war it is ufed as a kind of redoubt,
and is accordingly fortified for attack or defence; being
furniffied with fwivels, mulketry, and other fire-arms,
and guarded by a thick fence of corded hammocks. Fi¬
nally, it is employed as a place for looking out, either
in the day or night.
ToP-Mqft, the fecond divifion of a maft, or that part
which ftands between the upper and lower pieces. See
the article Mast.
TOP-Sails, certain large fails extended acfofs the top-
rnafts by the topfail-yard above, and by the yard attach¬
ed to the lower maft beneath ; being faftened to the
former by robands, and to the latter by means of two
great blocks fixed on its extremities, through which
the topfail-ffieets are inferted, pafling from thence to
two other blocks fixed on the inner nart of the yard
' * ' clofe
Tepa*
II
Tones.
TOR
clofc by tbe mail j and from thefc latter
lead downwards to the deck, where they may be
flackened or extended at pleafure. See the article
Sail.
TOPAZ, a gem or precious done. See Mineralo¬
gy Index.
TOPE, a fpecies of Squalus. See Ichthyology
Index.
TOPHET. See Hinnom and Moloch.
TOPHUS, in Medicine, denotes a chalky or ftony
concretion in any part of the body $ as the bladder,
kidney, &c. but efpecially in the joints.
TOPIC, a general head or fubjeft of difcourfe.
Topics, in Oratory. See Oratory, N° io—13.
Topics, or Topical Medicines, are the fame with ex¬
ternal remedies, or thofe applied outwardly to fome dif-
cafed and painful part: fuch are plafters, cataplafms, un¬
guents, &.C.
TOPOGRAPHY, a defcription or draught of fome
particular place, or fmall tradl of land, as that of a city
or town, manor, or tenement, field, garden, houfe, caftle,
or the like ; fuch as furveyors fet out in their plots, or
make draughts of, for the information and fatisfa&ion of
the proprietors.
TOPSHAM, a town in Devonlhire, in England,
feated on the river Exmouth, five miles fouth-eaft of
Exeter, to which place the river was formerly navi¬
gable ; but in time of war was choaked up defignedly,
fo that Ihips are now obliged to load and unload at
Toplham. W. Long. 3. 26. N. Lat. 50. 39.
TORBAY, a fine bay of the Englifh channel, on
the coaft of Devonfhire, a little to the eaft of Dart¬
mouth, formed by two capes, called Bury Points, and
Bob's Nofe.
TORDA, or Rasor-bill. See Alca, Ornitholo¬
gy Index.
TORDYLIUM, Hart-wort, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of pentandria, and in the natural
fyftem arranged under the 45th order, Umbellatce. See
Botany Index.
TORIES, a political faftion in Britain, oppofed to
the Whigs.
The name of Tories was given to a fort of banditti
in Ireland, and was thence transferred to the adherents
of Charles I. by his enemies, under the pretence that he
favoured the rebels in Ireland. His partifans, to be
even with the republicans, gave them the name of
Whigs, from a word which fignifies whey, in derifion of
their poor fare. The Tories, or cavaliers, as they were
alfo called, had then principally in view the political
intereft of the king, the crown, and the church of Eng¬
land ; and the round-heads, or Whigs, propofed chiefly
the maintaining of the rights and interefts of the peo¬
ple, and of Protedantifm. This is the moft popular ac¬
count and yet it is certain the names Whig and Tory
were but little known till about the middle of the reign
of King Charles II. M. de Cize relates, that it was in
the year 1678 that the whole nation was firft obferved
to be divided into Whigs and Tories j and that on
occafion of the famous depofition of Titus Oates, who
accufed the Catholics of having confpired againft the
king and the Rate, the appellation of Whig was given to
fuch as believed the plot real j and Tory to thofe who
held it fictitious.
Thefe parties may be confidered either with regard
t 454 ] . T .0 R
the (heets to the ftate dr to religion. The flate Tories are either
violent or moderate : the firft would have the king to be
abfolute, and thereiore plead tor paflive obedience, non-re-
fiftance, and the hereditary right of the houfe of Stuart.
The moderate Tories would not fuffer the king to lofe
any of his prerogative; but then they would not facri-
fice thofe of the people. The ftate Whigs are either
ftrong repuplicans or moderate ones. The firft (fays
Rapin) are the remains of the party of the long parlia¬
ment, who attempted to change monarchy to a com¬
monwealth : but tHefe make lo flender a figure, that
they only ferved to ftrengthen the party of other Whigs.
The Tories would perfuade the world, that all the
Whigs are of this kind ; as the Whigs would make
us believe that all the Tories are violent. The mode¬
rate ftate Whigs are much in the fame fentiments
w'ith the moderate Tories, and defire that the govern¬
ment may be maintained on the ancient foundation:
all the difference is, that the firft bear a little more to
the parliament and people, and the latter to that of the
king. In ftiort, the old Whigs were always jealous of
the encroachments of the royal prerogative, and watchful
over the prefervation of the liberties and properties of
the people.
TORMENTILLA, Tormentil, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of icofandria, and in the natural
fyftem ranging under the 33th order, Senticofce. See
Botany Index.
TORNADO, a fudden and vehement guft of wind
from all points of the compafs, frequent on the coaft of
Guinea.
TORPEDO, the Cramp-fish. See Raja, Ichthy¬
ology Index.
TORPOR, a numbnefs, or defied of feeling and mo¬
tion. Galen fays it is a fort of intermediate diforder be¬
tween palfy and health.
TORREFACTION, in Chemiflry, is the roafting or
fcorching of a body by the fire, in order to difeharge ft
part either unneceffary or hurtful in another operation.
Sulphur is thus difeharged from an ore before it can be
wrought to advantage.
TORRENT, denotes a temporary ftream of water
falling fuddenly from mountains, whereon there have
been great rains, or an extraordinary thaw of fnow.
TORRICELLI, Evangeliste, an illuftrous Italian
mathematician and philofopher, bom at Faenza in 1608.
He was trained in Latin literature by bis uncle a monk;
and after cultivating mathematical knowledge for fome
time without a matter, he ftudied it under Father Benc-
did Caftelli, profeffor of mathematics at Rome. Ha¬
ving read Galileo’s dialogues, he compofed a treatife on
motion, on his principles, which brought him acquainted
with Galileo, who took him home as an afliftant:
but Galileo died in three months after. He became
profelfor of mathematics at Florence, and greatly im¬
proved the art of making telefcopes and microfcopes:
but he is beft kuown for finding out a method of alcer-
taining the weight of the atmofphere by quickfilver ; the
barometer being called, from him, the Torricellian tube.
He publifhed Opera Geometrica, 410, 1644 ; and died
in 1647.
TORRICELLIAN experiment, a famous experi¬
ment made by Torricelli, by which he demonftrated the
preflure of the atmofphere in oppofition to the dodrines
of fudion, &c. finding that preffure able to fupport only
Tories
TOR [ 455 1 T O U
Torik a certain length of mercury, or any other fluid, in an in-
II verted glafs tube. See Barometer.
. Tol'ture- . TORSK, or Tusk. See Gadus, Ichthyology
Index.
Phil. Tmnf. TORTOISE. See Testudo, Erpetology Index.
N° 43S. ToilTOISE-Jhell, the {hell, or rather fcales, of the
p' 117* teftaceous animal called a tortoife; ufed in inlaying, and
in various other works, as for fnuff-boxes, combs, &c.
Mr Catefby obferves, that the hard ftrong covering
which inclofes all forts of tortoifes, is very improperly
called a Jhell; being of a perfe£t bony contexture j but
covered on the outlide with fcales, or rather plates, of a
horny fubftance; which are what the workmen call
tortoife-/hell.
There are two general kinds of tortoifes, viz. the
land and fea tortoife, tejludo terrejlris and marina. The
fea-tortoife, again, is of feveral kinds \ but it is the caret,
or tefludo imbricata of Linnaeus, alone which furnifhes
that beautiful fhell fo much admired in Europe.
The (hell of the caretta, or hawkfbill tortoife, is
thick ; and confifts of two parts, the upper, which co¬
vers the back, and the lower the belly : the two are
joined together at the {ides by ftrong ligaments, -which
yet allow of a little motion. In the fort-part is an aper¬
ture for the head and fore-legs, and behind for the
hind-legs and tail. It is the under (hell alone that is
ufed : to feparate it, they make a little fire beneath it,
and as foon as ever it is warm, the under fhell becomes
eafily feparable with a point of a knife, and is taken off
in laminae or leaves.
The whole fpoils of the caret confift in 13 leaves or
fcales, eight of them flat, and five a little bent. Of the
flat ones, there are four large ones, fometimes a foot
long, and feven inches broad. The beft tortoife-ftiell
is^thick, clear, tranfparent, of the colour of antimony,
fprinkled with brown and white. When ufed in mar¬
quetry, &c. the workmen give it what colour they
pleafe by means of coloured leaves, which they put un¬
derneath it.
Working and joining of Ton WISE-fell—Tortoife-
(hell and horn become foft in a moderate heat, as that
of boiling water, fo as to be preffed, in a mould, into
any form, the {hell or horn being previoufly cut into
plates of a proper fize. Plumier informs us, in his Art
de Tourner^ that two plates are likewife united into one
by heating and prefling them j the edges being thorough¬
ly cleaned, and made to fit clofe to one another. The
tortoife-fhell is conveniently heated for this purnofe by
applying a hot iron above and beneath the junfture,
with the interpofition of a wet cloth to prevent the (hell
from being fcorched by the irons : thefe irons ftiould be
pretty thick, that they may not lofe their heat before
the union is effefted. Both tortoife-fhell and horns may
be ftained of a variety of colours, by means of the co¬
louring drugs commonly ufed in dying, and by certain
metallic folutions.
TORTURE, a violent pain infli&ed on perfons to
force them to confefs the crimes laid to their charge,
or as a punifhment for crimes committed.
Torture was never permitted among the Romans ex¬
cept in the examination of flaves : it would therefore ap¬
pear, that it was a general opinion among them, that a
(lave had fuch a tendency to falfehood, that the truth
could only be extorted from him. To the difgrace of
the profeffors of Chriftianity, torture was long pra£lifed
by thofe who called themfelves Catholics, againft thofe
whom they termed heretics j that is, thofe who differed
in opinion from themfelves. Finding that they could e
not bring over others to adopt their fentiments by the
force of argument, they judged it proper to compel them
by the force of punifhment. This practice was very ge¬
neral among orthodox Chriftians, but efpecially among
Roman Catholics. See Inquisition.
By the law of England, torture was at one period em¬
ployed to compel thofe criminals who flood obftinately
mute when brought to trial, and refufed either to plead
guilty or not guilty ; but it is now abolilhed (fee Ar¬
raignment, and Rack). A hiftory of the machines
which have been invented to torture men, and an ac¬
count of the inftances in which they have been em¬
ployed, would exhibit a difmal piflure of the human
chara&er.
TORUS, in ArchiteRure, a large round moulding
ufed in the bafes of columns. See ARCHITECTURE.
TOUCAN. See Rhamphastos, Ornithology
Index.
TOUCH-NEEDLE, among affayers, refiners. &c. lit¬
tle bars of gold, filver, and copper, combined together,
in all the different proportions and degrees of mixture y
the ufe of which is to difeover the degree of purity of
any piece of gold or filver, by comparing the mark it
leaves on the touch-ftone with thofe of the bars.
The metals ufually tried by the touch-ftone are gold,
filver, and copper, either pure, or mixed with one an¬
other in different degrees and proportions, by fufion.
In order to find out the purity or quantity of bafer me¬
tal in thefe various admixtures, when they aie to be exa¬
mined they are compared with thefe needles, which
are mixed in a known proportion, and prepared for this
ufe. The metals of thefe needles, both pure and mix¬
ed, are all made into laminae or plates, one-twelfth of an
inch broad, and of a fourth part of their breadth in
thicknefs, and an inch and half long j thefe being thus
prepared, you are to engrave on each a mark indicating
its purity, or the nature and quantity of the admixture
in it. The black rough marbles, the bafaltes, or the
fofter kinds of black pebbles, are the moft proper for
touch-ftones.
The method of ufing the needles and ftone is thus:
The piece of metal to be tried ought firft to be wiped
well with a clean towel or piece of foft leather, that you
may the better fee its true colour; for from this alone
an experienced perfon, will in fume degree, judge before¬
hand what the principal metal is, and how and with
what debafed.
Then choofe a convenient, not over large, part of
the furface of the metal, and rub it feveral times very
hardly and ftrongly againft the touchftone, that in cafe
a deceitful coat or cruft fhould have been laid upon it,
it may be worn off by that fridlion : this, however, is
more readily done by a grindftone or fmall file. Then
wipe a flat and very clear part of the touchftone, and
rub againft it, over and over, the juft mentioned part
of the furface of the piece of metal, till you have, on
the flat furface of the ftone, a thin metallic cruft, an
inch long, and about an eighth of an inch broad : this
done, look out the needle that feems moft like to the
metal under trial, wipe the low7er part of this needle
very
Torture
I!
Touch-
Needle.
—y—
Touch-
Needle
II
Toulon.
T O U f
very clean, and then rub it againft the touchflone, as
you did the metal, by the fide of the other line, and in
a direftion parallel to it.
; When this is done, if you find no difference between
the colours of the two marks made by your needle and
the metal under trial, you may with great probability
.pronounce that metal and your needle to be of the fame
alloy, which is immediately known by the mark en¬
graved on your needle. But if you find a difference be¬
tween the colour of the mark given by the metal, and
that by the needle you have tried, choofe out another
needle, either of a darker or lighter colour than the
former, as the difference of the tinge on the touchftone
directs; and by one or more trials of this kind you will
be able to determine which of your needles the metal
anfwers, and thence what alloy it is of, by the mark of
the needle j or elfe you will find that the alloy is extra¬
ordinary, and not to be determined by the comparifon
of your needles.
TOUCHSTONE, a black, fmooth, gloffy ftone, ufed
to examine the purity of metals. The ancients called it
Lydius, the Lydian Hone, from the name of the
country whence it was originally brought.
Any piece of pebble or black flint will anfwer the
purpofes of the beft lapis lydius of Afia. Even a piece
of glafs made rough with emery is ufed with fuccefs, to
diftinguifh true gold from fuch as is counterfeit j both
by the metallic colour and the teft of aquafortis. The
true touchflone is of a black colour, and is not uncom¬
mon in many parts of the world.
TOUCHWOOD. See Boletus, Botany Index.
TOULON, a celebrated city and feaport of France,
in that part of the late province of Provence which is
now denominated the department of the Var. It is a
very ancient place, having been founded, according to
the common opinion, by a Roman general. It is the
chief town of the department, and before the great re¬
volution in 1789 was an epifcopal fee. The inhabitants
are computed at 80,000. It is divided into the Old
Quarter and the New Quarter. The firlh, which is
very ill built, has nothing remarkable in it but the Rue
aux Arbres, the Tree-Street, wdiich is a kind of courfe
.or mall, and the town-houfe ; the gate of this is fur-
rounded by a balcony, which is fupnorted by two ter¬
mini, the mafterpieces of the famous Ptijet. The New
Quarter, wrhich forms as it were a fecond city, contains,
btfide the magnificent works conftrufted in the reign of
Louis XIV. many fine houfes (among which that of the
late feminary merits bevond comparifon the preference)
and a grand oblong fquare, lined with trees, and ferving
as a parade.
The Merchants Haven, along which extends a noble
quay, on which Hands the town-houfe, is protected by
two moles, begun by Henry IV. The New Haven
was conftru£Ied by Louis XIV. as were the fortifications
of the city. In the front of this haven is an arfenal,
containing all the places neceffary for the conftru&ion
and fitting out of veffels : the firfl objeft that appears is
a rope-walk, entirely arched, extending as far as the
eye can reach, and built after the defigns of Vauban:
here cables ate made, and above is a place for the pre¬
paration of hemp. Here likewife is the armoury for
rnolkets, piftols, halberds, &c. In the park of ar-
tille'y are cannons placed in piles, bombs, grenades,
imortars, and balls of various kinds, ranged in wonder-
Z
456 3 YOU
is ful order. The long lail-room, the foundery for can- Toulon,
non, the dockyards, the bafons, &x. are all worthy of 4 Julouie‘-
obfervation. v’
Both the Old and New7 Port have an outlet into the
fpacious outer road or harbour, wdiich is furrounded by
hills, and formed by nature almoft circular. Its cir¬
cuit is of very great extent, and the entrance is defend¬
ed on both fides by a fort with ftrong batteries. In a
word, the bafons, docks, and arfenal, at Toulon, war¬
ranted the remark of a foreigner that vifited them in the
late reign, that “ the king of France wras greater there
than at Verfailles.” Toulon is the only mart in the
Mediterranean for the re-exportation of the produdts of
the Eaft Indies.
This place was deftroyed toward the end of the tenth
century, and pillaged by the African pirates almoft as
foon as rebuilt. The conftable of Bourbon, at the head
of the Imperial troops, obtained poffefiion of it in 1524,
as did Charles V. in 1536; but in the next century
Charles Emanuel duke of Savoy could not enter it, and
Prince Eugene in 1707 ineffedlually laid fiege to it.
This city was furrendered by the inhabitants in Septem¬
ber 1793 to the Britifh admiral Lord Flood, as a con¬
dition and means of enabling them to effedl the re-efta-
blifliment of monarchy in France, according to the ccn-
ftitution of 1789. Lord Hood accordingly, in conjunc¬
tion with the Spanilh land and naval forces, took pof-
feflion of the harbour and forts in truft for Louis XVII.
It uTas garrifoned for fome time by the Britilh troops,
and their allies the Spaniards, Neapolitans, and Sardi¬
nians j but the French having laid fiege to it, the gar-
rifon was obliged to evacuate the place in the month of
December following, after having deftroyed the grand
arfenal, two fhips of 84 guns, eight of 74, and two fri¬
gates j and carried off the Commerce de Marfeilles, a
(hip of 120 guns, with an 80 and 74 gun fliip. This
exploit was mofl gallantly performed, after it was found
impoflible to defend the towm, or to carry off the fhips.
Lord Flood entrufled the management of the affair to
Sir Sydney Smith, fo diftinguilhed for his intrepidity.
Captain Hare commanded the fireffiip which was towed
into the grand arfenal j and fo eager was he to execute
his orders, that inftead of letting fiie to the train in the
ufual cautious manner, he fired a piftol loaded with
powder into the. bowl of the train, compofed of 36
pounds of powder, and other combuilibles. The con-
fequence was, he was blown into the water rvith fuch
violence, as to knock a lieutenant of the Viftory’s boat
overboard, and narrowly efcaped with his life. A Spa-
nilh captain was appointed to fet fire to the fmall arfe¬
nal, but cowrardice prevented him from executing his
orders ; and this is the reafon why the whole French
fliips were not deftroyed. We have been favouied with
this account by an oflicer of the Britifti fleet.
Toulon is feated on a bay of the Mediterranean, 17
leagues fouth-eaft of Aix, 15 fouth-eaft of Marfeilles,
and 217 fouth-eaft of Paris. E. Long. 3. 36. N. Lat, •
43- 7- . . r
TOULOUSE, a very ancient city of France, in the
department of Upper Garonne, and late province of
Languedoc, with an archbilhop’s fee.- It is the mofl;
confiderable city in France next to Paris and Lvons,
although its population bears no proportion to its ex¬
tent. According to Mr Neckar’s calculation, it con¬
tains .56,000 inhabitants. The ftreets are very hand-
fouie,
TOU [ 457 ] TOU
Touloufe, fome, and the walls of the city, as well as the houfes,
are built with bricks. The town-houfe, a modern
ftru&ure, forms a perfeft fquare, 324 feet long and 66
high. The principal front occupies an entire fide of the
grand fquare, lately called the Place Roya/e. In the
great hall, called the Hall of Illufirious Men, is the fta-
tue of the Chevalier Ifaure, and the bulls of all the
great men to whom Touloufe has given birth. Com¬
municating with the ocean on one fide by the river Ga¬
ronne, and with the Mediterranean on the other by the
canal of Languedoc, Touloufe might have been a great
commercial city 5 but the talle of the inhabitants has
been directed to the fciences and belles-lettres. Of
courfe, there are two colleges, two public libraries, and
three academies. The little commerce of Touloule con-
fills in leather, drapery, blankets, mignionets, oil, iron,
mercery, hardware, and books. The bridge over the
Garonne is at leaft equal to thofe of Tours and Orleans;
it forms the communication between the fuburb of St
Cyprian and the city. The quays extend along the
banks of the Garonne ; and it has been in contempla¬
tion to line them with new and uniform houfes. Tou-
ioufe is 37 miles call of Auch, 125 fouth-eaft of Bour-
deaux, and 350 fouth-by-welt of ^aris. E. Long. 1.
27. N. Lat. 43. 36.
TOUR, Henry de la, Vifcount Turenne, a cele¬
brated French general, was the fecond fon of Henry de
la Tour duke of Bouillon, and was born at Sedan in
1611. He made his firft campaigns in Holland, under
Maurice and Frederic Henry princes of Orange ; who
were his uncles by the mother’s fide ; and even then di-
llinguilhed himfelf by his bravery. In 1634 he march¬
ed with his regiment into Lorraine ; and having contri¬
buted to the taking of La Mothe, was, though very
young, made marefchal de camp. In 1636 h^ took Sa-
verne, and the year following the caltles of Hirfon and
Sole ; on which occafion he performed an action like
that of Scipio’s, with refpe£l to a very beautiful woman
whom he fent back to her hulband. The vifcount Tu¬
renne continued to dillinguilh himfelf in feveral fieges
and battles, and in 1644 was made marfhal of France ;
but had the misfortune to be defeated at the battle of
Mariendal in 1645. However, he gained the battle of
Nortlingen three months after ; reftored the eleftor of
Treves to his dominions; and the following year made
the famous junftion of the French army with that of
Stveden commanded by General Wrangel, which obli¬
ged the duke of Bavaria to demand a peace. After¬
wards that duke breaking the treaty he had concluded
with France, he w'as defeated by the vifcount Turenne
at the battle of Zumarfiiaufen, and in 1648 driven en¬
tirely out of his dominions. During the civil wars in
France he fided with the princes, and was defeated at
the battle of Rhetel in 1650 ; but foon after was refto¬
red to the favour of the king, who in 1652 gave him
the command of his army. He acquired great honour
at the battles of Jergeau, Gren, and the fuburbs of St
Anthony, and by the retreat he made before the army
commanded by the princes at Ville Neuve St George.
In 1654 he made the Spaniards raife the fiege of Arras:
the next year he took Conde, St Guilian, and feveral
other places ; gamed the famous battle of Dunes; and
made himfelf mafter of Dunkirk, Oudenarde, and al-
moft all Handers : this obliged the Spaniards to con¬
clude the peace of the Pyrenees in i66d. Thefe im-
Vol. XX. Part II.
portant fervices oecafioned his being made marlhal-ge- Tour
neral of the king’s camps and armies. The war being 11
renewed with Spain in 1667, Turenne commanded in T^^a'
Flanders; and took fo many places, that in 1668 the u—y—.
Spaniards were obliged to fue for peace. He command¬
ed the French army in the war againlt the Dutch in
1672 ; took 40 towms in 22 days ; purfued the eleftor
of Brandenburg even to Berlin ; gained the battles of
Slintlheim, Ladenburg, Enfheim, Mulhaufen, and Fur-
keim ; and obliged the Imperial army, which confifted
of 70,000 men, to repafs the Rhine. By this campaign
the vifcount Turenne acquired immortal honour. He
paffed the Rhine to give battle to General Montecu-
culi, whom he followed as far as Safpach ; but mount¬
ing upon an eminence to difcover the enemy’s camp, he
was killed by a cannon-ball in 1675. All France re¬
gretted the lofs of this great man, who by his military
exploits had raifed the admiration of Europe.
TOURAINE, a province of France, bounded on
the north by Maine, on the eaft by Orleanois, on the
fouth by Berris, and on the weft by Anjou and Poitou.
It is about 58 miles in length, and 53 in breadth where
it is broadeft. This country is watered by 17 rivers,
befides many brooks, which not only render it delight¬
ful, but keep up a communication with the neighbour¬
ing provinces. The air is temperate, and the foil is fo
fruitful that it is called the garden of France. It now
forms the department of Indre and Loire, of which
Tours is the capital.
LOURMALINE, a fpecies of mineral belonging
to the filiceous genus. See Mineralogy Index.
-TOURNAMENT, a martial fport or exercife wdiich
the ancient cavaliers ufed to perform, to (how their bra¬
very and addrefs. It is derived from the French word
tourner, i. e. “ to turn round,” becaufe to be expert in
thefe exercifes, much agility both of horfe and man was
requifite, they riding round a ring in imitation of the
ancient Circi.
The firft tournaments were only courfes on horfeback,
wherein the cavaliers tilted at each other with canes
in manner of lances; and were diftinguifhed from jufts,
which were courfes or careers, accompanied with at¬
tacks and combats, with blunted lances and fwords.
See Just.
The prince who publilhed the tournament, ufed to
fend a king at arms, with a fafe-conduft, and a fword,
to all the princes, knights, &c. fignifying that he in¬
tended a tournament and claftiing of fwords, in the pre-
fence of ladies and damfels; which was the ufual for¬
mula of invitation.
They firft engaged man againft man, and then troop
agrdnft troop ; and after the combat, the judges allot¬
ted the prize to the belt cavalier, and the belt ftriker
of fwords ; who was accordingly conduced in pomp to
the lady of the tournament; where, after thanking her
very reverently, he faluted her and like wife her two at¬
tendants.
Thefe tournaments made the principal diverfion of
the 13th and 14th centuries. Munfter fays, it wnts
Heniy the Yowler, duke of Saxonv, and afterwards em¬
peror, who died in 936, that firft introduced them ; but
it appears from the chronicle of Tours, that the true in¬
ventor of this famous fport, at ieaft. in France, was one
Geoffry, lord of Preuilli, about the year 1066.
Inftances of them occur among the Englilh in the
3 M reign
T O U 1 458 ] T R A
Tourna- reign of King Stephen, about the year 1x405 but they
were not much in ufe till Richard’s time, towards the
Tournefort year 1149* After which period thefe diverfions were-
* - —. performed with extraordinary magnificence in the Tilt-
yard near St James’s, Smithfield, and other places.
The following is the account of a tournament, from
Maitland. King Richard II. defigning to hold a
tournament at London on the Sunday after Michaelmas,
^ fent divers heralds to make proclamations of it in all the
principal courts of Europe 5 and accordingly not a few
princes, and great numbers of the prime nobility, re-
" lorted hither from France, Germany, the Netherlands,
&.c. This folemnity began on Sunday afrernoon, from
the Tower of London, with a pompous cavalcade of 60
ladies, each leading an armed knight by a filver chain,
being attended by their ’fquires of honour, and, palling
through Cheapfide, rode to Smithfield, where the jults
and tournaments continued feveral days with magnifi¬
cent variety of entertainments 5 on which occafion the
king kept open houle at the bilhop of London’s palace
for all perfons of diftinftion, and every night concluded
with a ball.
At lalf, however, they were found to be produftive
of bad effeffs, and the occafions of feveral fatal misfor¬
tunes—as in the inllance of Henry II. of France, and
of the tilt exhibited at Chalons, which, from the num¬
bers killed on both fides, was called the little war
Chalons. Thefe and other inconveniencies, refulting
from thofe dangerous paftimes, gave the popes occafion
to forbid them, and the princes of Europe gradually
concurred in difeouraging and fupprefling them.
TO URN AY, a town of the Autlrian Netherlands
in Flanders, and capital of a ditlrift called Tournaysis,-
with a bifhop’s fee. It is divided into two parts by the
river Scheldt 5 and is large, populous, well built, and
carries on a great trade in woollen Huffs and ftockings.
The cathedral is a very handfome ftru61ure, and con¬
tains a great many chapels, with rich ornaments, and
feveral magnificent tombs of marble and brafs. The
town was taken by the allies in 1709 5 but was ceded
to the houfe of Auftria by the treaty of Utrecht, though
the Dutch had a right to put in a garrifon. It was ta¬
ken by the French in June 1745, who demolilhed-.the
fortifications. In 1781 the emperor Jofeph II. obliged
the Dutch to withdraw their garrifon. It was taken
by the French in 1791, abandoned by them in 1793,
and again conquered by them in 1794. It is 14 miles
fouth-eaft of Lille, 30 fouth-weft of Ghent, and 135
north by eaft from Paris. E. Long. 3. 28. N. Lat.
5°. 33.
TOURNEFORT, Joseph Pitton de, a famous
French botanifi, was born at Aix in Provence in 1656.
He had a paffion for plants from his childhood, which
overcame his father’s views in putting him to fludy phi-
lofophy and divinity 5 therefore on his death he quitted
theology, and gave himfelf up entirely to phyfic, natu¬
ral hiftory, and botany. He wandered over the moun¬
tains of Pauphiny, Savoy, Catalonia, the Pyrenees, and
the Alps, in fearch of new fpecies of plants, which he
acquired with much fatigue and danger. His fame in
1683 procured him the employment of botanic profeflbr,
in the king’s garden 5 and by the king’s order, he tra¬
velled into Spain, Portugal, Holland, and England*
where be made prodigious collections of plants. In
tyoo, Mr Tournefort, in obedience to another order,
fimpled over all the illes of the Archipelago, upon the Tourneforjt
coalts of the Black lea, in Bithynia, Pontus, Cappado- li
cia, Armenia, and Georgia 5 making obfervations on ,rraaitl0n>f
natural hiftory at large, ancient and modern geography, *"""
religion, manners, and commerce. He fpent three
years in this learned voyage 5 and then refuming his
profeflion, was made profeffor of phyfic in the college-
royal. He died in conlequence of an accidental crufti
of his breaft by a cart-wheel, which brought on a Ipit-
ting ol blood and hydrothorax, that carried him off in
1708. He wrote Elements of Botany, both in French
and Latin 5 A Relation cf his Voyage into the Levant j
with other pieces of lefs conffderation.
TOURNIQUET, in Surgery, an inftrument form¬
ed with ferews, for compitfling any part with rollers,
&c. for the flopping of hsemorrhagies. See Surgery
Index.
'1 OWER, a tall building confifting of feveral {lo¬
ries, ulually of a round form, though feme are fquare
or polygonal. Towers are built for fortrefles, &c. as
the Tower of London. See London, N° 46.
TOWN, a place inhabited by a confiderable num¬
ber of people, being of a middle fize between a city and
a village.
TOXICODENDRON. See Rhus, Botany In¬
dex.
TRAAS. See Terras.
TRACHEA. See Anatomy, N° 119.
TRACH1NUS, the Weever, a genus of fifties be¬
longing to the order of jugulares. See Ichthyology
Index.
TRACT, in Geography, an extent of ground, or a
portion of the earth’s furtace.
Tract, in matters of literature, denotes a fmall trea-
tife or written difeourfe upon any fubjeft.
TRADE, in general, denotes the lamp with com¬
merce, confifting in buying, felling, and exchanging of
commodities, bills, money, &c. See Commerce,
Coin, Money, Company, &c.
TRADE-Wmds, denote certain regular winds at fea,
blowing either coniianlly the lame way, or alternately
this way and that 5 thus called from their ufe in naviga¬
tion, and the Indian commerce. See Meteorology.
TRADESMEN’S tokens, a term lynonymous a-
mong medalifts with provincial coins.
- This is a fubjeft curious enough to deferve attention,
though we will not go fo far as Mr Pinkerton does,
who fays that it is a fubjeft in which the perpetual glory
of the nation is interefted. Since the year 1789 provin¬
cial halfpence have been made and circulated in confi¬
derable quantity. As ancient medals and coins have
been frequently of ule to hiftorians, it is to be regretted
that many of thefe provincial halfpence are rendered ufe-
lefs in this refpeft by unmeaning figures and puerile de¬
vices. Utility and elegance ought to be ftuditd : for
this view it has been propofed by a gentleman of tafte
on this fubjt £1, that all coins Ihould be diftinguilhed by
one of the following five charafteriftics. 1. Fac fimiles
of magnificent beautiful buildings. 2. Reprefentations
of great and ufeful undertakings. 3. Emblems of the
induftry and commerce of the age 4. The illuftrious
men, &.c. to whom the nation has given birth. 5. Im¬
portant hiftoriral events.
TRADITION, fomething handed down from one
generation to another without being written. Thus the
Jews
T H A [ 459 T T R A
Tradition Jetvs pretended, that befides their written law contained
ii in the Old Teftament, Mofes had delivered an oral
Tra-los- jaw ^ich had been conveyed down from father to fonj
muiae^^ ^ thus the Roman Catholics are faid to value particu¬
lar doctrines fuppofed to have defcended from the apo-
ftolic times by tradition.
TRAGACANTH. See Astragalus, Materia
Medica Index.
TRAGEDY, a dramatic poem, reprefenting fome
fignal a£Hon performed by illuftrious perfons, and which
has frequently a fatal iffue or end. See Poetry, Part II.
left. i.
TR AGI-COMEDY, a dramatic piece, partaking both
of the nature of tragedy and comedy •, in which a mix¬
ture of merry and ferious events is admitted.
TRAGOPOGON, Goat’s-beard •, a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of lyngenefia ; and in the
natural fyftem ranging under the 49th order, Compojitce.
See Botany Index.
TRAJAN, Marcus Ulpius, a celebrated Roman
emperor, urho gained many victories over the Parthians
and Germans, pufhing the empire to its utmoft extent
on the call and north fides. He died at Silinunte, a
city of Cilicia, which from him was called Trajanopolis,
in the year 117.
TRAJAN'S Column, a famous hiflorical column erect¬
ed in Rome, in honour of the emperor Trajan. It is of
the Tufcan order, though fomewhat irregular : its
height is eight diameters, and its pedeftal Corinthian :
it w'as built in a large fquare called Forum Romanum.
Its bafe confifls of 12 Hones of an enormous fize, and is
railed on a focle, or foot, of eight Heps : withinfide is a
ftaircafe illuminated with 44 windows. It is 140 feet
high, which is 35 feet (hoit of the Antonine column,
but the workmanlhip of the former is much more va¬
lued. It is adorned from top to bottom with baffo re¬
lievos, reprefenting the great actions of the emperor
againft the Dacians.
TRAIN, a line of gunpowder laid to give fire to a
quantity thereof, in order to do execution by blowing
up earth, works, buildings, &c.
TRAIN of Artillery, includes the great guns and
other pieces of ordnance belonging to an army in the
field.
TRAIN-Oil, the oil procured from the blubber of a
wdiale by boiling.
TRALLIAN, Alexander, a Greek writer on
phyfic, a native of Tralles in Lydia, wTho lived about
the middle of the fixth century. His works are divided
into 12 books ; in which he treats of diftempers as they
occur, from head to foot. He was the firft who opened
the jugular vein, and that ufed cantharides as a blifter
for the gout. Dr Freind, in his Hiflory of Phyfic,
flyles him one of the moft valuable authors fince the
time of Hionocrates. Though he appears on the
whole to have been a rational phyfician, yet there are
things in his writings that favour of enthufiafm and fu-
perftition.
TR A-LOS-MONTES, a province of Portugal,-cal¬
led in Latin Tranfmontana, becaufe fituated on the call:
fide of a chain of hills that feparate it from Entre Du-
ero-e-Minho. It is bounded on the north by Galicia ;
on the fouth by the provinces of Beira and Leon ; by
the laft of which it is bounded alfo to the eaft. Its
length from north to fouth is upwards of 120 miles, and
its breadth about 80. It is full of mountains, and pro- Tranfac- •
duces little corn, but plenty of wine, fruits of feveral tl<j’|ns
forts, and abundance of game. Transfufion.
TRANSACTIONS, a name generally given to a y—1
colledtion of the papers read before literary or philofo-
phical focieties. The name of Phllofophical Tranfac-
tions was firft adopted by the Royal Society of Lon¬
don.
The Philofophical Tranfadtions to the end of the
year 1700 were abridged in three volumes by Mr John
Lowthorp : thofe from the year 1700 to 1720 were
abridged in two volumes by Mr Henry Jones : thofe
from 1719 to 1733 were abridged in two volumes by
Mr John Eames and Mr John Martyn ^ Mr Martyn
continued the abridgement of thofe from 1732 to 1744
in two volumes, and of thofe from 1743 to 1750 in two
volumes.
They were for many years publiihed in numbers, and
the printing of them was always, from time to time, the
fingle adt of the refpedlive fecretaries, till the year 1752,
wdien the fociety thought fit that a committee fhould be
appointed to reconfider the papers read before them,
and to feledt out of them fuch as they fhould judge molt
proper for publication in the future Tranfadlions. They,
are publiihed annually in two parts at the expence of
the fociety, and each fellow is entitled to receive one
copy gratis of every volume publiihed after his admif-
fion into the fociety.
They were firft fet on foot in 1665, by Mr Olden¬
burg, fecretary of the fociety, and were continued by
him till the year 1677. Upon his death, they were dif-
continued till January 1678, when Dr Grew refumed
the publication of them, and continued it for the months
of December 1678, and January and February 1679,
after which they were intermitted till January 1683.
During this laft interval they were fupplied in fome
meafure by Dr Hooke’s Philofophical Colledlions. They
were alfo interrupted for three years, from December
1687 to January 1691, befide other fmaller interrup¬
tions amounting to near one year and a half more, be¬
fore Odlober 1695, fince which time the Tranfadliofs
have been regularly carried on.
TRANSCENDENTAL, or Transcendent, fome-
thing elevated, or raifed above other things •, which
pafles and tranfeends the nature of other inferior things.
TRANSCRIPT, a copy of any original writing, par¬
ticularly that of an aft or inftrument inferted in the bo¬
dy of another.
TRANSFER, in commerce, an aft whereby a per-
fon furrenders his right, intereft, or property, in any
thing moveable or immoveable to another.
TRANSFORMATION, in general, denotes a
change of form, or the affuming a new form different
from a former one.
TRANSFUSION, the aft of pouring a liquor out
of one veffel into another.
TRANSFUSION of Flood, an operation by which it
was fome time ago imagined that the age of animals
would be renewed, and immortality, or the next thing'
to it, conferred on thofe who had undergone it.
The method of transfufing Dr Lower gives us to the
following effeft : take up the carotid artery of the dog,
or other animal, whofe blood is to be transfiifed into
another of the fame,.or a different kind; feparate it
from the nerve of the eighth pair, and lay it bare above.
o
T R A [ 460 ] T R A
Trans'fufion. an inch. Make a ftrong ligature on the upper part of
v ar{;ery ^ an(J an }nc}r nearer the heart another liga¬
ture with a running knot, to be loofened and fattened
as occatton requires. Draw two threads between the
two ligatures, open the artery, put in a quill, and tie
up the artery again upon the quill by the two threads,
and ttop the quill by a ttick.
Then make bare the jugular vein of the other animal
for about an inch and a half in length, and at each end
make a ligature with a running knot; and in the fpace
between the two knots draw under the veins two threads,
as in the other. Open the vein, and put into it two
quills, one into the defcending part of the vein, to re¬
ceive the blood from the other dog, and carry it to the
heart 5 the other quill put into the other part of the ju¬
gular, towards the head, through which the fecond ani¬
mal’s own blood is to run into dilhes. The quills thus
tied fall, ftop them up with flicks till there be occafion
to open them.
Things thus difpofed, fatten the dogs on their fides
towards one another, in fuch manner as that the quills
may go into each other •, then unftop the quill that goes
down into the fecond dog’s jugular vein, as alfo that
coming out of the other dog’s artery ; and by the help
of two or three other quills put into each other, as there
fhall be occafion, infert them into one another. Then
liip the running knots, and immediately the blood runs
through the quills as through an artery, very impetu-
oully. As the blood runs into the dog, unftop the quill
in the upper part of his jugular, for his own blood to
run out at, though not conttantly, but as you perceive
him able to bear it,, till the other dog begins to cry and
taint, and at laft die. Lq/h'y, Take both quills out of
the jugular, tie the running knot faft, and cut the vein
afunder, and few up the Ikin : the dog, thus difmifled,
will run away as if nothing ailed him.
In the Philofophical Tranfaftions we have accounts of
the fuccefs of various transfufions pradlifed at London,
Paris, in Italy, &c. Sir Edmund King transfufed forty-
nine ounces of blood out of a calf into a fheep ; the
iheep, after the operation, appearing as well and as
itrong as before.
M. Denis transfufed the blood of three calves into
three dogs, which all continued brilk, and ate as well
as before. The fame perfop transfufed the blood of
four wethers into a horfe twenty-fix years old, which
thence received much ftrength, and a more than ordi¬
nary appetite.
Soon after this operation was introduced at Paris, viz.
in 1667 and 1668, M. Denis performed it on five hu¬
man fubje&s, two of whom recovered of diforders under
which they laboured, one being in perfeft health fufter-
ed no inconvenience from it j and two perfons who w7ere
ill, and fubmitted to the operation, died j in confequence
of which the magiftrates iifued a fentence, prohibiting
the transfufion on human bodies under pain of imprifon-
ment.
Mr John Hunter, we are told, made many ingenious
experiments to determine the effeftsof transfufing blood,
feme of which are fufficient to attrafl attention. But
whether fuch experiments can ever be made with fafety
on the human body, is a point not eafily determined.
They might be allowed in defperate cafes proceeding
from a corruption of the blood, from poifon, &c. as in
hydrophobia.
TRANSIT, from tranjit, “ it paffes over,” fignifies
the paffage of any planet over the fun, moon, or itars.
TRANSITION, the paffage of any thing from one
place to another.
Transition, in Oratory. See Oratory, N° 39.
TRANSITIVE, in Grammar, an epithet applied to
fuch verbs as fignify an aftion which paffes from the lub-
jedl that does it, to or upon another fubjedt which re¬
ceives it. Under the head of verbs tranfitive come wdiat
we ufually call verbs aBive and pajjive; other verbs,
whole a£tion does not pafs out of themfelves, are called
neuters.
Tranfit
II
Tranimuta-
tion.
1RANSLAT. ION, the a£t of transferring or re¬
moving a thing from one place to another ; ac we fay,
the tranttation of a bilhop’s lee, a council, a feat of jul-
tice, &c.
Iranslation is alfo ufed for the verfion of a book
or writing out of one language into another.
The principles of tranflacion have been clearly and ac¬
curately laid down by Dr Campbell of Aberdeen in his
invaluable Preliminary Differtations to his excellent
tranflations of the gofpels. The fundamental rules
which he eftabliihes are three : 1. That the tranllation
fliould give a complete tranfeript of the ideas of the ori¬
ginal. 2. That the ftyle and manner of the original
ffiould be preferved in the tranllation. 3. That the
tranllation Ihould have all the eafe of original compofi-
tion. The rules deducible from thefe general law's are
explained and illuftrated with much judgement and
tatte, in an Effay on the Principles of Tranflation, by
Mr Tytler, judge-advocate of Scotland.
TRANSMARINE, fomething that comes from or
belongs to the parts beyond fea.
TRANSMIGRATION, the removal or tranllation
of a whole people into another country, by the power o£
a conqueror.
Transmigration is particularly ufed for the paffage
of the foul out of one body into another. See Metem¬
psychosis.
TRANSMUTATION, the a£l of changing one
fubttance into another.
Nature, fays Sir Ifaac New’ton, is delighted with
tranlinutation : water, which is a fluid, volatile, tafte-
lefs, fait, is, by heat, tranfmuted into vapour, which is
a kind of air ; and by cold into ice, which is a cold,
tranfparent, brittle ftone, eafily diffolvable j and this
ftone is convertible again into water by heat, as vapour
is by cold.—-Earth, by heat, becomes fire, and, by cold,
is turned into earth again : denfe bodies, by fermenta¬
tion, are rarefied into various kinds of air ; and that air,
by fermentation alfo, and fometimes without it, reverts
into grofs bodies. All bodies, beafts, fifties, infefts,
plants, &c. with all their various parts, grow and in-
creafe out of water and aqueous and faline tinflures j
and, by putrefadtion, all of them revert into W'ater, or
an aqueous liquor again.
Transmutation, in alchemy, denotes the adt of
changing imperfedl metals into gold or filver. This is
2\{o \\ie. grand operation ; and, they fay, it is to
be effedted with the philolopher’s ftone.
The trick of tranfmuting cinnabar into filver is thus :
the cinnabar, being bruifed grofsly, is ftratified in a cru¬
cible with granulated filver, and the crucible placed in
a great fire j and, after due time for calcination, taken
off j then the matter, being poured out, is found to bo
cinnabar
T R A [ 461 1 T R E
Tranimuta- cinnabar turned Into real {liver, though the filver grains
tI?)n appear in the fame number and form as when they were
Tranfyl- Put ‘nto crucible ; but the mifchief is, coming to
vania. handle the grains of {liver, you find them nothing but
light friable bladders, which will crumble to pieces be¬
tween the fingers.
The tranfmutability of water into earth feems to have
been believed by Mr Boyle •, and Bilhop Watfon thinks
that it has not yet been difproved. See his Chemical
EJfays.
Transmutation of Acids, or of Metals, is the
change of one acid or of one metal into another.
TRANSOM, among builders, denotes the piece that
is framed acrofs a double-light wundow.
TRANSOMS, in a fhip, certain beams or timbers
extended acrofs the fternpolt of a {hip, to fortify her
afterpart, and give it the figure moll fuitable to the fer-
vice for which fire is calculated.
TRANSPARENCY, in Physics, a quality in cer¬
tain bodies, whereby they give palfage to the rays of
light : in contradillindlion to opacity, or that quality
of bodies w'hich renders them impervious to the rays of
light.
It has been generally fuppofed by philofophers, that
tranfparent bodies have their pores difpofed in llraight
lines, by which means the rays of light have an oppor¬
tunity of penetrating them in all directions 5 but fome
experiments in eleftricity have made it apparent, that
by the aftion of this fluid the moll opaque bodies, fuch
as fulphur, pitch, and fealing-wax, may be rendered
tranfparent as glafs, while yet we cannot fuppofe the di¬
rection of their pores to be anyway altered from what it
originally was (fee Electricity). There is a curious
initance of an increafe of tranfparency in rubbing a piece
of white paper over one that has been written upon or
printed : while the wfirite paper is at reft, the writing or
print will perhaps fcarce appear through it; but when
in motion, will be very eafily legible, and continue fo
till the motion is difcontinned.
TRANSPOSITION, in Grammar, a difturbing or
diflocating the words of a difcourfe, or a changing their
natural order of conitruCtion, to pleafe the ear by render¬
ing the contexture more fmooth, eafy, and harmonious.
TRANSUBSTANTIATION, in Theology, the
converfion or change of the fubfiance of the bread and
wine in the eucharift, into the body and blood of Jefus
Chrift j which the Romith church fuppofe to be wrought
by the confecration of the prieft. See SUFFER of the
Lord, N° 5.
iR.ANSVERSALIS, in Anatomy, a name given to
feveral mufcles. See Anatomy, Part II.
TRANSVERSE, fomething that goes acrofs another
from corner to corner : thus bends and bars in heraldry
are tranfverfe pieces or bearings ; the diagonals of a
parallelogram ora fquare are tranfverfe lines.
1 RANSYLVANIA, a province of Europe, annexed
to Hungary, and bounded ©n the north by Upper Hun¬
gary and Poland, on the eaft by Moldavia and Wa¬
lachia, on the fouth by Walachia, and on the weft by
Upper and Lower Hungary. It is furrounded on all
parts by high mountains, which, however, are not bar¬
ren. The inhabitants have as much corn and wine as
they want themielves ; and there are rich mines of gold,
filver, lead, copper, quickfrlver, and alum. It has un¬
dergone various revolutions; but it now belongs to the
houfe of Auftria. The inhabitants are of feveral forts
of religions \ as Papifts, Lutherans, Calvinifts, Soci-
nians, Photinians, Arians, Greeks, and Mahometans. It >
is about 162 miles in length, and 150 in breadth. The
adminiftration of affairs is conducted by 12 perfons j
namely, three Roman Catholics, three Lutherans, three’
Calvinifts, and three Socinians. The militia is com¬
manded by the governor, whofe commiflion is the more
important, as Tranfylvania is the bulwark of Chxiften-
dom. It is divided into feveral fmall diftriCts, called
palatinates and counties; and is inhabited by three dif¬
ferent nations, Saxons, Silefians, and Hungarians. Her-
manftadt is the capital town.
TRAPEZIUM, in Geometry, a plane figure con¬
tained under four unequal right lines.
TRAPEZIUS, a mufcle. See Anatomy, Part II.
TRAPP, a compound rock. See Geology.
TRAVELLERS joy. See Clematis, Botany
Index.
'TRAVERSE, or Transverse, in general, denotes
fomething that goes athwart another ; that is, croffes
and cuts it obliquely.
Traverse, in Navigation, implies a compound courfe,
or an affemblage of vaiious courfes, lying at different
angles with the meridian. See Navigation.
1R A VERSE Board, a thin circular piece of board,
marked with all the points-of the compafs, and having
eight holes bored in each, and eight fmall pegs hang¬
ing from the centre of the board. It is ufed to de¬
termine the different courfes run by a {hip during the
period of (he watch, and to afeertain the diftance of each
eeurfe.
TRAVESTY, a name given to an humorous tranf-
lation of any author. The word is derived from the
French travejier “ to difguife.”
TREACLE, or Melasses. See Sugar.
Treacle Beer. See Spruce.
Treacle Mufard. See Clypeola, Botany Index.
TREASON, a general appellation, made ufe of by
the law, to denote not only offences againft the king
and government, but alfo that accumulation of guilt
which arifes whenever a fuperior repofes a confidence in
a fubjedt or inferior, between whom and himfelf there
fubfifts a natural, a civil, or even a fpiritual relation ;
and the inferior fo abufes that confidence, fo forgets the
obligations of duty, fubjedlion, and allegiance, as to de-
ftroy the life of any fuch fuperior or lord. Hence trea-
fon is of two kinds, high and petty.
High Treafon, or Treafon Paramount (which is equi¬
valent to the crimen Icefce majefatis of the Romans, as
Glanvil denominates it alfo in our Englifh law'), is an
offence committed againft the fecurity of the king or
kingdom, whether by imagination, word, or deed. In
order to prevent the inconveniences which arofe in Eng¬
land from a multitude of conftrudfive treafons, the fta-
tute 25 Edw. III. c. 2. was made ; which defines what
offences only for the future fliould be held to be treafon •
and this ftatute comprehends all kinds of high-treafon
under feven diftindf branches.
“ 1. When a man doth compafs or imagine the death
of our lord the king, of our lady his queen, or of their
eldeft fon and heir.” Under this defeription it is held
that a queen-regnant (fuch as Queen Elizabeth and
Queen
Tranfyl¬
vania
II
Treaibn.
——V——J
Treafon.
T R E [ 462 ] T R E
Oueen Anne) is within the words of the act, being in¬
verted with royal power, and intitled to the allegiance
of her fubjedts : but the huihand of fuch a queen is not
comprifed within thefe words ; and therefore no treafon
can be committed againft him.
Let us next fee what is a compajjing or imagining the
death of the king, &c. Thefe are fynonymous terms :
the word compafs fignifying the purpofe or defign of the
mind or will ; and not, as in common fpeech, the car¬
rying fuch defign to effcd. And therefore an acciden¬
tal ftroke, which may mortally wound the fovereign,
per infortuniam, without any traitorous intent, is no trea¬
fon : as was the cafe of Sir Walter Tyrrel, who, by the
command of King William Rufus, (hooting at a hart,
the arrow glanced againft a tree, and killed the king
upon the fpot. But as this compafling or imagination is
an aft of the mind, it cannot poffibly fall under any ju¬
dicial cognizance, unlefs it be demonftrated by fome
open or overt aft. The ftatute exprefsly requires, that
the accufed “ be thereof upon fufticient proof attainted
of fome open aft by men of his own condition.” Thus,
to provide weapons or ammunition for the purpofe of
killing the king, is held to be a palpable overt aft of
treafon in imagining his death. To confpire to imprifon
the king by force, and move towards it by affembling
company, is an overt aft of comparting the king’s death ;
for all force ufed to the perfon of the king, in its confe-
quence may tend to his death, and is a ftrong prefump-
tion of fomething worfe intended than the prefent force,
by fuch as have fo far thrown off their bounden duty to
. their fovereign : it being an old obfervation, that there
is generally but a Ihort interval between the prifons and
the graves of princes. It feems clearly to be agreed,
that by the common law and the ftatute of Edw. III.
■words fpoken amount only to a high mifdemeanor, and
no treafon. For-they may be fpoken in heat, without
any intention ; or be miftaken, perverted, or mifremem-
bered by the hearers ; their meaning depends always on
their conneflion with other words and things j they may
fignify differently even according to the tone of voice
with which they are delivered and fometimes filence
itfelf is more expreflive than any difcourfe. As there¬
fore there can be nothing more equivocal and ambiguous
than words, it would indeed be unreafonable to make
them amount to high treafon. And accordingly, in
4 Car. I. on a reference to all the judges, concerning
fome very atrocious words fpoken by one Pyne, they
certified to the king, “ that though the words wrere as
wicked as might be, yet they w7ere no treafon ; for un¬
lefs it be by fome particular ftatute, no words will be
treafon.” If the words be fet down in writing, it argues
more deliberate intention ; and it has been held, that
•writing is an overt afl of treafon •, for fcribere eji agere.
But even in this cafe the bare words are not the treafon,
but the deliberate aft of writing them.
2. The fecond fpecies of treafon is, “ if a man do vio¬
late the king’s companion, or the king’s eldeft daughter
unmarried, or the wife of the king’s eldeft fon and heir.”
By the king’s companion is meant his wife 5 and by vio¬
lation is underftood carnal knowledge, as well without
force as with it : and this is high treafon in both parlies
if both be confer,ting ; as fome of the wives of Hen¬
ry VIII. by fatal experience evinced.
3. The third fpecies of treafon is, “ if a man do levy
war againft our lord the king in his realm.” And this
may be done by taking arms, net only to dethrone the
king, but under pretence to reform religion, or the lawTs,
or to remove evil counfellors, or other grievances whe¬
ther real or pretended. For the law does not, neither
can it, permit any private man, or fet of men, to inter¬
fere forcibly in matters of fuch high importance j efpe-
cially as it has eftabiilhed a fufficient power for thefe
purpofes in the high court of parliament : neither does
the conftitution juftify any private or particular refin¬
ance for private or particular grievances j though, in
cafes of national oppreffion, the nation has very juftifi-
ably rilen as one man, to vindicate the original -contraft
(ubfifting between the king and his people.
4. “ If a man be adherent to the king’s enemies in
his realm, giving to them aid and comfort in the realm
or elfewhere,” he is alfo declared guilty of high-treafon.
This muft likewife be proved by fome overt aft $ as by
giving them intelligence, by fending them provifions,
by felling them arms, by trcacheroufiy furrendering a
fortrefs, or the like.
5. “ If a man counterfeit the king’s great or privy
feal,” this is alfo high-treafon. But if a man takes wax
bearing the impreflion of the great feal off from one pa¬
tent, and fixes it to another, this is held to be only an
abufe of the feal, and not a counterfeiting of it: as was
the cafe of a certain chaplain, who in fuch a manner
framed a difpenfation for non-refidence. But the knav-
iffi artifice of a lawyer much exceeded this of the divine.
One of the clerks in chancery glued together two pieces
of parchment •, on the uppermoft of which he wrote a
patent, to which he regularly obtained the great feal,
the label going through both the (kins. He then dif-
folved the cement, and taking off the written patent,
on the blank (kin, wrote a frefh patent of a different
import from the former, and publifired it as true. This
was held no counterfeiting of the great feal, but only a
great mifprifion ; and Sir Edward Coke mentions it
with fome indignation that the party was living at that
day.
6. The fixth fpecies of treafon under this ftatute is,
“ if a man counterfeit the king’s money ; and if a man
bring falfe money into the realm counterfeit to the mo¬
ney of England, knowing the money to be falfe, to mer-
chandife and make payment withal.” As to the firft
branch, counterfeiting the king’s money \ this is trea¬
fon, whether the falfe money be uttered in payment or
not. Alfo if the king’s own minters alter the ftandard
or alloy eftabliftied by law, it is treafon. But gold and
filver money only are held to be within this ftatute.
With regard likewife to the fecond branch, importing
foreign counterfeit money in order to utter it here ; it is
held that uttering it, without imparting it, is not within
the ftatute.
7. The lad: fpecies of treafon afcertained by this fta¬
tute is, “ if a man flay the chancellor, treafurer, or the
king’s juftices of the one bench or the other, jnftices in
eyre, or juftices of aflize, and all other juftices affigned
to hear and determine, being in their places doing their
offices.” Thefe high magiftrates, as they reprefent the
king’s majefty during the execution of their offices, are
therefore for the time equally regarded by the law. But
this ftatute extends only to the aftual killing of them j
and not to wounding, or a bare attempt to kill them.
It extends alfo only to the officers therein fpecified ; and
therefore the barons of the exchequer, as fuch, are not
Treafori.
with^
4
\
T R E [ 4S3 ] T R E
Trcafon.
within the protection of this aft j but the lord keeper or
commiffioners of the great feal now feem to be within
it, by virtue of the ftalutes c Eliz. c. 18. and 1 W. and
M. c. 21.
The new treafons, created fince the ftatute I M. c. 1.
and not comprehended under the defcription of ftatute
25 Edw. Hi. may be comprifed under three heads. The
firlt ipecies relates to Papifts j the fecond to falfifying
the coin or other royal lignatures, as falfely forging the
fign manual, privy fignet, or privy feal, which fhall be
deemed high treaion (1 M. flat. ii. c. 6.). The third
new fpecies of high treai'on is fuch as was created for
the fecuniy of the Proteftant fucceflion in the houfe of
Hanover. For this purpofe, after the aft of fettlement
was made, it was enafted by ftatute 13 and 14 W. III.
c. 3. that the pretended prince of Wales, affuming the
title of .King James III. ftiould be attainted of high trea-
fon ; and it was made high-treafon for any of the king’s
fubjcfts to hold correfpondence with him or any perfon
employed by him, or to remit money for his ufe. And
by 17 Geo. II. c. 39. it is enafted, that if any of the
fons of the pretender flrall land or attempt to land in
this kingdom, or be found in the kingdom or any of its
dominions, he fliall be adjudged attainted of high-trea¬
fon j and correfponding with them or remitting money
to their ufe is made high-treafon. By 1 Ann. flat. 2.
c. 17. the offence of hindering the next in fucceflion
from fucceedxng to the crown is high-treafon : and by
6 Ann. c. 7. if any perfon fhall malicioufly, advifedly,
and direftly, by writing or printing, maintain, that any
other perfon hath any right to the crown of this realm,
otherwife than according to the aft of fettlement, or
that the kings of this realm with the authority of par¬
liament are not able to make laws to bind the crown
and its defcent; fuch perfon flrall be guilty of high-
treafon.
The punifhment of high treafon in general is very fo-
lemn and terrible. 1. That the offender be drawn to
the gallows, and not be carried or walk ; though ufual-
ly (by connivance, at length ripened by humanity into
law) a fledge or hurdle is allowed, to preferve the of¬
fender from the extreme torment of being dragged on
the ground or pavement. 2. That he be hanged by the
neck, and then cut down alive. 3. That his entrails
be taken out, and burned while he is yet alive. 4. That
his head be cut off. 5. That his body be divided into
four parts. 6. That his head and quarters be at the
king’s difpofal.
, bhe king may, and often doth, difcharge all the pu¬
nifhment except beheading, efpecially where any of noble
blood are attainted. For beheading being part of the
judgement, that may be executed, though all the reft
be omitted by the king’s command. But where be¬
heading is no part of the judgement, as in murder or
other felonies, it hath been faid that the king cannot
change the judgement, although at the requeft of the
party, from one fpecies of death to another.
In the cafe of coining, which is a treafon of a diffe¬
rent complexion from the reft, the punifhment is milder
for male offenders; being only to be drawn and hanged
by the neck till dead. But in treafons of every kind
the punifhment of women is the fame, and different from
that of men. For as the natural modefty of the fex for¬
bids the expofing and publicly mangling their bodies,
their fentence (which is to the full, as terrible to fenfe as.
the other) is to be drawn to the gallows, and there to be Treafon '
burned alive. II
For the confequences of this judgement, fee Attain- , rrca,lirer‘i
der, Forfeiture, and Corruption of Blood.
Betty or Petit Treafon, according to the ftatute 25
Edward III. c. 2. may happen three ways : by a fer-
vant killing his mafter, a wife her hufband, or ajj eccle-
fiaftical perlbn (either lecular or regular) his fuperior, to
whom he owes faith and obedience. A fervar.t who
kills his mafter whom he has left, upon a grudge con¬
ceived againft him during his fervice, is guilty of petty
treafon : for the traitorous intention was hatched while
the relation fubliiled between them, and this is only an.
execution of that intention. So if a wife be divorced
a metfe et thoro, ftill the vinculum matrimonii fubfifts ;.
and if fhe kills fuch divorced hufband, fhe is a traitrefs.
And a clergyman is underftood to owe canonical obedi¬
ence to the bifhop who ordained him, to him in whofe
diocefe he is beneficed, and alfo to the metropolitan of
fuch fuffragan or diocefan bilhop ; and therefore to kill
any of thefe is petit treafon. As to the reft, whatever '
has been faid with refpeft to wilful Murder, is alfo
applicable to the crime of petit treafon, which is no
other than murder in its moft odious degree ; except
that the trial fhall be as in cafes of high treafon, before
the improvements therein made by the ftatutes of Wil¬
liam III. But a perfon indrfted of petit treafon may
be acquitted thereof, and found guilty of manflaughter
or murder : and in fuch cafe it thould feem that two
witnefles are not neceffary, as in cafes of petit treafon
they are. Which crime is alfo diftinguifhed from mur¬
der in its punifhment.
The punifhment of petit treafon in a man, is to be
drawn and hanged, and in a woman to be drawn and
burned : the idea of which latter punifhment feems to
have been handed down to us from the laws of the an¬
cient Druids, which condemned a woman to be burned
for murdering her hufband ; and it is now the ufual
punifhment for all forts of treafons committed by thofe
of the female fex. Perfons guilty of petit treafon were
firft debarred the benefit of clergy by ftatute 12 Henry
VII. c. 7. which has fince been extended to their aiders,
abettors, and counfellors, by ftatutes 23 Henry VIII. c,
I, 4, and 5 P. and M. c. 4.
TREASURE, in general, denotes a ftore or flock of
money in referve.
TkEASURE-Trove, in derived from the French
word trover, “ to find,” called in Latin thefaurus inven-* ■
tus, is where any money or coin, gold, filver, plate, or
bullion, is found hidden in the earth or other private
place, the owner thereof being unknown ; in which cafe
the treafure belongs to the king : but if he that had hid
it be known, or afterwards found out, the owner and not
the king is infilled to it.
TREASURER, an officer to whom the treafure of
a prince or corporation is committed to be kept and duly
difpofed of, in payment of officers and other expences.
See Treasury.
Of thefe there is great variety. His majefty of Great
Britain, in quality of eleftor of Hanover, is arch-trea-
furer of the Roman empire. In England, the principal
officers under this denomination are, the lord high-trea-
furer, the treafurer of the houffehold, treafurer of the
navy, of the king’s chamber, &c.
The lord high-treafurer of Great Britain, or firft com-
miffionsr
THE [ 464 ] T R E
Treafurer miflioner of the treafury, when in commiflion, has under
Trebuchet c^arSe an(^ government all the king’s revenue
■ - which is kept in the exchequer. He holds his place
during the king’s pleafure j being inftituted by the de¬
livery of a white Half to him. He has the check of
all the officers employed in collefling the cuftoms and
royal revenues: and in his gift and difpofition are all
the offices of the cuftoms in the feveral ports of the king¬
dom ; efcheators in every county are nominated by
him j he alfo makes leafes of the lands belonging to the
crown.
The office of lord-treafurer is now in comm'flion.
The number of lords commiffioners is five j one of whom
is the firft lord, whole annual falary was formerly
3,83!. but is now 4000I.; and who, unlefs he be a
peer, is alfo chancellor of the exchequer, and prime
minifter in the government of this country; the other
lords commiflioners have an annual falary of 1600I.
* ■ each.
TREASURER of the Houfehold, is an officer who, in
the abfence of the lord-fteward, has power, with the
comptroller and other officers of the green-cloth and
the fteward of the Marftialfea, to hear and determine
treafons, felonies, and other crimes committed within the
king’s palace. See Household.
There is alfo a treafurer belonging to the eftabliffiment
of her majefty’s houfehold, &c.
TREASURER of the Navy, is an officer who receives
money out of the exchequer, by warrant from the lord
high-treafurer, or the lords commiffioners executing that
place ; and pays all charges of the navy, by warrant
from the principal officers of the navy.
TREASURER of the County, he that keeps the county
flock. There are two of them in each county, chofen
by the major part of the juftices of the peace, &c. at
their general quarter feffion 5 under previous fecurity
given for the money entrufted with them, and the faith¬
ful execution of the trulls repofed in them.
TREASURY, the place wherein the revenues of a
prince are received, preferved and dilburfed. In Eng¬
land the treafury is a part of the exchequer j by fome
called the lower exchequer. The officers of his ma¬
jefty’s treafury, or the lower exchequer, are the lords
commiffioners, one of wffiom is chancellor, two joint fe~
cretaries, private fecretary to the firft lord, two cham¬
berlains, an auditor, four tellers, a clerk of the pells,
ulhers of the receipt, a tally-cutter, &c. See each officer
under his proper article, Chancellor, Teller, Tal¬
ly, &c.
Lords of the TREASURE. In lieu of one fingle di-
reftor and adminiftrator of his majefty’s revenues under
the title of lord high treafurer, it is at prefent thought
proper to put that office in commiffion, i. e. to ap¬
point feveral perfons to difcharge it with equal au¬
thority, under the title of lords commifjioners of the
treafury.
TREATISE, a fet difcourfe in writing on any fub-
jeft.
TREATY, a covenant between two or more na¬
tions ; or the feveral articles or conditions ftipulated and
agreed upon by trvo fovereign powers.
TREBLE, in Mufc, the higheft or moft acute of the
four parts in fvmphony, or that which is heard the
cleareft and (hrilleft in a concert.
TREBUCHET, Trebucket, Tribuch (Terbicke-
tum), a tumbrel or cucking ftool. Alfo a great engine
to call ftones to batter walls.
TREE, a large vegetable rifmg with one woody
ftem to a confiderable height.
Trees may be divided into two claffes, timber and
fruit-trees; the firft including all thole trees which are
ufed in machinery, ffiip-building, &c. or, in general,
for purpofes of utility j and the fecond comprehending
thofe trees valued only, or chiefiy, for their fruit. It is
not neceffary to form a third clafs to include trees ufed
for fuel, as timber is ufed for this purpofe where it is
abundant; and where it is not abundant the branches
of the timber trees, or fuch of them as are dwarfilh, un¬
healthy, or too fmall for mechanical purpofes, are ufed
as fuel.
Tim anatomy and phyfiolo^y of trees have already
been given under the generic name Plant and Sap.
Certain trees, it is well known, are natives of parti¬
cular diftrifts ; but many of them have been tranfplant-
ed from their native foil, and now flouriffi luxuriantly in
diftant countries, fo that it becomes a matter of very
confiderable difficulty to afcertain their original foil.
The following rules are given for this purpole by the
Honourable Daines Barrington.
1. They mull grow in large mafies, and cover confi¬
derable trails of ground, the woods not ending abrupt¬
ly, by a change to other trees, except the fituation and
ftmta become totally different. 2. They mult grow
kindly in copfes, and ftioot from the ftool, fo as to con¬
tinue for ever, if not very carefully grubbed up. 3. The
feed muft ripen kindly 5 nature never plants but where
a fucceffion in the greateft profufion wall continue Laft-
ly, _ trees that give names to many places are probably
indigenous.
T he growth of trees is a curious and interefting fub-
jeft ; yet few experiments have been m&de to deter¬
mine what the additions are which a tree receives an¬
nually in different periods of its age. The only obfer-
vations which we have feen on this fubjedl worth re¬
peating were made by the ingenious Mr Barker, to
whom the Philofophical Tranfadlions are much indebt¬
ed for papers containing an accurate regifler of the
weather, which he has kept for many years. He has
drawn up a table to point out the growth of three kinds
of trees, oaks, affies, and elms j which may be feen in
the Philofophical Tranfa6lions for 1788. We ftiall
give his conclufions.
“ I find (fays he) the growth of oak and affi to be
nearly the fame. I have fome of both forts planted at
the fame time, and in the fame hedges, of which the
oaks are the largeft ; but there is no certain rule as to
that. The common growth of an oak or an afh is
about an inch in girth in a year; fome thriving ones
w’ill grow an inch and a half; the unthriving ones not
fo much. Great trees grow more timber in a year than
fmall ones; for if the annual growth be an inch, a coat
of one-fixth of an inch is laid on all round, and the
timber added to the body every year is its length mul¬
tiplied into the thicknefs of the coat and into the girth,
and therefore the thicker the tree is, the more timber is
added.”
We will prefent our readers with a table, fhownng
the growth of 17 kinds of trees for two years. The
trees grew at Cavenham in Suffolk.
Tree.
4
j Oak
THE
[ 46
1 Oak
2 Larch
3 Scotch fir
4 Spruce fir
5 Spanifh chefnut
6 Elm
7 Pin after
8 Larch
9 Weymouth pine
10 Acacia
11 Beech
12 Plane, occidental
13 Lombardy poplar
14 Black poplar
15 Willow
16 Silver fir
17 Lime
July 1785.
F. In.
O ICf
1 of
1 3i
o n
2 7i
2 3i
1 Si
o 5
I 2l
o 6j
o 6i
1 8
1 2i
2 9f
o 7i
1 8i
July 1786
F In.
O Ilf
1 3
1 if
o 6f
o 7i
2 9
2 4f
1 6
o 6
1 if
o 6f
o 7f
July 1787.
F In.
I Of
1 4
1 7f
o 7f
o 8
2 11
2 7f
1 7
o 7t
1 6f
o 7f
o 8f
2 3f
1 if
3 3
o 94-
See Husbandry, N° 165, where the growth of 11
kinds of trees in 21 years is given.
Trees fometimes attain a very great fize : this muft
depend in a great meafure on the richnefs of foil, but
no lefs on the degree of heat. Indeed heat is fo effen-
tial to the growth of trees, that as we go from the
place within the polar circles where vegetation begins,
and advance to the equator, we find the trees increafe
in fize. Greenland, Iceland, and other places in the
fame latitude, yield no trees at all 5 and the fhrubs which
they produce are dwarfifh; whereas, in warm climates,
they often grow to an immenfe fize. Mr Marfham faw
fpruce and filver firs in the dock-yard in Venice above
40 yards long, and one of 39 yards was 18 inches dia¬
meter at the fmall end. He was informed that they
came from Switzerland.
The largeft tree in Europe, mentioned by travellers,
Is the chefnut tree on Mount Etna, already defcribed
under the article Etna, N° 18. It is a certain fa&
that trees acquire a very great fize in volcanic coun¬
tries. Befide the multitude of fine groves in the neigh¬
bourhood of Albano in Italy, there are many detached
oaks 20 feet in circumference, and many elms of the
fame fize, efpecially in the romantic way to Eaftello,
called the Galleria. In travelling by the fide of the
lake of Bolfena, the road leads through an immenfe
number of oaks, fpread upon beautiful hills. Where
the lava has been fufficiently foftened, they are clean
and ftraight, and of a confiderable fize ; but where the
lava has not been converted Into a foil proper for ftrong
vegetation, they are round-headed, and of lefs fize j
however, taken all together, they make a magnificent
appearance ; and the fpot itfelf ought to be ranked among
the fine parts of Italy. The fame may be obferved of
the fmall lake of Vico, encompaffed with gentle rifings,
that are all clothed with foreft-trees.
Some yews have been found in Britain 60 feet
round. P ilms in Jamaica attain the height of 200 feet j
and fome of the pines in Norfolk illand are 280 feet
high.
Of all the different kinds known in Europe, oak is
beft for building j and even when it lies expofed to air
and water, there is none equal to it. Fir-timber is the
Vol. XX. Part II.
5 ] T R E
next in degree of goodnefs for building, efpecxally in
England, where they build upon leales. It differs from
oak in this, that it requires not much feafonmg, and
therefore no great ftock is required before-hand. Fir is
ufed for flooring, wainfcoting, and the ornamental parts
of building within doors. Elm is the next in ufe, efpe¬
cially in England and France : it is very tough and
pliable, and therefore eafiiy worked : it does not readily
fplit 5 and it bears driving of bolts and nails better
than any other wood j for which reafon it is chiefly ufed
by wheel-wrights and coach-makers, for (hafts, naves,
See. Beech is alfo ufed for many purpofes : it(is very
tough and white when young, and of great ftrength 5 but
liable to warp very much when expoled to the weather,
and to be worm eaten when ufed within doors $ its
greateft ufe is for planks, bedfteads, chairs, and
other houfehold goods. Afti is like wife a very ufeful
wood, but very fcarce in moft parts of Europe 5 it ferves
in buildings, or for any other ufe, when fereened from
the weather j handfpikes and oars are chiefly made of it.
Wild .chefnut timber is by many efteemed to be as good
as oak, and feems to have been much ufed in old build¬
ings ; but whether thefe trees are more fcarce at prefent
than formerly, or have been found not to anfwer fo well
as was imagined, it is certain that this timber is now but
little ufed. Walnut-tree is excellent for the joiner’s
ufe, it being of a more curious brown colour than beech,
and not fo fubjeft to the worms. The poplar, abele,
and afpen trees, which are very little different from each
other, are much ufed inftead of fir $ they look well, and
are tougher and harder.
The goodnefs of timber not only depends on the foil
and fituation in which it Hands, but likewife on the fea-
fon wherein it is felled. In this people difagree very
much ; fome are for having it felled as foon as its fruit
is ripe, others in the fpring, and many in the autumn.
But as the fap and moifture of timber is certainly the
caufe that it perifties much fboner than it otherwife
would do, it feems evident, that timber ftrould be felled
where there is the leaft fap in it, viz. from the time that
the leaves begin to fall till the trees begin to bud. This
work ufually commences about the end of April in
England, becaufe the bark then rifes moft; freely j for
where a quantity of timber is to be felled, the ftatute
requires it to be done then, for the advantage of tan¬
ning. The ancients chiefly regarded the age of the
moon in felling their timber $ their rule was to fell it in
the wane, or four days after the new moon, or fometimes
in the laft quarter. Pliny advifes it to be in the very in-
ftant of the change •, which happening to be in the laft
day of the winter folftice, the timber, fays he, will be
incorruptible.
Timber fttould likewife be cut when of a proper age;
for when it is either too young or too old, it will not
be fo durable as w'hen cut at a proper age. It is faid
that oak fliould not be cut under 6o years old, nor
above 200. Timber, however, Ihould be cut in its
prime, when almoft fully grown, and before it begins
to decay ; and this will be fooner or later according to
the drynefs and moiftnefs of the foil where the timber
grows, as alfo according to the bignefs of the trees $
for there are no fixed rules in felling of timber, ex¬
perience and judgment muft dire& here as in moft other
cafes.
Great attention is neceffary in the feafoning of tim-
3 N ber.
THE [ 466 ] T R E
tier. Some advife the planks of timber to be laid for a
few days in fome pool or running ftream, in order to
extract the fap, and afterwards to dry them in the fun
or air. By this means, it is faid, they will be prevented
from either chopping, carting, or cleaving ; but againft
fhrinking there is no remedy. Some again are for bury¬
ing them in the earth, others in a heat; and fome for
fcorching and feafoning them in fire, efpecially piles,
ports, &c. which are to ftand in water or earth. The
Venetians firft found out the method of feafoning by
fire ; which is done after this manner: They put the
piece to be feafoned into a ftrong and violent flame j in
this they continually turn it round by means of an en¬
gine, and take it out when it is everywhere covered with
a black coaly cruft j the internal part of the wood is
thereby fo hardened, that neither earth nor water can
damage it for a long time afterwards.
Dr Plott fays, it is found by long experience, that
the trunk or body of the trees, when barked in the
fpring, and left Handing naked all the fummer expofed
to the fun and wind, are fo dried and hardened, that the
fappy part in a manner becomes as firm and durable as
the heart itfelf. This is confirmed by M. Buffon, who,
in 1738, prefented to the royal academy of fciences at
Paris a memoir entitled, “ An eafy method of increaf-
ing the folidity, ftrength, and duration of timber j” for
which purpofe he obferves, “ nothing more is neceflary
than to ft rip the tree entirely of its bark during the fea-
fon of the rifing of the fap, and to leave it to dry com¬
pletely before it be cut down.”
By many experiments, particularly defcribed in that
eflay, it appears, that the tree rtiould not be felled till
the third year after it has been ftripped of the bark j
that it is then perfectly dry, and the fap become almoft
as ftrong as the reft of the timber, and ftronger than the
heart of any other oak tree which has not been fo
ftripped ; and the whole of the timber ftronger, heavier,
and harder •, from which he thinks it fair to conclude,
that it is alfo more durable. “ It would no longer (he
adds) be neceffary, if this method were pra&ifed, to cut
off the fap •, the whole of the tree might be ufed as tim¬
ber j one of 40 years growth would ferve all the pur-
pofes for which one of 60 years is now required 5 and
this praftice would have the double advantage of in-
creafing the quantity, as well as the ftrength and folidi¬
ty, of the timber.”
The navy board, in anfwer to the inquiries of the
eommiffioners of the land revenue, in May 1789, in¬
formed them, that they had then Handing fome trees
ftripped of their bark two years before, in order to try
the experiment of building one half of a Hoop of war
with that timber, and the other half with timber felled
and ftripped in the common w’ay. This very judicious
mode of making the experiment, if it be properly exe¬
cuted, will undoubtedly go far to afcertain the effetts
of this pra&ice. We are forry that we are not able
to inform our readers w7hat was the refult of the experi¬
ment.
After the planks of timber have been w7ell feafoned
and fixed in their places, care is to be taken to defend
©r preferve them •, to which the fmearing them writh
linfeed oil, tar, or 'the like oleaginous matter, contri¬
butes much. The ancients, particularly Hefiod and
Virgil, advife the fmoke-drying of all inftruments made
of wood, by hanging them up in the chimneys where
w7ood fires are ufed. The Dutch preferve their gates, Tree,
portcullices, drawbridges, fluices, &c. by coating them 'r~mJ
over with a mixture of pitch and tar, whereon they
ftrew fmall pieces of cockle and other {hells, beaten al¬
moft to powder, and mixed with fea-fand, which in¬
crufts and arms them wonderfully againft all affaults of
Wind and weather. When timber is felled before the fap
is perfeftly at reft, it is very fubjeft to worms ; but to
prevent and cure this, Mr Evelyn recommends the foi-
kwing remedy as the moft approved : Put common ful-
phur into a cucurbit, with as much aquafortis as will
cover it three fingers deep j diftil it to drynefs, which is
performed by two or three reftifications. Lay the ful-
phur that remains at bottom, being of a blackifh or
fand-red colour, on a marble, or put it in a glafs, and it
will diffolve into an oil ; with this oil anoint the timber
which is infe&ed with worms. This, he fays, will not
only prevent worms, but preferve all kinds of woods,
and many other things, as ropes, nets, and mafts, from
putrefaction, either in water, air, or fnow.
An experiment to determine the comparative durabi¬
lity of different kinds of timber, when expofed to the
weather, was made by a nobleman in Norfolk 5 of which jn„a!s ef
an account is given by Sir TL homas Beevor. 1 his no- Agricul-
bleman, in the year 1774, ordered three polls, forming ture, vol.
two fides of a quadrangle, to be fixed in the earth on a v1, P1 ^
rifing ground in his park. Into thefe ports were mor-
tifed planks, an inch and a half thick, cut out of trees
from 30 to 45 years growth. Thefe, after {landing 10
years, w^ere examined, and found in the following ftate
and condition :
The cedar w7as perfeClly found; larch, the heart
found, but the fap quite decayed ; fpruce fir, found j
filver fir, in decay j Scotch fir, much decayed j pin-
after, quite rotten $ chefnut, perfeflly found; abele,
found ; beech, found ; w7alnut, in decay ; fycamore,
much decayed ; birch, quite rotten. Sir Thomas Bee¬
vor juftly remarks, that the trees ought to have been of
the fame age ; and Mr Arthur Young adds, they ought
to have been cut out of the fame plantation.
The immenfe quantity of timber confirmed of late
years in {hip-building and other purpofes has diminifh-
ed in a very great degree the quantity produced in this
country. On this account, many gentlemen who wilh
w7ell to their country, alarmed with the fear of a fcarci-
ty, have ftrongly recommended it to government to pay
fome attention to the cultivation and prefervation of tim-
her.
We find, on the beft authority, that of Mr Irving in-
fpeftor general of imports and exports, that the {hip¬
ping of England in 1760 amounted to 6107 in num¬
ber, the tonnage being 433,922; and the {hipping in
Scotland amounted to 976 in number, the tonnage be¬
ing 52,818. In 1788 the whole {hipping of Britain
and Ireland and their colonies amounted to 13,800, be-
ing 1,359,752 tons burden, and employing 107,925
men. The tonnage of the royal navy in the fame y^ar
w7as 413,667. We are informed alfo, on what we con- Elwenfh
fider as the beft authority (the report of the commiflion-i?^0,f‘
ers of the land revenue), that the quantity of oak timber,
of Englifh growth, delivered into the dockyards from
1760 to i 788 was no lefs than 768,676 loads, and that
the quantity ufed in the merchants yards in the fame
time w7as 1516,630 loads 5 in all 1,285,306 loads. The
foreign oak ufed in the fame period was only 137,766
loads.
THE [ 467 ] T R E
Tree, loads. So that, after deducing the quantity remaining
-V-—' in the dock-yards in 1760 and 1788, and the foreign
oak, there will remain about 1,054,284 loads of Englilh
oak, confumed in 28 years, which is at an average
37,653 loads per annum, befides from 8300 to 10,000
loads expended annually by the Eaft India company
within the fame period (a).
The price of wood has rifen in proportion to the de¬
mand and to its diminution. At the conqueft, woods
were valued, not by the quantity of timber which they
contained, but the number of fwine which the acorns
could fupport. In 1608, oak in the forefts was fold
at 1 os. per load, and fire-wood for 2s. per load. In
1663 or 1665, in navy contracts from 2l. to 2l. 15s. 6d.
per load was given. In 17 :6 it rofe to 4I. 5s. per
load, and 3s. in addition, becaufe no tops are received.
Plank four inch fold in 1769 for 7I. a load, three inch
61.; which prices were the fame in 1792.
So great an expenditure of valuable timber within fo
(hort a period, gives reafon to fear that the forefts of
this country will foon be entirely difmantled, unlefs
fomething is done to raife frelh fupplies. The building
of a 70 gun ftiip, it is faid, would take 40 acres of
timber. This calculation is indeed fo exceflive, that it
is fcarcely credible. This, however, is no exaggeration.
According to the prevailing opinion of experienced fur-
veyors, it will require a good foil and good manage¬
ment to produce 40 trees on an acre, which, in a hun¬
dred years, may, at an average, be computed at two
loads each. Reckoning, therefore, two loads at 81. 16s.
one acre will be worth 350I. and confequently 40 acres
will only be worth 14,200!. Now a 70 gun (hip is ge¬
nerally fuppofed to coil 70,000!.; and as {hips do not
laft a great many years, the navy continually requires
new fhips, fo that the forelts muft be {tripped in a cen¬
tury or two, unlefs young trees are planted to fupply
their place.
Many plans have been propofed for recruiting the
forefts. Premiums have been held forth to individuals;
and it has been propofed that the crown-lands Ihould be
fet apart for the fpecial purpofe of railing timber.
With refpeft to individuals, as they muft generally be
difpofed to fow or plant their lands with thofe vege¬
tables which will beft reward their labours, it is not to
be expefted that they will fet apart their fields for
planting trees unlefs they have a greater return from
them than other crops. But bad muft that land be
which will not yield much more than 350I. produce in
loo years. But though it be evident that good land
will produce crops much more lucrative to the proprietor
than timber, yet ftill there are lands or pieces of land
which might be applied with very great advantage to
the produdlion of wood. Uneven ground, or the fides
of fields where corn cannot be cultivated, might very
properly be fet apart for this purpofe j barren lands, or
fuch as cannot be cultivated without great labour and
*xpence, might alfo be planted. Hedge-rows and
clumps of trees, and little woods fcattered up and down. Tree,
would Ihelter and defend the fields from deftrudtive '
winds, would beautify the face of the country, render
the climate warmer, improve barren lands, and furnilh
wood for the arts and manufa&ures.
But to cultivate foreft timber has alfo been thought of
fuch national importance, that it has been deemed wor¬
thy of the attention of government. It has been pro¬
pofed to appropriate fuch part of the crown-lands as are
fit for the purpofe folely of producing timber for the na¬
vy. This appears a very proper fcheme in fpeculation $
but it has been objedled, that for government to attempt
the farming of forefts would be really to eftablifti groups
of officers to pocket falaries for doing what, it is well
known, will never be done at all. But to this objeftion
we reply, that fuch an agreement might be made with
the infpeftors of forefts, as to make it their own intereft
to cultivate trees with as much care as poflible. Their
falary might be fixed very low, and raifed in proportion
to the number of trees which they could furnilh of fuch
a fize in a certain number of years. After all, we muft:
acknowledge that we muft depend greatly on Ruftia,
Sweden, Norway, and America, for fupplying us with
. timber j and while thefe countries take our maaufadtures
in exchange, we have no reafon to complain. Still, how¬
ever, we ought furely not to negledl the cultivation of
w-hat is of fo much importance to our exiftence as a na¬
tion, for it may often be impoffible in time of war to ob¬
tain timber from foreign countries.
In the beginning of this article we mentioned the ge¬
neral divifion of trees into timber or foreft-trees and
fruit trees. We have already faid all that our limits
will permit refpe&ing the former : we will now, there¬
fore, fay fomething of the latter. Our obfervations {ball
be confined to the methods of preferving fruit trees in
bloffom from the eftedls of froft, and from other difeafes
to which they are liable.
The Chevalier de Dienenberg of Prague, we are told,
has difcovered a method of effeftually preferving trees in
bloffom from the fatal effe&s of thofe frofts which fome-1^1,
times in the fpring deftroy the moft promifing hopes of a
plentiful crop of fruit. His method is extremely fimple.
He furrounds the trunk of the tree in bloffom with a
wifp of ftraw or hemp. The end of this he finks, by-
means of a ftone tied to it, in a veffel of fpring water,
at a little diftance from the tree. One veffel will conve¬
niently ferve two trees : or the cord may be lengthened
fo as to furround feveral, before its end is plunged into
the water. It is neceffary that the veffel be placed in an
open fituation, and by no means {haded by the branches
of the neighbouring trees, that the froft may produce all
its effeft on the water, by means of the cord communi¬
cating with it.—This precaution is particularly neceffary
for thofe trees the^ flowers of which appear nearly at the
fame time as the leaves 5 which trees are peculiarly ex-
poled to the ravages of the froft. The proofs of its effi¬
cacy, which he had an opportunity of obferving in the
3 2 ^Pnng
(a) A writer in the Bath Tranfaftions fays, that the aggregate of oaks felled in England and Wales for 30
years paft has amounted to 320,000 loads a-year ; and affirms that he has documents in his poffeflion founded on
indifputable fafts.. The difference between this account, and that which we have given in the text from the re¬
port of the commiftioners, we leave to be reconciled by thofe who have proper opportunities. We give the fads
merely on the authority of others. &
THE [
fpring of 1787, were remarkably fhiking. Seven apri¬
cot efpaliers in bis garden began to bloffom in the month
of March. Fearing that they would fuffer from the late
frolts, he furrounded them with cords as above direfted.
In effeft, pretty ftiarp frofts took place fix or eight
nights: the apricot-trees in the neighbouring gardens
were all frozen, and none of them produced any fruit,
whilll each of the chevalier’s produced fruit in abun¬
dance, which came to the greateft perfeftion.
The following is the method propofed by Mr Wil¬
liam Forfyth for curing injuries and defefts in trees ; for
which a reward was given to him by his Majefty, on
condition that he (hould make it public. It is equally
applicable to foreft as to fruit trees (b).
Take one bufhel offrefh cow-dung, half a bufhel of lime
rubbifh of old buildings (that from the ceilings of rooms
is preferable) j half a bufhel of wood allies j and a fixteenth
part of a bufhel of pit or river fand. The three laft ar¬
ticles are to be fifted fine before they are mixed $ then
work them well together with a fpade, and afterwards
with a wooden beater, until the fluff is very fmooth,like
fine plafler ufed for the ceilings of rooms. The compo-
fition being thus made, care muff be taken to prepare
the tree properly for its application by cutting away all
the dead, decayed, and injured parts, till you come to
the frefh found wood, leaving the furface of the wood very
fmooth, and rounding off the edges of the bark with a
draw-knife, or other inftrument, perfe&ly fmooth, which
muft be particularly attended to. Then lay on the plaf-
ter about one-eighth of an inch thick all over the part
where the wood or bark has been fo cut away, finifhing
off the edges as thin as poffible. Then take a quantity
of dry powder of wood afhes, mixed with a fixth part of
the fame quantity of the afhes of burnt bones ; put it
into a tin box, with holes in the top, and fhake the pow¬
der on the furface of the plafler, till the whole is covered
over with it, letting it remain for half an hour to abforb
the moiflure ; then apply more powder, rubbing it on
gently with the hand, and repeating the application of
the powder, till the whole plafter becomes a dry fmooth
fuiface.
All trees cut down near the ground fhould have the
farface made quite fmooth, rounding it off in a fmall de¬
gree, as before mentioned j and the dry powder direfted
to be ufed afterwards fhould have an equal quantity of
powder of alabafter mixed with it, in order the better to
refift the dripping of trees and heavy rains. If any of
the compofiiion be left for a future occafion, it fhould
be kept in a tub or other veffel, and urine of any kind
poured on it, fo as to cover the furface *, otherwife the
atmofphere will greatly hurt the efficacy of the applica¬
tion. Where lime rubbifh of old buildings cannot be
eafily got, take pow’dered chalk, or common lime, after
having been flaked a month at leaft. As the growth of
the tree will gradually affect the plafler, by raifing up
its edges next the bark, care fhould be taken, where that
468 ] the
happens, to rub it over with the finger when occafion Tree-
may require (which is bell done when moiltened by Trj|it
rain), that the plafler may be kept whole, to prevent. - >
the air and wet from penetrating into the wound.
By this procefs, fome old worn-out pear trees, th&t Forfyth’*'
bore only a few fmall, hard fruit, of a kcrnelly texture,
were made to produce pears of the beft quality and finefi^0/" th*
flavour the fecond fummer after the operation j and in ^
four or five years they bore fuch plenteous crops, as a
young healthy tree would not have produced in four
times that period.
By this procefs, too, fome large ancient elms, in a
moft decayed flate, having all their upper parts broken,
and a fmall portion only of the bark remaining, fhot out
flems from their tops, abave thirty feet in height, in fix
or feven years from the firfl application of the compofi-
tion.
Thus may valuable trees be renovated j and forefl
trees, which are ufeful or ornamental from their particu¬
lar fituation, be preferved in a flourifliing flate. But
what is far more interefling, a perfedl cure has been
made, and found timber produced, in oak trees, which
had received very confiderable damage from blows, brui-
fes, cutting of deep letters, the rubbing off the bark by
the ends of rollers, or wheels of carts, or from the
breaking of'branches by {forms.
TREFOIL. See'J RiFOLiuM, Botany/wr/c.v.
TREMELLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of cryptogamia. See Botany Index.
TREMOR, an involuntary fhaking, chiefly of the
hands and head, fometimes of the feet, and lometimes
of the tongue and heart.—Tremors arifing from a too
free ufe of fpirituous liquors require the fame treatment
as palfies.
TRENCHES, in fortification, are ditches cut by the
befiegers, that they may approach the more fecurely to
the place attacked, whence they are alfo called lines of
approach.
TRENT, Bishopric of, a province of Germany, in
the circle of Auftria, near the frontiers of Italy 5 is
bounded on the north by Tirol j on the eaft by the Fel-
trino and Bellunefe j on the fouth, by Vincentino, the
Veronefe, Brefciano, and the lake de Garda ; and on
the weft, by the Brefciano and the lake de Garda. The
foil is faid to be very fruitful, and to abound in wine
and oil.
Trent, a city of Germany, and capital of the bi-
(hopric of that name, is a very ancient place, and Hands
in a fertile and pleafant plain, in the midft of the high
mountains of the Alps. The river Adige wafties its
walls, and creeping for fome time among the hills, runs
fwiftly into Italy. Trent has three confiderable church¬
es, the principal of which is the cat hedral: this is a very
regular piece of architefture. The church of St Maria
Major is all of red and white marble *, and is remark¬
able for being the place where the famous council of
Trent
(b) A pafte for covering the wounds of trees, and the place w-here grafts are inferted, w-as difcoyered long ago.
It is recommended in a Treatife on Fruit Trees, publilhed by Thomas Hitt in 1755 i a third edition of which,
with additions, was pubhfhed in 1768. It confifts of a mixture of clay and cow'’s dung diluted with water. This
pafte he ditefts to be laid on the wound with a brulh j it adheres firmly, he fays, without cracking till the wound
heals. We are informed by a gentleman, to whofe opinion and experience we pay great refpe£t, that this pafte
anfwers every purpofe which Mr Forfyth’s can ferve.
T R E
r 469 j
T R I
Treves.
Trent Trent was heid, w'hofe decifions are now the (landing
rule of the Romilh church. E. Long. 11. 5. N. Lat.
- 46. 10.
Trent, one of the larged rivers in England, which
rifes in the moorland of Staffordlhire, and runs fouth-
weft by Newcadle-under-Line 5 and afterwards dividing
the county in two parts, runs to Burton, then to Not¬
tingham and Newark : and fo continuing its courfe due
north to Gainfborough on the confines of Lmcolnthire,
it joins feveral rivers, and falls into the Humber.
Trent, Council ofy in Ecclejiajlical HJlory, denotes
the council affembled by Paul III. in 1545, and conti¬
nued by 35 fedions till the year 1563, under Julius III.
and Pius IV. in order to correft, illullrate, and fix with
perfpicuity, the doftrine of the church, to redore the
vigour of its difeipline, and to reform the lives of its mi-
niders. The decrees of this council, together with the
creed of Pope Pius IV. contain a fummary of the doc¬
trines of the Roman Catholics. Thefe decrees were
fubferibed by 255 clergy, confiding of four legates, 2
other cardinals, 3 patriarchs, 25 archbidiops, 168 bi-
(hops, befides inferior clergy. Of thefe 150 came from
Italy, of courfe the council was entirely under the influ¬
ence of the pope. For a more particular account of the
council of Trent, fee Molheim’s Church Hidory, the
Modern Univerfal Hiflory, vol. xxiit. and Father Paul’s
Hidory of the Council of Trent.
TRENTON. See New Jekset.
TREPANNING. See Surgery Index.
TRES TABERNiE, in Ancient Geography, a place in
Latium, Iving on the Via Appia, on the left or fouth
fide of the river Adura, to the north of the Paludes
Pomptinae. Its ruins are now feen near Ciderna, a vil¬
lage in the Campagna di Roma, 21 miles from Rome,
whence the Chridians went out to meet St Paul.
TRESPASS, in Law, fignifies any tranfgreflion of
the law, under treafon, felony, or mifprifion of either :
but it is commonly ufed for any wrong or damage that
is done by one private perfon to another, or to the king
in his fored.
TRESSLE TREES, in Ship-Building, two drong bars
of timber fixed horizontally on the oppofite fides of the
lo wer mad-head, to fupport the frame of the top and the
weight of the top-mad.
TRESSURE, in Heraldry, a diminutive of an orle,
ufually held to be half the breadth thereof.
TRET, in Commerce, an allowance made for the
wade or the dirt that may be mixed with any commodi¬
ty ; which is commonly four pounds in every 104 pounds
weight.
TREVERI, or TrEviri, in Ancient Geography, an
ancient and a poweiful people, both in horfe and foot,
according to Caefar j extending far and wide between the
Meufe and the Rhine. Their chief town was called Tre-
’Deris. Now Triers or T re-ves.
TREVES, or Triers (in Latin Trevere, Trevers,
Treviris, or Augufia Trevirorum), the capital of the
German archbithopric of the fame name, dands 60 miles
wed of Mentz, 52 fouth of Cologne, and 82 north of
Strafburg. This city vies with mod in Europe for anti¬
quity, having been a large and noted town before Au-
gudus fetlled a colony in it. It was free and imperial
till the year 1560, when it was furprifed and fubje&ed
by its archbilhop James III. It dands on the Mofelle,
over which it has a fair done bridge. The cathedral is
a large building ; and near it dands the ele£lor’s palace, Treves-,
which not long ago was rebuilt. Here are three colie-
giate and five paridr churches, three colleges of Jefuits, ^
thirteen monaderies and nunneries, an univerfity founded
in 1472, a houfe of the Teutonic order, and another of
that of Malta, with fome remains of the ancient Roman
theatre. Roman coins and medals are often found in
the ruins of the old city. In the cathedral they pretend
to have oui Saviour’s coat and St Peter’s daff, to which
they aferibe miracles. The private houfes here are
mean ; and the city is neither well fortified nor inhabi¬
ted. E. Long. 6. 41. N. Lat. 49. 45.
TRIAL, in Law, the examination of a caufe accor¬
ding to the laws ol the land before a proper judge j or
it is the manner and order obferved in the hearing and
determining of caufes.
Trials are either civil or criminal.
I. Civil TRIALS. The fpecies of trials in civil cafes
are feven : By record; by infpeEtion or examination j by
certificate; by wunejjes ; by wager of battel; by wager
of law ; and by^W' y. The fird fix are only had in cer¬
tain fpecial or eccentrical cafes, where the trial by jury
would not be fo proper or effe6lual : (See them explain¬
ed under their refpe£tive titles). The nature of the lad,
that principal criterion of truth in the law of England,
fhall be explained in this article.
As trial by jury is edeemed one of the mod impor¬
tant privileges which members of fociety can enjoy, and
the bulwark of the Britidi conditution, every man of
reflexion mud be dimulated by the defire of inquiring^
into its origin and hiflory, as well as to be acquainted
with the forms and advantages by which it is accompa¬
nied. We will therefore begin with tracing it to its ori¬
gin. Its inllitution has been aferibed to our Saxon an-
cedors by Sir William Blackdone.
“ Some authors (fays that illudrious lawyer) have en- Blarkjl.
deavoured to trace the original of juries up as high as the
Britons themfelves, the firll inhabitants of our iflandj^ ^j.
but certain it is that they were in ufe among the earlied
Saxon colonies, their inditution being aferibed by Bidrop
Nicholfon to Woden himfelf, rheir great legidator and
captain. Hence it is, that we may find traces of juries
in the laws of all thofe nations which adopted the feodal
fydem, as in Germany, Fiance, and Italy j who had all
of them a tribunal compofed of twelve good men and
true, boni homines, ufually the vaffals or tenants of the
lord, being the equals or peers of the parties litigant j
and, as the lord’s vaflais judged each other in the lord’s
courts, fo the king’s vafials, or the lords themfelves,
judged each other in the king’s court. In E: gland we
find aftual mention of them fo early as the laws of King
Ethelred, and that not as a new invention. Stiernhock
aferibes the invention of the jury, which in the Teuto¬
nic language is denominated nembda, to Regner king of
Sweden and Denmark, who wTas contemporary with our
King Egbert. Juft as we are apt to impute the inven¬
tion of this, and fome other pieces of juridical polity,
to the fuperior genius of Alfred the Great j to whom,
on account of his having done much, it is ufual to attri¬
bute every thing : and as the tradition of ancient Greece
placed to the account of their ow-n Hercules whatever
atchievement wTas performed fuperior to the ordinary
prowefs of mankind. Whereas the truth feems to be,
that this tribunal was univerfally eftablilhed among all
the northern nations, and fo interwoven in their very
conftitution.
T R I t 4:
Trial, conftitution, that the earlieft accounts of the one give us
alio fome traces of the other.”
This opinion has been controverted with much learn¬
ing and ingenuity by Dr Pettingal in his Inquiry into
the Ufe and Practice of Juries among the Greeks and
Romans, who deduces the origin of juries from thefe an¬
cient nations.
He begins with determining the meaning of the word
itxxrxt in the Greek, and judices in the Roman, writers.
“ The common acceptation of thefe words (fays he),
and the idea generally annexed to them, is that of pre-
Jidents of courts, or, as we call them, judges; as fuch
they are underllood by commentators, and rendered by
critics. Dr Middleton, in his life of Cicero, exprefsly calls
the judices, of the bench : and Archbilhop Potter,
and in Ihort all modern writers upon the Greek or Roman
orators, or authors in general, exprefs Zixxrctt and judices
by fuch terms as convey the idea of pref dents in courts
of jufice. The propriety of this is doubted of, and
hath given occafion for this inquiry j in which is Ihown,
from the bell Greek and Roman authorities, that neither
the Sixxrxi of the Greeks, or the judices of the Romans,
ever fignified pref dents in courts of judicature, or judges
of the bench; but, on the contrary, they were diitin-
guilhed from each other, and the difference of their duty
and fun&ion was carefully and clearly pointed out by
the orators in their pleadings, who were the befl author¬
ities in thofe cafes, where the queftion related to forms
of law, and methods of proceeding in judicial affairs
and criminal procefs.
The prefidents of the courts in criminal trials at A-
thens were the nine archons, or chief magiftrates, of
which whoever prefided was called tyipm ^tKxc^u, or
prefident of the court. Thefe nine prefided in different
caufes peculiar to each jurifdidlion. The archon, pro¬
perly fo called, had belonging to his department all pu¬
pillary and heritable cafes j the l&xnMvf or rex facro-
rum, the chief prieft, all cafes where religion was con¬
cerned } the polemarchus, or general, the affairs of the
army and all military matters •, and the fix thefmothetae,
the other ordinary fuits.
Wherever then the av^e? iixxcxi, or judicial men, are
addreffed by the Greek orators in their fpeeches, they
are not to be underftood to be the prefiding magiftrates,
but another clafs of men, wh« were to inquire into the
ftate of the caufe before them, by witneffes and other
methods of coming at truth $ and after inquiry made
and witneffes heard, to report their opinion and verdift
to the prefident, who was to declare it.
The feveral fteps and circumftances attending this ju¬
dicial proceeding are fo fimilar to the forms obferved by
our jury, that the learned reader, for fuch I muft fup-
pofe him, cannot doubt but that the nature, intent, and
proceedings of the among the Greeks were
the fame with the Englifh jury} namely, for the pro¬
tection of the lower people from the power and oppref-
fion of the great, by adminiftering equal law and juftice
to all ranks ; and therefore when the Greek orators di¬
rected their fpeeches to the itxxrxi, as we fee in
Demofthenes, Alfchines, and Lyfias, we are to under-
ftand it in the fame fenfe as when our lawyers at the bar
fay, Gentlemen of the jury.
So likewife among the Romans, the judices, in their
pleadings at the bar, never fignified judges of the bench,
or prefidents of the court, but a body or order of men,
whole office in the courts of judicature was diftinCt from
o ] T R . 1
that of the praetor or judex quefionis, which anfwered | TnA
to our judge of the bench, and was the fame with the 'r~'
archon, or vyipai <hxxm£tv, of the Greeks: whereas the
duty of the judices confuted in being impannelled, as we
call it, challenged, and fwore to try uprightly the cafe
before them •, and when they had agreed upon their o-
pinion or verdiCt, to deliver it to the prefident who was
to pronounce it. This kind of judicial procefs was firft
introduced into the Athenian polity by Solon, and
thence copied into the Roman republic, as probable
means of procuring juft judgement, and protecting the
lower people from the oppreflion or arbitrary decifions of
their fuperiors.
When the Romans were fettled in Britain as a pro¬
vince, they carried with them their jura and infituta,
their laws and cuftoms, which was a praCtice effential
to all colonies j hence the Britons, and other countries
of Germany and Gaul, learned from them the Roman
laws and cuftoms j and upon the irruption of the north¬
ern ^nations into the fouthern kingdoms of Europe,
the laws and inftitutions of the Romans remained, when
the power that introduced them was withdrawn : and
Montefquieu tells us, that under the firft race of kings
in France, about the fifth century, the Romans that re¬
mained, and the Burgundians their new matters, lived
together under the fame Roman laws and police, and
particularly the fame forms of judicature. How rea-
fonable then is it to conclude, that in the Roman courts
of judicature continued among the Burgundians, the
form of a jury remained in the fame ftate it was ufed a$
Rome. It is certain, Montefquieu, fpeaking of thofe
times, mentions the paires or homines de fef homagers
or peers, which in the fame chapter he calls juges,
judges or jurymen: fo that we hence fee how at that
time the hommes de fef, or “ men of the fief,” were
called peers, and thofe peers were juges or jurymen.
Thefe were the fame as are called in the laws of the Con-
feffor pers de la tenure, the “ peers of the tenure, or
homagers,” out of whom the jury of peers were chofen,
to try a matter in difpute between the lord and his te¬
nant, or any other point of controverfy in the manor.
So likewife in all other parts of Europe, where the Ro¬
man colonies had been, the Goths fucceeding them, con¬
tinued to make ufe of the fame laws and inftitutions,
which they found to be eftablifhed there by the firft
conquerors. This is a much more natural way of ac¬
counting for the origin of a jury in Europe, than having
recourfe to the fabulous ftory of Woden and his favage
Scythian companions, as the firft introducers of fo hu¬
mane and beneficent an inftitution.”
Trials by jury in civil caufes are of two kinds j ex~
traordinary and ordinary.
i. The firft fpecies of extraordinary trial by jury is
that of the grand aflife, which was inftituted by King
Henry II. in parliament, by way of alternative offered
to the choice of the tenant or defendant in a writ of
right inftead of the barbarous and unchriftian cuftom of
duelling. For this purpofe a writ de magna afjifa eli-
genda is directed to the fheriff, to return four knights,
who are to eleft and choofe 12 others to be joined with
them j and thefe all together form the grand aflife, or
great jury, which is to try the matter of right, and
muft now confift of 16 jurors. Another fpecies of ex¬
traordinary juries is the jury to try an attaint; which is
a procefs commenced againft a former jury for bringing
a falfe verdifl. See the article Attaint.
2. With
TUI
Blackjl.
Comment.
* See the
article
Ajjiooe.
2. With regard to the ordinary trial by jury in civil
J cafes, the moft clear and perfpicuous way of treating it
will be by following the order and courfe of the pro¬
ceedings themfelves.
When therefore an iffue is joined by thefe words,
“ And this the faid A prays may be inquired of by the
country j” or, “ And of this he puts himfelf upon the
country, and the faid B does the like j” the court
awards a writ of venire facias upon the roll or record,
commanding the flieriff “ that he caufe to come here,
on fuch a day, twelve free and lawful men, liberes et le¬
gates homines, of the body of his country, by whom the
truth of the matter may be better known, and who are
neither of kin to the aforefaid A nor the aforefaid B,
to recognize the truth of the iffue between the faid
parties.” And fuch writ is accordingly iffued to the
flieriff. It is made returnable on the laft return of the
fame term wherein iffue is joined, viz. hilary or trinity
terms; which, from the making up of the iffues therein,
are ufually called ijfuable terms. And he returns the
names of the jurors in a panel (a little pane or oblong
piece of parchment) annexed to the writ. This jury is
not fummoned, and therefore not appearing at the day
muft unavoidably make default. For which reafon a
compullive procefs is now awarded againft the jurors,
called in the common pleas a writ of habeas corpora ju-
ratorum, and in the King’s Bench dijlringas, command¬
ing the Iheriff to have their bodies, or to diftrain them
by their lands and goods, that they may appear upon
the day appointed. The entry therefore on the roll of
record is, “ That the jury is refpited, through defeiff of
the jurors, till the firft day of the next term, then to ap¬
pear at Weftminfter ; unlefs before that time, viz. on
Wednefday the fourth of March, the juftices of our lord
the king appointed to take affizes in that county {hall
have come to Oxford, that is, to the place afligned for
holding the aflizes. Therefore the flieriff is command¬
ed to have their bodies at Weftminfter on the faid firft
day of next term, or before the faid juftice of aflize, if
before that time they come to Oxford, viz. on the fourth
of March aforefaid.” And as the judges are fure to
come and open the circuit commiflions on the day men¬
tioned in the writ, the ftieriff returns and fummons this
jury to appear at the aflizes $ and there the trial is had
before the juftices of aflize and niji prius : among whom
(as hath been fiid*) are ufually two of the judges of
the courts at Weftminfter, the whole kingdom being
divided into fix circuits for this purpofe. And thus we
may obferve, that the trial of common iffues, at ni/i
prius, was in its original only a collateral incident to
the original bufinefs of the juftices of aflize ; though
now, by the various revolutions of praftice, it is become
their principal civil employment; hardly any thing re¬
maining in ufe of the real aflizes but the name.
If the ftieriff be not an indifferent perfon, as if he be
a party in the fuit, or be related by either blood or af¬
finity to either of the parties, he is not then trufted to
return the jury ; but the venire (hall be diredled to the
coroners, who in this, as in many other inftances, are
the fubftitutes of the flieriff to execute procefs when he
is deemed an improper perfon. If any exception lies
to the coroners, the venire (hall be direfted to two clerks
of the court, or two perfons of the county named by
the court, and fworn. And thefe two, who are called
elifors, or ele&ors, (hall indifferently name the jury, and
[ 471 1
T R I
their return is final j no challenge being allowed to their Trial,
array. v"—
Let us now paufe a while, and obferve (with Sir
Matthew Hale *), in thefe firft preparatory ftages of* HijU
the trial, how admirably this conftitution is adapted and c- L-
framed for the inveftigation of truth beyond any other0' l2,
method of trial in the world. For, firft, the perfon re¬
turning the jurors is a man of fome fortune and confe-
quence that fo he may be not only the lefs tempted
to commit wilful errors, but likewife be refponfible for
the faults of either himfelf or his officers : and he is al-
fo bound by the obligation of an oath faithfully to exe¬
cute his duty. Next, as to the time of their return :
the panel is returned to the court upon the original ve¬
nire, and the jurors are to be fummoned and brought in
many weeks afterwards to the trial, whereby the parties
may have notice of the jurors, and of their fufficiency
or infufficiency, chara&ers, connexions, and relations,
that fo they may be challenged upon juft caufe j while,
at the fame time, by means of the compulfory procefs
(of dijlringas, or habeas corpora) the caufe is not like
to be retarded through defeX of jurors. Thirdly, As to
the place of their appearance : which in caufes of weight
and confequence is at the bar of the court; but in ordi¬
nary cafes at the aflrfes, held in the county where the
caufe of aXion arifes, and the witneffes and jurors live :
a provifion moft excellently calculated for the faving of
expence to the parties. For though the preparation of
the caufes in point of pleading is tranfaXed at Weftmin¬
fter, whereby the order and uniformity of proceeding is
preferved throughout the kingdom, and multiplicity of
forms is prevented ; yet this is no great charge or
trouble, one attorney being able to tranfaX the bufinefs
of 40 clients. But the troublefome and moft expenfive
attendance is that of jurors and witneffes at the trial r
which therefore is brought home to them, in the coun¬
ty where moft of them inhabit. Fourthly, The per¬
fons before whom they are to appear, and before whom
the trial is to be held, are the judges of the fuperior
court, if it be a trial at bar •, or the judges of aflize, de¬
legated from the courts at Weftminfter by the king, if
the trial be held in the country : perfons, whofe learn¬
ing and dignity fecure their jurifdiXion from contempt,
and the novelty and very parade of whofe appearance
have no fmall influence upon the multitude. The very
point of their being ftrangers in the county is of infinite
fervice, in preventing thofe faXions and parties which
would intrude in every caufe of moment, were it tried
only before perfons refident on the fpot, as juftices of the
peace, and the like. And the better to remove all fuf-
picion of partiality, it was wifely provided by the fta-
tutes 4 Edw. III. c. 2. 8 Ric. II. c. 2. and 33 Hen.
VIII. c. 24. that no judge of aflife ftiould hold pleas in
any county wherein he was born or inhabits. And as
this inftitution prevents party and faXion from inter¬
mingling in the trial of right, fo it keeps both the rule
and the adminiftration of the laws uniform. Thefe
juftices, though thus varied and fluffed at every aflizes,
are all fworn to the fame laws, have had the fame edu¬
cation, have purfued the fame ftudies, converfe and
confult together, communicate their decifions and refo-
lutions, and prefide in thofe courts which are mutually
conneXed, and their judgements blended together, as they
are interchangeably courts of appeal or advice to each
other. And hence their adminiftration of juftice, and
conduX
Trial.
• . . T R I C 4?
contluft of trials, are confonant and uniform $ whereby
“* that confufion and contrariety are avoided, which would
naturally arifefrom a variety of uncommunicating judges,
or from any provincial eftablifhment. But let us now
return to the aflizes.
When the general day of trial is fixed, the plaintiff or
his attorney muff bring down the record to the affixes,
and enter it with the proper officer, in order to its being
called on in courfe.
Thefe fteps being taken, and the caufe called on in
court, the record is then handed to the judge, to perufe
and obferye the pleadings, and what iffues the parties
are to maintain and prove, while the jury is called and
fworn. io this end the ffieiiff returns his compulfive
procefs, the writ of habeas corpora, or dijlrwgas, with
the panel of jurors annexed, to the judge’s officer in court.
The jurors contained in the panel are either fpecial or
common jurors. Special juries were originally intro¬
duced in trials at bar, when the caufes wrere of too
great nicety for the difcuffion of ordinary freeholders 5
or where the ffieiiff was lufpe&ed of partiality, though
not upon fuch apparent caufe as to warrant an exception
to him. He is in fuch cafes, upon motion in court, and
a rule granted thereupon, to attend the prothonotary or
other proper officer with his freeholder’s book j and the
officer is to take indifferently 48 of the principal free¬
holders, in the prefence of the attorneys on both fides :
W'ho are each of them to ftnke off 12, and the remain¬
ing 24 are returned upon the panel. By the ftatute
3 Geo. II. c. 25. either party is entitled upon motion to
have a fpecial jury ftruck upon the trial of any iffue, as
well at the affixes as at bar, he paying the extraordinary
expence, unlefs the judge will certify (in purfuance of
the ftatute 24 Geo. II. c. 18.) that the caufe required
luch fpecial jury.
A common jury is one returned by the ffieriff according
lo the direftions of the ftatute 3 Geo. II. c. 25. which
appoints, that the ffieriff or officer ffiall not return a fe-
parate panel for every feparate caufe, as formerly j but
one and the fame panel for every caufe to be tried at
the fame affizes, containing not lefs than 48, nor more
than 72, jurors : and that their names being written on
tickets, ffiall be put into a box of glafs; and when each
caufe is called, 1 2 of thefe perfons, whofe names (hall be
firft drawn out of the box, {hall be fworn upon the jury,
unlefs abfent, challenged, or excufed 5 or unlefs a previ¬
ous view of the meffuages, lands, or place in queftion,
ffiall have been thought neceffary by the court *, in
which cafe, fix or more of the jurors returned, to be
agreed on by the parties, or named by a judge or other
proper officer of the court, (hall be appointed by fpecial
writ of habeas corpora or diflringas, to have the matters
in queftion ffiown to them by two perfons named in the
writ •, and then fuch of the jury as have had the view,
or fo many of them as appear, ffiall be fworn on the in-
queft previous to any other jurors. Thefe a61s are
well calculated to reftrain any fufpicion of partiality in
the ffieriff, or any tampering with the jurors when re¬
turned.
As the jurors appear when called, they ffiall be fworn,
unlefs challenged by either party. See the article Chal¬
lenge.
If by means of challenges or other caufe, a fufficient
number of unexceptionable jurors doth not appear at the
trial, either party may pray a tales.
2
2 ] Tut
A tales is a fupply of fuch men as are fummoned upon
the firft panel, in order to make up the deficiency. For
this purpole a writ of decern tales, oclo tales, and the
like, was wont to be iffued to the ffieriff at common law,
and muft be (till lo done at a trial at bar, if the jurors
make default. But at the aflizes, or nifiprius, by virtue
of the ftatute 35 Hen. VIII. c. 6. and other fubfequent
ftatutes, the judge is empowered at the prayer of either
party to award a tales de circutnJIantibus of perfons pre-
fent in court, to be joined to the other jurors to try the
caule j wTho are liable, however, to the fame challenges
as the principal jurors. This is ufually done till the
legal number of 12 be completed } in wffiich patriarchal
and apoftolical number Sir Edward Coke hath difcover-
ed abundance of myftery.
When a fufficient number of perfons impanelled, or
talefmen appear, they are then feparately fworn, well
and truly to try the iffue between the parties, and a true
verdidl to give according t© the evidence j and hence
they are denominated “ the jury,’’y&rtfta, and “jurors,”
fc.juratores.
1 he jury are now ready to hear the merits ; and to
fix their attention the clofer to the fa&s which they are
impanelled and fworn to try, the pleadings are opened
to them by counfel on that fide which holds the affirma¬
tive of the queftion in iffue. For the iffue is faid to lie, and
proof is always firft required upon that fide which affirms
the matter in queftion: in which our law agrees with the
civil, ei mcumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui ncgat ; cum
per rerum naturam faBum-negantis probatio nulla Jit.
The opening counfel briefly informs them what has been
Iran fa fted in the court above; the parties, the nature of
the action, the declaration, the plea, replication, and
other proceedings; and laftly, upon what point the
iffue is joined, which is there fent down to be determin¬
ed. Inftead of which, formerly the whole record and
procefs of the pleadings were read to them in Engliffi by
the court, and the matter of iffue clearly explained to
their capacities. The nature of the cafe, and the evi¬
dence intended to be produced, are next laid before them
by counfel alfo on the fame fide ; and when their evi¬
dence is gone through, the advocate on the other fide
opens the adverfe cafe, and fupports it by evidence j and
then the party which began is heard by way of reply.
See Pleadings.
Evidence in the trial by jury is of two kinds ; either
that which is given in proof, or that which the jury
may receive by their own private knowdedge. The
former, or proofs, (to wffiich in common fpeech the name
of evidence is ufually confined) are either wTitten or pa¬
rol •, that is, by word of mouth. Written proofs, or
evidence, are, 1. Records; and 2. Ancient deeds of 30
years (landing, wffiich prove themfelves ; but, 3. Mo¬
dern deeds ; and, 4. Other waitings, muft be attefted
and verified by parol evidence of witneffes. With re¬
gard to parol evidence or witneffes; it muft fiift be re¬
membered, that there is a procefs to bring them in by
writ of fubpcena ad tejiificandum; which commands
them, laying afide all pretences and excufes, to appear
at the trial on pain of icol. to be forfeited to the king;
to which the ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 9. has added a penalty
of 10I. to the party aggrieved, and damages equivalent
to the lofs fuftained by want of his evidence. But no
witnefs, unlefs his reafonable expences be tendered him^
is bound to appear at all; nor, if he appear, is he bound
to
T R I C 473 ] T R I
to give evidence till fuch charges are a£lually paid him j
except he refides within the bills of mortality, and is
fummoned to give evidence within the fame. This
compulfory procefs, to bring in unwilling witneffes, and
the additional terrors of an attachment in cafe of dif-
obedience, are of excellent ufe in the thorough invelliga-
tion of truth : and, upon the fame principle, in the A-
thenian courts, the witnefles who were fummoned to at¬
tend the trial had their choice of three things : either
to fwear to the truth of the faff in queftion, to deny or
abjure it, or elfe to pay a fine of 1000 drachmas.
All witnefles, of whatever religion or country, that
have the ufe of their reafon, are to be received and ex¬
amined, except fuch as are infamous, or fuch as are in-
terefted in the event of the caufe. All others are com¬
petent witnefies j though the jury from other circum-
ftances will judge of their credibility. Infamous per-
fons are fuch as may be challenged as jurors,de-
HElum : and therefore never flrall be admitted to give
evidence to inform that jury, with whom they were too
fcandalous to aflbciate. Interelled witneflfes may be ex¬
amined upon a voir dire, if fufpefted to be fecretly con¬
cerned in the event ; or their intereft may be proved in
court. Which lafl is the only method of fupporting an
objeftion to the former clafs \ for no man is to be exa¬
mined to prove his own infamy. And no counfel, at¬
torney, or other perfon, intrufted with the fecrets of the
cauff by the party himfelf, fhall be compelled, or per¬
haps allowed, to give evidence of fuch converfation or
matters of privacy as came to his knowledge by virtue
of fuch truft and confidence: but he may be examined
as to mere matters of fad!, as the execution of a deed or
the like, which might have come to his knowledge
without being intruded in the caufe.
One witnefs (if credible) is fufficient evidence to a
jury of any Angle fad! : though undoubtedly the con¬
currence of two or more corroborates the proof. Yet
our law confiders that there are many tranfadlions to
which only one perfon is privy ; and therefore does not
always demand the teftimony of two. Pofitive proof is
always required, where, from the nature of the cafe, it
appears it might poffibly have been had. But, next to
pofitive proof, circumftantial evidence, or the dodlrine
of prefumptions, mud take place : for when the fad! it-
felf cannot be demondratively evinced, that which comes
neared to the proof of the fad! is the proof of fuch cir-
cumdances which either neceflarily or ufually attend
fuch fadfs ; and thefe are called prefumptions, which
are only to be relied upon till the contrary be adiually
proved.
The oath adminidered to the witnefs is not only that
what he depofes fliall be true, but that he fhall alfo de-
pofe the whole truth : fo that he is not to conceal any
part of what he knows, whether interrogated particu¬
larly to that point or not. And all this evidence is to
be given in open court, in the prefence of the parties,
their attorneys, the counfel, and all tydanders ; and
before the judge and jury : each party having liberty
to except to its competency, which exceptions are pub¬
licly dated, and by the judge are openly and publicly
allowed or difallowed, in the face of the country : which
mud curb any fecret bias or partiality that might arife
in his own bread.
When the evidence is gone through on both fides,
Vol. XX. Part II. 6
the judge, in the prefence of the parties, the counfd,
and all others, {urns up the whole to the jury j omit¬
ting all luperduous circumdances, obferving wherein the
main queilion and principal iflue lies, dating what evi¬
dence has been given to fupport it, with fuch remaik.s
as he thinks neceffary for their direftion, and giving
them his opinion in matters of law arifing upon that
evidence.
I he jury, after the proofs are fummed up, unlefs the
cafe be very clear, withdraw from the bar to confider of
their verdic! j and in order to avoid intemperance and
caufeleis delay, are to be kept without meat, drink, fire,
or candle, unlefs by permilfion of the judge, tilHhey
are unanimoufly agreed. A method of accelerating una¬
nimity not wholly unknown in other conditutions of Eu¬
rope, and in matters of greater concern. For by the
golden bull of the empire, if, after the congrefs is open¬
ed, the eleftors delay the eleffion of a king of the Ro¬
mans for 30 days, they diall be fed only with bread and
water till the fame is accomplidied. But if our juries
eat or drink at all, or have any eatables about them,
without confent of the court, and before verdift, it is
finable ; and if they do fo at his charge for whom they
afterwards find, it will fet afide the v«rdi&. Alfo, if
they fpeak with either of the parties or their agents’af-
ter they are gone from the bar, or if they receive any
frelh evidence in private, or if, to prevent difputes, they
cad lots for wdiom they lhall find, any of thefe circum¬
dances will entirely vitiate the verdift. And it has been
held, that if the jurors do not agree in their verdift be¬
fore the judges are about to leave the town, though
they are not to be threatened or imprifoned, the judges
are not bound to wait for them, but may carry them
round the circuit from town to town in a Cart. This
nec. dity of a total unanimity feems to be peculiar to our
own conditution \ or at lead, in the nembda or jury of
the ancient Goths, there wTas required (even in criminal
cafes) only the confent of the major part; and in cafe of
an equality, the defendant w-as held to be acquitted.
When they are all unanimoudv agreed, the jury re¬
turn back to the bar; and before they deliver their ver-
dift, the plaintiff is bound to appear in court, by himfelf
attorney, or counfel, in order to anfwer the amercement
to which by the old law' he is liable, in cafe he fails in
his fuit, as a punilhment for his falfe claim. To be a-
meiced, or a niercie, is to be at the king’s mercy with
regard to the fine to be impofed ; in mifericordia domini
regis pro falfo damore fuo. The amercement is dilufed,
but the form dill continues ; and if the plaintiff does not
appear, no verdidl can be given ; but the plaintiff is
faid to be nonfuit, nonfequitur clamorem fuum. There¬
fore it is ufual for a plaintiff, when he or his counfel
perceives that he has not given evidence fufficient to
maintain his iffue, to be voluntarily nonfuited, or with¬
draw himfclf: whereupon the crier is ordered to call the
plaintiff 5 and if neither he, nor any body for him, ap¬
pears, he is nonfuited, the jurors are difeharged, the ac¬
tion is at an end, and the defendant (hall recover his
cods. The reafon of this praftice is, that a nonfuit is
more eligible for the plaintiff than a verdift againd
him : for after a nonfuit, which is only a default, he
may commence the fame fuit again for the fame caufe
of a<3ion ; but after a verdift had, and judgment confe-
quent thereupon, he is for ever barred from attacking
3 O th!
T R I [ 474 ] T R I
Trial, the defendant upon the fame ground of complaint. But
in cafe the plaintiff appears, the jury by their foreman
deliver in their verdi£t.
A verdict, vere di&um, is either privy or public. A
privy verdidt is when the judge hath left or adjourned
the court: and the jury, being agreed, in order to be
delivered from their confinement, obtain leave to give
their verdict privily to the judge out of court: which
privy verdidt is of no force, unlefs afterwards affirmed
by a public verdift given openly in court; wherein the
jury may, if they pleafe, vary from their privy verdidt.
So that the privy verdift is indeed a mere nullity j and
yet it is a dangerous pra&ice, allowing time for the
parties to tamper with the jury, and therefore very fel-
dom indulged. But the only effedtual and legal verdidt
is the public verdidl: in which they openly declare to
have found the iffue for the plaintiff, or for the defen¬
dant j and if for the plaintiff, they affefs the damages al-
fo fuftained by the plaintiff, in confequence of the in¬
jury upon which the adtion is brought.
When the jury have delivered in their verdidf, and it
is recorded in court, they are then difcharged j and fo
ends the trial by jury : a trial which ever has been, and
it is hoped ever will be, looked upon as the glory of the
Englifh law. It is certainly the moft tranfcendant pri¬
vilege which any fubjedl can enjoy or wiffi for, that he
cannot be affedted either in his property, his liberty, or
his perfon, but by the unanimous content of 12 of his
neighbours and equals. A conftitution that we may
venture to affirm has, under providence, fecured the juft
liberties of this nation for a long fucceffion of ages. And
* Monte/- therefore a celebrated French writer*, who concludes,
^^r-that becaufe Rome, Sparta, and Carthage, have loft
their liberties, therefore thofe of England in time muft
periffi, ffiould have recolledled, that Rome, Sparta, and
/ Carthage, at the time when their liberties were loft,
were ftrangers to the trial by jury.
^ Great as this eulogium may feem, it is no more than
this admirable conftitution, when traced to its principles,
will be found in fober reafon to deferve.
The impartial adminiftratipn of juftice, which fecures
both our perfons and our properties, is the great end of
civil fociety. But if that be entirely entrufted to the
magiftracy, a feledt body of men, and thofe generally
feledted by the prince or fiich as enjoy the higheft offices
in the ftate, their decifions, in fpite of their own natu¬
ral integrity, "will have frequently an involuntary bias
towards thofe of their own rank and dignity : it is not
to be expedted from human nature, that the few fhould
be always attentive to the interefts and good of the ma¬
ny. On the other hand, if the power of judicature were
placed at random in the hands of the multitude, their
decifions would be wild and capricious, and a new rule
of adlion would be every day eftabliffied in our courts.
It is wifely therefore ordered, that the principles and
axioms of law, which are general propofitions flowing
from abftradted reafon, and not accommodated to times
or to men, (hould be depofited in the breafts of the
judges, to be occafionally applied to fuch fa&s as come
properly afcertained before them. For here partiality
can have little fcope 5 the law is well known, and is the
lame for all ranks and degrees : it follows as a regular
conclufion from the premiffes of faft pre-eftablilhed. But
in fettling and adjufting a queftion of fa£t, when intruft-
ed to any Angle magiftrate, partiality and injuftice have
an ample field to range in, either by boldly afferting Trial,
that to be proved which is not fo, or more artfully by —v—
fuppreffing fome circumftances, ftretching and warping
others, and diftinguilhing away the remainder. Here
therefore a competent number of fenfible and upright
jurymen, chofen by lot from among thefe of the middle
rank, will be found the belt inveftigators of truth, and
the fureft guardians of public juftice. For the moft power¬
ful individual in the ftate will be cautious of committing
any flagrant invafion of another’s right, when he knows
that the fa£t of his oppreffion muft be examined and de¬
cided by 12 indifferent men not appointed till the hour
of trial ‘y and that when once the fa£t is afcertained, the
law muft of courfe redrefs it. This therefore preferves
in the hands of the people that (hare which they ought
to have in the adminiftration of public juftice, and pre¬
vents the encroachments of the more powerful and
wealthy citizens.
Criminal^ TRIALS. The regular and ordinary method
of proceeding in the courts of criminal jurifdiftion may
be diftributed under 12 general heads, following each
other in a progreffive order : viz. 1. Arreft; 2. Com¬
mitment and bail j 3. Profecution ; 4. Procefs 5 5. Ar¬
raignment, and its incidents j 6. Plea, and iffue; 7. Trial,
and convidtion j 8. Clergy ; 9. Judgement, and its con-
fequences ; 10. Reverfal of judgement j 11. Reprieve, or
pardon-, 12. Execution. See Arrest, Commitment,
Presentment, Indictment, Information, Aphcal,
PROCESsuponanlndifimenty Arraignment, and Plea j
in which articles all the forms which precede the trial
are defcribed, and are here enumerated in the proper
order.
The feveral methods of trial and convidlion of of¬
fenders, eftablifhed by the laws of England, were for¬
merly more numerous than at prefent, through the fu-
perftition of oilr Saxon anceftors j who, like other north¬
ern nations, were extremely addidled to divination 5 a
chara&er which Tacitus obferves of the ancient Ger¬
mans. They therefore invented a confiderable number
of methods of purgation or trial, to preferve innocence
from the danger of falfe witneffes, and in confequence
of a notion that God would always interpofe miraculouf-
ly to vindicate the guiltlefs; as, 1. By Ordeal 5 2. By
Corsned j 3. By Battel. See thefe articles
4. A fourth method is that by the peers of Great Bri-
tain, in the Court of PARLIAMENT; or the Court of
the Lord High STEWARD, when a peer is capitally in-
didled for in cafe of an appeal, a peer ffiall be tried by
jury. This differs little from the trial per patriam, or
by jury ; except that the peers need not all agree in
their verdidt; and except alfo, that no fpecial verdidt
can be given in the trial of a peer 5 becaufe the lords of
parliament, or the lord high fteward (if the trial be had
in his court), are judges fufficiently competent of the
law that may arife from the fadt 5 but the greater num¬
ber, confifting of 12 at theleaft, will conclude, and bind
the minority.
The trial by jury, or the country, per patriam, is alfo
that trial by the peers of every Briton, which, as the
great bulwark of his liberties, is fecured to him by the
great charter: nullus liber homo capitatur, vel imprifo-
netur, out exulet, aut aliquo alio modo dejlruatur, niji
per legale judicium parium fuorum, vel per legem terra;.
When therefore a prifoner on his Arraignment has
pleaded not guilty, and for his trial hath put himfelf
upon
TUI [ 475 ] T R I
Trial- upon the country, which country the jury are, the ftie-
—v riff of the county muft return a panel of jurors, hberos
et legates homines, de viceneto ; that is, freeholders with¬
out juft exception, and of the vifne or neighbourhood j
which is interpreted to be of the county where the fa6t
is committed. If the proceedings are before the court
of king’s bench, there is time allowed between the ar¬
raignment and the trial, for a jury to be impanelled by
writ of venire facias to the ftreriff, as in civil caufes j
and the trial in cafe of a mifdemeanor is had at nifiprius,
unlefs it be of fuch confequence as to merit a trial at bar j
which is always invariably had when the prifoner is tried
for any capital offence. But, before commiftioners of
oyer and terminer and goal-delivery, the Iherift", by vir¬
tue of a general precept direfted to him beforehand, re¬
turns to the court a panel of 48 jurors, to try all felons
that may be called upon their trial at that feffion j and
therefore it is there ufual to try all felons immediately
or foon after their arraignment. But it is not cuftomary,
nor agreeable to the general courfe of proceedings, un¬
lefs by confent of parties, to try perfons indicted of
fmaller mifdemeanors at the fame court in which they
have pleaded not guilty, or traverfed the indictment.
But they ufually give fecurity to the court to appear at
the next affxfes or feflion, and then and there to try the
traverfe, giving notice to the profecutor of the fame.
In cafes of high-treafon, whereby corruption of blood
may enfue (except treafon in counterfeiting the king’s
coin or feals), or mifprifion of fuch treafow, it is enaCled
by ftatute 7 W. III. c. 3. firft, that no perfon (hall be
tried for any fuch treafon, except an attempt to affaflx-
nate the king, unlefs the indictment be found with¬
in three years after the offence committed : next,
that the prifoner ftiall have a copy of the indiftment
(which includes the caption), but not the names of the
witneffes, five days at leaft before the trial, that is, upon
the true conftruCtion of the ad, before his arraignment}
for then is his time to take any exceptions thereto, by
way of plea or demurrer $ thirdly, that he fhall alfo
have a copy of the panel of jurors two days before his
trial: and, laftly, that he fhall have the fame compul-
five procefs to bring in his witneffes for him, as was ufual
to compel their appearance againft him. And by fta¬
tute 7 Ann. c. 21. (which did not take place till after
the deceafe of the late pretender) all perfons indided for
high-treafon, or mifprifions thereof, fhall have not only
a copy of the indictment, but a lift of all the wineffes to
be produced, and of the jurors impanelled, with their
profeflions and places of abode, delivered to him ten
days before the trial, and in the prefence of two witneffes,
the better to prepare him to make his challenges and
defence. And no perfon indiCted for felony is, or (as
the law ftands) ever can be, entitled to fuch copies be¬
fore the time of his trial.
When the trial is called on, the jurors are to be fworn
as they appear, to the number of 12, unlefs they are
challenged by the party.
Challenges may here be made, either on the part of
the king, or on that of the prifoner ; and either to the
whole array, or to the feparate polls, for the very fame rea-
fons that they may be made in civil caufes. But in cri¬
minal cafes, or at leaft in capital ones, there Is, in favo-
rem vit#, allowred to the prifoner an arbitrary and ca¬
pricious fpecies of challenge, to a cert ain number of ju¬
rors, without (howingvany caufe at ail j which is called
a peremptory challenge ; a provifion full of that tender- Trial,
nels and humanity to prifoners for which our Engliftr
laws are juftly famous. This is grounded on two rea-
fons. 1. As every one muft be fenfible what fudden
impreflions and unaccountable prejudices v,Te are apt to
conceive upon the bare looks and geftures of another j
and how neceffary it is that a prifoner) when put to de¬
fend his life) fhould have a good opinion of his jury, the
want of which might totally difconcert him ; the law
wills not that he ftiould be tried by any one man againft;
whom he has conceived a prejudice, even without being
able to aflign a reafon for fuch his diflike. 2. Becaufe,
upon challenges for caufe Ihown, if the reafon affigned
prove infufficient to fet afide the juror, perhaps the bare
queftioning his indifference may lometimes provoke a re-
fentment j to prevent all ill confequences from which,
the prifoner is ftill at liberty, if he pleafes, peremptorily
to fet him afide.
The peremptory challenges of the prifoner muft, how¬
ever, have fome reafonable boundary j otherwife he
might never be tried. This reafonable boundary is fet¬
tled by the common law to be the number of 35 j that
is, one under the number of three full juries.
If by reafon of challenges or the default of the jurors,
a fufficient number cannot be had of the original pa¬
nel, a tales may be awarded as in civil caufes, till the
number of 12 is fworn, “ well and truly to try, and
true deliverance make, between our fovereign lord
the king and the prifoner svhom they have in charge ;
and a true verdift to give, according to their evi¬
dence.”
When the jury is fworn, if it be a caufe of any con¬
fequence, the Indictment is ufually opened, and the
evidence marlhalled, examined, and enforced by the
counfel for the crown or profecution. But it is a fettled
rule at common law, that no counfel {hall be allowed a
prifoner upon his trial upon the general iffue, in any ca¬
pital crime, unlefs fome point of law fhall arife proper to
be debated. A rule which (however it may be palli¬
ated under cover of that noble declaration of the law,
when rightly underftood, that the judge (hall be coun¬
fel for the prifoner j that is, fhall fee that the proceed-
ings againft him are legal and ftri&ly regular) feems to
be not at all of a piece with the reft of the humane
treatment of prifoners by the Englifh law. For upon
what face of reafon can that afliftance be denied to fave
the life of a man, which yet is allowed him in profecu-
tions for every petty trefpafs ? Nor indeed is it, ftii&ly
fpeaking, a part of our ancient law'; for the Mirrour,
having obferved the neceflity of counfel in civil fuits,
“ who know how to forward and defend the caufe by
the rules of law, and cuftoms of the realm,” immedi¬
ately afterwards fubjoins, “ and more neceffary are they
for defence upon indictments and appeals of felony,
than upon other venial caufes.” And, to fay the truth,
the judges themfelves are fo fenfible of this defetft in our
modern praftice, that they feldom fcruple to allow a
prifoner counfel to ftand by him at the bar, and to in-
ftru6l him what queftions toafk, or even to alk queftions
for him, with regard to matters of fa6t; for as to mat¬
ters of law arifing on the trial, they are entitled to
the afliftance of counfel. But ftill this is a matter of
too much importance to be left to the good pleafure
of any judge, and is worthy the interpofition of the le-
giftaturej which has fliown its inclination to indulge
3 O 2 prifoners
t r i [4:
Trial prifoners with this reafonable affiftance, by enabling, in
11 ftatute 7 W. III. c. 3. that perfons indifted for loch
■ 11 ^ dry'. high-treafon as works a corruption of the blood or mif-
prifonment thereof (except treafon in counterfeiting the
king’s coins or feals), may make their full defence by
counfel, not exceeding two, to be named by the prifoner,
and affigned by the court or judge ; and this indulgence,
by llatute 20 Geo. II. c. 30. is extended to parliamen¬
tary impeachments for high-treafon, which were excepted
in the former aft.
When the evidence on both lides is clofed, the jury
cannot be difcharged (unlefs in cales of evident neceflity)
till they have given in their VERDICT. If they find
the prifoner not guilty, he is then for ever quit and dif¬
charged of the accufation, except he be appealed of fe¬
lony within the time limited by law. And upon fuch
his acquittal, or dilcharge for want of profecution, he
(hall be immediately let at large without payment of any
fee to the gaoler. But if the jury find him guilty, he
is then faid to be convifted of the crime whereof he hands
indifted. See the article Conviction •, and, fubfequent
thereto, the articles Judgement, Attainder, For¬
feiture, Execution, alto Benefit of Clergy, Re¬
prieve, Pardon.
Trial, in Scotland. See Scots Law.
TRIANDRIA (from rgus “ three,” and “ a man
or hufband),” the name of the third clafs in Linnaeus’s
fexual fyftem, confifting of plants with hermaphrodite
flowers, which have three ftamina or male organs.
TRIANGLE, in Geometry, a figure of three fides and
three angles.
TRIBE, in antiquity, a certain quantity or number
of perfons, when a divifion was made of a city or people
into quarters or diftrifts.
TRIBRACHYS, in Ancient Poetry, a foot confift¬
ing of three fyllables, and thefe all Ihort ; as, melius.
TRIBUNAL, in general, denotes the feat of a judge,
called in our courts bench.
TRIBUNE, among the ancient Romans, a magi-
ftrate chofen out of the commons, to proteft them
again!! the oppreflions of the great, and to defend the li¬
berty of the people againft the attempts of the fenate
and confuls.
The tribunes of the people were firfi eftablilhed in the
year of the Rome 259. The firft defign of their crea¬
tion was to Ihelter the people from the cruelty of ufurers,
and to engage them to quit the Aventine mount, whi¬
ther they had retired in difpleafure.
Their number at firft was but two ; but the next year,
under the confulate of A. Pofthumius Aruncius and Caf-
fius Vifcellinus, there were three more added ; and this
number of five was afterwards increafed by L. Trebonius
to ten.
Military TRIBUNE, an officer in the Roman army,
commander in chief over a body of forces, particularly
the divifion of a legion •, much the fame with our co¬
lonel, or the French maitre de camp.
TRIBUTARY, one who pays tribute to another
6 ] T R I
in order to live in peace with or Ihare in his pro- Tribute
teftion. (I
TRIBUTE, a tax or impoft which one prince or Trigonel!a;
ftate is obliged to pay to another as a token of de¬
pendence, or in virtue of a treaty, and as a purchafe
of peace.
TRICEPS, in Anatomy. See there, Tables of the
Muscles.
TR1CHECUS, Walrus ; a genus of aquatic ani¬
mals belonging to the clafs of mammalia, and order of
bruta. See Mammalia Index.
TRICHOMANES, a genus of plants belonging to
the clais of cryptoganna, and order oifilices. See Bo¬
tany Index.
'IRICOCCEiE (rgsif “ three,” and KOXJCOt U a
grain”), the name of the 38th order in Linnaeus’s Frag¬
ments of a Natural Method, confifting of plants with
a Angle three-cornered capiule, having three cells, or
internal divifions, each containing a Angle feed. See
Botany.
TRICOSANTHES, a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of monacia, and in the natural fyliem ran¬
ging under the 34th order, Cucurbitacece. See Botany
Index.
J R1DENT, an attribute of Neptune, being a kind
of IcepLie which the painters and poets put into the
hands of that god, in form of a fpear or fork with three
teeth } whence the word.
TRIENNIAL, an epithet applied chiefly to offices
or employments which laft for three years.
TR1ENS, in antiquity, a copper money of the va¬
lue of one-third of an as, wBich on one fide bore a Ja¬
nus’s head, and on the other a water rat.
TRIENTALIS, Chickweed winter-green, a
genus of plants belonging to the clafs of heptandrm, and
in the natural fyftem ranging under the 20th order,
Rotacece. See Botany Index.
1 RIERS, cr Treves. See Treves.
1RIFOL1UM, 1 REFOIL, or Clover, a genus of
plants belonging to the clais of diadeiphia, and in the
natural fyftem ranging under the 32d ox&tx Papilionacece.
See Botany Index.
1 RIGA, in antiquity, denotes a kind of car or cha¬
riot drawn by three horfes ; whence the name.
TRIGLA, a genus of fifties belonging to the order
of thoracici. See ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
TRIGLOCHIN, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of hexandna, and in the natural fyftem ranging
under the fifth order, Tripetaloidece. See Botany
Index.
TRIGLYPHS, in ArchiteBure, a fort of ornament
repeated at equal intervals, in the Doric freeze.
Dialing TRICON. See Dialing.
TRIGONALIS. See Pila.
TRIGONELLA, Fenugreek, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of diadeiphia, and in the natural
fyftem arranged under the 320 order, Papilionaceec. Sec
Botany Index.
TRIGONOMETRY.
[ 477 ]
TRIGONOMETRY.
Nature and
Conftruc-
tion of Tri¬
gonometri¬
cal Tables.
HPRIGONOMETRY is the application of avithme-
tic to geometry. It confiits of two principal parts,
viz. Plane Trigonometry and Spherical Trigo¬
nometry.
Plane trigonometry treats of the application of num¬
bers to determine the relations of the fides and angles of
a plane triangle to one another.
Spherical trigonometry treats of the application of
numbers in like manner to fpherical triangles •, the na¬
ture of theie will be explained in the courie of this ar¬
ticle.
Both branches of the fubjeft depend effentially upon
certain numerical tables, the nature and conllrudion of
which we thall now proceed to explain.
SECTION I.
NATURE AND CONSTRUCTION OF
TRIGONOMETRICAL TABLES.
It has been demonftrated in Geometry (Theor. 31.
Se£t. IV.) that any angles at the centre of a circle have
to one another the fame proportion as the arches in¬
tercepted between the lines which contain the angles.
Hence it is eafy to infer, that an angle at the centre of
a circle has the fame ratio to four right angles, that the
arch intercepted between the lines wdiich contain the
angle has to the whole circumference. It alfo follows
that we may employ arches of a circle as meafures of
angles, and thus the comparifon of angles is reduced to
the comparifon of arches of a circle. From this prin¬
ciple we infer the confiftency of the firfl of the following
feries of definitions.
Definitions.
I. If two ftraight lines interfeft one another in the
centre of a circle, the arch of the circumference inter¬
cepted between them is called the Meafure of the angle
which they contain. Thus, (Plate DXXXVII. fig. 1.)
Plate tl16 arch AB is the meafure of the angle contained by
DXXXVJI. the lines CA and and CH.
fig- !• II. If the circumference of a circle be divided into
360 equal parts, each of thefe is called a Degree; and
if a degree be divided into 60 equal parts, each of thefe
is called a Minute ; and if a minute be divided into 60
equal parts, each of thefe is called a Second, and fo on j
and as many degrees, minutes, feconds, &c. as are in any
arch, fo many degrees, minutes, feconds, &c. are faid to
be in the angle meafured by that arch.
Cor. I. Any arch is to the whole circumference of
which it is a part, as the number of degrees and parts
of a degree in it is to the number 360. And any
angle is to four right angles as the number of degrees,
&.c. in the arch which is the meafure of the angle to
360.
Cor. 2. Hence alfo it appears that the arches which
meafure tha lame angle, whatever be the radii with
which they are defcribed, contain the fame number ofNaturc ancj
degrees and parts of a degree. Conftruc-
1 he degrees, minutes, leconds, &c. contained in an t>Gli of Tri¬
arch or angle are commonly written thus, 23° 29' 32"Sonometr'1"
20"', which expreffion means 23 degrees 29 minutescal iUbles‘.
32 feconds and 20 thirds. v
III. Two angles which make together two right
angles, alfo two arches which make together a femi-
circle, are called the Supp/ements of one another.
IV. A tlraight line BG drawn through B, one of
the extremities of the arch AB, perpendicular to the di¬
ameter palling through the other extremity A, is called
the Sine of the arch AC, or of the angle ACB, having
arch AB for its meafure.
Cor. 1. '1 he fine of a quadrant or of a right angle is-
equal to the radius.
Cor. 2. The fine of an arch is half the chord of
twice the arch.
V. The fegment AG of the diameter intercepted
between its extremity and the fine BG is called the;
Ferfed Sine of the arch AB, or of the angle ACB.
VI. A Itraight line AH touching the circle at A
one extremity of the arch AB, and meeting the diame¬
ter CB which paffes through B the other extremity, is
called the Tangent of the arch AB, or of the angle
ACB. s
Cor. The tangent of half a right angle is equal to
the radius.
VII. The ftraight line CH between the centre and
the extremity of the tangent AH is called the Secant of
the arch AB or of the angle ACB.
Cor. to Def. 4, 6, 7. The fine, tangent, and fe-
cant of any angle ACB, are alfo the fine, tangent,
and fecant of its fupplement BCE. For by the de¬
finition, BG is the fine of the angle BCE ; and if
BC be produced to meet the circle in I, then AH is
the tangent and CH the fecant of the angle ACI or
BCE. 6
Cor. to Def. 4, 5, 6, 7. The fine, verfed fine, tan¬
gent, and fecant of an arch which is the meafure of the
ingle ACB is to the fine, verfed fine, and fecant of
any other arch which is the meafure of the fame angle
as the radius of the firft arch is to the radius of the le-
cond.
Let BG, fig. 2. be the fine, AG the verfed fine, Fig. a,
AH the tangent, and CH the fecant of the arch AB to
the radius CA ; and bg, ag, a h, ch the fame things to
the radius C a. From fimilar triangles BG : bg :: E’C :
bC; and becaufe CG : Cg (::CB : C &) :: CA : Co ;
therefore, by divifion AG : ag :: CA : Ca. Alfo
AH : a h :: CH : Ch :: CA : Ca.
_ Hence it appears that if tables be conftrutted exhi¬
biting in numbers the fines, tangents, and verfed fines of
certain angles to a given radius, they will exhibit the
ratios of the fines,- tangents, and verfed fines of the fame
angles to any radius whatever. In fuch tables, which
are called trigonometrical tables, the radius is either
fuppofed 1, or feme number in the feries 10, 100, icoo,
&c, -
4/8
Nature and
Conftruc-
tion of Tri¬
gonometri¬
cal Tables.
Fie. i.
TRIGONOMETRY.
£kc. The cemftru&Ion and ufe of thefe tables we fliall
prefently explain.
VIII. The difference between any angle and a right
angle, or between any arch and a quadrant, is called the
Complement of that angle, or of that arch. Thus, if
the angle ACD, fig. i. be aright angle, and confe-
quently the arch AD, which is its meal'ure, a quadrant,
the angle BCD is the complement of the angle BCA,
and the arch BD is the complement of the arch AB.
Alfo the complement of the obtufe angle BCE is BCD,
its excefs above a right angle j and the complement of
the arch BDE is the arch BD.
IX. The fine, tangent, or fecant of the complement
of any angle is called the cofine, cotangent, or cofecant
of that angle. Thus, fuppofing the angle ACD to be
a right angle, then BF=CG, the fine of the angle
BCD, is the cofine of the angle BCA 5 DK, the tan¬
gent of the angle BCD, is the cotangent of the angle
BCA, and CK, the fecant of the angle BCD, is the co¬
fecant of the angle BCA.
The following properties of the lines which have
been defined flow immediately from their pofition.
1. The fum of the fquares of the fine and cofine of
any angle is equal to the fquare of the radius. For, in
the right-angled triangle BGC, BC* — BG1 -}- GC*,
(Geometry, Seft. IV. theor. 13.') Now BG is the
fine, and CGrrrBF is the cofine of the angle BCA.
2. The radius is a mean proportional between the
tangent of any angle and its cotangent, or tan. ACB X
cot. ACBrrrad.a. For fince DK, CA are parallel,
the angles DKC, HCA are equal; now CDK, CAH
are right angles, therefore the triangles CDK, HCA
are fimilar, and therefore AH : AC :: CD or AC : DK,
and AC*zrAHxDK.
3. The radius is a mean proportional between the co¬
fine and fecant of any angle. Or cof. ACB'X fee. ACB
rrrrad*. For the triangles CGB, CAH are fimilar $
therefore CG : CB or CA :: CA : CH.
4. The tangent of an arch is a fourth proportional
to its cofine, its fine and the radius, or tan. ACB =
fin. ACB ^ £rom fimiiar triangles CG : GB
cof. ACBA ’ 6
:: CA : AH.
Trigonometrical tables ufually exhibit the fines, tan¬
gents, and fecants of all angles which can be expreffed
by an exa& number of degrees and minutes from I mi¬
nute to 90 degrees, or a right angle. Thefe may be
computed in various w’ays, the moft elementary is to
calculate them by the help of principles deducible im¬
mediately from the elements of geometry.
It has been demonftrated in Geometry, (Se6I. V.
prob. 22.) that the chord of one-fixth of the circumfer¬
ence, or an arch of 6o°, is equal to the radius; therefore,
if BD be an arch of 30°, its fine BF will be half the
radius (cor. 2. def. 4.). Xet us fuppofe the radius to
be expreffed by unity, or I, then fin. 3o°=:4-*, nowr
fince a being put for any arch, cof. * tf-j-fin.* tfrzrad.*
(w'here by cof.1 a is meant the fquare of the number ex-
prefiing the cofine of the arch <7, &c.) and as fin.* 30°
rr-J, therefore cof.1 30°= 1—^=3:, Cof. 30*=
!V'3=:-866o254038.
It has been demonftrated in the arithmetic of fines
(Algebra, § 356.) that 2cof.177m -j-cof. la; hencewe
have the following formula for finding the cofine of an
arch, having given the cofine of its double) cof a =
By this formula from the cofine of 30oJConftruc-
2 ' r r fi°n Tri-
we may find that of 150, and again from cof. 150 we gonometri-
may find cof. 70 30', and proceeding in this wray we cal Tables,
may find the cofines of 30 45', l° 52' 30", and fo on,'"■"’’v
till after 11 bife£Hons the coline of 5 2" 44"' 3lT 4jT is
found j we may then find the fine of this arch by the
formula fin. a-=z^{\—cof.*fl). Nowq as from the na¬
ture of a circle the ratio of an arch to its fine appi caches
continually to that of equality, when the arch is conti¬
nually diminilhed, it follows that the fines of very ifnall
arches will be very nearly to one another as the arches
themfelves : Therefore, as 52" 44"/ 35t 45t to 1' fo is
the fine of the former arch to the fine of the latter.
By performing all the calculations which we have
here indicated, it will be found that the fine of i' is
.0002908882.
It has been fhewm in the arithmetic of fines (Alge¬
bra, § 35J-) that a and b being put for any twx>
arches, fin. (d-J-£)— 2 cof. b fin. a — fin (a—Z>), hence
putting 1' for b, and i', 2', 3', &c. fucceffively for <7,
we have,
fin. 2'= 2 cof. i'xfin* 1',
fin. 3'= 2 cof. I'xfin* 2'—fin. i',
fin. 4,= 2 cof. x'xfin* 3'—fin- 2.',
&c.
In this way the fines for every minute of the quadrant
may be computed, and as the multiplier cof. i' remains
always the fame, the calculation is eafy. If inftead of
l', the common difference of the feries of arches were
any other angle, the very fame formula would apply.
The fines, and confequently the cofines of any num¬
ber of arches being fuppofed found, their tangents may
be found by confidering that tan. 77=—j:— j and their
fecants from the formula fee. flrr:-—?.—.
col. a
We have here very briefly indicated the manner of
conftra&ing the trigonometrical canon, as it is fometimes
called. There are, however, various properties of fines,
tangents, &c. which greatly facilitate the actual cal¬
culation of the numbers, thefe the reader will find de¬
tailed in Algebra, Seft. XXV. which treats exprefsly
of the Arithmetic of Sines.
The moft expeditious mode of computing the fine or
cofine of a fingle angle is by means of infinite feries :
The inveftigation of thefe is given in Fluxions, § 70. j
and it is there fhewn that if a denote any arch, then,
the radius being expreffed by 1,
fin. a—a-
2*3 1 ’2 * 3 * 4‘5
&c.
cof. 77 = 1-
i-2 1*2-3-4
&c.
To apply thefe we muft have the arch expreffed m parts
of the radius, which requires that we know the pro¬
portion of the diameter of the circle to its circumference.
We have inveftigated this proportion in Geometry,
Prop. 6. Sett. vi.; alfo in Fluxions, § 137.; and fub-
fequently in the article entitled Squaring the Circle.
From thefe feries others may be found which (hall
exprefs the tangent and fecant. Thus becaufe tan.
a=
TRICON
^Conftruc^ a=:S7r~ ’ we gct> after dividing the feries for the fine
tion of Tri-
gonometri- b7 tbat for the cofine,
cal Tables. ^3
» tan. a— 
3
2 s 17 rt7
+ &c.
And in like manner, dividing unity by the ferics for
cof. a, becaufe fee. a= —we get
col.o
fee. a~l
c a* , 61a5
24 720
+ &c.
We (hall conclude what we propofed to fay on the
conftru&ion of the tables, by referring fuch of our
readers as wifh for more extenfive information on this
fubjedt to Dr Hutton’s Introduftion to his excellent
Mathematical tables j alfo to the treatifes which treat
exprefsly of trigonometry, among which are thofe of
Emerfon, Simpfon, Bonmjca/Ile, Cagnoli, Mauduit, La¬
croix, Legendre. In particular, we refer to an excel¬
lent treatife on the fubjeft by Mr R. Woodhoufe of
Caius college, Cambridge.
Defcription of the Table of Logarithmic Sines, isfe.
That trigonometrical tables may be extenfively ufe-
ful, they ought to contain not only the fine, tangent,
and fecant to every minute of the quadrant, but alfo the
logarithms of thefe numbers •, and thefe are given in
Dr Hutton’s Mathematical Tables, a work which we
have already mentioned ; as, however, the fines, &c. or
the natural fines, &c. as they are called, are much lefs
frequently wanted than their logarithms, we have only
given a table of the latter. See Logarithms.
This table contains the logarithms of the fines and
tangents, or the logarithmicfnes and tangents, to every
minute of the quadrant, the degrees at top and minutes
defeending down the left-hand fide, as far as 450, and
from thence returning with the degrees at the bottom
and the minutes afeending by the right hand fide to
90°, in fuch a manner that any arch on the one fide is
in the fame line with its complement on the other, the
refpe&ive fines, cofines, tangents, and cotangents, being
in the fame line with the minutes, and on the columns
figured with their refpeftive names at top when the de¬
grees are at top, but at the bottom when the degrees
are at the bottom. The differences of the fines and
cofines are placed in columns to the right-hand, marked
D ; and the differences of the tangents and cotangents
are placed in a column between them, each difference
belonging equally to the columns on both fides of it.
Alfo each differential number is fet oppofite the fpace
between the numbers ■whofe difference it is. All this
will be evident by infpefting the table itfelf.
There are no logarithmic fecants in the table, but
thefe are eafily had from the cofines ; for fince fee. a~
rsd ^
—therefore, log. fee. a—l log. rad.—log. cof. a $
now log. rad. mo, therefore the log. fecant of any arch
is had by fubtra&ing its log. cofine from 20.
The log. fine, log. tangent, or log. fecant of any
angle is expreffed by the fame numbers as the log. fine,
log. tangent, or log. fecant of its fupplement •, there¬
fore, when an angle exceeds oo°, fubtraft it from 1800
O M E T R Y. 479
and take the log. fine, &c. of the remainder for that of Nature and
the angle. Conftruc-
To find the log. fine of any angle expreffed by de-^
grees and minutes. If the angle be lefs than 450, look cal Table*,
for the number of degrees at the top, and oppofite to —v——*
the minutes on the left hand will be found the fine re¬
quired ; thus the log. fine of 8° 10' is 9.15245. But if
the angle be 450 or more than 450, look for the degrees
at the bottom and the minutes on the right hand, and op-
pofitc will be found the log. fine required. Thus the
log. fine of 58° 12' is 9.92936. The very fame direc¬
tions apply for the cofine, tangent, and cotangent; and
from what has been faid, the manner of finding the
angle to degrees and minutes, having given its fine, &c.
muft be obvious.
If the angle confifts of degrees, minutes, and feconds,
find the fine or tangent to the degrees and minutes, and
add to this a proportional part of the difference given
in the column of differences for the feconds, obferving
that the whole difference correfponds to i' or 60". Thus
to find the log. fine
30° 23' is 9.70396.
28" - 28x21
of 30° 23' 28"; firft the fine of
The dift'erence is 21. As 60" :
21
60
10 nearly, the part of the differ¬
ence to be added, therefore the fine of 20° 22' 28" is
9.70406.
On the contrary, let it be required to find the angle
correfponding to the tangent IO.14152.
The next lefs tangent in the table is 10.14140, which
correfponds to 540 10'; the difference between the pro¬
pofed tangent and next lefs is 12 ; and the difference
between the next lefs and next greater, as given in the
table, is 26 j therefore, 26 : 12 :: 60"
12x60
26
28"
nearly, hence the angle correfponding to the propofed
log. tangent is 540 10' 28//.
SECTION II.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
The following propofitions exprefs as many of the
properties of plane triangles as are effentially neceffary in
plane trigonometry.
Theor. I.
In a right-angled plane triangle, as the hypothe-
nufe is to either of the Tides, fo is the radius to
the fine of the angle oppofite to that fide ; and
as either of the fides to the other fide, fo is the
radius to the tangent of the angle oppofite to
that fide.
Let. ABC be a right-angled plane triangle (fig. 3.), .
of which AC is the hypothenufe. On A as a centre ^ ‘5’
with any radius, deferibe the arch DE ; draw1 EG at
right angles to AB, and draw DF touching the circle at
D, and meeting AC in F. Then EG is the fine of
the angle A to the radius AD or AE, and DF is its
tangent.
The triangles AGE, ADF are manifeftly fimilar to
the triangle ABC. Therefore AC : CB :: AE : EG v
that is, AC ; CB :: rad ; fin, A.
Again,
480
TRIGONOMETRY.
Plane Tri¬
gonometry.
Again, AB : BC : : AD : ,DF j that Is AB : BC : :
rad. : tan. A.
Cor. In a right-angled triangle, as the hypothenufe
to either of the fides, fo is the fecant of the acute angle
adjacent to that fide t® the radius. For AF is the fecant
of the angle A to the radius AD j and AC : AB :: AF
: AD, that is, AC : AB :: fee. A : rad.
Note. This propofition is moft eafily remembered
when ftated thus. If in a right-angled triangle the hypo¬
thenufe be made the radius, the fdes become the fnes of
the oppofte angles ; and if one of the fides be made the
radius, the other fde becomes the tangent of the oppofte
angle, and the hypothenufe its fecant.
Theor. II.
The Tides of a plane triangle are to one another as
the Tines of the oppofite angles.
Fig. 4. From B any angle of the triangle ABC (fig. 4.), draw
BD perpendicular to AC. Then, by lad theorem,
AB : BD :: rad. : fin. A,
alfo BD : BC :: fin. C : rad.
therefore ex equo inverfely (Geometry, Se£t. III.
Theor. 7.), AB : BC :: fin. C : fin. A.
If
Theor. IV.
Plane Tri*
gonometry.
a perpendicular be drawn from any angle of a
triangle to the oppofite Tide or bafe j the Turn of
the fegments of the bafe is to the fum of the
other two Tides as the difference of thefe Tides
fo the difference of the fegments of the bafe.
Let ABC be a triangle (fig. 6.), and BD a perpen- Fig. 5.
dicular drawn to the bafe from the oppofite angle :
AD+DC : AB+BC :: AB—BC : AD—DC.
On, B as a centre with the radius BC, deferibe a
circle meeting AC in E, and AB in G, and the fame
line produced in F. Then AC : AF :: AG : AE ;
now AF ~ AB-j-BC, and AG~AB—BC, and bc-
caufe ED = DC, AE (or AD — DE) — AD —DC,
therefore AC : AB-f-BC :: AB—BC : AD—DC.
Problem.
Having given the fum of any two quantities and alfo
their difference, to find each of the quantities.
Solution. To half the fum add half the difference
of the quantities, and it will give the greater ; and from
half the fum fubtracl half the difference, and it will give
the lefs.
Theor. III.
A E D B C.
The fum of any two Tides of a triangle is to their
difference as the tangent of half the fum of the
angles oppofite to thefe Tides to the tangent of
half their difference.
Fig-5- Let ABC, fig. 5. be a triangle; AB-f-BC : AB
—BC :: tan.4-(^BCA-f^BAC) :tan.i(^BCA
—^BAC).
In AB produced take BE—BC, and on B as a cen¬
tre with BC or BE as a radius, deferibe the femicircle
ECF meeting AC in D ; join BD, CF, and CE, and
from F draw FG parallel to AC, meeting CE in G.
Becaufe the angles CFE, CBE, hand on the fame
arch CE, and the former is at the circumference of the
circle, and the latter at the centre; therefore, the
angle CFE is half the angle CBE (Geometry,
Se<ff. II. Theor. XIV.^ ; but the angle CBE is the fum
of the angles BAC, BCA (Geometry, Seft. I. Theor.
XXIII.) ; therefore the angle CFE is half the fum of
the angles BCA, BAC.
Becaufe the angle BDC is the fum of the angles
BAC, ABD, therefore the angle ABD is the difference
between the angles BDC, BAD ; but fince BD—BC,
the angle BDC is equal to BCD or BCA, therefore
ABD is th difference of the angles BCA, BAC; but
ABD, or FED, being an angle at the centre of the
circle, is double the angle FCD at the circumference,
which laft is equal to the alternate angle CFG ; there-
fo’-e the angle CFG is half the difference of the angles
BCA, BAC.
B"caufe CE is manifefily the tangent of the angle
CFE to the radius CF and CG the tangent of the angle
CFG to the fame radius ; therefore CE : CG :: tan.
CFE : tan. CFG. that is, CE : CG :: tan. ^ (BCA +
BAC) : tan. 4 (BCA—BAC) ; but becaufe FG is pa¬
rallel to AC. CE : CG :: AE : AF, that is, CE : CG
:: A B BC : A R — BC. therefore A B -f- BC : AB
—BC : tan. 4 (BCA-ffBAC) tan. (BCA—BAC).
2
For let the greater of the two quantities be expreffed
by the line AB, and the lefs by BC ; hifeft AC in D,
and take DE equal to DB, then AE—BC, and AB
—BC = AB—AErrEB, and 4 (AB—BC) = DB ;
alfo 4 ( AB-f-BC)=AD ; now AB =• AD -f DB and
BC=rAD—DB, therefore the truth of the folution is
evident.
In a plane triangle there are five diftinft parts,
which are fo conne&ed with one another, that any
three of them being given, the remaining two may be
found ; thefe are, the three fides and any two of the
three angles; as to the remaining angle, that depends
entirely upon the other two, and may be found from
them independent of the fides.
If one of the angles be a right angle, then the num¬
ber of parts is reduced to four, and of thefe, any two
being given, the remaining two may be found.
Solution of the Cafes of Right-angled Plane Triangles.
In right-angled triangles there are four cafes which
may be refolved by the firft theorem.
Case i. The hypothenufe AC (fig. 7.) and an angle
A being given, to find the fides AB, BC about the
right angle.
Solution.
Rad.
Rad.
fin. A :: AC : BC,
cof. A :: AC : AB.
Example. In the triangle ABC, let the hypothenufe
AC be 144, and the angle A 390 22'. Required the
fides AB and BC.
Fig- 7-
To find AB.
Logarithms.
Rad. - - 10.00000
BC=:9i.3
Sin. A 390 22' 9.80228
AC 144 2.15836
1.96064
Rad.
To find BC.
Log.
- 10.00000
Cof. A 39* 22' 9.88824
AC 144 2.15836
AB^riii.j 2.04660
Here
TRIGONOMETRY.
481
Plane Tri- Here the logarithms of the fecond and third terms
gonometry. are a£j(]fcjj ancj tjle logarithm of the firft term fubtraft-
ed or rejefted from the fum.
Solution. Firft fubtrafl the fum of the angles A and Plane Tri¬
ll from 1800, and the remainder is the angle C j then gono‘netry*
AC and BC are to be found from thefe proportions. v
Case 2. A fide AB, and an acute angle A (and
confequently the other angle C) being given, to find
the hypothenufe AC, and remaining fide BC.
0 C Cof. A : rad. :: AB : AC,
Solution. | Rad< . tan> A .. AB . Bc>
Example. In the triangle ABC are given AB 208,
and the angle A 350 16', to find AC and BC.
To find BC.
10.00000
To find AC.
c<>f-A 350 16' 9.91194
Rad. -
AB 208
10.00000
2.31806
12.31806
Rad.
Tan. A 350 16' 9.84952
AB 208 - 2.31806
BC=i47.i 2.16758
AC=254.7 2.40612
Case 3. The hypothenufe AC and a fide AB being
given, to find the angle A (and confequently C) and
the fide BC.
Solution.
CAC
\ Rad.
AB
fin. A
rad.-: cof. A,
AC : BC.
Example. Let the hypothenufe AC be 272, and the
fide AB 232. Required the angle A and the fide
BC.
To find A
AC 272 - 2.43457
To find BC.
Rad. - - 10.00000
AB 232 - 2.36549
Rad. - - 10.00000
12.36549
Cof. A=3i° 28' 9.93092
Sin. A31° 28' 9-71767
AC 272 - 2.43457
BC 142 - 2.15224
Sin. C : Sin. B :: AB : AC,
Sin. C : Sin. A :: AB : BC.
The truth of this folution is obvious from Theor. II.
Example. In the triangle ABC are given the fide
AB=r266, the angle A 38° 40', the angle B 7 2° 16'j
to find the fides AC and BC.
Firft, A-j-B=r 1 io° 56', and 180°—1 io° 56'=o690
4'=C.
Sin. C 69° 4' 9-97°35
Sin. B 720 16' 9.97886
AB 266 - 2.42488
Sin. C 69° 4' 9-97°35
Sin. A 38° 40' 9.79573
AB 266 - 2.42488
12.40374
12.22061
AC—271.3
2-43339
BC=ri77.9
2.25026
Case 2. Two fides AC, CB (fig. 9.), and the angle Fig. 9*
A oppofite to one of them, being given 5 to find the
other angles B, C, and alfo the other fide AB.
Solution. The angle B is found by this propor¬
tion.
CB : AC :: fin. A : fin. B.
When CB is lefs than CA, the angle B admits of
two values, one of which is the fupplement of the other;
becaufe, correfponding to the fame value of the fide
AC, and the angle A, the fide BC may evidently have
two diftinft pofitions, viz. CB, C b. The angle CBA
and its fupplement C b A. being found, the angle
ACB, alfo the angle AC b may be found, by fub-
tra&ing the fum of the two known angles from 180°,
and then AB and A b may be found by thefe propor¬
tions.
Fig. *.
Case 4* The fides AB and BC about the right
angle being given, to find the angle A (and thence C)
and the hypothenufe AC.
Solution
■{
AB : BC : rad. : tan. A,
Cof. A : rad.: AB : AC.
Example. Let the fide AB be 186, the fide BC
152. Required the angle A, and the hypothenufe AC.
To find A.
AB 186 - 2.26951
BC 152
Rad. ■
2.18184
10.00000
12.18184
Tan.A=39°i5' 9.91233
To find AC.
Cof. A. 39* 15' 9.88896
Rad. -
AB 186
10.00000
2.26951
12.26951
AC—240.2 2.38055
Solution of the Cafes of Oblique-angled Triangles.
^ In oblique-angled triangles there are alfo four cafes,
which, with their folutions, are as follows.
Case i. Two angles A and B, and a fide AB be¬
ing given,-to find the other fides AC, BC.
Vol. XX. Part II. '
Sin. A : Sin. ACB :: CB : AB,
Sin. A : Sin. AC b :: CB or C £ : A
This is called the ambiguous cafe, on account of the
angle B and the fide AB having fometimes two va¬
lues.
This folution, like the laft, is deduced from Theo¬
rem II.
Example. Suppofe AC 225, BC 180, and the angle
A 420 20' \ to find the remaining parts.
CB 180 - - 2.25527
AC 225 - - 2.35218
Sin. A 42° 20' - 9.82830
12.18048
Sin. ABC—57® 20
Or fin. A C=i22 40 9-92521
In the triangle ACB we have now the fide AC and the
angles CAB, CBA, therefore the remaining angle
ACB and fide AB may be found by Cafe 1.} and the
fame is true of the triangle AC b.
3 P
*
Case
TRIGONOMETRY.
To find A.
AC 105 - 2.02119
AD 70.5 - 1.84819
Rad. - io.ocooo
482
Plane Tri- Case 3. Two fides CA, CB and the included angle
gonometry q being given, to find the remaining angles B, A, and
^ ' fide AB.
Solution. Find AC -4- CB, the fum of the fides,
and AC—CB their difference j alfo find the fum of
the angles A and B (that fum is the fupplement of C),
and half that fum then half the difference of the
angles will be got from this proportion. (See Theor.
III.).
AC-f-CB : AC—CB :: tan. -*- (B-f-A) : tan. -* (B—A).
'Having now the fum and difference of the angles B and
A, the angles will be found by the rule given in the
problem following Theor. IV.
The remaining fide may be found by either of thefe
proportions.
Sin. B : fin. C :: AC : AB; or fin. A : fin. C :: BC : AB.
Example. Let AC be 128, CB 90, and the angle
C 48° 12'. Required the remaining parts of the tri¬
angle.
AC CB 218 - 2.33846
AC — CB 38 - 1.57978
tan. * (B-j-A) 6j° 54' 10.34938
11.92916
tan. -f (B—A) 210 17' 9.59070
Hence by the given rule in the above-mentioned pro¬
blem, B=87° ii', A —430 37'. As we now know all
the angles and two fides, the remaining fide may be
found by Cafe 1.
Fig. 10. Case 4. The three fides AB, BC and AC (fig. 10.)
being given, to find the three angles A, B, C.
Solution. Let fall a perpendicular CD upon the
greateft of the three fides from the oppofite angle.
Then find the difference between AD and DB by this
proportion.
AB : AC-f-CB :: AC —CB : AD —DB.
The fegments AD, DB may now be found feverally
by the rule given for finding each of the quantities
whofe fum and difference is given, and then the angles
A and B may be found by the following propor¬
tions.
CA : AD :: rad. : cof. A,
CB : BD :: rad. : cof. B.
The angles A, B being found, C of courfe is known.
The firft part of this folution follows from Theor. IV.
The latter part from Theor. I.
Example. Let AB be 125, AC 105, and BC 95.
Required the angles.
In this cafe AC-j-BCrr200, AC — BC=rio, there¬
fore we have *
125 : 200 :: 10 : AD—DB—-00 X T0 —16.
Now AD-J-DB=:i25, therefore AD=r70.5 DBzz
M-5-
11.84819
Cof. A 470 49' 9.82700
For the application of plane trigonometry, fee Men¬
suration, Se£t. I.
SECTION III.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
Theor. I.
If a fphere be cut by a plane through the centre,
the fe£lion is a circle.
The truth of this propofition is evident from the de¬
finition of a fphere. See Geometry, Seft. IX. Def. 3-
Definitions.
I. Any circle which is a fe£Hon of a fphere by a
plane palling through its centre, is called a great circle
of the fphere.
Cor. All great circles of a fphere are equal, and the
centre of the fphere is their common centre, and any
two of them biledt one another.
II. The pole of a great circle of the fphere is a point
in the fuperficies of the fphere from which all ftraight
lines drawn to the circumference of the circle are e-
qual.
III. A fpherical angle is that which on the fuperficies
of a fphere is contained by two arches of great circles,
and is the fame with the inclination of the planes of
thefe great circles.
IV. A fpherical triangle is a figure upon the fuperfi¬
cies of a fphere comprehended by three arches of three
great circles, each of which is lefs than a femicixcle.
Theor. II.
The arch of a great circle between the pole and
and the circumference of another circle is a
quadrant.
Let ABC be a great circle, (fig. ir.) and D ilSpj
pole ; let the great circle ADC pafs through D, and
let A EC be the common fedtion of the planes of the
two circles, which will pafs through E the centre of
the circle ; join DA, DC. Becaufe the chord DA is
equal to the chord DC, (Def. 2.) the arch DA is equal
to the arch DC ; now ADC is a femicircle, therefore
the arches AD and DC are quadrants.
Cor. i. If DE be drawn, the angle AED is a right
angle, and DE being therefore at right angles to every
line it meets wuth in the plane of the circle ABC, is at
right angles to that plane. Therefore the ftraight line
drawn from the pole of any great circle to the centre
of the fphere is at right angles to the plane of that circle.
Cor. 2. The circle has two poles D, D', one on
each
Spherical
Trigonomfe-
BC 95 - I.97772 try.
To find B.
BD 54-5
Rad.
Cof. B 55'
i-73640
io.ocooo
11.73640
9.75868
TRIGONOMETRY.. 483
Spherical each fide of its plane, which are the extremities of
1 rigonotne- a diarneter of the fphere perpendicular to the plane
■ ^y-^ABC.
Theor. III.
A fpherical angle ie meafured by the arch of a
great circle intercepted between the great circles
containing the angle, and having Jie angular
point for its pole.
Let AB, AC be two arches of great circles con-
Fig. i2. taining the fpherical angle BAG } let EC be an arch
of a great circle intercepted between them, and having
A for its pole, and let BD, CD, AD be drawn to D the
centre of the fphere. The arches AB, AC are qua¬
drants, (Theor. II.), and therefore the angles ADB,
ADC right angles; therefore (Geometry, Sedt. VII.
Def. 4.), the angle BDC (which is meafured by the
arch BC) is the inclination of the planes of the circles
EDA, CD A, and is equal to the fpherical angle BAG
(Def. 3.).
Cor. If AB, AC two arches of great circles meet in
A, then A lhall be the pole of a great circle palling
through B and C.
Theor. IV.
Two great circles whofe planes are perpendicular
pafs through each others poles.
I3* Let ACBD, AEBF be two great circles, the
planes of which are at right angles to one another;
from G the centre of the fphere, draw GC in the plane
ABCD perpendicular to AB, then GC is alfo perpen¬
dicular to the plane AEBF, (Geometry, Sedt. VII.
Theor. 12.); therefore C is the pole of the circle AEBF,
and if CG be produced to D, D is the other pole of the
circle AEBF.
In the fame manner, by drawing GE in the plane
AEBF perpendicular to AB, and producing it to F,
it is fhewn that E and F are the poles of the circle
ABCD.
Cor. 1. If two great circles pafs through each other!
poles, their planes are perpendicular to one another.
Cor. 2. If of two great circles the firft paffes through
the poles of the fecond, the fecond alfo paifes through
the poles of the firft.
Theor. V.
If the angular points of any fpherical triangle be
made the poles of three great circles, another
triangle will be formed by their interfedftions,
fuch, that the fides of the one triangle will be
refpe&ively the fupplements of the meafures
of the angles oppofite to them in the other.
FI2- r4- Let the angular points of the triangle ABC be the
poles of three great circles; which by their interfec-
tions form the three lunary furfaces D£), FR, and EO ;
A belnp the pole of EF, B the pole of DF, and C the
pole of ED. Then the triangle DEF which is com¬
mon to three lunary furfaces will be in every refpedt
fupplemental to the triangle ABC,
For let each fide of ABC be produced to meet the Spherical
fides that contain the angle oppofite to it, in the tri- trigoaome-
angle DEF; then, becaufe BC pailes through the poles '
of ED, DF, ED, DF muft alio pafs through the poles
of BC. (Thtor. II. Cor. 2.). Therefore the points
D, £) are the poles of BC. In like mannner R, F are
the poles of AB, and E, O the poles of AC. Hence
EL, FK are quadrants, (Theor. II.); and therefore EF
is the fupplement of IvL, but fince A is the pole of EF,
KL is the meafure of the angle at A ; thus EF is the
fupplement of the meafure of the angle at A. In like
manner FD is the fupplement of the meafure of the an¬
gle at B, and DE the iupplement of the meafure of the
angle at C.
Further, it will appear in the fame manner that BC
is the fupplement of HM, the meafure of the angle at
D ; that AB is the fupplement of NK the meafure of
the angle at F ; and that AC is the fupplement of GL,
the meafure of the angle at E.
Theor. VI.
If from any point E, which is not the pole of the ^
great circle ABC, there be drawn arches of
great circles EA, EK, EB, Sec. the greateft of
thefe is EGA, which pafles through G the pole
of ABC, and EC the remainder of the femicircle
is the leaft, and of the other, EK, EB, &c. EK
which is nearer to EA is greater than EB, which
is more remote.
Let AC be the common fe&ion of the planes of the
great circles AEC, ABC ; draw EH perpendicular to
AC, which will be perpendicular to the plane of the
circle ABC (Geometry, Sedl. VII. Theor. XII.) and
join AE, KE, BE, KH, BH. Then of all the ftraight
lines drawn from H to the circumference, HA is the
greateft, HC the leaft, and HK greater than HB :
Therefore in the right-angled triangles EHA, EHK,
EHB, EHC, which have the fide EH common, EA
is the greateft hypothenufe, EC the leaft, and EK
greater than EB, confequently the arch EGA is the
greateft, EC the leaft and EK greater than EB.
Theor. VII.
Any two fides of a fpherical triangle are together
greater than the third, and all the three fides
arc together lefs than a circle.
Let ABC be a fpherical triangle, let D be the cen'Fig. i-?
tre of the fphere, join DA, DB, DC. The folid angle
at D is contained by three plane angles ADB, BDC,
ADC, any two of which are greater than the third,
(Geometry, Sedl. VII. Theor. XV.) ; and therefore
any two of the arches AB, BC, AC which meafure
thefe angles muft be greater than the third arch.
To prove the fecond part of the propofition, pro¬
duce the fides AB, AC until they meet again in E ;
then ECA and EB A are femicircles ; now CB is lefs
thanCE + EB, therefore CB+CA-f-BA is lefs than
CE-j-EB-f-CA-f-BA, but thefe four arches makeup
twro femicircles j therefore CB-{-CA-|-BA is lefs than
a circle.
3 P 2
Theor.
484-
TRIGONOMETRY.
Spherical
Trigonome¬
try.
Fig. 17.
Fig. iS.
Theor. VIII.
If two fides of a fpherical triangle be equal, the
angles oppofite to them are equal, and con-
verfely.
In the triangle ABC, if the lides AB, AC be equal,
the angles ABC, ACB are alfo equal. If AB, AC be
quadrants, ABC, ACB are right angles. If not, let
the tangent to the fide AB at B meet EA the line of
common feftion of the planes AB, AC in F, and let
the tangents to the bafe BC at its extremities meet each
other in G ; alfo, let FC, FG, EC, and EB be joined.
I'hen the triangles FEB, FEC have FE common,
EB —EC, and the angle AEB—AEC, therefore FB
—FC, and the angle FCErrFBE a right angle : hence
FC is a tangent, and the triangles FGB, GCF are mutu¬
ally equilateral, therefore the angle FBG=:FCG and
confequently the fpherical angle ABC=r ACB.
Again, if the angles ABC, ACB be equal, the fide
ABrrAC. For if in fig. 14. the angle ABC be equal
to ACB, the fide DF of the fupplemental triangle
DEF will be equal to the fide DE (Theor. V.)*, there¬
fore the angle DEFcnDFE, and confequently in the
triangle ABC, the fide ACrrAB by Theorem V.
Cor. In any triangle the greater angle is fubtended
by the greater fide •, and converfely. For if the angle
ACB be greater than ABC (fig. 18.) let BCDzrABC,
then BDzrDC, and AB—AD-f-DC, which is greater
than AC (Theor. VII.). The converfe is demonftra-
ted in the fame manner as the like property of plane
triangles, (Geometry, Seft. I. Theor. XIII.).
Theor. IX.
All the angles of a fpherical triangle are to¬
gether greater than two, and lefs than fix right
^angles.
In the triangle ABC (fig. 14.) the three angles
are together lefs than fix right angles, becaufe when add¬
ed to the three exterior angles they only make fix ^ and
they are greater than two right angles, becaufe their
meafures GH, KL, MNT, added to DE, EF, FD, are
equal to three femicircles and DE, EF, FD being lefs
than two femicircles (Theor. VII.) GH, KL, MN mull;
be greater than one.
a fpherical triangle is greater, equal, or lefs than a qua- Spherical
drant, half the fum of the oppofite angles will be great- rri80U°nie-
er, equal, or lefs than a right angle. , t’'y’ .
Theor. XI.
In a right-angled triangle, according as either
of the fides about the right angle is greater,
equal, or lefs than a quadrant, its oppofite angle
is greater, equal, or lefs than a right angle ;
and converfely.
Let ABC (fig. 20.) be a triangle right-angled at B,Fig. 20.
and let the fides AB, BC be produced to meet in D j
then, becaufe they pafs through each others poles, E the
middle point of BAD will be the pole of BCD j let a
great circle pafs through the points CE. The arch EC is
a quadrant, and the angle ECB a right angle. Now it
is plain, that according as AB is greater, equal, or lefs
than the quadrant EB, the oppofite angle ACB will be
greater, equal, or lefs than the right angle ECB, and
converlely.
Cor. 1. If the two fides be both greater, or both lefs
than quadrants, the hypothenufe will be lefs than a
quadrant j but if the one be greater and the other lefs,
the hypothenufe wiU be greater than a quadrant, and
converfely.
For in the triangles ABC, ADC, right-angled at B,
in which the fides AB, BC are lefs, and confequent¬
ly AD, DC greater than quadrants, the hypothenufe
AC is lefs than a quadrant, becaufe it is nearer to CB
than the quadrant CE. But in the triangle «BC, of
which the fide # B is greater, and BC lefs than a qua¬
drant, the hypothenufe o C is greater than a quadrant,
becaufe it is further from CB than CE is.
Cor, 2. Tn every fpherical triangle, of which the
two fides are not both quadrants, if the perpendicular
from the vertex fall within, the angles at the bafe will
be both acute or both obtufe } but if it fall without,
the one will be obtufe, and the other acute $ and con¬
verfely.
Theor. XII.
In any right-angled fpherical triangle, as radius
is to the fine of the hypothenufe, fo is the
fine of one of the oblique angles to the fine of
its oppofite fide.
Theor. X.
Any two angles of a fpherical triangle are to¬
gether greater, equal, or lefs than two right
angles, according as the fum of the oppofite fides
is greater, equal, or lefs than a femicircle •, and
converfely.
Fig- ip* Let the fides AB, AC (fig. 19.) of the fpherical
triangle ABC be produced to meet in D; then it is
evident that according as the fum of AB, BC is greater,
equal, or lefs than the femicircle ABD, the fide BC
will be greater, equal, or lefs than BD 5 the angle D
or A will be greater, equal, or lefs than BCD, and the
fum of the angles BAG, BCA greater, equal, or lefs
than the fum of BCA, BCD, which is two right
angles.
Cor. According as half the fum of any two fides of
Let ABC (fig. 21.) be a fpherical triangle, having fig. 31:
a right angle at B ; and let AD, BD, CD be drawn
to the centre of the fphere. From C, in the plane
DCA, let CE be drawn perpendicular to DA, and
from E, in the plane DBA, draw EF perpendicular
to the fame line, and let CF be joined. Then becaufe
DA is perpendicular to the two lines CE, EF, it is
perpendicular to the plane CEF, and confequently the
plane CEF is perpendicular to the plane DBA j but
the plane DCB is alfo perpendicular to DBA j there¬
fore their line of common feriion CF is perpendicular
to the fame: Hence CFD, CFE are right angles.
Now in the right-angled triangle CFE, rad. : CE ::
fin. E : CF j but the angle CEF, being the inclination
of the planes DCA, DBA, is the fame with the fphe¬
rical angle CAB, CE is the fine of AC, and CF the
fine of BC j therefore rad. ; fin. AC ;; fin. A : fin. BC.
Cor*
TRIGONOMETRY.
Spherical Cor. I. As radius to the cofine of either of the fides,
Trigonome- fQ js cofine 0f the other to the ccfine of the hypo-
. t^v' thenufe.
Fig. 23. For let the great circle of which A is the pole,
meet the three lides in D, E, F; then F is the pole of
AD ; and applying this propofition to the complemental
triangle FCE, rad. : fin. FC :: fin. F : fin. CE ; that
is, rad. : cof. EC :: cof. AB : cof. AC.
Cor. 2. As radius to the cofine of one of the fides,
fo is the fine of its adjacent angle to the cofine of the
other angle.
485
Then (Theor. 13. Cor. 2.) rad. : cof. A :: tan. AC : Spherical
tan. AB. Trigonome-
Therefore, (rad. : tan. AC ::) cot. AC : rad. :: cof. try‘
A : tan. AB,
And (Theor. 12. Cor. 2.) rad. : cof. BC :: fin. C :
cof. A.
Case 3. Let the complement of the fide AB be the
middle part.
Then (Theor. 13.) rad. : fin. AB :: tan. A : tan. BC.
Therefore (rad. : tan. A ::) cot. A : rad. :: fin. AB :
tan. BC.
Theor. XIII.
In any right-angled triangle, as radius to the fine
of one of the fides, fo is the tangent of the
adjacent angle to the tangent of the other
fide.
Fig- 23* From B let BE be drawn perpendicular to DA, and
from E, EF alfo perpendicular to DA, in the plane
DCA, to meet DC in F, and let BF be joined. It may
be fhown as in the preceding propofition, that FB is
perpendicular to the plane DBA ; hence FB is the tan¬
gent of BC, and FBE is a right-angled triangle ; there¬
fore rad. : EB :: tan. E : FB j that is rad. : fin. AB ::
tan A : tan. BC.
Cor. I. As radius to the cofine of the hypothenufe,
fo is the tangent of one of the angles to the cotangent
of the other. For, in the complemental triangle FCE,
(fig. 22.) rad. : fin. CE :: tan. C : tan. FE, that is,
rad. : cof. AC :: tan. C : cot. A, or, rad. : cof. AC ::
tan. A : cot. C.
Cor. 2. As radius is to the cofine of one of the
angles, fo is the tangent of the hypothenufe to the tan¬
gent of the fide adjacent to that angle.
For rad. : fin. FE :: tan F : tan. CE ; that is, rad. :
cof. A :: cot. AB : cot. AC, or rad. : cof. A :: tan.
AC ; tan. AB.
Napier's Rule for Circular Parts.
f
Let the hypothenufe, the two angles, and the comple¬
ments of the two fides of any right-angled fpherical tri¬
angle be called the five circular parts of the triangle. Any
one of thefe being confidered as the middle part, let the
two which are next to it be called the adjacent parts, and
the remaining two the oppojite parts. Then the two pre¬
ceding theorems, with their corollaries, may be all ex-
preffed in one propofition adapted to pra&ice, as follows.
In any right-angled fpherical triangle, the reBangle
under radius, and the cojine of the middle part, is equal
to the reSlangle under the cotangents of the adjacent parts,
or to the re Bangle under the fines of the oppofite parts.
Fig. 24. Case i. Let the hypothenufe AC be the middle
part.
Then, rad. : cof. AC :: tan. C : cot.. A (Theor. 13,
Cor. 1.).
Therefore (rad. : tan. C ;:) cot. C : rad. :: cof. AC :
cot. A.
And rad. : cof. AB :: cof. BC : cof. AC (Theor. 12.
Cor. 1.).
Case 2. Let the angle A be the middle part.
And (Theor. 12.) rad. : fin. AC :: fin. C : fin. AB.
We are indebted for the foregoing rule to Napier,
the celebrated inventor of logarithms. It comprehends
all the propofitions which are neceffary for the refolution
of right-angled triangles, and being eafily remembered,
is perhaps one of the happieft inftances of artificial me¬
mory that is known.
Theor. XIV.
In any fpherical triangle, the fines of the fides are
proportional to the fines of the oppofite angle.
This propofition has been demonftrated in the cafe
of right-angled triangles. Let ABC beany oblique-Fig. 3*
angled triangle, divided into two right-angled triangles,
ABD, CBD, by the perpendicular BD, falling from
the vertex upon the bafe AC. In the former, the
complement of BD being the middle part, rad. X fin.
BD — fin. AB X fin. A, (Napier’s Rule). In the
latter, the complement of BD being the middle part
rad. x fm. BD = fin. BC x fin. C. Hence fin. AB
X fin. A = fin. BC x fin. C, and fin. AB : fin. BC
fin. C : fin. A.
Cor. i. The cofines of the two fides are to one
another dire&ly as the cofines of the fegments of the
bafe. This is proved by making AB, BC the middle
part.
Cor. 2. The tangents of the two fides are to one
another inverfely as the cofines of the vertical angles.
This will follow from making the angles ABD, CBD
the middle parts.
Lemma i. The fium of the tangents of two arches N
to their difference, as the reBangle under the fine and
cofine of half their fium to the reBangle under the fine
and cofine of half their difference.
For, putting a and b for any two arches, by the
arithmetic of fines (Algebra, § 353.),
Sin. a cof. b -f cof. a fin. b ~ fin. (tf-f-£).
Let each fide of this equation be divided by cof. <7 cof.£
and we get
fin, a t fin. 6_fin. (a + b)
cof. « coi. b fin. o cof. 6
that is, tan. a 4- tan. b— ^n;,.
T fin. a cof. b
In like manner, from the formula fin, (a £) =r
fin. a cof. b — cof. a hn. b, we get
. fin. (a — b')
tan. a — tan. b — ——  —L.
fin. a cof. b
therefore tan. a -f tan. b : tan. <7 — tan. b : fin. fi+b')
fin., {a — £), and remarking that fin. (a+b) = 2 fin,
i{a+by
TRIGONOMETRY.
.Spherical \ [a-^-b) Cof. 4- (<7-f-i), and fin. [a — b') — 2 fi i.
Tngonome- ^ c0{-> ^ (Algebra, § 358) it follows
. t‘y' . that tan. a + tan. b : tan. a — tan. b :: fin. 4 (« + £)
cof. £ (a-{-b) : fin. -§-(<* — c°r- \ (a — b).
Lemma 2. The fum of the fines of two arches is to
their difference, as the rebiangle under the fine of half the
fum and cofine of half the difference of thefe arches is to
the re&angle under the fine of half the difference and co-
fine of half the fum.
For it has been Ihown in the arithmetic of fines (Al¬
gebra, § 355), that
Sin. fin. (/>—q) = 2 fin. /> cof. q,
Sin. (y^-j-y) — fin. (/>—q) ~ 2 cof. p fin. q.
'Let pzz ^ a-\-? b, and y = 4 ^—ib, fo that/>-{-^,
zz a and p — q — b, then thefe formulas become
Sin. b — 2 fin. 4 c°f- t {a-~d>)
Sin. a—fin. bz=. 2 cof. 4 hn* 4 (rt—b).
Therefore, fin. a -f- fin. b : fin. a — fin. b :: fin.
4 (tf-j-Z*) cof. ^ (a — b') : cof. 4 4 (fi — b).
Lemma 3. The fum of the fines of two arches is to
their difference, as the tangent of half the fum of thefe
■arches is to the tangent of half their difference.
For, dividing the latter antecedent and confequent of
the proportion in the foregoing lemma by cof. 4 (c+^)
X cof. 4 — b), we have fin. a + fin. b : fin. a —
„ . fin. 4 (<7+^) fin- 4 (tf—b') . . r fin.
fin.Z>:: ■■ . ^ ^ tt, that is, becaufe —=
coi.4(^ + c’) col.4(«—b) coi.
tan. fin. a -j- fin. b : fin. a — fin. b :: tan. 4 :
tan. 4 (<*—b').
Lemma 4. The fum of the cofines of two arches is
to their difference, as the cotangent of half the fum of
■thefe arches is to the tangent of half their difference.
Ly Arithmetic of fines (Algebra, § 355-)>
cof. (/>—^)-}-cof. (/)-J-9)=2 cof.p cof. q,
cof. (/>—y)—cof. {p-\-q')—2 fin./> fin. q.
Let p—\{b-\-a) and q—\(b—a), then p—q~a
and p-\-q—b, and the two formulas become
cof. a -{-cof. b~2 cof. 4 (bJrns) cof. 4 {b—a),
cof. a—cof. b~2 fin. 4 ifif-n) fin. 4 (fi—a) ;
Hence, cof. a -{-cof. b : cof. a — cof. b :: cof. 4 {fi-\-a)
eof. 4 {fi—a) : fin. 4 (bf-a') fin. 4 {b—o') j
and dividing the latter antecedent and confequent by
fin. 4 (bffa) cof. 4 {b—«),
cof. 4 (Z>-f~'7)
cof. tf-j-cof. b : cof. a
fin. 4 (Z>—a)
-cof. b
and
* coi.
fin.
cof.
that is, becaufe
fin. 4 ifi^-a')
cof.
7 ~cot.
fin.
4 (*—-o)’
— tan. we have cof. a cof. b : cof. a —
cof. b :: cot. 4 (b-\-ai) : tan. 4 [b—a).
lhall alfo put j for 4 {a-{-b)-, d for 4 fi—-4), / for Spherics!
4 (/>+?), <? for 4 (/>—?), S for 4(A-{-B), D forTr*gonomc"
4 (A—B), S' for 4 (P + Q), and U for 4 (F—(,)).
Theor. XV.
In any fpherical triangle, the tangent of half the
fum of the fegments of the bafe is to the tan¬
gent of half the fum of the two fides, as the
tangent of half their difference to the tangent
of half the difference of the fegments of the
bafe.
For by Theor. XIV. Cor. 1. cof. a : cof. b :: cof. p
: cof. q ; therefore, cof. a -{- cof. b : cof. a — cof. b
:: cof. p^-cof. q : cof. p — cof. q, hence (Lemma 4.)
cot. s : tan. d :: cot. s' : tan. d', or cot. r : cot. s' :: tan. d
: tan. d! $ but cot. s '. cot. d :: tan. s' : tan. j, therefore,
tan. d : tan. s tan. d : tan. d’. This propofition ex-
preffed in words at length is the theorem to be demon-
llrated.
Theor. XVI.
The cotangent of half the fum of the vertical
angles and the tangent of half their difference,
or the cotangent of half their difference and the
tangent of half their fum, according as the per¬
pendiculars fall within or without, are recipro¬
cally proportional to the tangents of half the
fum and half the difference of the angles at the
bafe.
For, taking the cafe in which the perpendicular CD Fig. *7*
(fig. 27.) falls within, let EFG be the fupplemental
triangle, let the arches GE, GF meet again in L, and
produce CA, CB to meet EF in H and K. Becaufe
G and L are the poles of AB, the nerpendicular CD,
if produced, wall pafs through G and L •, let it meet EF
in I 5 then, becaufe C is the pole of EF, the aich GCI
is perpendicular to EF, and fince E is the pole of BG,
KErra quadrant—FH, and EHrrKF, and IF—IE=r
IK—IH. In the triangle LEF, by the preceding pro¬
pofition, tan. 4 (FI-f-IE) : tan. 4 (FL-f-LE) :: tan.
4 (FL—LE) : tan. 4 (FI—IE) or tan. 4 (KI—IH).
Now FI-f-IE, or FE, being the fupplement of C,
(Theor. 5.), tan. 4 FE—cot. 4 C j and FL, LE being
the fupplements of EG and GE, FL and LE are the
meafures of the angles A, B *, moreover, IK, IH are
the meafures of the angles BCD, ACD, therefore,
cet. 4 or cot* 1 (P+QJ : tan- i (A-f-B) : tan;
4 (A—B) : tan. 4 (P—QJ* In {he very fame way it
ipay be proved, when the perpendicular falls without
the triangle, that cot. 4 (P—QJ : tan. 4 (A-f-B)
:: tan. 4 (A—B) : tan f (P+Q.)*
Theor. XVII.
&g. 26. t^ie demonftration of the remaining theorems, wre
fhall put A, B for the angles A and B at the bafe of
the fpherical triangle ACB (fig. 26), a and Z> for the
fides oppofite to thefe angles, p and q for the fegments
of the bafe BD, AD made by the perpendicular arch
CD, P and Q_for the vertical angles BCD, ACD;. we
2
In any fpherical triangle, the fine of half the fum
of the fides is to the fine of half their difference,
as the cotangent of half the vertical angle to the
tangent of half the difference of the angles at
the bafe.
For fince tan. a : tan, b cof. £) : cof, P, therefore,
tarn
TRIGONOMETRY.
Spherical tan. <7-{-tan. b : tan. a — tan b :: cof. Q^+cof. P : cof.
trigonome- q—co£ p . by Lemma 2 and 4
fin. f cof. s : fin. d cof. d:: cot. S' : tan. D' . . . {1).
i(A+B) : fin. f (A
—AC).
487
B) :: tan. AB : tan. spherical
Trigonome¬
try.
Theor. XX. t——y—
Again, becavife (by Theor. XIV.) fin. a : fin. b ::
fin. A : fin. B, therefore, fin. tf-ffin. b : fin. a—fin. b
:: fin. A + fin. B : fin. A—fin. B 5 hence, (by Lemma
2. and 3.).
fin. s cof. d: fin. d cof. s :: tan. S : tan, D . . . (2).
In any fpherical triangle, the cofine of half the
fum of the angles at the bafe is to the cofine of
half their clifierence, as the tangent of half the
bafe to the tangent of half the fum of the two
fides.
Taking now the produ^l of the correfponding terms of
the proportions (1) and (2), and rejefHng the faflor
cof. r cof. d, which is common to the firft antecedent
and confequent of the refulting proportion, we have,
fin* s : fin.* d :: cot. S' tan. S : tan D' tan. D.
But fince by Theor. XVI. tan. S : tan. D' :: cot. S' :
tan. D, therefore cot. S' tan. S : tan. D' tan. D cot.* S'
: tan,* D ; therefore, fin.* s : fin.* d :: cot.* S' : tan.* D,
and fin. s : fin. d :: cot. S': tan. D,this proportion when
exprefled in words is the proportion to be demonilrated.
Theor. XVIII.
In any fpherical triangle, the cofine of half the
fum of the two fides is to the cofine of half
their difference, as the cotangent of half the
vertical angle to the tangent of half the fum of
the angles at the bafe.
For in the triangle ELF, cof. f (LF-f-I.E) : cof.Fig. 27.
i(LF—LE) :: cot. } L : tan. f (E-f-F) (Th. XVIII.)
that is, becaufe of the relation of the triangle FLE to
ABC, as expreffed in laft theorem, cof. f (A-}-B) : cof.
i(A—B) :: tan. fAB : tan. f (BC +AC).
Scholium.
Let one of the fix parts of any fpherical triangle be
neglefted ; let the one oppofite to it, or its fupplement',
if an angle, be called the middle party the two next to
it the adjacent parts, and the remaining two the oppojite
parts. Then the four preceding propofitions, which are
called Napier's Analogies, becaufe firft invented by him,
may be included in one, as follows.
In any fpherical triangle, the fine or cojine of half the
fum of the adjacent parts, is to the fne or cofne of half
their difference, as the tangent of half the middle part to
the tangent of half the difference or half the fum of the
oppofte parts, that is,
For it has been proved in laft theorem that
fin. s cof. s : fin. d cof. d :: cot. S' : tan. D'
fin. j- cof. d: fin. d cof. s :: tan. S : tan. D ;
therefore, dividing the terms of the firft of thefe two
proportions by the correfponding terms of the fecond,
we get,
cof. s cof. d cot. S' tan. D'
coi. d col. s tan. S ’ tan. 13
Hence, multiplying the firft and fecond terms by cof. s
X cof. d, and the third and fourth by tan. S tan. D,wre
have,
cof.* j- : cof.* d:: cot. S' tan. D : tan. S tan. D'.
But fince by Theor. XVI. tan. D : tan. D' :: cot. S' :
tan. S, therefore, cot. S'tan. D ; tan. S tan. D':: col.* S'
: tan.* S j therefore, cof.* s : cof.* d:: cot.* S' : tan.* S,
and coll s : cof. d:: cot. S' : tan. S.
Theor. XIX.
In any fpherical triangle, the fine of half the fum
of the angles at the bafe is to the fine of half
their difference, as the tangent of half the bafe
to the tangent of half the difference of the two
fides.
Pig. 27. For the fame conftrufbon being made as in Theor.
XVI. in the triangle ELF (fig. 27.) fin. ■§■ (FL-fLE)
: fin. 4 (FL—LE) :: cot. 4 L : tan. 4- (E—F) (Tbeor.
XVII. ) ; but EfG being the fupplemental triangle of
ABC, LF and LE are the meafures of A and B, L is
the fuppkment of AB, a; d LEE, LEE are the mea-
fures of the fides AC, BC (Theor. V.) > therefore fin.
Sin.-f- (A-f-0) : fin. f(A — d) :: tan. f M : tan.
i(0—&).
Cof. ^ (A -f- «) : cof. f (A — a) :: tan. M : tan.
f (O+a).
When A, a and M are given, by the firft proportion,
f (O—0) is found, and by the fecond 4 (O-f <?) ; thence
O and 0 may be had immediately by the problem fol¬
lowing Theor. IV. Plane Trigonometry.
The Cafes of Right-angled Spherical Triangles.
In a right-angled triangle, let c denote the fide op-pj,, jg
polite the right angle, a, b the fides containing it, and °
A, B the oppofite angles, A being oppofite to a, and
B to b. Then, combining thefe quantities two by two,
there will be found to be fix diftinft combinations, or
cafes.
Case i. When c, A, the hypothenufe and one of
the angles are given ; to find a, b, B.
a is found by Theor. XII.; b by Theor. XIII. Co;. 2.
and B by Theor. XIII. Cor. 1.
Case 2. Given a, B, a fide and its adjacent angle.
S ;ught, A, b. c.
A is found by Theor. XII. Cor. 2. $ b by Theor. XIII.*
c by Theor. XIII. Cor. 2.
Case 3. Given a, A, a fide and its oppofite angle;
to bind b. B, c. 6
£ is found bv Theor. XIII. j B by Theor. XII.*
Cor. 2. c* by Theor. XII.
Case 4. Given c, a, the hypothenufe, and one of the
fides *, to find A, b, B.
A is found by Theor. XII.; 6 by Theoj. XII. Cor. 1.;
B by Theor. XIII. Cor. 2.
Cask
Spherical
Trigonome-
TRIGONOMETRY.
Case 5. Given the two Tides. Sought A, B, r.
A is found by Theor. XIII. j B by the fame ; c by
Theor. XII. Cor. 1. 7
Case 6. Given A, B, die two angles. Sought
a, b, c.
a and b are found by Theor. XII. Cor. : 2c by
Theor. XIII. Cor. 1. 1
Find 4 (A—B) by Theor. XVII. and i(A-f-B) by Spherical
Theor, XVIII. and thence A and B by the rule r,%o,10n!18-
Sect. II. for finding each of two quantities whofe fum , try'
and difference are given. All the angles being known, v
alfo two fides, c is found by Theor. XIV,
Case 4. Given A, c, B, two angles and a fide be¬
tween them. Sought a, C, b.
The cafes may be all refolved alfo by Napier's Rules,
©bferving to make each of the things given the middle
part; then two of the required parts will be found, and
the remaining part is found by making it the middle
part.
■By Tbeor. II. and Cor. 1. each of the unknown parts
is, in every cafe except the third, limited to one
value.
The Cafes of Oblique-angled Spherical Triangles.
In any fpherical triangle let the fides be denoted by
«, b, c, and the oppofite angles by A, B, C refpec-
tively.
_ Get />, q denote the fegments into which a fide is di¬
vided by a perpendicular from the oppofite angle, and
P, £) the parts into which it divides the angle. Com¬
bining the fix quantities a, b, c, A, B, C, three by
three, there are found fix diftind combinations or
cafes.
Find 4 (a—b) by Theor. XIX. and \ (a+ b) by
Theor. XX. and thence a, b. All the Tides and two
angles being now known, C is found by Theor. XIV.
Case 5. Given a, b, c, the three fides. Sought A,
B, C.
Draw a perpendicular from any one of the angles,
dividing the oppofite fide into the fegments />, q. Find
4 (/>—y) by Theor. XV. and then, from and
j (fi—?)> find/*, q. The triangle being now refolved
into two right-angled triangles, the angles may be found
by Cafe 4. of right-angled triangles.
Case 6. Given A, B, C, the three angles. Sought
a, b, c.
Draw a perpendicular, dividing any one of the angles
into the parts P, £. Find 4 (P—QJ by Theor. XVI.
and then P, Q. The triangle being now refolved into
two right-angled triangles, the Tides may be found by
Cafe 6. of right-angled triangles.
Case i. Given a, A, b, two fides and an angle op¬
pofite to one of them. Sought c, B, C.
B is found by Theor. XIV. •, c by either Theor. XIX.:
or Theor. XX. j C by Theor. XVII. or Theor. XVIII.
Case 2. Given A, a, B, two angles and a fide op¬
pofite to one of them. Sought b, c, C.
b is found by Theor. XIV. j c and C as in Cafe 1.
Case 3. Given a, C,b, two fides and the included
angle. Sought A, B, c.
By Theor. X. XI. and Cor. each of the unknown
parts is limited to one value in all the cafes, except in
fome of the fubcafes of the firft and fecond.
As every oblique-angled triangle may be refolved in¬
to two right-angles, all thefe cafes may be refolved by
means of Napier's Rule, and the 15th propofition only.
And the cafes may be reduced to three, by ufing the
fupplemental triangle.
T R I
TRIHILATiE, from ires, “ three,” and hilum,
“ an external mark on the feed j” the name of the 23d
clafs in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method $”
confifting of plants with three feeds, which are marked
with an external cicatrix or fear, where they are faften-
ed within the fruit. See Botany.
TRIM, implies in general the ftate or difpofition by
which a {hip is belt calculated for the feveral purpofes of
navigation.
Thus the trim of the hold denotes the mod conveni¬
ent and proper arrangement of the various materials con¬
tained therein relatively to the {hip’s motion or {lability
at fea. The trim of the mafts and fails is alfo their mod
appofite fituation with regard to the condruftion of the
fhip and the effort of the wind upon her fails. See Sea¬
manship.
TRINGA, Sandpiper j a genus of birds belong-
1
T R I
ing to the order of grallae. See Ornithology
Index.
TRINIDAD, an ifland in the gulf of Mexico, fe-
parated from New Andalufia, in Terra Firma, by a
drait about three miles over. The foil is fruitful, pro¬
ducing fugar, cotton, Indian corn, fine tobacco, and
fruits. It was taken by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595,
and by the French in 1676, who plundered the ifland
and then left it. It is about 62 miles in length, and
45 in breadth > and was difeovered by Chridopher Co¬
lumbus in 1498. It is now in the poffeflion of Britain.
What was called a bituminous lake in this ifland, appears,
from the experiments of Mr Hatchet, to be a porous done
from which the mineral pitch exudes.
TRINITARIANS, thofe who believe in the Trini¬
ty ; thofe who do not believe therein being called Anti-
trinitarians.
TRINITY,
TH K'.O XOM V, TRY.
Plato nxxxv?:.
ffZ 7'r'srfr*
.
I
~
Til 1 G O NOM E T H Y
I’jate nxxxvm.
//{ Viytrtt iTrttlpf
I
/
i
':'-n
T R I [ 4S9 ] T R I
TRINITY, in Theology, the ineffable myftery of
three perfons in one God ; Father, Son, and Holy Spi¬
rit. See Theology.
Trinitr-Houfe. See London, N° 49.
TRINITY-Sunday, a festival obferved on the Sunday
next after Whitfunday, in honour of the holy Trinity.
The obfervation of this feftival was firft enjoined in the
council of Arles, anno 1260.
TRINOBANTES, in Ancient Geography, a people
©f Britain, fuppofed to have occupied Middlefex and
Effex.
TRIO, in Mujic, a part of a concert wherein three
perfons ling ; or, more properly, a mufical compofition
confiding of three parts.
TRIPHTHONG, in Grammar, an affemblage or
Concourfe of three vowels in one fyllable 5 as quee.
TRIPLE, in Mujic, is one of the fpecies of meafure
or time. See Music.
TRIPOD, in antiquity, a famed facred feat or ftool,
fupported by three feet, whereon the priefts and fibyls
were placed to render oracles. It was on the tripod
that the gods were laid to infpire the Pythias with that
divine fury and enthufiafm wherewith they were feized
at the delivery of their predictions.
1RIPOLI, a country of Africa, in Barbary 5 bound¬
ed on the north by the Mediterranean fea ; on the
fouth, by the country of the Beriberies ; on the weft,
by the kingdom of I unis, Biledulgerid, and territory
of the Gadamis; and on the eaft, by Egypt. It is
about 925 miles along the fea coaft; 5 but the breadth is
various. Some parts of it are pretty fruitful j but that
towards Egypt is a fandy defert. It had the title of a
kingdom; but is now a republic, governed by a dey.
He is not abfolute ; for a Turkifh baftraw refides here,
who receives his authority from the grand feignior, and
has a power of controuling th* dey, and levying taxes
on the people. The dey is elefted by the foldiers, who
make no fcruple of depofing him when they pleafe.
Tripoli, a confiderable town of Africa, and capital
of a republic of the fame name in Barbary, and under
protection of the grand feignior, with a caftle and a
fort. It is pretty large, and the inhabitants are noted
pirates. It was taken by Charles V. who fettled the
knights oi Pvlalta there j but they were driven away by
tne lurks in 1551. It was formerly very llourifhing j
and has now fome trade in fluffs, faffron, corn, oil,
wool, dates, oftrich feathers, and Ikins : but they make
more of the Chnftian Haves which they take at fea ; for
they either fet. high ranfoms upon them, or make them
perform all forts of work. It is feated on the coaft: of
the Mediterranean, in a fandy foil, and furrounded by
a wall, {Lengthened by other fortifications. E. Long.
13. 12. N. Lat. 32. 34.
Tripoli, called Tripolis of Syria, to diftinguhh it
from 1 ripoli in Barb ary, received its name from its bein j-
anciently formed of three cities at a fmall diftance from
each other, one of which belonged to the Aradians, or
ancient kingdom of Arad, the fecond to the Sidonians,
and the third to the Tyrians, perhaps as a common
mart to. thofe maritime powers. The prefent town of
Tripoli is built at the diftance of a mile and a half from
tne other, upon the declivity of a hill facing the fea, in
340 20' north latitude, and in 350 50' eaft longitude
from Greenwich. It is furrounded with walls, fortified
with feven high (Long towers, and a caftle, all of Go-
Vol. XX. Part II.
thic archite&ure; but the ftreets are narrow, and the Tripoli
houfes low. The city contains about 8000 houfes, and II
near 60,000 inhabitants, confiding ot Turks, Chrif-,1 rlumPh-
tians, and Jews. The balha, or pacha, who refides in
the caftle, where there is a garrifon of 200 janizaries,
governs the adjacent territory, in which there is plenty
of fruit, and a great number of mulberry trees, which
enable the inhabitants to carry on a Irik manufacture,
from which they draw confiderable profit.
All the environs of I ripoli are laid out in orchards,
where the nopal grows ipontaneouily, and the white
mulberry is cultivated for the filk-worm ; the pomegra¬
nate, orange, and lemon trees for their fruit, which is
here very fine. The country, though delightful to the
eye, is unhealthy 5 from July to September, epidemic
fevers, like thofe of Scanderoon and Cyprus, prevail,
and are principally caufed by the artificial inundations
made for the purpofe of watering the mulberry trees, to
enable them to throw out their iecond leaves, and from
a want of free circulation of air, the city being open
only to the weftward.
Tripoli, a fpecies of argillaceous earth, much ufed
in the poliihing of metals. See Mineralogy Index.
TRIP! OLEMUS, Laws of. See Mysteries,
N° ?4.
I RIQUELROUS, among botanifts, denotes a fruit
or leaf that has three flat fides or faces.
TRIREMIS, in antiquity, a galley with three ranks
of oars on a fide.
TRISMEGISTUS, an epithet or furname given to
one of the two Hermefes. See Thoth.
TRISMUS, the Locked Jaw'. See Medicine, N9
280.
1RISSYLLABLE, in Grammar, a word confiding
of three fyllables.
TRITICUM, Wheat ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clals of triandria ; and in the natural lyftem
ranging under the 4th order, Gramina. See Botany
and Agriculture Index.
TRITON, a fea demigod, held by the ancients to
be an officer or trumpeter of Neptune, attending on
him, and carrying his orders from lea to fea.
TRITURATION, the aft of reducing a folid body
into a fubtile powder; called aiib pulverijation and levi-
gation.
TRIUMPH, in Roman antiquity, a public and fo-
lemn honour conferred by the Romans on a victorious
general by allowing him a magnificent entry into the
city.
The greater triumph, called alfo curulis, or Amply
the triumph, was decreed by the lenale to a general,
upon the conquering of a province or gaining a fignal
viftory. The day appointed for the ceremony being
arrived, fcaffolds were erefted in the forum and circus
and all the other parts of the city where they could beft
behold the pomp : the fenate went to meet the con¬
queror without the gate called Capena or Triumphalis
and marched back in order to the Capitol ; the ways
being cleared and cleanfed by a number of officers and
tipilaffs, who drove away fuch as thronged the paffage
or ftraggled up and down. The general was clad in a
rich purple robe, interwoven with figures of gold, fet-
ting forlh his great exploits j his bulkins were befet
with pearl ; and he wore a crown, which at firft was
only laurel, but afterwards gold ; in one hand he bore
3 Q.
a
T R O [ 490 ] T R O
Triumph a branch of laurel, and in the other a truncheon. He
was carried in a magnificent chariot, adorned with ivory
1 Tu)-)a‘ - and plates of gold, drawn ufually by two white horfes j
though fometimes by other animals, as that of Pompey,
when he triumphed over Africa, by elephants; that of
Mark Antony by lions; that of Heliogabalus by ty-
gers} that of Aurelian by deer, &c. His children
were at his feet, and fometimes on the chariot-horfes.
The proceflion was led by the muficians, who played
triumphal pieces in praife of the general: thefe were
followed by young men, who led the viflims to the fa-
crifice, with their horns gilded, and their heads adorn¬
ed with ribbands and garlands j next came the carts
and waggons, loaded with all the fpoils taken from the
enemy, with their horfes, chariots, &c. j thefe were
followed by the kings, princes, and generals, who had
been taken captives, loaded with chains: after thefe ap¬
peared the triumphal chariot, before which, as it palfed,
they all along ttrewed flowers, and the people with loud
acclamations called out, lo triumpheThe chariot was
followed by the fenate, clad in white robes j and the
fenate by fuch citizens as had been fet at liberty or ran-
fbmed ; and the proceffion was clofed by the priells and
their officers and utenfils, with a white ox led along for
the chief victim. In this order they proceeded through
the triumphal gate, along the Via Sacra, to the Capitol,
where the vibtims were flain. In the mean time all
the temples were open, and all the altars loaded with
offerings and incenfe •, games and combats were cele¬
brated in the public places, and rejoicings appeared
everywhere.
TRIUMVIR, one of three perfons who govern ab-
folutely, and with equal authority, in a Hate. It is
chiefly applied to the Roman government: Csefar, Pom¬
pey, and Craffus, were the firft triumvirs who divided
the government among them. There were alfo other
officers fo called 5 as the triumviri or trefviri capitales,
who were the keepers of the public gaol : they had the
office of punilhing malefablors •, for which purpofe they
kept eight liblors under them.
TROAS, a country of Phrygia in Alia Minor, of
which Troy was the capital. When Troas is taken for
the whole kingdom of Priam, it may be faid to contain
Myfia and Phrygia Minor ; but if only applied to that
part of the country where Troy was fituated, its extent
is confined within very narrow limits. Troas was an¬
ciently called Dardania. See Troja.
TROCH/EUS, in profody, a foot confiding of a
long and ffiort fy 11 able.
TROCHANTER, in Anatomy. See there, N° 58.
TROCHE, in Pharmacy, a fort of medicine made of
.glutinous fubftances into little cakes, and afterw-ards ex-
ficcated. See Materia Medica Index.
TROCHILUS, Humming Bird, a genus of birds
belonging to the order of picse. See Ornithology
Index.
TROGLODYTES, in the Ancient Geography, a
people of Ethiopia, faid to have lived in caves under
ground. Pomponius Mela gives a ftrange account of
the. Troglodytes : he fays, they did not lo properly
fpeak as fhriek ; and that they lived on ferpents.
TROGUS Pompeius, a Latin univerfal hiilorian to
?oe time of Auguflus Crefar, of whom we have only an
abridgement by Jullin, flouriffied about 41 B. C.
TROJA, the capital city of Troas, or, according to
others, a country of which Ilium wras the capital. It Troja
was built on a fmall eminence near Mount Ida, and the U
promontory of Sigaeum, at the diflance of about four, 1°mp't
miles from the fea-ffiore. Dardanus the firft king of
the country built it, and called it Dardania, and from
Tros one of his fucceffors it was called Troja, and from
Hus Ition. This city has been celebrated by the poems
of Homer and Virgil j and of all the wars which have
been carried on among the ancients, that of Troy is the
moft famous.
A defcription of the plain of Troy has been pub-
lilhed in French in the 3d volume of the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
written by M. Chevalier. The city of Troy, accord¬
ing to him, flood on the prefent file of the modern vil¬
lage of Bounarbachi, diftant four leagues from the fea,
and which is the refidence of an aga, ruling with abfo-
lute fway the inhabitants of the Trojan plain and the in¬
ferior agas, to whom they are immediately fubje£L
Bounarbachi is fituated on the fide of an eminence, ex-
pofed to every wind, at the termination of a fpacious
plain, the foil of which is rich and of a blackilh colour.
Clofe to the village is to be feen a marffi covered with
tall reeds j and the fituation is impregnable on all fides
except at Erin (Homer’s looses), the hill of wild fg
trees, which extended between the Scsean gate and the
fources of the Scamander. Thefe circumftances, agree¬
ing with Homer’s defcriptions, ftrongly fupport M. Che¬
valier’s opinion concerning the fituation of Troy. A,
very interefting part of this work is the account of co¬
nical mounds or barrows, feveral of them 100 feet in
diameter at the bafe and which the author maintains
to be the identical tombs raifed over the affies of the
heroes of the Trojan war j fome of them he deems more
ancient. He defcribes particularly the tombs of Efy-
etes, Ilus, Ajax, Heft or, Achilles, Patroclus, and An-
tilochus.
This differtation, which runs to the length of 9^
quarto pages, is replete with erudition and ingenious
reafoning, and is illuftrated and embellifhed by maps of
the plain of Troy and feveral tables of infcriptions. It
has been tranllated with much accuracy and care by
Mr Dalzel profeffor of Greek in the Univerfity of
Edinburgh, and accompanied with large notes and iL
lutlrations.
TROLLIUS, Globe-flower, or Lucken Gowan,
a genus of plants belonging to the clafs ot polyandria 5
and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 26th order,
Multifiliquce. See Botany Index.
TROMP, Martin Happertz Van, a celebrated
Dutch admiral, was born at the Bailie, in Holland.
He raifed himfelf by his merit, after having diftinguifh-
ed himfelf on many occafions, efpecially at the famous
engagement near Gibraltar in i6o7- He paffed for one
of the greateft feamen that had till that time appeared
in the world 5 and was declared admiral ot Holland,
even by the advice of the prince of Orange. He in
that charafter defeated a large Spanilh fleet in 1630,
and gained 32 other viftories at fea-, but was killed
when under deck, in an engagement with the Englifh
in 1653. The ftates-general caufed medals to be
ftruck to his honour, and lamented him as one of the
greateft heroes of their republic. Van Tromp, in the
mid ft of the greatell glory, conftantly difcovered a re¬
markable modefty ; ior he never afiimud a higher cha¬
rafter
T R 0 r 491 1 T R U
Tronage rafter than that of a burgher, and that of being the fa¬
ll ther of the failors.
_ roug" ■ TRONAGE, an ancient cuftomary duty or toll, for
weighing of wool. According to Fleta, trona is a
beam to weigh with, mentioned in the flat. Weftm* 2.
cap. 25. And tronage was ufed for the weighing wool
in a ftaple or public mart, by a common trona or beam j
which, for the tronage of wool in London, was fixed at
Leaden-Hall. The mayor and commonalty of London
are ordained keepers of the beams and weights for
weighing merchants commodities, with power to aflign
clerks and porters, &c. of the great beam and balance j
xvhich weighing of goods and wares is called tronage ;
and no ftranger (hall buy any goods in London be¬
fore they are weighed at the king’s beam, on pain of
forfeiture.
TRONE-WEIGHT, the moft ancient of the different
weights ufed in Scotland 5 and, though now forbidden
by feveral ftatutes, is ftill ufed by many for home com¬
modities, and that in a very irregular manner j for the
pound varies in different places, and for different pur-
pofes, from 20 to 24 Dutch ounces. The common al¬
lowance is 214 ounces for wool, for butter and
cheefe, 20 for tallow, lint, hemp, and hay. It is di¬
vided into 16 of its own ounces, and 16 pounds make a
{tone.
TROOP, a fmallbody of horfe or dragoons, about 50
or 60, fometimes more, fometimes lefs, commanded by
a captain, lieutenant, comet, quarter-mafter, and three
corporals, who are the lowefl officers of a troop.
TROPE. See Oratory, N° 52—66.
TROPHONlUS’s cave, or Oracle, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a cave near Lebadia in Boeotia, between Heli¬
con and Chseronea (Strabo): fo called from Trophonius,
an enthufiaffic diviner •, who, defcending into this cave,
pretended to give anfwers and pronounce oracles ; and
was hence called Jupiter Trophonius. Such as went
down to this cave never after fmiled \ hence the prover¬
bial faying of a man who has loft his mirth, That he is
come out of Trophonius’s cave. Though Paufanias,
who writes from experience, contradifts this 5 affirming
that perfons came out of the cave affefted indeed with a
ftupor, but that they foon after recovered themfelves.
See Oracle.
TROPHY {Tropceum), among the ancients, a mo¬
nument of viftory.
TROPIC-Bird. See Phaeton, Ornithology
Index.
TROPICS. See Geography.
TROUBADOURS, poets that fiourifhed in Pro¬
vence during the 12th century.
They wrote poems on love and gallantry •, on the il-
luftrious charafters and remarkable events of the times 5
fatires which Were chiefly direfted againft the clergy
and monks; and a few didaftic pieces. The trouba-
tlours were great favourites in different courts, diffufed
a tafte for their language and for poetry over Europe,
which was about that time funk in ignorance and rude-
nefs ; they difappeared in the 14th century. A hiftory
of the troubadours in 3 vols 12mo, was begun by M. de
Sainte Palaie, and finifhed by the abbe Millot. See
Music.
TROUGH, Galvanic. See Galvanism. For
later difcoveries in galvanic eleftricity, fee Zinc.
TROVER, in Law, an aftion that a man hath
againtt one that, having found any of his goods, refu- Trout
feth to deliver them upon demand. 11
TROUT. See Salmo, Ichthyology Index. Trumpet.
TROY. See Troja. v'~j~
TROY-Weight, one of the moft ancient of the differ¬
ent kinds ufed in Britain. The ounce of this weight
was brought from Grand Cairo in Egypt, about the
time of the cruiades, into Europe, and firft adopted in
Troyes, a city of Champagne ; whence the name.
The pound Eng/ijh Troy contains 12 ounces, or 5760
grains. It was formerly ufed for every purpoie ; and is
ftill retained for weighing gold, filver, and jewels; for
compounding medicines ; for experiments in natural phi-
lofophy j and for comparing different weights with each
other.
Scots TROY-Weight was eftablifhed by James VI. in
the year 1618, who enafted, that only one weight
fhould be ufed in Scotland, viz. the French Troy ftone
of 16 pounds, and 16 ounces in the pound. The pound
contains 7600 grains, and is equal to 17 oz. 6 dr. avoir¬
dupois. The cwt. or 112 lb. avoirdupois, contains only
103 lb. 24-oz. of this weight, though generally reckon¬
ed equal to 104 lb. This weight is nearly, if not ex-
aftly, the fame as that of Paris and Amfterdam 5 and is
generally known by the name of Dutch weight. Though
prohibited by the articles of union, it is ftill ufed in
weighing iron, hemp, flax, moft Dutch and Baltic
goods, meal, butcher-meat, unwrought pewter and
lead, and fome other articles.
TRUE-love. See Paris, Botany Index.
TRUFFLES. See Lycoperdon, Botany Index.
TRUMPET, a mufical inftrument, the moft noble
of all portable ones of the wind kind ; ufed chiefly in
war, among the cavalry to direft them in the fervice.
Each troop of cavalry has one. The cords of the trum¬
pets are of crimfon, mixed with the colours of the fa¬
cings of the regiments.
As to the invention of the trumpet, fome Greek hif-
torians afcribe it to the Tyrrhenians •, but others, with
greater probability, to the Egyptians 5 from whom it
might have been tranfmitted to the Ifraelites. The
trumpet was not in ufe among the Greeks at the time
of the Trojan war ; though it was in common ufe in the
time of Homer, According to Potter {Arch. Grcec.
vol. ii. cap. 9.^, before the invention of trumpets, the
firft fignals of battle in primitive wars were lighted
torches ; to thefe fucceeded fhells of fifties, which were
founded like trumpets. And when the trumpet became
common in military ufe, it may well be imagined to
have ferved at firft only as a rough and noify fignal of
battle, like that at prefent in Abyffinia and New Zea¬
land, and perhaps with only one found. But, even
when more notes w’ere produced from it, fo noify an in¬
ftrument muft have been an unfit accompaniment for
the voice and poetry ; fo that it is probable the trum¬
pet w>as the firft folo inftrument in ufe among the an¬
cients.
TRUMPET, Articulate, comprehends both the fpeak-
itig and the hearing trumpet, is by much the moft valu¬
able inftrument, and has, in one of its forms, been ufed
by people among whom we fhould hardly have expett-
ed to find fuch improvements.
That the /peaking trumpet, of which the objeft is to
increafe the force of articulate founds, ftiould have been
known to the ancient Greeks, can excite no wonder j
3 Q. 2 and
T R tf [ 402 ] T R U
Trumpet, and therefore we eafily admit the accounts which we
read of the horn or trumpet, with which Alexander
addreffed his army, as well as of the whifpering ca¬
verns of the Syracufan tyrant. But that the natives of
Peru were acquainted with this inttrument, will proba¬
bly furprife many of our readers. The fa<ft, however,
feems incontrovertible.
In the Hiftory of the Order of Jefuits, publilhed at
Naples in 1601 by Beritaria, it is faid, that in the year
1595 a fmall convent of that order in Peru, fituated in
a remote corner, was in danger of immediate deftrudtion
by famine. One evening the fupeiior Father Samaniac
implored the help of the cacique ; next morning, on
opening the gate of the monaitery, he found it fur-
rounded by a number of women, each of whom carried
a fmall balket of provifions. He returned thanks to
heaven for having miraculoufly interpofed, by infpiring
the good people with pity for the diftrefs of his friars.
But when he expreffed to them his wonder how they
came all to be moved as if by mutual agreement with
thefe benevolent fentiments, they told him it was nofuch
thing 5 that they looked upon him and his countrymen
as a pack of infernal magicians, who by their forceries
had enllaved the country, and had bewitched their good
cacique, who hitherto had treated them with kindnefs
and attention, as became a true worfhipper of the fun ;
but that the preceding evening at funfet he had ordered
the inhabitants of fuch and fuch villages, about fix miles
off, to come that morning with provifions to this neft of
wizzards.
The fuperior alked them in what manner the governor
had warned fo many of them in fo fhort a time, at fuch
a diftance from his own refidence ? They told him that
it was by the trumpet *, and that every perfon heard at
their owm door the diftindt terms of the order. The fa¬
ther had heard nothings but they told him that none
heard the trumpet but the inhabitants of the villages to
which it was diredled. This is a piece of very curious
information ; but, after allowing a good deal to the ex-
aggeration of the reverend Jefuits, it cannot, we think,
be doubted but that the Peruvians actually poffefled this
flentorophonic art. For ive may obferve that the effedl
defcribed in this narration refembles what we now know
to be the effect of fpeaking trumpets, while it is unlike
what the inventor of fuch a tale would naturally and
ignorantly fay. Till fpeaking trumpets were really
known, we (hould expedl the found to be equally diffu-
fed on all fides, which is not the cafe ; for it is much
ftronger in the line of the trumpet than in any diredlion
very oblique to it.
About the middle of the 17th century, Athanafius
Kircher turned his attention to the philofophy of found,
and in different works threw' out many ufeiul and fcien-
tific hints on the conftruftion of fpeaking trumpets (fee
Acoustics and Kircher) ; but his mathematical ii-
luftrations were fo vague, and his own character of inat¬
tention and credulity fo notorious, that for fome time
thefe -works did not attradf the notice to which they
were well entitled.
About the year 1670, Sir Samuel Morland, a gen¬
tleman of great ingenuity, fcience, and order, took up Trumpet,
the fubjeft, and propofed as a quettion to the Royal So- yr—“
ciety of London, What is the belt form for a fpeaking
trumpet ? which he called a ftentorophonic horn. He
accompanied his demand with an account of his own no¬
tions on the fubjedt (which he acknowdedged to be very
vague and conjectural), and an exhibition of fome inltru-
ments conftruCted according to his views. They were in
general very large conical tubes, fuddenly fpreading at
the very mouth to a greater width. Their effect was
really wonderful. They were tried in St James’s park ;
and his Majefty K. Charles II. ipeaking in his ordinary
colloquial pitch of voice through a trumpet only 54 feet
long, was clearly and molt diltinCtly heard at the diitance
of a thoufand yards. Another perfon, feledted we fuppofe
for the loudnefs and diftinCtnefs of his voice, was perfectly
underftood at the diftance of four miles and a half. The
fame of this foon fpread; Sir Samuel Morland’s principles
were refined, confidering the novelty of the thing, and dif¬
fer confiderably from Father Kircher’s. The aerial undu¬
lations, (for he fpeaks very accurately concerning the na¬
ture of found) endeavour to diffufe themfelves in fpheres-,
but are Hopped by the lube, and therefore reundulate to¬
wards the axis like waves from a bank, and, meeting in
the axis, they form a ftrong undulation a little farther
advanced along the tube, which again fpreads, is again
reflected, and fo on, till it arrives at the mouth of the
tube greatly magnified, and then it is diffufed through
tiie open air in the fame manner, as if all proceeded from
a very fonorous point in the centre of the wide end of
the tiumpet. The author diflinguiflies with great judge¬
ment between the prodigious reinforcement of found in
a fpeaking trumpet and that in the mufical trumpet,
bugle-horn, conch-fhell, &c. ; and Ihows that the diffe¬
rence confifts only in the violence of the firft fonorous
agitation, which can be produced by us only on a very
fmall extent of furface. The mouth-piece diameter,
therefore, of the mufical trumpet muft be very fmall,
and the force of blaft very confiderable. Thus one
ftrong but Ample undulation will be excited, which mufl
be fubjeCted to the modifications of harmony, and will
be augmented by ufing a conical tube (a). But a fpeak¬
ing trumpet muft make no change on the nature of the
firft undulations ; and each point of the mouth piece
muft be equally confidered as the centre of fonorous un¬
dulations, all of which muft be reinforced in the fame
degree, otherwife all diftinftnefs of articulation will be
loll. The mouth-piece muft therefore take in the whole
of the mouth of the fpeaker.
When Sir Samuel Morland’s trumpet came ta be ge¬
nerally known on the continent, it was foon difcovered
that the fpeaker could be heard at a great diftance only
in the line of the trumpet; and this circumftance was by a
a MrCaffegrain {Journ.desSfavans, 1672, p. 131.) attri¬
buted to a defedl in the principle* of its conftruftion,
which he faid was not according to the laws of fonorous
undulations. He propofed a conoid formed by the revo¬
lution of a hyperbola round its affymptote as the belt
form. A Mr Hafe of Wirtemberg, on the other hand,
propofed a parabolic conoid, having the mouth of the
fpeaker
(a) Accordingly the found of the bugle horn, of the mufical trumpet, or the French horn, is prodigioufty
loud, when we confider the fmall paffage through which a moderate blaft is fent by the trumpeter.
*
T R U [ 493 ] T R U
Trumpet, fpeaker placed in the focus. In this conftruftion he
plainly went on the principle of a refledlion fimilar to
that of the rays of light; but this is by no means the
cafe. The effeft of the parabola will be to give one re¬
flexion, and in this all the circular undulations will be
converted into plane waves, which are at right angles to
the axis of the trumpet. But nothing hinders their fub-
fequent diffufion ; for it does not appear that the found
will be enforced, becaufe the agitation of the particles
on each wave is not augmented.
The fubjeX is exceedingly difficult. We do not fully
comprehend on what circumftance the affeXion or agi¬
tation of our organ, or Amply of the membrana tym-
pani, depends. A more violent agitation of the fame
air, that is, a wider ofcillation of its particles, cannot
fail to increafe the impulfe on this membrane. The
point therefore is to find what concourfe of feeble undu¬
lations will produce or be equivalent to a great one.
The reafonings of all thefe reftorers of the fpeaking
trumpet are almofl: equally fpecious, and each point out
fome phenomenon which ihould charaXerife the prin¬
ciple of conftruXion, and thus enable us to fay which is
moft agreeable to the procedure of nature. Yet there
is hardly any difference in the performance of trumpets
of equal dimenflons made after thefe different methods.
The propagation of light and of elaftic undulations
feem to require very different methods of management.
Yet the ordinary phenomena of echoes are perfeXly expli¬
cable by the acknowledged laws either of optics or acou-
ftics ; ftiil however there are fome phenomena of found
which are very unlike the genuine refults of elaftic undu-
lationSi If founds are propagated fpherically, then ryhat
comes into a room by a fmall hole fhould diffufe itfelf
from that hole as round a centre, and it ffiould be heard
equally well at twelve feet diftance from the hole in
every direXion. Yet it is very fenfibly louder when the
hearer is in the ftraight line drawn from the fonorous
body through the hole. A perfon can judge of the di¬
reXion of the founding body with tolerable exaXnefs.
Cannon difcharged from the different fides of a ffiip are
very eafily diftinguiffied, which Ihould not be the cafe
by the Newtonian theory ; for in this the two pulfes on
the ear ftiould have no fenfible difference.
The moft important faX for our purpcfe is this : An
echo from a fmall plane furface in the midft of an open
Aeld is not heard, unlefs we ftand in Arch a Atuation that
the angle of refleXed found may be equal to that of in¬
cidence. But by the ufual theory of undulations, this
fmall furface ftiould become the centre of a new undula¬
tion, which ffiould fpread in all direXions. If we make
an analogous experiment on watery undulations, by pla¬
cing a fmall flat furface fo as to projeX a little above the
^'ater, and then drop in a fmall pebble at a diftance,
fo as to raife one circular wave, we ffiall obferve,
that when this wave arrives at the projeXing plane, it is
difturbed by it, and this difturbance fpreads from it on
all Ades. It is indeed fenflbly ftronger in that line which
is drawn from it at equal angles with the line drawn to
the place where the pebble was dropped. But in the
cafe of found, it is a faX, that if we go to a very fmall
diftance on either Ade of the line of refleXion, we ffiall
hear nothing.
Here then is- a faX, that whatever may be the nature
of the elaftic undulations, founds are reflsXed from a
fmall plane in the lame manner .as light. We may avail
ourfelves of this faX as a mean for enforcing found, Trumpet,
though we cannot explain it in a fatisfaXory manner. y——
We Ihould expeX from it an effeX ftmilar to the hear¬
ing of the original found along with another original
found coming from the place from which this refleXed
found diverges. If therefore the refleXed found or echo
arrives at the ear in the fame inftant with the original
found, the effeX will be doubled ; or at leart: it will be
the fame with two fimultaneous original founds. Ndw
we know that this is in fome fenle ,equivalent to a
ftronger found. For it is a faX, that a number of voi¬
ces uttering the fame or equal founds are heard at a
much greater diftance than a Angle voice. We cannot
perhaps explain how this happens by mechanical law's,
nor affign the exaX proportion in which 10 voices ex¬
ceed the effeX of one voice $ nor the proportion of the
diftances at which they feem equally loud. We may
therefore, for the prefent, fuppofe that two equal voices
at the fame diftance are twice as loud, three voices three
times as loud, &c. Therefore if, by means of a fpeaking
trumpet, wre cap make to equal echoes arrive at the ear
at the fame moment, we may fuppofe its effeX to be to
increafe the audibility 10 times 5 and we may exprefs this
ffiortly, by calling the found ro times louder or more in-
tenfe;
But we cannot do this precifely. We cannot by any
contrivance make the found of a momentary fnap, and
thofe of its echoes, arrive at the ear in the fame moment,
becauie they come from different diftances. But if the
original noife be a continued found, a man’s voice, for
example, uttering a continued uniform tone, the Arid e-
cho may reach the ear at the fame moment with the fe-
cond vibration of the larynx ; the fecond echo along
wdth the third vibration, and fo on. It is evident, that
this wall produce the fame effeX. The only difference
wall be, that the articulations of the voice will be made
indiftinX, if the echoes come from very different di¬
ftances. Thus if a man pronounce the lyllable tawt
and the 10 fucceffive echoes are made from places
which are 10 feet farther off; the 10th part of a fecond
(nearly) will intervene between hearing the flrft and
the laft. This wdll give it the found of the fyllable
thaw, or perhaps raw, becaufe r is the repetition of t.
Something like this occurs when, Handing at one end of
a long line of foldiers, wTe hear the mufketsof the whole
line difcharged in one inftant. It feems to us the found
of a running Are.
The aim therefore in the conAruXion of a fpeaking
trumpet may be, to caufe as many echoes as poffible to
reach a diftant ear without any perceptible interval of
of time. This will give diftindtnefs, and fomething e-
quivalent to loudnefs. Pare loudnefs arifes from the
violence of the Angle aerial undulation. To increafe
this may be the aim in the conftruXion of a trumpet j
but we are not fufficiently acquainted with the mecha-
nifm of thefe undulations to bring this about with cer¬
tainty and precifion ; whereas we can procure this accu¬
mulation of echoes without much trouble, Ancewe know
that echoes are, in fact, refleXed like light. We can
form a trumpet fo that many of thefe lines of refleXed
found ffiall pafs through the place of the hearer. We
are indebted to Mr Lambert of Berlin for this Ample
and popular view of the fubjeX ; and fliall here give an
abftraX of his moft ingenious Differtation on Acouftic
Inftruments, publiffied in the Berlin Memoirs for 1763.
Sound!
T R U
^Trumpet. ^ Sound naturally fpreads in all dire£Hons j but we
v know that echoes or reflected founds proceed almoft
ftriftly in certain limited direftions. If therefore we
contrive a trumpet in fuch a way that the lines of echo
fhall be confined within a certain fpace, it is reafonable
to fuppofe that the found will become more audible in
proportion as this diffufion is prevented. Therefore if
we can oblige a found which, in the open air, would
have diffufed itfelf over a hemifphere, to keep within a
cone of 120 degrees, we ftiould expeft it to be twice as
audible within this cone. This will be accomplilhed,
by making the refleftions fuch that the lines of reflefted
found (hall be confined within this cone. N. B. We
here fuppofe that nothing is loft in the refle&ion. Let
Fate us examine the effeft of a cylindrical trumpet.
BXXXIX. Let the trumpet be a cylinder ABED, (fig. i.), and
1* let C be a founding point in the axis. It is evident
that all the found in the cone BCE will go forward
without any refk&ion. Let CM be any other line of
found, which we may, for brevity’s fake, call a fono-
rous or phonic line. Being refle&ed in the points
M, N, O, P, it is evident that it will at laft efcape
from the trumpet in a dire&ion P£), equally diverging
from the axis with the line CM. The fame mult be
true of every other fonorous line. Therefore the echoes
will all diverge from the mouth of the trumpet in the
fame manner as they would have proceeded from C
without any trumpet. Even fuppofing, therefore, that
the echoes are as ftrong as the original found, no advan¬
tage is gained by fuch a trumpet, but that of bringing
the found forward from C to c. This is quite trifling
when the hearer is at a diftance. Yet we fee that
founds may be heard at a very great diftance, at the end
of long, narrow, cylindrical, or prifmatical galleries. It
is known that a voice may be diftin£Hy heard at the
diftance of feveral hundred feet in the Homan aque-
dufts, whofe fides are perfedlly ftraight and fmooth,
being plaftered with ftucco. The fmooth furface of
the ftill w’ater greatly contributes to this effeft. Cy¬
lindrical or prifmatical trumpets muft therefore be re-
jefted.
Fig. 2. Let the trumpet be a cone BCA (fig. 2.), of which
CN is the axis, DK a line perpendicular to the axis, and
DFHI the path of a reflefled found in the plane of the
axis. The laft angle of reflection IHA is equal to the
laft angle of incidence FHC. The angle BFH, or its
equal CFD, is equal to the angles FHD and FCH \
that is, the angle of incidence CFD exceeds the next
angle of incidence FHC by the angle FCD ; that is,
by the angle of the cone. In like manner, FDH ex¬
ceeds CFD by the fame angle FCD. Thus every fuc-
cecding angle, either of incidence or reflection, exceeds
the next by the angle of the cone. Call the angle of
the cone a, and let h be the firft angle of incidence
PDC. The fpcond, or DFC, is b—a. The third, or
FHC, is b—~2 a, &c.: and the «th angle of incidence
or reflection is b—« a, after « reflections. Since the
angle diminifhes by equal quantities at each fubfequent
reflection, it is plain, that whatever be the firft angle of
incidence, it may be exhaufted by this diminution ;
namely, when n times a exceeds or is equal to b. There¬
fore to know how many reflections of a found, whofe
firft incidence has the inclination b, can be made in an
infinitely extended cone, whofe angle is a, divide b by
gj the quotient will give the number n of reflections,
4
[ 494 1
T R U
and the remainder, if any, will be the laft angle of in- Trumpet,
cidence or reflection lefs than a. It is very plain, that v——
when an angle of reflection IHA is equal to or lefs
than the angle BCA of the cone, the reflected line
HI will no more meet with the other fide CB of the
cone.
We may here obferve, that the great eft angle of in¬
cidence is a right angle, or po°. This found would
be refieCted back in the fame line, and would be in¬
cident on the oppofite fide in an angle ~po° ay
&cc.
Thus we fee that a conical trumpet is Well fuited for
confining the found : for by prolonging it fufficiently,
we can keep the lines of refleaed found wholly within
the cone. And when it is not carried to fuch a length
as to do this, wdien it allows the founding line GH, for
example, to efcape without farther refleaion, the diver¬
gency from the axis is lefs than the laft angle of reflec¬
tion BGH by half the angle BC A of the cone. Let
us fee w hat is the conneaion between the length and the
angle of ultimate refleaion.
We have fin. b — a ; fin. £=CD : CF, and CF=:
fin. b , „      
CD x -—  , and fin. £ — 2 a ; fin. b-—a = CF :
fin. b — a
CH, and CH=CFx
fin. b — a
fin. b ■
= CDX
fin. b — 2 a
fin. b
= CDX
fin. b
fin. b—
Sec.
fin. 3—2a fin.Z>—2a’
Therefore if we fuppofe X to be the length which
will give us n refleaions, we lhall have X=CDx
fin. b
Hence we fee that the length increafes as
fin. b—/
the angle b — n a diminilhes j but is not infinite, unlefs
a is equal to b. In this cafe, the immediately pre¬
ceding angle of refleaion muft be a, becaufe thefe
angles have the common difference a. Therefore the
laft refleaed found was moving parallel to the oppofite
fide of the cone, and cannot again meet it. But though
WTe cannot affign the length which will give the »th
refleaion, we can give the length which will give the
one immediately preceding, whofe angle with the fide
of the cone is a. Let Y be this length. We have Y
= CD X This length will allow every line of
found to be refleaed as often, faving once, as if the
tube were infinitely long. For fuppofe a fonorous line
to be traced backwards, as if a found entered the tube
in the direaion ih, and w^ere refleaed in the points
hif, d, D, the angles will be continually augmented
by the conftant angle a. But this augmentation can
never go farther than 900-f-£ a. For if it reaches that
value at D, for inftance, the refleaed line DK wflll be
perpendicular to the axis CN; and the angle ADK
will be equal to the angle DKB, and the found will
come out again. This remark is of importance on ano¬
ther account.
Now fuppofe the cone to be cut off at D by a plane
perpendicular to the axis, KD will be the diameter of
its mouth-piece; and if we fuppofe a mouth completely
occupying this circle, and every point of the circle to
be fonorous, the refleaed founds will proceed from it in
the fame manner as light would from a flame which
completely
T R U
[ 495 ]
T R U
Trumpet, completely occupies its area, and is refle&ed by the in-
'“‘'•"V""""’ fide of the cane. The angle FDA will have the
greateft poflible line when it is a right angle, and it
never can be greater than ADK, which is —90-}-^ a.
And lince between and 90-—there mull
fall fome multiple of a ; call this multiple b. Then, in
order that every found may be retle&ed as often as pof-
lible, faving once, we muft make the length of it X~
cd*!4
o, a
Now lince the angle of the cone is never made very
great, never exceeding to or 12 degrees, £ can never
differ from 90 above a degree or two, and its line can¬
not differ much from unity. Therefore X will be very
CD
nearly equal to ^—- which is alfo very nearly equal to
o, a
CD
—-—— : becaufe a is fmall, and the lines of fmall
2S,4.«’ ’
arches are nearly equal and proportional to the arches
themfelves. There is even a fmall compenfation of
errors in this formula. For as the line of 90° is fome-
what too large, which would give X too great, 2 S, $
is alfo larger than the line of a. Thus let be 12° :
then the neareft multiple of a is 84 or 96°, both of
which are as far removed as poffible from 90°, and the
error is as great as poflible, and is nearly T^th of the
whole.
This approximation gives us a very limple conftruc-
tion. Let CM be the required length of the trumpet,
and draw ML perpendicular to the axis in O. It is
evident that S, MCO : rad. zrMO : CM, and CM j or
,r MO LM , v CD , r
X= —f—= ——f-, but X= —tv T , and therefore
S, t a 2 S, ta 2, o, ia
LM is equal to CD.
If therefore the cone be of fuch a length, that its
diameter at the mouth is equal to the length of the
part cut off, every line of found will have at leaft as
many refleftions, fave one, as if the cone were infinitely
long •, and the lafl: reflected line will either be parallel
to the oppolite fide of the cone, or lie nearer the axis
than this parallel •, confequently fuch a cone will con¬
fine all the reflefted founds within a cone whofe angle
is 2 a, and will augment the found in the proportion of
the fpherical bafe of this cone to a complete hemifpheri-
cal furface. Defcribe the circle DKT round C, and
making DT an arch of 90,. draw the chord DT. Then
fince the circles deferibed with the radii DK, DT, are
equal to the fpherical furfaces generated by the revolu¬
tion of the arches DK and DKT round the axis CD,
the found will be condenfed in the proportion of DK* to
DT*.
This appears to be the beft general rule for con-
ftru&ing the inffrument; for, to procure another reflec¬
tion, the tube muft be prodigioufly lengthened, and we
cannot fuppofe that one refleftion more will add greatly
to its power.
It appears, too, that the length depends chiefly on
the angle of the cone ; for the mouth piece may be
confidered as nearly a fixed quantity. It muft be of a
fize to admit the mouth when fpeaking with force and
without conftraint. About an inch and a half may be
fixed on for its diameter. When therefore we propofe
to confine the found to a cone of twice the angle of the
trumpet,, the whole is determined by that angle. For
fince in this cafe LM is equal to CD, we have DK
CD*
CD=LM (or CD) : CM and CM=
Trumpet.
But
and
therefore
And
2
2 8,-3-#
4 S,* ^
i=DK
i=CD
i=DK
CD,
CM 5
CM,
CM
DK
4S,*i-tf’ s,:
DK , A ,
= very nearly. And
fince DK is an inch and a half, we get the length in
inches, counted from the apex of the cone = , or
2 S,*«
DK,
S,* a’
From this we muft cut off the part CD, which
DK
is or very nearly -—, or —^—,
b, S, a 2b,a
meafured in
inches, and we muft make the mouth of the fame width
3
2 S,a'
On the other hand, if the length of the trumpet is fix¬
ed on, we can determine the angle of the cone. For let
the length (reckoned from C) be L j we have 2
or S *<z = -4-, and S, a — v
2 L 2 L
Thus let 6 feet or 72 inches be chofen for the length
of the cone, we have S,a=*/— *]-^,=0,14434,
=:fin 8° 17' for the angle of the cone j and the width at
the mouth is—A— — 10,4 inches. This being taken
Oj Cl
from 72, leaves 61,6 inches for the length of the trum¬
pet.
And fince this trumpet confines the refle&ed founds to
a cone of 160 34', we have its magnifying power =
*DT2 S,* 450 , , T , f
— — ■ eQ . = 90 nearly. It therefore con-
b, 4 0 a
;DK*
denies the found about 96 times j and if the diftribution
were uniform, it would be heard sj96, or nearly 10
times farther off. For the loudnefs of lounds is fuppofed
to be inverfely as the fquare of the diftance from the
centre of undulation.
But before we can pronounce with precifion on the
performance of a fpeaking trumpet, we muft examine
into the manner in which the refledfed founds are diftri-
buted over the fpace in which they are all confined.
Let BKDA (fig. 3.) be the fe&ion of a conical Fig.
trumpet by a plane through the axis; let C be the ver¬
tex of the cone, and CW its axis j let TKV be the
fe&ion of a fpheie, having its centre in the vertex of
the cone ; and let P be a fonorous point on the furface
of the fphere, and P a f e l the path of a line of found
lying in the plane of the le£hon.
In the great circle of the fphere take KQ^rr KP, DR
—D£), and KS~KR. Draw OB/$ / alfo draw Qdn
parallel to DA $ and draw PB, P</, PA.
I. Then it is evident that all the lines drawn from
P, wfthin the cone APB, proceed without reflexion,
and are diffufed as if no trumpet had been ufed.
2.- All
T R U [ 496 ] T R 15
Trumpet. 2. All the fonorous lines which fall from P on KB
are reflefted from it as if they had come from ().
3. All the fonorous lines between BP and </P have
fuffered but one reflexion ; for dn will no more meet
DA A7 fo as to be reflefted again.
4. All the lines which have been refle&ed from KB,
and afterwards from DA, proceed as if they had come
from R. For the lines reflefted from KB proceed as
if they had come from £) ; arid lines coming from £)
and refledled by DA, proceed as if they had come from
R. Therefore draw RAo, and alfo draw Rgm paral¬
lel to KB, and draw QcAq, Qbg, Pc, and P£.
Then,
5. All the lines between b P and cP have been twice
refle&ed.
Again, draw SB/>, Br-R, r«Q, Sa; A, Ryx,
6. All the lines between a P and % P have fuffered
three refleftions.
Draw the tangents T A t, VB v, crofling the axis in
w.
7. The whole founds will be propagated within the
cone v W t. For to every fonorous point in the line
KD there correfponds a point fimilar to £), regulating
the firft refleffion from KB ; and a point iimilar to R,
regulating the fecond refleflion from DA $ and a point
S regulating the third reflection from KB, Sec. And
fimilar points will be found regulating the firft reflec¬
tion from DA, the fecond from KB, and the third
from DA, &c. \ and lines drawn from all thefe through
A and B muft lie within the tangents TA and VB.
8. Thus the centres of reflection of all the fonorous
lines which lie in planes pafling through the axis, will
be found in the furface of this fphere} and it may be
confidered as a fonorous fphere, whofe founds firft con¬
centrate in W, and are then diffufed in the cone aW/.
It may be demonftrated nearly in the fame manner,
that the fonorous lines which proceed from P, but not
jn the plane pafling through the axis, alfo proceed, after
various reflections, as if they had come from points in
the furface of the fame fphere. The only difference in
the demonftration is, that the centres Q, R, S of the
fucceflive reflections are not in one plane, but in a fpiral
lipe winding round the furface of the fphere according
to fixed laws. The foregoing conclufions are therefore
general for all the founds which come in all directions
from every point in the area of the mouth-piece.
Thus it appears, that a-conical trumpet is well fitted
for increafing the force of founds by diminiffiing their
final divergence. For had the fpeaker’s mouth been in
the open air, the founds which are now confined with¬
in the cone w W t would have been diffufed over a he-
mifphere : and we fee that prolonging the trumpet muff
confine the founds ftill more, becaufe this will make the
angde BWA flill (mailer •, a longer tube muft alfo oc-
cafion more reflections, and confequently fend more fo¬
norous undulations to the ear at a diftance placed with¬
in the cone <y W t.
We have now obtained a very conneCled view of the
whole effeCt of a conical trumpet. It is the fame as if
the whole fegment TKDV were founding, every part
of it with an intenfity proportional to the denfity of the
points Q, R, S, &c. correfponding to the different points
F of the mouth-piece. It is eafy to fee that this cannot
he unitorm, but muft be much rarer towards the margin
of the fegment. It would require a good deal of dif-
4
cuflxon to fliow the denfity of thefe fiClitious founding Trumpet,
points j and we thall content o^rfelves with giving a 1
very palpable view of the diftribrition of the fonorous
rays, or the denfity (fo to fpeak) of the echoes, in the
different fituations in which a hearer may be placed.
We may obferve, in the mean time, that this fubfti-
tution of a founding fphere for the founding mouth¬
piece has an exaCt parallel in Optics, by which it will
be greatly illuftrated. Suppofe the cone BKDA (fig. 3.) Fig. 3.
to be a tube polifhed in the infide, fixed in a wall B«,
perforated in BA, and that the mouth-piece DK is occu¬
pied completely by a flat flame. The effeCt of this on
a fpeClator will be the fame, if he is properly placed in
the axis, as if he were looking at a flame as big as the
whole fphere. This is very evident.
It is eafy to fee that the line /^S is equal to the line
/ef a P ; therefore the reflected founds alfo come to the
ear in the fame moments as if they had £ome from their
refpeCtive points on the furface of the fubftituted fphere.
Unlefs, therefore, this fpheie be enormoufly large, the
diftinCtnefs of articulation will not be lenfibly affeCted,
becaufe the interval between the arrival of the different
echoes of the fame fnap will be infenfible.
Our limits oblige us to content ourfelves with exhi¬
biting this evident fimilarity of the progrefs of echo
from the furface of this phonic fphere, to the pregrefs
of light from the fame luminous fphere firming through
a hole of which the diameter is AB. The direCt in-
veftigation of the intenfriy of the found in different di¬
rections and diftances would take up much room, and
give no clearer conception of the thing. The intenfity
of the found in any point is precifely fimilar to the in¬
tenfity of the illumination of the fame point 5 and this
is proportional to the portion of the luminous furface
feen from this point through the hole direClly, and to
the fquare of the diftance inverfely. The intelligent
reader will acquire a diftinft conception of this matter
from fig. 4. which reprefents the diftribution of the fo¬
norous lines, and by confcquence the degree of loudnefs
which may be expeCted in the different fituations of the
hearer.
As we have already obferved, the effeCt of the cone
of the trumpet is perfectly analogous to the reflection of
light from a polifhed concave, conical mirror. Such an
inftrument would be equally fitted for illuminating a di-
ftant objeCt. Wre imagine that thefe would be much more
powerful than the fpherical or even parabolic mirrors
commonly ufed for this purpefe. Thefe laft, having
the candle in the focus, alio fend forward a cylinder of
light of equal width with the mirror. But it is well
known, that oblique reflections are prodigioufiy more
vivid than thofe made at greater angles. Where the
inclination of the reflected light to the plane of the
mirror does not exceed eight or ten degrees, it reflects
about three-fourths of the light which falls on it. But
when the inclination is 80, it does not refleCt one-fourth
part.
We may alfo obferve, that the denfity of the reflect¬
ed founds by the conical trumpet ABC (fig. 4.) is pre-Fig. 4.
cifely fimilar to that of the illumination produced by a
luminous fphere TDV, fliining through a hole AB.
There rvill be a fpace circumfcribed by the cone formed
by the lines TB/ and VA.v, which is uniformly illu¬
minated by the whole fphere (or rather by the fegment
TDV), and on each fide there is a fpace illuminated by
a
Plate P XXX I X .
Articulate Tit UMPET.
HTrrrat .Y,-,,/,.*
,
■
T R U
C 497 1
T R U
Trumpet, a part of it only, and the illumination gradually de-
,_Y***~' creafes towards the borders. A fpetlator placed much
out of the axis, and looking through the hole AB, may
not lee the whole fphere. In like manner, he will not
hear the whole founding fphere : He may be fo far from
the axis as neither to fee nornhear any part of it.
Aflilling our imagination by this comparifon, we per¬
ceive that beyond the point w' there is no place where
all the reflected founds are heard. Therefore, in order
to preferve the magnifying powTer of the trumpet at any
diltance, it is necelfary to make the mouth as wide as
the fonorous fphere. Nay, even this would be an im-
perfedl inftrument, becaufe its power would be confined
to a very narrow fpace ; and if it be not accurately
pointed to the perfon liftening, its power will be greatly
diminifhed. And we may obferve, by the way, that
we derive from this circumftance a llrong confirmation
of the juftnefs of Mr Lambert’s principles 5 for the
eftedts of fpeaking trumpets are really obferved to be li¬
mited in the way here deferibed.—Parabolic trumpets
have been made, and they fortify the found not only in
the cylindrical fpace in the direction of the axis, but al-
fo on each fide of it, which Ihould not have been the
cafe had their effedt depended only on the undulations
formed by the parabola in planes perpendicular to the
axis. But to proceed.
5. _ Let BCA (fig. 5.) be the cone, ED the mouth¬
piece, TEDV the equivalent fonorous fphere, and
TBAV the circumfcribed cylinder. Then CA or CB
is the length of cone that is neceffary for maintaining the
magnifying powrer at all diftances. We have two con¬
ditions to be fulfilled. The diameter ED of the mouth¬
piece mull: be of a certain fixed magnitude, and the dia¬
meter AB of the outer end muft be equal to that of the
equivalent fonorous fphere. Thefe conditions determine
all the dimenfions of the trumpet and its magnifying
power. And, firft, with refpedt to the dimenfions of
the trumpet.
The fimilarity of the triangles ECG and BCF gives
CG : ED = CF : AB ; but CG=BF, = 1 AB, and
CFrrCG-j-GF, rzGF-f-iAB ; therefore £ AB : ED
=GF-}- x AB : AB, and AB : ED = 2 GF-{-AB :
AB •, therefore 2 GF x ED-j- AB X EDrr AB% and
2GF x ED—AB*, — AB x ED, = AB x AB—ED,
, AB x AB—ED
and Gf =   —  , And, on the other hand,
2 ED ’ ’
becaufe AB2 * * * _ X E BAD = 2 GF x ED, we have
AB* —ABxEP + ^ ED* sr 2 GF x ED + I ED*,
or AB — | ED* — 2 GF x ED + £ ED*, and AB=
*/2 GF x ED-f ^ ED* + iED.
. Let x reprefent the length of the trumpet, y the dia¬
meter at the great end, and m the diameter of the mouth-
gives the dimenfions of a fufficient variety of trumpets. Trumpet.
The firft column is the length of the trumpet in feet j' v
the fecond column is the diameter of the mouth in
inches; the third column is the number of times that it
magnifies the found ; and the fourth column is the num¬
ber of times that it increafes the diftance at which a man
may be diftincftly heard by its means; the fifth contains
the angle of the cone.
GF
feet
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
I5
18
21
24
AB
inches.
6.8
9-3
11.2
12.8
14.2
16.6
17.7
18.8
19.8
20.7
21.5
24.
26.2
28.3
30.2
Magnifying.
42.6
77.8
11 2.4
146.6
180.4
214.2
247.7
281.3
314.6
347-7
380.9
4i4-6
612.3
711.2
810.1
Extending.
6-5
8.8
10.6
12.1
I3-4
14.6
I5-7
16.8
I7-7
18.6
W-i
20.4
22.7
24.7
26.6
28.5
ACB.
24-53
18.23
l 5.18
i3-24
12.04
11.0 r
10.18
9.40
9.08
8.42
8.x8
7-58
7-°9
6-33
6.0 c
5-42
ED in all is —1.5
piece. Then n\ and yz^J2xm+\m'+\m. the tan§ent of BCF
2 in
Thus the length and the great diameter may be had re¬
ciprocally. The ufeful cafe in praftice is to find the
diameter for a propofed length, which is gotten by the
laft equation.
Now if we take all the dimenfions in inches, and fix
tv at an inch and a half, we have 2 x vt — $ x, and
=1:0,5625, and — 0,75 ; fo that our equation be¬
comes y—^r 3^+0,56254-0,75. The following table
Vol. XX. Part II.
The tw-o laft columns are conftru&ed on the follow¬
ing confiderations : We conceive the hearer placed w-ith-
in the cylindrical fpacc whofe diameter is BA. In this
fituation he receives an echo coming apparently from
the whole furface TGV ; and we account the efftft of
the trumpet as equivalent to the united voices of as many
mouths as would cover this furface. Therefore the quo¬
tient obtained by dividing the furface of the hemifphere
by that of the mouth-piece will exprefs the magnifying
power of the trumpet. If the chords ^ E, ^ T, be
drawn, we know that the fpherical furfaces T gV,
ED, are refpeftively equal to the circles deferibed
with the radii T £•, E^-, and are therefore as T g% and
'Eg1. Therefore the audibility of the trumpet, when
compared with a fingle voice, may be expreffed by
T?* ,
-■■■■ ■. Now the ratio of T ^ to E^* is eafily obtained.
Eg1
For if E+be drawn parallel to the axis, it is plain that
B f— —-——-—, and that E/* is to fB as radius te
which angle we may call a.
-, and thus we obtain the angle
Therefore tan. a
_ y~
2 X
a.
But if the radius CE be accounted 1, T^- is =2: 2,
and E^ is = 2 fin. -. Therefore - ^ 2 , and
Eg
r a
2 fin.-
2
the magnifying power of the trumpet is =r
3R
4 fin.* -
2
T R U
[ 498 ] T R U
Ttumpet. j
—' — —■ The numbers, therefore, in the third co-
1 fin.* —
2
lumn of the table are each =r  ^—.
2 fin.* -
2
Eut the more ufual way of conceiving the power of
the trumpet is, by confidering how much farther it will
enable us to hear a voice equally well. Now we fup-
pofe that the audibility of founds varies in the inverfe
duplicate ratio of the diftance. Therefore if the diftance
d, at which a man may be diftinftly heard, be increafed
to a, in the proportion of EG to T g, the found will
be lefs audible, in the proportion of T g* to EG*.
Therefore the trumpet will be as well heard at the di¬
ftance as as the fimple voice is heard at the diftance d.
Therefore ^ will exprefs the extending power of the
trumpet, which is therefore ^  In this manner
r a'
2 fin. -
2
tvere the numbers computed for the fourth column of
the table.
When the angle BCA is fmall, which is always the
cafe in fpeaking trumpets, we may, without any fenfible
error, confider EG as =r = —. And TG=TC
2 2
, AB , AB y .
X ^ 2, _ — ^2= — =z This gives a
very eafy computation of the extending and magnifying
powers of the trumpet.
The extending power is —\/2 —.
m
y*
The magnifying powrer is c=2
We may alfo eafily deduce from the premifes, that if
the mouth-piece be an inch and a half in diameter,
and the length x be meafured in inches, the extending
power is very nearly x’j and the magnifying
powTer ~-f iV.
An inconvenience ftill attends the trumpet of this
conftruftion. Its complete audibility is confined to the
cylindrical fpace in the direction of the axis, and it is
more faintly heard on each fide of it. This obliges us
to direct the trumpet very exa&ly to the fpot where we
with it to be heard. This is confirmed by all the ac¬
counts we have of the performance of great fpeaking
trumpets. It is evident, that by lengthening the trum¬
pet, and therefore enlarging its mouth, we make the
Tis- 4* lines TB t and VA v expand (fig. 4.) •, and therefore it
will not be fo difficult to direft the trumpet.
But even this is confined within the limits of a few
degrees. Even if the trumpet were continued without
end, the founds cannot be reinforced in a wider fpace
than the cone of the trumpet. But it is always advan¬
tageous to increafe its length; for this makes the ex¬
treme tangents embrace a greater portion of the fonorous
fphere, and thus increafes the found in the fpace where
it is all refledled. And the limiting tangents TB, VA,
expand ftill more, and thus the fpace of full effeft is in¬
creafed. But either of thefe augmentations is very fmall
in comparifon of the augmentation of fize. If the trum¬
pet of fig. 5. •were made an hundred times longer, its Trumpet,
powder would not be increafed one half.
We need not therefore aim at much more than to
produce a cylindrical fpace of full effeft 5 and this wftl
alvcays be done by the preceding rules, or table of con-
ftruftions. We may give the trumpet a third or a
fourth part more length, in order to fpread a little the
fpace of its full effedt, and thereby make it more eafily
diredled to the intended objedt. But in doing this we
muft be careful to increafe the diameter of the mouth as
much as we increafe the length ; otherwife we produce
the very oppofite effedt, and make the trumpet greatly
inferior to a fhorter one, at all diftances beyond a cer¬
tain point. For by increafing the length while the part
CG remains the fame, we caufe the tangents TB and
VA to meet on fome diftant point, beyond which the
found diffufes prodigioufly. The confiruaion of a
fpeaking trumpet is therefore a problem of fome nicety ;
and as the trials are always made at fome confiderable
diftance, it may frequently happen that a trumpet which
is not heard at a mile’s diftance, may be made very
audible two miles off by cutting off a piece at its wide
end.
After this minute confideration of the conical trum¬
pet, we might proceed to confider thofe of other forms.
In particular, the hyperbolic, propofed by Caffegrain,
and the parabolic, propofed by Haafe, feem to merit
confideration. But if we examine them merely as re¬
ft edlors of echoes, we fhall find them inferior to the
conical.
With refpeS to the hyperbolic trumpet, its inaptitude
is evident at firft fight. For it muft diffipate the echoes
more than a conical trumpet. Indeed Mr Caffegrain
proceeds on quite different principles, depending on the
mechanifm of the aerial undulations : his aim was to in¬
creafe the agitation in each pulfe, fo that it may make a
more forcible impulfe on the ear. But we are too im-
perfe£tly acquainted with this fubjeft to decide a priori;
and experience (hows that the hyperbola is not a good
form.
With refpeft to the parabolic trumpet, it is certain
that if the mouth-piece were but a point, it would pro¬
duce the moft favourable reflexion of all the founds;
for they would all proceed parallel to the axis. But
every point of an open mouth muft be confidered as a
centre of found, and none of it muft be kept out of
the trumpet. If this be all admitted, it will be found
that a conical trumpet, made by the preceding rules,
will diffipate the refledled founds much lefs than the
parabolic.
Fhus far have we proceeded on the fair confequences
of the well known faft, that echoes are refledled in the
fame manner as light, without engaging in the intricate
invefiigation of aerial undulations. Whoever confiders
the Newtonian theory of the propagation of found with
intelligence and attention, will fee that it is demonftrated
folely in the cafe of a fingle row of particles ; and that
all the general corollaries refpefling the lateral diffufion
of the elaftic undulations are little more than fagacious
gueffes, every way worthy of the illuftrious author, and
beautifully confirmed by what we can moft diftinftly
and accurately obferve in the circular waves on the fur-
face of ftill water. But they are by no means fit for
becoming the foundation of any do&rine which lays the
fmalleft claim to the title of accurate fcience. We really
know
THU [ 499 1 THU
Trumpet, know exceedingly little of the theory of aerial undula-
< v-—1 tions j and the conformity of the phenomena of found to
thefe gueffes of Sir Ifaac Newton has always been a
matter of wonder to every eminent and candid mathe¬
matician : and no other fhould pretend to judge of the
■matter. This wonder has always been acknowledged
by Daniel Bernoulli j and he is the only perfon who has
made any addition to the fcience of founds that is worth
mentioning. For fuch we muft always efteem his doc¬
trine of the fccondary undulations of mufical cords, and
the fecondary pulfes of air in pipes. Nothing therefore
is more unwarrantable, or more plainly Ihows the pre¬
cipitant prefumption of modern fciolifts, than the familiar
ufe of the general theory of aerial undulations in their
attempts to explain the abftrufe phenomena of nature
(fuch as the communication of fenfation from the organ
to the fenforium by the vibrations of a nervous fluid, the
reciprocal communication of the volitions from the fen¬
forium to the mufcle, nay, the whole phenomena of
mind), by vibrations and vibratiuncalae.
Such attempts equally betray ignorance, prefumption,
and meannefs of foul. Ignorance of the extent to which
the Newtonian theory may be logically carried, is the
neceffary confequence of ignorance of the theory itfelf.
It is prefumption to apply it to the phenomena of the
intellectual world j and furely he has an abjeCt foul who
hugs and cherifhes the humble thought, that his mind is
an undulating fluid, and that its all-grafping compre-
henlion, and all its delightful emotions, are nothing
more than an etherial tune.—“ Pol me occidiftis amen-
tes.” This whim is older than Hartley : It may be
found in Robinet’s Systeme de la Nature. This by the
bye made its firft appearance as a difcourfe delivered by
Brother Ofateur in the lodge of the grand Orient at
Lyons; from which fource have proceeded all the cof-
mopolitical focieties in Europe, and that illumination by
which reafon is to triumph over revelation, and liberty
and equality over civil government. We crave pardon
of our readers for this ebullition of fpleen j and we hope
for it from all thofe who can read Newton, and who
efteem his modefty.
Thofe who have endeavoured to improve the fpeaking
trumpet on mechanical principles, have generally aimed
at increafing the violence of the elaftic undulations, that
they may make a more forcible impulfe on the ear.
This is the objeCl in view in the parabolic trumpet. All
the undulations are converted intd others which are in
planes perpendicular to the axis of the inftrument; fo
that the fame little mafs of air is agitated again and
again in the fame direClion. From this it is obvious to
conclude, that the total agitation will be more violent.
But, in the firft place, thefe violent agitations muft dif-
fufe themfelves laterally as foon as they get out of the
trumpet, and thus be weakened, in a proportion that is
perhaps impoffible for the moft expert analyft to deter¬
mine. But, moreover, we are not fufficiently acquainted
with the mechanifm of the very firft agitations, to be
able to perceive what conformation of the trumpet will
caufe the reflected undulations to increafe the firft undu¬
lations, or to check them. For it muft happen, during
the production of a continued found in a trumpet, that
a parcel of air, which is in a ftate of progreflive agita¬
tion, as it makes a pulfe of one found, may be in a ftate
of retrograde agitation, as it is part of a pulfe of air pro¬
ducing another found. We cannot (at leaft no mathe¬
matician has yet done it) diferiminate, and then com- Trumpet,
bine thefe agitations; with the intelligence and precifion u”—v rtT"'
that are necefiary for enabling us to fay what is the ulti¬
mate accumulated effeCh Mr Lambert therefore did
wifely in abftaining from this intricate inveftigation j
and we are highly obliged to him for deducing fuch a
body of demonftrable doCtrine from the acknowledged,
but ill underftood, fad of the reflection of echoes.
We know that two founds actually crofs each other
without any mutual difturbance ; for we can hear either
of them diftinCtly, provided the other is not fo loud as
to ftun our ears, in the fame manner as the glare of the
fun dazzles our eyes. We may therefore depend on all
the confequences which are legitimately deduced from
this faCt, in the fame manner as we depend on the fcience
of catoptrics, which is all deduced from a faCt perfectly
fimilar and as little underftood.
But the preceding propofitions by no means explain
or comprehend all the reinforcement of found which is
really obtained by means of a fpeaking trumpet. In
the firft place, although we cannot tell in what degree
the aerial undulations are increafed, we cannot doubt
that the reflections which are made in directions which
do not greatly deviate from the axis, do really increafe
the agitation of the particles of air. We fee a thing
perfectly fimilar to this in the waves on water. Take a
long flip of lead, about two inches broad, and having
bent it into the form of a parabola, fet it into a large
flat trough, in which the water is about an inch deep.
Let a quick fucceflion of fmall drops of water fall pre-
cifely on the focus of the parabola. We fhall fee the
circular waves proceeding from the focus all converted
into waves perpendicular to the axis, and we fhall fre¬
quently fee thefe ftraight waves confiderably augmented
in their height and force. We fay generally, for we
have fometimes obferved that thefe reflected waves were
not fenfibly ftronger than the circular or original waves.
We do not exaCtly know to what this difference muft
be aferibed : we are difpofed to attribute it to the fre¬
quency of the drops. This may be fuch, that the in¬
terval of time between each drop is precifely equal, or
at leaft commenfurable, to the time in which the waves
run over their own breadth. This is a pretty experi¬
ment ; and the ingenious mechanician may make others
of the fame kind which will greatly illuftrate feveral
difficult points in the fcience of founds. We may con¬
clude, in general, that the refleClion of founds, in a
trumpet of the ufual fhapes, is accompanied by a real in¬
creafe of the aerial agitations; and in fome particulaj?
cafes we find the founds prodigioufly increafed. Thus,
when we blow through a mufical trumpet, and allow
the air to take that uniform undulation which can be
beft maintained in it, namely, that which produces its
mufical tone, where the whole tube contains but one ot
two undulations, the agitation of a particle muft then
be very great; and it muft deferibe a very confiderable
line in its ofcillations. When we fuit our blaft in
fuch a manner as to continue this note, that is, this
undulation, we are certain that the fubfequent agita¬
tions confpire with the preceding agitation, and aug¬
ment it. And accordingly we find that the found is in¬
creafed to a prodigious degree. A cor de chafle, or a
bugle horn, when properly winded, will almoft deafen
the ear ; and yet the exertion is a mere nothing in*
comparifon with what we make when bellowing with all
3 R 2 ouf
Hearing
trumpet.
T It U t 500 ] T It U
our force, but with not the tenth part of the noife. We
alfo know, that if we fpeak through a fpeaking trumpet
in the key which correfponds with its dimenfions, it is
much more audible than when we fpeak in a different
pitch. Thefe obfervations ftiow, that the loudnefs of a
fpeaking trumpet arifes from fomething more than the
foie refleftion of echoes coniidered by Mr Lambert—
the very echoes are rendered louder.
In the next place, the founds are increafed by the vi¬
brations of the trumpet itfelf. The elaftic matter of
the trumpet is thrown into tremors by the undulations
which proceed from the mouth-piece. Thefe tremors
produce pulfes in the contiguous air, both in the infide
of the trumpet and on that which furrounds it. Thefe
undulations wdthin the trumpet produce original founds,
which are added to the reflected founds: for the tremor
continues for fome little time, perhaps the time of three
or four or more pulfes. This muff increafe the loud¬
nefs of the fubfequent pulfes. We cannot fay to what
degree, becaufe we do not know the force of the tre¬
mor which the part of the trumpet acquires: but we
know that thefe founds will not be magnified by the
trumpet to the fame degree as if they had come from
the mouth-piece j for they are reflefled as if they had
come from the furface of a fphere which pafles through
the agitated point of the trumpet. In fhort, they are
magnified only by that part of the trumpet which lies
without them. The whole founds of this kind, there¬
fore, proceed as if they came from a number of concen¬
tric fpheiical furfaces, or from a folid fphere, whofe di¬
ameter is twice the length of the trumpet cone.
All thefe agitations arifing from the tremors of the
trumpet tend greatly to hurt the diftinftnefs of articula¬
tion j becaufe, coming from different points of -a large
fphere, they arrive at the ear in a fenfible fucceffion j
and thus change a momentary articulation to a length¬
ened found, and give the appearance of a number of
voices uttering the fame words in fucceflion. It is in this
way, that, when wre clap our hands together near a long
rail, we get an echo from each poft, which produces a
chirping fouqd of fome continuance. For thefe reafons
it is found advantageous to check all tremors of the
trumpet by wrapping it up in woollen lifts. This is
alfo neceffary in the mufical ^rumpet.
With refpedt to the undulations produced by the tre¬
mors of the trumpet in the air contiguous to its outfide,
they alfo hurt the articulation. At any rate, this is fo
much of the fonorous momentum ufelefsly employed 5
becaufe they are diffufed like common founds, and re¬
ceive no augmentation from the trumpet.
It is evident, that this inftrument may be ufed (and
accordingly was fo). for aiding the hearing $ for the fono¬
rous lines are refledled in either direftion. We know
that all tapering cavities greatly increafe external noifes $
and w'e obferve the brutes prick up their ears when they
want to hear uncertain or faint founds. They turn them
in fuch direftions as are beft fuited for the refleflion of
the found from the quarter whence the animal imagines
that it comes.
Let us apply Mr Lambert’s principle to this very in-
terefting cafe, and examine whether it be poflible to af-
fift dull hearing in like manner as the optician has aflifl>
ed imperfeft fight.
The fubje& is greatly fimplified by the circumftances Trumpet,
of the cafe ; for the founds to which we liften generally '
come in nearly one direftion, and all that we have to
do is to produce a conftipation of them. And we may
conclude, that the audibility will be proportional to this
conftipation.
Therefore let ACB, fig. 6. be the cone, and CD itspig.
axis. The found may be conceived as coming in the
direction RA, parallel to the axis, and to be refle&ed
in the points A, b, c, d, e, till the angle of incidence in-
creafes to 90° j after which the fubfequent refledlions
fend the found out again. We muft therefore cut off a
part of the cone j and, becaufe the lines increafe their
angle of incidence at each refleftion, it wdll be proper
to make the angle of the cone an aliquot part of 90°,
that the leaft incidence may amount precifely to that
quantity. What part of the cone ftiould be cut off may
be determined by the former principles. Call the angle
ACD, a. We have C — when the
lin. a
found gets the laft ufeful refle£iion. Then we have the
diameter of the mouth AB—2 CA • fin. and that of
the other end ef=zC e • 2 fin. a. Therefore the founds
will be conftipated in the ratio of CA* to C e1, and the
trumpet will bring the fpeaker nearer in the ratio of C A
to C e.
When the lines of refle61ed found are thus brought
together, they may be received into a fmall pipe per-
feftly cylindrical, which may be inferted into the exter¬
nal ear. This wfill not change their angles of inclina¬
tion to the axis nor their denfity. It may be conveni¬
ent to make the internal diameter of this pipe y of an
inch. Therefore C f • fin. a is — ^ of an inch.. This
circumftance, in conjunftion with the magnifying power
propofed, determines the other dimenfions of the hearing
_ _ I CA * fin. a , ^ .
trumpet. lor C c=z — = -—  —, and CA
oim.a lin. (2
__ fin. (2 ff-f 1 a)
6 fin. * a
Thus the relation of the angle of the cone and the
length of the inftrument is afcertained,. and the found is
brought nearer in the ratio of CA to C e, or of fin.
(2«-j-i)o to fin. a. And feeing that we found it pro¬
per to make (2 n-f-1) «=90°, we obtain this very Am¬
ple analogy, 1 : fin. ti=CA : C e. And the line of 4-
the angle of the cone is to radius as 1 to the approxima¬
ting power of the inftrument.
Thus let it be required that the found may be as au¬
dible as if the voice were 12 times nearer. This gives
C A 1
———— 12. This gives fin. a — —, andand
the angle of the cone —9.34.
Then CA=
6 fin.:
~=24. Therefore the length of the cone
TT*. CA
is 24 inches. From this take C e=z——=: I, and the
length of the trumpet is 22 inches. The diameter at
the mouth is 2 C e, =4 inches. With this inftrument
one voice fhould be as loud as 144.
If it were required to appreximate the found only
four times, making it 16 times ftronger than the natural
voice
T R U [ SOI ] T R U
Trumpet, voice at the fame diftance, the angle ACB muft be
29° j Ae muft be 2 inches, AB muft be iyd inches,
and ef muft be -j-d of an inch.
It is eafy to fee, that when the fize of the ear-end is
the fame in all, the diameters at the outer end are
proportional to the approximating powers, and the
lengths of the cones are proportional to the magnifying
powers.
We (hall find the parabolic conoid the preferable
ftiape for an acouftic trumpet} becaufe the founds come
into the inftrument in a dire&ion parallel to the axis,
they are reflefted fo as to pafs through the focus. The
parabolic conoid muft therefore be cut off through the
focus, that the founds may not go out again by the
fubfequent reflexions; and they muft be received into a
cylindrical pipe of one-third of an inch in diameter.
Therefore the parameter of this parabola is one-fixth of
an inch, and the focus is one-twelfth of an inch from
the vertex. This determines the whole inftrument 5 for
they are all portions of one parabolic conoid. Suppofe
that the inftrument is required to approximate the found
1 2 times, as in the example of the conical inftrument.
The ordinate at the mouth muft be 1 2 times the 6th of
an inch, or 2 inches; and the mouth diameter is four
inches, as in the conical inftrument. Then, for the
Fig. 7. length, obferve, that DC in fig. 7. is ^th of an inch,
and MP is 2 inches, and AC is ^th of an inch, and
DC* : MP* = AC : AP. This will give AP ~ 12
inches, and CP — 1 i-J-5-ths 5 whereas in the conical
tube it was 22. In like manner an inftrument which
approximates the founds four times, is only i-|d inches
long, and i-fd inches diameter at the big end. Such
fmall inftruments may be very exaXly made in the pa¬
rabolic form, and are certainly preferable to the conical.
But fince even thefe are of a very moderate fize when
intended to approximate the found only a few times,
and as they can be accurately made by any tinman,
they may be of more general ufe. One of 12 inches
long, and 3 inches wide at the big end, (hould approxi¬
mate the found at leaft 9 times.
general rule for making them.— Let m exprefs the
approximating power intended for the inftrument. The
length of the inftrument in inches is
m X w—1
, and the
diameter at the mouth is —. The diameter at the fmall
3
end is always one-third of an inch.
In trumpets for affifting the hearing, all reverberation
of the trumpet muft be avoided. It muft be made thick,
of the leaft elaftic materials, and covered with cloth
externally. For all reverberation lafts for a fhort time,
and produces new founds which mix with thofe that are
coming in.
We muft alfo obferve, that no acouftic trumpet can
Separate thofe founds to which we liften from others that
are made in the fame direXion. All are received by it,
and magnified in the fame proportion. This is fre¬
quently a very gx-eat inconvenience.
There is alfo another imperfection, which we imagine
cannot be removed, namely, an odd confufion, which
cannot be called indiftinXnefs, but a feeling as if we
Vi ere in the mid ft of an echoing room. The caufe feems
to be this : Hearing gives us Tome perception of the di-
,reXion cf the founding objeX, not indeed very precife,
but fufficiently fo for mod purpofes. In all inftruments Trumpet,
which we have deferibed for conftipating founds, the
laft refleXions are made in direXions very much inclined
to the axis, and inclined in many different degrees.
T herelore they have the appearance of coming from dif¬
ferent quarters ; and infteadof the perception of a fingle
fpeaker, wre have that of a founding furface of great ex¬
tent. We do not know any method of preventing this,
and at the fame time increafing the found.
There is an obfervation which it is of importance to
make on this theory of acouftic inftruments. Their
performance does not feem to correfpond to the compu¬
tations founded on the theory. When they are tried,
we cannot think that they magnify fo much : Indeed it
is not eafy to find a meafure by which we can eftimate
the degrees of audibility. When a man fpeaks to us at
the diltance of a yard, and then at the diftance of two
yards, we can hardly think that there is any difference
in the loudnefs ; though theory fays, that it is four time;
lefs in the laft of the two experiments \ and we cannot>
but adhere to the theory in this very fimple cafe, and
muft attribute the difference to the impoflibility of mea-.
Turing the loudnefs of founds with precifion. And be¬
caufe we are familiarly acquainted with the found, we
can no more think it four times lefs at twice the di¬
ftance, than we can think the vifible appearance of a
man four times lefs when he is at quadruple diftance.
Yet we can completely convince ourfelves of this, by
obferving that he covers the appearance of four men at
that diftance. W^e cannot eafily make the fame experi¬
ment with voices.
But, befides this, we have compared two hearing
trumpets, one of which (hould have made a found as au¬
dible at the diftance of 40 feet as the other did at 10
feet diftance j but we thought them equal at the di¬
ftance of 40 and 18. The refult was the fame in many
trials made by different perfons, and in different circum-
ftances. This leads us to fufpeX fome miftake in Mr.
Lambert’s principle of calculation •, and we think him
miftaken in the manner of eftimadng the intenfity of the-
refleXcd founds. He conceives the proportion of inten-
fity of the fimple voice and of the trumpet to be the
fame with that of the furface of the mouth-piece to the
furface of the fonorous hemifphere, which he has fo in-
genioufly fubftituted for the trumpet. But this feems to
fuppofe, that the whole furface, generated by the revo¬
lution of the quadrantal arch TEG round the axis CG
(fig. 4.), is equally fonorous. We are affured that it is
not : For even if we (hould fuppofe that each of the
points O, R, and S (fig. 3.), are equally fonorous rvith
the point P, thefe points of refleXion do not (land fo
denfe on the furface of the fphere as on the furface of
the mouth-piece. Suppofe them arranged at equal di-
ftances all over the mouth-piece, they will be at equal
diftances alfo on the fphere, only in the direXion of the
arches of great circles which pafs through the centre of
the mouth-piece. But in the direXion perpendicular to
this, in the circumference of fmall circles, having the
centre of the mouth-piece for their pole, they muft be
rarer in the proportion of the fine of their diftance from
this pole. This is certainly the cafe with refpeX to all
fuch founds as have been refleXed in the planes which
pafs-through the axis of the trumpet; and we do not
fee (for we have not examined this point) that any com-
p.enfation is made- by the refleXion which is not in
planes -
T R Y [ 50
Trumpet planes palling through the axis. We therefore imagine,
II that the trumpet does not increafe the found in the pro-
Tryphiodo- _ £1
, r^s- portion of g E* to ^ T* (fig. 5.), but in that
to
CT
Mr Lambert feems aware of fome error in his calcu¬
lation, and propofes another, which leads nearly to this
ronclufion, but founded on a principle which we do not
think in the leaft applicable to the cafe of founds.
TbumPET, Marine, is a mufical inftrument confift-
ing of three tables, which form its triangular body. It
has a very long neck with one Angle firing, very thick,
mounted on a bridge, which is firm on one fide, but
tremulous on the other. It is firuck by a bow with one
hand, and with the other the firing is prefled or flopped
on the neck by the thumb.
It is the trembling of the bridge, when ftruck, that
makes it imitate the found of a trumpet, which it does
to that perfection, that it is fcarcely poflible to difiin-
guifir the one from the other. And this is what has gi¬
ven it the denomination of trumpet-marine, though, in
propriety, it be a kind of monochord. Of the fix divi-
fions marked on the neck of the inftrument, the firft
makes a fifth with the open chord, the fecond an oc¬
tave, and fo on for the reft, correfponding with the in¬
tervals of the military trumpet.
TRUMPET-Flower. See Bignonia, Botany Index.
TRUMPETER. See Psophia, Ornithology
Index.
TRUNCATED, in general, is an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch things as have, or feem to have, their
points cut off: thus, we fay, a truncated cone, pyramid,
leaf
TRUNCHEON, a fhort ftaff or baton ufed by
kings, generals, and great officers, as a mark of their
command.
TRUNDLE, a fort of carriage with low wheels,
whereon heavy and cumberfome burdens are drawn.
TRUNK, among botanifts, that part of the herb
which arifes immediately from the root, and is termina¬
ted by fruftification 5 the leaves, buds, and auxiliary
parts of the herb not entering in its defeription.
TRUNNIONS, or Trunions, of a piece of ord¬
nance, are thofe knobs or bunches of metal which bear
her up on the cheeks of the carriage.
TRUSS, a bundle, or certain quantity of hay, flraw,
&c. A trufs of hay contains 56 pounds, or half an
hundred weight : 36 truffes make a load.
Truss is alfo ufed for a fort of bandage or ligature
made of fteel, or the like matter, wherewith to keep up
the parts in thofe who have hernias or ruptures.
Truss, in a fhip, a machine employed to pull a yard
home to its refpeftive maft, and retain it firmly in that
pofilion.
TRUSTEE, one who has an eftate, or money, put
or trufted in his hands for the ufe of another.
TRUTH, a term ufed in oppofition to falfehood, and
applied to propofitions which anfwer or accord to the na¬
ture and reality of the thing whereof fomething is af¬
firmed or denied.
TRYPHIODORUS, an ancient Greek poet, who
lived fome time between the reigns of Severus and Ana-
ilafius. His writings were very numerous j yet none of
I
2 ] T U M
them have come down to us, except an epic poem, on Tryplfiodo-
which Mr Addifon has made fome entertaining remarks
in the Spectator, N° 63.
The firft edition of this extraordinary work was pub-
lifhed by Aldus at Venice, with Quintus Calaber’s Pa-
ralipomena, and Coluthus’s poem on the rape of Helen,
It has been fince reprinted at feveral places, particularly
at Francfort in 1580 by Frifchlinus ; who not only cor¬
rected many corrupt paffages, but added two Latin ver
fions, one in verfe and the other in profe. That in
verfe W’as reprinted in 1742, with the Greek, at Oxford,
in 8vo, with an Englifh tianflation in verfe, and Notes,
by Mr Merrick.
TUAM, a town of Ireland, in the province of Con¬
naught, and county of Galwray, with an archbifhop’s
fee. It wTas once a famous city, though now it is redu¬
ced to a village ; but it ftill retains the title of a city,
as being an archiepifcopal fee. W. Long. 8. 46. N»
Lat. 53- 33-
TUB, in commerce, denotes an indetermined quan¬
tity or meafure : thus, a tub of tea contains about 6»
pounds and a tub of camphor from 56 to 86 pounds.
TUBE, in general, a pipe, conduit, or canal; a cy¬
linder, hollow within-fide, either of lead, iron, glafs,
wood, or other matter, for the air or fotne other matter
to have a free conveyance through it.
Auricular TUBE, or inftrument to facilitate hearing.
See Articulate TRUMPET.
TUBERCLES, among phyficians, denote little tu¬
mors wThich fuppurate and difeharge pus ; and are often
found in the lungs, efpecially of confumptive per-
fons.
TUCUMAN, a province of Paraguay, in South A-
merica, bounded on the north by the provinces of Los-
Chicas and Choco ; on the eaft by Choco and Rio-de-
la-Plata, on the fouth by the country of Chicuitos and
Pampes, and on the weft by the bithopric of St Jago.
The air is hot, and the foil fandy : how-ever, fome pla¬
ces are fruitful enough. The Spaniards poffefs a great
part of this country.
TUFA, a ftone confifting of volcanic afhes concreted
together with various other fpecies of ftone. It is of
various colours, blackifti gray, bluifti gray, and yel¬
low ; every colour having a different mixture and foli-
dity : but all of them have the bad quality of moulder¬
ing down on long expofure to the wreather ; notwith-
ftanding which, they have been ufed in buildings both
ancient and modern. The yellow kind refifts the air
lefs than any other.
TULIP A, Tulip ; a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of hexandria; and in the natural fyftem ranging
under the 10th order, Coronarice. See Botany Index ?
and for the culture of the tulip, fee Gardening.
Tulip-Tree. See Liriodendron, Botany Index.
TULL, Jethro, an Oxfordfhire gentleman who
farmed his own land, and introduced a new method of
culture, to raife repeated crops of wheat from the fame
land without the neceffity of manure : the principles of
W'hich he pubiilhed about 30 years fince, in a Treatife
on Horfe-hoeing Hufbandry.
TUMBRELL, Tumbrellum, or Turbichetum, is
an engine of punifhment, formerly employed for the cor*
reftion of fcolds and unquiet wromen.
TUMEFACTION, the act of fwelling or rifing hk
to a tumor.
TUMOR,
Tumor
I!.
'i unis.
See Obfern).
on the City
of Tunis by
M.r Stan¬
ley, in the
F.din. Mag.
vol. iv.
p. zS.
TUN [503
TUMOR, in Medicine and Surgery, a preternatural for
riling or eminence in any part of the body.
Tumors, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
TUN, a large veffel or calk, of an oblong form, big-
geft in the middle, and diminifhing towaids its two
ends, girt about with hoops, and ufed for flowing le\e-
ral kinds of merchandife for convenience or carriage }
as brandy, oil, fugar, fkins, hats, &c.
Tun is alfo the name of a meafure. A tun of wine
is four hogfheads ; of timber, a fquare of 40 folid feet j
and of coals, 20 cwt.
Tun is alfo a certain weight whereby the burden of
fliips, &c. is effimated.
TUNBRIDGE, a town of Kent in England, fitu-
ated on a branch of the river Medway, over which there
is a bridge. It is a large well built place, noted for
the mineral waters four or five miles fouth of the town.
E. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 51. 14.
TUNE. See Music and Tone.
TUNGSTEN, one of the metals. See Chemistry
and Mineralogy Index.
TUNICA, a kind of waiftcoat or under garment, in
ufe among the Romans. They w'ore it within doors by
itfelf, and abroad under the gown. The common peo¬
ple could not afford the toga, and fo went in their tunics j
whence Horace calls them populus tunicatus.
Tunica, in Anatomy, is applied to the membranes
wdiich inveft the veffels, and divers others of the lefs fo¬
lid parts of the body ; thus the inteftines are formed of
five tunics or coats.
TUNIS, a large and celebrated town of Barbary,
in Africa, and capital of a kingdom of the fame name.
It is feated on the point of the gulf of Goletta, about
eight miles from the place where the city of Carthage
flood. It is in the form of a long fquare, and is about
four miles in circumference, with ten large ftreets, five
gates, and 35 mofques. The houfes are all built with
ftone, though but one ftory high; but the nails are
very lofty, and flanked with feveral ftrong towers. It
has neither ditches nor baftions, but a good citadel,
built on an eminence on the weft fide of the city. It is
faid to contain 300,000 inhabitants, of whom 30,000
are Jews. The divan, or council of ftate, affembles in
an old palace; and the dey is the chief of the republic,
who refides there. The harbour of Tunis has a very
narrow entrance, through a fmall canal. In the city
they have no water but what is kept in cifterns, except
one well kept for the bafhaw’s ufe. It is a place of
great trade, and is 10 miles from the fea. E. Long.
10. 16. N. Lat. 36. 42.
Tunis, a country of Africa, bounded on the north
and call by the Mediterranean fea and the kingdom of
Tripoli, on the fouth by feveral tribes of the Arabs, and
on the weft by the kingdom of Algiers and the country
of Efab ; being 300 miles in length from eaft to weft,
and 250 in breadth from north to fouth. This country
rvas formerly a monarchy ; but a difference arifing be¬
tween a king and his fon, one of whom was for the
protection of the Chriftians, and the other for that of the
Turks, in 1574 the inhabitants (hook off the yoke of
both. From this time it became a republic under the
protection of the Turks, and pays a certain tribute to the
balhaw who refides at Tunis. The air in general is
healthy; but the foil in the eaftern parts is indifferent
] T u R
want of water. Towards the middle the moun¬
tains and valleys abound in fruits; but the w'cftern part
is the moft fertile, becaufe it is watered with rivers. ^
The environs of Tunis are very dry, upon which ac¬
count corn is generally dear. The inroads of the A-
rabs oblige the inhabitants to fow their barley and rye
in the fuburbs, and to inclofe their gardens with walls.
However, there are plenty of citrons, lemons, oranges,
dates, grapes, and other fruits. There are alfo olive
trees, roles, and odoriferous plants. In the woods and
mountains there are lions, wild beeves, oftriches, mon¬
keys, cameleons, roebucks, hares, pheafants, partridges,
and other forts of birds and beafts. The moft remark¬
able rivers are the Guadilcarbar, Magrida, Magerada,
and Caps. The form of government is ariftocratic ;
that is, by a council, whofe prefident is the dey, not
unlike the doge of Venice. The members of the divan
or council are chofen by the dey, and he in his turn is
elefted by the divan ; which is compofed of foldiers,
who have more than once taken oft the dey’s head.
The bafhaw is a Turk, redding at Tunis ; whole bufi-
nefs is to receive the tribute, and proteCl the republic :
the common revenues are only 400,000 crowns a-year,
becaufe the people are very poor ; nor can they fend above
40,000 men into the field ; nor more than 12 men of
war of the line to fea, even upon the moft extraordinary
occafions. There are generally about 12,000 Chriftian
flaves in this country; and the inhabitants carry on a
great trade in linen and woollen cloth. In the city of
Tunis alone there are above 3000 clothiers and weavers.
They alfo have a trade in horfes, olives, oil, foap,
oftriches eggs and feathers. The Mahometans of this
city have nine colleges for ftudents,and 86 petty fchools.
The principal religion is Mahometanifm ; but the inha¬
bitants confift of Moors, Turks, Arabs, Jews, and Chrif-
tian Haves. However the Turks, though feweft, in num¬
ber, domineer over the Moors, and treat them little bet¬
ter than flaves.
TUNKERS, a religious fe£l of Baptifts in Pennfyl-
vania, fo called from the word tanker, to put a morfel
in fauce. They are alfo called tumblers, becaufe in per¬
forming baptifm they plunge the perfon into the water
with the head firft. As the Germans found the letters t
and b like d and p, the wmids tankers and tumblers,
have been fometimes written dunkers and dumpiers.
Their church government and difeipline are the fame
with thofe of the Englifh Baptifts, except that every bro¬
ther is allowed to fpeak in the congregation, and the belt
fpeaker is ufually ordained to be their mimfter. They
are a harmlefs, well-meaning people.
TUNNAGE. See Tonnage.
TUNNY. See Scomber, Ichthyology Index.
TUNNY-Fishing. See Fishery.
TURBAN, the head-drefs of moft of the eaftern na¬
tions. It confifts of two parts, a cap and fafti ot fine
linen or taffety, artfully wound in divers plates about the
cap. The cap has no brim, is pretty flat, though round-
ifh at top, and quilted with cotton ; but does not cover
the ears. There is a good deal of art in giving the tur¬
ban a fine air; and tbe making of them is a particular
trade. The fafli of the Turk’s turban is white linen;
that of the Perfians red woollen. Thefe arethediftinguifli-
ing marks of their different religions. Sophi king of
Perfia, being of the feft of Ali, was the firft who affumed
the
Tunis
Turban.
T U R
C 504 ]
iNjAinate^ the red colour, to diftinguifh himfelf from the Turks,
N who are of the fed of Omar, and whom the Perfians
ui^L-edeem heretics.
TURBINATED, is a term applied by naturalifts to
{hells which are fpiral, or wreathed conically from a
larger bafis to a kind of apex.
TURBITH or Turpeth mineral. See Mercury,
N° 1720 and 1728 Chemistry.
TURBO, the Wreath, a genus of Ihell-fifti. Se*
Conchology Index.
TURBOT. See Pleuronectes, Ichthyology
Index.
TURCAB or Turci, (Mela) j fuppofed to be the
Tufci of Ptolemy ; whom he places between Caucafus
and the Montes Ceraunii. The name is faid to denote,
“ to defolate, or lay wafte.” Herodotus places them
among the wild or barbarous nations of the north.
There is a very rapid river called Turk^ running into the
Cafpian fea, from which fome fuppofe the Turks to take
their name. They made no figure in the world till to¬
wards the 7th century; about the beginning of which
they fallied forth from the Portae Cafpiae, laid wafte
Perfia, and joined the Romans againft Chofroes king
of Perfia. In 1042 they fubdued the Perfians, in
whofe pay they ferved, and from whom they derived
the Mahometan religion ; and afterwards pouring forth,
overran Syria, Cappadocia, and the other countries
of the Hither Afia, under diftintt heads or princes,
whom Ottoman fubduing, united the whole power in him¬
felf, which to this day continues in his family, and who
fixed his feat of empire at Prufa in Bithynia. His fuc-
ceffors fubdued all Greece, and at length took Conftan-
tinople in 1453 j which put a period to the Roman em¬
pire in the Eatt, under Conftantine the laft emperor. It
is a {landing tradition or prophecy among the Turks,
that their empire will at length be overturned by the
Franks or Chriftians ; which feems now to be drawing
on apace towards accompliihment.
TURCOISE. See Turquoise.
TURCOMANIA, a province of Afiatic Turkey, an-
„ fwering to the ancient kingdom of Armenia.
TURDUS, the Thrush ; a genus of birds belong¬
ing to the order of Pajferes. See Ornithology
Index.
TURENNE, Viscount. See Tour.
TURF,/><?/?/, a blackiftr earth ufed in feveral parts of
the world as fuel. Turf, as diftinguiihed from peat,
confifts of mould interwoven with the roots of ve¬
getables.
TURGESCENCE, among phyficans, denotes a
fwelling or growing bloated.
TURGOT, Anne Robert James, a celebrated
French financier, was born at Paris in 1727, of a very
ancient Norman family. His father was a long time
provoft of the corporation of merchants ; during which
he was the objefl of general admiration, on account of
his prudent adminiftration. M. Turgot was the young-
eft of three brothers, and was deftined for the church.
He had fcarcely attained the age at which refleftion
commences, when he refolved to facrifice all tempo¬
ral advantages to liberty and confcience, and to pur-
fue his ecclefiaftical ftudies without declaring bis repug¬
nance to their propofed objedl. At the age of 23 years
he took his degree, and was elecled prior of the Sor-
honne.
2
T U R
The time when it was neceffary for him to declare Turcot,
that he would not be an ecclefiallic was now arrived., luri11, ,
He announced this relolution to his father by letter, v '
{howing the motives which induced him to decline the
clerical order. His father conlented, and he was ap¬
pointed mailer ofrequefts. M. Turgot prepared himfelf
for this office by particular application to thofe parts of
fcience which are moll connefted with its fundions and
duties, viz. natural philofophy, agriculture, manufac¬
tures, commerce, &c. About this period he wrote
fome articles for the Encyclopedic, of which the princi¬
pal are Etymology, Exiftence, Expanfibility, Fair, and
Foundation. He had prepared feveral others, but the
perfecution againft; the Encyclopedic induced him to de¬
cline farther contributions.
In 1761 M. Turgot was appointed intendant of Li¬
moges, when he gave activity to the fociety of agricul¬
ture ; opened a mode of public inftruflion for female
profeflbrs of midwifery; procured for the people the at¬
tendance of able phyficians during the raging of epide¬
mic difeafes ; eftablilhed houfes of induflry, fupported by
charity (the only fpecies of alms-giving which does not
encourage idlenefs) : introduced the cultivation of po¬
tatoes into his province, &c. &c. While M. Target
proceeded with unremitting a&ivity and zeal, in promo¬
ting the good of the people over whom he was placed,
he meditated projefts of 'a more extenfive nature, fuch
as an equal diftribution of the taxes, the conftru6tion
of the roads, the regulation of the militia, the preven¬
tion of a fcarcity of provifion, and the protection of
commerce.
At the death of Louis XV. the public voice called
M. Turgot to the firft offices of government, as a man
who united the experience refulting from habits of bu-
finefs to all the improvement which ftudy can procure.
After being at the head of the marine department only
a ftiort time, he was, Auguft 24. 1774, appointed comp¬
troller general of the finances. During his discharge
of this important office, the operations he carried on are
aftoniffiing. He fupprefled 23 kinds of duties on ne-
ceffary occupations, ufeful contrafts, or merited compen-
fations. He aboliffied the corvee, or the labour requi¬
red from the public for the highways, faving the nation
thirty millions of livres annually.—He fet afide another
kind of corvee, which refpeCled the carriage of military
{lores and baggage.—He abated the rigour in the ad¬
miniftration of indirect impofitions, to the great profit
of the contributors, the king, and the financiers ; be-
fide many other effential improvements in political eco¬
nomy.
At length, however, by the artifices of the courtiers,
he was deprived of his offices ; and in retirement he de¬
voted himfelf to the fciences and the belles lettres, which
he had cultivated in his youth. Natural philofophy and
chemiftry were his favourite purfuits ; foroetimes he in¬
dulged in poetry. He compoled, it is faid, only one
Latin verfe, intended for a piClure of Dr Franklin.
Eripuit ccelo fulmen, mox feeptra tyrannis.”
He died in 1781.
TURIN, an ancient and populous city of Italy, and
capital of Piedmont, where the fovereign refides, with
an archbiffiop’s fee, a flrong citadel, and an univerfity.
It is feated on a vaft plain, at the confluence of thi ri¬
vers Doria and Po. But the air is unhealthy in the au¬
tumn
T U K [ 505 ] T U R
Turin, tumn snd winter on account of the thick fogs. One haif
Turkey. 0f ^ piace \s iately built j and the ftreets are ftraight
* and clean, being walked by an aqueduft. It contains
many elegant buildings. When the plague reigned at
Marfeilles in 1720, a great number of artificers with¬
drew to Turin 5 infomuch that there are now above
87,000 inhabitants, and 48 churches and convents.
Turin is very well fortified, and extremely ftrong ; as
the French found by experience in 1706, who then be-
fieged it a long while to no purpofe. The citadel, which
is ilanked with five baftions, is without doubt a mafter-
piece of architefture. There are fine walks on the ram¬
parts, and fine gardens on the fide of the river Po ; and
the houfe commonly called La Chante is remarkable, as
there is room for 3000 poor people. The college of the
academy is very large and well built, and has a great
number of ancient infcriptions. In the royal library are
19,000 manufcripts, befides 30,000 printed books. In
December 1798, it was taken pofleffion of by the
French, who in June following were driven out of it by
the Auftrians. But with the reft of Italy it is now un¬
der the dominion of the French. It is charmingly feat-
ed at the foot of a mountain, 62 miles north-eaft of Ge¬
noa, 72 fouth-weft of Milan, and 280 north-weft of
T Rome. E. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 44. 50.
Situation TURKEY, an extenfive empire, fituated partly in
and extent. Europe, and partly in Alia. It is bounded on the north
by the empire of Ruflia, Hungary, and the Black fea $
on the weft by the gulf of Venice and the Mediterra¬
nean } on the fouth by the Mediterranean and Arabia ;
and on the eaft by Perfia. In its prefent ftate, we may
compute it as extending from the river Unna, in eaft
longitude about 170, to the mountains which feparate it
from Perfia, in about 50° of eaft longitude from Green¬
wich, or about 330 from weft to eaft; while from the moft
foutherly point, a little above Baffora, in north latitude
310, to the confines of European Ruflia, in north latitude
470, it occupies a range of 160 of latitude. InBritilh miles
itsextentiseftimated at 175oinlength,by amedial breadth
of about lOOO, and its area at 652,960 fquare miles.
SMviiions. Turkey is naturally divided into European and Afia-
tic, feparated from each other by the Black fea, the Ar¬
chipelago, and the ftraits by wdiich thefe are connefted.
European Turkey is fubdivided into 11 provinces, viz.
Moldavia, Bessarabia, Wallachia, Bosnia, Ser-
via (partially), Bulgaria, Romelia (including Ma¬
cedonia and Thrace), Dalmatia, Albania (including
Epirus), Croatia (partially), and the Morea, or an¬
cient Greece } while Afiatic Turkey is fubdivided into
feven provinces, viz. Natolia {AJia Minor), Diar-
bec (Mefopotamia'), Syria (including Judcea'), Geor¬
gia (Iberia'), TuRCOMANIA {Armenia), Irac-Arabia,
and Kurdistan (AJfyria). See each of thefe articles
3 in the general alphabet.
Iflands. The iflands belonging to Turkey are extremely nu¬
merous * comprifing thofe of the Archipelago, or the
Grecian iflands, and feveral in the Levant. The moft
important are Lemnos, Lesbos or Mytelene, Scio,
Samos, Cos, Rhodes, Cyprus, Candia, Paros, De¬
los, Naxia, Sanctorini, Patmos, Negropont, An-
* See Ve- DRO *, CoLTERl or Salamis *, EgiNA, Zante *, Ce-
1/ice. PHALONIA, LEUCADIA, Corfu, and Cerigo or Cy-
4 therea, which fee under their proper heads.
Face of the Both European and Afiatic Turkey abound in moun-
c«untry. tainous tra&s, inlerfperfed with numerous plains and
Vol. XX. Part II.
valleys^ and here and there a defert of confiderable ex- Turkey' ^
tent. The plains are watered by numerous large ri-
vers, and, in the Afiatic part, confift chiefly of pafture
grounds. 3
Among the mountains of European Turkey may be Mountains*-
noticed the Carpathian chain, which divides it from the
Auftrian territories j the celebrated mountains of Hae-
mus j the Acroceraulian mountains } and the claflical
hills of Pindus, OiTa, Pelios, and Athos. The moft im¬
portant mountains of Afiatic Turkey are, Mount Cauca-
fus, dividing it from Ruflia •, Mount Taurus, now called
Thuron; Olympus; Ida; the mountains of Elivend, and
perhaps Mount Ararat, the refting-place of the Ark,
dividing it from Perfia; and Mount Lebanon, celebrat¬
ed in fcripture for its cedars. 5
The principal river of European Turkey is the Da Rivers,
nube, with its tributary ftreams, the Save, the Morava,
the Bofna, and the Pruth ; but we may alio notice the
Mariffa or Hebrus, and the Vardan or Axius. In A-
fiatic Turkey are feen the Kifil-Irmak or Halys, the Sac-
caria, the Sarabat or Hermus, the Minder or Meander, ^
the Araxes, the Orontes, the Jordan, and the Euphrates. Lake*.
The lakes of European Turkey are of little import¬
ance, and in the Afiatic part there are only three that
merit notice. Thefe are the Dead fea and the fea of
Galilee in Paleftine, and the Van in Armenia. 8
The climate in the greater part of the Turkifh em- climate
pire is delightful, and the feafons mild and genial. The and feafentf
heats of the fummer, except in the deferts of Syria, and
on the fhores of the Black fea, are tempered by the
keen winds that blow from the higher regions, and the
winter is in general extremely mild. The unhealthi-
nefs of the large towns on the coaft of Afiatic lurkey,
is owing much more to the indolent and dirty habits of
the people, than to any infalubrity of the climate. 9
Turkey affords a moft ample field to the naturalift, Natural
whether his tafte lead him to explore the animal, thehlftorX*
vegetable, or the mineral kingdom. In the firft of thefe
he will find the lion, a variety of the tiger, the hyena,
the jackal, the ibex, the goat and cat of Angora, and
many other quadrupeds common in Europe. Among
the birds, one of the moft numerous and moft ufeful is
the ftork; partridges of a large fize, quails, woodcocks,
cranes, and feveral birds of prey, are alfo very common.
The Black fea and the Archipelago abound with excel¬
lent fiftr, and contain great variety of curious mollufca,
and other marine animals. Among the infefts, that de-
ftru&ive animal the locuft is a frequent vifitanft; and
Sonnini particularifes the tarantula, and a monftrous
fpecies of fpider, wLich he calls galeode araneoide, or
the fcorpion fpider. Of the domeftic animals, the Turks
abound in excellent horfes, affes of a large fize, and that
moft ufeful beaft of burden, the camel.
To enumerate the vegetable produftions of Turkey,
would far exceed our fcanty limits. The forefts of Eu¬
ropean Turkey, though far lefs extenfive than in ancient
times, furnifti abundance of the fineft timber, efpecially
oak, cedar, larch, walnut, chefnut, and beech, while
the olive, the date, the almond, the peach, the mulberry,
the cherry, the lemon, and the orange, are the natural
productions of Afiatic Turkey. Many of the moft va¬
luable drugs employed in medicine, are alfo the produce
of this empire, efpecially opium, rhubarb, myrrh, afafoe-
tida and other fetid gums, fcammony, fenna, galls, and
coloquintida.
3 S Both
T U R
Outline of
the 1'urkifli
hiftory.
Turkey. ^ Both gold and filver mines are found in Turkey, but
v ' from the indolence of the natives they are (earcely ever
worked. Many of the iflands abound in mineral trea-
fures, efpecially Cyprus, where are found mines of gold,
copper, vitriol, and iron and where rock cryllal, jaiper,
and feveral precious Hones are occafionally procured.
The chief mineral produftion of Turkey, however, is
its marble, of which it furnilhes feveral of the molt rare
10 and beautiful varieties. That from the Grecian ifhnd
Paros, is proverbially excellent.
"1 he people whom we now call Turks, and who form
the great mafs of population of the Turkilh empire, are
generally believed to be the defcendants of the ancient
Scythians. Thefe are fuppofed to have migrated from
the Altai mountains in Tartary, about the middle of
the fixth century, and to have gradually diffufed them-
felves towards the weft, till they reached the lake Mteo-
tis, the modern fea of Azof, near which they fettled in
Armenia Minor or Turcomania. At this time the Ro¬
man empire in the eaft was fufficiently ftrong to prevent
the invaders from extending beyond the river Oxus, on the
banks of which they eftablithed themfelves, and foon be-
11 came a formidable foe to the emperors of Conftantinople.
Foundation There is little certain or interefting in the hiftory of
of the Ot- thefe barbarians till the reign of the caliph Othman, or
pire. Uiman, wno m the end of the 13 th century eflablilhed
A, D. 1300. what from has been called the Ottoman empire. He
firft took the title of fultan, and fixed the feat of his go¬
vernment at Prufa, the capital of Bithynia. His fucceffor
Orkan was a reftlefs, ambitious, and cruel prince, who
13 greatly extended the limits of the empire, took poffeftion
Eftablifli- of Gallipoli, and penetrated into Thrace. Amurath the
rnent Ot the granc]fon of Ofman, in 1362, eftabliftied the famous mi-
i36z,arieS’ ^'taTT bands called Janixan'es, which ftill form the chief
engines and chief moderators of Turkifh defpotifm. Thefe
were firft compofed ofyoungChriftian Haves that had been
taken in w'ar, and educated in the Mohammedan religion.
They wTere inured to obedience by fevere difcipline, and
trained to warlike exercife •, and as every fentwment
which enthufiafm can infpire, and every mark of hon¬
our which the favour of the prince could confer, were
employed to animate them wdth martial ardour, and ex¬
cite in them a fenfe of their owm importance, thefe jani¬
zaries, (or new foldiers) foon became the chief ftrength
and pride of the Ottoman arms. On the affaftination of
Amurath in 1389, he wras fucceeded by his fon Baja-
zet, furnamed Ilderim, or the Thunderbolt, w'hofe reign
forms one of the moft fplendid epochs in the Turkifh
hiftory.
Early in this reign, viz. in 1396, the Hungarians
1 506 ]
T U It
were defeated at Nicopoli in Bulgaria, and in 1402,
. I3
Reign of
Bajazet.
ill. izbo, was f0Ugllt the famous battle between Bajazet and Ti¬
mur or Tamerlane, the chief of the Moguls, between
Ccfarea and Aneyra, which ended in the cautivify 0f
Bajazet, and the temporary humiliation of the Turks.
See Moguls, N° 19 and 20.
On the death of Bajazet, h’s fon Moufa became fid-
tan, and in 1412 defeated the emperor Sigifinund with
great {laughter. Moula was fucceeded by his brother
Mohammed I. by whom he had been aff.fljnated. The
reign of Amurath II. fucceffor of Mohammed, contri¬
buted greatly to increafe the fplendour of the Turkifh
empire. In this reign Conftantinople was attacked, but
for the prelent efcaped, pillage. Amurath was fuccefs-
fully oppofed in his hoftilities againft the Chriftian
An.
ISIJ*
princes, by the Albanian chief George Caftriota, whom Turkey,
the Turks call Scanderbeg *. u-—-v  
Amurath was fucceeded by Mohammed II. and foon* S,ee Sc™‘
after his acceffion, viz. in 1453, the city of Conftanti-
r.ople was taken by the Turks, and has ever fince re- Taking of
mained the capital ot their empire. The events of which ^on:^ailt^"
we have thus drawn the faint outline, are related atnople’
fome length in the article Constantinopolitan Hi- J^n’
STORY, N° III. 168.
Three years after the taking of Conftantinople, Mo- Othe/Vuc-
hammed laid fiege to Belgrade, from which, after an ceffes of
obftinate reftftance, he was at length repulfed with con- ^ohairimed
ftdeiable Ids. Abandoning his attempt on Hungary,
the fuitan made preparations for an expedition into
Greece, where the princes Thomas and Demetrius,
brothers of the emperor, ftill continued to maintain
their authoiity. Alarmed at the progrefs of the Turk-
ifti arms, thefe princes refolved on retiring into Italy,
on which tne peninlula was leized by the Albanians.
I his tube icnt a deputation to M^ohammed, offering to
give up to him the Grecian cities and foitreffes, provid¬
ed they ftiould be allowed to keep the open country j
but this offer was reje£ted by the iultan, who under the
appearance of aflifting the Greeks, entered the country
with a formidable army, defeated the Albanians, took
feveral cities, and carried off great numbers of the inha¬
bitants. ^
Mohammed was fucceeded by bis fecond fon Baja- Bajazet II.
zet II. in 1481, preferred by the janizaries to his An. 1481.
elder brotnei Z.zan, who fled for prtrteclion to Pope
Alexander VI. by whom he is faid to have been poifon-
ed, at the mitigation of Bajazet, and for the reward of
300,000 ducats. Selim, his youngeft fon and fucceflor,
was a fuccefsful prince. He conquered Egypt, Aleppo,
Antioch, Iripoli, Damafcus, and Gaza, and defeated
the I erftans. Solyman, lurnamed the IVIagnificent,
one of the moft accomplilhed, enterprifing, and warlike’
of the Turkifh princes, afeended the Ottoman throne in
confequence of the death of Selim.
Having quelled fome infurre&ions in Alia, he com- Solyman I.
menced hoftilities againft the European princes, and en- An. 1320.
tering Hungary, made himfelf mafter of Belgrade, then
reckoned the chief barrier of that kingdom againft the
- I urkifh power. He next turned his viftorieus arms
againft the ifland of Rhodes, then the feat of the knights
of St John 01 Jerufalem. After incredible efforts of
courage and military conduct, the knights obtained an
honourable capitulation, and retired to the fmall ifland
of Malta, where they fixed their refidence. See Mal¬
ta. . He afterwards annexed Hungary to the Ottoman
empire. His dominions extended from Algiers to the
river Euphrates, and from the farther end of the Black
fea to the extremity of Greece and Epfins. During the
fiege of Sigeth, a city of Hungary, before which the
Turks loft above 30,000 men, Solyman expired in the
74fh year of his age, and 41ft of his reign. ig
His fon and fuccefibr, Selim II. befieged and took Sehm
Cyprus; but in the famous fca fight at Lepanto, in Ah-
I57I, t1ne Turkifh ft et was utterly deftroyed by Don
John of Auftria. He afterwards invefted and took Tu¬
nis by ftorm, putting the garrifon to the fword. 19
On his death, Amurath III. afeended the Ottoman fomumh
throne, and extended his dominions on both fides by I^L
the addition of Raab in Hungary, and Tigris in Per- n"
fia. His ion, Mohammed III. has no claim to notice
except
I7
Achmct I.
An. 1603.
* See Acb-
met I,
T U 11
Turkey, except on account of his barbaiity. y ~
'““"'v—^—1 by (tranwling 19 of his brothers, and ordering 12 Oi nis
. T , 23 , father’s wives, whom he fufpefted to be pregnant, to be
Moaammecl drowned> This monfter of cruelty had, however, a fuc-
ccfsful reign of nine years duration, Du ling the govern-
ment of his fon, Achmet I. the affairs of Turkey under-
went a material change for the worfe *. On his death,
the janizaries and the divan elefted his brother Mufta-
pha, whom in two months they declared incapable of
reigning, and threw him into prifon } after this they
proclaimed his young nephew, Ofman, the Ion of Ach¬
met, emperor. This prince formed a defign of curbing
the power of the janizaries, for which he was depofed
and murdered ; and Muftapha was again called from
his prifon to the imperial throne, but was foon after
ftrangled. .
Under Amurath, or Morad IV. furnamed Gafi, the
Intrepid, every thing again affumed a new appearance.
He was fuccefsful in his wars, and took Bagdat from
the Perfians. A debauch of wine put an end to his life,
and dilhonoured his memory. His fon Ibrahim, wno
fucceeded him, had every vice 5 he was a weak prince,
and wholly deftitute of courage. He was ftrangled by
four mutes.
After a long interval of ina&ivity, the Turks again
Turkey.
in.
Amurath
IV.
An. 1622.
Mohammed
IV
became formidable to Europe, under Mohammed IV.
An. 1649. who iucceeded him. His grand vifter Kupuli, M10 at
once diretted the councils and conduced the armies of
the Porte, took Candia from the Venetians. After car¬
rying on many wars againft the Germans, the Poles,
the Ruffians, and other European powers, he was com¬
pelled to refign the turban to Solyman II. in 1687, a
An. 16S7. prince happy in his domeftic government, but unfuccefs-
f See Ach- ful in his wars. His brother, Achmet II. was hkewife
met II.
24
Muftapha
II.
An. 1695.
Achmet
III.
26
Muftapha
TIL
An. 1754.
unfortunate in his wars. In his reign the Turks were
driven out of Hungary and Tranfylvania f. I he accef-
fion of his nephew, Muftapha II. to the Ottoman
throne, gave a new turn to the affairs of the Poite.
Pofleffed of more vigour than his predcceffor, he refolv-
ed to command his troops in perfon. He accordingly
took the field, paffed the Danube, ftormed Lippa; feiz-
ed Itul, and falling fuddenly on a body of Impelialifts,
under Veterani, he killed that officer, difperfed his forces,
and clofed with fuccefs the campaign. He was after-
wTards defeated bv Prince Eugene in an uncommonly
bloody battle at Zenta, a fmall village on the weftern
bank of the Thuyfe, in the kingdom of Hungary. A-
bout 20,000 Turks were left dead on the field, and
10,000 were drowned in the river, endeavouring to a-
void the fury of the fvvord. The magnificent pavilion
of the fultan, and all the ftores, fell into the hands of
Prince Eugene, and foon after this misfortune the
haughty Muftapha was dethroned.
His ’brother and fucceffor, Achmet III. gave an a-
fylum to Charles XII. king of Sweden, at Bender, a
Turkifh town in Moldavia, after his defeat at the battle
of Pultava. (See Russia, N° 118. and Sweden, N°
140.). Being unfuccefsful in his war againft Kouli
Khan and the Perfians (fee Persia), he was depofed,
and fucceeded by Mohammed V.
From the depofition of Achmet III. till the acceflion
of Muftapha III. in 1754’ no^ng importance oc¬
curs in the hiftory of the Turkifh empire. During the
reign of this latter fultan was begun and terminated that
deftruaive war with Ruffia, of which the principal events
[ 5°7 1 T U R
He began his reign have been enumerated in the article Russia, N 143
and 144. . ... 27
In this reign an extraordinary alarm was excuea in _\ppearance
Turkey by the fudden appearance of a new prophet m of a new
Upper Afia. This man, whole name was Sfaet Marifour, prophet m
pretended that he was predoomed by the eternal irn-
mutable decrees of heaven to fill up the measure of di¬
vine revelation to mankind j and that, as he was to be
the laft, lb he was the greateft of the prophets. 1 he
feene of his miniftry was in the wide and defolate re¬
gions on the borders of the Cafpian fea j and though
the firft rumour of his proceedings reprefented him as at
the head of a multitude of armed enthufiafts, ready to
overturn the eftablifhed government, and the religion of
Mohammed, it was foon difeovered that all the military
fury of his zeal was direfted againft the Chiiftians. 2S
About the fame time a formidable rebellion broke A rebellion
out in E^ypt, which, though it has never properly form- ^ m •
ed a part of the Turkith empire, may be confidered as
tributary to the Turks, and as conftituting the granary
of that empire. This rebellion, which has been lufh-
ciently noticed under the article Egypt, N 125, was
fuppreffed chiefly by the wife conduft and intrepid bra¬
very of Hoffan Bey, the captain pacha, who at the age
of 70, fought with all the ardour of youth,^ and ah the
Ikill of the moft confummate general, lhat veteran,
however, was recalled before he was able to carry all
his patriotic defigns into execution, that he might aid
the divan with his council, in the critical iituation into
which the empire was brought by the arrogant claims
of the court of Ruffia. The refult of the deliberations
was a precipitate declaration of war agaiuft that court,
contrary to the better judgement of the old pacha.
1’he war commenced in autumn 1787, and the hordes
of Tartars which were firft brought into the field, head¬
ed by the new prophet, were everywhere deleated by
the fuperior difeipline of the Ruffian troops commanded
by Prince Potemkin. Some enterprifes which were un-
dertaken by the Turks againft the ifland of Taman and
the Krimea were attended with as little fuccefs as the
attempts of the Tartars-, while the emperor Jofeph de¬
clared to the Porte, that he -would affift bis ally the em-
prefs of Ruffia with an army of 80,000 pen. four
Auftrian armies were accordingly affembled ; one at
Carlftadt in Croatia, under the command of General de
Vins; another at Peterwaradin in Hungary, command¬
ed by General Langlois ; a third on the borders of Li¬
thuania, under General Febris } and the fourth in t ic
Buccowine, under the orders of the prince ot Saxe-Co-
boura. Two other generals, 10 lieutenant-generals,
and 30 major-generals, were all. ordered to prepare for
aftive fervice in the frontier armies.
The w-ar betw-een the 1 urks and Auftnans was car¬
ried on w’ith various fuccefs. At firft tne auvantage
was evidently on the fide of the Ottomans, and the im¬
perial Jofeph acquired no warlike renown. His declar¬
ed purpofe was to get poffcffion of Belgraoe} ,
which, however, he w-as repulfed with diigrace. I ne
prince of Saxe-Cobourg in his department.of the war
difplayed indeed prodigies of valour but being oppofed
to a fuperior force, he was long obliged to a<R omy on
the defenfive. At length being joined by a body ol
Ruffian forces under General Soltikof, preparations were
made for commencing in form the fiege of Choczim,
which was furrendered to the allied armies on Michae.-
3 S a roas
T U R
r
Turkey, ^las day a defence which would have done
'""" v~ honour to the ablefl: general in Europe, Still, however,
fuccefs feemed to lean to the Turks. The grand vizier
made a fudden incurfxon into the Bannat, and fpread
confternation and difmay to the very gates of Vienna.
The Aufh'ian affairs feemed approaching to a very a-
larming crifis ; not only the fplendid views of conquelt
which were beheld in the imagined partition of a totter¬
ing empire had totally difappeared, but had left in their
place the fad and gloomy reverfe of a difcontented and
impoverifhed people, an exhaufted treafury, and an army
thinned by peftilence and defertion. The firft campaign
of an invafive war had already produced an impreflmn
on the territory of the invader.
In this fituation of affairs Marlhal Laudohn was with
fome difficulty drawn from his retirement to take the
command of the army in Croatia •, and under his aufpi-
ces fortune began to fmile on the Auftrian arms. He
quickly reduced Dubicza and Nevi, though they were
both defended by the moft obftinate bravery. He then
fat down. before Turkifh Gradifca ; but the autumnal
rains coming on with fuch violence, that the Save over¬
flowed its banks, he was compelled to raife the fiege.
During this period the war in the Bannat raged with
the utmoft violence j torrents of blood were (bed on
both Tides; much defperate valour difplayed on the one
fide, and many brave* aftions performed on the other j
wffiile a very great part of that fine but unfortunate coun¬
try fuffered all the defolation and ruin that fire and fword,
under the dominion of vengeance and animofity, could
inffift. ^ The inhabitants were obje&s of commiferation j
but the injuftice with which the emperor had commen¬
ced the war, made his perfonal Ioffes be confidered as
nothing more than the due reward of his conduft.
In the midft of thefe military operations Achmet
IV. was depofed, and fucceeded by Selim III. the late
fultan. The new emperor did not want either cour¬
age or prudence, and he continued tire war w-ith Ruffia
and Auftria, with great fpirit and refolution. Thofe
events of this war in which the Ruffians w'ere more im¬
mediately concerned, have been already noticed under
the article Russia, N° 156, 158, 160 and 161 ; fo
that we have merely to relate the remaining operations
of the Auftrians.
Marlhal Laudohn renewed his attempts upon Gradif¬
ca as foon as the feafon would permit, and after a brave
defence it fell into his hands. This, with fome other
fucceffes roufed the emperor from his ina&ivity, and
made him ferioufly determine on the attack which he
had long meditated on Belgrade. The enterprife was
intrufted to Laudohn, who, with that good fortune which
feemed conftantly to attend him, made himfelf mafter of
the place in lefs than a month. The reft of the campaign
was little elfe than a feries of the moft important fuc¬
ceffes. While one detachment of General Laudohn’s
forces took polkffion of Czernitz in Walachia, another
made itfelf mafter of Cladova in Servia. Buchareft,
the capital of the fornier of thefe provinces, fell without
cppofition into the hands of Prince Cobourg 5 while
Akerman on the Black fea was reduced by the Ruffians;
and Bender furrendered to Prince Potemkin, not with¬
out fufpicion of finifter praaices, on the 1 cth of Novem¬
ber.
Soon after this, the emperor Jofeph died, and his fiic-
ceffor Leopold (hewed a delire for peace. After the re-
Turkey.
1 
*9
Acceffion
of Selim
HI.
An. 17 89.
3®
Marfhal
Laudohn
takes Gra-
4ifca and
Belgrade.
31 .
?eace with
Aultria,
An, 1.7 jo.
508 ] T U R
duaion of Orfova, therefore, which happened on the
16th of April 1790, the war was carried on with lan¬
guor on the part of Auftria ; and in the month of June
a conference was agreed on at Reichenbach, at which
the mmifters of Pruflia, Auftria, Britain, and the Unit¬
ed Provinces, affifted, and at which alfo an envoy
from Poland was occafionally prefent. After a negocia-
tion, which continued till the 17th of Auguft, it was
agreed that a peace fliould be concluded between the
king of Hungary and the Ottoman Porte ; that the bafis
of this treaty ffiould be a general furrender of all the
conquefts made by the former, retaining only Choczim
as a fecurity till the Porte fhould accede to the terms of
the agreement, when it alfo was to be reftored.
In the following year the Porte was compelled to con-and with
elude a peace with the emprefs of Ruffia, and from thatRuffia*
period till the depofition of Selim in 1807, no event of
confequence has occurred. The Porte has alternately
been at war with Britain and with France, but in nei¬
ther conteft has fhe acquired either honour or territory.
As the very confined limits to which we are now redu¬
ced forbid us to dwell on thefe minor tranfaftions, we
(hall haften to conclude this hiftorical outline with an
account of the revolution which placed Muftapha IV.
on the Ottoman empire.
In the fpring 1807, the fpirit of infurreffion had
fhown itfelf among the janizaries belonging to the gar-
rifons of the Dardanelles, and in the camp of the grand
vizier. In the afternoon of the 25 th of May, the gar- 33
rifons of the caftles of the Dardanelles were in a (late of0.6!701?11011
tumult, on account of the European uniform, the new f
ta&ics, &c. Hali Aga, the commandant of Madfchia-fion ofMu-
burna, on the Afiatic Ihore, was murdered. Indfche ftapha IV.
Bey, commandant of the entrance of the Black fea,
only efcaped the fame fate by flight. The rcis effendi
happening to come to infpea that poft juft at the fame
time, the military immediately rofe upon him as one of
the introducers of the nizam geded. He endeavoured to
fave himfelf in a bark, by paffing;over to Buyukdere,
but 100 piftol (hots laid him and his attendants dead.
It feems that the rage of the janizaries had been em¬
bittered againft him by the recolleftion of a promife he
made to raife their pay, on condition they would adopt
the new difeipline, and wffiich promife he never per¬
formed.
Another circumftance increafed the fpirit of oppofi-
tion j the fultan had given notice that the janizaries
were no longer to attend him as ufual to the mofque,
but that this duty was to devolve upon the troops dif-
ciplined after the European manner. Thoufands of
janizaries were now marching to Conftantinople, and
arrived in the fuburb of Pera on the evening of the
28th. They fwore to each other to conduft the re¬
volution with the beft order. Any perfon who (hould
in the lead: injure any Frank was to fuffer death.
One individual janizary only met with his fate, for
taking bread from a Greek (a baker), without paying
for it. Behind the janizaries barracks, in the well-
known place called Eimeldan, the janizaries planted
their colours, and took with them their camp kettles j an
infallible fignal of infurrettion. For a time, the fultan
thought of defending himfelf; and troops, powder, and
cannon, were brought to the feraglio. Soon after the
mufti, the feimen bafehe, the kaimakan, and the two
kazeakars of Romelia and Natolia, joined the jani¬
zaries.
T U R
[ 509 1
T U R
Turkey.
34.
Population
of Turkey.
35
Govern¬
ment.
zaries. A council was held in form, and it was pro-
‘ pofed as a preliminary, to requeft the grand feignior
to aboliih the new difcipline by a fettiva from the mufti.
The grand feignior, however, thought he (hould be able
to put a flop to the infurreftion before the ilep could
be taken, in confequence of his fending the heads of
Mahmud, Terfana Emin, Hagai Ibrahim, and the
kiaga Mehmefch Effendi, to the Eimeldan. This
meafure completely failed j the janizaries were more
enraged than ever •, they did not require the heads of
the univerfally efteemed Mahmud Effendi, but that of
the Reis Eftendi, then in the camp of the grand vizier.
The janizaries continued to fearch every place for
thofe minifters, who had promoted the adoption of the
European difcipline, and publicly avowed themfelves as
its patrons, namely, Franfifto, Ibrahim, Juffuf Aga,
Hadfchi Ibrahim, and Achmet Bey, captains of the grand
feignior’s guard} Haffan Aga, Achmet Eftendi, and
others, 12 in number, who were all taken, dragged to the
Eimeldan, and there cut to pieces. At this juncture the
grand feignior fent a hatti fcheriff, a letter written in
his own hand, in which he for ever abolifhed the nizam
geded, and pronounced an execration on it. But the
hatti fcheriff was not now accepted j the depofition of
the grand feignior was refolved on. The whole force
of the janizaries now proceeded to the feraglio. The
mufti and the ullemas alone entered the haram, while
the reft of the minifters, the agas, the janizaries, and the
people, furrounded the palace.
Muftapha IV. born on the 7th of September 1799,
the eldeft fon of the fultan Achmet IV. fet afide in
1789, was raifed to the Turkifh throne. And accord¬
ing to ancient cuftom, Selim, the former fultan, threw
himfelf at the feet of Muftapha, kiffed the border of his
garment, and immediately repaired to that department
of the feraglio occupied by the princes of the Ottoman
blood who no longer reign. The folemn invitation to
M \ftapha, to afcend the throne, was made on the 29th
of May, and on the 3d of June the ceremony of inveft-
ing him with the fabre of the prophet, took place.
The population of the whole Turkifh empire is ufu-
ally eftimated at 18,000,000. Of thefe, 10,000,000
have been allotted to Afiatic Turkey, and the remain¬
ing 8,000,000 to Turkey in Europe. A confiderable
part of this population confifts of Jews and mercantile
Chriftians, from different parts of Europe, who are di-
ftinguifhed by the name of Franks.
The government of Turkey is defpotic, but the
power of the fultan is by no means fo abfolute as we
are generally led to fuppofe. Beftdes, being ftri&ly
fubje<3: to the laws of the Koran, and thus to the na¬
tional religion, fuch obftruflions to his abfolute will are
raifed by the power of the mufti, or chief prieft and judge,
by the frequent infurre&ions of the janizaries, and the
ambition of the pachas, or governors of provinces, that
many Chriftian fovereigns are much more defpotic.
The principal title of the fultans is, as we have feen,
grand feignior, and the court of Conftantinople is ufu-
ally ftyled the Porte, or Ottoman Porte, either from the
large gate at the entrance of the feraglio, or, what is
more probable, from the palace of the vizier, where all
the affairs of ftate are tranfadled. The principal mini¬
fters of the Porte are the grand vizier or prime minifter,
the mufti, the reis effendi or chief fecretary of ftate.
the kiflar-aga or chief of the black eunuchs, and the _ Turkey. ^
aga of the janizaries. v- ' r
The revenues of the whole Turkilh empire are corn-ReVeHues,
puted at about 7,000,000!, Sterling, while the ufual ex¬
pence does not exceed 5,000,000!. This revenue is partly
derived from the capitation tax on unbelievers and from
the cuftoms, but principally from the tax on land, a-
mounting to about 6s. per acre. The fultan is alfo
fuppofed to poffefs a confiderable private treafure, but
of this nothing certain is known. 37
The military ftrength of Turkey is but inconfidera-Military
ble for fo large an empire. The whole of the landftrcnS^n
forces are fuppofed never to exceed 150,000 men, and
thefe are ill difciplined, and now difpirited by fucceffive
difaftrous wars. The navy is eftimated at 30 fail of the
line; but the fhips are ill-built, badly manned, and wretch¬
edly navigated. In ftiort, the military ftrength of the
Ottoman empire is not improperly faid to be more de~
ftruftive to its own provinces than to any ftate with
which they are at war, and more terrible to its friends
than its enemies. -s
The eftablilhed religion of Turkey is Mahometanifm,Religion
the tenets of which have been alfeady explained underand laws,
the articles Mahometanism and Alcoran. The
laws of the empire are entirely founded on the Koran \
but in particular cafes the judges are guided by certain
commentaries on that work, which have acquired the
force of laws. The chief of thefe are the commentaries
of Abou-Hanife.
The mufti, or Mohammedan pontiff, prefides at Con¬
ftantinople, but his power has feldom interfered with the
civil government. Next to him in rank are the mou*
lahs, who, though efteemed dignitaries of the church,
are in fa£t rather doftors of the law, while the Koran
is alfo a code of civil obfervance. From the moulahs
are felefled the inferior muftis or judges throughout the
empire, and the cadelefquiers, or chief juftices. The
next clafs of divines includes the imaums, or parilh
priefls, who perform the fervice of the mofques, while
the cadis are judges annually appointed to adminifter
juftice in the towns and villages, and being regard¬
ed as churchmen, like the moulahs, have directed
their chief attention to the judicial part of the Ko¬
ran. From this brief view it will be obferved, that
the ecclefiaftical orders of muftis and imaums fomewhat
refemble the Chriftian bilhops and parochial clergy 5
while the other diftinftions arife from the Angularity
of both religion and laws being united in the Koran, lb
that a lawyer or judge muft be at the fame time a Ikil-
ful divine. The Turks have alfo their monks, ftyled
dervilhes, of four various orders and inftitutions, dedi¬
cated by folemn vows to religious offices, public prayer,
and preaching. The Greeks, along with their faith,
retain their priefts, bilhops, archbilhops, and patriarchs j
but their church is in the laft ftate of degradation,
and its dignities^ openly fold by the Turks ; this abomi¬
nation, however, it muft be confeffed, partly arifes from
the miferable ambition and avarice of the Greek ec-
clefiaftics, who think they can atone by idle ceremo¬
nies for the negletft of all the invaluable morality of the
gofpek _ < ^ . 3Jr
The Turkilh language is of far inferior reputation Language
to the Perfian or Arabic, being a mixture of feveral dia-^tec8a'r
lefts, and poffefling neither the force, elegance, nor pu¬
rity
Turkey.
40
'Of com¬
merce.
T U R [ 5
nty of thefe two celebrated oriental tongue?. Litera¬
ture, however, is not wholly negle&ed, and it has been
repeatedly attempted to eftablilh a printing prefs at
Con ft anti no pie ; but. the defign failed from the intereft
of the copyifts, who inferred that this art would deprive
them of their bread. A late traveller informs us"that
there are in this capital feveral kuttub-chans, or public
libraries, among which are thole of St Sophia, and the
Sohmame Jamafy 5 but none are fo elegant as that
founded by the grand vizier Raghid, which is wholly
built of marb e in the midlt of a fquare court, and is fil¬
ed with books chiefly theological. A librarian con-
itantly attends, and there are convenient feats with car-
petsand cuihions. In the neighbourhood is a fchool
rounded by the fame vizier, in which about 100 bovs
are taught to read and write. The market for books is
extenfive, containing many {hops well fupplied with orien-
tal manufenpts. The Turks have their ancient poets,
hitionans, and divines; but of little reputation when
compared with thofe of Perfia or Arabia. The flate
of education among the Turks may be conceived to be
very low, and ignorance is indeed a chief part of the
national chara&er. The only profeflion which requires
a fliadow of learning is that of the law, which is inti-
mately connefted with their theology. The celebrated
doctors have difciples, who are trained up to that depart¬
ment ; but there feems nothing that can deferve the
name of college or univerfity.
I ne lurks cannot.be regarded as a commercial peo¬
ple, though they admit of an extenfive commercial in-
tercourfe with the ftates of Europe, through the medium
ot frank and Greek merchants. The chief ports are
Smyrna and Conftantinople, the former of which is the
great centre of the Levant trade, while the latter is
concerned chiefly in the trade with Ruflia, by the Black
'r 1 •^Lt b°l.h tbefe Ports’ .and indeed throughout the
lurkiih empire, the trade is nominally carried on by
fadtors from the different European ftates; but it is ma¬
naged more immediately by Jew or Armenian brokers,
who take numerous advantages of the ignorance of the
fadtors, and.feldom fail to enrich themfelves at the ex-
pence, of their employers. The commodities exported
from Turkey, chiefly to Britain, Germany, Italy, Hol¬
land, and France, confift for the moft part of bees wax,
boxwood, filk, cotton yarn, walnut planks, fponges, o-
pmm and other drugs enumerated in N° 9, madder
root, and.other dye fluffs, and various dried fruits, fuch
as figs, raifins, and currants. The imports are chiefly
tin and tin plates, ftigar, (balloons, cotton yarn and cot¬
ton goods, muflins, clocks and watches, cutlery and
gkns ware, indigo, gunpowder, piftols and military
l ores, logwood., rum, coffee, and various fpices, efpe-
ciallv pepper, ginger, and cinnamon. The exports are
principally from Smyrna, where the trade is carried on
aim oft entirely by way of exchange, while at Conflan-
tinople the imports are generally paid for by cafli or
D Th ip ,e.XcbanSe’s cornmcmly againft the Turks.
. - he Lurkilh money ufually employed in commerce
is the. piaftre, which, according to the exchange or
agio, is rated at from 13 to 17 in the Enylifh pound
• e avfraS'e ralue of the piaftre is about
is. od. Each piaftre is dwlded into 40 paras, and each
pa^a 1 >- , mee afpers. Fhe principal weight employed
is t e kintal, equal to about one cwt. Englilh, divided
into 44 oke, and each oke into 400 drahen.
2
10 1 Tun
From their jealuufy with refpefl to Grangers, it is ex- Turkey,
tremery difficult to form a true eftimate of the national—v—-~
character of the Lurks. An intelligent writer, who,-,, 41
leems well qualified to dire# our judgement in this re- Cfha"aaer
Ipecf, has thus delineated the Turkifh charader. “ The lurks
Lurks are in general a fugacious, thinking people; in
the puiliut of their own intereft, or fortune, their atten¬
tion is fixed on one object, and they perfevere with
great ifeadineis until they attain their purpole. They
am m common life feemmgly obliging and humane, not
without appearances of gratitude : perhaps all or either
of theie, when extended towards Chriftians, are practif-
ed with a view of lome advantage. Intereft is their fu-
preme good ; where that becomes an objedt of competi¬
tion, ail attachment of friendlhip, all ties of confangui-
n,ty, diflolved ; they become deiperate, no barrier
can. ftop their purfuit, or abate their rancour towards
their competitors. In their demeanour they aie rather
hypochondriac, grave, fedate, and paffive ; but when
agitated by pafljon, furious, raging, ungovernable ; big
with diimnulation ; jealous, lufpicious, and vindidlive
beyond conception ; perpetuating revenge from genera¬
tion to. generation. In matters of religion, tenacious,
lupercihous, and morofe”. * * Pcttet't
.1 he manneis and cultoms of the Turks are diftin- Ohfer<va~
guilhed by the peculiarity of their religion from thofe 1,0115 011
of other European nations. On the birth of a child tfe ^ Ret\~
father himfelf gives the name, putting at the fame time Sr"’
a giam of (alt into its mouth. The circumcifion is not'?/’the
performed till the age of 12 or 14. Marriage is only a Tvrks' voi>
civil contradt, which either party may break, and is1'13'4’
managed by female mediation, the youth feldom feeing 42
h,s bride till after the ceremony. The dead are perfum. ”r“f
ed with mcenfe, and buried in a cloth, open at top and toms.
bottom, that the deceafed may be able to lit up and an-
Iwer the queftions of the angels of death. The burial-
grounds are near the highways, and Hones are often
piaced at the heads of the graves, with carved turbans
denoting the fex. As they never intrench upon a for¬
mer grave, the cemeteries are very extenfive. In diet the
'I urks are extremely moderate, and their meals are dif-
patched with great hafte. Rice is the favourite food,
and is drefled in three ways. In boiling, the meat is
cut into fmall pieces, and in roafting ftill fmafter, a bit
of meat, and an onion being placed alternately on’a very
long fpit. The filh of the Archipelago are excellent,
and the beef tolerable, except that of the buffalo, which
is very hard. The hares, partridges, and other game,
are of fupenor flavour. The meal is ufually fpread on a
low wooden table, and the mailer of the houfe pro¬
nounces a Ihort prayer. The frugal repaft is followed
nuits and coid water, which are fucceeded by hot
coffee and pipes with tobacco. The houfes of the Turks
are feldom expenfive ; the chief furniture is the car¬
pet which covers the floor, with a low fofa on one fide
of the room. In regard to drefs, Tournefort obferves
that the ufe of the turban is unhealthy. The fliirt is
0^aLi_co, and the loofe robe is faftened by a girdle, in
which is ftuck a dagger, while the tobacco box, pocket-
book, &c. are worn in the bofom. The robe is gene¬
rally of European broad cloth, trimmed with various
tirs. F Itr»r* Hi **c nil! L 1 1 ✓% #»
r rj.,, » n. 7     "AH* vanuuo
turs. I he. Ihoes or flippers are flight, and unfit for
much exercife. The drefs of the women differs little
from that of the men, the chief diftimRion being the
head-drtfs; that of the fair fex confifting of a bonnet
like
T U R [5
Turkey like an inverted bafket, formed of padeboard covered
11. with cloth of gold, with a veil extending to the eye-
, Tur»mg- brows, while a fine handkerchief conceals the under part
of the face. The perfonal cleanlinefs of both fexes is
highly laudable ; but the European eye is not pleafed
with the female cudom of ftaining the nails with a red
tin&ure. The amusements of the Turks partake of
their indolent apathy, if we except hunting, and thofe
of a military deioription. To recline on an elegant car¬
pet, or in a hot feafon by the fide of a itream, and fmoke
the delicate tobacco of Syria, may be regarded as their
chief amufement. Chefs and draughts are favourite
games; but thofe of chance are confidered as incompat¬
ible with ftridt morals. The coffee-houfes and baths
furnifh other lources of amufement; and the bairam, or
fdtival which follows their long lent, is a feaion of uni-
* Tinker- veifal diffipation. *
ton's Gao- It appears to be a miftaken notion, that the praftice
graphy. 0f eating opium, to procure intoxication, is general a-
mong the Turks. We are affured by a late traveller,
that this praftice is cor.fined to a few individuals, who
are regarded by the majority of their countrymen with
as much contempt as drunkards are in the more polifhed
focieties of Europe.
Turkey. See Meleagris, Ornithology Index.
TURMERIC. See Curcuma, Botany Index.
TURNER, a fpecies of Brassica. See Botany In¬
dex ; and for the culture, fee AGRICULTURE Index.
TuiiNEP-Bread. See Bread.
Turnep-F/ij. See Chrysomela, Entomology
Index.
TURNING, the art of forming hard bodies, as wood,
ivory, iron, into a round or oval fliape, by means of a
machine called a lathe.
This art was well known to the ancients, and feems
to have been carried by them to a very great degree of
perfe&ion ; at leaft, if we believe the tefiimony of Pliny
and feveral other authors, who tell us, that thofe preci¬
ous vafes enriched with figures in half-relief, which Rill
adorn our cabinets, were turned on the lathe.
The art of turning is of confiderable importance, as
it contributes efl'entially to the perfedtion of many other
arts. The architedf ufes it for many ornaments, both
within and without highly finifhed houfes. The ma-
thematioian, the aftronomer, and the natural philofo-
pher, have recourfe to it, not only to embellifh their
infiruments, but alfo to give them the neceffary dimen-
fion and precifion. In fhort, it is an art abfolutely ne-
cefifary to the goldfmith, the watchmaker, the ioiner,
the fmith.
Turning is performed by the lathe, of which there
are various kinds, and feveral infiruments, as gouges,
chifels, drills, formers, ferew tales, ufed for cutting what
is to be turned into its proper form as the lathe turns
round. The following is a fimple kind of lathe (fig. i.),
DXL ,n a’s the footflool, b the cord, c the frame of
F the lathe, dd the puppets, e e the points,/the fpanging-
S‘ ‘ tree.
The lathe fhould be fixed in a place very well light¬
ed ; it fhould be immoveable, and neither too high
nor too 1ow\ The puppets fhould neither be fo low
as to oblige the workman to fioop in order to fee his
work properly, nor fo high that the little chips, which
he is continually driving off. fhould come into his eyes.
The piece to be turned fhould be rounded (if it be
i ] T U R
wood) before it be put on the lathe, either with a fmall Turning. ^
hatchet made for the purpofe, or with a plane, or with v
a file, fixing it in a vice, and fhaving it down till it is
everywhere almoft of an equal thicknefs, and leaving it
a little bigger than it is in.ended to be when finiihcdoiF.
Before putting it on the lathe, it is alfo neceflary to find
the centres of its two end furfaces, and that they ihould
be exactly oppofite to each other, that when the points
of the puppets are applied to them, and the piece is
turned round, no fide may belly out more than another.
To find thefe two centres, lay the piece of wood to be
turned upon a plank ; open a pair of compaffes to almoft
half the thickneis of the piece ; fix one of the legs in
the plank, and let the point of the other touch one of
the ends of the piece, brought into the fame plane with
the plank on which the conipaflfes is fixed and very near
the fixed leg. Defcribe four arches on that end at equal
diilances from each other at the circumference of the
end, but interfering one another within ; the point of
interfe£lian is the centre of the end. In the fame man¬
ner mult the centre of the other end be found. After
finding the two centres, make a fimall hole at each of
them, into which infert the points of the puppets, and 1
fix the piece fo firmly as not to be fbaken out, and yet
loofe enough to turn round without difficulty.
The piece being thus fixed, it is neceffary in the next
place to adjull the cord, by making it pafs twice round
the piece, and in fuch a manner that the two ends of
the cord, both that which is fixed to the fpang and to
the foot-board, come off on the fide on which the turner
Hands, that the piece may move againfl the edge of the
cutting-tool and be turned. If the lathe be moved by
a wffieel, the manner of adjufling the cord needs no di-
rerions.
If the workman does not choofe to be at the trouble
to find the two centres of the piece in the manner de-
feribed above, let him lay, as nearly as he can, the cen¬
tre of one end upon the point of the left hand puppet^
and then let him puffi forward the right hand puppet,
linking it with a mallet till its point is as near as he can
in the centre of the other end of the piece ; and then
fixing the right hand puppet by a gentle blow of the
mallet on the key, let him turn round the piece to fee
by the eye if the centres have been properly found. If
any part of it bellies out, let him ftrike that part gently
with the mallet till it goes properly \ then let him ftrike
one of the puppets pretty fmartly to drive the points in¬
to the piece, and afterwards fix the puppet by linking
the key. If the wToikman cannot judge by the eye
whether the piece be turning properly round its centres
or not, he ffiould apply gently the point of an inftru-
ment called a triangular graver, leaning it on the rejl,
and it will ma:k by a line the place where the piece is
out of its centre •, and by linking upon this line with a
mallet, the piece can eafily be placed properly. The
rejl, of which we have juft fpoken, ought to be placed
upon the tw'o arms of the lathe, and fixed with ferews
as near the piece as the workman pleafes.
The piece being fixed between the two points of the
puppets (or, as they are called in Scotland, the heads'),
the cord adjuiled, and the refi fixed as near the work as
poffibie without touching it ; the workman is now to
take i gouge (fig. 2. in which a is the mouth and b thepj^ 7
handle) of a proper fize in his left hand, and hold it by 61
the handle a little inclined, keeping the back of the
hand
T U R
, Tlim’”2’, hand lowcrmoft. With his right hand, the back of
' which is to be turned upwards, he is to grafp it as near
the end as poflible on this fide of the rejlthen leaning
the gouge on the rejl, he is to prefent the edge of it a
little higher than the horizontal diameter of the piece,
fo as to form a kind of tangent to its circumference;
then putting the right foot on the foot-board, and turn¬
ing round the wheel, and holding the gouge firmly on
the rejl, the piece will be cut neatly. In the fame man¬
ner are’the chifels, formers, and other inftruments to be
ufed, taking care that the wood be cut equally, and that
the inftrument be not pulhed improperly, fometimes
ftronger than at others \ and taking care alfo that the
inftrument ufed do not follow the work, but that it be
kept firmly in the hand without yielding.
The young turner ought to endeavour to acquire the
management of the gouge and the chilel, which are
the inftruments by far the moft frequently ufed, and the
moft neceffary in this art: by them, almoft entirely,
are the foft woods turned; for as for hard woods and
other things, as box, ebony, horn, ivory, and the me¬
tals, they are hardly ever turned except by Jhaving off.
In that cafe gravers are to be ufed with fquare, round,
3) 4> or triangular mouths (fig. 3, 4, 50* They ihould be
an^ held horizontally while applied to the wood, and not
obliquely as directed for the gouge and the chifel.
After the work is completely turned, it is next to be
polifhed } and this cannot be done with the inftruments
hitherto mentioned. Soft woods, as pear-tree, hazel,
maple, ought to be poliftied with fhark-fkin or Dutch
rufhes. There are different fpecies of fharks 5 fome of
which have a grayifh, others a reddifh {kin. Shark-fkin
is always the better to be a good deal ufed ; at firft it is
too rough for poliftiing. 'I he Dutch-rujh (equifetum
hyemale), which grows in moift places among moun¬
tains, and is a native of Scotland. The oldeft plants
are the beft. Before ufing them they fhould be moif-
tened a little, otherwiftf' they break in pieces almoft im¬
mediately, and render it exceedingly difficult to polifh
with them. They are particularly proper for fmoothing
the hard woods, as box, lignum vitae, ebony, &c. Af¬
ter having cleaned up the piece w'ell, it fhould be rub¬
bed gently either with wax or olive-oil, then wiped
clean and rubbed with its own rafpings or wfith a cloth
a little worn. Ivory, horn, lilver, and brafs, are polifh¬
ed with pumice-ftone finely pounded and put upon lea¬
ther or a linen cloth a little moiftened : with this the
piece is rubbed as it ttirns round in the lathe j and to
prevent any dirt from adhering to any part of it, every
now and then it is rubbed gently wTith a fmall brufh dipt
in water. To polifh very finely, the wmrkmen make
ufe of tripoli, a particular kind of earth, and afterwards
of putty or calx of tin. Iron and fteel are polifhed with
very fine powder of emery j this is mixed with oil, and
put between two pieces of very tender wTood, and then
the iron is rubbed with it. Tin and filver are polifhed
with a burnifher and that kind of red ftone called in
France fanguine dune. They may be polifhed alfo with
putty, putting it dry into fhamoy-fkin, or wfith the
palm of the hand.
To fucceed in turning iron, it is neceflary to have a
lathe exceedingly ftrong in all its parts, and exceeding¬
ly well fixed. The puppets fhould be fhort, and the
rejl well fixed very near the work : the back of the rejl
T U R
fhould be two or three lines lower than the iron to be Turning,
turned. e—y-—™
The lathe and other inftruments being prepared, it is
neceffary to determine the length and thicknefs of the
iron to be turned according to the defign which is to be
executed, and to make a model of it in wood a little
thicker than it ought to be : Then one exactly like this
is to be forged of the belt iron that can be procured v
that is to fay, it muft not be new, but w7ell prepared
and well beaten wdth hammers ^ it muft have no flaws,
nor cracks, nor pimples. New7 iron, which has not
been well beaten, often contains round drops of caft
iron, called by the workmen grains, which blunt the
edges of the gouges, chifels, and other inftruments ufed
for cutting, break them, or make them Aide. The
iron being forged according to the model, it fhould be
annealed, that is, heated red hot and allowed to cool
flowly on the coals till the fire go out of itfelf. Some
people, to fbften the iron, cover it over with clay and
allow it to cool. The iron cylinder being thus made, it
is next to be put upon the lathe, finding the centres as
formerly direded, and boring a fmall hole in them that
the iron may not efcape from the points.
The points fhould be oiled from time to time to pre¬
vent their being exceflively heated and fpoiled 'while the
iron is turning. A crotchet is then to be applied to the
iron to be turned, a little above its centre, pretty gently,
and by this means the inequalities of the cylinder will
be taken off. Other inftruments are then to be applied
to mold the iron according to the model 5 and whenever
any of them grow hot, they are to be plunged into a
bafon of water lying befide the wmrkman. If the iron,
after being properly turned, is to be bored like a gun-
barrel, one of the puppets is to be removed and another
fubftituted in its place, having a fquare hole through it,
into wdiich the collar of the iron is to be fixed firmly,
fo as not to fhake •, then borers are to be applied, like
thofe which lockfmiths ufe to bore keys j and beginning
with a fmall one, and afterwards taking larger ones, the
hole is to be made as wide and deep as neceffary j great
care muft be taken to hold the borers firm on the rjl,
otherwife there is danger of not boring the hole ftraight.
The borer muft be withdrawn from time to time to oil
it and to clean the hole. Since it is difficult to make a
hole quite round with borers alone, it is neceffary to
have alfo an inftrument a good deal fmaller than the
hole, one of the fides of which is fharp, very well tem¬
pered, and a little hollow in the middle. This inftru¬
ment being fixed in a pretty long handle, is to be ap¬
plied with fteadinefs to the inner furface of the hole, and
it will entirely remove every inequality that may have
been there before its application.
To cut a ferew upon the cylinder, fome perfons ufe
an inftrument confifting principally of a female ferew •,
but this is rather an improper inftrument j for if one
preffes too violently, or inclines it ever fo little to the
right or left, he runs the greateft rifk of fpoiling the
ferew. To avoid this danger, fome ufe it only to trace
out the lines of the ferew, and afterw ards finilh it with
a file. But the following is a much better way. Take
a tap for making a female ferew, the threads of which
have been cut very accurately, and exaflly of the fize
of the ferew which you want *, and having put it in the
opening which you have traced in the collar of the
[ 5*2 1
I
T r B IsI I N G-.
Tlate 1) X T. .
f
\
tub. [5
Turning, axis on which the fcrew is to be cut, folder it with tin,
''' l'a!-araraoniac, and rolin, as exaclly correfponding to
the axis as poJible. Take then a puppet with a hole
cut into a correfponding female fcretv, into which the
male fcrew is to be put. The axis on which the lerew
is to be cut mufl be placed exaftly horizontally between
the two puppets. The rejl is then to be brought as
near as poffible to the place where the fcrew is to be
cut, and a fmall hollow ihould be cut in that part of it
which is exactly oppofite to the place where the fcrew
is to be cut, to hold your inftrument firmly and prevent
it from fhaking. The inftrument with which the fcrew
is to be cut ftiould be very {harp, and its point ftiould
make an angle of 6o° with the fcrew to be cut ; and if
you wifh the fcrew to be cut very deep, it ftiould make
an angle a little larger. The lathe being now put in
•motion, the tap fixed at the end of the axis will move
gradually through the female fcrew in the puppet; and
your inftrument in the mean time will trace a fimilar
male fcrew on the axis fixed in the lathe. Many per-
fons, after having in this manner drawn the outlines of
the fcrew, finilh it with a fcrew'-tale of three teeth cor¬
responding exactly to the fize of the fcrew, or with a
triangular file ; but this laft method is rather improper.
For turning ovals, a lathe of fomewhat a different
conftruffion is ufed. The axis or fpindle, having on it
the pulley over which the band-cord paffes for turning
the lathe, is fixed between the two puppets fo as to turn
round eafily : one end of it paffes through one of the
puppets, and to it is firmly fixed a circular plate of
brafs, fo that it turns round along with the fpindle.
Upon this plate two brazen fegments of circles are fatt¬
ened, the circumferences of, which correfpond to the
circumference of the plate : their chords are parallel,
and equally diftant from the centre of the plate, fo that
they leave a dittance between them. They have a
groove in each of them : in thefe grooves another plate
is placed wftiich exa&ly fills up the fpace between the
two grooves, but is ihorter than the diameter of the
larger circular plate on which it is laid. This plate is
made to Hide in the grooves. To its centre is fixed a
fhort fpindle, on which the piece of wood to be turned is
fixed. When the lathe is fet a going, the circular plate
moves round, and carries the piece along with it; the
plate of brafs on which the piece is fixed being fixed
loofely in the grooves already defcribed, Aides down a
little every time that the grooves become perpendicular
to the floor (and there are particular contrivances to
prevent it from Aiding down too far) ; and by thefe two
motions combined, the circular one of the large plate,
and the ftraight one of the fmall, the circumference of
the piece of wood to be turned neceffarily defcribes an
oval ; and gouges or other tools being applied in the
ufual manner fupported on the reft, it is cut into an oval
accordingly. The fmall plate may be made to Hide
either more or lefs in the grooves ; and by this con¬
trivance the tranfverfe diameter of the oval, or rather
ellipfe, may be made longer or Ihorter at pleafure.
1. The method of moulding boxes of fhell and horn.  
In the firft place, form a proper mould, which muft con-
fift of two pieces, viz. of a circle about half an inch
thick, which fhould Hope a little in order to draw out
the moulded fhell the more eafily ; and a ring fitted to
the outfide of the circle, fo that both together make the
ftiape of a box. Thefe two pieces being adjufted, it is
Vol. XX. Part II.
l3 1 TUB
neceffary to round the fhell to be moulded of fuch a fize Turamg-.
that, when moulded, it will be a little higher than the
ring of the mould, that there may be no deficiency.
1 he mould is then to be put into a prtfs on a plate of
iron, exactly under the fcrew of the prefs; put then
the ftrell upon the circle of the mould, fb that its centre
alfo is exactly oppoftte to the fcrew of the prefs : then
take a piece of wood formed into a truncated cone, and
not fo thick as the diameter of the circle of the mould
nor fo deep as the ring : then put a plate of iron above
the cone, and fcrew down the prefs gently and cautioufly
till the whole is well fixed : then plunge the whole into
a cauldron of boiling water placed above a fire. In 8
or 10 minutes the fhell or horn will begin to Yoften ;
fcrevv the prefs a little firmer that the wooden cone may
fi.rk into the foifened lliell : repeat tins from time to
time till the cone is quite funk in the mould ; then take
out the prefs and plunge it into cold water. When it
is cold, take the box now formed out of the mould, and
put into the infide of rt a new mould of tin exaftly of
the form you wifh the infide of the box to be ; do the
fame with the outfide, put it again into the prefs and
plunge it into boiling water ; fcrew the prefs gradually
till the box receive the defired form.
2. Method of preparing green wood fo that it will not
fplit in the turning.—Cut the wood into pieces of a pro¬
per fize, put them into a veffel full of potafh ley. Boil
them about an hour ; take the cauldron from the fire,
allow the ley to cool; and take out the wood and dry it
in the lhade.
3. Method of giving an ebony-blach to hard and fine
woods.—After forming the wood into the deftined
figure, rub it with aquafortis a little diluted. Small
threads of wood will rife in the drying, which you will
rub off with pumice-ftone. Repeat this procefs again,
and then rub the wood with the following compofition •
Put into a glazed earthen veffel a pint of ftrong vinegar,
two ounces of fine iron-filings, and half a pound of
pounded galls, and allow them to infufe for three or
four hours on hot cinders. At the end of this time
augment the fire, and pour into the veffel four ounces
of copperas, and a chopin of water having half an
ounce of borax and as much indigo diffolved in it ; and
make the whole boil till a froth rifes. Rub feveral
layers of diis upon the wood; and when it is dry,
polirh it with leather, on w7hich you have put a little
tripoli.
4. Method of giving, to plum-tree the colour of brazil
tuW.—Slake lime with urine, and bedaub the wood
over with it while it is hot : allow it to dry ; then take
off the coat of lime and rub it with fhamoy ftdn well
osled. Or, fteep the wood in w'ater, having a quan¬
tity of alum diilolved in it: then, having allowed brazil
wood to diffolve in water five or fix hours, fteep the
wood in it, kept lukewarm during a night; and when
it is dry, rub it, as before direbled, with ftiamoy ikin
well oiled.
5- Method of giving a fine black colour to wood 
Steep the wood for two or three days in lukewarm
water in which a little alum has been diffolved ; then
put a handful of logwood, cut fmall, into a pint of wa¬
ter, and boil it down to lefs than half a pint. If you
then add a little indigo, the colour will be more beauti¬
ful. Spread a layer of this liquor quite hot on the
wood with a pencil, which wall give it a violet colour,
3 T When
T U R [ 51
" 'um'ng, Wlien it is dry, fpread on another layer j dry it again
iurnftone.^ an(j gjve jt a ; then boil verdegrife at difcretion in
v its own vinegar, and fpread a layer of it on the wood :
when it is dry, rub it with a brufli, and then with oiled
Ihamoy ikin. This gives a fine black, and imitates per-
feftly the colour of ebony.
6. Method of cleaning and whitening bones before
vftig them.—Having taken off with a faw the utelefs
ends of the bones, make a ftrong ley of alhes and quick¬
lime, and into a pailful of this ley put four ounces of
alum, and boil the bones in it for an hour $ then take
the veffel containing the ley off the fire, and let it
cool j then take out the bones and dry them in the
fhade.
7. Method offoldering ffjells.—Clean the two fides of
the {hells which you with to join together ; then, having
joined them, wrap them up in linen folded double and
well moiftened j then heat two plates of iron pretty
hot that they may keep their heat for fome time j and
putting the {hells rolled up between them under a
prefs, which you mull ferew very tight, leave them
there till the whole is cold, and they will be folder-
ed. If you do not fucceed the firlt time, repeat the
procefs.
8. Method of moulding fbells.—Put fix pints of wTater
into a kettle ; add to it an ounce of olive or other
oil; make the water boil j then put in your {hell, and
it will grow foft. Take it out and put it into a mould
under a prefs, and it will take the figure you want.
This mull be done quickly •, for if the {hell cool ever fo
little, the procefs will fail. It will not require much
preffure.
9. Method of tinging bones and ivory red.—Boil
fhavings of Icarlet in water. When it begins to boil,
throw in a quarter of a pound of afhes made from the
dregs of wine, which will extradl the colour : then
throw in a little rock alum to clear it, and pafs the wa¬
ter through a linen cloth. Steep the ivory or bone in
aquafortis, and put it into the water. If you wifh to
leave white fpots, cover the places deftined for them
with wax.
10. To tinge ivory black.—Steep the ivory during
five or fix days in water of galls with alhes made with
dried dregs of wine and arfenic ; then give it two or
three layers of the fame black wdth which plum-tree
is blackened, in order to imitate ebony. Or, diffolve
frlver in aquafortis, and put into it a little rofe-water.
Rub the ivory with this, and allow it to dry in the fun.
11. Method of hardening wood to make pulleys.—Af¬
ter finilhing the pulley, boil it feven or eight minutes in
olive oil, and it will become as hard as copper.
12. To male Chinefe varnifh.—Take of gum lac in
grains four ounces j put it into a ftrong bottle with
a pound of good fpirit of wine, and add about the bulk
of a hazel nut of camphor. Allow them to mix in
fummer in the fun, or in winter on hot embers for
,34 hours, ftirking the bottle from time to time. Pafs
the whole through a fine cloth, and throw aw’ay what
remains upon it. Then let it fettle for 24 hours, and
ou wall find a clear part in the upper part of the
ottle, which you muff feparate gently, and put into
another vial, and the remains will ferve for the 'firft
layers.
TURNSJONE. See Tringa, Ornithology In-
dex.
4 1 T U S
TURPENTINE, a tranfparent vifeous fubftance,Turpentiae
flowing either naturally or by incifion from feveral refi- ,li
nous trees; as the terebinthus, pine, larch, fir, &c. See , ru‘':u!y- ,
Pinus, Botany Index. See alio Chemistry and Ma~ v
ter 1 a Medica Index.
Oil of Turpentine. See Chemistry and Mate¬
ria Medica Index.
TURPETH, the cortical part of the root of a fpe-
cies of convolvulus. See Materia Medica Index.
TURQUOISE, is the tooth of an animal penetrated
with copper ere.
TURRITIS, Tower-mustard j a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs tetradynamia j and in the natural
fyftem ranging under the 39th order, Siliquofce. See
Botany Index.
TURTLE. See Testudo, Erfetology Index.
Tup.TLE-Dove. See Columea, Ornithology In¬
dex.
TUSCAN order, in ArchiteSlure. See Archi¬
tecture, N° 42.
Tuscan Earth, a yellotvilh kind of bole ftrund in many
parts of Italy, and particularly about Florence, where
there is a ftratum eight or ten feet thick, at the depth of
five or fix feet from the furface. It is fuppofed to have
an aftringent property.
TUSCANY, a duchy of Italy, which makes part of
the ancient Hetruria, and, excepting fome detached
part®, is encompafled by a part of the Mediterranean,
called here the Tufcan Sea ; the ecclefiaftical {fate j the
duchy of Modena ; and the republic of Lucca j its ex¬
tent from north to fouth being about 116 Englilh miles,
and from eaft to weft about 80.
Though fome parts of it are mountainous, yet both
the hills and dales are covered with vines, olives, citron,
lemon, and orange trees, &c. The mountains yield
alfo copper, iron, alum, &c. and {bme of the fineft
marble. Here is allb plenty of corn, rice, faffron, ho¬
ney, wax, wrool, flax, hemp, with mineral waters, rich
paiture, falt-pits, fulphur, alabafter, calcedony, lapis
lazuli, borax, amethyfts, carnelians, jafpers, cryftals,
and black Hate. In fome places the elms and alhes
yield manna.
The principal river in Tufcany is the Arno, which
has its fource in the Apennine mountains, and falls in¬
to the fea below Pifa. There are feme other fmaller
rivers.
This duchy fell under the dominion of the Romans
about 455 years before Chrift. The Oftrogoths poffel-
fed themfelves of it in the fifth century, and after them
the Lombards, who were expelled by Charlemagne
anno 800 ; in confequence of which it became fubjeft
to the German emperors, who appointed governors over
it. At laft the cities of Floience, Pifa, Sienna, and
fome others, during the contentions between the pope
and the emperor, and their refpe&ive adherents, the
Guelphs and Gibbelines, withdrew themfelves from the
dominion of both, and erebted themfelves into feparate
commonwealths. In that of Floience, John de Medi-
cis, a popular nobleman, fo infinuated himfelf into the
favour of his countrymen, that they invefled him with
fovereign power. Pope Pius V. conferred the title of
grand duhe on Cofmo de Medicis anno 1570, in whole
family the duchy continued until the death of Gallon de
Medicis, who died anno 1737. The duchy was then
transferred to the duke of Lorrain, afterwards the em¬
peror
T Y M [ 5
peror Francis I. in lieu of the duchy of Lorrain, which,
by the peace of 1736, was given to King Slaniflaus du¬
ring his life, and then was to be annexed to France.
Leopold, the fecond fon of Francis I. and afterwards
emperor of Germany, fucceeded to this duchy. It is
now enjoyed by Leopold’s fecond fon, brother to the
prefent emperor of Germany, Francis II. The grand
duke’s annual revenues are computed at about 500,000!.
fterling, arifing chiefly from the tenths of all eltates that
are fold or alienated, and the ground-rents of the houfes
in Leghorn, and the duties on alrnoft all manner of
provilions. Tufcany now forms part of the kingdom of
Italy iubjeft to France.
1LJSK, or Torsk. See Gadus, Ichthyology
Index.
1USSILAGO, Colt’s-Foot j a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of fyngcnefia 5 and in the natural
fyflem ranging under the 49 th order, Combofita. See
Botany Index.
TUTENAG, an alloy of zinc. See Chemistry
Index.
TUTOR, in the civil law, is one chofen to look to
the perfons and eflate of children left by their fathers
and mothers in their minoritv. The different kinds of
tutonj eftablifhed among the Romans, and die powers and
dudes of tutors, are deferibed in Inji. Leg. j. tom. xiii.
left. 1. and 2. to which the reader is referred. See alfo
the article Guardian.—For the nature and effe&s of
tutory in the Scotch law, which is founded on that of
the Romans, fee Scots Law, Part III. Se<R. 7.
Tutor is alfo ufed in the Englifh univerfities for a
member of fome college or hall, who takes on him the
inftru&ion of young ffudents in the arts and faculties.
TO TTY, an impure ore of zinc, employed as an
unguent and abforbent. See Materia Medica In¬
dex.
TWEED, a river of Scotland, which rifes on. the
confines of Clydefilale, and running eaftward through
Tweedale, and dividing the (hire of Merfe from Te-
viotdale and Northumberland, falls into the German
fea at Berwick. It abounds with falmon. See Ber¬
wick.
TWEEDALE, or Peebles, a county in the fouth
of Scotland. See PeeBles-shire.
TWELFTH-DAY, the fellival of the Epiphany, of
the manifeilation of Chrifl: to the Gentiles j fb called,
as being the twelfth day, exclufive, from the nativity or
Chnftmas-day.
TWILIGHT, that light, whether in the morning
before funnfe, or m the evening after funfet, fuppofed
to begin and end when the leaft ftars that can be feen
by the naked eye ceafe or begin to appear.
TWINKLING of the Stars, See Optics N°
2\.
TWINS, two young ones delivered at a birth, by an
animal which ordinarily brings forth but one.
TWITE. See Fringilla, Ornithology Index.
TYGER, or Tiger. See Felis, Mammalia In¬
dex.
TYLE, or Tile, in building, a thin laminated
brick ufed on the roofs of houfes.
TYMPAN, among printers, a double frame belong¬
ing to the prefs, Covered with parchment, on which the
blank fheets are laid in order to be printed off. See
Printing-Prefs.
Type.
15 1 T Y P
TYMPANUM, in Mechanics^ a kind of wheel pla-Tympa-nnm
ced round an axis or cylindrical beam, on the top of H
which are two levers or fixed Raves for the more ea-
fily turning the axis in order to raife a weight re¬
quired.
I ympanuM, in Anatomy. See Anatomy, N0 141.
TYMPANY, or Tympanites, in Medicine. See
Medicine, N° 337, and Surgery Index.
1YNDALE, William, a zealous Englifh reform¬
er, and memorable for having made the firR Englifh
verfion of the Bible, was born on the borders of Wales
fome time before 1500. He was of Magdalenediall in
Oxford, where he diRinguiRied himfeif by'imbibing
early the do£irines of Luther, and by as zealouRy pro-
pagating them. Afterwards he removed to Cambridge,
and from thence went to live with a gentleman in Glou-
ceflerfhire in the capacity of tutor to his children.—
While he continued there, he fliowed hirnfelf fo furious
for Luther, and fo inveterate to the pone, that he was
forced, merely for the fecurity of his perfbn, to leave the
place. He next endeavoured to get into the lervice of
TonRall bifhop of Durham, but did not fucceed. His
zeal for Lutheranifm made him defitous to tranflate the
New TeRament into EngliRr $ and as this could n ot
fafely be done in England, he went into Germany,
where, fetling about the work, he finifhed it in 1527.
He then began with the Old Teftament, and finifhed
the five books of Mofes, prefixing difeourfes to each
book, as he had done to thofe of the New TeRament*
At his firfl going over into Germany, he went into
Saxony, and had much conference with Lurher 5 and
then returning to the Netherlands, made his abode
chiefly at Antwerp. During his peregrinations from
one country to another, he fufLred flripwreck upon the
coaR of Holland, and loR all his books and papers.
His tranflations of the Scriptures being in the mean
time fent to England, made a great noife there ; and,
in the opinion of the clergy, did fo much mifehief, that
n royal proclamation was iffued, prohibiting the buying
or reading them. But the clergy were not fatisfied
with this, they knew Tyndale capable of doing infinite
harm, and therefore thought of nothing lefs than remo¬
ving him out of the way. For this purpofe one Philips
was fent over to Antwerp, who infinuated himfeif into
his company, and under the pretext of friendfliip be¬
trayed him into cuRody. He was fent to the caflle of
Filford, about 18 miles from Antwerp \ and though
the Englifh merchants at Antwerp did what they could
to procure his releafe, and letters were alfo fent from
Lord Cromwell and others out of England, yet Bhilips
beRirred himfeif fo heartily, that he was tried and con¬
demned to die. He was firR Rtangled by the hands of
the common hangman, and then burned near Filford
caRle, in 1536. While he was tying to the Rake, he
cried with a fervent and loud voice, “ Lord, open the
king of England’s eyes.”
. TYPE (rvsrof), an imprefllon, image, or renrefenta-
tion of fome model, which is termed the antitype. Iti
this fenfe the word occurs often in the writings of di¬
vines, who employ it to denote that prefiguration of the
gr?at events of man’s redemption which they have found
or fancied in the principal tranfa&ions recorded in the
Old Teflament.
. Bype, among letter-founders and printers, the fame
with letter. See Letter.
3 T 2
Type
Type
T Y It [ 51
Type is alfo ufed to denote the order obferved in the
intenfion and remiffion of ievers, pulfes, &c.
TYPHA, Cat’s-tail j a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of moncecia, and in the natural fyftem ranging
under the 3d order, Ca/arnarice. See Botany Index.
TYPPION. See Whirlwind.
Typhon, the devil of the ancient Egyptians. See
Polytheism, N° 29.
TYPOGRAPHY, the art of printing. See Print¬
ing.
TYRANT, among the ancients, denoted limply a
king or monarch 5 but the ill ufe which feveral perfons
invefted with that facred character made of it, has al¬
tered the import of the word j and tyrant now conveys
the idea of an unjuft or cruel prince, who rules in a
more defpotic manner than the laws allow.
TYRE, formerly a celebrated city of Afia, on the
coaft of Syria, lituated under the 54th degree of eaft
longitude, and 3 2d of north latitude. It was built, ac¬
cording to fome writers, 2760 years before the Chrif-
tian era. There rvere two cities of that name •, the one
called Palatyrus, fituated on the continent j and the
other the city of Tyre, built on an bland about half a
mile from the ftiore. It was about 19 miles in circum¬
ference, including Palsetyrus } the town on the ifland
was about four miles round. The buildings of Tyre
were very magnificent 5 the walls were 150 feet high,
and broad in proportion. This city was at one period
the moft famous commercial city in the world. Of its
commercial tranfactions, the moft particular account
6 ] t Y R
that is to be found in any ancient writer has been given Tyre
by the prophet Ezekiel, which at the fame time con- , II
veys a magnificent idea of the extenfive power of that, rone
ftate. It refifted Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon for '
13 years 5 at the end of which, wearied with fruitlefs
efforts, the inhabitants refolved to place the fea be¬
tween them and their enemy, and paffed accordingly in¬
to the ifiand. The new city flood out againft Alexan¬
der the Great for feven months; and before he could
take it, he was obliged to fill up the ftrait which fepa-
rated the ifland from the continent. It was repaired af¬
terwards by Adrian, and became the metropolis of the
province. It afterwards fell into the hands of the A-
rabs ; and after being taken by Baldwin II. king of Je-
rufalem, it was deftroyed by the fultan of Egypt in
1289, and abandoned. An excellent account of its
modern ftate may be found in Volney’s Travels, vol. ii.
It now confifts of a fmall village, compofed of fiftier-
men’s huts, and containing about 50 or 60 poor families.
TYRIAN dye. See Murex, Conchology In¬
dex.
TYRONE, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Ulfter, 46 miles in length and 37 in breadth ; bounded
on the north by Londonderry, on the eaft by Armagh
and Lough-Neagh, on the fouth by Fermanagh, and
on the weft by Honnegal. It is a rough and rugged
country, but tolerably fruitful ”, contains 12,683 houfes,
30 parilhes, 4 baronies, 4 boroughs, and formerly fent 10
members to the Irifti parliament. The principal town is
Dungannon.
U, V.
T T or u, the 20th letter and 5th vowel of our alpha-
^ 3 bet, is formed in the voice by a round configu¬
ration of the lips, and a greater extrufion of the under
one than in forming the letter o, and the tongue is alfo
more cannulated. The found is (hort in jnuJ}, tun,
tub ; but is lengthened by a final e, as in tune, tube, &c.
In lome words it is rather acute than long ; as in brute,
flute, kite, &c. It is moftly long in polyfyllables as
in union, curious, &c j but in fome words it is obfcure,
as in nature, venture, &c. This letter in the form of
V or v, is properly a confonant, and as fuch is placed
before all the vow’els ; as in vacant, venal, vibrate, &c.
Though the letters v and u had always two founds, they
had only the form v till the beginning of the fourth
century, when the other form was introduced, the in¬
convenience of exprefling two different founds by the
lame letter having been obferved long before. In nu¬
merals V ftands for five j and with a dafh added at top,
thus v, it fignifies 5000.
In abbreviations, amongft the Romans, V. A. flood
for veterani aflignati; V. B. viro bono; V B. A. viri
bom arbitratu ; V. B. F. vir bonce fidei ; V. C. vir co?i-
k/laris ; V. C. C. F. vale, conjux chariflimc, feliciter ;
V. D. D. veto dedicalur ; V. G. verbigratia ; Vir. Ve.
virgo v flails ; VL. videlicet ; V. N. quinto nonarunu
VACCINIUM, the Whortle-berry, or Bilberry,
a genus of plants belonging to the clafs oftandria, and
arranged in the natural fyftem under the 18th order,
Bicorncs. See Botany Index.
VACUUM, in Philofophy, denotes a fpace devoid of
all matter or body.
It has been greatly difputed whether there be in na¬
ture a perfect vacuum, or fpace void of all matter •, but
if bodies confift of material folid atoms, it is evident
that there muft be vacuities, or motion would be im-
poflible (fee Metaphysics, N° 193.).- We can even
produce fomelhing very near a vacuum in the receiver
of an air-pump and in the Torricellian tube (fee Pneu¬
matics, paflim).
VADIUM, a pledge in law, is either vivum or mor-
tuum.
VADIUM Vivum, or Living Pledge, is when a man
borrows a firm (fuppofe 200I.) of another \ and grants
him an eftate, as of 20I. per annum, to hold till the
rents and profits fhall repay the firm fo borrowed. This
is an eftate conditioned to be void as foon as fuch fura
is raifed. And in this cafe the land or pledge is faid
to be living : it fubfifts, and furvives the debts ; and,
immediately on the difeharge of that, reverts to the
borrower.
Vadium
Vadium
Valais.
V A L [5
Vadium Mortuum, or Dead Fledge. See Mort¬
gage.
j VAGABOND, or Vagrant, one who wanders il¬
legally, without a fettled habitation. Such perfons are
cognizable by the laws. See Idleness.
V AG IN A, properly fignifies a (heath or fcabbard ;
and the term vagina is ufed in architecture for the part
of a terminus, becaufe refembling a Iheath out of which
the ftatue feems to iffue.
Vagina. See Anatomy Index.
VAILLANT, John Toy, a phyfician and great
medalilt, to whom, according to Voltaire, France was
indebted for the fcience of medals, and Louis XIV. for
one half of his cabinet, was born at Beauvais in 1632.
Through the means of the minifter Colbert he travelled
into Italy, Greece, Egypt, and Perfia, to coileCt medals
for the royal cabinet j and returned with fo many as
made the king’s cabinet fuperior to any in Europe. In
one of bis voyages the drip was taken by an Algerine
corfair. After a captivity of near five months he was
permitted to return to France, and received at the fame
time 20 gold medals which had been taken from him.
He embarked in a veffel bound for Marfeilles, and was
carried on with a favourable wind for two days, when
another corfair appeared, which, in Ipite of all the fail
they could make, bore down upon them within the
reach of cannon ihot. Mr Vaillant, dreading the mi-
feries of a frelh flavery, refolved, however, to fecure the
medals which he had received at Algiers, and therefore
fwallowed them. But a hidden turn of the wind freed
them from this adverfary, and call them upon the coatfs
of Catalonia, where, after expefting ,to run aground
every moment, they at length fell among the fands at
the mouth of the Rhone. Mr Vaillant got to (bore in
a fkiff, but felt himfelf extremely incommoded with the
medals he had fwallowed, which might weigh alto¬
gether five or fix ounces, and therefore did not pafs like
Scarborough waters. He had recourfe to a couple of
phyficians; who weie a little puzzled wdth the Angula¬
rity of his cafe j however, nature relieved him from time'
to time, and he found himfelf in polTeffion of the great-
eft part of his treafure when he got to Lyons. Among
his colleflion u^as an Ocho, valuable for its rarity.—Pie
was much carelfed on his return j and when Louis XIV.
gave a new form to the academy of inferiptions in 1701,
Mr Vaillant was firft made aflbeiate, and then pention-
ary. He wnote feveral works relating to ancient coins,,
and died in 1706.
VAIR, or Vaire, a kind of fur, formerly ufed for
lining the garments of great men and knights of renown.
It is reprefented in engraving by the figures of little
bells reverfed, ranged in a line. See Heraldry,
Chap. II. Se£f. 2.
VAIRY, in Heraldry, expreffes a coat, or the bear¬
ings of a coat, when charged or chequered with vairs.
VALAIS, a valley in Swifferland, which extends
from the fource of the river Rhone to the lake of Ge¬
neva. It is near 100 miles in length, but of unequal
breadth. It is bounded on the north by the Alps,
which feparate it from the cantons of Berne and LJri, on
the ealt by the mountains of Forche, on the fouth by
the duchy of Milan and the Val d’Aofte, and on the
weft by Savoy and the republic of Geneva. The inha¬
bitants profefs the Roman Catholic religion, and are fub-
jeht to the fwelling of the throat called bronchocele :
17 1 val
and idiots are faid to abound among them more than in Valantia
any other place of the globe. They are naturally !! . .
hardy, enterpriling, and good-natured. Valais is fur- ^ a a^n'"
rounded on all fides by very high mountains, moft of' ■ — v —
which are covered with perpetual fnowT. The foil is
fertile in corn, wine, and fruits. The mufeat-wdne,
which is produced here is excellent, and well known all
over Europe. This country comprehends ^ 5 large pa-
riftres, with one biihop. The religion is the Roman Ca¬
tholic.
VALANTIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs polygamia, and in the natural fyftem arranged
under the 41ft order, ejperfolice. See Botany Index.
VALENCIA, a province of Spain, which has the
title of a kingdom j and is bounded on the eaft and fouth
by the Mediterranean fea, on the north by Catalonia
and Arragon, and on the -weft by New Caftile and the
kingdom of Murcia. It is about 165 miles in length,
and 63 in breadth. It is one of the moft: populous and
agreeable parts of Spain, enjoying almoft a perpetual
fpring. The great number of rivers wherewith it is
ivatered renders it extremely fertile, particularly in fruits
and wine. There are very rugged mountains in it,
which contain mines of alum and other minerals.
Valencia, a city of Spain, and capital of the king¬
dom of the lame name. It contains about 12,000
houfes, befides thofe of the fuburbs and the fummer-
houfes round it. It has an univerfity, and an archbi-
ftiop’s fee •, and was taken from the Moors by the
Chriftians in the 13 th century. The town is handfome,
and adorned with very fine ftruflures. It is not very
ftrong, though there are fome baftions along the fides
of the walls. They have mar.ufafluresin wool and filk,
which bring in great firms to the inhabitants. It is
feated on the river Guadalaviar, over which there are
five handfome bridges $ and it is about three miles from
theTea, where there is a harbour, no miles north of
Murcia, and 165 eaft by fouth of Madrid. This city
furrendered to the earl of Peterborough in the year
1705-, but it rvas loft again in 1707. W. Long. o.
10. N. Lat. 39. '23.
VALENCIENNES, an ancient, ftrong, and con-
fiderable city of France, in the department of the North
and late province of Hainault, containing about 20,000
fouls. 'The'Scheldt divides it into two parts. It is a
very important place : the citadel and fortifications, the ’
work of Vauban,were conftrufted by order of Louis XIV.
who took this town from the Spaniards. It was con¬
firmed to him by the treaty of Nimeguen, in 1678. In
1793, it furrendered to the allies after a fevere fiege,
but was afterwards abandoned 5 and is now in pofteflion
of the French. Befides lace, this city is noted for ma-
nufaftories of woollen fluffs and very fine linens. It is
20 miles weft-fouth-weft of Mons, 17 north-eaft of Cam-
bray, and 120 north-eaft by north of Paris. E. Long.
3. 37. N. Lat. 50. 21.
VALENS, Flavius, emperor of the Eaft, a great
patron of the Arlans. Killed bv the Goths in the year
379. See Constantinople, N° 76.
VALENTIN I AN I. emperor of the Weft, a re¬
nowned warrior, but a tyrant over his fubjedfs. See
Romp:, N° 523.
Valentinian II. emperor of the Weft, a pr’nce ce¬
lebrated for his virtues, and above all for his modera¬
tion } ye.t a cor.fpirr.cy was formed againft him by Ar-
bogafteSj
V A L
Yalentlni- bogaftes, the commander in chief of his armies ; and he
a”s ^'as Wrangled in the year 392. See Rome, N° 536.
Valet. VALENTINIANS, in church hiitory, a led of
Y—» Chriitian heretics, who fprung up in the fecond century,
and were fo called from their leader Valentinus.
The Valentinians were onjy a branch of the Gnoftics,
who realized or perfonified the Platonic ideas concern¬
ing the Deity, whom they called Pleroma or Plenitude.
Their fyftem was this : the firft principle is Bythos, i. e.
Depth, which remained many ages unknown, having
with it Ennoe or Thought, and Sige or Silence j from
thefe fprung the Nous or Intelligence, which is the only
fon, equal to and alone capable df comprehending the
Bythos; the filter of Nous they called Aletheia or
Truth; and thefe conftituted the firlt quaternity of
aeons, which were the fource and original of all the
reft : for Nous and Aletheia produced the World and
Life j and from thefe two proceeded Man and the
Church. But befides thefe 8 principal aeons, there were
22 more; the laft of which, called Sophia, being de-
firous to arrive at the knowledge of Bythos, gave her-
felf a great deal of uneafinefs, which created in her
Anger and Fear, of which was born Matter. But the
Horos or Bounder ftopped her, preferved her in the
Pleroma, and reftored her to Perfeftion. Sophia then
produced the Chrift and the Holy Spirit, which brought
the aeons to their laft perfeftion, and made every one of
them contribute their utmoft to form the Saviour. Her
Eothymefe,' or Thought, dwelling near the Pleroma,
perfected by the Chrift, produced every thing that is in
the world by its divers paflions. The Chrift fent into
it the Saviour, accompanied with angels, who delivered
it from its paflions, without annihilating it: from thence
was formed corporeal matter. And in this manner did
they romance concerning God, nature, and the myfteries
of the Chriftian religion.
VALERIAN, or Valerianus, Publius Licinius,
emperor of Rome, remarkable for his captivity and
cruel treatment by Sapor I. king of Perfia. See Rome,
N° 491-
VALERIAN A, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs triandria, and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the 48th order, aggregatce. See Botany and Materia
Medica Index.
VALERIUS Maximus, a Latin hiftorian, fprung
from the families of the Valerii and Fabii, which made
him take the name of Valerius Maximus. He ftudied
polite literature, and afterwards followed Sextus Pom-
pey to the wars. At his return he compofed an account
of the aftiens and remarkable fayings of the Romans
and other great men ; and dedicated that work to the
emperor Tiberius. Many of the learned think that this
is the fame that is now extant, and bears the name of
Valerius Maximus j but others maintain, that what w?e
have now is only an abridgment of the wTork written by
this celebrated hiftorian, and that this abridgment was
made by one Nepotian of Africa. However, this work
is well written, and contains a great number of memor¬
able adtions performed by the Greeks and Romans that
are wmrthy of being read.
VALET, a French term, ufed as a common name
for all domeftic men fervants employed in the more fer-
vile offices, as grooms, footmen, coachmen, &c. But
with us it is only ufed in the phrafe vglet de chambre,
4
VAN
w'hich is a fervant whofe office is to drefs and undiefs VaTetta
his mailer, &c. J|
VALETTA, a city of Malta, and capital of the VanbruS^->
ifiand (fee Malta, N° 26.). It is iituated in E. Long.  ''~in #
14. 34. N. Lat. 35. 54.
VALETUDINARY, among medical writers, de¬
notes a perfon of a weak and lickly conftitution, and fre¬
quently out of order.
VALID, in Law, an appellation given to a&s, deeds,
tranfadlions, Sec. which are clothed writh all the forma¬
lities requifite to their being put into execution, and
their being admitted in a court of juftice.
VALLADOLID, an ancient, large, and handfome
city of Spain, in ©Id Caftile, and capital of a principa¬
lity of the fame name, with a biihop’s fee and an uni-
verfily. It is furrounded with ftrong walls, embellifhed
with handfome buildings, large public fquares, piazzas,
and fountains j containing 11,coo houfes, with fine
long and broad ftreets, and high houfes, adorned with
balconies. There is a fquare in the middle of the city,
furrounded with handfome brick houfes, having under
them piazzas, where people may walk dry in all
weathers. Within thefe piazzas merchants and tradef*
men keep their (hops. All the houfes are of the fame
height, being four ftories; and there are balconies at
every window, of gilt iron. In the whole there are 70
monafteries and nunneries •, the fineft of which is that of
the Dominicans, remarkable for its church, which is
one of the moft magnificent in the city. The kings re-
fided a long while at this place j and the royal palace,
which ftill remains, fs of very large exteat, though but
two ftories high ; within are fine paintings of various
kinds, and at one of the corners a curious clock, made
in the fame manner as that of Strafburg. The envi¬
rons of the city are a fine plain, covered with gardens,
orchards, vineyards, and meadows. It is feated on the
rivers Efcurva and Pefuerga, in W. Long. 4. 25. N.
Lat. 41. 50.
VALUE, in Commerce, denotes the price or worth
of any thing.
VALVE, in Hydraulics, Pneumatics, &c. is n kind
of lid or cover of a tube or veflel io contrived as to open
one W’ay, but which, the more forcibly it is preffed the
other way, the clofer it Ihuts the aperture ; fo that it
either admits the entrance of a fluid into the tube or
veflel, and prevents its return 5 or admits its efcapc, and
prevents its re-entrance.
Valve, in Anatomy, a thin membrane applied on fe-
veral cavities and veffels of the body, to afford a paffage
to certain humours going one way, and prevent their
reflux towards the place from whence they came.
VAMPYRE, a fpecies of bat. See VesperTILIO,
Mammalia Index.
VAN, a term derived from the French avant or o-
vaunt, fignifying before or foremoft of any thing : thus
we fay. the van-guard of the army, &c.
VANBRUGH, Sir John, a celebrated Englifh dra¬
matic writer and architeft, was defeended of a family in
Cheftiire which came from France, though by his name
he appears to have been originally of Dutch extraction.
He wras born about the middle of the reign of Charles
II. and received a liberal education. His firft comedy,
called the Relapfe or Virtue in Danger, was afted in the
year 1697 with great applaufe $ which gave him fuch
encouragement,
[ 5>8 ]
VAN [ :
Vandelha encouragement, that he wrote eleven mere comedies.
Vandyck. was Mr Congreve, whole genius was
‘  - ' naturally turned for dramatic performances j and thefe
two gave new life to the Englilh ilage, and rellored its
finking reputation. Sir John was ad'o elteemed an able ar¬
chitect. Under his direction was railed Blenheim-houfe
in Oxfordfiiire. He died in 1726.
VANDELLIA, a genus-ot plants belonging to the
clafs didynamia. See Botany Index.
VAN-Diemen’s LAND. See Diemen.
VANDYCK, Sir Anthony, a celebrated painter,
was born at Antwerp in the year 1599. After giving
early proofs of his genius, he became the difciple of the
illuftrious Rubens. In the church of the Auguftines at
Antwerp, at the high altar, is a celebrated picture of
Rubens, reprefen ting, in one part, the Virgin Mary
fitting with the child Jefus in her lap, and in another
part feveral faints, male and female, Handing. The
brealt of one ot thefe, St Sebaftian, is faid to have been
painted by 'V andyck when he was only a difciple of
Rubens. This great mafter being engaged one day
abroad, his difciples went into his painting-room, where,
after having been fome time employed in admiring his
works, they began to play or romp in fuch a manner,
that the bread of St Sebaftian, which was not yet dry,
was brulhed away by a hat thrown at random. This
accident put an end to their play: they were very
anxious to reftore it, fearing that if Rubens difeovered
it they Ihould all be difearded. At length it was
agreed that Anthony Ihould undertake to mend the
faint’s breaft. In Ihort, taking his mailer’s pallet and
brufhes, he lucceeded fo well that his companions ima¬
gined Rubens would overlook it. They were miftaken j
ior Rubens at his return knew immediately that fome
one had touched upon his performance : calling his dif¬
ciples, he alked them why any one had dared to meddle
with his painting ? They were fome time doubtful
whether they Ihould confefs or deny the fad. 7'hreats
at length prevailed: they owned that Vandyck had
thrown his hat upon it. Upon this, clofeting Vandyck,
inftead of chiding him, he told him, that “ it was pro¬
per and even neceffary for him to travel into Italy, the
only fchool that produced excellent painters.” By this
advice, and with the afliftance ot his mafter, he let out
for Italy, about the year 1621, being then about 2t or
22 years of age. Having ftaid a Ihort time at Rome,
he removed to Venice, where he attained the beautiful
colouring of Titian, Paul Veronefe, and the Venetian
ichool.
After a few years he returned to Flanders, with fo
noble, fo eafy, and natural a manner of painting, that
Titian himfelf was hardly his fuperior : and no other
mailer could equal him in portraits. Soon after his re¬
turn, he accidentally met with D. Teniers, who accoll-
ed him with great politenefs, and alked him whether he
had much bufinefs fince he came from Rome ? “ What
bufinefs, think you, can I have had time to do (replied
Vandyck) ? I am only juft arrived here. Would you
believe, that I offered to draw' that fat brewer’s picture
wno juft paffed by us for two piftoles, and that the
looby laughed in my face, faying it was too dear ? I af-
fure you, that if the cards do not turn up better, I (hall
make no long ftay at Bruffels.” Soon after this, he
painted thofe two famous pictures, the Nativity and a
;i9 ] v A R
dying Chrift ; the firft in the parilh-church, the fecond Vandyck
in that of the Capuchins, at Termond. |l
Vandyck, finding he could not make a fortune in his iVariatl0n-i
own country, took a refolution of going over into Eng- *
land. Accordingly he borfowed lome guineas of Te¬
niers, and fet out, furnillied with letters of recommenda¬
tion. His fuperior genius foon brought him into great
reputation j and above all, he excelled in portraits,
which he drew with an inconceivable facility, and for
which he charged a very high price, according to the
inftruCtions which had been given him on that head.
It is affirmed, that for fome of them he received 400
guineas apiece. He foon found himfelf loaded with
honours and riches; and as he had a noble and gener¬
ous heart, he lived equal to his fortune. He married
a daughter of the lord Ruthven, earl of Gowry ; and,
though ffie had but little fortune, maintained her in a
ftyle Hut able to her birth. He generally kept a mag¬
nificent equipage, and a numerous retinue. He died in
1641, at the age of 42, leaving property, it is faid, to
the amount of 40,000!. fterling.
VANE, a thin llip of bunting hung to the maft-head,
or fome other confpicuous place in the ffiip, to ftiow the
diredion of the wind. It is commonly fewed upon a
wooden frame called they?cc£, which contains two holes
whereby to flip over the fpindle, upon which it turns
about as the wind changes.
VANILLA, or Vanillo. See Epidendrum, Bo¬
tany Index.
VAPOUR, in Philofophy, the particles of bodies
rarefied by heat, and thus rendered fpecifically lighter
than the atmofphere, in which they rife. See Evapo¬
ration, and Heat, Chemistry Index.
Vapours, in Medicine, otherwife called hypochon*
driajis ox fpleen. See Medicine, N° 276 and 321.
VAPOVR-Bath, in Chemiflry, a term applied to * -
chemiil s bath or heat, in which a body is placed lo as
to receive the fumes of boiling water.
We alfo ufe the term vapour-bath, when a fick per-
fon is made, to receive the vapours arifing from fome
liquid matter placed over a fire. Many contrivances -
have been propofed for this purpofe ; and their expedi¬
ency and utility are beft known to thofe who are con-
verlant in this bufinefs. A late writer has fuggefted a
new conftruClion of vapour baths j and the whole ap¬
paratus is reduced to a tin-boiler, tin pipes wrapped in
flannel, and a deal box with a cotton cover, for the re¬
ception of the body and circulation of the vapour.
VAR I, in Medicine, little, hard, and ruddy tumors,
which frequently infeft the faces of young perfons of a
hot temperament of body.
VARIA I ION of the Compafs, is the deviation of
the magnetic or mariner’s needle from the meridian or
true north and fouth line. On the continent it is call¬
ed the declination of the magnetic needle $ and this
is a better term, for reafons which will appear by and
by.
We have given the general fa<fts relating to magne¬
tic variation under the article Magnetism, ^19.5
and under the articles Compass, and Azimuth Compass,
we have noticed tne methods of afeertaining the varia¬
tion at any particular time or place. We ffiall here
only give a ffiort hiftorical account of the progreffive
difeoveries refpecting magnetic variation, and notice
tbs
VAR
[ 520 ]
VAR
V-iriation. the explanations that have been offered to account for
v ' this phenomenon.
About the time that the polarity of the magnet was
jfirft obferved in Europe, the magnetic direction, both in
Europe and in China, was nearly in the plane of the me-
ridian. It was therefore an ineftimable prefent to the
mariner, giving him a fare direction in his courie
through the pathlefs ocean. But by the time that the
•European navigators had engaged in their adventurous
■voyages to far diliant thores, the deviation of the needle
from the meridian was very fenfible even in Europe.
The fon of Columbus pofitively fays, that it was obfer-
,ved by his father in his firft voyage to America, and
made his companions fo anxious left they fhould not
find the way back again to their own country, that they
mutinied and refufed to proceed. It is certain that
Gonzales Oviedo and Sebaftian Cabot obferved it in
their voyages. Indeed it could not poffibly elcape
them for in fome parts of their feveral tracks the
jieedle deviated above 250 from the meridian ; and the
rude ft dead reckoning, made on the fuppofition oi the
needle pointing due north and fouth, muft have thrown
the navigators into the utmoft confufion. We know
that fpherical trigonometry was at that time abundantly
familiar to the mathematicians of Europe, and that no
.perfon pretended to take the command of a Ihip bound
to a diftant port that was not much more informed in
ibis fcience than moft mafters of thips are at prefent.
The deviation of the compafs, however, was not gene¬
rally allowed by mathematicians, who had not yet be¬
come fenfible of the necc-flity of quitting the Ariftote-
lian trammels, and inveftigating nature by experiments.
They chofe rather to charge the navigators with inac¬
curacy in their obfervations than the fchoolmen with
errors in principles. Pedro de Medina at Valladolid,
an his te de Naviggar, publifhed in 1545, denies the
variation of the compafs. But the concurring reports
of the commanders of ihips on diftant voyages, in a few
.years, obliged the landfmen in their clofets to give up
the point ; and Martin Cortez, in a treatife of naviga¬
tion, printed at Seville before 1556, treats it as a thing
completely eftablithed, and gives rules and inftruments
for difcovering its quantity. About the year 1580
Norman publithed his difcovery of the dip of the needle,
and fpeaks largely of the horizontal deviation from the
plane of the meridian, and attributes it to the attraftion
of a point, not in the heavens, but in the earth, and
defcribes methods by which he hoped to find its place.
To the third, and all the fubfequent editions of Nor¬
man’s book (called the New Attratfive), wasfubjoined a
differtation by Mr Burroughs, comptroller of the navy,
on the variation of the compafs, in which are recorded
the quantity of this deviation in many places •, and he
laments the obftacle which it caufes to navigation by its
total uncertainty previous to obfervation. The author
indeed offers a rule for computing it,ft/w/or/, founded
on fome conjefture as to its caufe ; but, with the mo-
defty and candour of a gentleman, acknowledges that
this is but a guefs, and intreats all navigators to be afii-
duous in their obfervations, and ready in communicat¬
ing them to the public. Accordingly obfervations were
liberally contributed from time to time, and were pu-
blilhed in the fubfequent treatifes on navigation.
But in 1635 the mariners were thrown into a new
and great perplexity, by the publication of a Difcourfe
4
Mathematical on the Variation of the Magnetical Needle, Variation,
by Mr Henry Gillebrand, Greiham profeffor of aftrono-
my. He had compared the variations obferved at Lon¬
don by Burroughs, Gunter, and himfelf, and found
that the north end of the mariner’s needle was gradual¬
ly drawing more to the weftward. for Norman and
Bunoughs had oblerved it to point about ill; degrees
to the eaft of north in 1580 } Gunter found its devia¬
tion only 6i in 1622, and he himfelf had obferved
only 40 in 1634; and it has been found to deviate more
and more to the weftward ever lince, as may be feen
from the tables given under MAGNETISM.
Mr Bond, teacher of mathematics in London, and
employed to edit and improve the imprefiions of ti.^. po¬
pular treatifes of navigation, about 1650, declared, in a
work called the “ Seaman’s Kalendar,” that he had
difcovered the true progrefs of the deviation of the com¬
pafs ; and publifhed in another work, called the “ Lon¬
gitude Found,” a table of the variation for 30 years.
This was, however a gratuitous prognoftication, not
founded on any well-grounded principles 3 and though
it agreed very well with the obfervafions made in Lon¬
don, which fhowed a gradual motion to the weftward at
the rate of—.1 2'annually, by no means agreed with
the obfervations made in other places. See Phil. Tranf.
1668.
But this news foon loft its credit : for the inconfift-
ency with obfervation appeared more and more every
day, and all were anxious to difcover fome general rule,
by which a near guefs at leaft might be made as to the
diredion of the'needle in the moft frequented feas.
Halley recommended the matter in the moft earneft
manner to the attention of government and, after
much unwearied fohcitation, obtained a fhip to be fent
on a voyage of difcovery for this purpofe. He got the
command of this fhip, in which he repeatedly traverfed
the Atlantic ocean, and went as far as the 50th degree
of fouthern latitude. See his very curious fpeculations
on this fubject in the Phil. J rank 1683 aRd 1692.
After he had colleded a prodigious number of obfer¬
vations made by others, and compared them with his
own, he pubhfhed in 1700 a fynoptical account cf tnem
in a very ingenious form of a fea chart, where the ocean
was croffed by a number of lines paffing through thole
planes where the compafs had the fame deviation.
Thus, in every point of one line there was no variation
in 1700; in every point of another line the compafs
had 20° of eaft variation and in every point of a third
line it had 2GC of weft variation. Thefe lines have
fince been called Halley an lines, or curves. Inis chait
was received with univerfal applaufe, and was undoubt¬
edly one of the moft valuable prefents that fcience has ^
made to the arts. _
The polarity of the magnetic needle, sna a general
though intricate conneclion between its pofitions in ail
parts of the world, naturally makes the philosopher Ipe-
culate about its caufe. We fee that Cortez aferibed it
to the altradlion of an eccentric point, and that Bond
thought that this point was placed not in the heavens,
but in the earth. This notion made the bafis of the fa¬
mous Theory of Magnetifm of Dr Gilbert of Colchcf-
ter. See Magnetism, Na 71 •
Gilbert’s theory may be underftood from the follow¬
ing general propofition. . _ i Plate
Let NS (fig. 1.) a aaagPet} of which N rs tne DX1,
north Fig. 1.
V A R [5
Variation, north and S the fouth pole : Let «^ be any oblong
piece of iron, poifed on a point c like a compafs needle.
It will arrange itfelf in a polition «c j-precifely the
fame with that which would be aflumed by a compafs
needle, of the fame fize and lhape, having « for its north
and s its fouth pole. And while the piece of iron re¬
mains in this polition, it will be in all refpefts a magnet
limilar to the real compafs needle. The pole n will at¬
tract the fouth pole of a fmall magnetifed needle, and
repel its north pole. If a paper be held over « s, and
fine iron-filings be ftrewed on it, they will arrange
themfelves into curves iffuing from one of its ends and
terminating at the other, in the fame manner as they
will when ftrewed on a paper held over a real com-
pafs needle.. But this magnetifm is quite temporary;
for if the piece of iron «j- be turned the other way,
placing n where s now is, it will remain there, and will
exhibit the fame phenomena. We may here add, t^iat
if n t be almoft infinitely fmall in comparifon of NS
the line n s will be in fuch a pofition that li s ay sb be*
drawn parallel to Nr, Sr, we fliall have sa to sb, as
A t^6 ^ t0 t^le ^°rCe t^le P°le
And this is the true caufe of that curious difpofition of
iron-filings when ftrewed round a magnet. Each frag¬
ment becomes a momentary magnet, and arranges itfelf
in the true magnetic direction, and when fo arranged
attracts the two adjoining fragments, and co-operates
with the forces, which alfo arrange them. We throw
this out to the ingenious mechanician as the foundation
ot a compete theory of the magnetical phenomena.
When the filings are infinitely fine, the curves NrS
have this property, that, drawing the tangent ncs, we
always have sa \ sb — force of N : force of S : and
thus we may approximate at pleafure to the law of mae-
netic attraftion and repulfion. The theory, of which
an outline is given under Magnetism, is founded on
this principle, and applies with fuccefs to every pheno¬
menon yet obferved. } v
Now to apply this theory to the point in hand—
L>ztns (fig 2.) be a fmall compafs needle, of which n
is the north and s the fouth pole : let this needle be
poifed horizontally on the pin cd; and let n's> be the
pofition of the dipping needle. Take any long bar of
common iron, and hold it upright, or nearly fo, as re-
prefented by AB. The lower end B will repel the
pole « and wd! attraa the pole r, thus exhibiting the
properties of a north pole of the bar AB. Keeping B
m ltS P.lacc’ ,turn bar round B' as a centre, till it
vT POflt5on A'B' —ly parallel to
You wilUbfervethe compafs needle ns attrad the end
B with either pole « or r when B'A' is in the pofition
b * perpendicular to the diredion «' / 0f the dipping
f : Land When the bar has come ^to the pofition
B ,Athe UPP^ end B' will (how itfelf to be a fouth
pole by attradhng n and repelling j-. This beautiful ex
rZSni" t0 the Royal Society in ^
From this it appears, that the great magnet in the
earth induces a momentary magnetifm on foft iron pre
cdely as a common magnet would do. Therefore (fays
Dr Gnbert) it induces permanent magnetifm on magne-
t.fable ores ol iron fuch as loadftonesf in the fame S-
a great loadftone would do ; and it affetts the
magne ,fm already imparted to a piece of tempered rteel
piecifely as any other great magnet would.
V OL. \X. IT °
21 1 VAR
therefore the needle of the mariner’s compafs ia Variation,
every part of the world arranges itfelf in the magnetic
diredion, lo that if poifed as a dipping needle Ihould be,
it will be a tangent to one of the curves Ne S of fig. x!
1 he horizontal needle being fo poifed as to be capable
of playing onJy in a horizontal plane, will only arrange
Ulelf the plane of the triangle N c S. That end of it
which has the lame magnetifm with the fouth pole S of
the great magnet included in the earth will be turned
towards its north pole N. Therefore what we call the
n°rth P°,Ie of a needle or magnet really has the magne-
V™ oj:,.the fouth Pole of the great primitive magnet.
If the line NS be called the axis, and N and S the
poles of this great magnet, the plane of any one of
thefe curves N cS will cut the earth’s furface in the
circumference of a circle, great or fmall according as
the plane does or does not pafs through the centre of the
earth.
Dr Halley’s firft thought was, that the north pole of
the great magnet or loadftone which was included in the
bowels of the earth was not far from .Baffin’s bay, and
its fouth pole in the Indian ocean fouth. weft from New
Zealand. But he could not find any pofitions of thele
two poles which.would give the needle that particular
pofition which it was obferved to affume in different
parts of the world ; and he concluded that the great
terrettrial loadftone had four irregular poles (a thimr not
unfrequent in natural loadftones, andeafily producible at
pleafure), two of which are ftronger and two weaker.
Y\ hen the compafs is at a great diftance from the two
north poles, it is affe&ed fo as to be direfted nearly in
a plane palling through the ftrongeft. But if we make
it. approach much more to the weakeft, the greater vici¬
nity will compenfate for the fmaller abfolute force of the
weak pole, and occafion confiderable irregularities. The
appearances are favourable to this opinion. If this be
the real conftitution of the great magnet, it is almoft a
delperate talk to afcertain by computation what will be
the pofition of the needle. Halley feems to have de-
ipaired : for he was both an elegant and a moft expert
mathematician, and it would have coft him little trouble
to afcertain the places of two poles only, and the di-
reaion which thefe would have given to the needle.
But to fay what would be its pofition when a£ted on by
four poles, it was neceffary to know the law by which
the magnetic aftion varied by a variation of diftance •
and even then, the computation would have been ex¬
ceedingly difficult.
In order to account for the change of variation, Dr
Jralley luppofes this internal magnet not to adhere to
the external (hell which we inhabit, but to form a nu¬
cleus or kernel detached from it on all fides, and to be
io polled as to revolve freely round an axis, the pofition
ot which he hopes to difcover by obfervation of the
compafs. Dr Halley imagined that the nucleus revolt
yed from eaft to iveft round the fame axis with the earth.
J hus the poles of the magnet wmuld change their po¬
fitions relatively to the earth’s furface, and this would
change the direftion of the compafs needle.
The great Euler, whofe delight it wras always to en¬
gage m the moft difficult mathematical refearches and
computations, undertook to afcertain the pofition of the
"e.edJVn "V.eryp?rt of the earth- His differtation on
t us lubjeft is to be feen in the 13th volume of the Me¬
moirs ol the Royal Academv 0f Berlin, and is exceed-
3 H ingly
%
VAR t 522 ] VAR
Variation, irgly beautiful, abounding in thofe analytical tours
    adrejfe in which he furpaffed all the world. He has
reduced the computation to a wonderful fimplicity.
He found, however, that four poles would engage
him in an analyfis which would be exceffively intricate,
and has contented himfelf with computing for two on¬
ly 5 obferving that this, fuppofition agrees fo well with
obfervation, that it is highly probable that this is the
real conftitution of the terreftrial magnet, and that the
coincidence would have been perfect if he had hit on
the due pofitions of the two poles. He places one of
them in lat. 76° north, and long. 96° weft from Tene-
riffe. The fouth pole is placed in lat. 58° fouth, and
long. 158° weft from Teneriffe. Thefe are their fitua-
tions for 1757.—Mr Euler has annexed to his differta-
tion a chart of Halleyan curves fuited to thefe affump-
tions, and fitted to the year 1757.
It muft be acknowledged, that (he general courfe of
the variations according to this theory greatly refembles
the real ftate of things j and we cannot butown ourfelves
highly indebted to this great mathematician for having
made fo fine a firft attempt. He has improved it very
confiderably in another differlation in the 2 2d volume
of thefe memoirs. But there are ftill fuch great dif¬
ferences, that the theory is of no ufe to the navigator,
and it only ferves as an excellent model for a farther
profecution of the fuhjecf. Since that time another
large variation chart has been publiftied, fitted to a
late period j but the public has not fufficient informa¬
tion of the authorities or obfervations on which it is
founded.
The great obje& in all thefe charts is to facilitate the
difcovery of a (hip’s longitude at fea. For the lines of
variation being drawn on the chart, and the variation
«nd the latitude being obferved at fea, we have only to
look on the chart for the interfe&ion of the parallel of
obferved latitude and the Halleyan curve of obferved
•variation. This interfeftion muft be the place of the
fliip. This being the purpofe, the Halleyan lines are
of gredt fervice } but they do not give us a ready con¬
ception of the direclion of the needle. We have always
to imagine a line drawn through the point, cutting the
meridian in the angle coirefponding to the Halleyan
line. We (hould learn the general magnetic affections
of the globe much better if a number of magnetic me¬
ridians were drawn. Thefe are the interfe&ions of the
earth’s furface with planes paffmg through the magne-
tical axis, cutting one another in angles df 50 or ioc.
This would both fhowr us the places of the magnetic
poles much more clearly, and would, in every pflace,
Ihow us at once the direction of the needle. In all thofe
places where thefe magnetic curve's touch the meridians,
there is no variation j and the variation in every othet
place is the angle contained between thefe magnetic
meridians and the true ones.
The program of a work of this kind has been pub¬
liftied by a Mr Churchman, who appears to have en¬
gaged in the inveftigation with great zeal and confider-
able opportunities. It is pretty certain that the north
magnetic pole ^or point, as Mr Churchman calls it) is
hot far removed from the ftations given it by Halley
and Euler; and there feems no doubt buj that in the
countries between Hudfon's bay and the weftern coafts
of North America the needle will have every pofition
with refpefl to the terreftrial meridian, fo that the north
end of a compafs needle will even point due fouth m fe- Vamtioa.
veral places. Almoft every thing that can be defired u-<—-J
in this inquiry would be obtained by a few voell-chofen
obfervations made in thofe regions. It w'ould be of inie
menfe advantage to have the dips afcertained with great
precifion. Thefe would enable us to judge at what
depth under the furface the pole is fituated j for the
well-informed mechanician, who will iludy ferioufly
what we have (aid about the magnetical curves, will lee
that a compafs needle, when compared with the great
4erieftrial magnet, is but as a particle of iron-filings
compared to a very large artificial magnet. Therefore,
from the pofition of the dipping needle, we may infer
the place of the pole, if the law of magnetic action be
given ; and this law may be found by means of -other
experiments which we could point out. See Magne¬
tism, N° 80, et feq.
Mr Churchman has adopted the opinion of only two
poles. According to him, the north pole was (in 1800)
in Lat. 58° N. and Long. 1340 W.. from Greenwich,
very near Cape Fairweathery and the fouth pole lies in
Lat. 58° S. and Long. 165° E. from Greenwich. He
alfo imagines that the north pole has moved to the eaft-
ward, on a parallel of latitude, about 65 fince the be¬
ginning of the 19th century (from 1600), and concludes
that it makes a revolution in 1096 years. The fouth¬
em pole has moved lefs, and completes its revolution in
2289 yfetms. This motion he afcribes to fome influences
which he calls magnetic tides, and which he feems to
confider as celeftial. This he infers from the changes of
variation. He announces a phyfical theory on this fub-
jett, which, he fays, enables him to compute the varia¬
tion with precificn for any time paft or to come ; and
he even gives the prooefs of trigonometrical computa¬
tion illuftrated by examples. But as this publication
(entitled The Magnetic Atlas'), publiflied for the author,
by Carton and Harvey, 1794,) is only, a program, he
expreffes himfelf obfcurely, and fom6what enigmatically,
jefpedlihg his theory. He (peaks of the influence of
-one pole being greater than that of the other 5 and fays,
■that in this cafe the magnetic equator, where the needle
will be parallel to the axis, will not be in the middle
between the poles. This is true of a common magnet.
He muft therefore abide by this fuppofition in its other
confequences. The magnetic meridians muft be planes
pafling through this axis, and therefore muft be circles
on the furface of the earth. This is incompatible with
the obfervations ; nay, his charts are fo in many places,
particularly in the Pacific ocean, where the variations
by his chart are -three times greater than what has been
obferved.—His parallels of dip are ftill more diffeient
from obfefvatibn, and are incompatible with any phe¬
nomena that could be produced by a magnet having
but two poles. His rules of computation are exceed¬
ingly exceptionable. He has in fa£l but one example,
and that fo particular, that the mode ©f computation
will not apply to any other. This circumftance is nqt
taken notice of in the enunciation of his firft problem ;
and the reader is made to imagine that he has got a rule
for computing the variation, whereas all the rules of
calculation are only running in a circle. The variation
computed for the port of St Peter and Paul in Kamtf-
chatka, by the rule, is ten times greater than the truth.
For our own part, we have little hopes of this pro¬
blem ever being fubjetted to accurate calculation. We
believe.
VAR [ 523 ] VAR
Variutioc. believe, indeed, that there is a cofmical change going
on in the earth, which will produce a progreflxve change
in the variation of the needle j and we fee none more
likely than Dr Halley’s motion. There is nothing re¬
pugnant to our knowledge of the univerfe in the fuppo-
fition of a magneiic nucleus revolving within this earth 5
and it is very eafy to conceive a very fimple motion of
revolution, which lhall produce the very motion of the
fenfible poles for which Mr Churchman contends. We
need only fuppofe that the magnetical axis of this nu¬
cleus is not its axis of revolution. It may not even bi-
fe£t that axis ; and this circumltance will caufe the two
poles to have different degrees of motion in relation to
the (hell which furrounds it.
But this regular progrefs of the magnet within the
earth may produce very irregular motions of the com-
pafs needle, by the intervention of a third body fufcep-
tible of magnetifm. The theory of which we have juff
given a hint comes here to our affiftance. Suppofe NS
(hg- 3-) to reprefent the primitive magnet in the earth,
and ns to be a ftratum of iron ore fufceptible of mag-
oetilm. Alfo let n' s' be another fmall mafs of a hmilar
ore , and let. their lituations and magnitudes be fuch as
is exhibite-khi the figure. The fa£l will be, that n wall
be the north pole and j- the fouth pole of the great ftra¬
tum, and «f and / will be the north and fouth poles of
the tmall mafs or loadftone. Any perfon may remove
all doubts as to this, by making the experiment with a
magnet NS, a piece of iron or foft tempered fteel «j-,
find another piece rd/. The well-informed and atten¬
tive reader will eafily fee, that by fuch interventions
every conceivable anomaly may be produced. While
the great magnet makes a revolution in any dire&ion,
the needle will change its pofition gradually, and with
a certain regularity ; but it will depend entirely on the
fize, (hape, and fituation, of thefe intervening maffes of
magnetifable iron ore, whether the change of variation
of the compafs ihall be iuch as the primitive magnet
alone would have produced, or whether it fhall be of a
kind wholly different.
Now, that fuch intervening difturbances may exift,
is paft contradiction. We know that even on the film
of earth which w’e inhabit, and with which only we are
acquainted, there are extenfive ftrata or otherwife dif-
pofed maffes of iron ores in a ftate fufceptible of magne-
tirm ; and experiments made on bars of hard tempered
fteeh and on bits of fuch ores, affure us that the magne-
tifm is not induced on fuch bodies in a moment,"but
propagated gradually along the mafs.—That fuch di¬
fturbances do adftually exift, we have many relations.
There are many inftances on record of very extenfive
mign.etic rocks, which affect the needle to* very confi-
derable difhnces. The ifiand of Elba in the Mediter¬
ranean is a very remarkable inftance of this. The ifland
of Cannay alfo, on the weft of Scotland, has rocks
which affVCt the needle at a great diftance.
A fimilar effeCt is obferved near the Feroe ifiands in
the North fea ; the compafs has no determined direc¬
tion when brought on ftiore. Journ. de Scavans 1670
p. 174. ’
In Hudfon’s (traits, in latitude 63®, the needle has
hardly any polarity. Ellises Voyage to Hudfon’s Bay.
Bou^uer obferved the fame thing in Peru. Nay, we
believe that almoft all rocks, Specially of whin or
trappe ftonc, contain iron in a proper ftate.
All this refers only to the thin cruft through which Variation,
the human eye has occafionally penetrated. Of what —^v'-—
may be below we are ignorant j but when wq fee ap¬
pearances ■which tally fo remarkably with what would
be the cffeCls of great maftes of magnetical bodies, n;o-
difying the general and regularly progreflive aCtion of
a primitive magnet, whofe exiftence and motion is in-
confiftent with nothing that wre know ot this globe, this
manner of accounting for the obferved change of varia¬
tion has all the probability that we can delire. Nay,
we apprehend that very confiderable changes may be
produced in the direction of the compafs needle, even
without the fuppofidon of any internal motion. If the
great magnet refembles many loadftones we are ac¬
quainted with, having more than two poles, we know
that thefe poles will aCt on each other, and gradually
change each other’s force, and confequently the direc¬
tion of the compafs. This procefs, to be fine, tends to
a ftate of things which will change no more.—But the
period of human hiftory, or of the hiftory of the race
of Adam, may make but a fmall part of the hiftory
of this globe 5 and therefore this objection is of littl®
force.
There can be no doubt of the operation of the gene¬
ral terreftrial magnetifm on every thing fufceptible of
magnetic properties 5 and we cannot hefitate to ex¬
plain in this way many changes of magnetic direction
which have been obferved. Thus, in Italy, Father de
la Torre obferved, that during a great eruption of Ve-
fuvius the variation was 160 in the morning, at noon it
was 140, and in the evening it was io°, and that it
continued in that ftate till the lava grew fo dark as no
longer to be vifible in the night; after which it flowly
increafed to 13A, where it remained. Daniel Bernoulli
found the needle changed its pofition 45' by an earth¬
quake. Profeffor Muller at Manheim obferved that the
declination of the needle in that place was greatly af-
feCled by the earthquake in Calabria. Such dreams of
lava as flowed from Hecla in the laft dreadful eruptio-n
muft have made a transference of magnetic matter that
would confiderably affeCl the needle. But no obferva-
tions feem to have been made on the occafion ; for we
know that common ironftone, which has no effeCl on
the needle, will, by mere cementation with any inflam¬
mable fubftance, become magnetic. In this way Dr
Knight fonnetimes made artificial loadftones..—But thefe
are partial things, and not conneCled with the general
change of variation now under confideration.
We have faid fo much on this fubjeCl, chiefly with
the view of cautioning our readers againft too fanguine
expectations from any pretenfions to the foluttOn of this
great problem. We may certainly gather from thefe
obfervations, that even although the theory of the va¬
riation fhould be completed, we muft expeCl (by what
we already know of magnetifm in general) that the di¬
fturbances of the needle, by local caufes intervening be¬
tween it and the great influence by which it is chiefly
direfted, may be fo confiderable as to affeCl the pofition
of the compafs needle in a very fenfible manner : for we
know that the metallic fubftances in the bowels of the
earth are in a ftate of continual change, and this to as
extent altogether unknown.
1 here is another irregularity of the mariner’s needle
that we have noticed under Magnetism, p. 365.
namely, the daily variation. This was firft obferved
3 U 2 by
VAR
by Mr George Graham in 1722 (Phllofophical Tranf-
aftions, N° 383), and reported to the Royal Society of
London. It uiually moves (at leaft in Europe) to the
weftward from 8 morning till 2 P. M. and then gra¬
dually returns to its former fituation. The diurnal va¬
riations are feldom lefs than o° 3', and often much
greater. Mr Graham mentions (Philofophical Tranf-
aftions, N° 428.) fome obfervations by a Captain
Hume, in a voyage to America, where he found the
variation greateft in the afternoon. This being a
general phenomenon, has alfo attradled the attention
of philofophers. The moft detailed accounts of it
to be met with are thofe of Mr Canton (fee Magne¬
tism), in Philofophical Tranfaftions, vol. li. part 1.
p. 399, and thofe of Van Swinden, in his Treatife on
Eleftricity and Magnetifm.
Mr Canton attempts to account for thefe changes of
pofition, by obferving that the force of a magnet is
weakened by heat. A fmall magnet being placed near
a compafs needle, ENE from it, fo as to make it de¬
fied! 450 from the natural pofition, the magnet was co¬
vered with a brafs velfel, into which hot water was
poured. The needle gradually receded from the mag¬
net 45', and returned gradually to its place as the water
cooled. This is confirmed by uniform experience.
The parts of the earth to the eaftward are firft heated
in the morning, and therefore the force of the earth is
weakened, and the needle is made to move to the weft-
ward. But as the fun warms the weftern fide of the
earth in the afternoon, the motion of the needle muft
take the contrary diredlion.
But this way of explaining by a change in the force
of the earth fuppofes that the changing caufe is afting
in oppofition to fome other force. We do not know of
any fuch. The force, whatever it may be, feems fimply to
produce its own effedl, in deranging the needle from
the diredtion of terreftrial magnetifm. If iEpinus’s
theory of magnetic adlion be admitted, we may fuppofe
that the fun adts on the earth as a magnet adls on a
piece of foft iron, and in the morning propels the fluid
in the north-weft parts. The needle diredts itfelf to
this conftipated fluid, and therefore it points to the eaft¬
ward of the magnetic north in the afternoon. And (to
abide by the fame theory) this induced magnetifm will
be fomewhat greater when the earth is warmer; and
therefore the diurnal variation will be greateft in fum-
mer. This change of pofition of the conftipated fluid
muft be fuppofed to bear a very fmall ratio to the whole
fluid, which is naturally fuppofed to be conftipated in
one pole of the great magnet in order to give it magne¬
tifm. Thus we fhall have the diurnal variation a very
fmall quantity. This is departing, however,, from the
principle of Mr Canton’s explanation; and indeed- we
cannot fee how the weakening the general force of the
terreftrial magnet (hould make any change in the needle
in refpedt to its diredtion ; nor does it appear probable
that the change of temperature produced by the fun will
penetrate deep enough to produce any fenfible effed! on
the magnetifm. And if this be the caufe, we think
that the derangements of the needle {hould vary as the
thermometer varies, wdiich is not true. The other me¬
thod of explaining is much better, if jEpinus’s theory
of magnetic attradlion and repulfion be juft •, and we
tpay fuppofe that it is only the fecondary magnetifm
VAR
(i. e. that of the magnetifable minerals) that is fenfibly ^
affedted by the heat; this will account very well for L
the greater mobility of the fluid in fummer than in win¬
ter.
A great objedfion to either of thefe explanations is
the prodigious diverfity of the diurnal variations in dif¬
ferent places. This is fo very great, that we can fcarce-
ly aferibe the diurnal variation to any change in the
magnetifm of the primitive terreftrial magnet, and muft
rather look for its caufe in local circumftances. This
conclufion becomes more probable, when we learn that
the deviation from the meridian and the deviation from
the horizontal line are not affedled at the fame time.
Van Swinden aferibes them folely to changes produced
on the needles themfelves. If their magnetifm be
greatly deranged by the fun’s pofition, it may throw
the magnetic centre away from the centre of the nee¬
dle’s motion, and thus produce a very fmall change of
pofition. But if this be the caufe, we {hould expedl
differences in different needles. Van Swinden fays,
that there are fuch, -and that they are very great $ but
as he has not fpecified them, we cannot draw any con¬
clufion.
But, befides this regular diurnal variation, there is
another, which is fubjefted to no rule. The aurora bo¬
realis is obferved (in Europe) to difturb the needle ex¬
ceedingly, fometimes drawing it feveral degrees from
its pofition. It is always obferved to increafe its devia¬
tion from the meridian, that is, an aurora borealis makes
the needle point more wefterly. This difturbance fome¬
times amounts to fix or feven degrees, and is generally
obferved to be greateft when the aurora borealis is mofl:
remarkable.
The obfervation of the connexion of the polarity of
the needle with the aurora borealis occurred to the late
Profeffor Robifon in 1759, when a midlhipman on board
the. Royal William in the river St Lawrence, The
point of the heavens to which all the rays of light con¬
verged was precifely that which was oppofite to the
fouth end of the dipping needle.
This is a very curious phenomenon, and we have not
been able to find any conneftion between this meteor
and the pofition of a magnetic needle. It is to be ob¬
ferved, that a needle of copper or wood, or any fub-
ftance except iron, is not affefted. We long thought
it an eleftric phenomenon, and that the needle was af-
fetted as any other body balanced in the fame man¬
ner would be } but a copper needle would then be af-
fedled.
We fee the needle frequently difturbed both from its
general annual pofition, and from the change made on
it by the diurnal variation. This is probably the effett
of auroras boreales which are invifible, either on ac¬
count of thick weather or daylight. Van Swinden fays,
he feldom or never failed to obferve aurorae boreales im¬
mediately after any anomalous motion of the needle j.
and concluded that there had been one at the time,
though he could not fee it. Since no needle but a mag¬
netic one is affefted by the aurora borealis, ive may
conclude that there is fome natural connexion between
this meteor and magnetifm. This ftiould farther incite
us to obferve the circumftance above mentioned, viz.
that the fouth end of the dipping needle points to that
part of the heavens where the rays of the aurora appear
to
r sn 1
VAR [ 525 1 VAR
Variation to converge. We with that this were diligently obfer-
VarniHi VeC^ P^aces which have very different variation and
dip of the mariner’s needle.
For the diurnal and this irregular variation, confult
the DilTertations of Celfius and of Hiorter, in the Me¬
moirs of Stockholm ; Wargentin, Philofophical Tranf-
adfions, vol. xlviii. j Braun {Comment. Vetropol. Novi,
tom. v. vii. ix.) 5 Graham and Canton as above.
VARIETY, a change, fucceffion, or difference, in
the appearance or nature of things j in oppofition to uni¬
formity.
Variety, in Botany, is a change in fome lefs effen-
tial part or quality j as colour, fize, pubefcence or age.
■—Externally ; by the plaiting or interweaving of the
branches—by bundling or uniting of feveral ftalks into
one broad flat one ; by the greater breadth, or narrow-
nefs, or curling of leaves—by becoming awnlefs, or
fmooth, or hirfute. Internally j by becoming mutila¬
ted in the corolla ; or having one larger than ordinary
—■by luxuriancy, multiplication, or fulnefs—by beco¬
ming proliferous, or crefted—by bearing bulbs inftead
of feeds —or being viviparous.
The ufual caufes of variation are, climate, foil, ex-
pofure, heat, cold, winds, culture.
VARIOLA, the Smallpox. See Medicine, N°
222—224.
VARIX, in Medicine, the dilatation of a vein, ari-
fing from the too great abundance or thicknefs of the
blood.
VARNISH, a clear limpid fluid, capable of harden¬
ing without lofing its tranfparency, ufed by painters,
gilders, &c. to give a luflre to their works, to preferve
•s them and defend them from the air.
A coat of varnifh ought to poffefs the following pro¬
perties: 1. It murt exclude the a£Hon of the air; be-
caufe wood and metals are varnifhed to defend them
from decay and ruff. 2. It muff refift water; for
otherwife the effeft of the varnifh could not be perma¬
nent. 3. It ought not to alter fuch colours as are in¬
tended to be preferved by this means. It is neceffary
therefore that a varnifh fhould be eafily extended or
fpread over the furface, without leaving pores or cavi¬
ties ; that it fhould not crack or fcale ; and that it
fhould refift water. Now refins are the only bodies that
poffefs theie properties. Refins confequently muft be
ufed as the bafes of varnifh. The queftion which of
courfe. prefents itfelf muft then be, how to difpofe them
or this ufe ? and for this purpofe they muft be diffol-
ved, as minutely divided as poflible, and combined in
fuch a manner that the imperfeaions of thofe which
might be difpofcd to fcale may be correfted by others.
Refins may be diffolved by three agents. 1. By fix¬
ed oil. 2. By volatile oil. 3. By alcohol. And ac¬
cordingly we have three kinds of varnifh : the fat or
oily varnifh, effential varnifh, and fpirit varnifh. Be¬
fore a refin is diffolved in a fixed oil, it is neceffary to
render the oil drying. For this purpofe the oil is boiled
ivith metallic oxides ; in which operation the mucilage
of the oil combines with the metal, while the oil itfelf
unites with the oxygen of the oxide. To accelerate the
drying of this varnifh, it is neceffary to add oil of tur¬
pentine. . The effential varnifhes confift of a folution of
refin in oil of turpentine. The varnifh being applied,
the effential oil flies off, and leaves the refin. This is
■jfed only for paintings. When refins are diffolved in
alcohol, the varnifh dries very fpeedily, and is fubje£l Varnifh.
to crack; but this fault is corre&ed by adding a fmall ■—v*~~
quantity of turpentine to the mixture, which renders it
brighter, and lefs brittle when dry.
We fhall now give the method of preparing a num¬
ber of varnifhes for different purpofes.
A Varnijh for Toilet-boxes, Cafes, Fans, &c.—Dif-
folve two ounces of gum maftich and eight ounces of
gum fandarach in a quart of alcohol; then add four-
ounces of Venice turpentine.
A Varnijh for Wainfcots, Cane-chairs, Iron-chairst
Orates.—Diffolve in a quart of alcohol eight ounces of
gum fandarach, two ounces of feed lac, four ounces of
rofin ; then add fix ounces of Venice turpentine. If
the varnilh is wifhed to produce a red colour, more of
the lac and lefs of fandarach fhould be ufed, and a lit¬
tle dragon's blood fhould be added. This vainifh is fo
thick that two layers of it are equal to four or five of
another.
A Varnifh for Fiddles, and other Mufcal Injlruments.
—Put four ounces of gum fandarach, two ounces of
lac, two ounces of gum maftich, an ounce of gum
elemi, into a quart of alcohol, and hang them over a
flow fire till they are diffolved ; then add two ounces of
turpentine.
Varnijh in order to employ Vermilion for painting
Equipages.—Diffolve in a quart of alcohol fix ounces of
fandarach, three ounces of gum lac, and four ounces of
rofin ; afterwards add fix ounces of the cheapeft kind of
turpentine ; mix with it a proper quantity of vermilion
when it is to be ufed.
Gold-coloured Varntjh.—Pound feparately four ounces
of flick lac, four ounces of gamboge, four ounces of
dragon’s blood, four ounces of anotta, and one ounce of
faffron : put each of them feparately into a quart of al¬
cohol, and expofe them for five days in a narrow-
mouthed bottle to the fun, or keep them during that
time in a very warm room, lhaking them every now and
then to haften the folution. When they are all melted,
mix them together. More or lefs of each of thefe in¬
gredients will give the different tints of gold according
as they are combined. In order to make filver imitate
gold exaftly when covered with this varnifli, the quan¬
tity of ingredients muft be fomewhat greater. The me¬
thod of gilding filver-leaf, &c. with this varnifh is as
follows: The filver-leaf being fixed on the fubjeft, in
the fame manner as gold-leaf, by the interpofition of
proper glutinous matters, the varnifh is fpread upon the.
piece with a brufh or pencil. The firft coat being dry,
the piece is again and again wafhed over with the var-
nifh till the colour appears fufficiently deep. What is
called gilt leather, and many pi&ure frames, have no
other than this counterfeit gilding. Wafhing them with
a little reflified fpirit of wine affords a proof of this ; the
fpirit diffolving the varnifh, and leaving the filver-leaf
of its own whitenefs. For plain frames, thick tinfoil
may be ufed inftead of filver. The tin-leaf, fixed on
the piece with glue, is to be burnifhed, then polifhed
with emery and a fine linen cloth,, and afterwards with
putty applied in the fame manner : being then lacquer¬
ed over with the varnifh five or fix times, it looks very
nearly like burnifhed gold. The fame varnifh, made
with a lefs proportion of the colouring materials, is ap¬
plied alio on works of brafs; both for heightening the
colour of the metal to a rcSemblance with that of gold,.
and 1
V A R t s
and for preferving it from being tarnifhed or corroded
' by the air.
Oil Vdrmjhes.—Gum copal and amber are the fub-
ftances principally employed in oil varmfhes j they pof-
fefs the properties neceffary for varnifhes, folidity and
tranfparency.—The copal being whiteft, is ufed for
varnifliing light, the amber for dark colours. It is belt
to diflblve them before mixing them with the oil, be'-
caufe by this means they are in lefs danger of being
fcorched, and at the fame time the varnilh is more beau¬
tiful. They Ihould be melted in a pot on the fire;
they are in a proper flate for receiving the oil when
ihey give no refiftance to the iron fpatula, and when
they run off from it drop by drop. The oil employed
fhould be a drying oil, and perfedlly free from greafe.
It fhould be poured into the copal or amber by little
and little, conflantly ftirring the ingredients at the
fame time with the fpatula. When the oil is well
mixed with the copal or amber, take it off the fire ; and
when it is pretty cool, pour in a greater quantity of the
effence of turpentine than the oil that was ufed. After
the varnifh is made, it fhould be paffed through a linen
cloth. Oil varnifhes become thick by keeping ; but
when they are to be ufed, it is only neceffary to pour in
a little cffence of turpentine, and to put them for a lit¬
tle on the fire. The turpentine is neceffary in oil var-
nilhes to make them dry properly j generally twice as
much of it is ufed as of oil. Lefs is neceffary in fum-
mer than in winter. Too much oil hinders the vamifh
from drying ; but when too little is ufed, it cracks and
does not fpread properly. We fhall fubjoin the moft
ufeful oil varnifhes:
White Copal Varnifh.—On 16 ounces of melted co¬
pal pour four, fix, or eight ounces of linfeed oil, boiled
and quite free from greafe. When they are well mixed,
lake them off the fire (not forgetting to ftir them pro¬
perly) *, and when pretty cool, pour in 16 ounces of
the effence of Venice turpentine. Pafs the varnifh
through a cloth.—Amber varnilh is made in the fame
way.
Black Varnijh for Coaches and Iron Work.—This var¬
nifh is compofed of bitumen of Palefline, rofin, and am¬
ber, melted feparately, and afterwards mixed : the oil
is then added, and afterwards the turpentine, as direct¬
ed above. The ufual proportions are, 12 ounces of
amber, two ounces of rofin, two ounces of bitumen, fix
of oil, and 12 of the effence of turpentine.—Golden-co¬
loured varnifh may be made alfo by fubftituting linfeed
oil for alcohol.
Effential Oil Varnifhes.—The only effential oil var¬
nifhes ufed are for pictures. Picture varnifhes fliould be
white, light, and qu?te tranfparent, which will preferve
the colours without giving them any difagreeable tint;
^nd it fhould be poflible to take them off the picture
without injuring it. They are ufually made of gum
maftich and turpentine diffolved together in fome effen¬
tial oil. The varnifh is paffed through a cloth, and al¬
lowed to clarify. It is applied cold to the picture.
Varnifh for Glafs, in order to preferve it from the
Bays of the Suu.—Pulverife a quantity of gum adra-
gant, and let It diffolve for 24 hours in the white of
eggs well beat up ; then rub it gently on the glafs with
a brulh.
Varaifhes before they are ufed fhould be carefully
Itept fsora duff, which would fpoil them ; and they
2
26 j
V A It
fhould be kept in a veffel quite clean and dry. When
ufed, they fliould be lifted lightly with a brufh, and ^
fpread upon a ground altogether free from dirt and
xnoifture. The nibftance, after being varnifhed, fhould
be expofed to the heat of the fun, or placed in a Tvarm
room covered with a glafs cafe, to keep out all filth.
Oil varnifhes require more heat than alcohol varniflies.
The varnifh fhould be put on very quickly, making
great ftrokes with the pencil or brufh, taking care that
thefe ftrokes never crofs one another ; it fhould be. fpread
equally, and never thicker than a leaf of paper ; a fe--
etmd coat fhould not be put on till the firft is quite
dry. If the varnifh, after being put on, becomes dull
and uneven, it muft be taken off entirely, and new var¬
nifh put on.
When wainfeot is to be varnifhed, it is firft painted
of a wooden colour. This colour is made by infufing in
water either red or yellow ochre (according to the co-
lour wifhed for), terra ombria (a kind of ochre) and
white lead 5 into this as much as neceffary is put of
parchmentpafe. Two thin coats of this are to be put
on, and, after they are quite dry, the varnifh.
Varnifhes are polifhed with pumice-ftone and tripolt
earth. The pumice-ftone muft be reduced to an impal¬
pable power, and put upon a piece of ferge moiftened
with water •, with this the varnifhed fubftance is to be
rubbed lightly and equally. The tripoli muft alfo be
reduced to a very fine powder, and put upon a clean
woollen cloth moiftened with olive oil, with which the
polifhing is to be performed. The varnifh is then to be
wiped with foft linen, and, when quite dry, cleaned
with ftarch or Spanifh white, and rubbed with the palm
of the hand or with a linen cloth.
. To recover colours or varnifh, and to take off the
dirt and filth which may adhere to them, a ley is ufed
made of potafh and the afhes of lees of wine. Take 48
ounces of potafh, and 16 of the above-mentioned afhes,
and put them into fix quarts of w'ater, and the ley is
made : inftead of the allies an equal quantity of potafh
w’ould probably do as well. To clean dirty colours,
dilute fome of this ley wflth four times its quantity of
water, and rub the pifture with it; then wafh it with
river wrater j and when dry, give it a coat or two of
varnifh. In order to take off a vamifh, wafh it with
the above-mentioned ley, then with water, a«nd then lift
it off the fubftance on which it was with any iron inftru-
ment.—We fhall finifh this article with a defeription of
the famous Chinefe varnifh.
The Chinefe varnifh is not a compofition. but a refin
which exudes from a tree called in China tf-chu, “ var¬
nifh tree.” This tree grows in feveral provinces of the
fouthern parts of China. The Chinefe take the follow¬
ing method of propagating this tree : In fpiing they
choofe a vigorous flioot about a foot in length, which
proceeds immediately from the trunk j and coat over
the lower part, by which it adheres to the tree, with a
k:nd of yellow earth, at leaft three inches in thicknefs.
This coat is carefully covered with a mat, to defend it
from rain and the injuries of the air. Towards the au¬
tumnal equinox they detach a little of the earth, to ob-
ferve in what condition the fmall roots are, which begin
to fpring forth from the fhoot. If they find that the
filaments which compofe them are of a reddifh colour,
they judge it is time to make an amputation ; but they
defer it if the roots are white,, becaufe this colour fhows
that
VAR r 527 7 V A R
VarRtfh. that they are yet too tender: they then clofe up the
—  ' coat again, and wait till the fpring following. When
the (hoot is feparated from the trunk of the tree, it is put
into the earth j but in whatever feafon it is planted, whe¬
ther in fpiing or autumn, great care mull be taken to put
plenty of cinders into the hole prepared for it} without
this precaution the ants would deftroy the yet tender
soots, or at leaf! deprive them of all their inoilture, and
eaufe them to decay.
The Chinefe do not procure varnlfh from the tfi-chu
until its trunk is nearly five inches in diameter, which
iize it feldom attains to before feven or eight years.
Varniih extracted from a tree fmaller or ol lets age
would not have the fame body and fplendor. This li¬
quor diftils only in the night time, and during the fum-
mer fea'bn. To caufe the gum to flow, they make feve-
ral rows of incifions round the trunk, the number of
which is proportioned to the vigour of the tree. The
firlt row is feven inches from the earth, and the reft are
at the fame diftance one from the other, and continue
to the top of the trunk, and even fometimes on the
bouyhs which are of fufficient ftrength and fize. The
Chinefe ufe a crooked iron for making thefe incifions,
which muft run a little obliquely, and be equal in depth
to the thicknefs of the bark ; they make them with one
hand, and with the other hold a (hell, the edges of which
they infert into the opening, where it remains without
any fupport. Thefe incifions are made towards evening,
and next morning they collect the varnifli which has
fallen into the fhells^ the following evening they are again
inferted, and this operation is continued until the end of
fummer. A thoufand trees yield almoit in one night
20 pounds of varnifh.
While the varmfii diftDs, it exhales a maligant va¬
pour, the bad effefls of which can only be prevented by
prefervaiives and great precaution. The merchant who
employs the workmen is obliged to keep by him a large
vafe filled with rape-oil, in which a certain quantity of
thofe fleftiy filaments have been boiled that are found in
hog’s lard, and which do not melt. When the work¬
men are going to fix the {hells to the trees, they carry
foq^e of this oil along with them, and rub their face and
hands with it, which they do with greater care when
they.colled! in the morning the varnifti that has diftilled
during night. After eating, they wafh their whole bo¬
dies with warm water, in w'hich the bark of the chefnut
tree, fir rvood, cryftallized faltpetre, and fome other
drugs, have been boiled. When they are at work near
the trees, they put upon their heads a fmall cloth bag
in which there are two holes, and cover the fore part of
their bodies with a kind of apron made of doe fkin,
which is fufpended from their necks with ftrings, and
tied round them with a girdle. They alfo wear boots,
and have coverings on their arms, made of the fame
kind of Ikin. The labourer who ftiould attempt to col¬
led! varnifh without ufing this precaution, would foon
be punilhed for his raftinefs, and the moft dreadful ef-
fedls would enfue. The diforder (hows itfelf by tetters,
which become of a bright red colour, and fpread in a
very ftiort time; the body afterwards fwells, and the
flan burfts and appears covered with an univerfal lepro-
fy. The unhappy wretch could not long endure the
excruciating pain which he feels, did he not find a
fpeedy remedy in thofe prefcrvatives which are. ufed
again!! the malignant and noxious exhalations of the Vamifh.
varnifli. —y—.
The feafon of colledVmg varnifli being ended, the mer¬
chant puts it into fmall calks clofely Hopped. A pound
of it newly made colts him about one Hulling and eight
pence Sterling } but he gains cent, per cent, upon it, and
lomelimes more, according to the diftance of the place
to which he tranfports.it. *
Betides the luftre and beauty which that varnifti gives
to many of the Chinefe manufadlures, it has alfo the
property of preferving the wood upon which it is
laid, efpecially if no other matter be mixed with it.
It prevents it from being hurt either by dampnefs or
worms.
Every workman has a particular art and method of
ufing the varnilh. This work requires not only much
Ikill and dexterity, but alfo great attention, to obferve
the proper degree of fluidity which the gum ought to
have, as it muft be neither too thick nor too liquid when
it is laid on. Patience above all is neceffary in thofe who
with to fucceed. To be properly varniihed, a work muft
be done at leifurc } and the whole funimer is fcarcely
futficient to bring it to perfedlion. It is therefore rare
to fee any of thofe cabinets which are imported to us
from Canton fo beautiful and durable as thole manu-
fadlured m Japan, Tong-king, and Nang-king, the
capital of the province of Kiang-nan: not that the
artifts do not employ the fame vaniifli ; but as they
work for Europeans, who are more eafily pleefed, they
do not take the trouble of giving the pieces which
come from their hands all the polilh they are capable of
receiving.
There are two methods of laying on the varnifti ;
the limpleft is, when it is immediately laid on the wood.
The work is firft polilhed, and then daubed over with
a kind of oil which the Chinefe call t&ng-yeou. When
this oil is dry, it receives two or three coats of varnilh j
which remain fo tranfparent, that all the lliades and
veins of the wood may be feen through them. If the
artill is defirous of entirely concealing the fubftance on
which they are laid, nothing is neceffary but to add a
few more coats } thefe give the work a Ihining furface,
the fmoothnefs of which equals that of the moft beautiful
ice. When the work is dry, various figures are painted
upon it in gold and filver, fuch as flowers, birds, trees,
temples, dragons, &c. A new coat of varnith is then
fometimes laid over thefe figures, which preferves them,
and adds much to their fplendor. The fecond method
requires more preparation. The Chinefe workmen fix
to the wood by means of glue a kind of palleboard, com-
pofed of paper, hemp, lime, and other ingredients, well
beaten, that the varnifli may incorporate with them. Of
this they make a ground perfdftly fmooth and folid, over
which the varnilh is laid in thin coats, that are left to
dry one after the other.
It often happens, that the luftre of varnifhed tables
and other pieces of furniture is infenfibly deftroyed by
tea and warm liquors. “ The fecret of reftoring to var¬
nilh its Ihining black colour (fays a Chinefe author) is
to expofe it for one night to a white hoar-froft, or to co¬
ver it fome time with fnow.” For a method of imitating
Chinefe varni/h, fee Turning.
Varnish alfo fignifies a fort of fhining coat, where¬
with potters-ware, delft-ware, china-ware, &c. are co-
rered.
VAR [ s
> vered, which gives them a fmoothnefs and luftre. Melt¬
ed lead is generally ufed for the firft, and fmalt for the
fecond. See Glazing.
Varnish, among medalifts, fignifies the colours an¬
tique medals have acquired in the earth.
The beauty which nature alone is able to give to me¬
dals, and art has never yet attained to counterfeit, en¬
hances the value of them : that is, the colour which
certain foils in which they have a long time lain tinges
the metals withal ; fome of which are blue, almoft as
beautiful as the turquoife; others with an inimitable
vermilion colour $ others with a certain finning polilhed
browm, vaftly finer than Brafil figures.
The moft ufual varnifh is a beautiful green, which
hangs to the fineft ftrok.es without effacing them, more
accurately than the fineft enamel does on metals.
No metal but brafs is fufceptible of this; for the
green ruft that gathers on filver always fpoils it, and it
muft be got off wdth vinegar or lemon juice.
Falfifiers of medals have a falfe or modern varnifh,
which they ufe on their counterfeits, to give them the
appearance or air of being antique. But this may be
difcovered by its foftnefs ; it being fofter than the natu¬
ral varnifh, which is as hard as the metal itfelf.
Some depofite their fpurious metals in the earth for
a confiderable time, by which means they contradf: a
fort of varnifh, which may impofe upon the lefs know¬
ing $ others ufe fal ammoniac, and others burnt paper.
VARRO, Marcus Terentius, the moft learned of
all the Romans, was born 28 years B. C. He was a
fenator of the firft diftinftion, both for birth and merit $
and bore many great offices. He was an intimate
friend of Cicero ; and this friendfhip was confirmed and
immortalized by a mutual dedication of their learned
works to each other. Thus Cicero dedicated his Aca¬
demic Queftions to Varro ; and Varro dedicated his
treatife on the Latin tongue to Cicero. In the civil
wars he wTas zealoufly attached to Pompey 5 but after
his defeat foon fubmitted to Caefar, who was reconciled
to him. Afterwards he applied his whole time to let¬
ters, and had the charge of the Greek and Latin libra¬
ries at Rome. He wras above 70 when Antony profcri-
bed him ; however, he found means to efcape and fave
his life, though he could not fave fome of his works and
his library from being plundered by the foldiers. After
this ftorm was over, he purfued his ftudies as ufual 5 and
Pliny relates, that he continued to ftudy and to write
when he w’as 88 years of age. He was 80 when he
wrote his three books De re RuJHca, which are ftill ex¬
tant. Five of his books De lingua Latina, which he
addreffed to Cicero, are all extant. There remain, too,
divers fragments of his wmrks, particularly of his Menip-
pean Satires, which are medleys of profe and verfe and
Scaliger has collefted fome of his epigrams from among
the CataleRa Virgihi. His books De lingua Latina, and
De re Ruftica, were printed with the notes of Jofeph
Scaliger, Turnebus, and Vi&orius, by Henry Stephens
at Paris, 1573, in 8-vo, and have been publifhed fepa-
rately fince among the AuBores de lingua Latina, and
the AuRores de re Ruftica.
There was another Varro of antiquity, called Ataci-
nus, who was born about 10 years after the firft, at a
fmall town near Narbonne. Though infinitely below
the Roman in learning, he was at leaft as good, if not a
better, poet j which perhaps has made Lillius Gyraldus
1
8 ] V A U
and other critics confound them. He compofed many
works in verfe $ fome fragments of which were collect¬
ed, and publifhed with thofe of other ancient poets, at
Lyons in 1603. His chief works wrere, A poem on
the war with the Sequani, a people of Gaul; and the
Aftronomics, that went under the name of Planciades
the grammarian. But the Argonautics, in four books,
was what gained him the greateft reputation: and
though indeed nothing but a tranftation of Apollonius
Rhodius, yet was fo well done as to be commended by
Quintilian.
VARRONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs pentandria, and arranged in the natural fyftem
under the 41ft order, Afperifolict. See Botany Index.
VASCULAR, fomething confifting of divers veffels,
as arteries, veins, &c.
VASE, a term frequently ufed for ancient veffels
dug from under ground, or otherwife found, and pre-
ferved in the cabinets of the curious. In architeflure,
the appellation vafe is alfo given to thofe ornaments
placed on corniches, fochles, or pedeftals, reprefenting
the veffels of the ancients, particularly thofe ufed in fa-
crifice, as incenfe-pots, flower-pots, &c. See PORTLAND-
Vafe.
VASSAL, in our ancient cuftoms, fignified a tenant
or feudatory j or perfon who vowed fidelity and homage
to a lord, on account of fome land, &.c. held of him in
fee 5 alfo a Have or fervant, and efpecially a domeftic
of a prince.—Vaffallus is faid to be quafi inferior fo¬
etus ; as the vaffal is inferior to his mafter, and muft
ferve him $ and yet he is in a manner his companion, be-
caufe each of them is obliged to the other. See Fe0DAL
System.
VATICAN, a magnificent palace of the pope in
Rome, which is faid to confift of feveral thoufand rooms;
but the parts of it moft admired are the grand ftaircafe,
the pope’s apartment, and efpecially the library, which is
one of the richeft in the world, both in printed books
and manuferipts.
VAUBAN, Sebastian le Prestre, Seigneur
DE, marihal of France, and the greateft engineer that
country ever produced, was born in 1633. He difplay-
ed his knowledge of fortification in the courfe of many
fieges, and his fervices were rewarded with the firft mi¬
litary honours. He was made governor of Lifle in
1668, commiffary general of the fortifications of France
in 1678, governor of the maritime parts of Flanders in
1689, and a marfhal of France in 1703. He died in
1707, after having brought the arts of attacking and
defending fortified places to a degree of perfedlion un¬
known before. His writings on thefe fubje&s are in
great efteero.
VAUDOIS, Valdenses, or Waldenfes, in ecclefi-
aftical hiftory, a name given to a fe£t of reformers, who
made their firft appearance about the year 1160.
* The origin of this famous feft, according to Mo-
flieim, u^as as follows: Peter, an opulent merchant of
Lyons, furnamed Valdenfs, or Valid'fus from Vaux or
Waldum, a town in the marquifate of Lyons, being ex¬
tremely zealous for the advancement of true piety and
Chriftian knowledge, employed a certain prieft called
Stephanas de Evifa, about the year 1160, in tranflating
from Latin into French the four Gofpels, with other
books of Holy Scripture, and the moft remarkable fen-
tences of the ancient doctors, which were fo highly
efteemed
Varre
II .
V audois.
> ,  
u B I [ s
Vsiudois efteemed in tliis century. Butnofooner had he perufed
thefe facred books with a proper degree of attention,
Ubiqmta- perceived that the religion which was now
t ■ taught in the Roman church, differed totally from that
which was originally inculcated by Chrift and his apo-
ftles. Struck with this glaring con tradition between
the doflrines of the pontiffs and the truths of the Gofpel,
and animated with zeal, he abandoned his mercantile
vocation, diftributed his riches among the poor (whence
the Waldenfes were called poor men of Lyons'), and
forming an affociation with other pious men, who had
adopted his fentiments and turn of devotion, he began in
the year 1180 to affume the quality of a public teacher,
and to inrtruft the multitude in the do<ffrines and pre¬
cepts of Chriftianity.
Soon after Peter had affumed the exercife of his mi-
niftry, the archbilhop of Lyons, and the other rulers of
the church in that province, vigoroufly oppofed him.
However, their oppofition was unfuccefsful ; for the
purity and fimplicity of that religion which thefe good
men taught, the fpotlefs innocence that fhone forth in
their lives and actions, and the noble contempt of riches
and honours which was confpicuous in the whole of their
conduct and converfation, appeared fo engaging to all
fuch as had any fenfe of true piety, that the number of
their followers daily increafed.— They accordingly for¬
med religious affemblies, firft in France, and afterwards
in Lombardy, from whence they propagated their fe£l
throughout the other provinces of Europe with incredible
rapidity, and with fuch invincible fortitude, that neither
fire, nor fword, nor the moll cruel inventions of mercilefs
perfecution, could damp their zeal, or entirely ruin their
caufe.
VAULT, in ArchheBure, an arched roof, fo contrived
that the Hones which form it fulfain each other.
Vaults are on many occafions to be preferred to foffits
or flat ceilings, as they give a greater height and eleva¬
tion, and are befides more firm and durable.
VAYER. See Mothe.
VAYVODE, or Vaivode. See Waywode.
UBES, St, a fea-port town of Portugal, in the pro¬
vince of Elfremadura, feated on a bay of the Atlantic
ocean, 21 miles fouth of Lifopn. It Hands on an emi¬
nence, with, a very Hrong caflle built on a rock. The
foil around is fertile in corn, wine, and fruits ; and it is
furnilhed with good fifh from the fea, and a fmall lake in
the neighbourhood. Here great quantities of fine fait
are made, which is carried to the American plantations.
E. Long. 8. 54 N. Lat. 38. 22.
UBIQU1TARTANS, formed from ubique, “ every¬
where,” in ecclefiaflical hiflory, a feft of Lutherans
which rofe and fpread itfelf in Germany ; and whofe
diflinguithing doftrine was, that the body of Jefus Chriff
is everywhere, or in every place.
Brentius, one of the earliH reformers, is find to have
iirfi broached this error, in 1560. Luther himfelf, in
his controverfy with Zuinglius, had thrown out fome
unguarded expreflions, that feemed to imply a belief of
the omhiprefence of the body of Chriff but he became
fenfible. afterwards, that this opinion was attended with
great difficulties, and particularly that it ought not to
be made me of as a proof of Cbriff’s corporal prefence
in.the epchariff. However, after the death of Luther
this abfurd hypotliefis was renewed, and dreffed up in
a fpecious and plaufible form by Brentius, Chemni-
Vol. XX. Part II.
9 ] V E E
tius, and Andrseas, who maintained the communica- Ubiquita-
tion of the properties of Chriit’s divinity to his human riails
nature. It is indeed obvious, that every Lutheran who
believes the doftrine of confubffantiation (iee SUPPER » eer* ■
of the Lord), whatever he may pretend, muff be an Ubi-
quitarian.
UBIQUITY, Omnipresencej an attribute of the
Deity, whereby he is always intimately prefent to all
things j gives the effe to all things j knows, preferves,
and does all in all things.
UDDER, in comparative anatomy, that part in
brutes wherein the milk is prepared, anfwering to the
mammae or breads in women. See Anatomy Com¬
parative.
VEDAS, the facred books of the Hindoos, believed
to be revealed by God, and called immortal. They are
confidered as the fountain of all knov\ ledge human and
divine, and are four in number j of which we have the
following account in the firff volume of the Aliatic Re-
fearches : The Rigveda confiffs of five fe&ions ; the Ya-
jurveda of eighty fix j the Samaveda of a thoufand 5 and
the At'harvaveda of nine j with eleven hundred fad ha's,
or branches, in various divifions and fubdvifions. The
Vedas in truth are infinite ; but have been long reduced
to this number and order : the principal part of them is
that which explains the duties of man in a methodical
arrangement j and in the fourth is a fyffem of divine
ordinances.
From thefe are reduced the four Upavedas, the firff of
which w’as delivered to mankind by Brapima, Indra,
Dhanwantari, and five other deities j and compriles
the theory of diforders and medicines, with the practical
methods of curing difeafes.
The fecond confifls of mufic, invented for the pur-
pofe of raifing the mind by devotion to the felicity of
the Divine nature ; the third Heats of the fabrication
and ufe of arms; and the fourth of fixty-four mechani¬
cal arts. Of however little value we may effeem the
mechanical arts of the Hindoos, and however defpicable
their theological fyflem may really be, the Upavcda,
which treats of difeafes and the method of curing them>
furely defeives to be fludied by every European phyfi-
cian pra(Riling in India. There are indeed a great
number of medical books in the Shanfciit language
worthy oi attention j for though the theories of their
authors may be groundlefs and whimfical, they contain
the names and delcriptions of many Indian plants and
minerals, with their ufes, difcovelcd by experience, in
the cure of difeafes.
VEDETTE, in IVar, a centinel on horfeback, with
his horfe s head towards the place wdienre any danger is
to be feared, and his carabine advanced, with the butt-
end againfl his right thigh. When the enemy has en¬
camped, there are vedettes poffed at all the avenues,
and on all the riling grounds, to watch for its fecurity.’
To VEER and Haul, to pull a rope tight, by draw¬
ing. it in and flackening it alternately, till the body to
which it is applied acquires an additional motion, "like
the increafed vibrations of a pendulum, fo that the rope
is ffraitened to a greater tenfion with more facility and
difpatch. This method is particularly ufed in hauling
the bowlines. 0
The wind is faid to veer and haul when it alters its
direction, and becomes more or lefs fair. Thus it is
faid to veer aft and to haul forward.
3 X Veer,
V E G [ 53° ] V E G
Veer, Ter-Veer, anciently Camp-Veer, a town of
Zealand in the United Provinces, Handing at the mouth
of the Eaft Schelde, about four miles from Middle-
burgh, and eight from Flufhing. Veer, in Dutch, fig-
nifies a paffage or ferry over an arm of the fea or a
river ; and as there was once a ferry here over the
Schelde to the village of Compen, on the ifland of
North Beveland, the town thereby got the name of
Veer, Camp-Veer, and Ter Veer. It is well fortified,
and formerly enjoyed a good trade, efpecially to Scot¬
land j the natives enjoying particular privileges here.
The harbour is very good, and the arfenal the beft fur-
niihed in the world. Hence the Veres, anciently earls
of Oxford, are faid to have derived both their origin
and name.
VEERING, or Wearing, the operation by which
a {hip, in changing her courfe from one board to the
other, turns her ftern to windward. Hence it is uled
in oppofition to Tacking, wherein the head is turned
to the wfind and the ftern to leeward. See Seamanship.
VEGA, Lopez de, a celebrated Spanifti poet. He
was the fon of Felix de Vega and Francifca iernandez,
who were both defcended from honourable families, and
lived in the neighbourhood of Madrid. Our poet wras
born in that city on the 25th of November 1562. He
was, according to his own expreflion, a poet from his
cradle •, and beginning to make verfes before he had
learned to write, he ufed to bribe his elder fchool-fel-
lowrs with part of his breakfaft, to commit to paper the
lines he had compofed. Having loft his father w'hile he
was yet ftill a child, he engaged in a frolic very natural
to a lively boy, and w7andered with another lad to vari¬
ous parts of Spain, till, having fpent their money, and
being conducted before a magiftrate at Segovia lor of¬
fering to fell a few trinkets, they were fent home again
to Madrid. Soon after this adventure, our young poet
was taken under the prote&ion of Geronimo Manrique,
bifhop of Avila, and began to diftinguifti himfelf by his
dramatic compofitions, which wrere received with great
applaufe by the public, though their author had not yet
completed his education : for, after this period, he be¬
came a member of the univerfity of Alcala, where, he
devoted himfelf for four years to the ftudy of philo-
fophy. He was then engaged as fecretary to the duke
of Alva, and wrote his Arcadia in compliment to that
patron : who is frequently mentioned in his occafional
poems. He quitted that employment on his marriage
with Ifabel de Urbina, a lady (fays his friend and bio¬
grapher Perez de Montalvan) beautiful without arti¬
fice, and virtuous without afteftation. His domeftic
Jiappinefs was foou interrupted by a painful incident :
Having written fome lively verfes in ridicule of a perfon
who had taken fome injurious freedom with his charac¬
ter, he received a challenge in confequence of his wit.;
and happening, in the duel which enfued, to give his
adverfary a dangerous wound, he was obliged to fiy
from, his family, and ftielter himfelf in Valencia. He
refided there a confiderable time ; but connubial affec¬
tion recalled him to Madrid. His wfife died in.the year
of his return. His afffiftion at this event led him to re-
linquifh his favourite ftudies, and embark on board the
Armada which was then preparing for the invafion of
England. He had a brother who ferved in that fleet.as
a lieutenant) and being (hot in an engagement with
fome Dutch veffels, his virtues were celebrated by our Vega,
affli£ted poet, whole heart was peculiarly alive to every Vegetable
generous affe&ion. After the ill fuccefs of the Armada. .)U°~og?*.
the difconfolate Lopez de Vega returned to Madrid,
and became fecretary to the marquis of Malpica, to
whom he has addreffed a grateful fonnet. From the
fervice of this patron he paffed into the houfehold of the
count of Lemos, whom he celebrates as an inimitable
poet. He was once more induced to quit his attendance
on the great, for the more Inviting comforts of a mar¬
ried life. His fecond choice was Juana de Guardio, of
noble birth and Angular beauty. By this lady he had
two children, a fon who died in his infancy, and a
daughter named Feliciana, who furvived her father.
The death of his little boy is faid to have haftened that
of his wife, whom he had the misfortune to lofe in about
feven years after his marriage. Having now experi¬
enced the precarioufnefs of all human enjoyments, he
devoted himfelf to a religious life, and fulfilled all the
duties of it with the moft exemplary piety : ftill conti¬
nuing to produce an aftonilhing variety of poetical com¬
pofitions. His talents and virtues procured him many
unfolicited honours. Pope Urban VIII. fent him the
crofs of Malta, with the title of Dottor in Divinity,
and appointed him to a place of profit in the Apoftolic
Chamber ; favours for which he expreffed his gratitude
by dedicating his Corona ITagica (a long poem on the
fate of Mary queen of Scots) to that liberal pontiff. In
his 73d year he felt the approaches of death, and pre¬
pared himfelf for it with the utmoft compofure and de¬
votion. His laft hours were attended by many of his.
intimate friends, and particularly his chief patron the
duke of Seffa, whom he had made his executor; leaving
him the care of his daughter Feliciana, and of his vari¬
ous manuferipts. The manner in wdiich he took leave
of thofe he loved was moft tender and affefting. He
faid to his difciple and biographer Montalvan, That true
fame confifted in being good : and that he would will¬
ingly exchange all the applaufes he had received to add
a Angle deed of virtue to the aftions of his life. Hav-
ing given his dying benediction to his daughter, and per¬
formed the laft ceremonies of his religion, he expired on
the 25th of Auguft 1635.
VEGETABLE Physiology.—Under the article
Botany, and alfo under Plant, wre have already de¬
livered fome of the commonly received doctrines on this
fubjeft. But as fome late invefligations feem to lead
to new views with regard to the ftru£ture and nature of
vegetables, we have thought it neceffary to refume the
fubjeft, and to give as full a detail of the experiments and
obfervations to which w’e allude as our limits will per¬
mit : we {hall firft treat of the ftrufture, and fecond-
ly of the phyAology of plants.
I. Structure of Plants.—In confidering th& ftruc-
ture or anatomy of plants, we {hall treat, ift, of the
root; 2d, of the ftem and branches; 3fi> of the leaves^
and 4th, of the flowers ; in the order in which they are
now enumerated.
1. The Root.—The root is that organ belonging to
vegetables by which they are fupplied with nourifliment,
and by which they are fixed to a commodious fituation.
It was formerly fuppofed to be compofed of outer and ^
inner bark, of wood and of pith; but Mrs Ibbetfon, who 'j'^.
has lately communicated* to the public the refults of an^6l 'and
elaborate 334.
V £ G t S3
Vegitable elaborate feries of experiments on this fubjeft, thinks
Phytiology. that }t is wholly compoled of the rind much thickened,
with perhaps a very little of the outer bark, but no inner
bark ; of a quantity of wood, hardly any pith, and no
fpiral veffels. Mrs Ibbetfon fearched in vain for the
larger veffels of the inner bark, till it occurred to her that
the want of this bark accounted for there being no
leaves on the root. Mrs Ibbetfon had often been af-
fured that roots were found bearing leaves, but on dif-
fedlion of thefe fuppofed roots, fhe found that they were
branches which croffed the root.
The root conlifts of the caudex, flock or main body,
and of the radiculae or fibres which ariie from the cau¬
dex, and are the organs by which the moiflure is imme¬
diately imbibed.
In botanical terminology, we generally confider all
that part of a plant which is under ground as the root ;
but Linne comprehends under his definition, what we
term the body or trunk of the plant; and he went fo
far as to call the ftems of trees “ roots above ground’1'1;
but as Dr Smith juflly remarks, this feems paradoxical
and fcarcely correft. Dr Smith adds, that perhaps it
would be more accurate to call the caudex a fibterra-
neous Jlerti; although he is rather inclined to think that
it has funftions diftinff from the Item, analogous to di-
geftion ; for there is evidently a great difference in many
cafes, between the fluids of the root, at leaft the fecret-
ed ones, and thofe of the reft of the plant.
In botanical phyfiology, by the term root, is often un¬
der flood the parts only which ferve to keep the plants
firm in the ground : thus the bulbous and fleftiy roots
as they are called, are ftrictly fpeaking, not roots 5 the
radicuke or fibres being the real roots. The duration
of roots is various; they are either annual, biennial, or
perennial.
2. The Stems and BRANCHES.-^-lAmc long ago divid¬
ed the ftems of trees into four parts; the rind, the bark,
the wood, and the pith ; and nearly a fimilar divifion has
been adopted by moft vegetable phyfiologifls till the
prdent time.
Mrs Ibbetfon (aided by a powerful folar microfcope),
however, thinks that nature points out a more regular
divifion, a divifion marked not only by the form, but
by the difference of the juices, with which the parts are
fwelled.
Mrs Ibbetfon divides the ftem of trees into fix parts :
I. Ihe rind •, 2.. The bark and inner bark ; 3. The
wood ; 4. The fpiral nerves; 9. The nerves or circle of
life (corona of Hill) ; and 6. The pith.
I. Of the rind.—Mrs Ibbetfon conceives the rind to
be merely an outward covering to the tree, which pre¬
vents its juices from being evaporated by the influence
of the fun’s heat. The rind is Continued under ground;
but it may be as ufeful there to prevent the entrance of
the duft and earth, the preffure of ftones, or the iniurv
Or infects. J J
1 is Compofed of two rows of cylinders, with a
Angle line to. divide them. The cylinders are filled
with a pellucid liquor. There are feldom more than
four or five layers of veffels in the rind; but it is in ge¬
neral fo covered with parafitic plants, as powdery fi.
chens, &c. that its thicknefs is often more than dou¬
bled.
'Ihe rind does not appear to be neceffary to plants in
general, as there are many in which the bark ferves
I ] V E G
as a covering in its Head ; but it feems to form an effen-
tial part of trees.
2. Of the bark and inner bark.—Thefe parts, though
certainly different as to form, contain the fame kind of
juice ; and being fo nearly allied, may be treated of as
one. From the bark and inner bark the leaves take
their origin, as will be fhown when we come to treat of
the tormation of the leaf-bud. Mrs Ibbetfon conceives
that the juice of the bark is the blood of the tree.
In the bark alone are produced the gums, the refins,
the oil, the miik, bcc. ; in ffiort all that belongs to the
tree ; gives tafte to it all that makes one plant differ
from another, and all its virtues, if the exprtffion may
be u(ed. Lhe bark is generally green ; the inner bark
white, yellow, or green. The former confifts of veffels
crofling each other ; the latter of bundles of veffels of
two. fizes. The large veffels confift of broad cylinders,
having a bottom with a hole in it, through which the
liquid paffes, though not with perfeft eafe.
Mrs Ibbetkm (ays that on expofing feveral pieces of
the inner bark to the folar microfcope, the moment (he
turned the light on the fpecimen, the juice, which had
before proceeded up the pipes rather flowly, was fudden-
ly propelled forward with a force truly aftonilhing.
When the heat and light were increafed by caufing
the focus of the rays to fall on the veffels, the fide divi-
fions of the .veffels were broken through, thus inundat-
ing the fpecimen ; but when a proper degree of light
and heat was kept up, it was curious to obferve the^li-
quid pafling from pipe to pipe, in one regular and ealy
flow, making only a (liort flop as it iffued through the
ftraitened apertures at the bottom of the veffels. Mrs
Ibbetion has often flood for more than an hour watch¬
ing the current, (which paffes, however, much flower
than the fap does), nor could flie perceive while the
heat and light were on it, that it required any addi¬
tional expedient to haften its momentum ; but during
the cold and darknefs of night, flie fuppofes that the
preffure of the baftard grain mentioned by Mr Knight
may very likely aflift its flow, as it is at night that the
baftard grain is preffed againft the cylinders.
The baftard grain is found howeveV only in the wood;
but the contraftion at the bottom of the large veffels of
the inner bark, may probably ferve the fame purpofe,
the impetus of the current being increafed by the leffen-
ing of the apertures of the veffels.
1 he veffels of the inner bark are very thick in pro*
portion to their fize, and there is placed in them a pe¬
culiar circular body, which refembles a cullender full of
holes fo fmall that no liquid could pafs them. In view¬
ing the thick juice which runs through thefe pipes, Mrs
Ibbetfon obferved many bubbles of air, the fize of which
was increafed or diminiflied according to the tempera¬
ture ; and as their fize varied, fo was the flow of the
liquid accelerated or retarded. To fee thefe veffels
well, the fpecim.ens may be placed in a bafket which is
to. be faftened in a running ftream for fome time, or
boiled thoroughly, and then thrown into green wax per¬
fectly melted. r
. M!rbel iays that “ fome plants have the fame juices
m every part of thembut Mrs Ibbetfon does not coin¬
cide witn his idea, for flie did not find it to be«fo ; though
tie potent fmell of the liquid belonging to the bark
often extends, to other parts of the plant, yet it general-
y vamfties if kept feparate for a day, or becomes fo
5^2 faint
Vt-getabie
Phyliology. if);
V E G [ 532 ] V E G
Vegetable faint in comparifon with the real liquid of the bark as
Pliyfiology. to prove that ^ does not form an ingredient of thefe
-parts. Mirbel fays that the cylinders of the inner bark
are merely vacancies of the ordinary veffels j but Mrs
Ibbetfon dates that they are exaftly the fame as thefe
velfels, and occupy the fame place.
They have a peculiar drape, being unlike any other
veffels of the tree, and they perform a particular of¬
fice.
The veffels of the bark are fmaller, and more Ample
than thofe of the inner bark, and are divided by a line
or two, running longitudinally between them.
3. Of the Wood.—This is a very obvious part. Place
the dem of any plant in a coloured liquid, and every
veffel which conveys the fap from' the earth to the top
of the tree will be tinged.
The fap is a thin watery liquor, probably medicated
from the earth, in order to become fuitable for the life
of vegetables.
Mrs Ibbetfon fuppofes that the fap may vary with the
foil, though on trial die has never found that change
which might have been fufpe£led.
If we make a tranfverfe feftion of the dem of a tree,
two different kinds of layers prefent themfelves in the
wood ; fome running in a circular manner, which tim¬
ber merchants call the fiver grain ; and others from the
circumference to the centre, which they denominate the
bafard grain. Linne long ago believed that one of
the circular layers was added to the tree each year.
This opinion has often been controverted, and among
others by Duhamel and Mirbel j but Mrs Ibbetfon has
had an opportunity of verifying the accuracy of Linne’s
opinion. She alfo obferved that the layer was large
or fmall according to the expofure of the tree, and
the favourablenefs of the feafon : thus in expofed fitu-
ations, the circles taken as a whole, were much narrow¬
er than in trees not expofed. In fome trees die noticed
only half of a circular layer.
Mrs Ibbetfon thinks the badard dripe confids of two
lines or firings, with a little fcale between them } and
they appear from their extreme fufceptibility to be form¬
ed of the fame leather-like fubdance as the fpiral veffels,
which we are immediately to notice.
Mr Knight merely calls them fcales; but as he
mentions their preffing clofe (which they certainly do)
to the cylinders at night, and during cold weather,
it is obvious (whichever of the opinions we adopt)
that the badard grains are capable of fupplying the
place of the fun’s rays, by their preffure.
The wmod-veffels are far more fimple in dru&ure
than thofe of the bark $ they are very narrow cylinders,
and the two rows next to the corona are covered by the
Ipiral veffels.
It is indeed difficult to determine the exaft extent of
the fpiral veffels even with the affidance of the folar
microfcope, for it is by unwinding them alone that they
can be known 5 and their extreme finenefs confufes, in
confequence of which they have been taken far fap vef¬
fels. Neither Mr Knight nor Mirbel was led into this
midake, and Mrs Ibbetfon thinks that there can be no
doubt that thefe veffels (formerly fo called) are folid
firings which hold no liquid.
The veffels of the wood may be bed feen in dices of
4he dems of young trees j and if not very vifible when
recently cut, they will foon become fo if the dices are Vegetable
kept in a dry place. Physiology.
If the wood-veffels are cut longitudinally and ob-
ferved with a high magnifier, as foon as the light is per¬
mitted to come on the glafs, the dow of fap will be ac¬
celerated, and with perfect eafe will run up veffels fo
diminutive that to meafure them is almod impodible.
A few of the wood-veffels are (eparated and run with
the fpiral veffels to each leaf, in order to nourilh it, as
will be more particularly noticed when we come to
treat of the leaf-bud.
But little of the fap, however, paffes off in this way
from the principal current, which dows on j its chief
purpofe being to form the damen and the pollen apper¬
taining to it, and afterwards to lend its principal aid to
the formation of the fruit and feed.
4. The fpiral vejfels are a quantity of folid firings
coiled up into a Ipiral form. Mrs Ibbetfon fuppofes
them to be formed of a leather-like fubdance, and, as al¬
ready mentioned, to be rolled round the wood. In this
fpiral manner they run up the dems of trees and plants
of every kind, (with a few exceptions) and from thence
into every leaf and dower. Thefe fpiral cords are fingly
too fmall to be obferved by the naked eye. They run
into every fibre of the leaf, and are fadened to its edges,
thus eroding among the veffels in every diredlion like
a fpider’s web j by which difpofition they can draw
the leaves in any way that is neceffary for them.
The larger of the interior wood-veffels are each fup-
plied with fets of ten or twelve fpiral cords, but the
fmaller of thefe have only three or four to each.
In the cabbage leaf and in the burdock, the fpiral
cords may be found in bundles almod as thick as a
packthread, but in fmaller leaves they are proper¬
ly proportioned. Thefe fpiral cords, Mrs Ibbetfon
thinks, are the caufe of the motions of plants. See
Plant, p. 601, where thefe cords are called afr-vef¬
fels.
5. Of the corona or circle of life.—The next part to
be noticed is the fmall circle of veffels fitpated between
the wood and the pith, the importance of which, in the
formation of the feed, will be noticed under Impregnation
of the Seed; where are alfo related drong proofs to diow
that a plant cannot exid a day without the corona, and
that if a young plant be deprived of this part, it will
not grow again, though it will certainly do fo if the
plant be fomewhat old. It is very curious that almod:
every botanical anatomid (hould have figured this part,
without giving it a name, or noticing it particularly 5
and that thefe anatomids {hould have attributed all its
powers to the pith, which, from the diort term of its
exidence, and its being perpetually impeded in its pror
grefs to make way for the flower-bud, can evidently
have but little influence. The circle of life, however,
has not efcaped the notice of Hill, who termed it the
corona.
The circle of life confids of rows of little cylinders
which have their own peculiar juice, generally of an
audere quality. From the corona all branches take
their rife, and from it all wood threads grow. The cy¬
linders of which it is compofed run up into all flower-
buds, but never approach the leaf-bud as is reprefented
by fig. 1 and 2.3 when thefe cylinders enter the flower-
bud, they make their way didinflly to each feparate p. x ^
flower, **’
V E G
Vegetable flower, forming the piftil, and after depofiting in each
Phyliology. fide the line, which is the firll origin of life, they are
v afterwards impregnated, or acquire the power of giving
life by the juice of the flamen, which runs through the
fame tiring into the feed.
That the principal vitality of the plant refides in the
corona, we think is proved by the experiments and ob-
fervations of Mrs Ibbetfon under Impregnation of Seed,
and feems to be farther confirmed by the following re¬
marks.
When a branch is cut from a tree, or a tree is tom
up, the corona or circle of life is the firft part that dies j
and if, after a hidden froft, tve examine the flowers of a
fruit tree, we (hall find that neither the calyx, the co-
rolFa, the ftamina, nor the feeds are hurt, but that the
piftilla are deftroyed. And if we now obferve the piflils
with care, we (hall fee that it is the line of life which is
decayed, and that this is the firft part in which mortifi¬
cation commences. The peculiar liquor of the piftil
acquires a blood-red colour, and the veflels which run
up to the ftigma become black, inftead of their natural
yellow colour.
If in wood, this line is injured (either by the de¬
cay of the bark or other means) the circle will undu¬
late into a thoufand forms, for the purpofe of regaining
a healthy fituation in which it may purl'ue its courfe.
Mrs Ibbetfon, to prove the power of the circle of
life, relates the following obfervations refpedling the
poa reptans.
She had often meafured in wunter* feven or eight
yards of this grafs, which appeared perfeflly dead ; and
yet in May or June, (he perceived life in it at the moft
diftant end from the ftalk. Next fpring (lie took up
two of thefe creeping branches which were much alike ;
and on differing one of them through its whole length,
(he found in it a collection of little veffels not thicker
than a very fine thread.
This colledftion of veflels had run about half way
the length of the branch, which was about three
yards.
Mrs Ibbetfon having merely opened the cover of the
grafs, laid it down again, and the little vcflels continued
increafing till they reached the end of the branch, when
they made a (top, and it was perceived that the grafs
began to thicken ; and at the end neareft the roots, the
dead part became inflated with juice, loft by degrees
its dead appearance, thickened about the joints within,
and at laft (hot forth frefti leaves and frelh roots from
every joint.
Mrs Ibbetfon has fince watched with the greateft
care, and found that the fine thread which runs through
the grafs protected by the dead fcale, was the circle of
life. When this thread is flopped by the covers decay¬
ing, it waits till the feafon permits the reft of the plant
to grow. From what has been faid, it is evident that
the dead matter may be inflated with a living juice, and
live itfelf again, provided the life near the ftem of the
plant be not extinguifhed. Mrs Ibbetfon has obferved
this to happen in many plants, as in hydrangea, in which
the ftalks apparently lie down and are inflated again, or
at leal! a part of them.
6. Pith.—Lmne confidered the pith of plants as of
equal importance with the fpinal marrow of animals ;
but Mrs Ibbetfon thinks this part of but little confe-
quence, and transfers this importance to the circle of
V E G
life, which (lie compares to the brain and fpinal mar- Vegetable
row. She conceives that the pith forms merely
fource of moifture for the plant when required. The v
pith (lops with every flower-bud, and begins again to
grow as foon as the bud is paft j it decreafes as the
itrength and fize of the tree increafe j it is the only
part ot the tree which is devoid of veflels ; it is merely
a net, not a bundle of cylinders, and is commonly of a
remarkably fplendid or filver white colour.
It has been faid that the pith aflumes a variety of fi¬
gures, but Mrs Ibbetfon thinks this is a miftake, though
(he admits a few different forts.
All young trees and fhrubs are provided with pith
but in the progrefs of .heir growth they need it no long¬
er, the wood being a good fubftitute. On the fame ac¬
count, in general, we find no pith in water plants, which
have a hollow ftem, and rarely fuffer from drought.
Linne thought that the pith was the feat of life
and the fource of vegetation ; or in a wmrd, the primary
part of the plant. Duhamel confidered it as of but little
importance at all. Wlldenow and Knight concur with
Mrs Ibbetfon in regarding it as a refervoir of moifture
for the young plants ; and Dr Smith holds a medium
opinion between that of Linne and the other authors
juft named.
He fays “ there is in certain refpe&s- an analogy be¬
tween the medulla of plants, and the nervous fyftem of
animals; it is no lefs afliduoufly protefted than the fpi¬
nal marrow; it is branched off and diffufed through the
plant, as nerves through the animal. Hence it is not
abfurd to prefume that it may in like manner give life
and vigour to the whole, though by no means, any more
than nerves, the organ or fource of nouriflrment * See Fig'.
We were fomewhat furprifed to find that Mrs Ibbet-3’ 4’ and ^
fon had not particularly noticed the cellular tiffue as a
diftinft part to be feen in the ftems of trees, as it has
been long known ; we (hall therefore fubjoin a deferip-
tion of it. It is a fucculent cellular fubftance, general¬
ly of a green colour, at leaft in the leaves and branches.
Duhamel long ago called it envellope cellulaire, and
Mirbel more lately, tiffue herbace.
Duhamel fuppofed that the cellular tiffue formed the
cuticle, or epidermis; but this is not very probable, as
his own experiments (how that when the cuticle is’re¬
moved, the cellular integument exfoliates, at leaft in
tiees, or is thrown off in confequence of the injury, and
a new cuticle, covering a new layer of the cellular tif¬
fue, is formed under the old one. This fubftance is
very univerfal, even in moffes and ferns. Leaves confift
almoft entirely of a plate of this fubftance, covered on
each fide by the cuticle. The ftems and branches both
of annual and perennial plants are inverted with it ; but
in woody plants it is dried up, and reproduced almoft
continually, fuch parts only having that reproduftive
power. The old layers remain,, are pulhed outward by
the new ones, and form at length the rugged dry dead
covering of the old trunks of trees. The cellular inte¬
gument is a part of plants of the greateft importance ;
(or in it the juices of plants are operated on by light
air, &.c. J &
With regard to the branches of trees, it has been al¬
ready noticed, that they derive their origin from the
corona ; and they are compofed exactly of the fame
parts as the trunks from which they arife*
3. TheLMrzs.—Mxs Ibbetfon has, with the aftift-
ance
[ 533 1
V E G [ 534 ] V E G
Vagetable ance of the folar mifcrofcope, and by great attention to
Phyilology. tjjjs natural procefs, been enabled to give fome new and
«/ jnterefting views on this fubjeft. Her opinion refpett-
ing the formation of the leaf-bud is, “ That leaves are
formed or woven by the veffels or cotton that is gene¬
rally fuppofed by botaniils (to be) placed there to de¬
fend the bud from the feverities of winter $ that thefe
veffels (or cotton) are a continuation of thofe of the
bark, and inner bark in the ftem of the plant j that
thefe veffels compofe the various interlacing branches of
the leaf, which are foon filled up by the concentrated
and thickened juices of the inner bark, which form the
pabulum of the leaf.1’
Mrs Ibbetfon fays the truth t' her affertion may be
- eafily feen by differing early buds, in which, except
two or three, nothing but the cotton-like veffels will
be found. She alks then what could be the ufe of thefe
veffels ? and anfwers, that to put them within the bud
to keep the outfide warm is againft nature, for it is
contrary to nature. The leaf-bud in its firft Hate con-
fids of two or three fcales, inclofing a parcel of veffels,
which appear like very moitl coarfe cotton, but when
drawn out and placed in the folar microfcope, they fhew
themfelves to be merely the veffels of the bark and in¬
ner bark elongated and curled up in various forms.
Thefe veffels are of three kinds like the bark, &C.
Firft, Three or four fiiort thick ones which appear to
grow from the larger veffals of the inner bark, and
through which the thickened juice flows, but with this
difference, that the holes are not there.
Then there are two fmaller-fized veffels, which ex-
a&ly refemble the fmaller veffels of the bark.
Mrs Ibbetfon has always found the flrort thick kind
of veffels to form the mid-rib of the leaves, and the
fmaller-fized veffels to compofe the interlacing fibres (or
veffels) of the other parts of the leaves j and from often
comparing the full grown leaf with the leaf of the bud,
fire feels the mod; thorough conviction that the latter
takes its origin as above noticed. The pabulum of the
leaf which lies between the veffels, is compofed of that
thick juice which runs in the bark or inner baik of the
tree, and which does not exift in any other part of it.
The pabulum differs effentially from the fap, and may
be called the blood of the tree, as it poffeffes peculiar pro¬
perties in different trees j thus it is of a gummy nature
in one, of a refinous in a fecond, and of an oily nature
in a third, &c.
Mrs Ibbetfon is not certain whether the pabulum
both flows forwards and in a retrograde direClion j but
file is convinced that the greatefl: part of it is taken up
in forming the leaves. The pabulum of the leaf, after
the veffels are arranged and croffed, grows over in blad¬
ders, making alternate layers with the fmaller pipes
(veffels), and wfith the btanches of the leaf.
Mrs Ibbetfon ftates, that fhe does not know any
tree which gives a more convincing proof of the forma¬
tion of the leaves in the bud, than may be feen in the
horfe chefnut {cefculus hippocaftanum) about the month
of November or December.
Several different mid-ribs may be taken out at once
from the fame leaf-bud, which have an innumerable
number of extremely fine filken veffels faftened to or
growing up from each fide of them. When thefe vcffels
have become fufficiently interlaced with each other, the
4
pabulum will begin to grow over them, in form of Vegetable
fmall bladders full of a watery-juice j and then larger ^hyfiology.
veffels will crofs over them, which will foon be follow- ""y~"
ed by another row of bladders, and a fimilar procefs
will go on until the leaf has attained its proper thick-
nefs. The leaves thus formed are very fmall, but when
once their fhape is completed every part of them con¬
tinues to increafe in fize. Fig. 6. reprefents the leaf-Hg. if.
bud of the horfe-chefnut, as it was examined by Mrs
Ibbetfon about the month of January.
Mrs Ibbetfon next notices the arrangement of the
leaves in the buds of different trees j but we fliall confi-
der them by and bye.
The rolling, folding, or plaiting, &c. of the leaf-
bud, it is obferved, dses not merely take place at
once ; but to complete the procefs of budding, it ap¬
pears that this arrangement of the leaves is repeat¬
ed feveral times. During this arrangement the bud-
leaves are immerfed in the glutinous liquor which runs
in the bark (and forms the pabulum) ; and the preffurc
of the leaves is very great. By this preflure and the
rolling, &c. the leaves are completed 5 for if a leaf be
taken from the bud before this proceis commences, it
may be compared to a piece of cloth before it is drefled 5
for its back will be obfeured by the ends of veffels,
which, had it remained in Jitu, would have been all rub¬
bed off, except the hairs which remain on many plants.
We come now to the formation of the edge of the
leaf, a curious and beautiful procefs.
The bud if opened will appear full of the glutinous
liquor which forms the pabulum, and the leaves arran¬
ged in the manner proper to the particular tree from
which the bud is taken. If one of the leaves be taken
out, the edges (in whatever manner folded) will exhi¬
bit a perfeft double row of bubbles, following the fcol-
lop of the edge of the leaf j and it will appear as if it
were fet with brilliants.
Things being in this ftate, all that is wanting for the
completion of the leaf is the formation of the pores,
now to be mentioned. Mrs Ibbetfon ftales that in
many hundred forming leaves which Ihe expofed to
the folar microfcope, fhe had never once been able to
fee the pores; which the has often obferved after the
leaves have completely quitted the bud ; and (he is un¬
certain whether this is owing to the greater thicknefs of
the young leaf, and its being covered with more hairs
than it is afterwards, which obfeure or conceal the pores5
or whether it be caufed by the upper net-work of the
leaf growing laff. While the upper and under cuticles
of the leaf are growing, the edge of it is completing y
for the bubbles generally divide, and partly dry up,
leaving horny points in their ftead. When the .edges
of the leaves are completely formed, they burfl: from the
bud and affume a different afpefl.
The veffels of the leaves (thofe confined within the
mid ribs and fide ribs of the leaves) ate of two forts,
the fpiral, and the nourilhing. The fpiral veffels are
thofe cork fere w-like wires which furround the two laft
rows of the fap veffels. The nourifhing veffels are the
only parts formed of the wood. They convey the fap
neceffary for the fupport of the leaves, and run on each
fide of the fpiral veffels.
To prove that fhe has given a fair and accurate
account of the formation of the leaf, Mrs Ibbet¬
fon
V E G
Vegetable fon adds the following remarks. The colour of leaves,
i) io ogy. (]ie obferves, is not to be found in their fubftance, but
in the liquid with which it is filled. The darkeft green
leaf that can be procured, has both its upper and under
cuticles of a perfeft white colour. In the cuticle the
pores are to be found.
A leaf has rather a thicker net below than it has
above; but this does not fufliciently account for the
varieties of tints in different leaves.
The under net (or cuticle) does not lie fo clofe to
the pabulum of the leaf as the upper onej which may
account for the colour not piercing fo much thx-ough.
When the two nets (or cuticles) are taken off, then the
pabulum of the leaf appears.
The pabulum is formed of little bladders, filled with
a dark-green liquid, and interlaced with veffels. When
the pabulum is removed, a bed of large veffels prefents
itfelfj then a colledlion of bladders 5 which is followed
by the larger lines (or veins) of the leaf. We next
meet with another bed of bladders, which is covered by
the under cuticle. Though the bladders differ in fize
and colour as well as in thicknefs in different leaves,
yet the general arrangement is the fame in moft plants ■
but there are exceptions, as the firs, graffes, or thofe
graffy leaves of early fpring, which we have in the iris,
crocus, fnow-drop, &c. for their leaves are of a different
nature.
But we {hall now refer to the figures, which will
feive to illuftrate the mode of formation, &c. of the
leaf-bud.
. ^g. 7. 8. 9. exhibit the commencement of the forma¬
tion and growth of leaves; a, a, a, a, the mid rib;
A A h, the young velfels appearing like cotton ; r,c, the
fpiral nerves; //, the fmalier veflels eroding each other,
big. 10. (hews the formation of the pabulum ; e,e, the
fine veffels growing up each fide of the mid rib ; f the
pabulum. Fig. 11. bud of the lime-tree (tilia Euro-
f>ea).
4. Of theF1.0wF.RS, including the calyx, corolla, famina
and pif ilium.—Linne long ago expreffed his opinion
that each of thefe parts was formed from a particular
part of the ftem ; thus the calyx was formed by the
bark, the corolla by the inner bark, the ftamina by the
wood, and the piflilla by the pith. Lfnne alfo rec-
koned the pith of a plant (which he confidered to be of
equal importance with the fpinal marrow of animals),
kingdom16 f°rmative orSan of the whole vegetable
Linne’s idea refpeaing the formation of the calyx,
corolla &c. has been often refuted; but Mrs Ibbetfon
comes forward to defend the opinion of the illuftrious
author with a little modification. She does not, as al¬
ready noticed, confider the pith as of great importance ;
die therefore fays, that the corona or circle of life
forms the piftil, not the pith ; and thinks that each part
or the Item has, when it arrives near the flower flalk ifs
peculiar juice. ’
Mrs. ibbetfon, as a flrong proof that the circle of life
_orms the pifii], fayS that it is to be found in all thefe
leaves that bear the flower either on the middle or on
tin ir fide ; but m no other leaves.
She firft obferved this in the butcher’s broom, where
1..S circle leads direaiy up to the (lower ; then in fc0?
Jopendrums, and afterwards in xylophyllos.
[ 535 ]
V E G
Fig. 7. 8. 9.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
The leaves of fuch plants are more woody than any Vegetable
others, as every one may know on breaking them. In Phyfiology.
fuch plants alfo, the circle of life may be traced as lead- l|'"" > J
mg from one flower to another.
Mrs Ibbetfon alio thinks that all thofe parts which
concur in forming the flower alfo join in forming the
fruit and feed. 6
Mrs Ibbetfon then adverts to the opinion of Wilde-
now, when he fays, “ we find in the fpringing flower,
elongations of air-veffels, but we never fee the elonga¬
tions from each particular part, one forming the future
calyx, another the corolla, and fo forth.” “ For in-
flance,^ in the common fun-flower (^hehanthus annuusy,
"here in an immenfe large receptacle, numerous fmall
flowers are placed, how fhould thefe elongations be able
to unfold themfelves into florets from the bark, inner
bark, &c. through fuch a receptacle ? There would
arife a confufion amongft thefe fmall parts w hich is never
met with.”
“ How fhould, befides, the flamina be formed in
herbs, which are not ligneous, or the piftil in plants
which have no pith ? Every one may thus eafily con¬
ceive that all thefe opinions are mere hypolhefes, which
may be refuted, even without the aid of anatomical dif-
fedtion.”
Mrs Ibbetfon attacks Wildenow’s opinion, and fays that
he adduces the fyngenefian clafs to prove the accuracy
of it, the clafs which contains the very plants that would
have proved the miftake of his argument, had he dif¬
fered them.
Mrs Ibbetfon then propofes the following queftions
to Wildenow. Why, if the nourifhment of each part
of the ftem be not confined to each different part of the
flower, does the whole arrangement of the parts alter
the moment it gets to the flower-ftalk.
Why are there particular veflels to confine and carry
the juice to each peculiar part, if it w-ere not of confe-
quence that this juice fhculd touch no other places ?
lor what purpofe is the curious and artificial manage¬
ment in the bottom and top of a feed-vtffel, which en¬
ables the difledtor to fay, that “ there are five divifions
of little veflels proceeding from the wood ; I know,
therefore (though I do not fee it), that this muft be a
pentandrian flower ; here is but one middle veflel pro¬
ceeding from the circle of life (for the pith flops), it is
therefore of the order monogynia ; here are five divi¬
fions of little velfels proceeding from the inner bark, it
muft therefore have five petals ?” Mrs Ibbetfon wifhes
others to be convinced of thefe fadls as well as herfelf. If
a cut be made above or below the feed-veffel of a lily, a
violet, or a tulip, fhe thinks convidlion of her accuracy
will follow. Why in cutting above or below’ the feed-veflel
of a fyngenefian flower can you diredlly tell, whether it
belong to the order fuperflua, tequalis, or fegregata fU'
Look at the bottom of the feed-veffel of the fonchus;
every pin-hole of the veffel of the male is carried up by
correfponding veffels in the outward cuticle of the feed
till it meets and joins the ligature of the males ; and the
female liquor is protruded through the infide of the
feed, and is perhaps one of the ftrongeft proofs of the-
impregnation of the female. In the fyngenefian clafs -
( ee fig. j 2.), the delicacy of the veffels, wdiich may be
uppofed too fmall for a liquid to flow through them,
muft. not impede the belief that it does fo, when we con¬
fider- •'
V E G [ 536 ] V E G
Vegetable fider the circulation of blood in the diminutive animal
Phyfiology. t^at torments ^ body of the flea or loufe. Mrs Ib-
v ~ betfon fays flic has feen the liquor run up with the ut-
moft celerity through the upper cuticle of a very fmall
feed of a plant belonging to the fyngenefian clafs, till it
met the male and continued its courfe. It is to be un-
derftood that the juice from the corolla flows in the reft
of the cuticle, and that the largeft veffels are thofe for
;Fig. is. 13. the male liquor. See fig. 12. 13.
II. Physiology of Plants.—In treating this part
of the fubjeft, we propofe to confider, firft, the impreg¬
nation of feeds, and, fecond, the irritability of vegeta¬
bles.
1. The impregnation of the feed.—The inveftigation
of what is included under this title, forms one of the
moft beautiful and interefting purfuits of the vegetable
phyfiologift. Mrs Ibbetfon has communicated fome
curious obfervations on this fubjeft. Provided with a
powerful folar microfcope for opaque objedts, (he pro¬
ceeds to an examination of the feed, and the firft (hoot¬
ing of the infant plant, or rather of the germ or veffel
which precedes it j and (he remarks that it is almoft im-
poflible to afcertain the exadt time when the feed is fitft
•formed in the pericarp^ but that (he has always found
it in the winter buds when they were large enough
for diffedtion.
It is curious to obferve the veffels, which, (he fays,
may properly be called the life, tracing their way to
each flower-bud j for a feed may be faid to depend for
perfedtion on two feparate moments : the one in which
the life firjl enters the feed, when the whole outward
form appears to be perfedted $ and the fecond, when the
impregnation of the feed takes place, by the ripening
of the pollen.
But when the life enters, it leaves a little firing, and
remains for a long time afterwards in a torpid (late.
This firing croffes the corculum, or heart of the feed,
fo called becaufe it is the cradle of the infant plant.
She then dates that the feed is attached to the feed-vef¬
fel by two diftindt organs, termed by the firft botanifts
the umbilical cord, but as (he thinks improperly^ fince
they do not convey nourilhment to the infant plant,
which is wholly the office of the fecond fet of veffels.
We cannot agree with Mrs Ibbetfon in her opinion j for
although the umbilical cord of an infant contains nour-
iftiing veffels, it alfo contains nerves, and yet we would
never think of reftridting this term alone to the arteries.
The firft of the connedting organs Mrs Ibbetfon con¬
ceives to be the circle of life, firft, becaufe without it
the plant dies, and, fecond, becaufe although every
other part be eradicated by degrees and the circle of
life be uninjured, the plant will grow again.
She has made thefe experiments many thoufand times
and with the above refults. The circle of life confifts
of delicate Ample veffels, which carry a juice of a parti¬
cular nature, and may be traced in every part lying be¬
tween the wood and the pith. Thefe veffels are not to
be found in the leaf-bud ; for they pafs by it to the
female flower, where they eftablifti a new life in the
(a) In the journal it is faid “ to the pointal 5” but
nonymous,
-(b) In the journal it is called pollen, but anther muft
feed: a life which will enable it to grow, but not to Vegetable
give life without impregnation. Thefe veffels are the Phyliology.
life, therefore, from which all flower-branches growv
and all root-threads proceed. In calling thefe veffels
the circle of life, Mrs Ibbetfon fays (he only expreffes
what its office feems to denote.
Mrs Ibbelfon goes on to defcribe the next (or fecond)
organ by which the feed is attached to the feed-yeffel.
It confifts of the nouriffiing veffels, which (he is inclined
to thiak proceed from the inner bark 5 at lead they
may certainly be traced thence after the infant plant has
left the feed. When introduced, they enter not the
feed at the fame place as the life does j they come not in¬
to the corculum, but pafs it, and fpread themfelves over a
fmall fpot below it, which is vifibly of a different na¬
ture from the reft of the feed. In farinaceous plants
this fpot is yellow and yields a milk-white juice j but
in other feeds it is white, and gives a glutinous water
of a fweetiffi tafte. Mrs Ibbetfon thinks it probable
that the nourifhing veffels come from the fruit filed
with this juice, which medicated with that part of the
feed (which very apparently diffolves), they together
form a nouriffiment fuited to the infant plant. When
the feed is fo far perfefted, it remains in an almoft tor¬
pid ttate, or growing very little $ while the flower ex¬
pands daily, and the ftamens are hattily advancing to
their perfe£t (late.
It is now that by an almoft imperceptible contra&ion
of the lower part ot the piftil, the juice is railed to the
Itigma (a) on which it may be (een hanging in a
large glutinous drop, which never falls off. As foon,
however, as the mid-day heat abates, this juice, which
is peculiar to the piftil, retires again within the tube,
the contraftion ceafing with the heat that caufed it.
The fame procefs goes on daily, till the (lamina are
ripe and ready to give out their interior powder to the
piftil, which is always fo placed as to receive the greater
part of it j'and as the anther (b) requires only moifture
to hurft it, it foon yields that fine and imperceptible
dull, which quickly melting and mixing with the before-
mentioned liquid, forms a combination of fo powerful and
Jlimulating a quality, that it no fooner runs down the
interior of the ftyle, and touches the nerve of life in the
heart of the feed, than this veffel (hoots forth in the moft
furprifing degree, forming directly a fpecies of circular
hook within the void; w’hich in lets than two days is of¬
ten completely filled, though it had perhaps for many
weeks before lain in an abfolute torpor. This circular
nerve is foon covered by an excrefcence that hides it j
but if the corculum be divided with a fine lancet, the
circular hook is difcoverable, until the young plant is
near leaving its cradle or feed. At the turn of the hook
the cotyledons grow, and the root (hoots from the co¬
vered end. The plant may be now faid to lie in the feed
in a contrary dirjC&ion from that in which it will at a
future time grow, fince the root is above, and the item
below: but nature has provided for their change of
place, fince it is effected as they leave the feed. It has
been already noticed that the nourifliment of the infant
plant
certainly ftigma is meant, for piftil and poimal are fy-
be meant.
4
,
V E G [ 537 ] V E G
Vegetable plant is medicated between tbe juice brought in the
, -^^Qgy-, nourifliing veflels, and the peculiar fpot in the feed,
forming a liquid which continues to abound ; indeed
the infant plant may be faid to repofe in it, till the root
has opened the whole or part of the feed. The root
then changes its direction, and runs into the earth, foon
forming a number of ftringy hairs, which ferve as fo
many fuckers to draw the liquid nourifhment from the
earth, while the plant quickly (hews, by the rapid pro-
grefs it makes, the advantage it receives from its change
of diet} for it foon raifes itfelf from its proftrate pofture,
emerges from the feed, and is now feen in its proper di-
re&ion. The above account, w£ think Mrs Ibbetfon
juftly remarks, affords a complete confirmation of the
fexual fyftem.
In the fyngenefian orders, the piftil being moftly fin-
gle, runs up from the feed; and the juice ef the piftU has
no other way of reaching the pointal (ftigma muft be
here meant), but by palling through the feed, which it
does without producing any effeft, or filling up the va¬
cancy at the top of the corculum. But as foon as the
juice of the piltil becomes mixed with the pollen, which
dilfolves in it, the void of the corculum is filled, the
hook is foon afterwards formed, and the plant is roufed
to life. Mrs Ibbetlon relates fome experiments which
fhe made to afeertain whether the umbilical cord was,
or was not, the life of the plant. She pladed a bean
in the earth, and when the infant plant was ready
to leave the feed Ihe opened it with a fine lancet, and
cut off the cotyledons, juft where they join the heart
and the circular hook which have been before deferibed.
She then tied a piece of very fine thread round the
bean, and replaced it in the earth. The cotyledons
grew again, though higher up, but they appeared very
weak and fickly for fome time. She cut off the root
of another bean which had been placed in the earth,
and which was of the fame age as the above, and found
that the root grew again in a few days and appeared
quite healthy.
In a third experiment Ihe feparated and cut off the
nourilhing veffels from each fide of the bean •, but a
great number of hairs grew from the wounded part,
which, by attaining moifture from the earth for nourilh-
ment, fupplied the place of the veffels cut off; fo that
it was not afeertained whether or not the bean would
live independent of thefe veffels, which was the objetl
of the experiment. We obferve here, however, a grand
provifion of nature for the embryo plant: hairs being
tormed to fupply it with moifture when the nouriftung
veffels are deftroyed. Mrs Ibbetfon next took a bean
which had been about four days in the earth, and open¬
ing it with great care took out with a fine lancet the
part W’hich fhe efteems the cord of life, that is the part
which croffes the corculum and fhot forth on the firft
FiS* I£-impregnation of the plant. 00, fig. 14. and 15. reprefent
the nourifhing veffels of a bean ; L to « two feminal
leaves or cotyledons ; //the cord of life, which is more
eafily feen in the feed of the lily, fig. 15. //crofting the
empty part of the corculum. Mrs Ibbetfon took a
flower of the lilium genus, as having a large veffel
eafily attained ; and being careful not to feparate it
from the nourifhing veffels, fhe divided the line of life
fig. 16. //, cutting each thread between the feeds, and
Vol. XX. Part II.
fo cutting off their communication ; but did not touch Vegetable
0 0, which flie thinks is the nourifhing veffel. Pfaytlology,
1 he confequence was, that the feeds of this flower *
W’ere never impregnated. Mrs Ibbetfon next tried the
effedt of taking the nerve of life from the chefnut, the
walnut, acorn, Sec.; firft opening a feed without touch¬
ing the nerve, that fhe might be certain that the open¬
ing was not the caufe of its death. Fig. ij. reprefents the Fig. 17.
heart taken out of a feed of the chefnut j / is the circu¬
lar hook already deferibed.} 0 0 the nourifhing veffels,
and / / the line of life, which was taken out from fome
feeds where it croffes the heart at m. Fig. 18. is the Fig. 13-
feed of the goofeberry ; ? the nourifhing veffels, e the
line of life, and m the corculum or heart.
She found that all thofe feeds from which fhe took
the nerve of life died ; and that the others, which had
been merely laid open, lived. She remarks that it is
only at the beginning of life, that the plant can be
killed by this procefsj for when older, if the nerves
of life decay, they flioot out above the declining part,
and run into any part of the ftem that is pure, to pre-
ferve themfelves. Mrs Ibbetfon then ftates that this
nerve is the fource of life in very decayed trees; and is
alfo the caufe of a double pith, or at leaft the appear¬
ance of it, in many trees.
To obferve this line of life, feeds muft be examined
in their firft formation ; for when it has done its office,
it detaches itfelf. When the feed is boiled, the line of
life and nourilhing veffels mark themfelves by becoming
of a dark colour.
2. Irritability of vegetables.—In entering upon this
fuhjedt, we ought to warn our readers, that very oppo-
fite opinions have been entertained refpecting it ; fome
phyfiologills of the greateft eminence allowing that wre
have fatisfa&ory proofs of the irritability of vegetables
in a variety of plants, but more particularly in the mo¬
tions of the mimofae, dionea, &c. ; while others of no lefs
refpe&ability aferibe thefe motions to the influence of
light, heat, or fome other mechanical agent.
As neither mufcles nor nerves have ever been demon-
ftrated in the vegetable ftruflure, of courfe the proofs of
the irritability of vegetables are drawn from the intimate
analogy which feems to exift between the motions of fome
plants and thofe of animals. Some phyfiologifts, from ob-
ferving the fimilarity of motions in the two kingdoms,
were naturally led t© aferibe them to the fame caufe;
others, from not being able to obferve the fame motive
organs, namely, mufcles, in both kingdoms, denied that
plants could poffefs irritability ; a third fet, waving the
idea of irritability in the vegetable kingdom, have la¬
boured to fhew that the motions of plants depend on
mechanical caufes alone.
We fliall firft notice the obfervations of Mrs Ibbet¬
fon, who aferibes the motions of plants to the fpiral
wires wffiich wre have deferibed. Her opinion is founded
upon a number of new obfervations made with the folar
microfcope, which we lhall proceed to relate.
1 ft, The fpiral veffels are not to be found in any
plants to which motion is unneceffary7.
She could not obferve thefe vefl'els in any of the
firs, in any of the plants which fpread their leaves upon
the furface of the water, in any of the fea wreeds (c),
of the lichens, or of the grafi'es; and ftie does not think
3 Y that
(c) She afterwards excepts the conferva?, which have motion.
v E G [53
Vegetable that they exift in the Icolopendrums or lemnas. We
Fbyfiolog'y. j1ere obferve that if thele obfervations were com-
y"~ pletely true, they would certainly aftord a ftrong proof
in confirmation of her opinion ybut we fufpect that they
are not altogether juft, efpecially as wre obferve a difcre-
pancy in the papers of Mrs Ibbetfon. Thus at one part
lire has given us a very minute defcription of the fpiral
veflels in the runners of the poa reptans, and now the
fays they are not to be found in the graftes (d).
Mrs fbbetfon’s fecond argument is, that if a plant
whole leaves prefent their faces to the light, be turned
fo that the backs are to the fun, the leaves in a tew hours
will regain their former pofition ; but if this be of¬
ten repeated, although the plant will not fufter, yet the
leaves will be longer at every repetition in returning to
their former fituation, or will ceafe to move at all. She
accounts for this by laying, that the fpiral-like elaltic
veffels are relaxed by the operation, and lofe their
power of coiling into their ufual form.
Others would account for the above fa£t by faying
that the irritability of the plant was exhaufted by theie
repeated and unnatural actions \ in the fame manner as
the mimofa becomes gradually lefs lenlible to impreflrons
when too often renewed.
Mrs Ibbetfon’s third argument is, that thofe leaves
which have moft motion, are provided with moft fpiral
veffels, and have thefe veffels moft twilled j as in the po~
pulus tremula.
Fourth proof. Mrs Ibbetfon divided the fpiral vef¬
fels of a vine leaf while growing, without touching the
nourilhing veffels j and from that moment it never con-
tra£led, and when placed with its back to the light,
it did not alter its pofition, though it was long before it
decayed. Both electricity and galvanifm caufe thefe
leaves to contraCl, by affefting the fpiral wires (not the
cuticle), for when the leaf is deprived of thefe veftels it
does not contraft at all.
We would here remark that we fufpeCl much, in the
above experiment, that more than the fpiral velfels was
divided : at any rate there is very great difcordance be¬
tween Mrs Ibbetfon’s experiments and that of M. Ga¬
la odrini, who found that vine leaves turned to the light
when they were feparated from the Hern and fulpended
by a thread.
Fifth argument. Mrs Ibbetfon obferved, when Ihe
placed fome of the fpiral veffels taken from a cabbage
leaf upon one end of a long netting needle, and caufed
a candle to approach, that they were much agitated, and
at laft flung themfelves off the needle. We think no
conclufion can be drawn from what is here fiated.
The freih water conferva and the dodder tribe, are
the only plants, without kaves, that Mrs Ibbetfon is
acquainted with, which have fpiral veffels.
Mrs Ibbetfon fays that the fpiral veffels are fo very
tough, and fo very tightly coiled, in the leaf ftem
[petiole) of the geranium cord folium, that fhe has by
means of them been enabled to draw up the leafj but it
is difficult to be done.
The fix'h proof is drawn from the effeCl produced by
moifture on Captain Kaler’s hygrometer, which will be
noticed foon.
8 ] V E G
General Obfervations.—Mrs Ibbetfon fays the fpxral Vegetable
wires may be confidered as a lecondary caufe of motion,-^yfioldgy.
as they are primarily a&ed upon by light and mciiture. v J
By means of the fpiral wire, all the movements of plants
are made j by it, flowers open in the morning and ftmt
in the evening ; the leaves turn, and the creeping plants
wind in their regular order. Mrs Ibbetfon lays the
opening of the flower at a different time of the day, or
its turning in a different manner, does not militate a-
gaiuft the above flatement 5 as ftreng light and dry
weather produce a contraftion of the wire, while daik-
nefs and moiflure effect a dilatation of it. It depends
wholly upon the pofition in which the fpiral wire is
placed, whether by its dilatation the flowers ftiall be
opened or fhut, as in mechanics the fame Ipring may be
made to turn to the right or to the left, to open or to
fhut a box. Molt of the flowrers which Mrs Ibbetfon
has obferved to cloie at noon, have an extremely fimber
corolla, formed only of a double cuticle without pabu¬
lum ; and hence they are focn overcome by heat, and
relaxation dire&ly takes place ; as in the convolvulus
nil, the evening or tree primrofe, &c.
We mutt add, however, that we regard this account
of the fpiral veffels with fome degree of doubt. We fuf-
pe£t that the fpiral veffcls, if they have the power of open¬
ing or (hutting a flower, will always aft in one uniform
manner ; i. e. if they are able to open it, they will al¬
ways do fc, and vice verfa.
The mjmphea alba raiies itfelf cut of the w’ater, and
expands, about feven o’clock in the morning ; and clofes
again, repofing upon the furface, about four in the even¬
ing. Now its petals are much thicker than thofe of
the leontodon taraxacum, which (huts up its flowers be¬
tween eight and nine in the evening.
We could multiply iniiances j but rve conceive we
have faid enough to fhew, that the flowers with the
moft flender corolla are not uniformly thofe which
foon eft clofe.
Mrs Ibbetfon fays, contrary to the opinion of Mir-
bel, that the cafe in which the fpiral veffels are inclofed
is capable of being ftretched •, indeed it is formed of fo
thin (or rather fo loofe) a fubftance, as plainly to be
intended to dilate and contraft. The cafe is compofed
of a very few thin veffels, interlaced with an extremely
fine fpiral wire ; while the larger fpir al veffels fill up the
cafe in an irregular manner, the nourifhing veffels foim
a regular circle of tubes around it. See fig. 29. and 3c.
Of the Indian grafs (andropogon contortum of Lin-
ne), of which Captain Rater’s hygrometer is form¬
ed.—The chief part of it is made wdth the fpiral awn
of an Indian grafs, which readily untwifts in a moift
atmofphere, and vice verfa. Now Mrs Ibbetfon afks,
if the molt trifling change of moifture can untwift one
fort of vegetable fibre, and by this means manage an
inftrument, why fhould not a quantity of fimilar formed
fibres or fpiral veffels produce the fame effeft on leaves
and flowers ? She fays, Captain Rater’s hygrometer
moves very fenfibly if a finger be placed within half an
inch of the fibre (awn). Now, the molt fenfitive plant
we have will not move but with the touch.”
We are quite aware of the effefts of moifture on fome
vegetables.
(b) She found the fpiral veffels alfo in the andropogon contortum.
V EG [ 539 J V E G
Vegetable vegetables. We have ftrong proofs of it in fome of the
ttiyfioiogy. rnofles, as in the bryum hyyrometricurn, which, if the
yr——■ fruitftalk be moiftened at the bottom, makes three or
four revolutions; if the upper part be moiftened it turns
the contrary way.
We can fcarcely compare thefe motions with thofe of
the mimofae; for it is quite evident that they are pro¬
duced by moiilure : but as we are to fpeak of the motions
of the rnimofae in a little, we would only obferve, that
when Mrs Ibbetfon fays “ the fenfitive plant will not
move but with the touch,” {he argues againft herfelf $
for this (hews that it is a£led upon by the fame caufes
as animal mufcles, and that it is not governed by moif-
ture alone.
The only fenfitive part of the Indian grafs is the awn,
which is formed of a leather-like fubilance, infinitely
thicker and ftronger than the ufual fpiral veflels in
plants. The awn is formed of two apparently flat
pieces, with a cylindric hollow running through the
middle, which is filled with a thick fpiral wire. Fig.
2i. 22. 23. and 24. Each fide of the awn is briftled $
but the briftles do not add to its fenfibility.
Of the The awn or fling of the nettle is
a long pipe with a bag at the end, divided into two
^jiarts ; the fmaller contains the poifon, and the larger
ts fituated below it. This bag feems alfo to be compo-
fed of a leather-like fubftance, and is likewife affefted
by light and moiflure.
The moment the upper part of the pipe is touched,
the under part of the bag whirls up, breaks the poifon
bladder, and throws its contents violently up the pipe,
burning the perfon who touches it.
Light thrown upon the bag by means of the folar
microfeope, produces the fame effeft as touching it.
The poifonous liquor is protruded up the pipe with
great force, till it ifliies out at the minute aperture at
the point; but before it does fo, the pipe is bent down
with a jerk, by means of the fpiral wire.
The fpiral wire winds round the bag at the bottom of
the pipe ; and it is by the aflion of this wire that the
bag is made to contrail. The nettle lays down its
flings every evening, juft as the fenfitive plant does its
branches. See fig. 19, and 20.
Mimofa Senfitiva.-*~rX\\t motions of this plant are re¬
gulated not only by the fpiral wire, but alfo by a bag
of a leather-like fubftance, which is capable of contrac¬
tion and dilatation.
We (hall next give Mrs Ibbetfon’s plate refpe&ing
the ftru&ure of this plant, with her defeription.
Fig. 25. -Fig* is a reprefentation of the fprings which go-
° vern each leaf; d, d \s the ftalk. Each leaf has a
bafe c, c, which ferves to concentrate the fpiral wires.
Thefe pafling over in every direftion, being drawn
through the narroweft parts of the ftem b b b b, prefs
the ftem together; and, when touched, lay the leaves,
one on the other, the whole way down the leaf-ftalk.
But, before the ftimulus is applied, the ftem is flat¬
tened in a contrary dire&ion. The ball of the leaf
is hollow, and filled with oil. The parts ee and pp
(fig. 26.) are made of that leathery fubftance, which
2 * forms the cuticle, and is contra&ed by the light in
the folar microfeope. The parts ee contain the oil
which ferves to lubricate the knots (we fuppofe), and
enable them to flip over each other j befide, probably,
a£fing fome important part in the formation of the va- Vegetable
rious gaffes and juices in the compofition of the plant. Phytk logy.^
When touched, the whole ftring relaxes at 0 0, and ^
lets the branch fall. This it would alfo do-at m, if it
were not fupported by the wood-veffels turning into the
leaf. Fig. 27. is the part eepp uncut, and in its na¬
tural ftate. Mrs Ibbetfon thinks that not only the mo¬
tions of this plant, but of all others, depend upon the
fpiral wires wrhich contraft and dilate by the aftion of
light and moifture. She adds, that there are no fpiral
wires in the feminal leaves of the mimofa fenftiva, and
that the feminal leaves have no motion whatever.
In farther illuftration of this fubjeft, we {hall next pre-
fent our readers with fome obiervations by Mr Lyall,
lately publiihed in Nicholfon’s Journal *, refpeding * Vol. xxv<
the irritability of the mimofa pudica, and fome other
plants.
“ It is well known (he obferves), if we take a leaf
of this plant, fimilar to wdiat is reprefented ^fig. 31.),
and then, by means of a pair of feiffars (completely
dry), cut off half the pinnula A, this pinnula will
contract at its joint, either immediately, or in a few fe-
conds ; its neighbour, or oppofite pinnula, B, clofing
at the fame time, or foon after.
“ The pinnulae A and B having come into contaft,
there is a paufe, or a fhort ceffation, of motion ; but
in the courfe of a few more feconds, the next pair of
pinnulae, CC, will alfo ftmt up, and the fame will hap¬
pen with every pair of pinnulae of that pinna fuccef-
fively j only with this difference, that the intervals be*
tween the {hutting up of each pair of pinnulae will be
fliorter, the farther it is from the pinnula that was cut.
After the whole of the pinnulae of this pinna have com¬
pletely clofed, and a little interval, then the joint D
will bend fo as to allow the pinna to drop confider-
ably.
“ Neverthelefs, the motion is often not fo obvious in
this joint, as in that to be mentioned.
“ A longer paufe will now intervene, in fome cafes
fo long as to make us fuppofe that all motion is at an
end •, but at length the joint E fuddenly bends, and
aftonifties the beholder.
“ The petiole F now, inftead of forming an acute
angle with the ftem above the joint, forms a very ob-
tide angle with it.
“ We {hall now have another ceffation of motion, and
then the joint, H, will {lightly bend $ then another
paufe, then a (hutting up of the pair of pinnulae, II,
and fo on with the other pinnulae, till the whole pinna
is clofed. The motions, however, will not be fo regu¬
lar in this pinna as they were in the other; for as the
pinnulae II approach, they prefs forward the next pair,
and fo on with all the reft.”
Thefe motions, the author fuppofes, are not occafion-
ed by impulfe *, for a bit of the pinnula may be cut off
almoft without producing any motion.
But, allowing that a little motion were produced, it.
comes naturally as a queftion, Why does the motion
become fo extenfive ? how is the impulfe communicated
to the origin of the petiole ? The author does not think
that thefe queftions will ever be fatisfadlorily anfwered
upon mechanical principles.
He admits indeed, that a ftru&ure exifts in the mi~-
mofa fenftiva, correfponding to what Mrs Ibbetfon has-
3 Y 2 deferibed
V E G [ 54= ] V E G
'Vegetable defcribed j although he feems to have iouae doubts re-
rhyliology. fpe&ing it. He then proceeds to inquire, whether by
' v fuch a ftrufture, afted upon by heat, light, or moif-
ture, we could poflibly explain the motions of the tni-
jnoja pudica. “ On the experiments above related, (he
obferves), I prefume no one would fay, that moillure
was the caufe of motion, as the fciffars were quite
dry.”
It is to be remembered alfo, that this plant will per¬
form its motions under water.
As there was no change of light, confequently this
had no fhare in the effedt. Befides, when moifture is
produced (Mr Lyall certainly means darknefs) in con-
fequence of the abllradtion of light, all the pinnulae
{hut up at the fame time } not, however, in the regular
order mentioned in the experiment. Neither does the
motion take place from change of temperature, for the
temperature was not altered.
A great many queftions will here fuggeft them-
felves, as, How does it happen that the motion is pro¬
duced ? how does it become fo extenfive ? how comes
it that there are regular motions and paufes, &c. ?
The author concludes, by faying, that it is vain to at¬
tempt any mechanical folution of the phenomenon men¬
tioned above, “ which would feem to depend on an ex-
quifite irritability in the plant itfelf.”
Dioncea Mufcipula.—Mr Lyall does not think that
the motions of this plant are to be explained in the
manner fpoken of by Brouffonet, who aferibed them to
an evacuation of a fluid from the leaf, wdiich will be
noticed when we fpeak of the droferez. For the leaf
may be touched without caufing any efflux of fluid
whatever, and yet it will contradt completely.
Comparetti’s explanation refpedling the motion of this
plant is not admitted ; becaufe it feems improbable, is
contrary to analogy, and inadequate to explain the phe¬
nomenon.
Of the Drofera Longifolia and Rotund folia.—As ma¬
ny of the mufcles of the animal fyffem, as the heart,
diaphragm, &.c. adt quite independent of the will, and
as thefe parts are highly irritable, Mr Lyall wilhes to
Ihow, that a voluntary command of a mufcular force
fhould not be taken into the definition of the word irii-
tability, as has been done by fome. Mr Lyall fays,
“ By irritability, I underftand, that property inherent
in fome bodies (or rather parts of bodies), by which,
when a flimulus is applied, they are enabled to con-
tradl.
The leaves of the drofera rotundifolia, when proper¬
ly unfolded, lie round the ftem in a ftellated manner.
The foolftalks of the leaves vary in length from half an
inch to an inch and a half. The leaves are covered on
their upper furface by a number of hairs, varying alfo
in length from one line to three-eighths of an inch, and
are each terminated by a little gland, which gland is
covered by a tranfparent vifeid fluid, prefenting a fine
appearance.
The chief difference between the drofera longifolia
and rotundifolia is in the Ihape of the leaves 5 thofe of
the former being obovate, while thofe of the latter are
of an orbicular ftiape.
Mr Lyall mentions the obfervations of Mr Whately,
who, it would appear, wTas the firfl: in tl is kingdom who
deferibid the contra&ions of the droferte when irri¬
tated.
Mr Whately and Mr Gardom had obferved fome in- Vegetable
fetts imprifoned in the leaves of this plant, and hence Phyfiology^
were led to prefs with a pin the centre of other leaves v ^
in their natural and expanded form, when they very
fuddenly contra&ed, and, as it were, encircled the
pin.
Roth had noticed, in 1 779, that the leaves of the dro-
ferse moved, when irritated. He placed an ant upon
the middle of a leaf of the drofera rotundifolia, but fo
as not to difiurb the plant. The ant endeavoured to
efcape, but was held faff by the clammy juice at the
points of the hairs, wdiich was drawm out by its feet
into fine threads \ in fome minutes the flrort hairs on
the difle of the leaf began to bend, then the long hairs,
and laid themfelves upon the infeft. After a wdiile the
leaf itfelf began to bend, and in fome hours the end of
the leaf was io bent inwards as to touch the bale. The
fame happened when the experiments W’ere made on the
drofera longifolia, but more rapidly.
Roth alio found that the hairs bent themfelves wdien
he touched them with the point of a needle, with a
hog’s briftle, or when he placed a very fmall piece of
wood the weight of an ant upon the leaves.
Mr Lyall next gives us an account of his own expe¬
riments. He fays, “ that for five months, he almoft,
every day, had the fpecies of droferse under his eye, ei¬
ther at home or in the country ; and he confeffes, that
he never faw fuch a rapid contradfion of the leaves of
the drofera rotundifolia, as had been noticed by Mefirs
Whately and Gardom : but in all his experiments the
contradlion w^as gradual, though it feldom failed to hap¬
pen, if the plant was in good condition. In moft of
his experiments an hour w'as neceffary for the compete
bending of all the hairs j and it required fome hours for
the perfeft (hutting up of the leaves. Hence it is evi¬
dent, that whoever has a wdfli to notice the motions of
the droferae, muff not fet out with the expeflation of
feeing a rapid motion, fimilar to what happens in the
mimofae, follow the application of a ftimulus *, but, to
obferve the ultimate effefts, muff watch with an atten¬
tive eye, for at lead 20 minutes.
In accounting for the manner in wdiich thefe motions
are performed, various opinions have been held. Brouf¬
fonet fufpedls that the difengagement of fome fluids
influences them. He fays, that the infeft, by abforbing
the fluid which is on the points of the hairs, empties the
vefiels of the leaf, w hich folds upon itfelf $ and the
quicknefs of the aftion is proportional to the number of
hairs touched by the infeft.
Our author obferves, that “ this theory, at firft fight,
does not appear even to be plaufible ; for, how is it pofli-
ble that an infedl can abforb a thick tenacious fluid ? No
doubt, however, part of this fluid will be attached to
the part of the infedl which touches it; but this feems
quite unconnefted with the contradtion of the leaf. On
the 30th of July, Mr Lyall brought from the country a
number of plants of the drofera rotundifolia, and, on
infpedling them, he found many of the hairs of the
leaves deprived of their vifeid fluid ; but yet both they
and the leaf remained quite expanded and in good con¬
dition. Next day, about four o’clock, he placed a
fmall bit of fulphate of copper, in the difk of one of
thefe expanded leaves, and by fix o’clock moft of the
hairs on one fide of the leaf, even the outermoft, had
bent themfelves over the bit of copper j this feems
to ,
V E G r 541 1 V E G
Vegetable to prove the inaccuracy of Brouflbnet’s theory. In
Fhyfiology. other experiments, he placed fmall bits of bread or
y wood, on three or four of the central hairs, without
touching the other hairs, or the vifeid fluid on their
ends ; and in a few hours he found that all the hairs
had contrafted around the foreign body. In fome
plants, the fulphate of copper was placed upon fome of
the fmall hairs in the diik of the leaf, without touch¬
ing the leaf itfelf j yet the bending of the hairs and
leaf was complete.
“ We have here proof (he adds), ift, That the
leaves do not contract when deprived of their vifeid
fluid, which ought to have been the cafe if Brouflbnet’s
theory had been true. 2dly, That the contraftion
takes place even when the vifeid fluid does not cover
the little glands. 3dly, That the contradion follows,
although the foreign body is not brought into contad
with all the hairs.
The opinion of Sennebier, who appears to have
aferibed the motions of the droferae to the effed of pref-
fure is next examined. “ Sennebier feems (it is ob-
ferved) fenfible, that the contradions of the leaves take
place even when light bodies are placed on them, which
circumftance of itfelf wmuld lead us to fufped, that pref-
fure is not alone the caufe.
“ I know (it is added), that, if we prefs on the centre
of a leaf with a pin, &c. we may caufe its margin to ap¬
proximate the pin •, and this certainly would be owing to
. a mechanical caufe. But, fuppofe we fee the contradion
take place, as I have done, when a body fpecifically
lighter than the leaf itfelf is placed in the centre, as a
bit of rotten wood ; fliould we be Hill inclined to a-
feribe it to a mechanical caufe ? Admit that it is the
cafe. Suppofe, then, we place the fame bit of wood
on the margin of the leaf, what effed ought to follow ?
If it were owing to a mechanical caufe, or the weight of
the foreign body, as in the laft-mentioned cafe, then
we fliould exped, that the part of the margin of the
leaf, on which the bit of wood refted, would be depref-
led ; w’hich undoubtedly is not the cafe : but, on the
contrary, the margin rifes, and then contrads towards
the foreign body, or towards the footftalk of the leaf.
“ That this motion does not depend on preflure, may
be (till better illuftrated, by placing a fly, or fome
other body, on the apex of a leaf of the drofera longifo-
lia. The hairs near the. foreign body will contrad
around it, and then the apex of the leaf will rife up¬
wards, and turn inwards, until it touches the bafe. Or,
if the offending body is fmall, the leaf will become
convoluted around it.”
From the refult of his experiments, the author thinks,
that the motions of the leaves of the droferae cannot be
explained on mechanical principles. He conceives
that thefe motions are performed, if not by mufcles, at
leaft by fomething which is equivalent to mufcles in
the animal body.
It appears that the leaves of the drofera rotundifolia
and longifolia remain completely expanded during the
hotteft lunftiine and drieft weather ; during the coldeft
and wetteft weather ; during the greatefl: darknefs, and,
finally, during the brighteft light of day. This, however,
is to be taken in a limited fenfe, i. e. only during the ex-
panfion of the leaves, not during the cold of winter.
“ Here, then, neither heat, cold, drynefs, dampnefs,
darknefs, nor light in general, at all affe£l the leaves;
but, if a foreign body be applied to the leaf fo as to fti- Vegetable
mulate, then it will fhut up” in the manner we have Phyfiology.
already deferibed. —v
EXPLANATION of PLATES DXLI. DXLII.
and DXLIIL
[Note, that fomc errors in the references to fgures in
the text may be correBed by this explanation, ’which is
accurately
Fig. i. Part of a branch, {hewing the manner in
which the line of life, c c, enters into the flower-bud,
a, and paffes by the leaf, b b.
Fig. 2. A flower-bud, (bowing the line of life, c c,
running up to each flower, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, and the
pith terminating at b.
Fig. 3. Seftion of the ffem of a tree ; <7, the rind j
b, the bark j c, the inner bark ; d, the wood 5 e, the
fpiral nerves j f the corona or line of life j g, the
pith ; h, h, the iilver grain 5 0, 0, 0, the baftard grain.
Fig. 4. Cylinders of the inner bark.
Fig. 5. Cylinders of the wood.
Fig. 6, 7, 8, 9. Commencement of the growth of
leaves, exhibited in different ftages. a, a, a, a, The
mid-rib ; b, b, b, the young veffels appearing like cot¬
ton ’■) c,c, the fpiral nerves j d, the fmaller veffels crof-
iing each other. Fig. 9. alfo {hews e, e, the fine vef¬
fels growing up each fide of the mid-rib j and/; the
pabulum.
Fig. 10. Leaf-bud of the lime-tree.
Fig. 11. Leaf-bud of the horfe-chefnut about Ja¬
nuary.
Fig. 12. A feed-veffel of the clafs fyngenefia $ a, the
calyx $ b, female florets j c, male and female florets.
Fig. 13. Seftion juft above the feed-veffel of the di-
anthus. a, the calyx proceeding from the bark ; b,
the corolla, from the inner bark j c, c, c, c, ten ftamina
from the wood ; d, the feed-veffel $ e, the piftil from
the corona or circle of life.
Fig. 14. Reprefentation of the bean, e, 0, the nou-
rilhing veffels 3 L to «, the feminal leaves, or cotyle¬
dons j /, to /, the embryo.
Fig. 15. 0, The nourilhing veffels 3 //, the embryo in
the feed of the lily, crofling the empty part of the cor-
culum.
Fig. 16. Shews /, /, the line of life 3 0, 0, the nou-
riftiing veffels.
Fig. 17. Reprefents the heart taken out of the feed
of a chefnut. /, the circular hook 3 0, 0, the nourifti-
ing veffels 5 /, /, the line of life, which was taken out.
where it croffes the heart at m.
Fig. 18. The feed of the goofeberry. 0, the nouriftiing
veffels 3 /, the line of life 3 m, the corculum or heart.
Fig. 19. The fling of the nettle, as viewed with the
folar microfcope 3 z, the bag of poifon 3 x, the fpiral
wire.
Fig. 20. The fling after the poifon has been thrown
to the point 5 x, the fpiral wire contrafted.
Fig. 21. Indian grafs greatly magnified, {flowing the
manner in which it is formed.
Fig. 22. Awn of the grafs.
Fig. 23. and 24. The grafs twifted.
Fig. 25. Leaf of the mimofa fenfitiva.
Fig. 26. A longitudinal feftion of the leaf-ftalk of.
the mimofa fenfitiva, the middle part containing five
cafes of fpiral wire, and each extremity only three.
Fig.-
V E L r 542
Vegetable Fig. 27. The extremity of the uncut leaf-ftalk, which
Phyfiology js divided at />/> in fig. 26.
Fig. 28. A horizontal fedlion of the ftem of the mi-
Velle.
mofa.
Fig. 29.
fied.
Fig. 30.
Fig- 31-
A cafe full of the fpiral wire much magni-
Spiral wire ftill more magnified.
Leaf of the mimofa pudica.
VEGETATIVE soul, among philofophcrs, denotes
that principle in plants, by virtue of which they vege¬
tate, or receive nouridixnent and grow.
VEHICLE, in general, denotes any thing that car¬
ries or bears another along j but is more particularly ufed
in pharmacy for any liquid ferving to dilute iome medi¬
cine, in order that it may be adminiftered more commo-
dioully to the patient.
VEII, in Ancient Geography, a city of Etruria, the
long and powerful rival of Rome j diftant about IOO
ftadia, or 12 miles, to the north-well •, fituated on a
high and lleep rock. Taken after a fiege of 10 years
by Camillas, fix years before the taking of Rome by the
Gauls : and thither the Romans, after the burning of
their city, had thoughts of removing ; but were difluaded
from it by Camillus (Livy). It remained Handing after
the Punic war and a colony was there fettled, and its
territory affigned to the foldiers. But after that it de¬
clined fo gradually, as not to leave a fingle trace Hand¬
ing. Famous for the flaughter of the 300 Fabii on the
Cremera (Ovid). The fpot on which it flood lies near
Ifola, in St Peter’s patrimony (Holflenius).
VEIL, a piece of fluff-, ferving to cover or hide any
thing.
In the Romifh churches, in time of Lent, they have
veils or curtains over the altar, crucifix, images ol faints,
&c.
A veil of crape is worn on the head by nuns, as a
badge of their profeffion : the novices wear white veils,
but thofe wdro have made the vowrs black ones. See the
article Nun.
VEIN, in Anatomy, is a veffel which carries the
blood from the feveral parts of the body tq, the heart.
See Anatomy, N° 123.
Vein, among miners, is a fiffure in the horizontal
flrata which contains ore, fpar, cauk, clay, chert,
croil, brownhen, pitcher-chert, cur, which the philofo-
phers call the mother of metals, and fometimes foil of all
colours. When it bears ore, it is called a quick vein ;
when no ore, a dead vein.
VELA, a remarkable cape on the coaft of Terra
Firma, in South America. W. Long. 71. 25. N. Lat.
12. qo.
VELARIUS, in antiquity, an officer in the court of
the Roman emperors, being a kind of ufher, whofe port
tvas behind the curtain in the prince’s apartment, as that
of the chancellor’s w7as at the entry of the balluflrade j
and that of the oftiarii at the door. T he velarii had
a fuperior of the fame denomination, who commanded
them.
VELEZ-DE-Gomara, a town of Africa., in the king¬
dom of Fez, and in the province of Enff. It is the an¬
cient Acarth. With a harbour and a handfome caftle,
where the governor refides. It is feated between two
high mountains, on the coaft of the Mediterranean fea.
w. Long. 4. o. N. Lat. 35. 10.
] YEN
VELITES, in the Roman army, a kind of ancient
foldiery, who w7ere aimed lightly with a javelin, a calk,^
cuirais, and fliield. __ w
VELLEIUS Paterculus. See Paterculus.
VELLUM, is a kind of parchment, that is finer,
evener, and more white than the common parchment.
The word is foimed from tne French velm, ot the Latin
vitulinus, “ belonging to a call.”
VELOCITY, in Mechanics, fwiftnefs ; that affec¬
tion of motion whereby a moveable is difpofed to run
over a certain fpace in a certain time. It is alfo called
celerity, and is always proportional to the fpace moved.
See Quantity, N° 11 and 14, &c.
VELVET, a rich kind of fluff, all filk, covered on
the outlide with a dole, ftrort, fine, foil Ihag, the other
fide being a very ftrong dole tiffue.
The nap or lhag, called alfo the velveting, of this
fluff, is formed of part of the threads of the warp, which
the workman puts on a long narrow’-channelled ruler or
needle, which he afterwards cuts, by drawing a lharp
fled tool along the channel of the needle to the ends of
the warp. The principal and beft manufactories of
velvet are in France and Italy, particularly in Venice,
Milan, Florence, Genoa, and Lucca : there are others
in Holland, fet up by the French refugees } whereof
that at Haerlem is the moft confiderable : but they all
come fhort of the beauty of thofe in France, and ac¬
cordingly are fold for 10 or 15 per cent. lefs. There
are even fome brought from China j but they are the
wrorft of all.
VENAL, or Venous, in Anatomy, fomething that
bears a relation to the veins. This wmrd is alfo u!ed for
fomething bought wdth money, or procured by bribes.
VENEERING, Vaneering, or Fineertng, a kind
of marquetry, or inlaying, wffiereby feveral thin flices
or leaves of fine wood, of different kinds, are applied
and faftened on a ground of fome common wood.
There are two kinds of inlaying : the one, which is
the more ordinary, goes no farther than the making of
compartiments of different woods , the other requires
much more art, and reprefents flowers, birds, and the
like figures. The firft kind is what we properly call
veneering ; the latter we have already deferibed under
Marquetry.
The wood intended for veneering is firft fawed out
into flices or leaves, about a line thick : in order to faw
them, the blocks or planks are placed upright in a kind
of vice or fawing prefs : the defeription of which may
be feen under the article juft referred to. Thefe flices
are afterwards cut into flips, and fafhioned divers ways,
according to the deflgn propofed ; then the joints being
carefully adjufted, and the pieces brought down to their
proper thicknefs, with feveral planes for the purpofe,
they are glued down on a ground or block of dry wood,
with good ftrong Engliflr glue. The pieces thus joined
and glued, the work, if fmall, is put in a prefs j if large,
it is laid on the bench, covered with a board, and preffed
down with poles, or pieces of wood, one end whereof
reaches to the ceiling of the room, and the other bears
on the boards. When the glue is quite dry they take
it out of the prefs and finifli it ; fivft with little planes,
then with divers ferapers, fome whereof referable rafps,
which take off dents. &c. left by the planes. When
fuffi ciently feraped, the work is poiiftied with the fkin of
which
Velites
u.
encoring.
%
VEGK TABLE PHYSIO LOOT
I’hUt* DXLI
EMtiAMj.
Vegetable Physiology PWe dxlu
K MitrlnH fr <l/i
     —   
'i
£. Milck-Hjmlfi
/
h
’I
YEN C 543 1 YEN
Venice & fea-dog, wax, and a brufti and poliftier of fhave-grafs :
II . which is the laft operation.
Veneenng. VEJSjirtiEAL, foxnething belonging to venery ; as
the /ues venerea, &c. See IVfKDlClNi. Index.
VE.NERY, is commonly ufed for the act of copula¬
tion, or coition, between the two fexes 5 it has alfo been
employed by old writers as applicable to hunting or the
ehace, as beajls of venery.
VENESEC TION, or Phlebotomt, in Surgery.
See Surgery Index.
VENETIAN Bole, a fine red earth ufed in paint¬
ing, and called in the colour {hops Venetian red.—It is
dug up in Carinthia, and fent from Venice to all parts
of the world j but the ufe of it is much" iuperfeded by a
bright colcothar of vitriol.
VENICE, State of, a celebrated republic, which
x for nearly ten centuries formed one of the moll power-
Situaton °f the maritime ftates of Europe. Its dominions lay
and boun- chiefly along the coafts at the head of the Adriatic fea,
daries. comprehending not only a confiderable traft round the
city of Venice, but feveral diftri&s both to the eaft and
well of that fea, together with the iflands of Corfu,
Zante, Cephalonia, Cerigo, and fome others of lefs note
in the Archipelago. It was bounded to the north by
the Alps, to the weft by the duchy of Milan, and to
the eaft by Croatia, a province of Turkey in Europe.
The republic of Venice is faid to have taken its rife
from a fmall Italian colony, who in the middle of the
Origin. 5^ century were driven by Attila king of the Huns
An. 452. from the cities of Aquileia, Verona, Mantua, &c. and
took refuge in the group of fmall iflands where now
ftands the city of Venice. Here they eftabliftied them-
lelves, and formed a fmall independent ftate, adopting
the confular form of government which had fo long pre¬
vailed at Rome. By the end of the 5th century they
had become of confequence, and were able to raife and
maintain a fleet and a fmall army. They engaged in a
war with the Lombards, and diftinguiflied themfelves
againft the Iftrian pirates, and the inhabitants of the
neighbouring port of Triefte. They alfo aflifted Jufti-
nian in his conteft with the Goths, and received from
him and his general Narfes, many marks of favour and
diftin&ion.
About the year 697, the tribunitian power, which had
prevailed in Venice from the end of the 5th century,
rn WYh- wa9 ab^hed, and the ftates defied a fupreme magi-
ment ofa ^r3te> whom they called doge, or duke. He was to
doge or reprefent the honour and majefty of the ftate j to affem-
duke. ble and prefide at the great council, where he had a
An. (Spy. carting vote in all difputed points *, to nominate to all
offices, places, and preferments, and to enjoy the fame
authority in the church as in the ftate. Excepting a
fhort intermiflion of about five years, the power of the
doges continued till the fall of the republic.
Under the doges, the power and wealth of the repub¬
lic continued to incrcafe. In 765, the Heraclians and
War with Gezulans> fubjefts of the republic, revolted, and threw
the empe- themfelves on the prote&ion of the emperor Charle.-
ror Charle- magne. 'That emperor fettled them for the prefent at
md&ne‘ Malamoe, in the neighbourhood of the Venetian capi-
An- 7 S’ tal but from this afylum they were quickly driven by
the forces of the republic. Incenfed at this affront com¬
mitted againft his authority, Charlemagne ordered his
fon Pepin to declare war againft the Venetians; but as
Aftolphus king of the Lombards was then laying wafte Venice,
the territories of the church, the troops of Pepin were, l*—v~~-^
by the intreaties of the pope, difpatched againrt that
powerful monarch ■, and though, on the defeat of Aftol¬
phus they marched againft the Venelians, it does not
appear that the enterprife was productive of either ho¬
nour or fuccefs. The war with Pepin was renewed in
804, on occafion of Obelerio, the doge of Venice,
(hewing an inclination to favour the Greek emperor Ni-
cephorus againft Pepin. Obelcrio was related to the
French monarch, having married his filter ; and as on
this account the Venetians were jealous of the attach¬
ment of their doge, he was fuperfeded, and Valentin
nominated commander in his place. Pepin had collect¬
ed a numerous and well appointed army, and had fitted
out a fleet to aCt againft the Venetians by fea. With
this formidable force he advanced direCtly to Venice,
but here he was oppofed with all the valour of indepen¬
dent citizens fighting for their liberties.
The Venetians, however, notwithftandirtg the moft 5
obftinate defence, the moft vigorous fallies, and their
felling every inch of ground at an incredible expence of^f "
blood, were at length reduced to that part of the city netians.
fouth of the Rialto (fee the next article') ; this ftream and An. 804.
their own bravery, being now their only defence. While
Pepin was preparing to throw a bridge over the canal,
they refolved, as a laft effort, to attack Pepin's fleet, and
to vanquifh or die in defence of their liberty. Embark¬
ing all the troops they could fpare, they bore down
with the advantage of the wind and tide, upon the ene¬
my, and began the attack with fuch fury, as obliged-
the French admiral to give way. The lightnefs of theif
(hips, and the knowledge of the foundings, gave the
Venetians every advantage they could wiffi : the ene¬
my’s fleet was run aground, and the greater part of
their troops periflied in attempting to efcape ; the (hips
were all to a few either taken or deftroyed. During
this aCtion at fea, Pepin refolved to affault the city by
land, not doubting but the garrifon was fo weakened by
the number of forces they had fent on board the fleet,
as to be able to make but a flight refiftance. Having
for this purpofe thrown a bridge over the Rialto, he was
marching his troops acrofs it, when he found himfelf at¬
tacked on every fide by the Venetians from their boats,
and others who had ported themfelves on the bridge.
The battle was long, bloody, and doubtful, until the
Venetians employed all their power to break down the
bridge y which at laft yielding to their obftinate endea¬
vours, a prodigious (laughter of the French enfued; they
fought, however, like men in defpair, feeing no hopes of
fafety but in victory ; but all communication being cut
off with the troops on (bore, they were to a man either
killed or drowned. The number of (lain was fo great,
that the fpace between the Rialto and Malamoe was co¬
vered with dead bodies, and has ever fince gone by a
name exprefiive of the prodigious (laughter. Pepin was
fo (truck with the intrepidity of the Venetians, that he
raffed the fiege, abandoned the enterprife, and concluded
a peace with the republic.
In 839, the Venetians engaged in an offenfive and 6
defenfive alliance againft the Saracens, with the Greek Venetian
emperor Michael, to whofe affiftance they fent a fleet
60 galleys. In an engagement which took place be- the Sara,
tween the allied fleets and that of the Saracens, the for - cens.
xner A-n. 839.
Venice.
Increafed
power of
the repub¬
lic.
An. 1084.
S
Take an
fades.
An. iop6.
YEN C 54+ 1
mer were completely defeated, and almoft all tlie Vene- arrived
tian galleys tvere either taken or deltroyed. On the
news of this defeat, the capital was thrown into the
greateft confternation, juftly dreading an attack from
the vi£lorious Saracens. This alarm, however, foon
lubhded, on finding that the barbarians had turned off
on the fide of Ancona. The city now became a prey
to internal diffenfion. Popular tumults were frequent,
and in one of thefe the doge was murdered. By the
prudent and vigorous adminiftration of a fucceeding
doge, Orfo Participato, good order was re-eftablifhed,
and at the commencement of the 10th century, the re¬
putation of the republic for military prowefs was much
advanced by a victory gained over the Huns, who had
invaded Italy, and defeated Berengarius.
Towards the clofe of the nth century, Venice be¬
gan to make a confiderable figure among the ftates of
Europe, having acquired the fovereignty of Dalmatia
and Croatia, with which in 1084 they were formally
invefted by the Conftantinopolitan emperor.
About this time a crufade, or holy war againfl: the
adtive part Saracens, was preached up by the emiflaries of the pope,
in the cru- and the Venetian republic engaged in the undertaking
with fuch ardour, as to equip a fleet of 200 fail, under
the command of the doge Vitalis Michael. Before he
failed for the coaft of Afia, however, the doge found it
neceffary to chaftife the Pifans, whom he defeated in a
terrible engagement. He then failed for Alkalon, at
that time befieged by the Chriftian forces, and it was
chiefly by his valour that that city, as well as Caipha
and Tiberias, fell into the hands of the Chriltians.
From thefe vidlories he was recalled to repel an invafion
of Dalmatia by the Normans, whom he alfo defeated,
carrying off confiderable booty. His fucceflor aflifted
Baldwin in the conquert of Ptolemais, but was defeat¬
ed and killed in attempting to quell a rebellion of the
Croatians.
Under the government of Domenico Micheli, who
fucceeded Ordelapho, the pope’s nuncio arrived at Ve¬
nice, and excited fuch a fpirit of enthufiafm among all
ranks and degrees of men, that they drove whofe names
fliould be firrt enrolled for the holy war. The doge,
having fitted out a fleet of 60 galleys, failed with it to Jop¬
pa, which place the Saracens were at that time befieging.
The garrifon was reduced to the laft extremity when
the Venetian fleet arrived, which furprifed and defeated
that of the enemy with great daughter} foon after w’hich
the Saracens raifed the fiege with precipitation. Tyre
was next befieged, and foon was obliged to capitulate }
on which occafion, as well as on the taking of Afcalon,
the Venetians fhared two-thirds of the fpoils. While
the doge wras abfent on thofe important affairs, the em¬
peror of Conftantinople, jealous of the growing power
of the Venetians, refolved to take advantage of their
apparent incapacity to refill an attack at home. The
Venetians, however, had timely notice of his approach,
and inllantly recalled the doge, who on his return laid
wafte and deftroyed the country round Chios, feized on
the illands of Sam®s, Lefbos, and Andros, then belong¬
ing to the emperor, and reduced fevetal places in Dal¬
matia which had revolted.
In 1173, the republic ventured to oppofe Frederick
Barbaroffa in his attack on the pope. Frederick, after
a haughty reply to an embaffy fent him ,by the Vene¬
tians, difpatched againff them his fon Otho, who foon
Venicei
'They gain
9
Difpute
with the
Greek env
peror,
10
and with
Barbaroffa
An. 1x73.
YEN
before the city with 75 galleys. The doge
Sebailiano Ziani failed out with the few veffels he had'
got equipped, to give the enemy battle. The fleets
met off the coaft of Iftria, and a terrible engagement
enfued, in which the imperial fleet was totally defeated,
Otho himfelf taken prifoner, and 48 of his Ihips de¬
ftroyed. On the doge’s return, the pope went out to
meet him, and prefented him with a ring, faying,
“ Take this, Ziani, and give it to the fea, as a teftimony
of your dominion over it. Let your fucceffors annually
perform the fame ceremony, that pofterity may know
that your valour has purchafed this prerogative, and
fubjefted this element to you, even as a hultand fub-
jefteth his wife.” Otho was treated with the refpedt
due to his rank, and foon conceived a great friendlhip
for Ziani. At laft, being permitted to vifit the impe¬
rial court, on his parole, he not only prevailed on his
father to make peace with the Venetians, but even to
vifit their city, fo famed for its commerce and naval
power. He was received with all poflible refpe<ff, and
on his departure attended to Ancona by the doge, the
fenate, and the whole body of the nobility. During
this journey he was reconciled to the pope } and both
agreed to pay the higheft honours to the doge and re¬
public.
In the beginning of the 13th century, the Venetians-
in conjundlion with the French, befieged and took Con-poffeffion of
ftantinople, as has been related under the article Con- Conftanti-
STANTINOrOLITAN HISTORY, N° I44 146, which ^
they held till the year 1261.
In the mean time the Genoefe, by their fucxefsful War with
application to commerce, having raifed themfelves in the Ge-
fuch a manner as to be capable of rivalling the Vene-noefe.
tians, a long feries of wars took place between the re¬
publics } in which the Venetians generally had the ad¬
vantage, though fometimes they met with terrible over¬
throws. Thefe expenfive and bloody quarrels undoubted¬
ly contributed to weaken the republic notwithftanding
its fucceffes. In the year 1348, however, the Genoefe An. 134?.
were obliged to implore the proteftion of Vifconti duke
of Milan, in order to fupport them againft their implaca¬
ble enemies the Venetians. Soon after this, in the year
1352, the latter w-ere utterly defeated with fuch lofs,
that it was thought the city itfelf muft have fallen into
the hands of the Genoefe, had they known how to im¬
prove their viflory. This was in a Ihort time followed
by a peace } but from this time the power of the repub¬
lic began to decline. Continual war with the ftates of
Italy, with the Hungarians, and their own rebellious
fubjefts, kept the Venetians employed, fo that they had
no leifure to oppofe the Turks, whofe rapid advances
might have alarmed all Europe. After the deftruftion
of the eaftern empire, however, in 1453 t^ie Turks be¬
gan more immediately to interfere with the republic.
Whatever valour might be (hewn by the Venetians, or
whatever fucceffes they might boaft of, it is certain the
Turks ultimately prevailed ; fo that for fome time it
feemed fcarcely poflible to refill them. What alfo con¬
tributed greatly to the decline of the republic, was the
difcovery of a paffage to the Eaft Indies by the Cape of
Good Hope in 1497. Till then the greateft part of the
Eaft India goods imported into Europe paffed through
the hands of the Venetians ; but as loon as the Cape was
difcovered, the conveyance by the way of Alexandria al-
moft entirely ceafed. Still, however, the Venetian
power
V E N [ 545 ] v E N
Veiiice.
13
Oppoted by
the league
of Cam-
bray.
An. 150S.
14
New wars
with the
Turks.
An. 1645.
The Vene¬
tians con¬
quer the
IVlorea;
An. 1687.
* See Mod.
Univ. Hi/t.
Vol. xxvii.
power was ftrong ; and in the beginning of the 16th
century they maintained a war againft almoft the whole
force of France, Germany, and Italy, affociated againll
them in what has been called the League of Cambraij.
Soon after, however, we find them entering into an
alliance with the king of France againft the emperor.
After this, nothing of importance occurs in the hif-
tory of the Venetian republic till the year 1645, when
the republic wTas involved in a new and fanguinary con-
Hi61: with the Turks, in defence of the important ifland
of Candia. The tranfa&ions to which this war gave rife,
and the fpirit and bravery difplayed by the Venetians, in
defending their colonial poffeffions, are amply detailed
under the article Candia.
- At the end of the 17th century, the Venetians ob¬
tained an important acquifition of territory by the con-
queft of the Morea, which at the peace of Carlowitz
in 1699, was formally ceded by Turkey to the ftate of
Venice *.
During the wrar of the Succeflion, the ftates of Venice
obferved a ftridf neutrality. They confidered that dif-
pute as unconnedied with their interefts j taking care,
how'ever, to keep on foot an army on their frontiers in
Italy, of fufficient force to make them refpedled bv the
belligerent powers. But foon after the peace of U-
trecht, the Venetians were again attacked by their old
^ enemies the Turks, who beholding the great European
■which is powers exhaufted by their late efforts, and unable to af-
foon after hft the republic, thought this the favourable moment
reftored to for recovering the Morea, which had been fo lately ra-
An^i^x frorifi them. The Turks obtained their objedl,
n' I715' and at the peace of Paffarowitz in 1715, which termi¬
nated this unfuccefsful wrar, the Venetian ftates yielded
up the Morea j the grand feignior on his part reftoring
to them the fmall iflands of Cerigo and Cerigetto, with
fome places which his troops had taken during the
t courfe of the war in Dalmatia.
The f/ate From the peace of Paffarowitz to the conclufion of
of Venice tbe 18th century, the affairs of Venice ceafed to form
becomes a an interefting part of the hiftory of Europe. Ever fince
AuftriiT °f t^e !ea§ue Cambray, the republic, weakened by its
continual ftruggles with Turkey, had declined in power
and in confequence, and was incapable of oppofing a
barrier to the encroachments of its more powerful neigh¬
bours. During the firft war which the French republic
maintained againft the emperor in Italy, the ftates of
Venice afforded a tempting objeft to each of the con-
An. 1797- tending parties •, and in May 1797, the capital was oc¬
cupied by a body of French troops, who, under pretence
of quelling a tumult that had arifen in the city, took
poffeffion of the forts, and fubverted the exifting autho¬
rities. By the treaty of Campo Formio, concluded be¬
tween the emperor and the French republic in Oftober
of the fame year, the French confented that the em¬
peror Ihould take poffeffion of the Venetian territory,
with the iflands in the Archipelago, which had been
fubjefted to the Venetian republic 5 and by the fubfe-
fluent treaty of Luneville in 1801, this acceffion of ter¬
ritory to the houfe of Auftria was confirmed, fo that
l8 the Venetian republic muft now be confidered as an
Conftitu- Auftrian province.
tion, go- It is not neceffary for us to be very minute in our ac-
Scc^oFthe C0un^ ^ie ^ate cor>ftitution and government of Venice,
late tepu-C .^e government was ftri&ly ariftocratical, being veiled
bJic. in the great council or fenate, in which each of the nobi-
Vol. XX. Part II.
lity had a feat. The nobility were extremely numerous,
being computed at not fewer than 2000, whereas the
whole population of the ftate did not exceed 2,500,000.
Befides the great council, or il conjig/io grande, there
were four others j one compofed of the doge and fix
counfellors, called la fgnorta ; another called il cotifiglio
du pregodi, confifting of about 250 of the nobility j a
third united to la fgnoria, confifting of 28 affeffors, or
great fages, which gave audience to ambafladors; and a
fourth, compofed of 10 counfellors, who took cogni--
zance of all criminal matters, and before whom even
the doge himfelf muft appear, if accufed. The fecret
bufinefs of the ftate was often carried on by fpies and in¬
formers ; and there were in the ducal palace feveral fta-
tues of lions with open mouths, which formed fo many
receptacles for fecret and anonymous information.
The office and privileges of the doge of Venice have
been already mentioned under the article Doge. Of
late this office was little more than nominal; and the
doge was a mere ftate puppet, without authority and
without power. His eftablilhment, however, was fplen-
did, and his revenue not contemptible. The mode of
ele&ing the doge deferves notice, as it was well calcu¬
lated to prevent bribery, or the exertion of party influ¬
ence. He was ele&ed by a plurality of voices, and held
his dignity for life. In his eleftion they made ufe of
gold and filver balls, which were put into a veffel, and
lerved for balloting. Thofe who drew nine golden
balls, firft defied 40 counfellors, who drew 12 others,
and defied 25 in addition. Of this number nine per-
fons, who had drawn golden balls, chofe 40 more j 1 r
of thofe, appointed in the fame way, chofe 41 counfel-
lors, who finally proceeded to the eleflion, till 25 votes
or more fell upon the fame perfon, who was then de¬
clared doge. After this deftion they placed the ducal
cap upon his head, upon which he took poffeflion of
the doge’s palace. He never uncovered his head to any
perfon, becaufe he did not wrear the cap in his own name,
but in that of the republic.
The military ftrength of the Venetians confifted of
nearly 30,000 land forces, under the command of a ca-
pitano, who was always a foreigner of diftinflion 5 be¬
fides a confiderable fleet, which they boafted could, in
time of war, be increafed to 60 men of war, and above
100 galleys. The ordinary revenues of the ftate have
been computed at rather more than i,oco,oool. fterling,
a confiderable part of which arofe from the cuftoms, and
the du y on fait made at Corfu and Chiofa.
Venice, the city which was the feat of government
of the Venetian republic, is built on 72 fmall iflands at
the head of the Adriatic or gulf of Venice, about five
miles from the main land. That part of the gulf which
lies between the city and the continent forms a kind of
laguna or lake, which, at low water, is very fliallow,
and on the oppofite fide of the iflands there are nume¬
rous (hallows, the channels between which are marked
by flakes, to direft (hips in entering the port. The la-
gunes that lie between the iflands form fo many canals
that interfe£l the city in all dire&ions, and over tliefe
the ftreets communicate by not fewer than 500 bridges.
The principal or great canal is broad, and has a ferpen-
tine courie through the middle of the city, but the
others are narrow and crooked. The ftreets are alio
narrow and winding, but clean and neat. The houfes
are built on piles, and have each a door opening to the
3 2 adjacent
Venice.
YEN [ 546 ] YEN
'Venice adjacent canal, and another to the ftreet. As the nar-
Venti'l itor rownc^s ftree,-s but ill adapts them for walking in,
i ^ the only places of refort on land are the Rialto, a noble
bridge acrofs the great canal, bordered with booths and
(hops, and the great fquare of St Mark, or Piazza di
St Marco, an irregular quadrangle, formed of feveral
buildings, fume of which are magnificent. Of thefe,
the ducal palace, where the bufinefs of the flate ufed to
be tranfatted j the patriarchal church of St Mark ; the
fteeple of St Mark, at a little diitance from the church ;
the church of St Geminiano; and the new and old
Procuraries, are molt deferving the notice of travellers.
JLtie canals form the great medium of communication,
as well as the principal fcene of relaxation and amufe-
ment to the inhabitants. Here ply numerous gondolas,
(fee Gondola, and AlacgilPs Travels, vol. i.) which
are rowed with admirable fpeed and dexterity by the
gondoliers ^ and here are occafxonaliy held races, or ra¬
ther rowing matches. As the canals are, of neceflity,
the receptacles of all the filth of the city, they become,
in hot weather, very cffenfn e ; while, in winter, from
their free communication with the gulf, they are fre¬
quently agitated by the Adriatic itorms. The whole
city is about fix miles in circumference, and the inhabi¬
tants are eflimated at 160,000.
The inhabitants of Venice carried on a flourifhing
trade in fiik manufactures, gold lace, mirrors and other
articles of glafs, befides military Itores and implements
of war. At lome diftance from the city there is a laige
and commodious lazaretto, where (hips coming from the
Levant unload their goods, and perform quarantine
from 20 to 40 days.
This celebrated city, once the feat of power, opu¬
lence and the fine arts, whofe carnival revelries have
been the fubjedt of fo many animated deferiptions, has
undergone a melancholy change. Her fireets and ca¬
nals no longer refound with the drains of the mufician
and the ferenades of watchful lovers, and her gay gon¬
dolas, which were formerly occupied by faihionable
groups and parties of pleafure, are now become the ve¬
hicles of trade, or ferve for the accommodation of the
foldier and the mechanic. The trade of the citv, which
had long declined, has, fince the ceffion of the Venetian
territory to Aufiria, been almoft entirely transferred to
Triefte. Venice is 72 miles E. by N. of Mantua ; 115
N. E. of Florence ; 140 E. of Milan ; 212 N. of Rome,
and 300 N. by W. of Naples. E. Long. 1 20 33k N.
Lat. 450 26'.
VENIRE FACIAS, in Law, is a judicial writ lying
where two parties plead and come to ifiue, direfted to
the fherift, to caufe 12 men of the fame neighbourhood
to meet and try the fame, and to fay the truth upon the
ilTue taken.
VENTER, fignifies the belly ; but it is alfo ufed for
the children by a woman of one marriage : there is in
law a firft and fecond venter, &.c. where a man hath
child ren by feveral wives j and how they (hall take in
defeents of lands.
VENTILATOR, a machine by which the noxious
air of any clofe place, as an hofpital, gaol, fiiip, cham¬
ber, $cc. may be dilcharged and changed for freih.
The noxious qualities of bad air have been long
known •, and no one has taken greater pains to fet the
mifehiefs arifing from foul air in a juft light than Dr
Hales) who has alfa propofed an eafy and effectual re¬
medy by the ufe of his ventilators} his account of which VefitiLtor.
was read to the Royal Society in May 1741. In the v*—
November following M. Triewald, military archileft to
the king of Sweden, informed Dr Mortimer fecretary to
the RoyJ Society, that he had in the preceding fpring
invented a machine for the u e of his majefty’s men of
war, in order to draw out the bad air from under their
decks, the leaft of which exhaufted 36,i72cubic feet
in an hour, or at tne rate of 21,732 tons in 24 hours.
In 1742 he fent one of them, formed for a 60 gun fliip
to France j which was approved of by the Royal Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris } and the king of France or¬
dered all the men of war to be furniftied with the like
ventilators.
The ventilators invented by Dr Hales confift of a plate
fquare box ABCD (fig. 1.) of any fize ; in the middle DXLIY.
ol one fide oi this box a broad partition or midriff is fix- Gg. r.
ed by ninges A, and it moves up and down from A to
C, by means of an iron rod ZR, fixed at a proper di¬
ftance from the other end of the midriff, and palling
through a fnaall hole in the cover of the box up to R.
I wo boxes of this kind may be employed at once, and
the two iron rods may be fixed to a lever FG (fig. 2.) p;^
moving on a fixed centre O } fo that by the alternate
railing and preffing down of the lever FG, the midrifts
are alio alternately railed and depreffed, whereby theie
double bellows are at the fame time both drawing in air,
and pouring it, out, through apertures with valves made
on the fame fide with, and placed both above and be¬
low the hinges of the midriffs. In order to render the
midriffs light, they are made of four bars lengthwife,
and as many acrofs them breadthwife, the vacant fpaces
being filled up with thin pannels of fir-board ; and that
they may move to and fro with the greater eafe, and
without touching the fides of the boxes, there is an iron
regulator fixed upright to the middle of the end of the
box AC (fig. 1.) from N to L, with a notch cut into
the middle of the end of the midriff at Z 3 fo that the
midriffs, in rifing and falling, fuffer no other friftion
than what is made between the regulator and the notch.
Moreover, as the midriff ZX moves with its edges only
one-twentieth of an inch from the fides of the box
ABCDFE, very little air will elcape by the edges ;
and, therefore, there will be no need of leathern fides as
in the common bellows. The end of the box at AC is
made a little circular, that it may be better adapted
between A and C to the rifing and failing midriff j and
at the other end X of the midriff a flip of leather may
be nailed over the joints if needful. The eight large
valves through which the air is to pafs, are placed at
the hinge-end of the boxes BK (fig. 2.) as at 1, 2, 3,
&c. The valve 1 opens inward to admit the air to
enter, when the midriff is depreffed at the other end
by means of the lever FG. And at the fame time the
valve 3 in the lower ventilator is ftiut by the cempreffed
air which paffes out at the valve 4. But when that
midriff is raifed, the valve 1 (huts, and the air paffes
cut at the valve 2. And it is the fame with the valves
5, 6, &c. of the other box } fo that the midriffs are al¬
ternately lifing and falling, and two of the ventilators
drawing in air, and two blowing it out } the air enter¬
ing at the valves 1, 3. 6, 8, and paffing out at the valves
2, 4. 5, 7. Before theie laft valves there is fixed to the
ventilators a box QQNM (fig. 3.) as a common recep- Fig. 3,
tacle for all the air which comes out of thefe valves}
which
V E N
Veni ! ttor vvliicli air paiTes off hy tl'.e trunk P, through the wall
it ot a building. See Defcription of Ventilators by Ste-
■ Ve^lv , phen Hales, D. D. Lond. 1743, 8vo. 5 and for the me¬
thod ol freeing mines, (hips, pnfons, &c. from noxious
air by means of fire-pipes, fee Pneumatics, N° 371.
Vf.NTRJ btfpiclendo, is a writ to fearch a woman that
faith (he is with child, and thereby withholdeth lands
from the next heir : the trial whereof is by a jury of
women.
VENTRICLE, properly denotes any little cavity j
but is more particularly/ufed by phyficians and anato-
tnilts for the itomach and .certain cavities of the heart
and brain.
VENTRILOQUISM, an art by which certain
perfons can fo modify their voice, as to make it ap¬
pear to the audience to proceed from any diftance, and
in any dire&ion. See Physiology Index.
VENUS, in Pagan wmrftiin, the goddefs of love and
beauty. Cicero mentions two other deities of this name.
Venus, flyled Urania and Celeflix; and the Venus Pan-
Vemos or Popuiaris, the wife of Vulcan, and the god¬
defs of wanton and effeminate love. To the firft the
Pagans afcribed no attributes but fuch as were agree¬
able to the ftrifteff challity and virtue ; and of this dei¬
ty they admitted, no corporeal refemblance, (he being
only rcprefented by the form of a globe, ending coni¬
cally. Her facrinces were termed nephalin, on account
of their fobriety. To her honey and wine were offered,
and no animal except the heifer; and on her altars the
wood of figs, vines, or mulberries, was not fuffered to
be burnt. The Romans dedicated a temple to this god¬
defs, to whom they gave the name of Verticordia; be-
raufe (he turned the hearts of lewd W’omen, and infpired
them with modefty and virtue.
Eut the mort famous of thefe goddeffes is the wife of
Vulcan ; wrho is reprefented as fpringing from the froth
raifed by the genitals of Saturn, when cut off by Jupi¬
ter and thrown into the fea. As (bon as (he was form¬
ed, (he was laid in a beautiful (hell embelliihed with
pearl, and wafted hy gentle zephyrs to the ifle of Cy-
therea, whence (he failed to Cyprus. At her landing,
flowers rofe beneath her feet ; (lie was received by the
Hours, who braided her hair with golden fillets ; and
then wafted her to heaven, where her charms appeared
fo attractive, that mo(t of the gods defired her in mar¬
riage ; but Vulcan, by the advice of Jupiter, gained
poffefiion by putting poppies into her neftar. As Ve¬
nus was the goddefs of love and pleafure, the poets have
been lavith in the defcription of her beauties ; and the
painters and ffatuaries have endeavoured to give her
the moll lovely form. Sometimes (lie is reprefented
clothed in purpk, glittering with gems, her head
crowned with rofes, and drawn in an ivory car by
fwans, doves, or fparrows ; at others (lie (lands attend¬
ed by the Graces ; but in all pofitions, her fon Cupid
is her infeparable companion. She was honoured as
the mother of Hymeneus, Cupid, Aeneas, and the
Graces, and was paflionately fond of Adonis and An-
chifes.
This goddefs was principally worfhipped at Paphos
and Cyprus; and the facrifices offered to her were white
goats and fwine, with libations of wine, milk, and honev.
Her victims were crowned with flowers, or wreaths of
myrtle.
V E R
Venus, one of the planets. See Astronomy In¬
dex.
Venus's Fly-trap. See D ION ALA Mufcipula, Bota¬
ny Index.
Venus, a genus of (hcli-fith. See Conchology In¬
dex.
VEPRECULTE, diminutive from vepres, “ a briar
or bramble” ; the name of the 31ft order in Linnseus’s
Fragments of a Natural Method. See Botany Index,
VERA-Cruz, a fea-port town of North America,
New Spain, with a very fecure and commodious har¬
bour, defended by a fort. Here the flotilla annually
arrives from Spain to receive the produce of the gold
and filver mines of Mexico ; and at the fame time a
fair is held here for all manner of rich merchandife
brought from China and the Eaft Indies by way of the
South fea, and for the merchandife of Europe by the way
of the Atlantic ocean. This town is not two miles in
circumference ; and about it there is a wall of no great
ftrength on the land-fide. The air is unwholefome ;
and there are very few Spaniards here unlefs when
the flotilla arrives, and then it is crowded with people
from all parts of Spanilh America. It is 200 miles
fouth-eaft of Mexico. W. Long. 37, 25. N. Lat. 19.
\2.
VERAGUA, a province of New Spain, bounded on
the eait by that of Colla Rica, on the weft by Pana¬
ma, on the north by Darien and the gulf of Mexico,
and on the fouth by the South fea. It is about 125
miles in length from eaft to weft, and 60 in breadth
from north to fouth. It is a mountainous barren coun¬
try ; but has plenty of gold and ftlver. Conception is
the capital town.
VERATRUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs polygamia, and in the natural fyilem arranged un¬
der the 10th order, Coronarnv. See Botany and Ma¬
teria Medica Index.
VERB, in Gramtnar. See Grammar, chap. iv.
VERBASCUM, a genus of plants of the clafs pent-
■andria, and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
28th order, Luridce. See Botany Index.
VERBENA, a genus of plants of the clafs of dian-
dria, and in the natural fyftem arranged under the goth
order, Perfonatte. See Botany Index.
VERD, Cape, a promontory on the weft coaft of
Africa, 40 miles north-weft of the mouth of the river
Gambia. W. Long. 17. 38. N. Lat. 14. 45.
The iflands of Cape de Verd are feated in the Atlan¬
tic ocean, about 400 miles weft of the Cape. They are
between the 13 th and 19th degree of latitude ; and the
principal are 10 in number, lying in a femicircle. Their
names are, St Antony, St Vincent, St Lucia, St Nicholas,
the i/le of Sal, Bona Vijla, Mayo, St Jago, Fuego, and
Brava.
VERDICT (Vere dicium), is the anfwer of the jury
given to the court concerning the matter of fact, in any
cafe civil or criminal, committed by the court to their
trial and examination. See Law, N0 clxxxvi. ci. and
Trial.
VERDIGRISE, the acetate of copper, much ufed
by painters as a green colour. See Copper, Chemi¬
stry Index.
VERDITER, or VerdateR, a preparation of cop¬
per, fomelimes ufed by painters, &c. for a blue ;
3 Z 2 but
[ 547 ]
Veaar
il
Verditcr.
V E R [ 548 ] V E R
but more ufually mixed with a yellow for a green co¬
lour. See Copper, Chemistry Index, and Colour-
Making, N° 28.
VERGE (Virgata), in Law, fignifies the compafs of
the king’s court, which bounds the jurifdiftion of the
lord Reward of the houfehold ; and which is thought to
have been 12 miles round.
The term verge is alfo ufed for a Rick or rod, where¬
by one is admitted tenant to a copyhold eflate, by hold¬
ing it in his hand, and fwearing fealty to the lord of the
manor.
VERGERS, certain officers of the courts of king’s
bench and common pleas, whofe bufinefs it is to carry
white wands before the judges. There are alfo vergers
of cathedrals, who carry a rod tipped with River before
the biffiop, dean, &c.
VERGIL, Polydore. See Virgil.
VERJUICE, a liquor obtained from grapes or apples,
unfit for wine or cyder j and chiefly ufed in fauces, ra¬
gouts, &c.
VERMES, the fixth clafs of animals in the Lin-
naean fyflem, comprehending five orders. See Natu¬
ral History, and Conchology and Helmintholo¬
gy Index.
VERMICELLI, or Vermichelly, a compofition
of flour, cheefe, yolks of eggs, fugar, and faffron, redu¬
ced to a pafle, and formed into long Render pieces like
worms, by forcing it with a pifion through a number of
little holes. It was firfl brought from Italy j and is
chiefly ufed in foups and pottages.
VERMICULAR, an epithet given to any thing that
bears a relation or refemblance to w'orms.
VERMIFORMIS, in Anatomy, a term applied to va¬
rious parts in the human body, bearing fome refemblance
to w irms.
VERMILION, a bright and beautiful red colour,
compofed of quickfilver and fulphur, in great efleem
among the ancients under the name of minium. See
Chemistry, N° 1701, and 1713; but what goes by
the name of minium amongfl us, is a preparation of lead,
known alfo by the name of red-lead. See Chemistry,
N° 1832.
VERMIN is a general term, denoting thofe animals
which are either direftly or indireflly injurious to man¬
kind, the inferior animals, or the fruits of the earth ; as
fleas, caterpillars, flies, worms, &c.
Vermin, DeJlruBion of. As we propofe in this article
to point out the means of deflroyirfg fome of thofe ani¬
mals that are hurtful or troublefome to man, we ffiall
employ the term vermin, in a more extended fenfe, in¬
cluding alfo under it, mice, rats, moles, &c. We ffiall
endeavour to colleft the moR ufeful obfervations that
have been made on the means of diminifliing or extir¬
pating fuch animals as are obvioufly injurious. We
cannot avoid here remarking, that although the feem-
ingly exceffive increafe of one fpecies of animals is hurt¬
ful or inconvenient to another, or to man himfelf, and
their exiflence is attended with great lofs and damage,
by their infeRing and deflroying grains and other fruits
of the earth deRined for the food of man or thofe ani¬
mals that are fubfervient to him $ we are not of opinion
that this excefs ought to be confidered merely as a
ufelefs excrefcence in the great fcale of being $ nor are we
of opinion that their numbers ought not to be reduced,
becaufe we are too ffiort-fighted to comprehend the wife
purpofes for which they are called into life. We have Vermin,
heard fuch a doftrine held up, although we are inclined
to fufpedt that it is founded on a love of Angularity or
indolence, rather than proceeding from pure motives of
benevolence. But we muR abRain from fuch difcuf-
fions, and occupy the limits allotted to the proper fubjcft
of confideration.
Rats and Mice.—Various methods have been propof-
ed for the deflru&ion of thefe vermin. The following
preparation has been recommended as very effedlual.
Take of the feeds of Ravefacre (delphinium Jlaphifagria'),
or of loufewort (pedicularis palufris), powdered, more
or lefs as the occafion requires, one part; of oat meal,
three parts : mix them well, and make them up into a
pafle with honey. Lay pieces of this pafle in the holes,
and on the places wffiere mice and rats frequent 5 and it
will effeftually kill or rid the places of thofe kind of
vermin by their eating of it.
Some time ago the fociety for encouraging arts pro-
pofed a premium of 50I. for a preparation capable of
alluring or fafeinating rats fo that they might be taken
alive. In confequence of this, a great number of new
traps, &c. were invented, and the following methods of
alluring the rats to a certain place were publiflied. One
of the methods which is moft eafily and efficacioufly
praftifed, is the trailing of fome pieces of their moR fa¬
vourite food, which ffiould be of the kind which has the
flrongefl feent, fuch as toafled cheefe or boiled red her¬
rings, from the holes or entrances of the clofet to their
receffes in every part of the houfe or contiguous build¬
ing. At the extremities and at different parts of the
courfe of this trailed track, fmall quantities of meal, or
any other kind of their food, fliould be laid to bring
the greater number into the tracks, and to encourage
them to purfue it to the place where they are intended
to be taken ; at that place, when time admits of it, a
more plentiful repafl is laid for them, and the trailing
repeated for two or three nights.
Befides this trailing and way-baiting, fome of the
moft expert of the rat-catchers have a ffiorter, and per¬
haps more effeftual method of bringing them together j
which is the calling them, by making fuch a whiffling
noife as refembles their own call $ and by this means,
with the affiftance of the way-baits, they call them out
of their holes, and lead them to the repaR previoufly
prepared for them at the places defigned for taking
them. But this is much more difficult to be praftifed
than the art of trailing j for the learning of the exa£l
notes or cries of any kind of bcafts or birds, fo as to
deceive them, is a peculiar talent which is attained only
by few.
In praflifing either of thofe methods of trailing or
calling, great caution mufl be ufed by the operator to
fupprefs and prevent the feent of his feet and body from
being perceived j which is done by overpowering that
feent, by other (cents of a ftronger nature. In order
to do this, the feet are to be covered with cloths
rubbed over with afafoetida, or other ftrong fmelling
fubftances j and even oil of rhodium is fometimes ufed
for this purpofe, but fparingly, on account of its high
price, though it has a very alluring as well as difgufting
effeft. If this caution of avoiding the feent of the ope¬
rators feet, near the track, and in the place where the
rats are propofed to be collefled, be not properly ob-
ferved, it will very much obftruft the fuccefs of the at¬
tempt
V E R
tempt to take them ; for they are very fhy of coming
where the fcent of human feet lies very frefti, as it inti¬
mates to their fagacious inftin£t the prefence of human
creatures, whom they naturally dread. To the above-
mentioned means of alluring by trailing, vyay-baiting
and calling, is added another of very material efficacy,
which is the ufe of oil of rhodium, which like the marum
fyriacum and valerian in the cafe of cats, has a very ex¬
traordinary fafcinating power on thefe animals. This oil,
as it is extremely dear, is therefore fparingly ufed. It is
exalted in a fmall quantity in the place, and at the en¬
trance of it, where the rats are intended to be taken,
particularly at the time when they are to be laft brought
together, in order to their deftruftion 5 and it is ufed
alfo by fmearing it on the furface of fome of the imple¬
ments ufed in taking by the method below defcribed j
and the effeft it has in taking off their caution and
dread, by the delight they appear to have in it, is very
extraordinary.
It is ufual, likewife, for the operator to difguife his
figure as well as fcent, which is done by putting a fort
of gown or cloak, of one colour, that hides the natural
form, and makes him appear like a poll, or fome fuch
inanimate thing, which habit muft likewife be fcented
as above, to overpower the fmell of his perfon •, and be¬
tides this, he is to avoid all motion till he has fecured
his point of having all the rats in his power.
When the rats are thus enticed and collected, where
time is afforded, and the whole in any houfe and out¬
buildings are to he cleared away, they are fuffered to
regale on what they moft like, which is ready prepared
for them, and then to go away quietly for two or three
nights ; by which means thofe that are not allured the
firft night, are brought afterwards, either by their fel¬
lows, or the effects of the trailing, &c. and will not
fail to come duly again, if they are not difturbed or
molefted. But many of the rat-catchers make ffiorter
work, and content themfelves with wffiat can be brought
together in one night; but this is never effe&ual, unlefs
where the building is fmall and entire, and the rats but
few in number.
The means of taking them when brought together are
various. Some entice them into a very large bag, the
mouth of which is fufficiently capacious to cover nearly
the whole floor of the place where they are colle&ed ;
which is done by fmearing fome veffel, placed in the
middle of the bag, with oil of rhodium, and laying in
the bag baits of food. This bag, which before lay flat
on the ground with the mouth fpread open, is to be
fuddenly clofed when the rats are all in. Others drive
or frighten them, by flight noifes or motions into a bag of
a long form, the mouth of which, after all the rats are
come in, is drawn up to the opening of the place by
which they entered, all other ways of retreat being fe¬
cured. Others, again, intoxicate or poifon them, by
mixing with the repaft prepared for them, the coculus
indicus, or the nux vomica. They direft four ounces
of coculus indicus. with 12 ounces of oatmeal, and two
ounces of treacle or honey, made into a moilt pafte
with ftrong beer-, but if the nux vomica be ufed, a
much lefs proportion will ferve than is here given of the
coculus. Any fimilar compofition of thefe drugs, with
that kind of food the rats are moft fond of, and wffiich
has a ftrong flavour to hide that of the drugs, will
equally anfwer the end. If indeed caculus indicus
V E R
be well powdered, and infufed in ftrong beer for fome Vermin,
time, at leaft half the quantity here direfted will ferve "V--
as well as the quantity before mentioned. When the
rats appear to be thoroughly intoxicated with the cocu¬
lus, or fick with the nux vomica, they may be taken
with the hand and put into a bag or cage, the door of
the place being firft ftiut, left thofe who have ftrength
and lenfe remaining ffiould efcape.
In deftroying rats, advantage may be taken of that
remarkable degree of inftinft which they poffefs of de-
ferting one place, where they find themfelves difturbed
or haraffed, and retiring to new haunts. It is well
known, that after one or two rats are poifoned, or ta¬
ken in traps, or wounded or otherwife injured, and af¬
terwards permitted to efcape, the whole colony immedi¬
ately difappears. The praftice, however, of deftroying
rats that frequent dwelling-houfes, by poifon, fhould be
as much as poflible avoided; for they retire to places
behind the wainfcot, &c. from which, after death, their
putrid bodies emitting a moft offenfive fmell cannot be
removed. But it is far lefs difficult than is generally
imagined to fecure the different apartments of a dwell¬
ing houfe, and even the cellars, from the inroads of rats
and mice, and thus to prevent their unwelcome vifits,
by {hutting up the paffages through which they enter.
Stone and lime, when they can be applied, are effec¬
tual j but common plafter, by introducing pieces of
broken pottery ware or glafs, along with it, will alfo
anfwer the purpofe ; and even a piece of cork, with a
pin or two ftuck through it to prevent them from eating
it away, is a complete barrier to mice entering through
a hole in wrood, and may even prevent the entrance of
rats.
We have feen this method of (hutting up the holes, as
foon as they were opened by the induftry of the enemy,
fteadily purfued for fome time, attended with the fulleft
fuccefs, even in an old houfe of confiderable extent, and
finiffied from top to bottom with wood, fome of which
was much decayed.
Often for the fake of food, rats and mice frequent
gardens, fields, and woods, in the fummer feafon j but,
on the approach of winter, they return to their former
haunts in the habitations of man ; and, accordingly, it
is obferved, that houfes which are free from thofe ver¬
min during the fummer, fwarm with them about the
end of harveft. Attention to this circumftance in the
habits of thefe arymals, may be the means of fecuring-
us from their vifits and depredations ; for if, at the time
alluded to, every hole and cranny through which rat or
moufe can enter, be fhut up, and carefully kept clofe
and fecure, the perfeverance of the foe is exhaufted and
overcome by repeated and conftant refiftance, and thus
he is forced to abandon the unequal conteft, and to re¬
tire to other haunts where his motions are lefs inter¬
rupted.
Vanous other methods have been propofed for the
deftruftion of rats; and although we have thrown out
a hint again ft the ufe of arfenic for this purpofe, in
dw'dling houfes; yet wffiere it can be employed with
perfect fafety, and without rifk of the nuifance alluded
to, as in cellars and outhoufes, it is undoubtedly one of'
the moft effeftual to which we can have recourfe.
Suffocating thefe vermin by means of the fumes of
fulphur, as on board of ftiips, in granaries and other
buildings which can be fliut up, is fometimes alfo fuc-
cefsfully.'
[ 549 1
V E R t 5.
cefsfully pra&ifed. Rats and other vermin have alfo
been effettually deftroyed and eradicated by burning
wood in clofe apartments, thus producing fixed air or
carbonic acid gas, by which they are alfo fuffocated.
Moles.—Various methods have been propofed for
the deltruftion of thefe animals. But the following ob-
fervations on this iubjeft, which we mall give in the
words of the author, feem to be more fatisfadtory than
any thing we have met with.
“ The great damage (fays he) which moles occafion
in cultivated land, and particularly gardens, is well
known } and the bed means of remedying this evil is by
dedroying all tlrofe that make their appearance, as far
poflible. The iecrets which quacks fell for extirpating
thefe dedrudfive animals are of very little avail j and
even poifon produces no effedf, as the mole does not
drink, and lives only on roots and worms. In regard
to gins and traps, the moles mud be enticed to them by
iome kind of bait, which does not always produce the
intended effedf. Buffon advices a trench to be dug a-
round the hills under which they conceal themfelves,
and thus to cut them off from all communication udih
the neighbouring ground. This method requires three
or four people to dig trenches •, and though it may prove
effedfual, it is attended with too much trouble. The
other methods propofed by different naturalids are nei¬
ther eafier nor more certain.
“ It is wrell known that this animal lives under the
earth ; and it at any time it comes forth from its holes,
it is only when compelled to do fo, in confequence of
large quantities of water accumulated after the heavy
rains which fall in fummer, or when the earth is fo much
parched and dried by the continued drought, that it can
no longer continue its labour ; but it again creeps back
into the earth when it finds a fpot convenient for its pur-
pofe.
“ This animal, as already remarked, feeds upon roots
and worms, and for this reafon is generally found in rich
fertile foil; but never in that which is marfhy or flony.
In the winter time it retires to elevated places, becaufe
it is there beft fecured from inundations. In fummer,
h6wrever, it defeends to the low hillocks and flat land,
and above all makes choice of meadows for the place of
its refidence ; becaufe it finds the earth there frefher and
fofter for it to dig through. If the w’eather continues
long dry, it repairs to the borders of ditches, the banks
of rivers and ftreams, and to places contiguous to hedges.
“ The mole breeds generally at the beginning of win¬
ter, and the months when they are found big with young
are January and February. In the month of April a
great many cf their young may be feen. Among 122
caught in the month of May by my method, there rvere
only four big with young. This animal cannot live
without digging ; it is obliged to find its nourifhment
in the bowrls of the earth ■, and on that account is un¬
der the necefl'ity of making thofe long fubterranean paf-
fages which are found between one mole-hill and ano¬
ther. In general it begins to dig five or fix inches un¬
der the forface *, it ferapes the earth before it on one fide
till the quantity becomes too great for it to labour with
cafe ; it then works towards the furface ; and by pufh-
ing with its head, and the affiftance of its nervous paws,
gradually raifes up the earth which incommodes it, and
which produces thofe fmall hills fo common in fields.
After getting rid of the earth in this manner, it pro-
3
o ] V E R
ceeds forwards, and continues its labour as before. The
farther it goes the more hills are produced. At each
period of its labour it throw s up four or five.
“ In places overgrown with grafsand fhrubs, the mole
is often contented with only forcing a paffage through
between the roots ; and when the earth in gardens has
been newly watered, it keeps ilfelf at the depth of
fcarcely half an inch under the furface. This animal
flhews an equal averfion to great cold and violent heat j
and in order to avoid both, it forces its way, when either
prevail, to the greateft depth in the earth.
“ It continues its labour at all times, becaufe it is ne-
ceffary for it to procure nourifhment. It is abfolutely
falfe that it fleeps throughout the winter, as fame natu-
ralifts have aflertcd ; for it throw's up the earth in the
coldeft feafon, as well as during the fummer. It is moff
bulily employed towards the end of winter, and at that
period forms the greateft number of hills. To this it is
impelled by more than one reafon. In the full place, it
muft provide nourifhment for its young ; fecondly, it
finds it eafieft at that time to dig its way through the
earth ; and laftly, as the air begins to be milder, the
animal then recovers that ftrength w'hich it had loft dur¬
ing the intenfe cold. At this feafon, therefore, it is meft
proper to purfue means for extirpating this animal, as it
can be deftroyed with greater eafe while employed at its
labour.
“ The male is much ftronger than the female, and the
hills thrown up by the former are much larger as u'ell
as more numerous. The periods when the mole is moft
bufily employed in digging are in the morning, at fun-
rife, at noon, and at funfet. In dry weather moles are
obferved to throw up the earth for the moft part only at
funrife, and in winter when the earth has been fome-
what heated by the fun’s rays.
“ A perfon may eafily difeover how many moles are
contained in a certain {’pace of ground, by counting the
frefh railed mole hills which have no communication
with each other. I muft remark alfo, that this animal
has very bad fight, being almoft totally blind ; but its
hearing, on the other hand, is fo much the more acute.
“ I fhall now proceed to the method of deflroying
them. Immediately at day-break it will be necelfary to
make a tour round the garden or meadow, from which
it is wifhed to extirpate the moles 5 for at that time they
will be all found at work, as may be feen by the hills
newly thrown up. If the perfon is then clofe to the hill,
he muft proceed as the gardeners do, and turn up with
a ftroke of the fpade the hill together with the digger.
The paffage is then cut through before the animal Ls a-
v'are of the attack, and therefore it has not porver to
efcape. If the mole-hill be frelh, even though the ani¬
mal may not be throwing up earth, the perfon ought not
to lofe his time in waiting, but fhould immediately pro¬
ceed to the operation above mentioned.
“ If you find a freih hill Handing by itfelf, which
feems to (hew by its fituation that it has no communica¬
tion writh any other, which is always the cafe when the
mole has worked from the furface downwards in endea¬
vouring to procure a more convenient habitation, after
the hill has been turned up with the fpade, a bucket of
water fhonld be poured over the mouth of the paffage.
By thefe means the animal, which is at no great diftance,
will be obliged to come forth, and may be eafily caught
with the hand.
“ You
V E R [ 551 1 V E R
Vermin. You may difcover alfo whether a hill has any com-
' ’ munica-tion with another, if you apply your ear to it,
and then cough or make a loud noife. If it has no com¬
munication with the neighbouring bills, you will hear
the terrified animal make a noife by its motion. It will
then be impoffible for it to efcape j and you may either
pour water into the hole, or turn up the hill with a
fpade until the mole is found j for in general it never
goes deeper into the earth than from fifteen to eighteen
inches.
“ When any of the beds in a garden have, been new¬
ly watered, the mole, attracted by the coolnefs and moi-
fture, readily repairs thither, and takes units refidencein
them, making a paffage at the depth of fcarcely an inch
below the furface. In that cafe it may be eafily caught.
When you fee it at work, you need only tread behind
the animal with your feet on the paffage to prevent its
retreat, and then turn up the hill ivith a fpade; by wdtich
means you will be fure to catch it.
“ When you dig after it with a fpade, the animal
forces its way downw-ards into the earth in a perpendi-
cular dire&ion, in order that it may better efcape the
threatened danger. In that cafe it will not be neceffary
to dig long, but to pour water over the place, which
will foon make the animal return upwards.
“ People in general are not aware of the great mif-
chief occafioned in fields and gardens by thefe animals.
We are, however, informed by Buffon, that in the year
1740 he planted 15 or j6 acres of land with acorns,
and that the greater part of them were in a little time
carried away by the moles to their fubterranean retreats.
In many of thefe there were found half a bufiiel, and in
ethers a bufhel. Buffon, after this circumftance, caufed
a great number of iron traps to be conllru&ed, by which
in lefs than three weeks he caught 1300. To this in-
ftance of the devaftation occafioned by thefe animals,
we may add the following : In the year 1742 they were
fo numerous in fame parts of Holland, that one far¬
mer alone caught between five and fix thoufand of them.
The deftru&ion occafioned by thefe animals is, how¬
ever, no new phenomenon. We are informed by hi-
ftory, that the inhabitants of the ifland of Tenedos,
the Trojans, and the iEolians, were infefted by them
in the earlieft ages. For this reafon a temple was eredl-
ed to Apollo Smymthius, the deftroyer of moles.
Infecls.—Many infefts, -in the different flates of exift-
ence through which they pafs, are exceedingly trou-
blefome and deflruflive. Sometimes they fpread their
devacations in the date of larva or grub, and fometimes
in that of perfeft infeft.
Of. the coleopterous infedls, the grub of the cock-
chaffer, w;hich is a hrowniflbi or chefnut-coloured beetle,
commits the great eft ravages. This beetle appears du¬
ring great part of the fummer, the moft plentiful in May
or June, and hence called the May bug. It flies only
in the evening, and lodges during the day under the
leaves of trees, which it devours, and is fometimes in
fuch numbers, as to defoliate whole woods. The bee¬
tle depofits its eggs in the earth, and from thefe are
hatched white or bluifti grubs, that feed on the roots of
grafs, corn, and other vegetables, during the whole fum¬
mer. In the winter they lie deep in the earth ; but in
the fpring, as vegetation advances, they rife to the fur-
facc, and renew their work of deftruftion. In, this ftate
they continue,for four, five, or fix years, before they
change to the chryfalrs ftate, in which they remain till Vermin,
the month of May, when the perfeft infeft appears.v—
As thefe infers require fo many years to affume the
perfedl form, they only appear occafionally fufficiently
numerous to be extenfiveiy deftruftive to the crops of
grain, or vegetables in general. Their numbers, how¬
ever, have otten produced great alarm, and even excited
the attention of governments to offer rewards for an ef-
fe&ual method of deftrbying them.
In the fpring feafon, if the weather prove warm,
when the land is ploughed up, thefe grubs are generally
fo near the furface as to be turned up with the plough ;
and being thus expofed, they are picked up and devour¬
ed by various birds, which, it is fuggeiled, (hould not
be difturbed or driven away in this falutary labour.
When thefe grubs infell meadow land, it has been pro-
pofed to drown them in their holes by overflowing it.
But it is fuppofed that this plan would not be fuccefsful,
even where it is practicable, unlefs there is a bed of clay
immediately under the foil, to retain the water for a
fufficient length of time. A more efficacious rvay is
recommended to prevent the increafe of the grubs, by
deftroying the flies in May or June, before they have
depoflted their eggs. This may be done by (baking and
beating the trees and hedges in the middle of the day ;
and, as this is a work which may be performed by chil¬
dren, it is a lefs difficult talk than would at firft
fight be imagined. Domeftic fowls are remarkably
fond of thefe beetles, fo that a double objeCl is thus
gained, the deftruClion of the beetles and the procuring
of food for the poultry.
Some fpecies of the dermeftes, and alfo of the genus
ptinus, are exceedingly deftruClive in the cabinets of na-
turalifts, and alfo to furniture. Various methods have
been recommended to flop their ravages. We believe
the moft effeftual is fpirit of turpentine, when it can be
properly applied. A folution of corrofive fublimate is
fometimes employed, but it fliould be recollefled that it
feldom fails in time to produce feme chemical change
on animal and vegetable matters. ObjeCls of natural
hiflory as birds, animals, &c. are fometimes expofed to
the moderate heat of an oven, or before a fire, for feve-
ral hours; but this method wall alfo be attended with
injurious effeCls, unlefs praClifed with great care. In-
fcCts which infeft furniture have been deitroyed by the
application of oil, and allowing it to remain for a day
or two, before the furniture is rubbed up. Japanned
or vamifhed furniture may be fecuied from the effeCls
of thefe infedls, by re-coating it, when they are in the
larva ftate, by which they are deprived of air. Railing,
and other works out of doors, which are expofed to the
weather, are fometimes eaten with infedls, and particu¬
larly by fome of the larvae of the genus curculio. The
wood thus attacked may be prevented from farther ra¬
vages, by a frelh coat of paint.
. The earwig is a deftru&ive infeft in the flower,
kitchen, and fruit garden. To prevent their depreda¬
tions, it has been recommended to take them by the
hand, when they come out during the night in fearch of
food. I hey may be taken alfo t y rolling up a piece of
paper, and hanging it up on the plants winch they in-
fell; for in thefe places they take fhelter ■ through the
day. Another method of deftroying them has. been
mentioned, and that is to watch them towards morn- -
iog with the view of difeovering the haunts to which :
Vermm.
V E R t 552 ] V E R
t’ney refort during the day j and this difcovery being
made, which may perhaps be a melon frame, dunghill,
or heap of rubbilh, the removing of which will deftroy
the greater number of thefe troublelbme infefts.
The fmall infedl: which commits fuch depredations
among turnips, by eating the feedling leaves as foon as
they appear, as frequently to deilroy whole crops, is
fuppofed to be a fmall black polilhed beetle, belonging
to the genus chryfotnela. It does not feem to be well
afcertained whether this fmall beetle, which is better
known by the name of turnip fly, commits its ravages
in the larva or in the beetle ftate. It is faid that it
prefers the leaves of the common radilh to thofe of the
turnip, and it is therefore recommended to fow radiflies
along with the turnips, to prevent the deftruftion of the
latter.
Of the infe&s belonging to the order hemiptera,
there are fome which are exceedingly deftructive. The
cock-roach, a native of the warmer parts of America
and the Weft Indies, is a very troublefome, and a very
voracious infeft. It has been introduced into this coun¬
try, and particularly into the feaport towns, in confe-
quence of commercial intercourfe. It comes out to
feed in the night-time, and eats almoft of every thing
that comes in its way. Cock-roaches are eafily taken by
the following method. Cover the outfide of a deep glafs
or bafon with paper ; introduce fome bits of bread or
fugar into the bafon or glafs, and fet it in a place fre¬
quented by the cock-roaches. They creep up by means
of the paper on the outfide, and drop into the veffel $
but in confequence of its fmooth polilhed furface, they
cannot effebl their efcape. In the fame way crickets
and beetles may be taken and deftroyed. It is quite
unneceffary to fpeak of the means of deftroying the my¬
riads of locufts which not unfrequently infeft eaftern
countries, and particularly Egypt and Syria j for no
means are likely to be devifed, which promife to refill
the effedls of fuch a hoft of foes, by whofe ravages
every green thing is confumed ; but the infeft itfelf be¬
comes, among the poorer inhabitants of thofe countries,
a partial fubftitute for the fruits of the earth which it
has deftroyed. The infefts are taken, reduced to
powder, and converted into a kind of meal.
The common or the bed-bug is a very troublefome,
and a very common inmate in the crowded houfes of
many large towns in this country. Its ufual haunts are
the crevices of wood, and particularly thofe pieces of
furniture which are ufually kept in the warmeft corners
of the apartment. Cleanlinefs wall perhaps be found
the beft prefervative againft the introduftion and in-
creafe of thefe infefts *, but fometimes even the greateft
care and attention are ineffeftual in keeping houfes en¬
tirely free from them. When it can be conveniently
done, they are completely deftroyed by immerfing the
furniture in boiling wTater, or by baking it in an oven j
and by filling up the crevices or holes which were their
haunts, with glaziers putty, their return and increafe
will thus be prevented. But a very effeftual method of
deftroying bugs, is to wrafli the places which they fre¬
quent with fpirit of turpentine, and then filling up the
holes as already mentioned. It is a curious circum-
ftance in the hiftory of thefe infefts, that fome perfons
entirely efcape from their attacks, while to others they
are exceedingly troublefome and diftrefling. It is faid
that lavender-water, fprinkled over the bed-clothes,
I
often prevents their approach. How far this is the Vermin,
cafe, we have had no opportunity of afcertaining. u—y—».
The fmall moth, which in the caterpillar ftate com¬
mits fuch ravages on woollen cloths, furs, and other ani¬
mal fubftances, which remain for any length of time in
dark undifturbed places, may be deftroyed with the
greateft certainty and facility, by expofing the fubftances
on which they are fufpefted to make their depreda¬
tions, to the vapour of Ipirit of turpentine, or bruihing
them with a brufti dipped into the fame fluid. This
fhould be done about the months of September or Ofto-
ber ; but their effefts may be prevented by placing the
cloths, furs, &.c. which are likely to become their re-
fidence, in an airy fituation, about the months of July
and Auguft.
The dift'erent kinds of lice are very numerous. Every
animal has its peculiar fpecies, and even mankind are
not free from this pelt. It is often the confequence of
indolence and naftinefs, and it is obferved that the lice
which infeft any animal increafe prodigioufly when that
animal becomes languid and fickly. We believe that
the application of fpirits of turpentine, already fo often
recommended, would alfo be effeftual in this cafe ; but
mercurial preparations afford a certain remedy againft
thefe infefts. For this purpofe a very fmall quantity of
what is called mercurial ointment may be employed.
At the fame time it ought to be recollefted, that clean¬
linefs is the beft prefervative. A lingular notion pre¬
vails in this country, and even among perfons who are
by no means in the loweft rank of life, that it is a good
fign of health when children’s heads are infefted with
thefe animals 5 and on this account they are not very
anxious in having them entirely eradicated. A mo¬
ment’s rtfleftion may Ihow the abfurdity of fuch an opi¬
nion, fo that it would be a wafte of time to adduce feri-
ous arguments againft it.
It is perhaps more difficult for mankind to fecure
themfelves and their habitations from the vifits of the
common flea. Cleanlinefs, however, may do much even
in effefting this j and in particular it appears to us, that
it would be extremely ufeful, frequently to rub up with
a piece of cloth the more inacceflible parts of furniture
or apartments, or perhaps it w^ould anfwer better to em¬
ploy a fmall hard brulh. By the lefs acceflible places
w e mean the corners and crevices of rooms and furniture
where dull is apt to colleft, and efpecially the canvas
part of a bed. We are perfuaded that fpirits of turpen¬
tine might alfo be found ufeful for the deftruftion of
thefe very troublefome infefts. The Scotch myrtle
(myrica galeylAV\.') a plant very common in low and
moift moorifh places in this country, is faid to be an ex¬
cellent remedy, in confequence of its powerful aromatic
odour, againft the attacks of thefe animals. For this
purpofe, the plant is ftrewed about the apartment or
bed wFich is infefted with fleas.
The following method of deftroying or driving away
all kinds of noxious vermin from fields and gardens, it is
faid, has been proved by experience to be effeftual. It
is recommended by M. Socoloff, and the account of it
is taken from the Peterfburgh Tranfaftions *. As the * Phth
deftruftive power of quicklime (fays the author), height- Mag. j.
ened by a fixed alkali, which corrodes, diffolves and de-1<59'
ftroys all the tender parts of animals, has been long
known, I thought this mixture would be the beft means
for accomplilhing the objeft I had in view7. I took
three
V E R t 553 ] V E R
Vermin, three parts, therefore, of quicklime, newly made, and
*ir v—.../ ^wo parts of a faturated folution of fixed alkali in water,
and thence obtained a fomewhat milky liquor fufficiently
cauftic, highly hoftile and poifonous to earth-worms and
other fmall animals j for, as foon as it touched any part
of their bodies, it occafioned in them violent fymptoms
of great uneafinefs. If this liquor be poured into thofe
holes in which the earth-worms refide under ground,
they immediately throw themfelves out as if driven by
feme force j and, after various contorfions, either lan-
guilh or die. If the leaves of plants or fruit-trees, fre¬
quented by the voracious caterpillars, which are fo de-
itru&ive to them, be fprinkled over with this liquor,
thefe infe&s fuddenly contradl their bodies and drop to
the ground. For, though nature has defended them to¬
lerably well by th®ir hairy Ikins from any thing that
might injure their delicate bodies, yet, as foon as they
touch with their feet or mouths leaves which have been
moiftened by this liquor, they become as it were ftupe-
fied, inftantly contraft themfclves, and fall down.
“ I had not an opportunity of trying a like experi¬
ment on locufts 5 yet we may conclude, and not with¬
out probability, from their nature and the general de-
ftruftive qualities of the above liquor, that they, in
like manner, may be driven from corn-fields, if it be
poflible to fprinkle the corn with the liquor by means
of a machine.
“ With regard to plants or corn, thefe fuftain no in¬
jury from the liquor, becaufe it has no power over the
produftions of the vegetable kingdom, as I have fully
learned from experience; or, if any hurt be fu-
fpefled, all the danger will be removed by the firft
thower that falls. This liquor may be procured in a-
bundance in every place where lime is burnt. If the
lime be frefh, one part of it infufed in about feventy
parts of common water will produce real lime-water.
The want of the fixed alkali may be fupplied by boiling
wood alhes in water, and thickening the ley by evapo¬
ration.
“ The liquor might be employed alfo to kill bugs and
other domeftic infe&s which are noxious and trouble-
fome ; but on account of its ftrong lixivious fmell, which
difpofes the human body to putridity, 1 dare not recom¬
mend the ufe of it in houfes that are inhabited. Befides,
bugs may be eafily got rid of, as I have repeatedly found
from experience, by the oily pickle that remains in calks
in which falted herrings have been packed. To this li¬
quor they have a ftrong averfion •, and, if they are moift-
* Phil ened with it, they (fie in a very ftiort time
i(>p. For deftroying infefts and caterpillars, which infeft
fruit trees, the following method is recommended as
having been fuccefsfully praftifed. The author obferves
that “ The prefent year, for inftance, (1805), offers a
fingularity which I have not before perceived. In fome
diftrifts the cherry-tree has experienced, at the time of
its bloffoming, colds and winds which have prevented it
from fetting j but another plague, not lefs difaftrous, has
attacked the cherry-trees and plum-trees over feveral
diftri&s in France. Great fwarms of little animals re-
fembling vine-fretters, but w'hich are not fo in reality,
eftablilhed their habitations at the extremity of the
branches of the cherry-tree?. As foon as a branch was
attacked, the leaves curled, and the juice w’as dried up,
On opening the leaf, a confiderable number of ants was
Vol, XX. Part II.
difeovered, which, jointly with the infe£l which began Vermin,
the ravages, fucked the branch, and made it wither. 1
What I have remarked is, that ufually, when the vine-
fretters attack any tree, the neighbouring tree very
foon experiences the fame fate ; but the attack of this
year is only partial. In an alley of cherry-trees which
I poffefs feven trees have been attacked, but not thofe
•which are next each other. One tree was placed be¬
tween two which were very much damaged by thefe in¬
fers, and yet this one was not hurt.
“ On thefe vermin the fmoke of tobacco had no effect
at all: this convinces me that they are different from
the ordinary kind.
“ Plum-trees, when attacked by the fame infeff, do
not lofe their fruit like the cherry-trees j but the little
animals cover them with more rapidity, lb as to extir¬
pate even the appearance of fruit.
“ Having effe&ually watered a plum-tree, I covered
it with afhes, in the manner we treat beans and cab¬
bages, and the vermin were deftroyed : but this is only
practicable with a tree of low height.
“ I made one remark, which J think is effential to
communicate : it is, that plum-trees planted in ground
which is not neceflarily watered, are lefs attacked by
tbefe infefts than thofe which have experienced a humi¬
dity communicated by the plants in their neighbourhood,
to which watering is abfolutely neceffary. I had one
planted in a bed of artichokes : we know very well that
this plant requires plenty of water 5 and the tree was
entirely covered with infefts. Its leaves withered, and
the fruit fell off 5 while two other plum-trees, in ground
not watered at all, were much lefs attacked. This con¬
vinces me that thefe were not the ordinary vermin abun¬
dant in dry feafons.
“ I was only able to proteft my cherries a little, by
cutting off the extremities of the damaged branches.
“ Several people had recourfe to fulphur j but I did
not folloiv that method. The fmoke of fulphur deftroys
the infeCl, I admit, but it is at leaft equally dangerous
to the tree ; I always prefer an afperfion of the tree with
foap-fuds. This very year I experienced the good effeCis
of it. I faw my plum-trees look green again, and the
infeCts abandon them. The afperlion is very eafily man¬
aged, by means of watering-pots or fmall garden-engines.
I have alfo employed a ley of wood-afhes with the fame
fuccefs as foap and water.
“ An obfervation equally important which I have
made is, the great damage done this feafon in all orchards
by the caterpillar. As foon as they devoured the young
leaves, they attacked the fruit. In fpite of the great
care taken in fpring to get rid of them, the number of
thefe infedfts is incredible. I have feen them unite on
the large branches, fix their nefts to them, and proteft
them by means of the downy matter which covers the
buds of the enfuing feafon. Whatever precaution is
taken, it is alonoft impoflible not to deftroy thefe buds.
It is only neceffary to take off thefe nefts and burn them ;
and this is the only way of getting lid of the coveys. I
employed the fame afperfion for my apple-trees, and by
that means got rid of their enemies alfo*. * Phil.
“ The following methods are pra£tifed in Germany for xx^v‘
freeing granaries from mites or weevils : 2I3’
“ 1. Cover completely the. w’alls and rafters, above
and below, of the granaries which are infefted by wee-
4 A vils,
Vermin.
* Phil*
Mag. xxri.
SI-
V E R [ 554 ] V E R
vils, with quicklime flaked in water in which trefoil,
wormwood, and hyffop have been boiled. I his com-
polition ought to be applied as hot as poflible.
“ 2. A very fagacious fanner has fucceeded in de-
ftroying weevils by a very eafy procefs. In the month of
June, when his granaries were all empty, he collefted
great quantities of the largeft-flzed ants in facks, and
then feattered them about the places infefted with the
weevils. The ants immediately fell upon and devoured
every one of them 5 nor have any weevils flnee that
time been feen on hits premifes.
“ 3. Another method, not lefs efficacious, but which
requires a great deal of care and attention in the appli¬
cation of it, is the following :—Place in your granaries
a number of chafing-diflies filled with lighted pieces of
wood. Every aperture mult then be carefully doled,
in order to prevent any freflr air firom entering. Ihe
carbonic acid gas, produced from the burning wood,
proves fatal to the infeds. Rats and mice, alio, are io
Itrongly affe&ed by it, that they are feen running out of
their holes, and dying in all directions. The peribns em¬
ployed to manage this procels mult take great care of their
own fafety, by keeping a current of air around them un¬
til the burning wood is properly placed. Another dan¬
ger may arife from the premifes taking fire \ but this allb
may be avoided by proper caution, particularly if they
are paved with brick or ftone*.”
Grain, it is faid, has been preferved from weevils and
other deftruftive infeds, by covering the heaps with
pieces of hemp cloth dipped in w’ater and wrung out.
At the end of two hours the weevils are found adhering
to the cloths, which are to be removed carefully and
plunged in water for fome time to drown. A plant of
henbane placed in the middle of a heap of grain is laid
alfo to drive away the infeCls. They mull then be
watched and deftroyed as they attempt to efcape.
Sulphur or flower of brimftone is recommended as be¬
ing an excellent remedy again!! the effeCts of infeCts on
plants. It may be applied by dulling the leaves affedt-
ed, either by tying it up in muffin cloth, or with a puff
for hair powder, or with a dredging box. But the lul-
phur not only deftroys the worms and infefts which in-
felt trees 5 it feems alfo to render the trees more healthy
and vigorous. This was particulary the cale with fome
peach trees on which it was fprinkled,
The following method, difeovered by M. Catin, is
propofed for deftroying earth-fleas, bugs, ants, &c.
“ Take black foap, of the bell kind, one pound three
quarters, the fame quantity of flowers of fulphur, muffi-
rooms two pounds, and fixty, meafures of river or rain¬
water. Divide the water into two parts, one of which
mull be poured into a veffel deftined for that purpofe :
fuffer the foap to diffolve in it, and add the mulhrooms
after they have been a little pounded. Boil the other
half of the water in a kettle, and tie up the fulphur in
a bit of rag or piece of fine linen, and lufpend from it a
fufficient weight in order that it may fink in the water.
During the time the water is kept boiling, which mull
be at leail twenty minutes, ftir it continually with a flick,
and prefs the bag containing the fulphur, that the latter
may be forced out into the water, and communicate to it
the neceffary ftrergth and colour.
“ When the liquor is taken,from the fire, pour it di-
reflly into the calk, and flir it round for a confiderabie
time ; the procefs of flirring muff be repealed daily till
it acquire a fetid fmcll. Experience has fliown* that the VermiH.
more fetid the mixture is, its adlivity is the greater. Each
time that the mixture is ftirred, the calk mull be flop¬
ped immediately after. When you with to ufe the liquid,
nothing is neceffary but to fpr’inkle a little ol it on the
plants which you are defirous of preferving, or to dip
their branches in it. It will be better, however, to make
ule of a fyringe, having at the end a head, an inch or
an inch and a hall in diameter, pierced with fmall holes.
This inllrument may be ufed for tender plants ; when
you apply the liquid to trees, a fyringe with larger holes
mult be employed.
“ Caterpillars, beetles, earth-fleas, bugs, and the tree-
lice wdrich infeft orange trees, will be detlroyed by the
firft application of the liquid. Inie&s which refide be¬
low the earth, luch as wafips, hornets, ants, Stc. require
that the liquid fliould be Iquirted out gently, and with¬
out intermiffion, that it may better penetrate to their
nefts. Ants nefts, according to their fize, require from
two to three mealures of liquid, and in many cafes it
mull be applied for twenty-tour hours. When the ants
afi'emble in another place, the procels mult be repeated.
Two ounces of vomica may be added to the mixture,
and boiled along with the iuiphui. Hus fubftance, par¬
ticularly when you with to dettroy ants, will be of great
fervice. When the whole of the liquid in the calk has
been ufed, the refiduum mull be buried in the earth to
prevent domefiic animals from eating it*.” * Phil
The ufe of elder as a prefervative to vegetables againft
the depredations of intedts is detailed in the following ob- 1S5,.
fervations.
“ Common elder has appeared to me ufeful, ill, For
preventing cabbage plants from being devoured or da¬
maged by caterpillars ; 2d, To prevent blights, and
theii effedts on fruit and other trees 5 3d, To prelerve
corn from yellow flies and other inledts ) 4th, To fecure
turnips from the ravage of flies, &c.
“ 1 ft, The ftrong and fetid odour of a bunch of elder
leaves induced me to think that different kinds of but¬
terflies might be incommoded by it in proportion to
their delicacy. I therefore took fome young twigs of
elder, at the period when butterflies began to appear,,
and whipped well with them fome cabbage plants, but
in fuclr a manner as not to damage them. Since that
time, during two fummers, though the butterflies ho¬
vered round the plants, I never law one of them fettle
on them } and I do not think that a Angle but teifly was
hatched on the cabbages treated in this manner, though
a neighbouring board was dirtied by them in the ulual
manner.
“ 2d, After a flrort refle&ion on the effe&s here men-.
tioned, and on blights, which, in my opinion, aie
chiefly eccafioned by fmall flies and fmall inle<3s, whole
organs are ftill more delicare than thofe of the former,
I was induced to whip in the fame manner with elder
twigs, as high as I could reach, the branches of a plum-
tree which grew in an efpalier. The whipped leaves
remained green and in a good condition, while from at
leaf! fix inches above to the top of the tree the reft of
the leaves were blighted, wrinkled, and full of worms.
It is here to be obferved that the tree was ip full flower
when I whipped it, therefore much too late for this ope¬
ration, which ought to have been perfoimed once or
twice before flowering. But I am of opinion, that if
trees were befprinkled with a ftrong infuflon of elder
ever’;
V E Ft |
Vermin, every eight or 15 days, the fuccefs would be certain,
Vernacu- anj t'nat fj5ere would be no danger of injuring either the
■ j' flowers or the fruit.
3.!, What the farmers call the yellows in corn, and
which they contider as a kind of blight, is the effebl, as
every one knows, of a fmall yellow fly with blue -wings,
nearly of the fize of a gnat. It lays its eggs in the ear
of wheat, and produces a worm tiimoft invifible to the
naked eye, but which, when feen by a magnifying glafs,
is a large yellow larva, having the firming colour of
amber. This fly is fo produbtive, that I have counted
upwards of forty worms in the chaff of one ear of wheat,
which was a number fufficient to deflroy it entirely. I
therefore propofed to make my experiment as boon as
poffible ; but the heat and drought of the feafon having
advanced the wheat more than ufual, it was in flower
before I could attempt it. Next morning, however, at
break of day, two fervants having drawn bundles of el¬
der over the ears of -wheat on each fide of the furrow,
backwards and forwards, in places where the wheat was
not fo far advanced, I hoped that the fetid effluvia of
the elder would prevent the flies from remaining on the
ears that were covered with them : and, indeed, I was
not entirely diiappointed ; for, on examining my wheat
fome time after, I found that the part which had been
beaten with elder was much lefs damaged than that
which had not been treated in the fame manner. I
have no doubt, that, had I employed this precaution
fooner, the corn would have been completely preferved.
Should this be the cafe, the procefs is fimple ; and I
flatter myfelf that fine crops of corn may be faved by
thefe means from this fmall infebf, which is fo deflruc-
tive to them. One of thefe yellow flies laid on my
thumb at leaft eight or ten eggs, of an oblong form, in
the fmall interval of time which I employed in walking
over two or three furrows, holding it by the wings, and
which I could not obferve without the afliflance of a
magnifying glafs.
“ 4th, It often happens that whole crops of turnips
are deltroyed while young, in confequence of being
pricked by certain infebls. I have great reafon to think
that this evil may be prevented in an effebtual manner,
by caufing a perfon to draw a bunch of elder, fufficient-
ly large to cover about the breadth of a foot, over
the young turnips, going backwards and forwards.
What confirms me in this idea is, that, having drawn a
bunch of elder over a bed of young cauliflowrers which
had begun to be pricked, they afterwards remained un¬
touched by thefe infebbs.
“ Another fabl which tends to fupport this idea is,
that when my neighbourhood, about eight or nine years
ago, was fo infefled with caterpillars that they devoured
all the vegetables, leaving fcarcely a green leaf un¬
touched, they fpared the elder trees amidlt this general
devaflation, and never molefted them. In reflebling on
thefe circumftances, I am of opinion that the elder
might be introduced with advantage into our gardens,
as the means of preferving fruit-trees and various plants
from the rapacity of infebbs.
“ The dwarf elder appears to me to exhale a much
more fetid finell than the common elder, and therefore
ought to be preferred in making experiments on this
*• Phil. fubjebl *.”
x\. . VERNACULAR, a word applied to fomething that
is peculiar to any one country.
SS5 1 V E R
VERNAL, fomething belonging to the fprmg-fea-
fon.
VERNIER Scale, a fcale excellently adapted for
the graduation of mathematical inflruments, thus called
from its inventor Peter Vernier, a perfon of difiinbtion
in the Tranche Comte. See Nonius.
Vernier’s method is derived from the following prin¬
ciple. If two equal right lines, or circular arcs, A, B,
are fo divided, that the number of equal divilicns in B
is one lefs than the number of equal divifions of A, then
will the excefs of one divilion of B above onedivifion ot
A be compounded of the ratios of one of A to A, and
of one of B to B.
For let A contain 11 parts, then one of A to A is as
Vernal,
Vernier.
I to 11, or —. Let B contain 10 parts, then one of B
to B is as 1 to 10, or
10
Now — — =
11-
-10
10
11 10 x11
10
X
10 x 11
Or if B contains n parts, and A contains tt-R1 parts 5
then — is one
n
And -
n
part of B, and
11 —J— i
is one part of A-.
«-f-1 •
n 1
— — — X
”+I «X«-fi u " + 1
The mofl commodious divifions, and their aliquot
parts, into which the degrees on the circular limb of ai%
inftrument may be fuppofed to be divided, depend on the
radius of that inftrument.
Let R be the radius of a circle in inches ; and a de¬
gree to be divided into n parts, each being —th part of
an inch.
Now the circumference of a circle, in parts of its dia¬
meter 2R inches, is 3,1415926 X 2R :: i° :
3A_4i_5?26
360
X
2R inches.
Or, 0,01745329 X R is the length of one degree in
inches.
Or, 0,017453 29 xRX/* is the length of i°, in/>th
parts of an inch.
But as every degree contains 11 times fuch parts, there¬
fore «=o,o 17453 29 xR XA-
.1 I
The mofl; commodious perceptible divifion is - or ~
of an inch.
Example. Suppofe an inftrument of 30 inches radius,
into how' many convenient parts may each degree be di¬
vided ? how many of thefe parts are to go to the breadth
of the vernier, and to what parts of a degree may an ob-
fervation be made by that inttrument ?
Now 0,01745 xR=0,5236 inches, the length of each
degree : and ifp be fuppofed about — of an inch for one
divifion ; then 0,5236 X/,=4,i (hows the number of
Inch parts in a degree. But as this number muft be an
integer, let it be 4, each being : and let the breadth
of the vernier contain 31 of thofe parts, or 7-p0, and be
divided into 30 parts.
Here n~-\
4
3°
; then -X
4
4 A 2
3°
—   of a de-
120
grce>
V E R [
Vernier greCj or ^ j3 leaft part of a degree that in-
Verfailles. ftrument can fll0w- j i I 60
^ ' If « rr and m—^s then - X -7 = 7 of a
J 36 5 36 5X36
minute, or 20".
The following table, taken as examples in the inflru-
556 1 v E R
ris. It contains 60,000 inhabitants, and fince the Re- Verfallles
volution has been created a bifhop’s fee. In the reign II
of Louis XIII. it was only a fmall village. This ? ertumim5;
prince built here a hunting-hut in 1630, wdiich Bafibm-
pierre calls “ the paltry chateau of Verfailles.” Al¬
though the fituation was low and very unfavourable,
columns Ihow.
Rad.
inches.
Parts of a
degree.
Parts in
vernier.
Breadth of
Parts
obferved.
15
24
3°
36
42
48
60
72
84
96
3
3
4
4
5
6
8
9
10
12
T5
15
15
24
20
3°
3°
36
30
3°
3°
40
36
30
40
60
I5*
20$
10$
12$
6$
io$
Si
3r
4- a-
5- r^
2-iV
4
ments commonly made from 3 inches' to 8 feet radius, Louis XIV- built a magnificent palace here, which was
fhows the divMions of the limb to neareft tenths of inches, the ufual refidence of the kings of France till the 6th
fo as to be an aliquot of 6o’s, and what parts of a degree of Oftober 1789, when the late unfortunate Louis XVI.
may be eftimated by the vernier, it being divided into an^ his family were removed from it to the Thuilleries.
fuch equal parts, and containing fuch degrees as their buildings and the gardens are adorned with a vaft
number of llatues, done by the greateft mailers, and
the water-works are all worthy of admiration. The
great gallery is thought to be as curious a piece of
workmanfhip of that kind as any in the world: nor is
the chapel lefs to be admired for its fine architediure
and ornaments. The gardens, with the park, are five
miles in circumference, and furrounded by walls. There
are three fine avenues to Verfailles 5, one of which is the
common road to Paris, the other comes from Seaux,
and the third from St Cloud. E. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat,
48. 48.
VERSE, in Poetry, a line confifting of a number of
long and fliort fyllables, which run with an agreeable
cadence.
Verse is alfo ufed for a part of a chapter, fedlion, &c.
VERSIFICATION, the art or manner of making
verfe j alfo the tune and cadence of verfe. See Poetry,
Part III.
VERSION, a tranflation of fome book or writing out
of one language into another. See TRANSLATION.
VERT, in Heraldry, the term for a green colour*
It is called vert in the blazon of the coats of all under
the degree of nobles : but in coats of nobility it is call-
By altering the number of divifions, either in the de- ed emerald; and in thofe of kings venus. In e»gra-
grees or in the vernier, or in both, an an^le can be ob- ving it is expreffed by diagonals, or lines drawn athwart
ferved to a different degree of accuracy. Thus, to a ra- from right to left, from the dexter chief corner to the
30
o
40
30
25
dius of 30 inches, if a degree be divided into 1 2 parts,
each being five minutes, and the breadth of the vernier
be 21 fuch parts, or i^°, and divided into 20 parts,
linifter bafe.
VERTEBRAL See Anatomy, N° 30.
VERTEX, in Anatomy, denotes the crown of th&
j j jO head. Hence vertex is alio ufed figuratively for the top
then— X —= ^ I5//: or taking the breadth of of other things *. thus we fay, the vertex of a cone, py-
240
the vernier 2^, and divided into 30 parts; then ~ X
j i° 111®
— —-T-, or 10": Or — x— = 7— = 6" ; where
30 360 12 50 600
the breadth of the vernier is 4^°.
VERONA, a city of Italy, capital of the Veronefe,
and in the territory of Venice ; fituated on the river A-
dige, in E. Long. 11. 24. N. Lat. 45. 26. It is feven
miles in compafs ; and is ftrpngly fortified. It contains
57,400 inhabitants.
VERONESE, a territory of Italy, in the republic of
Venice j bounded on the north by the Trentino, on the
eaft by the Vicentino and Paduano, on the fouth by the
.Mantuano, and on the weft by the Brefciano. It is
about 35 miles in length, and 27 in breadth j and fer¬
tile in com, wine, fruits, and cattle.
Veronese. See Cagliari.
VERONICA, a genus of plants of the clafs of di-
andria; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
40th order, Perfenatce. See Botany Index,
ramid, &c.
Vertex, is alfo nfed in AJlronomy for the point of
the heaven dire&ly over our heads, properly called the
Vienith,
VERTICILLAT/E, the name of a clafs in Ray’s
and Boerhaave’s Methods, confifting of herbaceous ve¬
getables. It is alfo the name of the 42d order in Lin¬
naeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method.
VERTICILLUS, a mode of flowering, in which the
flowTers are produced in rings at each joint of the ftero,
wfith very fljort foot-ftalks. The term is exemplified in
mint, horehound, and the other plants of the natural
order deferibed above.
VERTICITY, is that property of the loadftone
whereby it turns or direfts itfelf to one particular point.
VERTIGO, in Medicine. See there, N° 82.
VERTUMNUS, in Mythology, a god wbo prefided
over gardens and orchards, honoured among the Etruf-
cans, from whom the w’orfliip of this deity was tranf*
mitted to the Romans.
Vertumnus had a temple near the market-place at
VERSAILLES, a town of France, in the depart- Rome, being reprefented as one of the tutelar deities
snent of Seine and Oife, 10 miles weft-fomh-weft of Pa- ©f the merchants. The comreentators on Ovid fay,
tfat
V E S
Verumon- that he was an ancient king of Hetfuria, who, by
tanum ]jjs diligent and fuccefsful cultivation of fruit and gar-
Vefpertilio. ^ens» obtained the honour of being ranked among the
' ' V_^ VERUMONTANUM, in Anatomy, a fmall emi¬
nence near the paffages where the femen is difcharged
into the urethra.
VERVAIN. See Verbena, Botany Index.
VERTOT d’AuBOEF, Rene Aubert de, a celebrated
hiftorian, was defcended from a noble and ancient fami¬
ly in Normandy, and born in 1655. At 16 years of
age he became a Francifcan friar ; afterwards he enter¬
ed into the order of the Premonflratenfes, in which he
had feveral benefices: and at length was a fecular eccle-
fiaftic. He became fecretary to the duchefs of Orleans,
member of the Academy of Infcriptions, and hiftorio-
grapher of Malta. He died at Paris in 1735. His
principal works are, 1. The Hillory of the Revolutions
of Sweden. 2. The Revolutions of Portugal. 3. The
Revolutions of the Romans. 4. The Hiflory of Malta.
Thefe works are written in elegant French, and tranf-
lated into moft of the languages of Europe.
VERULAM. See Bacon.
VESALIUS, Andreas, a celebrated phyfician and
anatomift, was born at Bruffels about the year 1512.
He ftudied phyfic at Paris under James Sylvius •, but
applied himfelf chiefly to anatomy, which was then very
little known, diffeftions being efteemed unlawful and
impious : and it appears from his work De humani cor¬
poris fabric a, that he perfected himfelf in this ufeful
knowledge very early, About the year 1537, the re¬
public of Venice made him profeflbr in the univerfity
of Padua, where he taught anatomy for feven years;
Charles V, called him to be his phyfician, as he rvas alfo
to Philip II. king of Spain. Vefalius was now at the
height of his glory, when all of a fudden he formed
the defign of taking a journey to Paleftine ; concerning
which journey we are told the following flory. A
young Spanifh nobleman he attended, being believed to
be dead, Vefalius obtained leave to open him to explore
the true caufe of his illnefs \ but when he opened the
breaft, he perceived fvmptoms of life, and faw the heart
beat. The parents, not fatisfied with profecuting him
for murder, accufed him of impiety to the inquifition, in
hopes that tribunal would punifh him with greater ri¬
gour : but the king ihterpofing, faved him on condition
of his making a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He
was fliipwrecked on his return, and thrown upon the
iihnd of Znnte, where he periflked, in 1564. He was
the author of feveral works, the principal of which is
De humani corporis fabrica.
VESICATORIUM, a Blister ; an application of
an acrid nature made to any part of the body, in order
to draw a flux of humours to that part, and thus elevate
the fcarfskin into a blifter.
VESPA, the Wasp ; a genus of infe&s belonging to
the order of hymenoptera. See Entomology Index.
VESPASIAN, the 10th emperor of Rome •, remark¬
able for his clemency and other virtues. See Rome,
N° 3 3 2—339- .
VESPERS, in the church of Rome, denote the af¬
ternoon fervice •, anfwering in fome meafure to the even¬
ing prayers of the church of England.
VESPERTILIO, the Bat j a genus of quadrupeds,
[ 557 ] YES
belonging to the order of primates. See Mammalia
Index.
VESSEL, a general name given to the different forts ^
of fhips which are navigated on the ocean, or in canals
and rivers. It is, however, more particularly applied
to thofe of the fmaller kind, furnifhed with one or two
mails. See Ship.
VESTA, in pagan worfhip, the fame with Cybele.
See Cybele.
Vesta the Younger, in pagan worfhip, the goddefs
of Fire, was the daughter of Saturn and Cybele, and the
lifter of Ceres. She was fo much in love with chaftity,
that on Jupiter’s afcending the throne and offering to
grant whatever (he afked, (he only defired the preferva-
tion of her virginity, which (he obtained.—Vefta wras
not reprefented in her temple by any image.
Vesta, one of the lately difcovered planets, of which
the elements have been determined by Dr Gaufs in a
communication to the Royal Society of Gottingen.
Elements of Vejia.
Epoch of the longitude,
ridian of Seeberg
Diurnal tropical motion
Annual 78
Aphelion, 1806 326
Annual motion -f-
Afcending node, 1806 80
Annual motion -f-
Inclination of the orbit, 1806 ro
Annual diminution
Eccentricity, 1806
Annual diminution
Log. of the greater femiaxis
1080 jo' 34.7"
770" 85' 84
23
59
I.2-
23
I-5.
34
°-4"
0.0783486
0.0000058
0.4420728 •
Elements of Ceres by the fame.
Epoch of the mean longitude at Bremen,
1807, at 12 o’clock, mean time 1930 1
Longitude of its perihelion
-  aphelion
afcending node on
the ecliptic
Inclination of its orbit
Diurnal tropical motion
Logarithm of the mean diftance
Eccentricity
Greateft diftance from the fun
Leaft
Period of its revolution
VESTALIA,
249
69
103
7
March 29,
' 4.6" * * In the
4r
52
36
49-5 f
18.91
Mag. Ency-
clop. it is
i^°9' 54'"
O.3728428
0-097505
25.625
21.514 ,
1321 days, 12 hours,
in Roman antiquity, a feftival cele¬
brated in honour of the goddefs Vefta, on the 5th of the
ides of June : that is, on the ninth of the month.
VESTALS, among the ancient Romans, were prieft-
cfles of the goddefs Veftaj and had the perpetual fire
committed to their charge 5 they were at firft only four
in number, but afterwards increafed to fix ; and it does
not appear that their number ever exceeded fix, among
whom was one fuperior to the reft, and called vejlalis
maxima.
The veftals were chofen from fix to ten years of age,
and obliged to ftri£t continency for 30 years 5 the firft
To of which were employed in learning the ceremonies
of religion, the next 10 in the performance of them, and
the lo laft in teaching them to the younger veftals.
flbid.
7° 8' 34*
VefUble
II.
Vefuvius.
V E S [ _.
The habit of the veftals confined of a head-drefs,
called infnla, which fat clofe to the headland from
whence hung certain laces called villa ; a kind of fur-
plice made of white linen, and over it a purple mantle
with a long train to it.
VEST1BLE, or Vestibule, in Architeclure, a
kind of entrance into a large building 5 being an open
place before the hall, or at the bottom of the ftaircafe.
VESTRY, a place adjoining to a church, where the
veftments of the minuter are kept ; and alfo a meeting
at fuch place, confiding of the miniiter, church-wardens,
and chief men of mod parithes, who make a pariflr vei-
try or meeting. By cudom there are feleft vedries, be¬
ing a certain number of perfons chofen to have the go¬
vernment of the parifh, make rates, and take the ac¬
counts of church-wardens, &c.
VESUVIAN, a mineral fubftance. See Mine¬
ralogy Index.
VESUVIUS, a celebrated volcano ®f Italy, fix miles
cad from the city of Naples. This mountain has two
tops *, one of which only goes by the name of Vefuvitts,
the other being now called So?nma; but Sir William
Hamilton is of opinion, that the latter is what the an¬
cients called Vefuvius.
The perpendicular height of Vefuvius is only 3700
feet, though the afeent from the foot to the top is three
Italian miles. One fide of the mountain is well culti¬
vated and fertile, producing great plenty of vines } but
the fouth an I wed Tides are entirely covered with
cinders and afiies; while a fulphureous fmoke condantly
iilues from the top, fomedmes attended with the mod
violent explofions of dones, the emiffion of great dreams
of lava, and all the other attendants of a mod formi-
Account of dable volcano. The fird of thefe eruptions recorded in
'General
defeription
of the
mountain.
the firft
eruption
•recorded in
hillory.
hidory took place in the year 79 ; at which time, the
two cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were entirely
buried under the dones and allies thrown out. Incre¬
dible mifehief tvas alfo done to the neighbouring coun¬
try, and numbers of people lod their lives, among whom
was Pliny the Elder.
It is the opinion of the bed judges, however, that
this eruption was by no means the fird that had ever
happened. The very dreets of thofe cities which were
at that time overwhelmed are faid to be partly paved
with lava. Since that time 30 different eruptions have
been recorded, fome of which have been extremely vio¬
lent. In the year 1538, a mountain, three miles in
circumference and a quarter of a mile in perpendicular
height, was thrown up in the courfe ol one night.
The fird: great eruption taken notice of by Sir Wil-
eruption m 1;am Hamilton was that of 1767, .which, though very
!7 ,7’ violent, was mild in comparifon with that of 1538.
From this time (1767) Vefuvius never ceafed for ten
years to fend forth fmoke, nor were there many months
in which it did not throw out dones, fcorise, and cin¬
ders ; which, increafing to a certain degree, were ufual-
ly followed by lava; fo that from the year 1767 to
1779 there were nine eruptions, iome of them very con-
liderable. In the month of iViguft that year, however,
an eruption took place, which, for its extraordinary and
terrible appearance, may be reckoned among the mod
remarkable of any recorded concerning this or any other
Accom- of volcano-
the"great During the whole month of July the mountain con-
eruption in tinned in a date of fermentation. Subterraneous explo-
*119- 4 '
3
Gf the
N ine erup¬
tions from
1767 to
*779-
SSS ] YES
fions and rumbling noifes were heard ; quantities of Vefuvius.
fmoke were thrown up with great violence, femetimes ^
with red-hot dones, fcorioe, and aihes; and towards the
end of the month thefe lymptoms increafed to fuch a
degree as to exhibit, in the night-time, the mod beau¬
tiful fireworks that can be imagined.
On Thurfday 3 th Augud the volcano appeared mod
violently agitated ; a white and fulphureous iimoke if-
fued continually and impetuoully fiom its crater, one
pud’ feeming to impel another ; (o that a mafs of them
was foon accumulated, to appearance four times the
height and fize of the volcano ilfelf. Thefe clouds of
fmoke were exceedingly white, fo that the whole re-
fembled an immenfe accumulation' of bales of the whited
cotton. In the midd of this very white fmoke, vad
quantities of dones, fcorise, and adies, were thr6wn up
to the height of 2000 feet ; and a quantity of liquid
lava, feemingly very heavy, was lifted up jud high
enough to clear the rim of the crater, and take its way
down the fides of the mountains. This lava, having
run violently for fome hours, fuddenly ceafed, jud be¬
fore it had reached the cultivated parts of the mountain,
near four miles from the fpot whence it iflued. ffhe
heat, all this day, was intolerable at the towns of Sem¬
ina and Ottaiano ; and was fenfibly felt at Palma and
Lauri, which are much iarther off. Ileddifh afhes fell
fo thick on the two former, that the air was darkened,
and that objefts could not be diftinguidied at the diffance
of ten feet. Long filaments of a vitrified matter, like
fpun glafs, were mixed, and fell with thefe allies ; feve-
ral birds in cages were fuffocated, and the leaves of the
trees in the neighbourhood of Somma were covered with
white and very corrofive fait. _ G
About 12 at night, on the 7th, the fermentation of Extraor(^
the mountain feemed greatly to increafe. Our author nary effu-
was watching the motions of the volcano from the mole Hon of fire
at Naples, which has a full view of it. Several glc)'p^ch of"
rious pidurefque effecls had been obferved from the re-^ormy
fledion of the deep red fire within the crater of Vefu- clouds,
yius, and which mounted high ^ among!! thofe huge
clouds on the top of it : when a fummer ftorm, called
in that country a trope a, came on fuddenly, and blend¬
ed its heavy watery clouds with the fulphureous and
mineral ones, which were already like fo many other
mountains piled up on the top of the volcano. At this
moment a fountain of fire was fhot up to an incredible
height, cafting fo bright a light, that the fmalleft ob¬
jects were clearly diftinguiffiable at any place within fix
miles or more of Vefuvius. ihe black ftormy cicuds,
paflino- fwiftly over, and at times covering the whole or
a part of the bright column of fire, at other times clear¬
ing awray and giving a full view of .it, with the various
tints produced by its reverberated light on the white
clouds above in contrail with the pale flalhes of forked
lightning that attended the tropea, formed fuch a
feene as no power of art can exprefs. One of his Sici¬
lian maielly’s gamekeepers, who was out in the fields
near Ottaiano whilft this ftorm was at its height, was
furpriled to find the drops of rain feald his face and
hands ; a phenomenon probably occafioned by the
clouds having acquired a great degree of heat in palling
through the above-mentioned column of fire.
On the 8th, the mountain was quiet till towards fix
o’clock in the evening, wffen a great fmoke began to
gather over its crater ; and about an hour after a rum-
6 bling
YES
Immenfe
fountain
»f lava
Vefuvius. bling fubterraneous noife was heard in the neighbour-
hood of the volcano; the ufual throws of red-hot ftones
and fcoriae began and increafed every inftant. The
crater, viewed through a telefcope, feemed much en¬
larged by the violence of laft night’s explofions, and the
little mountain on the top was entirely gone. About
nine o’clock a moft violent report was heard at Portici
and its neighbourhood, which (hook the houfes to fuch
a degree as made the inhabitants run out into the
ftreets. Many windows were broken, and walls crack¬
ed by the concuflion of the air on this occafion, though
the noife was but faintly heard at Naples. In an inftant
h^Vefu1^ a f°unta'n I'qbid tranfparent fire began to rife, and
C ' gradually increafing, arrived at laft at the amazing
height of ten thoufand feet and upwards. Puffs of
fmoke, as black as can poflnly be imagined, fucceeded
on% another haftily, and accompanied the red-hot, tranf¬
parent, and liquid lava, interrupting its fplendid bright-
nefs here and there by patches of the darkeft hue.
Within thefe puffs of fmoke, at the very moment of
emiflron, a bright but pale eleftrical fire was obferved
playing brilkly about in zig-zag lines. The wind was
fouth-vveft, and, though gentle, was fufficient to carry
thefe puffs of fmoke out of the column of fire ; and a
colleftion of them by degrees formed a black and ex-
tenfive curtain behind it *, in other parts of the Iky it
was perfeftly clear, and the ftars bright. The fiery
fountain, of fuch immenfe magnitude, on the dark
ground juft mentioned, made the fineft contraft imagi¬
nable ; and the blaze of it refle&ed from the furface of
the fea, which was at that time perfe£lly fmooth, added
greatly to this fublime view.
The lava, mixed with ftones and fcorise, having rifen
to the amazing height already mentioned, was partly
directed by the wind towards Oltaiano, and partly fall¬
ing, ftill red hot and liquid, upon the top of Vefuvius,
covered its whole cone, part of that of the. fummit of
Somma, and the valley between them. The falling
matter, being nearly as inflamed and vivid as that which
was continually iffuing frefh from the crater, formed
with it one complete body of fire, which could not be
lefs than two miles and a half in breadth, and of the
extraordinary height above mentioned, and caft a heat to
the diftance of at leaft fix miles round. The brsffiwood
on the mountain of Somma was foon in a blaze, and the
flame of it being of a different colour from the deep red
of the matter thrown out by the volcano, and from the
filvery blue of the eledftrical fire, ftill added to the con-
traft of this moft extraordinary fcene.
The black cloud, increafing greatly, once bent to¬
wards Naples, and threatened the city with fpeedy de-
ftrudtion ; for if was charged with electrical fire, which
kept conftantly darting about in bright zig-zag lines.
This fire, however, rarely quitted the cloud, but ufual-
ly returned to the great column of fire whence it pro-
ceeded ; though once or twice it was feen to fall on the
top of Somma. and fet fire to fome dry grafs and bufhes.
Fortunately the wind carried back the cloud juft as it
reached the city, and had begun to occafion great
alarm. The column of fire, however, ftill continued,
and diffufed fuch a ftrong light, that the moft minute
obje&s could be difcerned at the diftance of ten miles or
more from the mountain. Mr Morris informed our au¬
thor, that at Sorrento, which is IS miles diftant from
[ 559 1
V E S
Vefuvius, he read the title-page of a book by that vol- Vefuvius.
canic light. ' v f
All this time the miferable inhabitants Ottaianoj-,^^, of
were involved in the utmoft diftrefs and danger by the the inhabfc.
fliowers of ftones which fell upon them, and which, had rants of
the eruption continued for a longer time, would moft f,Uaiani9*
certainly have reduced their town to the fame fituation
with Herculaneum and Pompeii. The mountain of
Somma, at the foot of which the town of Ottaiano is
fituated, hides Vefuvius from the view of its inhabi¬
tants j fo that till the eruption became confiderable it
was not vifible to them. On Sunday night, when the
noife increafed, and the fire began to appear above the
mountain of Somma, many of the inhabitants flew to
the churches, and others were preparing to quit the
town, when a hidden and violent report was heard j
foon after which they found themfelves involved in a
thick cloud of fmoke and afhes ^ a horrid ci afhing noife
was heard in the air, and prefently fell a vaft fhower of
ftones and large pieces of fcorire, fome of which were-
of the diameter of feven or eight feet, which muft have
weighed more than lOOO pounds before they were bro¬
ken, as fome of the fragments which Sir William Ha¬
milton found in the ftreets ftill weighed upwards of 6a
pounds. When thefe large vitrified maffes either ftruck
againft one another in the air, or fell on the ground,
they broke in many pieces, and covered a large fpace of
ground with vivid fparks of fire, which communicated
their heat to every thing that was combuftible. Thefe
maffes were formed of the liquid lava j the exterior
parts of which were become black and porous by cool¬
ing in their fall through fuch a vaft fpace , whilft the
interior parts, lefs expofed,. retained an extreme heat*
and were perfeflly- red.
In an inftant the town and country about it was on
fire in many parts, for there were feverai ftraw huts in
the vineyards, which had been ertfled for the watch¬
men of the grapes; all of which were burnt. A great
magazine of wood in the heart of the town was all in a.
blaze ; and had there been much wind, the flames muft
have fpread univerfally, and all the inhabitants would
have been burnt in their houfes j for it was impoflible
for them to llir out. Some, who attempted it with pil¬
lows, tables, chairs, the tops of wine cafks, &c. on
their heads, were either knocked down or foon driven
back to their clofe quarters under arches and in the cel¬
lars-of their houfes. . Many, rvere wounded, but only
two perfons died of their wounds, .
To add to the horror of the fcene, inceffant volcanic
lightning was whifking about the black cloud that fur-
rounded them, and the fulphureous fmell and heat
would fcarcely allow them to draw their breath. In
this dreadful fituation they remained about 25 minutes,
when, the volcanic ftorm ceafed all at once, and Vefu¬
vius remained fullen and filent.
Some time after the eruption had ceafed, the air con- 9
tinued greatly impregnated with efefbical matter. The Yafto^air"
duke of Cottofiano told our author, that having, about jg^ric maw
half an hour after the great eruption had ceafed, held a ter in the
Leyden bottle, armed with a pointed wire, out at his air.
window at Naples, it foon became confiderably charged.
But whilft the eruption was in force, its appearance was
too alarming to allow one to think of inch experiments.
•—He was informed alfo by the prince of Monte Mileto,
ths£
YES [ 560 ] VIC
Vefuvius. that his fon, the duke of Popoli, who was at Monte
'—-y——' jvnieto the 8th of Auguft, had been alarmed by the
fhower of cinders that fell there j fome of which he had
fent to Naples weighing two ounces j and that (tones of
an ounce weight had fallen upon an eftate of his ten
miles farther off. Monte Mileto is about 30 miles
from the volcano. The abbe Cagliani alfo related, that
his filter, a nun in a convent at Manfredonia, had writ¬
ten to inquire after him, imagining that Naples muft
have been deftroyed, when they, at fo greet a diftance,
had been alarmed by a (hower of a(hes which fell on the
city at 11 o’clock at night, fo much as to open all the
churches, and go to prayers. As the great eruption
happened at nine o’clock, thefe a(hes muft have travel¬
led 100 miles in the fpace of two hours.
Nothing could be more difmal than the appearance
of Ottaiano after this eruption. The houfes were un-
the emp- roofed, half buried under the black fcorise and afhes $
Ottaiano t^ie widows towards the mountain were broken,
and fome of the houfes themfelves burnt 5 the ftreets
choked up with alhes, in fome narrow places not lefs
than four feet thick ; and a few of the inhabitants who
had juft returned, were employed in clearing them
away, and piling them up in hillocks, to get at their
ruined houfes. The palace of the prince of Ottaiano is
lituated on an eminence above the town, and nearer the
mountain. The fteps leading up to it were deeply co¬
vered with volcanic matter j the roof was totally de¬
ftroyed, and the windows broken, but the houfe itfelf,
n being ftrongly built, had not fuffered much.
Vaft frag- An incredible number of fragments of lava were
ments of thrown out during the eruption, fome of which were of
thrown immenfe magnitude. The large!! meafured by Sir Wil-
out. ham Hamilton was 108 feet in circumference and 17
in height. This was thrown at leal! a quarter of a mile
clear of the mouth of the volcano. Another, 66 feet
in circumference and 19 in height, being nearly of a
fpherical figure, was thrown out at the fame time, and
lay near the former. This laft had the marks of being
rounded, nay almoft polilhed, by continual rolling in
torrents or on the fea-lhore. Our author conje£!ures
that it might be a fpherical volcanic fait, fuch as that
of 45 feet in circumference mentioned by M. de St
Fond, in his Treatife of Extinguilhed Volcanoes. A
third of 16 feet in height and 92 in circumference was
thrown much farther, and lay in the valley between
Vefuvius and the Hermitage. It appeared alfo, from
the large fragments that furrounded this mafs, that it
had been much larger while in the air.
Vefuvius continued to emit fmoke for a confiderable
time after this great eruption, fo that our author was
apprehenfive that another would foon enfue 5 but from
that time nothing comparable to the above has taken
place. From the time of this great eruption to the
year 1784 our author kept an exadt diary of the opera¬
tions of Vefuvius, with drawings, Ihowing, by the
quantity of fmoke, the degree of fermentation within
the volcano. The operations of the fubterraneous fire,
however, appear to be very capricious and uncertain.
One day there is the appearance of a violent fer¬
mentation, and the next every thing is tranquil-, but
whenever there has been a confiderable ejedlion of fcoriae
and cinders, it has been a conftant obfervation, that the
lava foon made its appearance, either by boiling over the
4
10
Damage
done by-
crater, or forcing its way through the crevices in the Vetch
conical part of the mountain. An eruption took place
in the month of November 1 784, and continued for fome ,
time, but without any remarkable circufaftance.
VETCH. See Vicia, Botany Index.
VETERAN, among the ancient Romans, an appel¬
lation given to a fotdier grown old in the fervice, or
who had made a certain number of campaigns.
VETERINARY art. See Farriery.
VEXILLUM, in Botany ; the upper petal of a pea-
bloom, or buttertly-lhaped tlower, which is generally
larger than any of the others.
VTALES, in mythology, a name given among the
Romans to the gods who had the care and guard of the
roads and highways.
VIATICUM, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given in common to all officers of any of the magi-
ftrates ; as liBors, accenji, feribes, criers.
V1BEX, is fometimes ufe-d by phyficians, for a black
and blue fpot in the (kin occafioned by an efflux or ex-
travafation of blood.
VIBRATION, in Mechanics, a regular, reciprocal
motion of a body, as a pendulum.
VIBURNUM, a genus of plants of the clafs pentan-
dria ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 43d
order, Dumofce. See Botany Index.
VICAR, a perfon appointed as deputy to another, to
perform his fun&ions in his abfence, and under his au¬
thority.
Vicar, in the canon-law, denotes a prieft of a pariffl,
the predial tithes whereof are impropriated or appropri¬
ated j that is, belong either to a chapter, religious
houfe, &c. or to a layman who receives them, and only
allows the vicar the fmall tithes, or a convenient falary.
See the article PARSON and Vicar.
VICE, in ethics, is ordinarily defined an eledlive
habit, denoting either an excels or defeft from the juft
medium wherein virtue is placed.
Vice, in fmithery and other arts converfant in me¬
tals, a machine or inftrument ferving to hold fall any
thing tkey are at work upon, whether it is to be beaten,
filed, or rivetted.
Vice is alfo ufed in the compofition of divers words
to denote the relation of fomething that comes inftead
or in the place of another; as vice-admiral, vice-chan¬
cellor, &c. are officers who take place in the abfence of
admirals, &c.
VICEHOY, a governor of a kingdom, who com¬
mands in the name and inftead of a king, with full and
fovereign authority.
VICIA, a genus of plants of the clafs diadelphia j
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 3 2d order,
Papilionacece. See Botany Index.
VICISSITUDE, the regular fucceffion of one thing
after another as the viciffitude of day and night, of
the feafons, &c.
VICTIM, denotes a facrifice offered to fome deity,
of a living creature, as a man or beaft, which is (lain to
, appeafe his wrath, or to obtain fome favour.
VICTOR, Sextus Aurelius, a Roman hiftorian,
•who flourilhed under the emperors Conftantius and Ju¬
lian ; as we learn from many paflages in his own writ¬
ings, and alfo from Ammianus Marcellinus. This hif-
torian relates, that Conftantius made him conful, and
honoured
VIE r 561 1 V 1 G
Vidory honoured him with a brazen ftatue, on account of his
II excellent qualifications j although, as he owns of him-
Vienna. jje was jj0rn jn an 0bfcure village, and of poor and
y illiterate parents. It is commonly believed that he was
an African : it is certain, that he dwells much upon
the praifes of that country, which he calls the glory of
the earth j t/tcus terr arum. Two books of his are ex¬
tant in the hiftorical w'ay : one De viris illujlribus urbis
Romce; the other, De Ccefaribus; to which is prefixed
Libel/us de origine gentis Romanes. The whole makes
an abridged hiftory of Rome, from its foundation down
to the reign of Julian inclufive.
VICTORY, the overthrow or defeat of an enemy in
war or combat.
Victory, in Pagan ivorlhip, is reprefented by He-
liod as the daughter of Styx and Pallas; and Varro
calls her the daughter of Heaven and Earth. The Ro¬
mans erefted a temple to her, where they prayed to the
gods to give fuccefs to their arms. They painted her
in the form of a woman, clad in cloth of gold. In
fome medals, flie is reprefented with wings flying
through the air, holding a laurel crown in one hand and
a palm in the other j but in other medals, (he is feen
Handing upon a globe, with the fame crown and branch
of palm.
VIDA, Marcus Hieronymus, bilhop of Alva, in
Montferrat, and one of the mod excellent Latin poets
that have appeared fince the Auguflan age, was born at
Cremona in 1470. Having diftinguilhed himfelf by his
learning and tafte for literature, he was made bilhop of
Alva in 1552. After continuing two years with Pope
Clement VII. at Rome, he went to refide upon his fee j
where, for 30 years, he performed all the offices of a
good bilhop and a good man 5 and though he was mild,
gentle, and full of goodnefs, Tie was fo far from want¬
ing fpirit, that when the city of Alva was befieged by
the French, he ufed all polfible means to prevent its
being given up, by ftrenuoully exhorting the people,
and, when provifions were fcarce, by fupplying them at
his own expence. His Poetics, and poem on the filk-
worm, pafs for his mafterpiece ; his poem on the game
of chefs is alfo greatly admired. He alfo wrrote hymns,
eclogues, and a poem entitled Chrijiiados in fix books j
all which are in Latin, and have gained him a great re¬
putation. His w'orks in profe confift of dialogues, fy-
nodical conftitutions, letters, and other pieces. He died
in 1566, foon after being made bilhop of Cremona.
VIENNA, the capital of the circle of Auftria, in
Germany, and of the whole German empire, is the place
where the emperor refides. The city itfelf is not of very
great extent; nor can it be enlarged, it being limited
by a very ftrong fortification j but it is very populous.
The ftreets, in general, are narrow, and the houfes built
high. Some of the public buildings are magnificent;
but they appear externally to no great advantage, on ac¬
count of the narrownefs of the ftreets. The chief of
them are the imperial palace, the library, and the mu-
feum ; the palaces of the princes Lichtenftein, Eugene,
&c. Vienna was twice inefFeftually befieged by the
Turks ; namely, in 1589 and 1683. At the latter pe¬
riod, the liege was railed by John Sobielki, king of Po¬
land, who totally defeated the Turkith army before the
walls of this place. There is no great danger that Vien¬
na will ever again be fubjefted to the inconveniences of
a liege. Yet, in cafe that Ihould happen, a meafure has
Vol. XX. Part II.
been taken, which will prevent the neceflity of deftroy- Vienna,
ing the fuburbs j namely, no houfes without the walls vigil.
are allowed to be built nearer to the glacis than 600 ■Y""—
yards j fo that there is a circular field of that breadth
all round the town,, which, exclufive of the advantage
above-mentioned, has a very beautiful and falutary ef-
fe<ft. Thefe magnificent fuburbs, and the town together,
are faid to contain above 300,000 inhabitants ; yet the
former are not near fo populous, in proportion to their
fize, as the town j becaufe many houfes in the fuburbs
have extenfive gardens belonging to them, and many fa¬
milies, who live during the winter within the fortifica¬
tions, fpend the fummer in the fuburbs. The cathedral
is built of free-ftone, is 114 yards long, and 48 broad,
and the fteeple is 447 feet high. Inftead of a weather¬
cock there was a Turkilh crefcent, in memory of the
fiege in 1589 j but, after the fecond fiege in 1683, it was
changed for a golden crofs, which three months after
w’as thrown down by a ftorm. At prefent there is a
black fpread eagle, over W’hich is a gilded crofs. Join¬
ing to this church is the archbilhop’s palace, the front of
which is very fine. The univerfity had feveral thoufand
Undents, who, when this city w^as befieged, mounted
guard, as they did alfo in 1741. Befide this, there is
the academy of Lower Auftria j and the archducal lib¬
rary is much frequented by foreigners, as it contains a-
bove 100,000 printed books, and 10,000 manufcripts.
The academy of painting is remarkable for the fine pic¬
tures it produces. The archducal treafury, and a cabi¬
net of curiofities of the houfe of Auftria, are great rari¬
ties. The inhabitants, in general, live in a fplendid
manner ; and people of diftin&ion have all forts of wines
at their tables, which they are very free with to foreign¬
ers. There is a fort of harbour on the Danube, where
there are magazines of naval ftores, and Ihips have been
fitted out to ferve on that river againft the Turks. Vien¬
na is an archbiftiop’s fee. It is feated at the place where
the river Vienna or Wein, falls into the Danube, 33
miles weft of Prefburgh, 350 north-north-eaft of Rome,
520 fouth-eaft by fouth of Amfterdam, 565 eaft of Paris,
and 680 eaft-fouth eaft of London. E. Long. 16. 28.
N. Lat. 48. 13.
VIGIL, in church hiftory, is the eve or next day be-
before any folemn feaft ; becaufe then Chriftians were
wont to watch, faft, and pray, in their churches.
Vigils of P/ants, a term under which botanifts com¬
prehend the precife time of the day in which the flowers
of different plants open, expand, and (hut.
As all plants do not flower in the fame feafon, or
month; in like manner, thofe which flower the fame
day, in the fame place, do not open and ftiut precifeiy
at the fame hour. Some open in the morning, as the
lip flowers, and compound flowers with flat Ipreading
petals} others at noon, as the mallows 5 and a third fet
in the evening, or after funfet, as fome geraniums and
opuntias : the hour of {hutting is equally determined.
Of thofe which open in the morning, fome {hut foon af¬
ter, w’hile others remain expanded till night.
The hours of opening, like the time of flowering, feem
to vary, according to the fpecies of the plant, the tem¬
perature of the climate, and that of the feafon. Flowers,
W'hofe extreme delicacy would be hurt by the ftrong im-
prefifions of an ardent fun, do not open till night ; thofe
which require a moderate degree of heat to elevate their
juices) in ether words, whole juices do not rife but in
4 B tbe
V I L f 562 1 V I L
Vif il morning or evening, do not expand till tken ; wliilft
Villenan-e need a more lively heat for the'fame pur-
& pofe, expand at noon, when the fun is in his meridian
ftrength. Hence it is, that the heat of the air being
greater betwixt the tropics than elfewhere, pl’Snts which
are tranfported from thofe climates into the cold or tem¬
perate climates of Europe, expand their flowers much
later than in their native foil. Thus, a flower which
opens in fummer at fix o’clock in the morning at Sene¬
gal, will not open at the fame feafon in France and Eng¬
land till eight or nine, nor in Sweden till ten.
Linnaeus ditlinguithes by the general name offolar
{flaresfolares) all thofe flowers which obferve a deter¬
minate time in opening and limiting. Thefe flowers are
again divided, from certain circumftances, into three fpe-
cies, or kinds :
Equinodlial flowers {flares cequinoBiales') are fuel) as
open and Ihut at all feaions, at a certain fixed or deter¬
minate hour.
Tropical flowers (/lores tropici') are fuch whofe hour
of opening is not fixed at all ieafons, but accelerated or
retarded according a>s the length of the day is increafed
or diminifhed.
Meteorous flowers flares meteorici^) are fuch whofe
hour of expansion depends upon the dry or humid Hale
of the air, and the greater or lefs preflure of the atmo-
fphere. Or this kind is the Siberian fow-thiftle, which
Ihuts at night if the enfuing day is to be clear and ferene,
and opens if it is to be cloudy and rainy. In like man¬
ner the African marigold, which in dry ferene weather
opens at fix or feven in the morning, and Ihuts at four
o’clock in the afternoon, is a fore indication that rain
will fall during the courib of the day, when it continues
Ihut after leven.
VIGO, a fea port town of Galicia in Spain, with an
old caflle and a fort. It is feated in a fertile country by
the fea-fide. It was rendered famous by a fea-fight be¬
tween the confederate fleet commanded by Sir George
Rook, and a fquadron of French men of war, while the
duke of Ormond with a body of laiid forces drove the
Spaniards from the caflles which defended the harbour.
Admiral Hopfon having with infinite danger broken
through the boom made acrofs the mouth of the har¬
bour, the Englifh took four galleons and five large men
of war, and the Dutch five galleons and one man of
war. Four galleons, with 14 men of war, were deftroy-
ed, with abundance of plate and other rich effebls. W.
Long. 8. 21. N. Lat. 42. 3.
VILLA Franca, the name of feveral towns ; one
in Piedmont, three miles eaft of Nice ; another of Cata¬
lonia, 18 miles wreft of Barcelona ; a third, the capital
of St Michael, one of the Azores j and a fourth, a
town of Eftremadura in Spain, 57 miles fouth eaft of
Salamanca.
VILLAGE, an aflemblage ofhoufes inhabited chiefly
by peafants and farmers, and having no market, where¬
by it is diftinguiflied from a town. The word is French,
formed of ml or mils, “ low, mean, contemptible or
rather, from the Latin villa, a country-houfe or farm.
VILLAIN, or Villein, in our ancient cufloms, de¬
notes a man of fervile or bafe condition, viz. a bondman
or fervant.
VILLENAGE, in Leva. The folk-land or eftztes
held in villenage, wTas a fpecies of tenure neither ftri£Hy
feodal, Norman, or Saxon 5 but mixed and compounded
of them all; and which alfo, on account of the he riots Villenage.
that ufually attend it, may feem to have fomewhat Dan-
ilh in its compofilion. Under the Saxon government
there were, as Sir William Temple fpeaks, a fort of
people in a condition of downright lervitude, ufed and
employed in the moft fervile works, and belonging, both
they, their children, and effects, to the lord of the foil,
like the reft of the cattle or flock upon it. Theie feem
to have been thofe who held what was called the folk-
land, from which they were removeable at the lord’s plea-
fure. On the arrival of the Normans here, it feems not
improbable, that they, who were ftrangers to any other
than a feodal ftate, might give feme Iparks of enfran-
chifement to fuch wretched perfons as fell to their (hart,
by admitting them, as well as others, to the oath of
fealty ) which conferred a right of proteftion, and rail¬
ed the tenant to a kind of eitate foperior to downright
flavery, but inferior to every other condition. This they
called villenage, and the tenants villeins.
Thefe villeins, belonging principally to lords of ma¬
nors, were either villeins regardant, that is, annexed to
the manor or land : or elfe they were in grofs, or at
large, that is, annexed to the perfon of the lord, and
transferable by deed from one owner to another. They
could net leave their lord without his permiflion 3 but,
ir they ran away, or were purloined from him, might
be claimed and recoveied by aiftion, like beafts or other
chattels. They held indeed fmall portions of land by
way of fuflaining themfelves and families : but it was at
the mere will of the lord, who might difpofiefs them
whenever he pleafed 3 and it was upon villein fervices,
that is, to carry out dung, to hedge and ditch the lord’s
demefnes, and any other the meanefl oflices: and their
fervices were not only bafe, but uncertain both as to
their time and quantity.
A villein could acquire no property either in lands or
goods: if he purchafed either, the lord might feize them
to his own ufe 3 unlefs he contrived to difpofe of them
again before the lord had feized them, for the lord had
then loll his opportunity.
In many places alio a fine was payable to the lord, if
the villein prelumed to marry his daughter to any one
with leave from the lord : and, by the common law, the
lord might alfo bring an adlion againft the hulband for
damages in thus purloining his property. For the child¬
ren of villeins were alfo in the fame ftate of bondage
with their parents 3 whence they were called in Latin
nativi, which gave rife to the female appellation of a
villein, who was called a neife. In cafe of a marriage
between a freeman and a neife, or a villein and a free-
woman, the iffue followed the condition of the father,
being free if he was free, and a villein if he was villein,
contrary to the maxim of the civil law, that partus fe-
quitur Ventrem. But no baftard could be born a villein,
becaule by another maxim of our law he is nullius flius;
and as he can gain nothing by inheritance, it were hard
that he fliould lofe his natural freedom by it. The law,
however, protected the perfons of villeins againft atroci¬
ous injuries of the lord : for he might not kill or maim
his villein 3 though he might beat him with impunity.
Villeins might be enfranchifed by manumiffion. In
procefs of lime they gained confiderable ground on their
lords; and in particular ftrengthened the tenure of their
eftates to that degree, that they came to have in them
an intereft in many places full as good, in others better
V I L [ 563 ] V I N
Villenage. than their lords. For the good nature and benevolence
0f many lords of manors having, time out of mind, per¬
mitted their villeins and their children to enjoy their pof-
feflions without interruption, in a regular courfe of de-
fcent, the common law, of which cuftom is the life, now
gave them title to prefcribe againft their lords; and, on
performance of the fame fervices, to hold their lands, in
i'pite of any determination of the lord’s will. For though
in general they are hill faid to hold their eftates at the
will of the lord, yet it is fuch a will as is agreeable to the
cuftom of the manor) which cuftoms are prefer ved and evi¬
denced by the rolls of the feveral courts-baron in which
they are entered, or kept on foot by the conftant imme¬
morial ufage of the feveral manors in which the lands
lie. And as fuch tenants had nothing to (how for their
eftates but thofe cuftoms, and admiflions in purfuance of
them, entered on thefe rolls, or the copies of fuch en¬
tries w'itneffed by the fteward, they now began to be
called tenants by copy of court-roll, and their tenure it-
felf a copyhold.
Privileged VlJ.LENAGE, a fpecies of tenure otherwife
called villein-foca^e. See Tenure.
Ancient demelne confifts of thofe lands or manors
which, though now perhaps granted out to private fub-
je<fts, w7ere a£tualiy in the hands of the crowm in the time
of Edw7ard the Confcffor, or William the Conqueror j
and fo appear to have been, by the great furvey in the
exchequer, called the doo/nfdap-boob. The tenants of
thefe lands, under the crown,, were not all of the fame
order or degree. Some of them, as Britton teftifies,
continued for a long time pure and abfolute villeins, de¬
pendent on the will of the lord ; and common copy-
holders in only a few points. Others were in a great
meafure enfranchifed by the royal favour ; being only
bound in refpeft of their lands to perform fome of the
better fort of villein-fervices, but thofe determinate and
certain ; as, to plough the king’s land for fo many days,
to fupply his court with fuch a quantity of prorvftons,
and the like 5 all of which are now changed into pecu¬
niary rents : and in confideration hereof they had many
immunities And privileges granted to them •, as, to try the
right of their property in a peculiar court of their own,
called a court of ancient demefne, by a peculiar procefs
denominated a writ of right clofe ; not to pay toll or
taxes-, not to contribute to the expences of knights of
the (hire •, not to be put on juries, and the like.
Thefe tenants therefore, though their tenure be abfo*
lately copyhold, yet have an intereft equivalent to a
freehold : for though their fervices were of a bafe and
and villenous original, yet the tenants were efteemed in
all others refpe&s to be highly privileged villeins •, and
efpecially for that their fervices were fixed and determi¬
nate, and that they could not be compelled (like pure vil¬
leins) to relinquifti thofe tenements at the lords’s will, or
to hold them againft their own : et idea (fays Brafton)
dicuntur liberi.
Lands holding by this tenure are therefore a fpecies
of copyhold, and as fuch preferved and exempted from
the operation of the ftatute of Charles II. Yet they dif¬
fer from common copyholds, principally in the privi¬
leges before mentioned : as alfo they differ from free¬
holders by one efpecial mark and tinfture of villenage,
noted by Brafton, and remaining to this day ; viz. that
they cannot be conveyed from man to man by the gene¬
ral cammon-law conveyances of feoffment, and the reft j
but muft pafs by furrender to the lord or his fteward, in
the manner of common copyholds: yet with the differ-^
ence, that, in the furrenders of thefc lands in ancient de-
mefne, it is not ufed to fay, “ to hold at the will of their
lord,” in their copies 5 but only, “ to hold according to
the cuftom of the manor.”
VILLI, among botanifts, a kind of down like fhort
hair, with which fome trees abound.
VILLOSE, or Villous, fomething abounding with
villi or fibres like fhort hair j fuch is one of the coats of
the ftomach.
VINCA, a genus of plants of the clafs pentandria j
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 30th or¬
der, Contortce. See Botany Index.
St VINCENT, one of the windward Caribbee
iflands, which received its name from being difeovered
on the 2 2d of January, the feaft of that Saint. It is in¬
habited by a race of people, of whom Dr Robertfbn
gives this account: “ There is a great diftinftion in
character between the Caribbees and the inhabitants of
the larger iftands. The former appear manifeftly to be a
feparate race. Their language is totally different fiom
that of their neighbours in the large iflands. They
themfelves have a tradition that their anceftors came ori¬
ginally from fome part of the continent, and having con¬
quered and exterminated the ancient inhabitants, took
poffeffion of their lands and of their women. Hence
they call themfelves Banaree, which fignifies a man
come from beyond fea. Accordingly, the Caribbees
ftill ufe two diftinft languages, one peculiar to the men,
and the other to the women. The language of the men
has nothing common with that fpoken in the large
iilands. The dialeft of the women confiderabiy refem-
bles it. This ftrongly confirms the tradition which I
have mentioned. The Caribbees themfelves imagine that
they rvere a colony from the Galibis, a powerful nation
of Guiana in South Jkmerica. But as their fierce man¬
ners approach nearer to thofe of the people in the
northern continent, than to thofe of the natives of South
America, and as their language has likewife fome affini¬
ty to that fpoken in Florida, their origin ffiould be de¬
duced rather from the former than from the latter. In
their wars they ftill preferve their ancient practice of de-
ftroying all the males, and preferving the women either
for fervitude or for breeding.”
It remained a long time after it w7as difeovered inha¬
bited by thefe people, and by another race improperly
ftyled Black Caribs, who are in reality negroes defeend-
ed, as is generally believed, from fome who efcaped out
of a Guinea drip wrecked upon the coaft, and gradually
augmented by fuch as from time to time fled thither
from Barbadoes. Thefe nations were often at war ; but
when their quarrels were compofed, they had a ftrength
fufficient to prevent ftrangers from fettling by force.
The French, about half a century ago, at the requeft of
the Garibs, made a defeent from Martinico, and attacked
the negroes, but were repulfed with lofs *, and found it
their intereft to conciliate a friendffiip with both nations
by means of prefents, and furnithing them with arms
and ammunition.
St Vincent was long a neutral ifland *, but, at the
peace of 1763, the French agreed that the right to it
fhould be veiled in the Englilh j who, in the fequel, at
the inftance of fome rapacious planters, engaged in an
unjuft war againft the Caribbees, who inhabited the
4 B 2 windward
YIN [ 564 ] V I R
St Vincent, windward fide of the ifland, and who were obliged to
t ^ mci‘ confent to a peace, by which they ceded a very large
tradt of valuable land to the crown. The confequence
of this was, that in the next war, in 1779, they greatly
contributed to the reduftion of this ifland by the French,
who, however, reftored it by the peace of 1783. Since
that time it has continued in the pofleflion of Great Bri¬
tain. During the French revolutionary war, the Ca-
ribs revolted ; and, aflifted by the French, fpread defo-
lation over the whole ifland $ but by the exertions of the
governor and the Britifh forces in the Weft Indies, the
revolt was quelled.
St Vincent is in length about 24 miles, and about 18
in breadth. The climate is very warm. The country
is in generally hilly, in fome places mountainous j but
interfperfed wdth a variety of pleafant valleys, and
fome luxuriant plains, the foil being everywhere very
fertile, and the high grounds are at leaft in general eafy
of afcent. Few iflands are fo well watered with rivers
and fprings. The inhabitants raife all kinds of ground
provifions in plenty. The rivers fupply them with va¬
riety of fifti. W. Long, 6i°. N. Lat. 130.
VINCI, Leonardo da, an illuftrious Italian pain¬
ter, defcended from a noble Tufcan family, was born in
the caftle of Vinci, near Florence in 1445. He was
placed under Andrea Verochia, a celebrated painter in
that city ; but foon furpafled him and all his predeceflbrs
fo much, as to be reputed the mafter of the third or
golden age of modern painting. But his ftudies were
far from terminating herej no man’s genius was more
univerfal: he applied himlelf to arts, to literature, and
to the accomplifhments of the body ; and fie excelled in
every thing which he attempted. Lewis Sforza duke
of Milan prevailed on him to be diredfor of the academy
for architedhire he had juft eftabliftied j where Leonardo
foon banifhed all the Gothic fafhions, and reduced every
thing to the happy fimplicity of the Greek and Roman
ftyle. By the duke’s order he conftrudted the famous
aquedudl that fupplies the city of Milan with water:
this canal goes by the name of Mortefana, being above
200 miles in length, and condu&s the water of the river
Adda quite to the walls of the city. In 1479, he was
defired to conftruc! fome new device for the entertain¬
ment of Louis XII. of France, who was then to make
bis entrance into Milan. Leonardo accordingly made
a very curious automaton in the form of a lion, which
marched out to meet the king, reared up on its hinder
legs before him, and opening its breaft, difplayed an
efcutcheon with fleurs de lys quartered on it. The dif-
orders of Lombardy, with the misfortunes of his patrons
the Sforzi, obliging Leonardo to quit Milan, he retired
to Florence, where he flourifhed under the Medici:
here he raifed the envy of Michael Angelo, who was his
contemporary; and Raphael, from the ftudy of his
works, acquired his beft manner of defigning. At
length, on the invitation of Francis I. he removed to
France when above 70 years of age ; where the journey
and change of climate threw him into his laft ficknefs :
he languilhed for fome months at Fontainbleau, where
tne king came frequently to fee him ; and one day ri-
fing up in bis bed to acknowledge the honour done him,
be fainted, and Francis fupporting him, Leonardo died
in his arms. His death happened in 15 20. Some of
his paintings are to be feen in England and other coun¬
tries, but the greateft part of them are in Florence and
France. He compofed a great number of difeourfes on Vinculum
curious fubje&s; but none of them have been pub- .11.
liftied but his treatife on the Art of Painting.—For his,
anatomical knowledge, fee Anatomy (hiftory of),
p. 669.
VINCULUM, m Algebra, a character in form of a line
or ftroke drawn over a fadlor, divifor, or dividend, when
compounded of feveral letters or quantities to conne&
them, and ftiows that they are to be multiplied or divided,
&c. together by the other term.
Thus d a b —— c Ihows that d is to be multiplied
into a-\-b—c.
VINE. See Vitis, Botany Index.
VINEGAR, Acetum, an agreeable acid, prepared
from wine, cyder, beer, and other liquors; of confider-
able ufe, both as a medicine and a fauce. The word is
French, vinaigre ; formed from vin, “ wine and aigre,
“ four.” See Acetic Acid, and Chemistry Index.
Eels in Vinegar. See Animalcule, n° 9.
VINEYARD, a plantation of vines. The beft fi-
tuation of a vineyard is on the declivity of a hill facing
the fouth.
VIO, Thomas de. See Cajetan.
VIOL, a mufical inftrument of the fame form with
the violin, and, like that, ftruck with a bow.
VIOLA, a genus of plants of the cAals, fyngenejta }
in the natural fyftem arranged under the 29th order,
Campanacece. See Botany Index.
VIOLATION, the a£t of violating, that is, forcing
a woman, or committing a rape upon her.—This term
is alfo ufed in a moral fenfe, for a breach or infringe¬
ment of a law, ordinance, or the like.
VIOLET. See Viola, Botany Index.
VlOLET-Crab. See Cancer, Entomology Index.
VIOLIN, or Fiddle, a mufical inftrument mounted
with four firings or guts, and ftruck or played with a
bow. The ftyle and found of the violin is the gayeft
and moft fprightly of all other inftruments; and hence
it is of all others the fitteft for dancing. Yet there are
tvays of touching it, which render it grave, foft, lan-
guilhing, and fit for church or chamber mufic.—It ge¬
nerally makes the treble or higheft parts in concerts.
Its harmony is from fifth to fifth. Its play is compofed
of bafs, counter-tenor, tenor, and treble ; to which may
be added, a fifth part: each part has four fifths, which
rife to a greater feventeenth.
VIOLONCELLO, of the Italians, is properly our
fifth violin ; wdrich is a little bals violin half the fize of
the common bafs violin, and the firings bigger and longer
in proportion : confequently its found is an oftave lower
than our bafs violin ; which has a noble effedi in con¬
certs.
VIPER. See Ophiology Index.
VIRAGO, a wmman of extraordinary ftature and cou¬
rage ; who has the mein and air of a man, and performs
the aftions and exercifes of men.
VIRGIL, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the moft
excellent of all the Latin poets, was the fon of a potter
of Andes, near Mantua, where he was born, 70 years
B. C. He ftudied firft at Mantua; then at Cremona,
Milan, and Naples; whence going to Rome, he acquir¬
ed the efteem of the greateft wits and moft illuftrious per-
fons of his time ; and among others of the emperor Au-
guftus, Maecenas, and Pollio. He was well flailed not on¬
ly in polite literature and poetry, but alfo in philofophy.
V I R
Virgil, the mathematics, geography, medicine, and natural hi-
* ftory. Though one of the greateft geniufes of his age,
and the admiration of the Romans, he always preferved
a lingular modefty, and lived chafte at a time when the
manners of the people were extremely corrupt. He car¬
ried Latin poetry to fuch an high perfeftion, that he was
juftly eileemed the prince of Latin poets. He firft turn¬
ed himfelf to paftoral j and being captivated with the
beauty and fweetnefs of Theocritus, was ambitious to
introduce this new fpecies of poetry among the Romans.
His firft performance in this way is fuppofed to have
been written U. C. 907, the year before the death of
Julius Caefar, wdien the poet was in his 25th year : it is
intitled Alexis. Poflibly Palcemon was his fecond : it
is a clofe imitation of the fourth and fifth Idylls of Theo¬
critus. Mr Wharton places Si/enus next $ which is faid
to have been publicly recited on the ftage by Cytheris,
a celebrated comedian. Virgil’s fifth eclogue is com-
pofed in allufion to the death aiad deification of Caefar.
The battle of Philippi in 712 having put an end to the
Roman liberty, the veteran foldiers began to murmur
for their pay; and Auguftus, to rew-ard them, diftri-
buted among them the lands of Mantua and Cremona.
Virgil w'as involved in this common calamity ; and ap¬
plied to Varus and Pollio, who warmly recommended
him to Auguftus, and procured for him his patrimony
again. Full of gratitude to Auguftus, he compofed the
Tityrus, in which he introduces two fhepherds ; one of
them complaining of the diftra&ion of the times, and of
the havock the foldiers made among the Mantuan far¬
mers ; the other rejoicing for the recovery of his eftate,
and promifing to honour as a god the perfon who reftor-
ed it to him. But our poet’s joy was not of long conti¬
nuance j for we are told, that when he returned to take
pofleflion of his farm, he was violently aflaulted by the
intruder, and wmuld certainly have been killed by him
if he had not efcaped by fwimming haftily over the Min-
cio. Upon this unexpected difappointment, he returned
to Rome to renew his petition ; and during his journey
feems to have compofed his ninth eclogue. The cele¬
brated eclogue, intitled Pollis, w’as compofed U. C. 714,
upon the following occafion : The conful Pollio on the
part of Antony, and Maecenas on the part of Caefar,
had made up the differences between them ; by agree-
ing, that OCtavia, half-fifter to Caefar, ftiould be given
in ®ar5Iage to Antony. This agreement caufed an uni-
verfal joy ; and Virgil, in his eclogue, teftified his. Oc-
tfvia was with child by her late hufband Marcellus at
the time of this marriage ; and whereas the Sibylline o-
racles had foretold, that a child was to be born about
this time, who ftiould rule the world, and eftablifh per¬
petual^ peace, the poet ingenioufly fuppofes the child in
061 avia’s womb to be the glorious infant, under whofe
reign mankind was to be happy, the golden age to re¬
turn from heaven, and fraud and violence to be no more.
In this celebrated poem, the author, with great delicacy
at the fame time, pays his court to both the chiefs,
to his patron Pollio, to OClavia, and to the unborn
infant. In 715, Pollio was fent againft the Parthini,
a people of Illyricum ; and during this expedition, Vir¬
gil addreffed to him a beautiful eclogue, called Phar-
maceutria. His tenth and laft eclogue was addreffed to'
Gallus.
In his 34th year, he retired to Naples, and laid the
plan of his Georgies j which he undertook at the intrea¬
[ 565 ]
V I R
ties of Maecenas, to whom he dedicated them. This
wife and able minifter refolved, if pofiible, to revive the
decayed fpirit of hufbandry; to introduce a tafte for agri¬
culture, even among the great; and could not think
of a better method to effedl this, than to recommend it
by the infinuating charms of poetry. Virgil fully an-
fwered the expeflations of his patron by his Georgies.
X hey are divided into four books. Corn and ploughing
are the fubject of the firft, vines of the fecond, cattle of
the third, and bees of the fourth.
He is fuppofed to have been in his 45th year wherr
he began to write the iEneid ; the defign of which was
to reconcile the Romans to the government of Augu¬
ftus. Auguftus was eager to perufe this poem before it
was finifhed ; and intreated him by letters to communi¬
cate it. Macrobius has preferved to us part of one of
Virgil’s anfwers to the emperor, in which the poet ex-
cufes himfelf: who, however, at length complied, and
read himfelf the fixth book to the emperor j when Oc-
tavia, who had juft loft her fon Marccllus, the darling
of Rome, and adopted fon of Auguftus, made one of the-
audience. Virgil had artfully inferted that beautiful la¬
mentation for the death of young Marcellus, beginning
with—0 note, ingentem luBum ne queere tuorum but
fuppreffed his name till he came to the line—Tu Mar-
cellus eris : upon hearing which, Odlavia could bear no
more, but fainted away, overcome with furprife and for-
row. When (he recovered, fhe made the poet a prefent
of ten fefterces for every line, which amounted in the
whole to above 2000I.
The yEneid being brought to a conclufion, but not to
the perfe&ion our author intended to give it, he refolv¬
ed to travel into Greece, to corredl and polifti it at lei-
fure. It was probably on this occafion that Horace ad¬
dreffed that affedlionate ode to him, Sic te Diva; potent
Cypn,&c. Auguftus returning vi&orious from the eaft,
met with Virgil at Athens, who thought himfelf obli¬
ged to attend the emperor to Italy : but the poet was fud-
denly feized with a fatal diftemper, which being increaf-
ed by the agitation of the veffel, put an end to his life as
foon as he landed at Brundufium, in his 52ft year. He
had ordered in his will, that the iEneid fhould be burnt
as an unfinilhed poem j but Auguftus forbade it, and had
it delivered to Varius and Tucca, with the ftrkfteft
charge to make no additions, but only to publifti it cor-
reftly. He died with fuch fteadinefs and tranquillity,
as to be able to diclate his own epitaph in the following
words :
Virgil.
Mantua me genuit: Calabri rapuerey tenet nunc
Parthenope: cecini Pafcua, Kura, Duces.
His bones were carried to Naples, according to his ear-
neft requeft; and a monument was eredled at a fmalldx-
ftance from the city.
Virgil was of a fwarthy complexion, tall, of a fickly
conftitution, and affli&ed with frequent headachs and
fpitting of blood. He was fo very baftiful, that he of¬
ten ran into the (hops to prevent being gazed at in the
ftreets; yet was fo honoured by the Roman people, that
once coming into the theatre, the whole audience rofe
up out of refpeft to him. He was of a thoughtful and
melancholy temper; he fpoke little, and loved retire¬
ment and contemplation. His fortune was affluent ; he
had a fine houfe and well furniftied library near M*ce-
nas’s gardens, on the Efquiline mount at Rome, and al-
fa >
V I R [
Co a delightful villa in Sicily. He was fo benevolent
vi Jl . and inoffenfive, that molt of his contemporary poets,
£ ^ . tnrmrrh tV»P\7 r\tnr*r ocrrPHn in Invmrr ot-irl
though they envied each other, agreed in loving and
efteeming him. He revifed his veries with prodigious
ieverity ; and u£ed to compare himfelf to a the bear,
which licked her cubs into fhape.
The bed edition of Virgil’s works are thofe of Mof-
vicius, with the notes of Servius, printed at Levvarden
in 1717, two vols 410; and that of Burman, at Amfter-
dam, 1746, in four vols 410. There are feveral Englilh
tranflations, which are w'ell known.
VlRGIL, Folydere, an Englilh hiftorian, born at Ur-
bino in Italy, was fent in the beginning of the 16th
century, by Pope Alexander VI. as fub-colle£tor of the
Papal tax, called Peter-pence, in this kingdom. He had
not been long in England before he obtained preferment
in the church ; for in 1503 he wTas prefented to the rec¬
tory of Church-Langton in the archdeaconry of Lei-
celter. In 1507 he was collated to the prebend of
Scamleiby in the church of Lincoln ; and in the fame
year was made archdeacon of Wells, and prebendary of
Hereford. In 1513, he refigned his prebend of Lin¬
coln, and was collated to that of Oxgate in St Paul’s,
London. We are told, that on his preferment to the
archdeaconry of Wells, he refigned the office of fubcol-
leflor to the pope, and determined to fpend the remain¬
der of his life in England, the Hiftory of which king¬
dom he began in the year 1503, at the command of
Henry VII. That work coft him 12 years labour. In
1526, he finiffied his treatife on Prodigies. Polydore
continued in England during the w’hole reign of Henry
VIIL and part of that of Edward VI. whence it is con¬
cluded that he was a moderate Papift. In 1550, being
now an old man, he requelled leave to revifit his native
country. He was accordingly difmilTed with a prefent
of 300 crowns, together with the privilege of holding
his preferments to the end of his life. He died at Ur-
bino in the year 1555. As an hiltoriar., he is accufed
by fome as a malignant fianderer of the Englilh nation *,
yet Jovius remarks, that the French and Scotch accufe
him of having flattered that nation too much : (See his
plog. cap. 135. p. 179 ). Befides the above, he wrote,
I. De Rerum Inventoribus; of which an Englilh tianf-
lation uras publilhed by Langley in 1663. It was alfo
tranllated into French and Spanifh. 2. De Prodigiis et
Sortibus. 3. Epifcoporum Anglitv Catalogus. Manu-
fcript. 4. De Vita PerfeSia, Bafil, 1546, 1553, 8vo.
5. Epiflolce Erudittr ; and fome other works.
VIRGINIA, one of the United States of North A-
merica, is bounded on the call by the Atlantic ocean, on
the north by Pennfylvania and the river Ohio, on the
rveft by the Miffiffippi, on the fouth by North Carolina.
Thefe boundaries include an area fomewffiat triangu¬
lar of 121,525 miles, whereof 79,650 lie weflward of
the Alleghany mountains, and 57,034 weftward of the
meridian of the mouth of the Great Kanhaway. This
flate is therefore one third larger than the illands of
Great Britain and Ireland, which are reckoned at
88,357 fquare miles.
The principal rivers in Virginia are, Roanoke, James
river, which receives the Rivanna, Appammatox, Chic-
kahominy, Nanfemond, and Elizabeth rivers j York
river, which is formed by the jur.&ion of Pamunky and
Mattapony rivers j Rappahannock, and Patomack.
566 ] V I R
The mountains are not folitary and fcattered confuf- Vivgi
cdly over the face of the country j they commence at“"V
about 150 miles from the fea coaft, and are difpofed in
ridges one behind another, running nearly parallel with
the coaft, though rather approaching it as they advance
north-eaftwardly. To the fouth-well, as the traft of
country between the fea-coaft and the Miffiffipi becomes
narrower, the mountains converge into a Angle ridge, Jffirfon’s
which, as it approaches the gulf of Mexico, fubfides into VirSinia\
plain country, and gives rife to fome of the waters of
that gulf.
From the great extent of Virginia, it may be expell¬
ed that the climate i? not the fame in all its parts. It
is remarkable that, proceeding on the fame parallel of
Latitude weftwardly, the climate becomes colder in like
manner as when you proceed northwardly. This con¬
tinues to be the cafe till you attain the fummit of the
Alleghany, which is the highcll land between the ocean
and the Miffiffippi. From thence, defeending in the
fame latitude to the Miffiffippi, the change reveries ;
and, if we may believe travellers, it becomes warmer
there than it is in the fame latitude on the fea-fide.
Their teftimony is {Lengthened by the vegetables and
animals which fubfift and multiply there naturally, and
do not on the fea-coaft. Thus catalpas grow fponta-
neoufly on the Miffiffippi as far as the latitude of 37,
and reeds as far as 38, degrees. Perroquets even win¬
ter on the Sioto in the 39th degree of latitude. In the
fummer of 1779, vv^en the thermometer was at 90 de¬
grees at Monticello, and 96 degrees at Williamfburg,
it was no degrees at Kalkafkia. Perhaps the moun¬
tain, which overhangs this village on the north fide,
may by its refleflion have contributed fomewhat to pro¬
duce this heat.
The number of free inhabitants in this Hate in 1790
was 454,983, and of flaves 292,627. The whole im¬
ports of the ftate of Virginia amounted in 1796 to
5,268,615 dollars.
The college of William and Mary is the only public
feminary of learning in Virginia. It was founded in
the time of King William and Queen Mary, who grant¬
ed to it 20,000 acres of land, and a penny a pound duty
on certain tobaccoes exported from Virginia and Mary¬
land. The affembly alfo gave it by temporary law a
duty on liquors imported, and fkins and furs exported.
From thefe refources it received upwards of 3000I. cottt-
munibus annis. The buildings are of brick, fufficient
for an indifferent accommodation of perhaps 100 flu-
dents. By its charter it was to be under the govern¬
ment of 20 vifitors, who were to be its legiflators 5 and
to have a prefident and fix profefforfhips, which at pre¬
fent Hand thus :—A profefforfhip for Law and Police ;
Anatomy and Medicine ; Natural Philofbphy and Ma¬
thematics ; Moral Philofophy, the Law of Nature and
Nations, the Fine Arts ; Modern Languages •, and a
fixth, called the profefforlhip of Braft’erton, for the in-
ftrudlion of the Indians. In 1787, there were about 30
young gentlemen members of this college, a large pro¬
portion of which were larv Undents. There are feme
flouriffiing academies in Virginia; one in Prince Ed¬
ward county, one at Alexandria, one at Norfolk, one
at Hanover, and others in other places.
The prefent denominations of Chriftians in Virginia
are Prefhyterians, who are the moil numerous, and in¬
habit
v i n r 567 ] vi r
Virginia, habit the weflern parts of the ftate } Epifcopalians,
   who are the moft ancient fettlers, and occupy the ealt-
ern and firtt fettled parts of the date. Intermingled
with thefe are great numbers of Baptiils and Methodhts.
The bulk of thele lalt mentioned religious feds are of
the poorer fort of people, and many of them are very ig¬
norant (as is indeed the cafe with the other denomina¬
tions), but they are generally a virtuous well-meaning
fet of people.
Virginia has produced fome of the mod didinguidled:
men that have been a&ive in eff ding the two late im¬
portant revolutions in America, whole political and mi¬
litary charader will rank among the fird in the page of
hidory. The great body of the people do not concern
themfelves with politics $ fo that their government,
though nominally republican, is in fad oligarchical or
aridocratical. The Virginians who are rich, are in ge¬
neral fenfible, polite, and hofpitable, and of an indepen¬
dent fpirit. The poor are ignorant and abjed ; all are
t>f an inquifitive turn, and in many other refpeds very
much refemble the people in the eadern dates. There
is a much greater difparity between the rich and the
poor in Virginia than in any of the northern dates. A
fpirit for literary inquiries, if not altogether confined to
a few, is, among the body of the people, evidently fub-
ordinate to a fpirit of gaming and barbarous fports. At
almoft every tavern or ordinary on the public road there
is a billiard table, a backgammon table, cards, and other
implements for various games. To thefe public houfes
the gambling gentry in the neighbourhood refort to kill
time which hangs heavily upon them ; and at this bufi-
nefs they are extremely expert, having been accudomed
to it from their earlied youth. The paflion for cock-
fighting, a diverfion not only inhumanly barbarous, but
infinitely beneath the dignity of a man of fenfe, is fo
predominant, that they even advertife their matches in
the public newfpapers.
The executive powers are lodged in the hands of a
governor chofen annually, and incapable of a&ing more
than three years in feven. He is affided by a council of
eight members. The judiciary powers are divided among
feveral courts. Legiflation is exercifed by two houfes of
affembly j the one called the Houfe of Delegates, compofed
of two members from each county, chofen annually by
the citizens poffefling an edate for life in 100 acres of
uninhabited land, or 25 acres with a houfe on it, or in a
houfe or lot in fome town. The other called the Se¬
nate, confiding of 24 members, chofen quadrennially by
the fame eleftors, who for this purpofe are didributed
into 24 diftridb. The concurrence of both houfes is
neceffary to the paffage of a law. They have the ap¬
pointment of the governor and council, the judges of
the fuperior courts, auditors, attorney-general, treafurer,
fegider of the land office, and delegates to Congrefs.
Before the war, there was exported from this date,
communibus annis, to the amount of 850,000!. Virginia
money, or 607,142 guineas.
The whole country before it was planted was one
continued fored interfperfed with marfties. No coun¬
try now produces greater quantities of excellent tobac¬
co ; and the foil is generally fo fandy and {hallow, that
after they have cleared a freffi piece of ground out of
the woods, it will not bear tobacco after two or three
years unlefs well manured. The foreds yield oaks, pop¬
lars, pines, cedars, cypreffes, fweet myrtles, chefnuts, hic-
kery, live oak, walnut, dog-wood, alder, hazel, chinka- Virg«
pins, locud-trees, faffafras,elm, affi, beech, withagreatva- N
riety of fweet gums and incenfe, which didil from feveral 1 icr'
trees j pitch, tar, rofin, turpentine, plank-timber, mads,
amd yards. Virginia yields allb rice, hemp, Indian
corn, plenty of palture, with coal, quarries of done, and
lead and iron ore.
VIRGO, in fftronomy, one of the figns or condella-
tions of the zodiac.
V1RGULA divinatoria, divining rod. See
Mine.
VIRTUAL, or Potential j fomething that has a
power or virtue of aiding or doing. The term is chiefly1
underdood of fomething that aids by a fecret invifible
caule, in oppofition to aidual and fenfible.
VIRTUE, a term ufed in various fignifications. In
the general it denotes power, or the perfeftion of any
thing, whether natural or fupematural, animate, or ina¬
nimate, effential or acceffory. But, in its more proper
or redrained fenfe, virtue fignifies a habit, which im¬
proves and perftids the poffeffor and his actions. See
Moral Philosophy, N° 84.
VIRTUOSO, an Italian term lately introduced into
the Englifh, fignifying a man of curiofity and learning,
or one who loves and promotes the arts ancf fcienCes.
But among us the term feems to be appropriated to
thofe who apply themfelves to fortte curious and quaint
rather than immediately ufeful art or ftudy j as antiqua¬
ries, colleidors of rarities of any kind, microfcopical ob-
fervers, &c.
# VIRULENT, a term applied to any thing that
yields a virus ; that is, a contagious or malignant pus.
VISCERA, in Anatomy, a term fignifying the fame'
with entrails ; including the heart, liver, lungs, fpleen,
intedines, and other in ward parts of the body.
VISCIDITY,- or Viscosity, the quality of fome¬
thing that is vifeid or vifeous; that is, glutinous and
dicky like bird-lime, which the Latins call by the name
of vifcus.
VISCOUNT (Vice Comes'), was anciently an officer
under an earl, to whom, during his attendance at court,
he aided as deputy to look after the affairs of the coun¬
try. But the name was afterwards made ufe of as art
arbitrary title of honour, without any {hadow of office ‘
pertaining to it, by Henry VI.; when, in the 18th year
of his reign, he created John Beaumont a peer by the
name of VifcauM Beaumont; which was the fird in¬
dance of the kind.
A vifeount is created by patent as an earl is; his title
is Right Honourable ; his mantle is two doublings and a
half of plain fur 5 and his coronet has only a row of
pearls clofe to the circle.
VISCUM, a genus of pknts of the clafs dloecia, and
in the natural fydem arranged under the 48th order,
aggregatce. See BotaNy Index.
VISHNOU, that perfon in the triad of the Bramins
who is confidered as the preferver of the univerfe.
Brahma is the creator, and Siva the dedioyer and thefe
two, with Vifhnou, united in fome inexplicable manner,
conditute Brahme, or the fupreme numen of the Hin¬
doos. See Polytheism, N® 36.
VISIBLE, fomething that is an objeft of fight or
vifion j or fomething whereby the eye is affe&ed fo as
to produce this fenfation.
VISIER, an officer or dignitary in the Ottoman eni-
PIr{V
U K R [ 568 ] U L S
Vifion pice, whereof there are two kinds j one called by the
Ukraine ^ur^s Vtjier-a%em, that is, “ grand vifier,” is the prime
« minifter of ftate in the whole empire. He commands
the army in chief, and prefides in the divan or great
council. Next to him are fix other fubordinate vifiers,
called vifiers of the bench ; who officiate as his counfel-
lors or afleffors in the divan.
VISION, in Optics^ the aft of feeing or perceiving
external objefts by means of the organ of fight, the eye.
See Anatomy, N° 142, and Metaphysics, N° 49—
54-
VISTULA, or Weisel, a large river of Poland,
■which taking its rife in the mountains fouth of Silefia,
vifits Cracow, Warfiyv, &c. and continuing its courfe
northward, falls into the Baltic fea below Dantzic.
VISUAL, in general, fomething belonging to vifion.
VITAL, in Phyjiology, an appellation given to what¬
ever minifters principally to the conftituting or main¬
taining life in the bodies of animals : thus the heart,
lungs, and brain, are called vital parts; and the opera¬
tions of thefe parts by which the life of animals is
maintained are called vital funci ions,
VITELLUS, the yolk of an egg.
VITIS, or Vine, a genus of the clafs pentandria,
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 46th or¬
der, Hederacece. See Botany Index; and for its cul¬
ture, fee Gardening.
VITREOUS humour of the eye. See Anato¬
my, N° 142.
VITRIFICATION, in Chemi/lry, the converfion of
a body into glafs by means of fire. See Glass.
VITRIOL, a compound fait, formed by the union
«f iron, copper, or zinc, with fulphuric acid, hence
called from the colours white, blue, and green, accord¬
ing to the metal. See Chemistry.
VITRIOLATED, among chemifts, fomething im¬
pregnated, or fuppofed to be fo, with vitriol or its acid.
VITRIOLIC acid. See Sulphuric Acid and
Chemistry Index.
VITRUVIUS POLLIO, Marcus, a very cele¬
brated Roman architeft, was, according to the common
opinion, born at Verona, and lived in the reign of Au-
guftus, to whom he dedicated his excellent treatife on
architefture, divided into ten books. William Philan-
der’s edition of this celebrated work is efteemed. Clau¬
dius Perrault has given an excellent tranflation of it in
French, with learned notes. There are alfo feveral Eng-
lifh tranflations of Vitruvius.
VITUS’s dance. See Medicine, N° 284.
VIVERRA, the Weasel ; a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of ferse. See Mammalia
Index.
VIVES. See Farriery.
VIVIPAROUS, in "Natural Hi/lory, an epithet ap¬
plied to fuch animals as bring forth their young alive
and perfeft ; in contradiftinftion to thofe that lay eggs,
which are called oviparous animals.
UKRAINE, a large country of Europe, lying on
the borders of Turkey in Europe, Poland, Ruffia, and
Little Tartary. Its name properly fignifies a frontier.
By a treaty between Ruffia and Poland in 1693, the
latter remained in poffeffion of all that part of the
Ukraine lying on the weft fide of the river Dnieper,
which is but indifferently cultivated ; while the country
<jn the eaft fide, inhabited by the Coffacs, is in much
I
better condition. The Ruffian part is comprifed in the Ukraine
government of Kiof 5 and the emprefs of Ruffia having II
obtained the Polilh palatinate of Kiof, by the treaty of, * er' t
partition in 1793, the whole of the Ukraine, on both
fides of the Dnieper, belongs now to that ambitious and
formidable power. The principal town is Kiof.
ULCER, in Surgery. See Surgery Index.
Ulcer, in Farriery. See Farriery.
ULEX, a genus of plants of the clafs of diadelphia,
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 3 2d order,
Papilionacece. See Botany Index.
ULIETEA, one of the Society iflands in the South
fea. This ifland is about 21 leagues in circuit. Its
produftions are plantains, cocoa-nuts, yams, hogs, and
fowl} the two latter of which are fcarce. The foil on
the top of one of the hills was found to be a kind of
ftone marie j on the fides were found feme fcattered
flints, and a few fmall pieces of a cavernous- or fpongy
ftone lava, of a whitifli colour, which feemed to contain
fome remains of iron, fo that it may poffibly be here
lodged in the mountains in a great quantity. Nothing
was feen on this ifland to diftinguiffi either its inhabi¬
tants, or their manners, from the other neighbouring
iflands. The firft Europeans who landed on this ftiore
were Mr (now Sir Jofeph) Banks and Dr Solander j
they were received by the natives in the moft courteous
manner, reports concerning them having been their har¬
bingers from Otaheite. Every body feemed to fear and
refpeft them, placing in them at the fame time the ut-
moft confidence : behaving, as if confcious that their
vifitors poffeffed the power of doing them mifehief with¬
out a difpofition to make ufe of it.
ULIGINOUS, in Agriculture, an appellation given
to a moift, moorifti, and fenny foil.
ULLAGE, in gauging, is fo much of a calk or other
veffel as it wants of being full.
ULM, a free and imperial city of Germany, in the
circle of Swabia, feated on the river Iller. It is a pretty
large place, defended by fortifications •, and the inhabi¬
tants are Proteftants. Here the archives of the circle
are depofited, and it carries on a very great trade. The
eleftor of Bavaria became mafter of it in 1702, by a
ftratagem ; but, in 1704, the French being vanquiffied
at the battle of Hochftet, the Bavarians furrendered it
by capitulation. The Roman Catholics have but two
churches, all the reft belonging to the Proteftants.
E. Long. 10. 12. N. Lat. 48. 25.
ULM US, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs
of pentandria j and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the 53d order, Scabridce. See Botany Index.
ULSTER, the moft northerly province of Ireland.
In Latin it is called Ultonia, in Irifh Cui Guilly ; and
gives the title of earl to the dukes of York of the royal
family. It is bounded by the Atlantic ocean on the
weft, St George’s channel and the Irifli fea on the eaft,
the Deucaledonian ocean on the north, and on the fouth
and fouth-weft the provinces of Leinfter and Connaught.
Its greateft length is near 120 miles, its breadth about
100 j and its circumference, including the windings
and turnings, 460 ; containing 9 counties, 58 market-
towns and boroughs, I archbiftiopric, 6 bifhoprics, and
214 parifties. Uifter abounds in lakes and rivers, which
fupply it with variety of fine fifli, efpecially falmon, be-
fides what it has from the fea, with which a great part
of it is bounded. The fouthern parts of it are rich, fer-
U M B
r
Cifter tile, well cultivated, and inclofed j but the greater part
II of the northern is open and mountainous.— The towns
Umbellatce. of ^ province are in general the neateft and beft built
^ of any in Ireland, as well as the farm-houfes ; which m
moft parts of the kingdom are conftruaed of no better
materials than clay and ftraw. The inhabitants of
Ulfter are alfo more like the EngliHi in their manners
and dialeft than thofe of the other three provinces ; for
as it includes within itfelf the whole, or by far the
greater part, of the linen manufactory, the beft branch
of trade in the kingdom, they have confequently the
greateft intercourfe with England. An Englilhman, in
fome parts of it, indeed, will imagine himfelf, from the
limilarity of their language and manners, in his own
country. This province had anciently petty kings of
its own. It was firft fubjedted to the Englifti in the
reign of Henry II. by John Courcy, the firft who bore
the title of earl of Ul/ler; but it afterwards threw off
the yoke, and was never entirely reduced till the reign
of James I. when great numbers of Scots by his en¬
couragement went and fettled in it. Of thefe, moft of
the prefent inhabitants are the defcendants. This pro¬
vince was the firft and principal fcene of the bloody maf-
lacre in 1641.
ULTERIOR, in Geography, is applied to fome part
of a country or province, which, with regard to the reft
of that country, is fituated on the farther fide of the ri¬
ver, mountain, or other boundary which feparates the
two countries.
ULTRAMARINE, a beautiful blue colour ufed by
the painters, prepared from the lapis lazuli by calcina¬
tion. See Lazulite, Mineralogy Index.
ULTRAMONTANE, fomething beyond the moun¬
tains. The term is principally applied in relation to
France and Italy, which are feparated by the Alps.
ULVA, a genus of plants of the clafs of cryptogamia.
See Botany Index.
ULUG Beig, a Perfian prince and learned aftrono-
mer, was defcended from the famous Tamerlane, and
reigned at Samarcand about 40 years ; after wdiich he
was murdered by his own fon in 1449* catalogue
of the fixed ftars, re&ified for the year 1434, was pub-
lifhed at Oxford by Mr Hyde, in 1665, with learned
notes. Mr Hudfon printed in the Englifh Geography
Ulug Beig’s Tables of the Longitude and Latitude of
Places *, and Mr Greaves publilhed, in Latin, his Aftro-
nomical Epochas, at London, in 1650. See Astro¬
nomy Index.
ULYSSES, king of Ithaca, the fon of Laertes, and
father of Telemachus, and one of thofe heroes who con¬
tributed moft to the taking of Troy. After the deftruc-
tion of that city, he wandered for 10 years •, and at laft
returned to Ithaca, where, with the affiftance of Tele¬
machus, he killed Antinous and other princes who in¬
tended to marry his wrife Penelope and feize his do¬
minions. He at length refigned the government of the
kingdom to his fon Telemachus; and was killed by Te-
legonus, his fon by Circe, who did not know him. This
hero is the fubje£t of the Odyffey.
UMBELLA, an Umbel, a fpecies of receptacle*, or
rather a mode of flowering, in which a number of {len¬
der footftalks proceed from the fame centre, and rife to
an equal height, fo as to form an even and generally
round furface at top. See Botany.
UMBELLATiE, the name of a clafs in Ray’s and
Vol. XX. Part II.
569 ] U 14 D
Toumefort’s methods, confiding of plants whofe flowers Umuel .-toe
grow in umbels, with five petals that are often unequal, Und^em.
and two naked feeds that are joined at top and feparated '
below. u—y—
The fame plants conftitute the 45th order of Lin¬
naeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method. See Botany.
UMBELLIFEROUS plants, are fuch as have their
tops branched and fpread out like an umbrella.
UMBER, or Umbre, a foflil brown or biackiftr fub-
ftance, ufed in painting. See Mineralogy Index.
UMBILICAL, among anatomifts, fomething relating
to the umbilicus or navel.
UMBRELLA, a moveable canopy, made of filk or
other cloth fpread out upon ribs of whale-bone, and fup-
ported by a ftaff, to proteft a perfon from rain, or the
fcorching beams of the lun.
UMPIRE, a third perfon cbofen to decide a contro-
verfy left to arbitration.
UNCI A, in general, a Latin term, denoting the
twelfth part of any thing; parties’arly the twelfth part
of a pound, called in Englifti an ounce; or the twelfth
part of a foot, called an inch.
UNCTION, the aft of anointing or rubbing with oil
or other fatty matter.
Unction, in matters of religion, is ufed for the cha-
ra&er conferred on facred things by anointing them with
oil. Un&ions are very frequent among the Hebrews.
They anointed both their kings and high-priefts at the
ceremony of their inauguration. They alfo anointed
the facred veflels of the tabernacle and temple, to fanc-
tify and confecrate them to the fervice of God. The
umftion of kings is fuppofed to be a ceremony introduced
very late among the Chriftian princes. It is faid that
none of the emperors were ever anointed before Juftinian
or Juftin. The emperors of Germany took the prac¬
tice from thofe of the eaftern empire: King Pepin of
France was the firft who received the unftion. In the
ancient Chriftian church, unftion always accompanied
the ceremonies of baptifm and confirmation. Extreme
un&ion, or the anointing perfons in the article of death,
was alfo praftifed by the ancient Chriftians, in compli¬
ance with the precept of St James, chap v. 14th and
15th verfes ; and this extreme unftion the Romifti
church has advanced to the dignity of a facrament. It
is adminiftered to none but fuch as are affedted with
fome mortal difeafe, or in a decrepit age. It is refufed
to impenitent perfons, as alfo to criminals. The parts
to be anointed are the eyes, the ears, the noftrils, the
mouth, the hands, the feet, and the reins. The laity
are anointed in the palms of the hands, but priefts on
the back of it; becaufe the palms of their hands have
been already confecrated by ordination.
The oil with which the fick perfon is anointed repre-
fents the grace of God, which is poured down into the
foul, and the prayer ufed at the time of anointing ex-
preffes the remiflion of fins thereby granted to the fick
perfon ; for the prayer is this: “ By this holy undlion,
and his own moft pious mercy, may the Almighty
God forgive thee whatever fins thou haft committed
by the fight f when the eyes are anointed ; hy the hear¬
ing, when the ears are anointed; and fo of the other * The Sia-
fenfes *. _
UNDECAGON, is a regular polygon of 11 fides. jiru£ied
UNDECEMVIR, a magiftrate among the ancient/row the
Athenians, who had 10 other colleagues or aflbeiates Written.
4 C joined Word.
U N I t 570 ] UNI
Uiukcem- joined with him in the fame commillion. The funflions
vir of the undecemviri at Athens were much the fame with
l ti thofe of the late prevots de marechaujfe in France. They
, 11 ; took care of the apprehending of criminals 5 fecurtd
them in the hands of juflice ; and when they were con-
' demned, took them again into cullody, that the fen-
tence might be executed on them. They were chofen
by the tribes, each tribe naming its own 5 and as the
number of the tribes after Callifthenes was but 10, which
made 10 members, a fcribe or notary was added, which
made the number 11.
UNDERSTANDING. See Metaphysics and Lo¬
gic.
UNDERWALDEN, a canton of Switzerland, and
the fixth in rank. It is bounded on the north by the can¬
ton of Lucern and by the lake of the Four Cantons, on
the eaft by the high mountains which fcparate it from the
canton of Bern, and cn the weft by the canton of Bern.
The religion of this canton is the Roman Catholic.
UNDULATION, in P//i/sics, a kind of tremulous
motion or vibration obfervabie in a liquid, by which it
alternately rifes and falls like the waves of the fea.
UNGUENT, or Ointment, in Medicine and Sur¬
gery, a topical remedy or compofition, chiefly ufed in the
drefting of wounds or blifters. See Materia Medica.
UNICORN, an animal famous among the ancients,
and thought to be the fame with the rhinoceros.
Sparmann informs us, that the figure of the unicorn
defcribed by the ancients has been found delineated by
the Snefe Hottentots on the plain fin face of a reck in
Caflfraria ; and therefore conjeftures, that fuch an ani¬
mal either does exift at prefent in the internal parts of
Africa, or at leaft: once did fo. Father Lobo affiims
that he has feen it. Mr Barrow in Lis Trave/s in
Southern SJfrica, affords additional reafon to believe in
the exiftence of this curious animal.
UnicobN-Fijh. See Monodon, Cetology Index.
UNIFORM, denotes a thing to be fimllar, or con-
fiftent either with another thing, or with itfelf, in refpetft
of figure, flrufture, proporth'.., or the like 5 in which
fenfe it Hands oppofed to difform.
UNIFORMITY, regularity, a fimilitude or refem-
blance between the parts of a whole. Such is that we
meet w ith in figures of many fides, and angles refpeftive-
ly equal, and anfw’erable to each other. A late inge¬
nious author makes beauty to confift in uniformity, join¬
ed or combined with variety. Where the uniformity is
equal in two objefts, the beauty, he contends, is as the
variety *, and'where the variety is equal, the beauty is as
the uniformity.
Uniformity, is particularly ufed for one and the
fame form of public prayers, and adminiftration of facra-
ments, and other rites, &c. of the church of England,
preferibed by the famous flat. 1 Ehz. and 13 2nd iq.
Car. II. cap. 4. called the of Uniformity. See Li¬
turgy.
UNION, a jun&ion, coalition, or affemblage of two
or more different things in one.
Union, or The Union, by way of eminence, is more
particularly ufed to exprefs the afl by which the two
feparate kingdoms of England and Scotland were incor¬
porated into one, under the title of The kingdom of
Great Britain. This union, in vain attempted by King
James I. was at length effefted in the year 17°7> ^ •i^n'
use, when 25 articles were agreed to by the parliament
of both nations j the purport of the mod confiderable Union,
being as follows : ‘■.ran v
1. That on the firft of May 1707, and for ever after,
the kingdoms of England and Scotland (hall be united
into one kingdom, by the name of Great Britain.
2. Tire fucceflion to the monarchy of Great Britain
ftiall be the fame as was before fettled with regard to
that of England.
3. The united kingdom fhall be reprefented by one
parliament.
4. There ftrall be a communication of all rights and
privileges between the iubje&s of both kingdoms, except
where it is otherwile agreed.
9. Vv hen England raifes 2,oco,OCol. by a land-tax,
Scotland ftrall raife 48,000!.
16, 17. The ftandards of the coin, of weights, and of
meafures, fhall be reduced to thole of England through¬
out the united kingdoms. ✓
18. The laws relating to trade, cuftoms, and the ex-
cife, fhall be the fame in Scotland as in England. But
all the other laws of Scotland flrall remain in force ; but
alterable by the parliament of Great Britain. Yet with
this caution, that laws relating to public policy are al¬
terable at the diferetien of the parliament; laws relating
to private right are not to be altered but for the evident
utility of the people of Scotland.
22. Sixteen peers are to be chofen to reprefent the
peerage of Scotland in parliament, and 45 members to
fit in the houfe of commons.
23. The 16 peers of Scotland fhall have all privileges
of parliament} and all peers of Scotland fhall be peers
of Great Britain, and rank next after thofe of the fame
degree at the time of the union, and fhall have all privi¬
leges of peers, except fitting in the houfe of lords, ai d
voting on the trial of a peer.
Thefe are the principal of the 23 articles of union,
which are ratified and confirmed by flatute 5 Ann. c.,8.
in which ftatute there are alfo two afts of parliament
recited ; the one of Scotland, whereby the church of
Scotland, and alfo the four univerfities of that kingdom,
are eftablifhed for ever, and all fucceeding fovereigns
are to take an oath inviolably to maintain the fame ; the
other of England, 5 Annas, c. 6. whereby the afts of
uniformity of 13 Eliz. and 13 Gar. II. (except as the
fame had been altered by parliament at that time), and
all other afts then in force for the prefervaticn of the
church of England, are declared perpetual •, and it is
ftipulated, that every fubfequent king and queen {hall
take an oath inviolably to maintain the fame within
England, Ireland, Wales, and the town of Berwick-
upon-Tweed. And it is enafted, that thefe two afts
“ fliall for ever be obferved as fundamental and efiential
conditions for the union.”
Upon thefe articles and aft of union, it is to be ob-
ferved, 1. That the tw>o kingdoms are fo infeparably
united, that nothing can ever difunite them } except the
mutual confent of both, or the fuccefsful refiftance of
either, upon apprehending an infringement of thefe
points which, when they were feparate and independent
nations, it was mutually flipulated fhculd be “ funda¬
mental and effential conditions of the union.” 2. T hat
whatever elfe may be deemed “ fundamental and efitn-
tial conditions,” the prefervation of the Ivro churches,
of England and Scotland, in the fame ftate that they
were in at the time of the union, and the maintenance
/
United
Brethren
UNI , 5
Union of the afb of uniformity which eftablifhed the liturgy,
are exprefsly declared fo to be. 3. lhat therefore any
alteration m the corvflitution of either of thefe churches,
or in the liturgy of the church of England (unlefs with
the confent of the refpeftive churches,_ colleftively or
reprefentatively gi^en^), would be an infringement of
thefe “ fundamental and eltential conditions,” and
greatly endanger the union. 4. That the municipal
laws of Scotland are ordained to be ftill obferved in that
part of the bland, unlefs altered by parliament ; and as
the parliament has not yet thought proper, except in a
few in fiances, to alter them, they ftill, with regard to
the particulars unaltered, continue in full force.
For an account of the union of Iieland with Great
Britain, thus forming the united kingdom of Great Bri¬
tain and Ireland, fee Ireland, N° i 20.
UKlSON, in Mafic. See Interval.
UNIT, or Unity, in Arithmetic, the number one ;
or one {ingle individual part of diferete quantity.
UNITARIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a name
given to thofe who confine the glory and attribute of
divinity to the One only great and fupreme God, and
Father of our Lord Jefus Chrift.
UNITED Brethren, or Unit as Fratrum ; a focie-
ty of Chriftians, whofe chief refidence is at Herrnhut in
Saxony. They are commonly called Moravians, from
their original country, and Herrnhuters, from their
chief place of refidence. Some account of this fociety
lias already been given under Herrnhut ; but as that
account may, by fome, not be deemed fufticiently full,
we (hall here add a fummary of their inftitutes, derived
from a communication by one of their own clergy.
Though the church of the United Brethren is epifeo-
pal, their biftiops poflefs no elevation of rank or pre¬
eminent authority, their church being governed by fy-
nods or confiftories from all the congregations, and by
fubordinate bodies, called conferences. The fynods are
generally held once in feven years. In the firft fitting a
prefident is chofen ; and the elders appointed by the
former fynod to fuperintend the unity, lay down their
office, though they ftill form a part of the affembly, as
well as the bilhops, the lay elders, and thofe minifters
who have the infpe&ion of feveral congregations in one
province.
Queftions of importance, or of which the confequences
cannot be forefeen, are decided by lot, though this is
never ufed till after mature deliberation and fervent
prayer. In the fynods, the ftate of the unity, and the
concerns of the congregations and millions, are taken
into confiderat ion.
Towards the conclufion of every fynod, a kind of
executive board is appointed, called the elders conference
ef the unity, confifting of 13 elders, and divided into
four com'.ittees or departments, one for fuperintending
miftions into heathen countries ; a fecond for watching
over the conduft of congregations; a third for mana¬
ging the economical concerns of the unity, and a fourth
for maintaining the difcipline of the fociety. Thefe
conferences, however, are amenable to a higher com-
called the elders conference, the powers of
which are very extenfive. It appoints and removes
everv fervant in the unity, authorifes the bifliops to or¬
dain prefbvters or deacons, and to confecrate other bi¬
llions, and in fhort, pofteiTcs the fupreme executive power
ever th whole fociety.
71 ] u n 1
A bilhop of the United Brethren can difeharge no United
office but by the appointment of the lynod, or o'- the
elders conference. Indeed their deacons can perform provnice5.
every office of the biftiops, except ordination, aiivl ap- v■■■...j
pear to confirm young perfons when they firil become
candidates for the communion. Even lemale deacons
are employed for the purpofe of privately admonithing
their own fex, and vifiting them in cafes of ficknefs.
There are alfo lay elders, whofe bufinefs it is to watch
over the conftitution and difcipline of the unity 5 to en¬
force the obfervance of the laws of the country in which
miffions are eftabliftied, and to guard the privileges
conferred on the brethren by the government under
which they live.
On Sunday, befides the public prayers, one or two
fermons are preached in every church, and after the
morning fervice, an exhortation is given to the chil¬
dren. Previous to the holy communion, which is ad-
miniftcred on fome Sunday once a month, and on Maun-
day Thurfday, each perfon before he communicates, muft
converfe on the ftate of his foul with one of the eiders.
Love feafts are frequent, and on Maunday Thurfday the
fociety have a folemn footwaffiing.
Our limits will not permit us to give a fyftematic
view of the doctrinal tenets of the Brethren. Though
they acknowledge no other ftandard of truth than the
facred feriptures, they adhere to the Augfburg confef-
fion, and fpeak refpe£lfully of the 39 articles of the
church of England. They profefs to believe that the
kingdom of Chrift is not confined to any particular
party, community, or church ; and they confider them-
felves as fpiritually joined in the bond of Chriftian love
to all who are taught of God, and belong to the uni-
verfal church of Chrift, however much they may differ
in forms, -which they deem non-eflentials. For a fuller
account of this fociety, fee Frantz's Ancient and Modern
Hi/lory of the Proteflant Church of the United Brethren,
London 1780, and An Expoftion of Chriftian DoBrine,
as taught in the Protefant Church of the United Bre¬
thren, London 1784. 1
United Provinces, otherwife called the Republic ^/Situation
Holland, or the Batavian republic, a maritime country aiKl ev' a‘
of Europe, occupying that part of the Netherlands
which lies between Auftrian Flanders and Brabant, now
the French departments cf Lys, Efcaut, Deux Net lies
and Dy/c on the fouth, and the diftricl of Eaft Friefland
on the north-eaft; being bounded on the north and weft
by the German ocean or North fea, and on the eaft
by the kingdom of Weftphalia. They are fitu ited be¬
tween the parallels of 510 10', and 530 35' N. lat. and
between 30 10', and 70 5' E. long. In Britifh miles
the length of this country, from north to fouth, is efti-
mated at 165, its breadth from weft to eaft about ICO,
and its area at 10,000 fquare miles.
Before the French revolution, this part of the Low Divifio*
Countries wp4 divided into feven provinces, viz. Guel-
DERLAND or GELDERS, HOLLAND, ZEALAND, U-
trecht, Friesland, Overyssel and Groningen,
befides the dependencies of Dutch Brabant and Dutch
Flanders. Of late the whole has formed eight de¬
partments, which, except that called the Generalite
lands, were diftinguiffied by the old names. The fol¬
lowing table gives a general view of the fubdivifions,
area in geographical miles, population and chief towns
of thefe provinces.
4 C 2 Provinces.
UNI
United
Provinces.
[ 572 1
UNI
Provinces.
I. Guelderland.
II. Holland.
III. Zealand.
IV. Utrecht.
V. Friesland.
VI. Overyssel.
VII. Groningen.
Generality lands (a)
Subdivi/ions.
Nimeguen
Zutphen
Arnheim
North Holland
South Holland
Weft Zealand
Eaft Zealand
Emeland
Abhoude
Montfort
Wvk
Ooftergo
V/eftergo
Zevenwolde
Northern iflands
Salland
Twenthe
Wollenhoven
Drenthe
Groningen
Ommeland
Drent
Dutch Brabant
Area.
r 510
1840
2000
uncertain
II55
1792
640
2000
Population in
I79^*
217,828
828,542
82,212
92,904
161,513
135,060
247,849
1,880,563
United
Provinci s.
Chief Towns.
Nimeguen, Zutphen, Arnheim.
f AMSTERDAM, Rotterdam,
< Hague, Leyden, Haarlem,
(. Hclvoetfluys and Alkmaer.
Middleburg, Fluftiing.
Utrecht, Araersfort.
j" Lee warden, Dockum,Franeker,
l_ Harlingen, Bolfwert.
y Deventer, Zwol, Campen, Coe
\ verden.
Groningen, Winchoten.
^ Bois-le-duc, Breda, Bergen-op-
\ Zoom.
A great part of thefe provinces is compofed of iflands
formed by the mouths of the large rivers which here
difembogue their waters into the German ocean. The
principal iflands are Walcheren, Joo/iland, South and
North Beveland, and Wolf erfdyh, compofing Weft Zea¬
land ; Schowen, Dmveland, Fertholen, and St Phillips-
land, forming Eaft Zealand ; Goeree in South Holland,
the Texel, Vheland, and Ameland, to the weft and north
3 of Frielland.
Colonies. ] he Dutch had formerly conliderable colonial terri¬
tory 5 but this is now reduced to part of Java, Suma¬
tra, and the Molucca iflands, with fome other fettle-
ments in the Eaft Indies ; fome trifling fadlories on the
Guinea coaft ; St Euftatius and part of Surinam in South
4 America.
Surface, r] he face of the country is, in general, extremely uni-
loii, See. form, confifting of large trafls of marftiy paftures, or
fandy heaths, interfperfed with feveral large rivers, and
numerous canals. There are a few hills in the eaftern
diftr'nfts, but the coafts are fo low, that, but for the
dykes or fea walls, they would be inundated by the fea.
1 he foil confifts almoft entirely of alluvial earth and ve¬
getable mold, and is very productive. The climate is
moift, inconftant, and peculiarly infaluhrious to ftrangers 5
intermittent fevers and fimilar difeafes, the attendants
on a marfhy and watery foil, being extremely frequent.
Tne winters are colder and the fummers hotter than in
^ Britain,
■Rivers and 1 he principal rivers of the United Provinces are the
Jakes.
Rhine, the Maefe or Meufe, and the Efcaut or Scheldt,
which feparates them from French Flanders. There are
few lakes of any note, except the fea of Haerlem, near
the Zuyder Zee. 5
There is little interefting in the natural hiftory of Hoi- Produce
land ; the animals and plants refembling thole of the ad- anc*
jacent countries of France and Germany, and its mine-cu*ture'
ral produfts being extremely few. Its chief artificial
products are flax, tobacco, madder and flower roots, but¬
ter and cheefe. The ftale of agriculture is but little ad¬
vanced } as almoft the w'hole country is under grafs, and
the corn produced is not nearly fufficient for home con-
fumption. ^
The changes which the coafts of the Dutch provinces Progreffive
have undergone, in confequences of the fhifting of the geography,
beds of rivers, the encroachments or retiring of the fea,
and tempefts from the German ocean, render their pro-
greflive geography an interefting object. We find that
in the latter periods of the Roman empire, the river
Rhine divided itfelf into two great branches at Burgina-
fium, the modern Schenk, about five miles north-wreft of
Colonia Trajana, near the prefent Cleves. Tho fouthern
branch joined the Meufe at the towm ot Mofa or Muvi,
while the northern branch palled by Durftadt, Utrecht,
and Leyden, to the ocean. The northern branch of
the Rhine w^as joined to the YiTel by the canal of Drufus
(fee BatAVORUM Infula), while this latter river flow¬
ed into a confiderable lake called Flevo, now a fouthern
portion of the Zuyder Zee. When the canal of Drufus
was
(a) See each of thefe articles in the general alphabet.
U N I
[ 573 ]
U N I
\
United was negle&ed, the waters of the Rhine poured into the
Piovinces.' Yifel with fuch violence as to increafe the lake of Flevo
v to a great expanfe of waters, fo that inftead of a river
which once ran from that lake to the fea for nearly 50 Ro¬
man miles, there was opened the wide gulf which now
forms the entrance. In the mean time, the northern branch
of the Rhine became much diminifhed, and the canal of
Drui'uS gradually difappeared. The ertuaries of the Meufe
and the Scheldt being open to gre-'.t inroads from the fea,
havealfo materially changed their figure and pofitionj and
the latter in particular, which once formed merely a trian¬
gular iiland, divided into four or five fmaller branches,
which are now extenfive creeks, dividing the iilands of Zea¬
land and South Holland. In the beginning of the 15th
century, the eltuary of the Meufe fuddenly formed a vail
lake to the fouth-eaftof Dort, overwhelming 72 villages,
and 100,000 inhabitants. By a fubfequent change, the
Rhine was again fubdivided, the northern branch falling in¬
to the Leek, while the fouthern formed the modern Waal.
The early hiltory of thefe provinces, from their fub-
jeftion by the Romans, till they fell under the dominion
of the Spanilh monarchy, has been already given under
the article Netherlands, fo that we have here to re¬
late only thofe tranfaftions which have taken place fince
the acceffion of Philip II. to the crown of Spain (b).
At the death of Charles V. the Dutch provinces were
Dutch pro- in a very flourithing condition. In this fmall trad were
vrnces at then reckoned not fewer than 350 large walled cities,
and 6300 confiderable towns or large villages, all be¬
come rich by their application to arts and commerce.
The fame application had diffufed a fpirit of indepen¬
dence among the inhabitants, who were jealoufly alive
to every invafion of their rights and privileges. The re¬
formed religion had made confider. ble progrefs among
all ranks, and the dodrines of Calvin had been embra¬
ced by a great majority of the people. Hence, nothing
could be more impolitic than the meafures taken by Phi¬
lip to advance the caufe of popery, and to enforce obe¬
dience to the tyrannical ads of his deputies. The edab-
lithment of a court of inquifition, the increafe of the
number of billioprics, the appointment of Cardinal Grand-
vele to be chief counfellor to the duchefs of Parma, then
regent of the Netherlands, and the enormous taxes levied
to fupport the Spanifh forces, were no trifling grievances,
and created fuch a fpirit of difaffedion, that when the
duchefs affumed the reins of government, in the year
1560, the murmurs of the people could no longer be
fupprefied.
A deputation of the malcontents, at the head of whom
were William prince of Orange, and his brother Louis
of Naffau, with the counts of Egmont and Horn, waited
afures of on. l^e duchefs at Brufifels, and infilled either on the dif-
Philip. miffal of Cardinal Grandvele, or the calling of an af-
An. 1554. fembly of the flates-general. The duchefs thought pro-
8
State of the
the accef-
fion of
Philip II.
An. 1556.
Difcontent
©ccalioned
by the ty¬
rannical
per to comply with the former of thefe requefls, but as United’
that minifter was fucceeded by two of his creatures, who Provinces,
trod exadly in his footfleps, and in particular increafed ‘ ’ f
the religious perfecutions, and the power of the inquili-
tion, the popular ferment became greater than ever. The
patriots lent Count Egmont to Madrid, to lay their
grievances before the king j but that monarch with his
accuitomed infincerity, returned a favourable anfwer to
their remonftrances, without changing any of the ob¬
noxious meafures of the government at Bruflels. In the
mean time the diabolical combination that had been
formed between Charles IX. of France and Ilabella of
Spain, for the maflacre of the protelfants, which foon
after took place, had been whifpered in the Low Coun¬
tries, and in confequence a general aflbciation was form¬
ed for the purpofe of abolifhing the court of inquifition.
This aflbciation, headed by Henry de Brodenrode, a
defeendant of the earis of Holland, waited on the regent
in fuch a formidable body, that fhe was obliged to pro¬
mile the exertion of her utmoil influence towards ob¬
taining their demands. It is laid, however, that Ihe
could obtain no better terms from the bigotted Philip
than that heretics Ihould in future be hanged inftead of
burnt. IO
As the people found that their dutiful remonftrances The people
could obtain no redrefs, they determined to take intobreak °ut
their own hands the neceflary reformation. In feve-11;!0 ,lj?cn
ral towns in Flanders, the people aflfembled, deftroyed^ 6 10n<
churches, pulled down images, and committed other
adls of violence. The principal inhabitants, however,
while they were preparing to refift the oppreflive a6ts of
the government, behaved with more temperance and
moderation ; a new oath of allegiance had been e.xadled,
and this the counts of Egmont and Horn, probably with
a view to temporife, were induced to take, but the prince
of Orange fteadily refufed, and retired into Germany,
whither he was followed by great numbers of all ranks
and conditions, fo that within a few days 100,000 fami»
lies had left the Low Countries. This emigration fo
much alarmed the duchefs of Parma, that fhe refigned
the regency. Ir
The duchefs was fucceeded by the duke of Alva, Duke of
who had been fent into the Netherlands with an army Al.va aP-
of 10,000 veteran troops, to intimidate the people, and
enforce obedience to the civil power. We have already th^Nethetv
drawn the charadler of this bloody man (fee Alva), lands,
and have fhewn how well he was calculated to execute
the orders of a tyrannical and bigotted matter. He no
fooner entered on his government than the whole coun¬
try was filled with terror *, Counts Egmont and Horn
were ignominioufly executed, and the eftates of the prince
of Orange were confifcated. T ^
1 his prince and his brother had been labouring to fup-The prinoa-
port the caufe of their injured countrymen among the t)range
Germc
ler L " f L Apa 1 l hlftT7 °f natl0"s ^terefting in itfelf, or more replete with ufeful leffons to ru-
let s and to fubjefts than that which records the ftruggles of a brave people to preferve or regain their liberties
and independence. Plence the glorious conteft which the Dutch provinces maintained againft the power of Spain
confined Hmi s will enahf and JP^on, might well deferve a much fuller detail than our
confined limits will enable us to afford. In the compendious view which we have here given of thefe Iranfaaions,
we have endeavoured to catch the more prominent features, and thus in feme meafure preferve the fpirit of the pic
°"r 7reape-S f0r/DT.?Ute account of thefe events to ThQ Modern Univerfa l Hi/lory, vol. xxxi..
and Watfon s H?J}onj of the Reigns of Phtltfi II. and Philip III
takes the
command-
of the pa«-
triots.
U N I
14
Cruelty of
the duke
•f Alva.
United German princes, and had railed a detachment of Ger-
1 i('v‘n"cs', mans, by which they were enabled to make head againit
the regent. The prince of Orange, who had been al¬
ways a favourite with the people, was now rendered
more popular in confequence of his fufferings in their
caufe, and w'as invited to take the command of the
armed bodies which were preparing to refill the duke
I3 of Alva.
Commence- The prince firll penetrated into Brabant, and attempt-
ment of ho- ed to furprife Ruremond, but was defeated by a detach-
An^etfo ment Spanilh army j but his brother foon after
^ overpotvered a body of Spaniards, and killed 600. In
a fubfequent engagement, however, with the main body
of Alva’s army, Prince Louis wras entirely defeated, and
all his infantry cut in pieces. The prince of Orange
finding that he could not at prefent keep the field a-
gainft fo formidable an enemy, and that his foldiers de-
ferted in conftquence of his ill fuccefs and w^ant of pay,
was, in 1569, obliged to dilband his army, and return
to Germany.
The duke of Alva did not fail to make the moll of
his fuccefs. All the prifoners taken in the laft campaign
were put to death, and the 100th part of every man’s
eftate, with a tenth of all merchandife, were exadled as an
annual payment from the inhabitants, under the penalty
of military execution. The ftates offered to pay an an¬
nual fubfidy of 2,000,000 florins, in place of thefe taxes ;
^ but thefe offers were rejefted writh difdain.
A fleet fit- The people thus driven to defpair, were refolved to
ted out by drain every nerve to refid thefe oppreffive afts. The
the patri- tradefmen in the towns {hut their (hops, and the peafants
^An 1 1 re^u^e<^ bring provifions to the markets. In the mean
n- 157I- time a fquadron of (hips, which is known by the name of
gueux, had been fitted out by the prince of Orange, and
the command given to Lumey. The trifling fuccefs of
this fquadron, which had captured Briel, in the ifland
of Voorn, and repulfed a force fent againd it by the duke
of Alva, induced the Zealanders to colleft all their
fhips, and alfo oppofe the enemy at fea. A confiderable
advantage was gained by this fleet, againd a Spanifli
fquadron commanded by the duke of Medina Celi.
The duke was entirely defeated, many of his {hips were
taken, and the Zealanders carried off a booty of nearly
jg 1,000,000 of livres.
Succefles of To increafe his army, the governor had draughted
the Orange men from, the garrifons of mod of the fortified towns,
party. gncj eXpofed thefe to the attacks of the patriots.
Accordingly, Lewis of Naffau furprifed Mons, the count
de Bergues gained poffeflion of feveral'towns in Over-
yffel, Guelderland, and Friefland } while another party
of the malcontents made themfelves maders of North
Holland. The duke of Alva now began to feel that
he had gone too far, and attempted when too late, to
conciliate the good opinion of the people. He publifh-
ed an edict confenting to remit the mod oppredive taxes,
if the date could fugged any other method of raifing the
neceffary fupplies, and he convoked the dates-general of
the Provinces to affemble at the Hague. His promifes
and his threats were, however, now difregarded; and the
dates who, in contempt of his authority had affemblcd
at Dordrecht, openly efpoufed the caufe of their coun¬
try, declared the prince of Orange commander of the
national forces, and raifed a confiderable fum for the pay¬
ment of his troops.
The prince’s forces now amounted to 15*,000 foot
2
[ 574 ]
U N I
and 7000 horfe, with which he advanced into Brabant, United
and took Ruremond by affault. He then poffeffed him- Province*,
felf of Mechlin, Oudenarde, and Dendefmond, and hav- ‘“"■'’v——'
ing levied contributions on thofe inhabitants who adher¬
ed to the government, he marched towards Mons, then
befieged by the duke of Alva, with an intention to raife
the. liege, by bringing the duke to a general aftion.
'I his, however, Alva declined, and Mons was obliged,
to capitulate. I?
In the midft of thefe fucceffes, a damp was thrown Reveries,
over the ardour of the patriots, by the news ol the hor¬
rid maffacre of St Bartholomew *, and in the fame de- * See
gree the fpirits ol the Spaniards revived. The prince of Prance,
Orange found himfelf obliged to retire to the province1^0 M3*
of Holland, leaving the cities which he had taken at the
mercy of the army. Mechlin opened its gates, and was
pillaged without mercy, while the other towns were e-
vacuated by the garrifons, and loaded with heavy impo-
fitions. In a fhort time nothing remained to the pa¬
triots, but the provinces of Holland and Zealand ; but
thefe Hood firm in the caufe of liberty, and foon became
the feat of a fanguinary warfare. Frederick de Toledo
was detached by the duke of Alva to reduce the infur-
gents in thefe quarters. He quickly reduced Waerden,
where his foldiers committed the moft horrid a£ls of bar¬
barity. The capture of this place was followed by that
of Haerlem after an obftinate refiftance. l8
To balance this ill fuccefs by land, however, the Zea- NavaJ v;£.
landers obtained many important advantages by fea. tones of
They attacked the harbour of Antwerp, and carried off
leveral (hips ; and when the governor equipped a fqua¬
dron to oppofe them, it was thrice encountered by Wertz,
the Zealand admiral, and totally defeated. In the mean
time the Spanifli forces, under Frederick of Toledo, con-Heroic de-
fifting of 16000 veterans, fat down before Alkmaer, the fence of
capital of Holland, a town without regular fortifications, Alkmaea*.
and defended only by 300 burghers and 800 foldiers, in
great want of provifions, and without any profpeft of
fpeedy relief j yet this place, though attacked with great
vigour, by a battery of 20 pieces of heavy cannon, which
cffedled a breach in one of the walls, held out againff
every attempt, and the Spanifli foldiers who attempted
to ftorm the place by the breach, were repulfed with
great daughter, and Frederick was at length compelled
to raife the fiege.
Notwithftanding thefe partial fuccefies, the affairs of
the patriots were ftill in a precarious fituation. Don
Louis de Requefnes, who had fucceeded the duke of Al¬
va in the government, was diredled to carry on the wTar
with the utmoft vigour. The prince of Orange had, af¬
ter a long fiege, made himfelf maffer of Middleburgh,
but had fuftained a great lofs by the defeat and death of
his brother Louis. The patriotic caufe derived forae ad¬
vantage, however, from a mutiny which took place in
the Spanifti army, but this advantage was of a tranfient
nature. ' io
In the commencement of the year 1575, an attempt The States
at negociation took place between the contending par- apply for
ties, but they could come to no terms of accommoda-al^ance t0
tion, and the war was continued with great virulence,
Though much diftreffed in his finances, Rhilip made ex- ^n.
tram dinary efforts to crufli the patriots, and fucceeded
fo far, that they almoff defpaired of ultimate fuccefs.
In this dilemma they fent a deputation to Queen Eliza¬
beth cf England, offering to become her fubjefls, if flie
would
United
Provinces.
wild at
length
fends them
The war
renewed
with frefh
xi gour.
An. 1578.
u n 1 r 5
would aftord tliern her proteftion j but frcrn political
reafons fhe declined the offer. The diflreffes which
Philip novv experienced, and the death of his deputy
Requefnes, did more for the caufe of the patriots than
all their own exertions.
Profiting by thofe events, in the latter end or this
year they attacked and carried the citadel of Ghent ;
while the inhabitants of Antwerp, in revenge for hav¬
ing been pillaged by the SpaniOi garrifon that held the
citadel, united ; 1 the common caufe, by what was call¬
ed the pacification of Ghent.
A fecond application to Queen Elizabeth met with
more fuccefs, and (he advanced them the (urn of 2G,oool.
fupply of ^erbng, on condition that they would not invite the
money. French into their territories, that they would liften to
Au. 1575. any reafenable terms of accommodation, and repay the
loan in the courfe of the tnfuing year. Agreeably to
thefe conditions, a ceffation of hoflilities w: » granted to
the Hates by Don John of Aufl ia, the prelent gover¬
nor, and a treaty was entered into with him ior d;(band¬
ing the foreign troops. The weak of the govern¬
ment required fome concedions, and Don John acceded
to the pacification of Ghent, by which moll of the de¬
mands of the patriots were granted. The provinces of
Holland and Zealand, however conceiving that by this
treaty the other provinces had conceded too much, reluf-
2z ed their concurrence, and hoftilities foon recommenced.
The king of Spain diffatisfied with the conceflions of
Don John, recalled that governor, and appointed the
archduke Matthias in his room, while he made addi¬
tional preparations for a vigorous profecution of the war.
The ilates-general in their turn made another applica¬
tion to Queen Elizabeth, and obtained from her, not
only a promife of I00,000l. fterling, but of a body of
forces confiding of 5000 foot, and 1000 horfe ; in re¬
turn tor which, the dates agreed to put into her poffef-
non certain fortified towns, and to tranfport and pay the
forces. Tliefe fuppiies, however, Elizabeth afterwards
declined fending, though die profeffed all poffible good
will towards the provinces and their caufe. A change
ot meafures which about this time took place in the
dates of Guelderland and Groningen, in favour of the
protedant intered, contributed not a little to aid the ge¬
neral caufe of the patriots, though feveral of the pro¬
vinces were dill torn by intedine diffenfions and jarring
interefts. At laid the prince of Orange, perceiving that
little confidence was to be placed in the unanimity of
provinces rent by faction, different in religion, and di¬
vided by ambition, political maxims, and private intereft,
formed the fcheme of more clofely uniting the provinces
of which he was governor, and cementing them ivkh
thofe more contiguous, in which the protedant intered
prevailed. Such an alliance ivas fubject to fewer difficul¬
ties than attended the more general one of uniting all the
provinces; it xvas in fact the only meafure that could
be propofed with fafety, and it was profecuted with that
alacrity and addrefs for which William was defervedlv
celebrated.
On the 23d of January 1579, deputies from the pro¬
vinces of Holl ind, Zealand, Utrecht, Friefland, Gro¬
ningen, Overyffel, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht,
and figned the alliance ever fince known by the name
of the Union of Utrecht, the bails of that commonwealth
fo renowned by the appellation of the United Provinces.
This treaty of alliance was founded on the infraction of
.
Union of
Utrecht,
An. 1579
75 1 UNI
the pacification of Ghent folemnly acceded to by Philip,
and the late invafion of certain towns in Guelderland.
It was not hereby intended to divide the feven provin¬
ces from the other ten, or to renounce the pacification
of Ghent j its objeft was to preferve the liberty dipu-
lated in that pacification, by more vigorous operations,
and united councils. The chief articles of this union
were the following.
That the feven provinces diall unite themfelves in in¬
tered as one province, never to be feparaled or divided
by tedament, donation, exchange, fale, or agreement 5
referving to each particular province and city all its pri¬
vileges, rights, cuftoms, and datutes. In all difputes
arifing between either of the provinces, the ted (hall
interpofe or.ly as mediators. They diall affid each other
with life and fortune againd every foreign attempt upon
any particular province, whether to edablidi fovereignty,
the Catholic religion, arbitrary meafures, or whatever
elfe may appear mccnfident with the liberties of the
province, and the intention of the alliance. All fron¬
tier towns belonging to the United Provinces diall, if
old, be fortified at the expence of the provinces ; if
new, at the joint expence of the union. That the pub¬
lic impods and duties diall be farmed for three months
to the highed bidder, and employed with the king’s
taxes in the public fervice. No province, city, or mem¬
ber of the union, diall contradl an alliance with any fo¬
reign prince or power, without the concurrence of all
the other members. That foreign powers (hall be ad¬
mitted into the alliance, only by conient of all the con¬
tracting parties. As to religion, the provinces of Hol¬
land and Zealand diall aft in that particular as they
think advifable : the red (hall adhere to the purport of
the edift publilhed by the archduke Matildas, which
preferibed, that no man iheuld be oppreffed on account
of confcience. All the inhabitants, from the age of 18
to 60, (hall be trained and difeiplined to war. That
peace and war diall be declared by the unanimous voice
of all the provinces; other matters that concern the in¬
ternal policy (hall be regulated by a majority. That
the dates (hall be held in the ufual ccnftitutional man¬
ner, and coinage (hall be deferred to future determina¬
tion. Finally, the parties agree, that the interpretation
of thefe articles (hall remain in the dates-general ; but,
in cafe of their failing to decide, in the Hadtholder.
Soon after the union of Utrecht, King Philip did allHeroii be-
m his power to detach the prince of Orange from the *iavi0llr of
new confederation. He offered to redore him to all his ofr
edates, to indemnify him for all his Ioffes, and give him *
the fird place in his edeem and favour *, but William
was too wife to rely on the promiles of a prince who
had already (hewn himfelf perfidious, and too generous
to abandon a caufe in which he had embarked from no
intereded motives. He determined to (hare the fate of
the United Provinces, and not to difappeint the hopes
which they had conceived of his conduft. 2-
In the mean time the duke of Parma was doing hisSucceffes of;
utmod to difconcert the projefts of the prince of t|ie l*u~;e
Orange, and to reduce the provinces to their obedience tt'nftVht.
to Spain. He befieged and took the town of Maiden ; United
inveiled Maedricht, and carried it after a dege of four Province*,
months, and reduced the republican general La Noue
to fuch draits, that he was glad to retreat under the
cannon of Antwerp. At length the Provinces, by the
advice of the prince of Orange, refolvcd to folicit the
aflidancr:
24
United
Provinces.
26
Inaugura¬
tion of the
duke of
Anjou as
duke of
Brabant.
An. 1532.
27
Aflfaffina-
tion of the
prinee of
Orang
An
U N 1 [57
aQiiiance and protection of the duke of Anjou, to whom
they had formerly applied in vain, and to offer him the
fovereignty of their territories. Accordingly, in 1580,
they folemnly renounced their allegiance to Philip,
and acknowledged as their fovereign, Francis Hercules
de Vallois, duke of Alen^on and Anjou ; and in the
following year they publilhed an ediCt, entitled the ab¬
dication of Philip king of Spain, for ever excluding
that monarch from any right or authority over the Ne¬
therlands.
In the beginning of the year 1582, the duke of An¬
jou, who had already taken an aftive part in favour of
his new fubjeCfs, and had oppofed the duke of Parma
with fome fuccefs, arrived in Holland from England j
and in the month of February he was folemnly inltalled
at Antwerp as duke of Brabant. It appears, however,
that the prince of Orange, though he had been the
great promoter of this meafure, and even placed the du¬
cal coronet on the head of the new fovereign, ftill pof-
feffed the greateft influence and authority in the United
Provinces.
When Philip of Spain found that he could not bribe
the prince of Orange to his interefts, he refolved to ufe
every method to rid himfelf of fo dangerous an oppo-
1584. nent. Soon after the figning of the union of Utrecht,
Philip had profcribed the prince, and offered a reward
of 25,000 crowns to any perfon that flrould bring him
dead or alive to Madrid. The greatnefs of the reward,
and a bigotted regard for the interefts of the Catholic
religion, prompted feveral to attempt murdering the
prince of Orange. He narrowly efcaped affaffination
in 1582 ; but, twTo years after, he met his unmerited
fate at Delft, by the hands of one Guion, or, as he is
’ commonly called, Balthazar Gevrard. About the fame
time the duke of Anjou died in France j and the pro¬
vinces of Holland and Zealand appointed Maurice, fon
of the late prince of Orange, to be their ftadtholder
and captain-general. For an account of the aftions of
this great man, fee the article MAURICE of Najfau.
Philip II. died in 1598, and Philip III. profecuted
the war with the United Provinces with as much ran-
yeals con' eciur as his predeceffors, but with much worfe fuccefs.
Spain. Wlt The great defeat fuftained by the archduke Albert in
An. 1609. 1600, and many fubfequent difafters, induced the court
of Madrid at length to liften to terms of accommoda¬
tion. In 1607 a fufpenfion of hoftilities took place,
and the year following a treaty on terms favourable to
the Provinces was concluded for 12 years.
At the expiration of the truce, both parties prepared
for a renewal of hoftilities; but now the Spaniards
fought with confiderable difadvantage : From a ftrange
policy, which they have fince frequently pra&ifed, in
their contefts with the powers of Europe, the Dutch
contrived to advance their commercial interefts at the
expence of their enemy. A very lucrative trade took
place between the principal Dutch ports and thole of
Spain, by which the Spaniards were fupplied by their
enemies even with ammunition and warlike ftores. At
the fame time the Dutch enriched themfelves by nume¬
rous prizes taken from the Spaniards, and, in particular,
gave a fevere blow to the refources of the court of Ma¬
drid, by capturing the flota from Mexico, a prize va¬
lued at 15,000,000 of livres.
Thefe repeated Ioffes of the Spaniards proved the inu-
c^eac|' g tility of their continuing the war againft a people fo de-
28
A truce for
twelve
29
Renewal
@f hoftili¬
ties.
An. 1621.
6 ] UNI
termiued as the Dutch. Accordingly, in 1648, they
agreed to a treaty of peace, by which his Catholic ma-
jefty renounced all right and fovereignty over the iiates-
general of the United Provinces j and thefe provinces
were henceforth declared a free and independent repub¬
lic. It was alfo agreed between the contending powers,
that each flrould remain in unmolefted poffeflion ot thole
places which they feverally held at the ligning of the
treaty. 31
From this time to the year 1670 we meet with Flourilhing
nothing very remarkable in the hiftory of the United ftatc of the
Provinces. By invariably purfuing the maxims of pru- K!'u
dence, induftry, and frugality, the republic had attain¬
ed the higheft pitch of grandeur. Amfterdam was be¬
come the emporium of Europe, and the richeft city in
the univerfe. The population of the Provinces, elpeci-
ally of Holland, was much greater than at any former
or fubfequeqt period, though it is fcarcely credible that,
as fome authors affirm, Plolland alone fliould then con¬
tain 3,000,000 of inhabitants. The ftates defpatched
minifters and confuls to China, Siam, and Bengal j to
the Great Mogul, the king of Perfla, and the khan of
Tartary, the grand fignior, the czar of Raffia, and the
princes of Africa. They were confidered as an im¬
portant weight in the fcale of Europe } and no treaty
was concluded without the concurrence of their ambaf-
fadors. 32:
It is not furprifing that the fucceffes of the Dutch, and Difpute
the profperous condition in which they now beheldWllh
r r   ... . France.
3®
Concluuon
themfelves, ffiould have rendered them rather arrogant An
towards the neighbouring ftates. Louis XIV. of France
had conceived himfelf affronted by a foolifh boaft of
one of the Dutch minifters, and he was particularly
jealous of the advantage which the new republic had
acquired over his fubjeils in the trade to India. The
triple alliance formed about this time between England,
Sweden, and the United Provinces, was an additional
motive with the French king to break off all intercourfe
with the Dutch, and to curb their growing power. He
began by prevailing on Charles II. of England to aban¬
don the triple alliance •, a requeft to which that worth-
lefs monarch, alive to nothing but his pleafures and his
avarice, readily agreed, on condition of being well paid
for his treachery. Louis alfo perfuaded feveral of the
German princes to unite their forces with his againft the
republic, and of all the Germanic body, only the elec¬
tor of Brandenburg interefted himfelf for the fafety of
the ftates-general. The French king affembled an ar¬
my of 100,000 men, which he divided into four co¬
lumns, one commanded by himfelf in perfon, with the
affiftance off Martha! Turenne ; another by the prince
of Conde } a third by General Crequi, and a fourth un¬
der the conduct of the duke of Luxemburg. Such an
army drawing towards the frontiers could not but ter¬
rify the Dutch, now torn with civil and religious fac¬
tions. The partifans of the Orange family were for
aboliffiing the perpetual ediiff, and raifing William
prince of Orange to the dignity enjoyed by his prede¬
ceffors ; but the De Witt faction oppolcd him violently,
though they could not prevent the young prince from
being chofen captain-general and high-admiral. Many
hoped that William’s new dignity would incline his
uncle Charles II. to return to the triple alliance1, but
that hope was fruflrated W the condufl of his majefty,
who, in conjunction with the Molt CLnftian king, de¬
clared
UNI L 577 1 UNI
United dared war again ft the ftates-general on the 7 th of
.Piovmces.^ April, A month after, the ele&or of Cologne and
bifliop of Munfter followed the example of the two
kings. The Dutch put themfelves in the beft pofture
of defence that circumftances would admit. Maeftricht
was ftrongly garrifoned j the prince of Orange had af-
iembled an army of 25,000 men, with which he advan¬
ced to the banks of the Yffel $ and the Dutch fleet
cruifed off the mouth of the Thames, to prevent the
junction of the naval forces of England and France,
which amounted to 150 Ihips. All Europe watched
the firft motions of the two powerful kings, feconded by
^ the beft generals of the age.
Commence- Holland could be attacked only by the Rhine or the
ment of Meufe, and the French generals and minifters differed
hoftilities. by which of thefe inlets the firft impreflion fliould be
made. At length, after much deliberation, it was de¬
termined to attack the Dutch on both thefe fides at the
fame time, in order the more to difconcert their coun¬
cils. The campaign began with the fiege of Rhinberg,
Vefel, Orfoi, and Rurick, four towns well fortified,
and deemed the keys of Holland. Nothing could op-
pofe armies fo well appointed, led by generals fo fkilful
and fo experienced. The four towns were compelled to
furrender within a few days of each other ; and a fevere
defeat fuftained by a body of Dutch troops, in attempt¬
ing to defend the paffage of the Rhine, by the prince of
Conde, ferved ftill more to difhearten the troops of the
ftates-general.
■Rapid^fuc- ^ *s a^mo^ incredible with what rapidity towns and
ceffes of the fortre^es yie^ed to the fortune of his majefty’s arms.
French. -The redudftion of Betau, the moft fruitful country of
the United Provinces, and the furrender of Tolhusfert,
obliged the prince of Orange to abandon the Yffel, left
he ftiould be attacked in the rear, and to retire to the
very heart of the country, as far as Rhenen in the pro¬
vince of Utrecht. By this means the town of Arnheim,
the forts of Knotfemborough, Voorn, St Andre, and
Shenck, this laft the ftrongeft in the Netherlands, with
a variety of other forts and towns, furrendered as foon
as fummoned ; and at laft Nimeguen, a town ftrong
from the nature of the works and fortifications, and gar¬
rifoned by. 8coo fighting men, including the inhabi¬
tants, was invefted. After the citizens had for eight
days exhibited fignal proofs of courage in defence of
their liberties, they were forced to yield to the fuperior
fkill of Turenne.
The Dutch ^ only means by which the Dutch could arreft the
compelled progrefs of the enemy was, to open the fluices and in¬
to inundate undate the country. The town of Utrecht fet the ex-
their coun- ample) w]lich was foon followed by many others, and
An. 167a. in a time Holland, Brabant, and Dutch Flanders,
formed one vaft lake, the towns rifing like iflands in
the midft of the waters. An embaffy was alfo fent to
the king of England, to requeft that he would prevail
on Louis to relax in the feverity of his attack. Charles
pretended a compliance with this requeft ; but as his in¬
terference produced no effeft, it is probable that he was
not fincere. In the fpace of three months, Louis con¬
quered the provinces of Guelderland, Overyffel, and
Utrecht, took about 50 towns and forts, and made
24,000 prifoners. The latter, however, were foon re¬
leafed for a trifling ranfom. The very fucceffes of the
conquerors tended to weaken their force, as they were
compelled to leave behind them feveral ftrong bodies of
Vol. XX. Part II. 6
troops, to garrifon the captured towns. This induced United
the French to liften to propofals for a negociation, which, i Provinces.
however, came to nothing. v
Marthal Turenne, now appointed generaliflimo of the
king’s army on his majefty’s return to Paris, marched to
oppofe the eleftor of Brandenburg and the German gene¬
ral Montecuculi, who had joined their forces, and were
about to pafs the Rhine. For three whole months were
the eleflor and Montecuculi employed in abortive at¬
tempts to effeft a paffage at Mentz, Coblentz, Straf-
burg, and other places. This anfwered the prspofe of
making a powerful diverfion in favour of the Dutch,
though they could not accomplifti their defign of join¬
ing the prince of Orange. After repeated difappoint-
ments, the imperial army direfted its march to Weft-
phalia ; and Turenne followed, in order to keep the
bilhop of Munfter fteady to his engagements. For half
the campaign he, with a body of 16,000 men, baffled
every ftratagem of the eleftor and Montecuculi, the lat¬
ter the moft renowned general of the empire, at the
head of an army near triple his ftrength. He obliged
them to go into winter quarters, in a country haraffed
and exhaufted ; and confirmed the biftiop of Munfter in
the alliance of France, at the very time he was on terms
with the emperor. He obliged the eleftor of Branden-
burg, who took the chief command during Montecu-
culi’s illnefs, to abandon the fiege of Warle, took Un-
ma Kamen, Altena, Berkemham, and feveral other
towns and fortreffes. By continuing his operations, he
forced the eleftor out of his winter quarters again into
the field, chafed him from poll to poft, until he obliged
him to quit Weftphalia, repafs the Wefer, and retire
rvith precipitation into the biftiopric of Hilderfheim.
After taking poffeflion of the elector’s towns in Weft¬
phalia, he purfued him into the biftiopric of Hilderfheim,
and at length, by mere dint of fuperior genius, forced
him to feek (belter in his hereditary dominions. AH
this was effedled after Louvois had appointed the mar-
fhal’s army quarters in Alface and Lorrain, amidft the
rigours of a fevere winter, oppofed by a fuperior enemy,
by the artifices of Louvois, and feconded only by his
own prudence, and the affe&ion of his troops, which he
maintained in defiance of all the difficulties, hardfhips
and dangers, they encountered. It was indeed fuppo-
fed, that Montecuculi was prevented from giving Tu¬
renne battle by the remonftrances of Prince Lobkovilz,
the emperor’s ambaffador, influenced by the gold of
Louis. Certain indeed it is, that Montecuculi’s illnefs
arofe from his chagrin at feeing all his proje&s fruftra-
ted by the unfteady dilatory conduct of the court of
\ ienna. Louis’s negociations difturbed Europe no left;
than his arms. His tools and creatures fwarmed in
every court. Leopold could not be prevented from
declaring in favour of Holland j but his minifters were
bought off from feccnding the emperor’s intentions.
1 he whole Englifh nation exclaimed againft the alli¬
ance of their kingdom with France ; but Charles flood
in need of French gold to fupply his extravagance and
profligacy. The eleftor of Bavaria had indeed been
compelled by Louis to retire to his capital ; but it was
by dint ol intrigue that he was forced from his alliance
vith Holland, and conftrained to make a peace with
France.
While the French generals were thus carrying all be¬
fore them, the combined fleets of France and England
4 D were
UNI .. t 57
United were fcarccly lefs fuccefsful againfl the tnarithrie power
Provinces. Qj: t^e The Englifti fquadron under the duke
of York, uniting to that of France under D’Eftrees,
Trani'ac- thrice engaged the Dutch fleet commanded by De Ruy-
tions of the ter j and though neither party could boaft of much ad-
Dutchat vantage, the check fuftained by the Dutch admiral was
fea. - - - ■
8 ]
UNI
37
Change of
fortune.
and confe-
of effential fervice to the caufe of the allies.
At length the tide of fortune began to turn in favour
of the United Provinces. The court of Spain, jealous
of the growing power of France, embraced the caufe of
the Di**ch *, and lent an army of 10,000 men to the af-
liftance of the prince of Orange, while the mercenary
king of England was compelled by his parliament to
withdraw from his unnatural alliance with the French
king ; and the late ill fuccefs among the allied troops
of France and Germany cooled the eltftor of Cologne
and the biflrop of Muniter, in their friend drip towards
Louis. Thus that monarch, forfaken by his allies, was
compelled to maintain flngly a war againfl: the empire,
Spain, and the United Provinces. The acceflion of
the prince of Orange to the throne of England, in
1688, gave an additional blow to the French power,
by bringing on an intimate connection between England
and Holland.
At length Louis was compelled to negociate for
quent peace peace, which was concluded in 1697, by a treaty ex-
wU'1 tremely favourable to the United Provinces.
-t After the copious detail which we have elfewhere gi-
" 1 ven of the military tranfadlions of Europe, fince the ac-
Summary ofceflion of William III. to the crown of England, in
the Dutch which the Dutch bore a confpicuous part, it will be
here fufficient for us to give a very brief fummary of the
the i*7th°to principal events. After the death of William III. the
the begin- fame plan of humbling the French king, was, in con¬
ning of the junction with the ftates-general, purfued by his fuccef-
19th cen- fQr Queen Anne ; and the numerous and important vic¬
tories of the duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene,
led to the famous treaty of Utrecht, in 1713* See
Britain, N° 340 —371. In 1747, the office of fladt-
holder was declared hereditary in the princes of Orange.
In the war that took place in 1756, between France
and England, a French party was formed in Holland,
in oppofition to the ftadtholder, who favoured the alli¬
ance with England. Hence arofe a jealoufy between
the two allies, which, during the American war, in-
creafed to an ooen rupture. See Britain, N° 427,
and N° 998 et feq. In 1787, fome difputes took place
between the ftadtholder and the ftates-general, which
induced the former to require the affiftance of the king
of Pruflia. That monarch accordingly fent an army of
18,000 Pruffians to Amfterdam, under the duke of
Brunfw’ick, who, in 1788, brought the whole country
into fubjeftion, and reinftated the ftadtholder in his au¬
thority. See Prussia, N° 73. In 1794 the republi¬
can armies of France having overrun the greater part of
Flanders, took poffeffion of the Dutch provinces, which
they converted into the Batavian republic. The ftadt¬
holder found refuge in England, and the allied armies of
Germany and Pruffia retreated into Germany. See
France, N° 409, et feq. In the fummer of 1799, a
confiderable Britifti force landed in the Texel ifla^d,
made themfelves mafters of the Dutch fleet, and, in
conjunftion with a body of Ruffians, gained fome ad¬
vantages on the continent. Being oppofed, howTever,
by a fuperior French force, the army was obliged to re-
tury.
embark, and return to England. See Britain, N° United
1069. Bv the treaty of Amiens, concluded in March Provinces.^
1802, all the colonies taken by the Britiih wxre refto- v
red to Holland, except the iiland of Ceylon. On the
renewal of hoftilities in 1803, the Batavian republic
was again compelled to take an aftive part againli Bri¬
tain, and in confequence again loft the Cape of Good
Hope, and feveral other colonies, befides having her
trade entirely ruined. Soon after the imperial diadem
of France was conferred on Napoleon Bonaparte, the
Dutch republic was elevated to the rank of a kingdom,
and the emperor’s brother, Louis, was appointed the
firft king of Holland.
With refpedl to the prefent ftate of this unfortunate
country, we know7 very little that can be relied on.
The people are evidently in a ftate of complete fubjec-
tion to the French government; and though the late
rumours of their avowed annexation to the empire of
France may be premature, there can be little doubt of
their being eventually confirmed.
According to the ftatifticai table given in N° 2, the Population
population of the United Provinces in the year 1796, of the
appears to amount to 1,880.469 individuals j though it
is generally eftimated at about 2,000,000. Suppofing
this latter number to be correft, and that the area of
the Dutch territory comprehends 10,000 fquare miles,
there will be 200 individuals to each fquare mile; a
proportion exceeding any thing that is to be found in
any other part of Europe. 41
In the late republic of Holland, previous to the Conftitutioa
French revolution, the ftates-general formed the greatancl Sovera'
council of the nation. That affembly was formed by ‘ ~ "
deputies from the provincial ftates, and was invefted
with the fupreme legiftative power. It could not, how¬
ever, make peace or war, form new alliances, or levy
taxes, without the confent of the provincial ftates, nor
could thefe determine any point of importance, without
the confent of each of the cities that had a voice in
their affembly. The ftadtholder exercifed a conlider-
able part of the executive power, though in later times
his power became very limited. The grand penfionary
was properly a minifter or fervant of the province; and
though he poffeffed great influence, being a perpetual
member of the ftates-general, and of the fecret commit¬
tee, he was confidered as inferior in rank to all the de¬
puties.
The leading features in the conftitution of the king¬
dom of Holland are, the guarantee of the payment of
the public debt; the free and unqualified exercife of re¬
ligion ; the predominant authority veiled in the king ;
the eftablilhment of the Salique larv, excluding females
from the throne ; the declaration that the minority of
any future king {hall expire on his attaining his 1 8th
year ; that only natives lhall be eligible to any offices
of ftate, exclufive of thofe immediately appertaining to
the king’s houfehold ; that the yearly revenue of the
king {hall be 2,000,000 florins, and that the royal refi-
dences fhall be the palaces of the Hague, in the Wood,
and at Soeft dyke. The council of ftate is to conftft of
13 members •, the general government of the kingdom
is to be committed to four minifters of ftate; and the * Playfair's
legiflative body is to be compofed of 38 members chofen
for five years *.
The revenues of the United Provinces arofe prind-Revenues,
pally from taxes impofed on each province and city, ac¬
cording
U N 1
43
Military
.ftrength.
44 ^
Religion.
45
Language
and litera-
45
Manufac¬
tures.
47
Coflatuerce.
cording to their ability. Thefe confided chiefly of,
general excife, a land tax, a poll-tax, and hearth mo-
1 ney j and are fuppofed to have amounted to 3,000,000!.
fterling.
Before the French revolution, the Dutch maintained a
peace eftabliflnnent of 30,000 men, which in war was
augmented to above 50,000, chiefly by mercenary
troops from Germany. Their naval eltablilhment was
highly refpe&able ; and at the end of the 17th century
it exceeded that of any other maritime power in Eu¬
rope. Before the late war they could muller 40 fail
of the line, 40 frigates, and 10 cutters. Since the ce¬
lebrated engagement off the Dogger Bank during the
American war, the Dutch have been fcarcely able to
cope with the Engiilh at fea j and the viftory off Cam-
pexdown in October 1797, with the fubfequent lofs of
the Texel fleet in 1799, proved the deathblow to the
naval power of Holland.
Before the late change of government, the eftablilh-
ed religion of Holland was Prelbyterianifm, according
to the dodlrines of Calvin j though all fedls of Chrifti-
ans were tolerated. The church was governed by con-
flftories, claffes, and fynods, from which there was an
appeal to one great national fynod, fubjebt to the con-
troul of the ftates-general.
The Dutch language is a dialefl of the German, and
in many refpefts bears a confiderable refemblance to the
Old Engiilh and Lowland Scotch. The literature of
the United Provinces has long been refpe&able j and
the univerfities of Leyden, Utrecht, Groningen, Har-
derwyck, and Franeker, have produced many eminent
and celebrated men in almoft every department of fei-
ence. Grotius, Erafmus, Boerhaave, Leuwenhoeck,
Swammerdam, Graevius, Burrman, Hooguween, &c.
are names mentioned with admiration and refpeft in the
annals of literature.
The Dutch manufactures confift principally of fine li¬
nens, earthen ware, chiefly manufaftured at Delft, efpe-
cially white and painted tyles, tobacco-pipes, borax, oil,
ftarch, paper, leather, woollen and cotton cloths, fnuff,
tobacco, and gin.
The commerce of the Dutch was formerly more ex-
tenfive than that of any other country in Europe. They
carried on a trade with every quarter of the globe, and
in particular their Eaft India Company was perhaps the
richeft fociety of merchants in the world. Holland was
almoft the exclufive centre of the fpice trade j and the
extenfive fiftieries on the coaft of Greenland and in the
North fea, fupplied the greater part of Europe with
whale oil and herrings. Befides this external commerce,
they carried on a confiderable inland traffic with the in¬
terior of Germany, from which they brought immenfe
quantities of timber. Vaft rafts of trees, many hundred
feet in length, fet out annually from the forefts of An-
dernach, and other places on the Rhine, and proceeding
down the river under the dire&ion of a great body of
labourers, that formed a village of huts on the furface
of the raft, failed down the Rhine and the Waal to
Dort, where the timber was difpofed of, and where one
raft has been fold for 30,000!. fterling. All the foreign
[ 579 ]
UNI
trade of Holland may now be confidered as annihilated, United
but the inland traffic in wood and fpirits ftiil con- Frovin(:e*q
tinues. -y—-j
The inland commerce of the United Provinces is
greatly promoted by the facility of conveyance from one
part of the country to another, by means of the nume¬
rous canals.
48
The Dutch are, by conftitution, a cool, or rather Charadler
phlegmatic people, laborious, patient, obiiinate, andof^1®
perfevering. When ftimulated by any predominant paf- Dutclu
fion, as avarice, or formerly love of liberty, they are
capable ef great exertions. Economy and order in the
management of their pecuniary concerns are common
among all claffes, with whom it is an eflablifhed maxim
to Ipend lefs than their income. Intereft and love of
money regulate all their actions, and appear to fupplant
in their breafts every noble and generous feeling. Thefe
prominent features in the national chara&er are, of
courfe, modified by the rank or fituation of the different
orders in fociety. The higher ranks value themfelves
much on their diftin&ions, are referved to ftrangers,
but affable and obliging to thofe with whom they have
had an opportunity of becoming acquainted; friendly,
candid, and fincere. The mercantile men and traders
are, in general, fair and honeft in their tranfaflions ;
though their natural thirft of gain fometimes tempts
them to deceive and overreach their cuftomers. The
lower ranks are ignorant, dull, and flow of apprehen-
fion, but open to conviction, and patient of fatigue and
labour.
Drefs, among the Dutch, is regulated lefs by fafhion, Manner*
than by an attention to climate and feafon. The moif- vnd cuf-
ture and inconftancy of thefe require a greater quantity torils‘
of clothing than is found neceffary in other countries
under the fame latitude j and, among the ordinary claf¬
fes, broad hats, large breeches and thick boots and
ffioes, are ftill almoft univerfal. Moft of the women
wear hats with low crowns and very broad rims, with
jerkins and fliort petticoats ; and, what appears exceed¬
ingly ridiculous to ftrangers, the boys and girls wear
the fame drefs as the men and women.
A clofe attention to regularity and neatnefs in the
ftreets and the interior of the houfes prevails throughout
the United Provinces, but is moft confpicuous in North
Holland. This was at firft rendered neccffafy by the
nature of the climate, to prevent ruil and mouidinefs
from deftroying their utenfils and furniture, and has
fince become a habit, conducive at once to comfort and
to health. The manner of living in Holland was, till
of late, not a little grofs. Their diet confifted much of
high-feafoned and failed meats, butter, cheefe, and fpi-
rituous liquors. In no country was gormandizing re¬
duced more to a fyflem. Convivial entertainments were
extremely frequent ; and the interval between the more
fubftantial meals of dinner, tea, and kipper, were filled
up with cakes, fruits, jellies, and other light things;
not to mention fmoking and drinking, which fupplied
the place of qonyerfation (c). If we may rely on the
report of a late writer on the ilatiftics of Holland *, the * Meteltr-
ftyle of living is now much changed, though not much See
4 D 2
improved. M^./or
  Nov. 1807.
(o') We muft admit, that, in fo moift and cold a climate, a full and generous diet may be fafe if not neceflary •
but the Dutch, like many of our own countrymen, ablurdly carried the fame fyfttm into their tropical colonies’.
The
UNI [ 5*o ] UNI
United improved. Animal food is become extremely rare, and
iovinces pjace js fUppi;eci by a greater proportion of gin, tea,
Univeifity. anc^ c°ffee. The prevailing amufements in winter are
—Y—dramatic entertainments and ikaiting, in which latter
they are exceedingly expert.
The Dutch talie for formal gardens, ftraight wralks,
trees and hedges clipped into fantaftic ftiapes, and
flower roots, has long been proverbial, and has been
treated with more contempt and ridicule than it deferves.
At worll, thefe are but harmlefs propenfities *, and, if
indulged in moderation, are well fuited to relieve the
famcnefs and inadtivity of a retirement from the bufy
fcenes of trade and commerce.
UNITY, in Poetry. There are three unities to be
obferved, viz. the unity of adlion, that of time, and
that of place. In the epic poem, the great, and almoft
the only, unity, is that of the adlion. Some regard in¬
deed ought to be had to that of time ; for that of place
there is no room. The unity of charafter is not reckon¬
ed among the unities. See Poetry, Part II. Sedl. 3.
UNIVERSAL, fomething that is common to many
things j or it is one thing belonging to many or all
things.
UNIVERSE, a colledlive name, fignifying the whole
world ; or the affemblage of heaven and earth, with all
things therein. See Astronomy and Geography.
UNIVERSITY, is the name of a corporation form¬
ed for the education of youth in the liberal arts and
fciences, and authorized to admit fuch as have ftudied
in it, to certain degrees in different faculties, which not
only ferve as certificates of proficiency in fcience, but
alfo confer on thofe who obtain them confiderable privi¬
leges within the univerfity, as w’ell as fome rank in the
ftate without it. Univerfities generally comprehended
within them one or more colleges : but this is not always
the cafe ; for the univerfity of St Andrew’s wras in being
before either of its colleges was founded, and it would
continue in being, with all its privileges, though both its
colleges were levelled with the duff.
In every univerfity with which we are acquainted,
there are four faculties, viz. Theology, Law, Phyjic,
and the Arts and Sciences, comprehending mathematics,
natural and moral philofophy, &c. : and in Oxford,
Cambridge, and fome other univerfities, Mujic is con-
fidered as a fifth faculty. In each of thefe there are
two degrees, thofe of Bachelor and DoBor ,* for though
in the univerfities of Great Britain and Ireland we have
no fuch degree as DoBor in Arts and Sciences, our Maf-
ter of Arts anfwers to the degree of DoBor in Philofophy,
which is conferred by many of the univerfities on the
continent.
Univerfities in their prefent form, and with their pre-
fent privileges, are inllitutions comparatively modern.
'They fprang from the convents of regular clergy, or
from the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome,
where young men were educated for holy orders, in that
dark period when the clergy poffeffed all the little erudi¬
tion which was left in Europe. Thefe convents were
feminaries of learning probably from their firft inftitu-
tion } and we know with certainty, that in Old Aber¬
deen there was a monaffery in which youth were inffruft-
ed in theology, the canon law, and the fchoolphilofophy,
at leaft 200 years before the univerfity and King’s Col¬
lege were founded. The fame was doubtlefs the cafe in
Oxford and Cambridge, and probably in every town in
Europe, where there is now a univerfity which has any
claim to be called ancient j for it was not till the more
eminent of the laity began to fee the importance of lite¬
rature and fcience, that univerfities diftindt from convents
were founded, with the privilege of admitting to degrees,
which conferred fome rank in civil fociety. Thefe uni-
verfities have long been confidered as lay corporations 5
but as a proof that they had the ecclefiaftical origin
which we have afiigned to them, it will be fufficient to
obferve, that the pope arrogated to himfelf the right of
veiling them with all their privileges \ and that, prior
to the Reformation, every univerfity in Europe conferred
its degrees in all the faculties by authority derived from
a papal bull.
It is perhaps no improbable conjedlure, that the
church of Rome derived her idea of academical honours
from the Jew's, among w’hom literary diftindlions ex¬
tremely fimilar fubfifted before the nativity of our Sa¬
viour. Among them, the young ftudent, with refpedl
to his learning, was called a difciple ; from his minority
a junior ; and the chofen or eleBed, on account of his
eleftion into the number of difciples. When he had
made fome progrefs in knowledge, and was deemed
worthy of a degree, he was by impofition of hands made
*T3n, a companion to a Rabbi, the perfon who officiates
ufing this form, I ajfociate thee, or, Be thou ajfociated $
and as foon afterwards as he wTas thought wTorthy to
teach others, the ajfociate wras raifed to the rank of Rab¬
bi. Whether this procefs fuggefted the idea or not, it
has certainly fome refemblance to that by which a young
man in our univerfities paffes through the degree of
Bachelor to that of Mafer of Arts or DoBor.
The moll ancient univerfities in Europe are thofe of
Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and Bo¬
logna $ and in the two Englilh univerfities, the firft
colleges are thofe cf Univerfty, Baliol, and Merton, in
the former, and St Peter's in the latter. Oxford and
Cambridge, however, were univerfities, or, as they were
then called,fome hundreds of years before colle¬
ges or fchools were built in them ; for the fotmer flour-
ifhed as a feminary of learning in the reign of Alfred
the Great, and the other, could we believe its partial
partizans, at a period ftill earlier. The univerfities of
Scotland are four, St Andrews, Glasgow, Aber¬
deen, and Edinburgh. In Ireland there is but one
univerfity, viz. that of Dublin, founded by Queen
Elizabeth, and very richly endowed.
An idle controverfy has been agitated, whether the
conftitution of the Englifh or of the Scotch univerfities
be beft adapted to anfwer the ends of their inftitution j
and, as might be expefted, it has been differently decid¬
ed, according to the partialities of thofe who have writ¬
ten on the fubjeft. WTere we to hazaid our own opi¬
nion, wre ftiould fay, that each has its advantages and
difadvantages 3 and that while the Englith univerfities,
aided
The account given by a late traveller (fee Barrow’s Voyage to Cochin-China j of the luxurious mode of living at
Batavia, affords a melancholy, but accurate picture of Dutch gluttony.
V O C [ 581 1 VOL
Univerfity aided by their great fchools, to which we have nothing
it. that can be compared, are unqueftionably fitted to carry
.Voc;itlve-, their young members fartheft in the knowledge of the
learned languages, the mode of teaching in our own
univerfities is better adapted to the promotion of arts and
fciences, and the communication of that knowledge
which is of moft importance in aftive life.
Uni VERS ITT- Courts, in England. The two univer¬
fities enjoy the foie jurifdi&ion, in exclufion of the king’s
courts, over all civil aflions and fuits whatfoever, where
a fcholar or privileged perfon is one of the parties j ex¬
cepting in fuch cafes where the right of freehold is con¬
cerned. And then by the univerfity charter they are
at liberty to try and determine, either according to the
common law of the land, or according to their own lo¬
cal cuftoms, at their difcretion 5 which has generally led
them to carry on their procefs in a courfe much confor¬
med to the civil law.
This privilege, fo far as it relates to civil caufes, is
exercifed at Oxford in the chancellor’s court j the judge
of which is the vice-chancellor, his deputy, or affcfibr.
From his fentence an appeal lies to delegates appointed
by the congregation j from thence to other delegates
of the houfe of convocation ; and if they all three concur
in the fame fentence, it is final, at leaft by the ftatutes
of the univerfity, according to the rule of the civil law.
But if there be any difcordance or variation in any of
the three fentences, an appeal lies in the laft refort to
judges delegates appointed by the crown, under the great
feal in chancery.
As to the jurifdi£tion of the univerfity courts in cri¬
minal matters, the chancellor’s court at Oxford, and
probably alfo that of Cambridge, hath authority to try
all offences or mifdemeanors under the degree of treafon,
felony, or mayhem j and the trial of treafon, felony, and
mayhem, by a particular charter, is committed to the
univerfity jurifdi&ion in another court, namely, the
court of the lord high fteward of the univerfity.
The procefs of the trial is this. The high fteward
iflues one precept to the (heriff of the county, who
thereupon returns a panel of 18 freeholders j and ano¬
ther precept to the bedells of the univerfity, who there¬
upon return a panel of 18 matriculated laymen, /aicos
privile^m univerjltatis gaudentes : and by a jury formed
de medietate, half of freeholders and half matriculated
perfons, is the indi&ment to be tried j and that in the
guildhall of the city of Oxford. And if execution be
necelfary to be awarded in confequence of finding the
party guilty, the ftierilf of the county muft execute the
univerfity procefs j to which he is annually bound by
an oath.
VOCABULARY, in Grammar, denotes the col-
le&ion of the words of a language, with their fignifica-
tions, otherwife called a diSiionary, lexicon, or nomen¬
clature. See Dictionary.
A vocabulary is properly a fmaller kind of diftionary,
which does not enter fo minutely into the origin and
different acceptations of words.
VOCAL, fomething that relates to the voice or
fpeech 5 thus vocal mufic is that fet to words, efpecially
verfes, and to be performed by the voice j in contradif-
tin&ion to inftrumental mufic, compofed only for inftru-
ments, without finging.
VOCATIVE, in Grammar, the fifth ftate or cafe
of nouns. See Grammar.
VOETIUS or Voet, Gisbert, an eminent divine Voetms
of the 16th century, was profeffor of divinity and the II
Oriental tongues at Utrecht, where he was alfo minifter. ■ 0 ^a‘
Fie aflifted at the fynod of Dort; and died in 1676,
aged 87. He wrote a great number of works j and
was the declared enemy of Des Cartes and his philofo-
phy. His followers are called Voetians. Voetius had
two fons, Daniel and Paul, both authors. John Voetius,
the fon of Paul, was do&or and profeffor of law at Her-
born, and wrote a commentary on the Pande&s,
VOICE, a found produced in the throat and mouth
of an animal, by peculiar organs.
Voices are either articulate or inarticulate. Articu¬
late voices are thofe whereof feveral confpire together to
form fome affemblage or little fyftem of founds : fuch
are the voices expreflxng the letters of an alphabet, num¬
bers of which joined together form words. Inarticulate
voices are fuch as are not organized, or affembled into
words; fuch is the barking of dogs, the braying of affes,
the hiding of ferpents, the finging of birds, &c.
For a defcription of the organs of the voice, fee Ana¬
tomy ; fee alfo Physiology Index.
Voice, in Grammar, a circumftance in verbs, where¬
by they come to be confidered as either aftive or paflive,
i. e. either exprefling an adtion impreffed on another
fubjedl, as, I beat \ or receiving it from another, as, I
am beaten. See Grammar.
Voice, in matters of eledtion, denotes a vote or fuf»
frage.
Voice, in Oratory. See Declamation j Reading,
N° 5. *, and Oratory, N° 129—131.
VOLANT, in Heraldry, is when a bird, in a coat
of arms, is drawn flying, or having its wings fpread out.
VOLATILE, in Phyfics, fomething that is ealily
diflipated by fire or heat.
Volatile Alkali. See Ammonia, Chemistry In¬
dex.
VOLATILISATION, the art of rendering fixed
bodies volatile, or of refolving them by fire into a va¬
pour.
VOLCANO, a name given to burning mountains,
or to vents for fubterraneous fires. See Geology In¬
dex, ALtna, Hecla, &c.
VOLERY, a bird-cage, of fuch a fize that the birds
have room to fly up and down in it.
VOLGA, the largeft river in Europe, derives its ori¬
gin from two fmall lakes in the foreft of Volkonlki a
bout 80 miles from Tver, a town in Ruflia. It is navi¬
gable a few miles above that towm. This noble river
waters fome of the fineft provinces in the Ruflian empire,
and at laft falls into the Cafpian fea by feveral mouths,
below Aftracan.
The Volga is fubjedf to annual inundation. In the
year 1774, the inundations exceeded the leweft water¬
mark by nearly 40 feet, fince which period they have
been rather on the decline ; for in 1775, they rofe only
to 39 feet 2 inches above that mark ; in 1782, they
rofe to 26 feet ; in 1785, to 25 feet 2 inches ; and in
the year 1791, their height was the fame. Pallas is of
opinion that this phenomenon may have originated from
the diminiftied quantity of fnow and rain which had fal¬
len in the higher countries ; from the greater evapora¬
tion of the Cafpian fea, and the gradual extenfion of the
different mouths of the river, or perhaps from the joint
operation of all thefe caufes.
VOLITIONS
VOL [ 58
VOLITION, the a& of willing. See Metaphy¬
sics.
VOLLEY, a military falute, made by difcharging
a great number of fire arms at the fame time.
VOLONES, in Roman antiquity, Haves who in the
Punic war voluntarily offered their fervice to the ftate,
which is the reafon of the appellation j upon which they
were admitted to citizenfhip, as none but freemen could
be foldiers.
VOLT, in the manege, a round or circular tread j
and hence, by the phrafe to make volts, is underftood a
gate of two treads, made by a horfe going fidewife round
a centre, in fuch a manner that thefe two treads make
parallel tracks*, one larger, made by the fore feet, and
another fmaller made by the hind-feet ; the croup ap¬
proaching towards the centre, and the fhoulders bearing
out.
VOLTAIRE, Francis Arouet de, a celebrated
French author, was born at Paris, February 20. 1694.
His father, Francis Arouet, was ancien notaire au Cha-
telet, and treafurer of the chamber of accounts \ his
mother, Mary-Margaret Draumart. At the birth of
this extraordinary man, who lived to the age of 85
years and fome months, there was little probability of
his being reared, and for a confiderable time he con¬
tinued remarkably feeble. In his earlieft years he dif-
played a ready wit and a fprightly imagination ; and,
as he faid of himfelf made verfes before he was out of
his cradle. He was educated, under Father Pore, in
the college of Louis the Great ; and fuch was his pro¬
ficiency, that many of his effays are now exifling, wrhich,
though written when he was between 12 and 14, fhow
no marks of infancy. The famous Ninon de I’Enclos,
to whom this ingenious boy was introduced, left him a
legacy of 2000 livres to buy him a library. Having
been fent to the equity fchools on his quiting college, he
was fo difgufted with the drynefs of the law, that he
devoted himfelf entirely to the mufes. He was admit¬
ted into the company of the abbe Cheaulieu, the mar¬
quis de la Fare, the duke de Sully, the grand prior of
Vendome, marfhal Villars, and the chevalier du Bouil¬
lon ; and caught from them that eafy tafte and delicate
humour which diftinguilhed the court of Louis XIV.
Voltaire had early imbibed a turn for fatire ; and, for
fome philippics againft the government, was imprifon-
cd almoft a year in the Baftile. He had before this
period produced the tragedy of Oedipus, which was re-
prefented in 1718 with great fuccefs; and the duke of
Orleans happening to fee it performed, was fo delighted,
that he obtained his releafe from prifon. The poet
waiting on the duke to return thanks; “ Be wife (faid
the duke), and I wall take care of you.” “ I am in¬
finitely obliged (replied the young man) ; but I intreat
your royal highnefs not to trouble yourfelf any farther
about my lodging or board.”
He began his VLen^iade before he was 18. Having
one day read feveral cantos of this poem when on a vlfit
to his intimate friend, the young prefident de Maifons,
he was fo teafed with obje&ions, that he loft pati¬
ence, and threw his manufcript into the fire. The pre¬
fident Henaut with difficulty refcued it. “ Remem¬
ber (faid Mr Henaut to him, in one of his letters) it
was I that faved the Henriade, and that it coft me a
handfome pair of ruffles.” Some years after, feveral
copies of this poem having got abroad, while it was
2
2 ] VOL
only a Iketch, an edition of it was publiffied, with many Voltaire,
chafms, under the title of The League. Inftead of fame
and friends, the author gained only enemies and morti¬
fication, by this firlt edition. The bigots took fire at
it, and the poet was confidered as highly criminal for
praifing Admiral Coligny and Queen Elizabeth. En¬
deavours were even uled to get the piece fuppreffed j but
this ftrange defign proved abortive. His chagrin, on
on this occafion, firlt infpired him with the thought of
vifiting England, in order to finilh the work, and re-
publilh it in a land of liberty. He w as right') for King
George I. and more particularly the princefs of Wales,
afterwards queen of England, railed an immenfe fub-
feription for him. Their liberality laid the foundation
of his fortune j for on his return to France in 1728, he
put his money into a lottery eftabliftied by M. Desfortes,
comptroller-general of the finances. The adventurers re¬
ceived a rent charge on the Hotel-de Ville for their
tickets $ and the prizes were paid in ready money j fo
that if a fociety had taken all the tickets, it would have
gained a million of livres. He joined with a numerous
company of adventurers, and was fortunate.
• His Lettres Philofophiques, abounding in bold expref-
fions and indecent witticifms againft religion, having
been burnt by a decree of the parliament of Paris, and a
warrant being iffued for apprehending the author in
1733, Voltaire prudently withdrew \ and was flickered
by the marchionefs du Chatelet, in her caftle of Cirey,
on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine, who enter¬
ed with him on the ftudy of the fyftem of Leibnitz, and
the Principia of Newton. A gallery w*as built, in which
Voltaire formed a good colledlion of natural hiftory, and
made an infinite number of experiments on light and e-
le&ricity. He laboured in the mean time on his Ele¬
ments of the Newtonian Philofophy, then totally un¬
known in France, and w'hich the numerous admirers of
Des Cartes were little defirous fhould be known. In the
midft of thefe philofophic purfuits he produced the tra¬
gedy of Afaira. He was now in the meridian of his age
and genius, as was evident from the tragedy of Maho¬
met, firft afted in 1741 ; but it was reprefented to the
procureur-general as a performance bffenfive to religion •,
and the author, by order of Cardinal Fieury, withdrew
it from the ftage. Merope, played two years after, 1743,
gave an idea of a fpecies of tragedy, of which few mo¬
dels had exifted. It was at the reprefentation of this
tragedy, that the pit and boxes were clamorous for a
fight of the author *, yet it was feverely criticifed when
it came from the prefs. He now became a favourite at
court, through the intereft of Madame d’Etiole, after¬
wards marchionefs of Pompadour. He was appointed a
gentleman of the bed-chamber in ordinary, and hifiorio-
grapher of France. He had frequently attempted to
gain admittance into the Academy of Sciences, but could
not obtain his wifli till 1746, when he was the firft who
broke though the abfurd cuftom of filling an inaugural
fpeech with the fulfome adulation of Richelieu ; an ex¬
ample foon followed by other academicians. From the
fatires octafioncd by this innovation he felt fo much un-
eafinefs, that he was glad to retire with the marchionefs
du Chatelet to Luneville, in the neighbourhood of King
Staniflaus. The marchionefs dykg in 1749, Voltaire
returned to Paris, where his fiay was but ihert. The
king of Pruffia nmv gave Voltaire an invitation to live
with him, which he accepted towards the end of Au-
VOL [ 583 ] V O T
guft 1750. On his arrival at Berlin, he was imme¬
diately p re fen ted with the Order of Merit, the key of
chamberlain, and a penfon of 20,000 livres. From the
particular refpeft that was paid to him, his time was now
fpent in the mod agreeable manner j his apartments were
under thofe of the king, whom he was allowed to vifrt
at Hated hours, to read with him the bed works of either
ancient or modern authors, and to aflid his majedy in
the literary productions by which he relieved the cares
of government. But a difpute which arofe between him
and Maupertuis foon brought on his difgrace. Mauper-
tuis was at fome pains to have it reported at court, that
one day while General Mandein happened to be in the
apartments of M. de Voltaire, who was then tranflating
into French the Memoirs of Ruffia, compofed by that
officer, the king, in his ufual manner, fent a copy of
verfes to be examined, when Voltaire faid to Mandein,
“ Let us leave off for the prefent, my friend j you fee
the king has fent me his dirty linen to waih, I will wafh
your’s another time.” A (ingle word is fometimes fuf-
ficient to ruin a man at court; Maupertuis imputed fuch
a rvord to Voltaire, and fucceeded. It was about this
very time that Maupertuis publifhed his very drange
Philofophical Letters ; and M. de Voltaire did not fail
to heighten, with his utmod powers of raillery, every
thing which he found, or could make, ridiculous, in the
projeCts of M. Maupertuis, who was careful to unite his
own caufe with that of the king •, Voltaire was confider-
ed as having failed in refpeCt to his majedy j and there¬
fore, in the mod refpeCtful manner, he returned to the
king his chamberlain’s key, and the crofs of his Order
of Merit : accompanied with four lines of verfe ; in which
he, w'ith great delicacy, compares his fituation to that of
a jealous lover, who fends back the picture of his mif-
trefs. The king returned the key and the ribbon ; but
they were not followed by an immediate reconciliation.
Voltaire fet out to pay a vifit to herhighnefs the duchefs
of Gotha, who honoured him with her frienddiip as long
as die lived. While he remained at Gotha, Maupertuis
employed all his batteries againd him : Voltaire was ar-
reded by the king’s orders, but afterwards releafed.
He noiv fettled near Geneva ; but afterward being
obliged to quit that republic, he purchafed the cadle of
Ferney in France, about a league from the lake of Ge¬
neva. It was here that he undertook the defence of the
celebrated family of Galas ; and it was not long before
he had a fecond opportunity of vindicating the inno¬
cence of another condemned family of the name of Sir-
ven. It is fomewhat remarkable, that in the year 1774,
he had the third time a lingular opportunity of employ¬
ing that fame zeal which he had the good fortune to dif-
play in the fatal catadrophe of the families of Galas and
Sirven.
In this retreat M. Voltaire continued long to enjoy
the pleafures of a rural life, accompanied with the ad¬
miration of a vad number of wits and philofophers
throughout all Europe. Wearied at length, however,
with his fituation, or yielding to the importunities of
friends, he came to Paris about the beginning of the
year 1778' where he wrote a new tragedy called Irene.
By this time his underdanding feems to have been im¬
paired, either through the infirmities of age, or continu¬
ed intoxication by the flattery of others ; and he ridicu-
loufly differed himdlf to be crowned in public with lau¬
rel, in tedimony of his great poetical merit. He did not
long furvive this farce : for having overheated himfelf Voltaire
with receiving vifits, and exhaultcd his fpirits -by fupply-
ing a perpetual fund of converfation, he was fird feized . .
w ith a fpitting of blood ; and at lad becoming redlefs in
the night-time, he was obliged to ufe a foporific medi¬
cine. Of this he unluckily one night took fo large a
dofe, that he flept 36 hours, and expired a very ihort
time after awakening from it.
VOLUME, in matters of literature, a book or writ¬
ing of a jud bulk to be bound by itfelf. The name is
derived from the Latin volvere, “ to roll up j” the an¬
cient manner of making up books being in rolls of bark
or parchment. See Book.
VOLUNTARY, in Mufic, a piece played by a mu-
fician extempore, according to his fancy. This is often
ufed before he begins to fet himfelf to play any particu¬
lar compcdtion, to try the indrument, and to lead him
into the key of the piece he intends to perform.
VOLUNTEERS, perfons who, of their own ac¬
cord, tor the fervice of the prince :xr date, ferve in the
army without being enlided, to gain honour and prefer¬
ment.
VOLVOX, a genus of animals belonging to the ver¬
mes infuforia. See Helmikthology Index.
VOLUSENUS. See Wilson.
VOLUTA, a genus of fheli-fifh. See Conchology
Index.
VOLUTE, in ArchiteBure, a kind of fpiral fcroll
ufed in Ionic and Compofite capitals, whereof it makes
the principal charafteridic and ornament.
VOMICA, in Medicine, an abfcefs of the lungs. See
Medicine, N° 186.
Nux Vomica, in Pharmacy. See Materia Medi-
CA Index.
VOMIT. See Emetic, Materia Medic a Index.
VOMITING, a retrograde fpafmodic motion of the
xnufcular fibres of the oefophagus, domach, and intedines,
attended with drong convulfions of the mufcles of the
a idornen and diaphragm ; which when gentle, create a
naufea ; when violent, a vomiting.
VOORN, one of the iflands of Holland, bounded by
the river Maes, which divides it from the continent and
the ifland of Idemunde, on the north ; by the fea called
Bies-bofch, on the ead j by another branch of the Maes,.
which divides it from the ifiands of Goree and Over-
flackee, on the fouth j and by the German fea on the
wed ; being about 24 miles long, and five broad.
VORTEX, in Meteorology, a whirlwind, or fudden,
rapid, and violent motion of the air in circles ; or that
motion of the water called an eddif or whirlpool.
Vortex, in the Cartefian philofophy, is a fydem or
colleflion of particles of matter moving the fame way,
and round the fame axis.
VOR I ICELLA, an animalcule. See Microscope.
VOSSIUS, John Gerard, a mod learned and la¬
borious^ writer of the 17th century, was of aconfiderable
family in the Netherlands; and was born in 1577, in
the Palatinate, near Heidelberg, at a place where his
father, John Voffius, was minider. He was made di¬
rector of the college of Dort, and afterwards profeflbr
of eloquence and chronology at Leyden, from whence
he was called in 1633 to Amfierdani, to fill the chair
of profefibr of hi dory. He died in 1649.
VOTE, the fuffrage or refolve of each of the mem¬
bers of an aflembly, where any affair is to be carried by
U R
Votive a majority ; but more particularly ufed for the refolves
II s of the members of either houfe of parliament.
Ur. VOTIVE medals, thofe on which are expreffed the
vows of the people for the emperors or empreffes. See
Medal.
VOW, a folemn and religious promife or oath. See
Oath.
The ufe of vows is found in moft religions. They
make up a confiderable part ef the Pagan worlhip, be¬
ing made either in confequence of fome deliverance, un¬
der fome prefling neceflity, or for the fuccefs of fome en-
terprife. Among the Jews, all vows were to be volun¬
tary, and made by perfons wholly in their own power ;
and if fuch perfon made a vow in any thing lawful and
poflible, he wTas obliged to fulfil it. If he appointed no
particular time for accomplifliing his vow, he was bound
to do it inftantly, left by delay he thould prove lefs able,
or be unwilling, to execute his promife. Among the
Romanifts, a perfon is conftituted a religious by taking
three vows j that of poverty, chaftity, and obedience.
Vows, among the Romans, fignified facrifices, offer¬
ings, prefents, and prayers made for the Csefars, and em¬
perors, particularly for their profperity and the continu¬
ance of their empire. Thefe were at firft made every
five years, then every 15, and afterwards every 20, and
were called quinquennalia, decennalia, and vincennalia.
VOWEL, in Grammar, a letter which affords a
complete found of itfelf, or a letter fo Ample as only to
need a bare opening of the mouth to make it heard, and
to form a diftindf voice. The vowels are fix in number,
viz. A, E, I, O, U, Y.
Vowel, John. See Hooker.
UPHOLSTER, Upholsterer, or Upholder, a tra-
defman that makes beds, and all forts of furniture there¬
unto belonging, See.
UPLAND, denotes high ground, or, as fome call it,
terra firma, by which it ftands oppofed to fuch as is
mooriih, marlhy, or lowr.
Upland, a province of Sweden, bounded on the
north-eaft by the Baltic fea, on the fouth by the fea of
Sudermania, and on the weft by Weftmania and Geftri-
cia, from which it is feparated by the river Dela. It is
about 70 miles in length and 45 in breadth, and con¬
tains mines of iron and lead. Stockholm is the capital.
UPSAL, a rich and confiderable city of Sweden, in
Upland, with a famous univerfity, and an archbifhop’s
fee. The town is pretty large, and as ftraight as a line ;
but moft of the houfes are of wood, covered with birch
bark, with turf on the top. On an eminence, to the
fouth of the town, is a ruined caftle. Thofe that view
the town from hence would take it to be a garden, whofe
ftreets reprefent the alleys; and the houfes, which are
covered with turf, the grafs-plots. It wras formerly the
refidence of the kings, and is now the ufual place where
they are crowned. It is feated on the river Sala, over
which there are two bridges. It is 26 miles north-weft
of Stockholm. E. Long. 17. 48. N. Lat. 59. 52.
UPUPA, a genus of birds belonging to the order of
piece. See Ornithology Index.
UR, in Ancient Geography, a citadel of Mefopotamia,
fituated between the Tigris and Nifibis \ taken by fome
for Ur of the Chaldees, the refidence of Abraham.
What feems to confirm this is, that from Ur to Haran,
the other refidence of the patriarch, the road lies direft-
ly for Paleftine. And it is no objeftion that Ur is faid
U R I
to be in Mefopotamia ; becaufe the parts next the Tigris Ural/aa
were occupied by the Chaldeans, as feems to be confirm- Chain
ed from Ads vii. 2, 4. It is called Orche, in Strabo ; TT N
Orchoe, in Ptolemy. ■ ™e‘
URALIAN chain, a range of mountains which
form part of the boundaries of Afia, and anciently known
by the name of Ripheei Montes. See RlPHJEI Montes,
and Geology Index.
URANIA, in fabulous hiftory, one of the nine Mufes,
was fuppofed to prefide over altronomy. She is com¬
monly reprefented in an azure robe, crowned with ftars,
and fupporting a large glebe with both hands.
URANIUM, one of the lately difeovered metals.
See Chemistry and Mineralogy Index.
URANOSCOPUS, a genus of fifties belonging to
the order oijugulares. See Ichthyology Index.
Raphael d’URBINO. See Raphael.
URCHIN, or Hedgehog. See Erinaceus, Mam¬
malia Index.
Sea Urchin. See Echinus, Helminthology /«-
dex.
UREA. See Chemistry.
URETERS. See Anatomy, N° 101.
URETHRA. See Anatomy, N° 107.
Uric Acid. See Chemistry Index.
URIM and Thummim, among the ancient Hebrews,
a certain oracular manner of confulting God, which was
done by the high-prieft dreffed in his robes, and having
on his pedoral or breaft-plate.
Various have been the fentiments of commentators
concerning the urim and thummim. Jofephus, and fe-
veral others, maintain, that it meant the precious ftones
fet in the high-prieft’s breaft-plate, which by extraordi¬
nary luftre made known the will of God to thofe who
confulted him. Spencer believes that the urim and
thummim were two little golden figures ftiut up in the
pedoral as in a purfe, which gave refponfes with an ar¬
ticulate voice. In fhort, there are as many opinions
concerning the urim and thummim as there are particu¬
lar authors that wrote about them. The fafeft opinion,
according to Broughton, feems to be, that the words
urim and thummim fignify fome divine virtue and power
annexed to the breaft-plate of the high-prieft, by which
an oraculous anfwer was obtained from God when he
was confulted by the high-prieft ; and that this was call¬
ed urim and thummim, to exprefs the cleamefs and per-
ftdion which thefe oracular anfwers always carried with
them j for urim fignifies “ light,” and thummim “ per-
fedion thefe anfwers not being imperfed and ambi¬
guous, like the heathen oracles, but clear and evident.
The ufe made of the urim and thummim was to confult
God in difficult cafes relating to the whole ftate of If-
rael; and fometimes in cafes relating to the king, the
fanhedrim, the general of the army, or fome other great
perfonage.
URINAL, in Medicine, a veffel fit to receive and
hold urine, and ufed accordingly for the convenience of
fick perfons. It is ufually of glafs, but fometimes of
metal.
URINE, a fluid, feparated from the blood, and car¬
ried by the emulgent arteries to the kidneys, from whence
it defeends to the bladder by the uterus, and is from time
to time emitted thence by the canal of the urethra.
See Anatomy, N° 107. Por the properties of urine,
fee Chemistry Index.
C 584 ]
URN,
u S Q r 585 ] U T R
^r* URN, a kind of vafe, of a roundifli form, but biggeft
T l> in the middle, like the common pitchers j now feldom
bau«h* u^ec^ *5ut ‘n way ornament over chimney-pieces, in
—. ' buftets, &c. The great ufe1bf urns among the ancients,
was to preferve the allies of the dead after they were
burnt ; for which reafon they were called cineraria, and
urnce cinerar'ice, and were placed fometimes under the
tombftone whereon the epitaph was cut} and fometimes
in vaults in their own houfes. Urns were alfo ufed at
their facrifices to put liquid things in.
UROGALLUS. SeeTETRAO, Ornithology Index.
URSA, in jdjlronomy, the name of two conltella-
tions in the northern hemifphere.
URSULINES, in church hiftory, an order of nuns,
founded originally by St Angela of Brefcia, in the year
*337 5 an<l called from St Urfula, to whom they
were dedicated.
URSUS, the Rear, a genus of quadrupeds belong¬
ing to the order offeree. See Mammalia Index.
URTICA, a genus of plants of the clafsof moroeciaj
and in the natural fyftem claffed under the 53d order,
Scabridee. See Botany Index.
Ur TIC A Marina. See ANIMAL-F/o wer.
USANCE, in Commerce, is a determined time fixed
for the payment of bills of exchange, reckoned either
from the day of the bills being accepted, or from the
day of their date •, and thus called becaufe regulated by
the ufage and cuftom of the places whereon they are
drawn.
USE, in Law, the profit or benefit of lands and te¬
nements } or a trull and confidence repofed in a perfon
for the holding of lands, &c. that he to whofe ufe the
trull is made lhall receive the profits.
USHANT , an ifland of France, 15 miles well of the
coall of Britanny, at the entrance of the Britilh channel.
Usher, an officer or fervant who has the care and di¬
rection of the door of a court, hall, chamber, or the like.
USHER of the B/ack Rod, the eldeffof the gentlemen
ulhers, daily waiters at court, whofe duty is to bear the
rod before the king at the fealt of St George, and other
folemnities.
USK, a river of Wales, which rifes on the well of
Rrecknockfhire, and runs fouth-eaft through that county
and Monmouthlhire, falling into the mouth of the Se-
Yern.
USQUEBAUGH, a llrong compound liquor, chiefly
taken by way of dram.
I here are feveral different methods of making this li¬
quor ; but the following is elteemed one of the bell :
To two gallons of brandy, or other fpirits, put a pound
of Spanilh liquorice, half a pound of raifins of the fun,
four ounces of currants, and three of fliced dates; the
tops of baum, mint, favory, thyme, and the tops of the
flowers of rofemary, of each two ounces j cinnamon and
mace, well bruifed, nutmegs, anifeeds, and coriander
feeds, bruifed likewife, of each four ounces; of citron
or lemon, and orange-peel, fcraped, of each an ounce :
let all thefe infufe 48 hours in a warm place, often Ihak-
ing them together; then let them Hand in a cool place
for a week : after which the clear liquor is to be decant¬
ed off, and to it is to be put an equal quantity of neat
white port, and a gallon of canary 5 after which it is to
be fweetened with a fufficient quantity of double refined
fugar.
Vol. XX. Part II.
USTION, in Pharmacy, the preparing of certain Ultioa
fubllances by burning them. I!
USUFRUIT, in the CivtlLaw, the ufe or enjoyment, Utr^ •t'
of smy lands or tenements; or the right of receiving the
fruits and profits of an inheritance, or other thing, with¬
out a power of alienating or changing the property
thereof.
USURER, a perfon charged with a habit or a£t of u-
fury.
USURIOUS contract, is any bargain or contradl
whereby a man is obliged to pay more interell for mo¬
ney than the ftatute allows.
USURPATION, in Law, is an injurious ufing or
enjoyment of a thing for continuance of time, that be¬
longs of right to another.
USURY, an unlawful contra# upon the loan of mo¬
ney, to receive the fame again with exorbitant increafe.
Under the article Interest, it was obferved, that by
ftatute 37 Hen. VIII. c. 9. the rate of intereft was fix¬
ed at 10I. per cent, per annum : which the flatute 13
Eliz. c. 8. confirms, and ordains, that all brokers ffiall
be guilty of a praemunire who tranfaft any contracts for
more, and the fecurities themfelves fhall be void. The
ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 17. reduced intereft to 81. per cent, j
and it having been lowered in 1650, during the ufurpa-
tion, to 6 per cent, the fame redudtion was re-ena£ted
after the Reftoxation by ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 13. and,
laftly, the ftatute 12 Anna;, ft. 2. c. 16. has reduced it
to 5 per cent. Wherefore not only all contrafts for tak¬
ing more are in themfelves totally void, but alfo the
lender fhall forfeit treble the money borrowed. Alfo if
any fcrivener or broker take more than 5s. per cent,
procuration-money, or more than I2d. for making a
bond, he fhall forfeit 20I. with cofts, and fhall fuffer im-
prifonment for half a-year.
UTERUS. See Anatomy, N° 108.
UTICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, on the Mediterranean : a Tyrian colony, and
older than Carthage, (Sil. Italicus) j its name, accord¬
ing to Bochart, denoting old: reckoned fecond to it;
but after the deftrudlion of Carthage, became the capi¬
tal and centre of all the Roman tranfa#ions in Africa,
according to Strabo; who adds, that it flood on the
fame bay with Carthage, at one of the promontories
called Apollonium, bounding the bay on the weft fide,
the other to the eaft called Hcrmeia, being at Carthage.
It became famous by the death of Cato, who thence w as
called Uticen/is.
UTRECHT, one of the feven United Provinces or
States of Holland, wholly furrounded by Holland and
Guelderland, excepting a fmall part of it that borders
on the Zuyder Zee. Its greateft length is about 32
miles, and breadth about 22. It enjoys a good air ;
and in moft places the foil is fruitful, but in fome fandy,
or what is called turf-ground, and in others overrun with
wood. It is watered by the Leek, Rhine, Vecht, and
other fmaller rivers, befides feveral canals : of which
that extending from the village of Vreefwyk to Utrecht
is one of the chief.
Utrecht, in Latin Ultrajeclum, TrajcElum vetus
or wferius, or TrajeElum Rhem, capital of a province of
the fame name, fo called from its ancient ferry or pafi-
fage here over the Rhine ; the woid being compounded
of trechtj which in Dutch fignifies “ a ferry,” and oud
4 E or
V U L [ 5S6 j U Z B
Utrecht or ohy h e, M old.n It is a fair, larg?, and populous
V iVin 19 miles from Amfterdam, 25 from Rot-
terdam, and 27 from Leyden. Here is a (lately tovvn-
houfe, with a commandery of the Teutonic order, and
a celebrated univerfity, which was founded in 1630,
iince which it hath flouridted greatly, though it has not
all the privileges of moft other univerfrdcs; being wholly
fubjeft to the magiftrates of the city. The mall with¬
out the town, having five rows of lofty limes on each
fide, is very pleafant: and the phyfic-garden belonging
to the univerfity is extremely curious. There are five
churches here that have chapters j but the members of
thefe purchafe the places, of w'hich fome coft 6000 or
70CO guilders. The llreams which run through feveral
of the iireets, contribute much to the beauty and clean-
linefs of the town j and the canal that is cut from the
Leek, and paffes through it to Amfterdam, will carry
(hips of any burden. Pope Adrian VI. was a native of
this city. Here, in 1579, the memorable union was
formed between the feven provinces j and, in I7I3’
celebrated peace concluded between France on the one
part, and the allies on the other. The Papifts have a
nominal archbiihop of this city j and there is a filk ma-
nufaclory carried on in it, which employs a number of
hands. The inhabitants are fuppofed to amount to
30,000. E. Long. 5. 8. N. Lat. 52. 7.
UFRICULARIA, a genus of plants of the clafs of
diandria ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
24th order, Corydales. See Botany Index.
UVA ursi. See Arbutus, Botany Index.
VULCAN, in Pagan worfhip, the god ot fubteiTa-
neous fire and metals, was the fon of Jupiter and Juno j
and was faid to be fo remarkably deformed, that his fa¬
ther threw him down from heaven to the ifle of Lemnos,
in which fall he broke his leg, and there he fet up his
forge, and taught men how to foften and polilh brafs
and iron. Thence he removed to the Liparian ides,
near Sicily, where, by the afiiftance of the Cyclops, he
made Jupiter’s thunderbolts, and armour for the other
gods. Notwnthftanding the deformity of his perfon, he
had a paftion for Minerva, and by Jupiter’s confent
made his addreffes to her, but without fuccefs. He was, Vulgate
however, more fortunate in his fuit to Venus; who, af- II
ter marriage, chofe Mars for her gallant j when Vulcan , z ^ec‘" ,
expoied them to the ridicule of the other gods, by taking
them in a net.
VULGATE, a very ancient Latin tranflation of the
Bible, and the only one acknowledged by the church of
Rome to be authentic. See Bible.
VULNERARY, in Medicine, an epithet formerly gi¬
ven to remedies fuppofed to pofiefs virtues for the cure
of wounds and ulcers.
VULTUR, a genus of birds belonging to the order
of Accipitres. See Ornithology Index.
VULVA. See Anatomy, N° 132.
UVULA. See Anatomy, N° 102.
UZ, or Utz, the country and place of refidence of
Job. In the genealogy of the patriarchs there are three
perfons called Uis, either of which might give this di-
llrifl its name. The firft was the grandfon of Sem, by
his fon Aram (Gen. xxii. 23.), who, according to Jofe-
phus, occupied the Trachonitis, and Damafcus, to the
north of Paleftine : but Job was among the fons of the
Eaft. Another Liz w’as the fon of Nahor, Abraham’s
brother (Gen. x. 21.), who appears to have removed,
after palling the Euphrates, from Haran of Mefopota-
mia to Arabia Deferta. The third Usz W'as a Horite,
from Mount Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 28.), and thus not of E-
ber’s pofterity. Now' the queftion is, from which of
thefe Job’s country, Uz, took its name : Not from the
firft, as is already ftiown ; nor from the fecond, becaufe
his country is always called Seir, or Edom, never Uz $
and then called aJ'outh, not an eajl, country, in Scrip¬
ture. It therefore remains, that we look for the coun¬
try and place of refidence of Job in Arabia Defer ta j
for which there w7as very probable reafons. The plun¬
derers of Job are called Chaldeans and Sabeans, next
neighbours to him. Thefe Sabeans came not from A-
rabia Felix, but •rom a nearer Sabe in Arabia Deferta
(Ptolemy) ; and his friends, except Eliphaz the The-
manite, were of Arabia Deferta.
UZBECK Tartary. See Tartary.
si
w.
Wor w, is the 21ft letter of our alphabet and is
3 compofed, as its name implies, of twm v’s. It
WTas not in ufe among the Hebrews, Greeks, or Romans j
but chiefly peculiar to the northern nations, the Teu-
tones, Saxons, Britons, &c. But ftill it is not ufed by
the French, Italians, Spaniards, or Portuguefe, except
in proper names, and other terms borrowed from lan¬
guages in which it is originally ufed, and even then it is
founded like the Angle v. This letter is of an ambigu
ous nature j being a confonant at the beginning of
words, and a vowel at the end. It may ftand before all
the vow'els except u ; as water, wedge, winter, wonder ;
it may alfo follow the vow'els a. e, 0, and unites with
them into a kind of double vowel, or diphthong j as in
Jaw, few, cow, &c. It alfo goes before r, and follow'*
J and th ; as in wrath, /wear, thwart: it goes before h
alfo, though in reality it is founded after it, as in when,
what, &c. In fome words it is obfeure, as in Jhadow,
widow, &c.
W A AG, a river of Hungary, which rifes in the Car¬
pathian mountains, and falls into the Danube oppofile to
the ifland of Schut.
WAAL, a river of the United Netherlands, being
one of the branches of the Rhine, which runs from call
to w'eft, through Guelderland ; paffing by Nimeguen,
Tiel, Bommel, and Gorcum j and, uniting with the
Maes, falls into the German fea below the Briel,
WACHENDORFIA, a genys of plants of the clafs
ti
WAT [ 587 ] W A K
\\ add 0f trlandria ; and arranged in the natural method under
JJve the 6th order, Knfatce. See Botany Index.
WADD, or Wadding, is a ftopple of paper, hay,
draw, or the like, forced into a gun upon the powder,
to keep it clofe in the chamber ; or to put up clofe to
the (hot, to keep it from rolling out.
WADSET, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxix. 1.
WAFERS, or Sealing WAFERS, are made thus:
Take very fine flour, mix it with glair of eggs, ifinglafs,
and a little yeaft ; mingle the materials •, beat them well
together ; fpread the batter, being made thin with gum-
water, on even tin plates, and dry them in a ftove ; then
cut them out for ufe.
You may make them of what colour you pleafe, by
tinging the pafte with brafil or vermilion for red 5 in¬
digo or verditer, &c. for blue ; faffron, tumeric, or gam¬
boge, &c. for yellow.
WAGER of LAJV. See (Wager of) Law.
Wager of Battel. See (Wager of) Battel.
WAGGON, a wheel-carriage, of which there are
various forms, accommodated to the different ufes they
are intended for. The common waggon confifts of the
drafts or rods, being the two pieces which the hind horfe
bears up the welds ; the flotes, or crofs pieces, which
hold the fhafts together 5 the bolder, being that part
on which the fore-wheels and the axle-tree turn in
wheeling the waggon acrofs the road ; the cheft or body
of the waggon, having the ilaves or rails fixed thereon j
the bales, or hoops which compofe the top ; the tilt, the
place covered with cloth, at the end of the waggon. See
Mechanics, Se&. iv.
WAGTAIL. See Motacilla, Ornithology
Index.
WAIFS, Bona Waviata, are goods flolen, and
waived or thrown away by the thief in his flight, for
fear of being apprehended. Thefe are given to the
king by the law, as a punifhmenf upon the owner for
not himfeif purfuing the felon, and taking away his
goods from him. And therefore if the party robbed do
his diligence immediately to follow and apprehend
the thief (which is called making frejh fait), or do con-
vicl him afterwards, or procure evidence to conviiR him,
he ilrall have his goods again. Waived goods do alfo
not belong to the king till feized by fomebody for his
ui’e •, for if the party robbed can feize them firft, though
at the diftance of 20 years, the king fhall never have
them. If the goods are hid by the thief, or left any¬
where by him, fo that he had them not about him when
he fled, and therefore did not throw them away in his
flight; thefe alfo are not bona waviata, but the owner
may have them again when he pleafes. The goods of
a foreign merchant, though ftolen and thrown away in
flight, (hall never be waifs : the reafon whereof may be,
not only for the encouragement of trade, but alfo be-
caufe there is no wilful default in the foreign merchant’s
not purfuing the thief, he being generally a ftranger to
cur laws, our ufages, and our language.
WAIGATS STRAITS, lituated between Nova Zem-
bla and Ruffia, through wrhich the Dutch failed to the
north, as high as 750, in order to difcover a north-eaft
paflage to China and the Eafl: Indies.
WAINSCOT, in building, the timber-work that
ferves to line the walls of a room, being ufually made in
pannels, and painted, to ferve inftead of hangings.
WAIVE, in Law, a woman that is put out of the
proteftion of the law. She is called waive, as being Waive,
foifaken of the law } and not outlaw as a man is} by Wake,
reafon women cannot be of the decenna, and are not '■'“V"’”'
fworn in leets to the king, nor to the larv, as men are;
who are therefore within the law 5 whereas women are
not, and fo cannot be outlawed, flnce they neVer were
within it.
WAKE, the print or track imprefled by the courfe
of a flap on the furface of the water. It is formed by
the re-union of the body of water which was feparated
by the flap’s bottom whillt moving through it 5 and
may be feen to a confiderabie diflance behind the llern,
as fmoother than the refl of the fea. Hence it is ufual¬
ly obferved by the compafs, to dflcover the angle of
lee-way.
A flap is faid to be in the wake of another when fhe
follows her on the fame track, or a line fuppoled to be
formed on the continuation ot her keel.
Two diftant obje&s obferved at fea are called in the
wake of each other, when the view of the farthefl is
intercepted by the neareft } fo that the oblerver’s eye
and the two objedls are all placed upon the fame right
line.
Wake is the eve-feaft of the dedication of churcheSj
which is kept with feafting and rural diverfions.
Mr Whitaker, in his Hiftory of Manchefter, has
given a particular account of the origin of wakes and
fairs. Fie obferves, that every church at its confecra^
tion received the name of fome particular faint : this
cuftom was pradlifed among the Roman Britons-, and
continued among the Saxons j and in the council of
Cealchythe, in 816, the name of the denominating
faint was exprefsly required to be inferibed on the al¬
tars, and alio on the walls of the church, or a tablet
within it. The feaft: of this faint became of courfe the
feftival of the church. Thus Chriflian feftivals were
fubftituted in the room of the idolatrous anniverfaries of
heathenifm ; accordingly, at the firfl: introdudlion of
Chriftianity among the Jutes of Kent, Pope Gregory
the Great advifed, what had been previoufly done among
the Britons, viz. Chriflian feftivals to be inftiteted in
the room of the idolatrous, and the fuffering day of the
martyr whole relics were repofited in the church, or
the day on which the building was a&ually dedicated,
to be the eftablifhed feaft of the parilh. Both were ap¬
pointed and obferved 5 and they were clearly diftinguifh-
ed at firft among the Saxons, as appears from the laws
of the Confeflbr, where the dies dedicationis, or dedicatio,
is repeatedly diferiminated from the propria fejlivitas
fandli, or celebratio fanfli. They remained equally di-
ftinfl to the Reformation ; the dedication-day in 1536
being ordered for the future to be kept on the firft Sun¬
day in Oflober, and the feftival of the patron faint to
be celebrated no longer. The latter was, by way of
pre-eminence, denominated the church'’s holiday, or its
peculiar feftival j and while this remains in many pa-
rifhesat prefent, the other is fo utterly annihilated in all,
that Biftiop Kennet (fays Mr Whitaker) knew nothing
of its diftin6l exiftence, and has attributed to the day of
dedication what is true only concerning the faint’s day.
Thus inftituted at firft, the day of the tutelar faint was
obferved, moft probably by the Britons, and certainly
by the Saxons, with great devotion. And the evening
before every faint’s day, in the Saxon Jewifh method of
reckoning the hours, being an adual hour of the day,
4 E 2 and
W A K [ 588 1 W A L
Tft'uke. and therefore like that appropriated to the duties of pu-
blic religion, as they reckoned Sunday from the firft to
commence at the funfet of Saturday ; the evening pre¬
ceding the church’s holyday would be obferved with all
the devotion of the feitival. The people aftually re¬
paired to the church, and joined in the fervicesof it; and
they thus fpent the evening of their greater feftivities in
the monafteries of the North, as early as the conclufion
of the feventh century.
Thefe fervices were naturally denominated from their
late hours Wcecan or wakes, and vigils or eves. That
of the anniverfary at Rippon, as early as the commence¬
ment of the eighth century, is exprefsly denominated
the vigil. But that of the church’s holiday was named
eyrie wcecan, or church-wake, the church-vigil, or church
eve. And it was this commencement of both with a
wake, which has now caufed the days to be generally
preceded with vigils, and the church-holiday particular¬
ly to be denominated the church-wake. So religioufly
was the eve and feftival of the patron faint obferved for
many ages by the Saxons, even as late as the reign of
Edgar, the former being fpent in the church, and
employed in prayer. And the wakes, and all the other
holidays in the year, were put upon the fame footing
with the Odlaves of Chriftmas, Eafter, and of Pente-
coft. When Gregory recommended the feftival of the
patron faint, he advifed the people to erett booths of
branches about the church on the day of the feftival,
and to feaft and be merry in them with innocence. Ac¬
cordingly, in every parifh, on the returning anniverfary
of the faint, little pavilions were conftrufted of boughs,
and the people indulged in them to hofpitality and
mirth. The feafting of the faint’s day, however, was
foon abufed } and even in the body of the church, when
the people were affembled for devotion, they began to
mind diverfions, and to introduce drinking. The
growing intemperance gradually ftained the fervice of
the vigil, till the feftivity of it was converted, as it now
is, into the rigour »f a faft. At length they too juftly
fcandalized the Puritans of the laft century, and num¬
bers of the wakes were difufed entirely, efpecially in
the eaft and fome weftern parts of England ; but they
are commonly obferved in the north, and in the midland
counties.
This cuftom of celebrity in the neighbourhood of the
church, on the days of particular faints, was introduced
into England from the continent, and muft have been
familiar equally to the Britons and Saxons ; being ob¬
ferved among the churches of Afia in the fixth century,
and by thofe of the weft of Europe in the feventh.
And equally in Afia and Europe, on the continent and
in the iflands, thefe celebrities were the caufes of thofe
commercial marts which we denominate fairs. The
people reforted in crowds to the feftival, and a confider-
able provifion would be wanted for their entertainment.
The profpedt of intereft invited the little traders of the
country to come and offer their wares) and thus, among
the many pavilions for hofpitality in the neighbourhood
of the church, various booths were eredled for the fale
of different commodities. In larger towns, furrounded
with populous diftridls, the refort of the people to the
wakes would be great, and the attendance of traders
numerous; and this refort and attendance conftitute a
fair..—Baftl exprefsly mentions the numerous appearance
q{ traders at thefe feftivals in Afia, and Gregory notes
the fame cuftoM to be common in Europe. And as the Wake
feftival was obferved on a feria or holiday, it naturally II
affumed to itfelf, and as naturally communicated to the ^ ale3,
mart, the appellation of feria or fair. Indeed feveral of
our moft ancient fairs appear to have been ufually held,
and have been continued to our time, on the original
church-holidays of the places : beftdes, it is obfervable,
that fairs were generally kept in church-yards, and
even in the churches, and alfo on Sundays, till the inde¬
cency and fcandal were fo great as to need reformation.
Wake-ROBIN. See Arum, Botany Index.
WALACHIA, a province of Turkey in Europe,
bounded on the north by Moldavia and Tranfylvania,
on the eaft and fouth by the river Danube, and on the
weft by Tranfylvania. It is 225 miles in length, and
125 in breadth j and was ceded to the Turks by the
treaty of Belgrade, in 1739- It abounds in good horfes
and cattle j and there are mines of feveral kinds. The
foil is fo fertile, that it is capable of producing any
thing ; and there are good paftures, with wine, oil, and
all manner of European fruits. The inhabitants are
chiefly of the Greek church.
WALCHEREN, an illand of the Low Countries,
and one of the principal of thofe of Zealand; feparated
from Dutch Flanders by the mouth of the Scheldt. It
is about nine miles in length, and eight in breadth j
and though it lies lowr, has good arable and pafture land.
The chief town of this iftand and the whole province is
Middleburgh. But the principal fea port is Flufhing,
which is ftrongly fortified. Walcheren was taken by
the Britilh forces in Auguft 1809 j but it foon aftei;
was abandoned, the troops having fuffered feverely by
ficknefs.
WALDEN, a town of Effex, commonly called Saf¬
fron Walden, with a market on Saturdays, and two,
fairs on Midlent Saturday for horfes, and November iff
for cows. It is remarkable for the plenty of faffroa
that grows about it. This town was incorporated by Ed¬
ward VI. and is governed by a mayor and 24 aider-
men, It is 27 miles north-weft-by-north of Chelms¬
ford, and 43 north-eaft of London. E. Long. o. 2o„
N. Lat. 52. 4.
WALDENSES. See Waldo.
WALDO, a merchant of Lyons in the latter part of
the 1 2th century, who applying himfelf to the ftudy of
the Scriptures, and finding no warrant there for feveral
of the Romilh dodtrines, particularly that of tranfub-
ftantiation, publicly oppofed them. His followers, who
from him were called Waldenfes, being chafed from
Lyons, fpread over Dauphino and Provence 5 upon
which Philip II. is faid to have razed 300 gentlemen’s
feats, and deftroyed feveral walled towns to flop their
growth: but this, inftead of fupprefling, fpread them
over a great part of Europe. 1 he articles of their
faith, which they drew up and dedicated to the king
of France, agreed in moft points with thofe of the pre-
fent Proteftants. In the year 1200, thofe of themwhq
dwelt in the province of Albigeois in Languedoc, from
whence they were called Albtgenfes, flood upon their
defence $ upon which Philip drove them into Bohemia,
Savoy, and England. The crufade againft them is faid
to have confifted of 500,000 men, who wore their croffes
on their breafts, to diftinguifh themfelves from thofe who
went to the Holy Land, and wore them on their ftioulders.
WAX-ES, a country fituated in the fouth-weft part
of
W A L [ 589 ] W A L
Wales.
of Britain, into which the ancient Britons retired from
the perfecution of the Saxons. Anciently it was of
greater extent than it is at prefent, and comprehended all
the country beyond the Severn, that is, befides the 12
counties included in it at prefent, thofe of Herefordfliire
and Monmouthlhire, which now are reckoned a part of
England, were then inhabited by three different tribes
of the Britons, namely, the Silures, the Dimetae, and
the Ordovices. The Romans were. never able to firb-
due them, till the reign of Vefpafian, when they were
reduced by Julius Frontinus, who placed garrifons in
their country to keep them in awe. Though the Sax¬
ons made themfelves mafters of all England, they never
could get pofleffion of Wales, except the counties of
Monmouthfhire and Herefordfhire, formerly a part of
Wales. About the year 870, Roderic king of Wales
divided it among his three fons; and the names of thefe
divifions were, Demetia, or South-Wales; Povejia, or
Pouois-Land \ and Venedotia, or North Wales. Another
divifion is mentioned afterwards in the records, viz.
North Wales, South Wales, and Weft Wales j the laft
comprehending the counties of Monmouth and Here¬
ford. The country derived the name of Wales, and the
inhabitants that of Weljh, from the Saxons, who by
thofe terms denote a country and people to which they
are ftrangers j for the Welfh, in their own language,
call their country Cymry, and their language Cymraeg.
They continued under their own princes and laws from
the above-mentioned period, and were never entirely
fubjedfed to the crown of England till the reign of
Edward I. when Llewellin ap Gryffith, prince of
Wales, loft both his life and dominions. Edward, the
better to fecure his conqueft, and to reconcile the Welfh
to a foreign yoke, fent his queen to lie in at Caernarvon,
where fhe was delivered of a prince; to whom the
Welfh, on that account, the more readily fubmitted.
Ever fince that time, the eldeft fons of the kings of
England have commonly been created princes of
Wales, and as fuch enjoy certain revenues from that
country.
As to the charadfer of the Welfh, they are faid to
be a brave, hofpitable people j and though very jealous
of affronts, paffionate, andhafty, yet are eafily reconciled.
The common people look with a fufpicious eye on
ftrangers, and bear a hereditary grudge to the Englifh
nation, by whom their anceftors were expelled from the
hneft parts of the ifland. The gentlemen are apt to
value themfelves upon the antiquity of their families;
and with fome reafon, as they can generally trace them
much higher than the inhabitants of moft other coun¬
tries.
All the better fort, both in town and country, can
fpeak Englifh, efpecially in the counties bordering upon
England. The common people, in general, only fpeak
their own language, which is the ancient Britifh; and
not only differs entirely from the Englifh, but has very
little affinity with any of the weftern tongues, unlefs
we ffiould except the Gaelic, Erfe, or Iriffi. It is faid
to be a dialedt of the ancient Celtic, and in many re-
fpedls to refemble the Hebrew. Moft of the clergy are
natives of the country, and underftand Englifh fo well,
that they could exercife their fundfions in any part of
Britain. The public worfhip, however, is as often per¬
formed in Welfh as in Englifh, excepting in the towns,
where the latter is the prevailing language. The inha¬
bitants are computed at about 300,000.
The country, though mountainous, efpecially in North ^
Wales, is far from being barren or unfruitful; the hills,
befides the metals and minerals they contain, feeding
vaft herds of f'mall black cattle, deer, fheep, and goats,
and their valleys abounding in corn, as their feas and
rivers do in filh. Here are alfo wood, coal, and turf
for fuel, in abundance.
Wales is bounded on all fides by the fea and the
Severn j except on the eaft, where it joins to the coun¬
ties of Chefter, Salop, Hereford, and Monmouth. Its
length, from the fbuthernmoft part of Glamorganfhire
to the extremity of Flintffiire north, is computed at
about 113 miles 5 and its greateft breadth, from the
river Wye eaft to St David’s in Pembrokefhire weft, is
nearly of the fame dimenfions, being about 90 miles.
After the conqueft of Wales by Edward I. very ma¬
terial alterations were made in their laws, fo as to reduce
them nearer to the Englifh ftandard, efpecially in the
forms of their judicial proceedings: but they ftill retain¬
ed very much of their original polity, particularly their
rule of inheritance, viz. that their lands were divided
equally among all the iffue male, and did not defcend to
the eldeft fon alone. By other fubfequent ftatutes their
provincial immunities were ftill farther abridged: but
the finiffiing ftroke to their dependency was given by
the ftatute 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26. which at the fame time
gave the utmoft advancement to their civil profperity,
by admitting them to a thorough communication of laws
with the fubjefts of England.—Thus were this brave
people gradually conquered into the enjoyment of true
liberty j being infenftbly put upon the fame footing, and
made fellow-citizens, with their conquerors.
It is enabled by the 27 Hen. VIII. 1. That the do¬
minion of Wales fhall be for ever united to the king¬
dom of England. 2. That all Welffimen born ffiall
have the fame liberties as other king’s fubjebls. 3. That
lands in Wales fhall be inheritable according to the Eng¬
lifh tenures and rules of defcent. 4. That the laws of
England, and no other, fhall be ufed in Wales : befides
many other regulations of the police of this principality.
And the 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. c. 26. confirms the
fame, adds farther regulations, divides it into 1 2 fhires,
and, in ffiort, reduces it into the fame order in which it
ftands at this day 5 differing from the kingdom of Eng¬
land in only a few particulars, and thofe too of the na¬
ture of privileges (fuch as -having courts within itfelf,
independent of the procefs of Weftminfter-hall), and
f’omc other immaterial peculiarities, hardly more than
are to be found in many counties of England itfclf.
New Wales. See New Britain.
New South-WALES. See New HOLLAND.
Prince of WALES. See RO TAL Family.
WALKING Leaf an infebl. See MANTIS Syc folia,
Entomology Index.
WALL, in ArchiteBure, the principal part ©f a build¬
ing, as ferving both to inclofe it, and to fupport the
roof, floors, 8tc.—-Walls are diftinguifhed into various
kinds, from the matter whereof they confift j as plafter
or mud walls, brick walls, ftone walls, flint or boulder
walls, and boarded walls. See ARCHITECTURE,
Cob or Mud WALL. In thofe parts of England where
ftone is fcarce, it is ufual to make myalls ?.nd hctufes of
xnu.d,
Wales
II ’
Wall.
—V—
ji
\
Wall
II
Waller.
W A L [ 59° ] W A L
mud or, as it is called in Devonfliire, cob; which is a This fpeech was fo highly- applauded, that 20,000 co-
compofition of earth and draw, wet up fomewhat like ' ~ f : ^ i'~1J : T"
, mortar, but well beat and trod together. When a wall
is making, after being raifed to a certain height, it is al¬
lowed time to pitch- or fettle before the work is refumed.
Some value themfelves on their Ikill in building with
this compofition ; the price, when materials are found, is
generally in Devonfhire 3s. per perch of 164 feet 5 but
a done foundation cods more. Houfes built with this*
being covered with thatch, are very dry and warm } a
cob wall, if in a good fituation, will lad 50 or 60 years
or more. When pulled down, they are ufed as manure,
. and new earth employed to rebuild with.
WALLACE, Sir William, a gallant general of
the Scots, who endeavoured to refcue his country from
the Englhh yoke ; but being taken prifoner, he was un-
judly tried by the Englidi laws, condemned, and exe¬
cuted as a traitor to Edvvard I. in 1304. See Scot¬
land, n° 103, et feq.
WALLACH1A. See Walachia
WALLER, Edmund, a celebrated Englidi poet,
was the fon of Robert Waller, Efq. of Agmondediam
in Buckingham (hire, by Anne, the fider of the great
Hamden who didinguilhed himfelf fo much in the be¬
ginning of the civil wars. He was born in 1603 j
and his father dying when he was very young, the care
of his education fell to his mother, who font him to Eton
fchool. He was afterwards fent to King’s college in
Cambridge, where he mud have been very affiduous in
his dudies, fince, at fixteen or feventeen years of age, he
was chofen into the lad parliament of King James I.
and ferved as burgefs for Agmondediam. He began to
exercife his poetical talent fo early as the year 1623 ; as
appears from his verfes “ upon the danger his majedy
(being prince) efcaped in the road of St Andero 5” for
there Prince Charles, returning from Spain that year,
had like to have been cad away. It was not, however,
Mr Waller’s wit, his fine parts, or bis poetry, that fo
much occafioned him to be fird publicly know-n, as his
carrying off- the daughter and foie heirels of a rich ci¬
tizen, againft a rival whole intered was efpoufed by the
court. It is not known at what time he married his
fird lady •, but he was a widower before he was 25,
when he began to have a padion for Sachariffa, which
was a fidtitious name for the lady Dorothy Sidney,
daughter to the earl of Leiceder, and afterwards wife to
the earl of Sunderland. He was now known at court,
careffed by all who had any relidi for wit and polite
literature •, and was one of the famous club of which
Lord Falkand, Mr Chillingworth, and other eminent
men, were members. He was returned burgefs for Ag¬
mondediam in the parliament which met in April 1640.
An intermifiion of parliaments having difguded the na¬
tion, and raifed jealoufies againd the defigns of the
court, which would be fure to difeover themfelves when¬
ever the king came to afk for a fupply, Mr Waller was
one of the fird who condemned the preceding meafures.
He diowed himfelf in oppofition to the court, and made
a fpeech in the houfe on this occafion ; from which we
may gather fome notion of his general principles in go¬
vernment 5 wherein, however, he afterwards proved very
variable and incondant. He oppofed the court alfo in
the long parliament which met in November following,
and was chofen to impeach Judge Crawley, which he
did in a warm and eloquent fpeech, July 16th 1641,
4
pies of it were fold in one day. In 1642, he was one
of the commiflioners appointed by the parliament to
prefent their propofitions of peace to the king at Ox¬
ford. In 1643, ke was deeply engaged in a defign to
reduce the city of London and the tower to the fervice
of the king ■, for which he was tried and condemned,
together with Mr Tomkins his brother-in-law, and Mr
Challoner. The two latter fuffered death; but Mr
Waller obtained a reprieve : he was, however, fen-
tenced to fuffer a year’s imprifonment, and to pay a fine
of xojoool. After this, he became particularly attached
to Oliver Cromwell, upon whom he wrote a very hand-
fome panegyric. He alfo wrote a noble poem on the
death of that great man.
At the Refioration, he was treated with great civility
by Charles II. who always made him one of the party
in his diverfions at the duke of Buckingham’s and other
places. He wrote a panegyric upon his majefiy’s re¬
turn ; which being thought to fall much Ihort of that he
had before written on Oliver Cromwell, the king one
day afked him in raillery, “ How is it, Waller, that
you wrote a better encomium on Cromwell than on
me ?” “ May it pleafe your majefty,” anfwered he,
we poets generally fucceed belt in fiftion.” He fat in
feveral parliaments after the Reftoration, and continued
in the full vigour of his genius to the end of his life,
his natural vivacity bearing him up, and making his
company agreeable to the lad. He died of a dropfy in
1687, and was interred in the churchyard of Beacons-
field, where a monument is erefted to his memory. Mr
Waller has been honoured as the moft elegant and har¬
monious verfifier of his time, and a great refiner of the
Englifli language. The belt edition of his works, con¬
taining poems, fpeeches, letters, &c. is tViat publifiied
in quarto by Mr Fenton, to 1730.
WALLIS, Dr John, a celebrated mathematician,
was educated at Cambridge; where he became fellow
of Queen’s college, and continued fo till, by his mar¬
riage, he vacated his fellowfhip. In 1640, he received
holy orders, and became chaplain to the lady Vere.
While he lived in this family, he cultivated the art of
deciphering ; and it is laid, that the elector of Branden¬
burg, for whom he explained feveral letters written in
ciphers, fent him a gold chain and medal. In 1643
publifiied, “ Truth tried ; or Animadverfionson the Lord
Brooke’s treatife, called The Nature of Truth, &c.”
The next year be was chofen one of the feribes or le-
cretaries to the affembly of divines at Weftminfter. Dr
Peter Turner, Savilian profeffor of geometry in Oxford,
being ejected by the parliament-vifitors in 1649, Mr
Wallis was appointed to fucceed him in that place. In
1653 pubhlhed at Oxford a Grammar of the Eng-
lilh Tongue in Latin. In 1655 entered the hits
with Mr Hobbes ; and their controverfy lafted a con-
fiderable time. In 1657 the Doftor publifiied his Ma¬
thematical Works. Upon the death of Dr Langbaine,
he was chofen cuftos archivorum of the univerfity. Af¬
ter the Reftoration he met with great refptdl^ the king
himfelf entertaining a favourable opinion of him on ac¬
count of fome fervices he had done both to his royal
father and himfelf. Fie was therefore confirmed in his
places, admitted one of the king’s chaplains in ordinary,
and appointed one of the divines empowered to review
the book, of common prayer. He complied with the
terms
Waller,
Wallis.
\
W A L [ 591 ] W A L
Wallis terms of the act of uniformity, and continued a fteady
II , conformill till his death. He was one of the firft mem-
^ ^ ' '■ bers of the Royal Society, and correfponded with many
learned men. In 1697, the curators of the univerfity
prefs at Oxford thought it for the honour of the univer¬
fity to collefl the mathematical works of the Hoftor,
which had been printed feparately, fome in Latin, fome
in Englifli, and publilhed them all together in the Latin
tongue, in three vols, folio. He died in 1703. He
fpeaks of himfelf thus: “ It hath been my endeavour all
along to a<fl by moderate principles, being -willing what¬
ever fide was uppermoft, to promote any good defign
for the true interefl ot religion, of learning, and of the
public good.” Befides the works above-mentioned, he
publilhed many others.
WALLOONS, a name for the inhabitants of a
confiderable part of the Netherlands, viz. Artois, Hai-
nault, Naum, Luxemburgh, and part of Flanders and
Brabant.
WALNUT-tree. See Juglans, Botany Index.
WALPOLE, Sir Robert, earl of Orford, Was
born at Houghton in Norfolk, September 6i.li, 1674,
and educated on the foundation at Eton fchool. Thence
he was defied to K ng’s College in Cambridge ; but,
fucceeding to the family eflate by the death of his elder
brother, he refigned his fellowlhip. In 1700 he was
chofen member of parliament for King’s Lynn, and re-
prefented that borough in feveral fucceeding parlia¬
ments. In 1705, he was nominated one of the council
to Prince George of Denmark, lord high admiral of
England; in 1707, appointed fecretary at war; and,
in 1709, treafurer of the navy. In 1710, upon the
change of the miniftry, he was removed from all his
ports, and held no place afterwards during the queen’s
reign. In 1711 he was expelled from the houfe of
commons for what they called notorious corruption in
his office as fecretary at war. The borough of Lynn,
however, re-eleffed him ; and, though the houfe de¬
clared the eledion void, yet they perfifted in the choice.
In the well-known debate relating to Steele for publiffi-
ing the Crifis, he greatly diftinguifhed himfelf in behalf
of liberty, and added to the popularity he had before
acquired.
On the death of the queen, a revolution of politics
took place, and the Whig parly prevailed both at court
and in the fenate. Walpole had before recommended
himfelf to the houfe of Hanover by his zeal for its
caufe, when the commons confidered the ftate of the
nation with regard to the Protertant fucceffion : and he
had now the honour to procure the aflurance of the
houfe to the new king (which attended the addrefs of
condolence and congratulation), “ That the commons
would make good ail parliamentary funds.” It is there¬
fore not to be wondered at, that his promotion foon
took place after the king’s arrival; and that in a few
days he was appointed receiver and pay-mafter general
of all the guards and garrifons, and of all other the
land forces in Great Britain, paymafter of the roval
hofpital at Chelfea, and likewife a privy counfellor.
On the opening of a new parliament, a committee of
fecrecy was chofen to inquire into the conduft of the
late miniftry, of which Walpole was appointed chair¬
man ; and, by his management, articles of impeach¬
ment were read againft the earl of Oxford, Lord Bo-
lingbroke, the duke of Ormond, and the carl of Straf¬
ford. The eminent fervice he was thought to have Walpole,
done the crown, by the vigorous profecution of thofe
minifters who were deemed the chief inftruments of the
peace, was foon rewarded by the extraordinary pro¬
motions to the offices of firft commiflioner of the trea-
fury, and chancellor and under treafurer of the exche¬
quer.
In two years time he refigned all his offices, on ac¬
count of a mifunderllanding which took place between
him and the reft of the miniftry about certain lupplies
demanded for the fupport of his majefty’s German do¬
minions. On the day of his refignation he brought in
the famous finking-fund bill, which he prefented as a
country gentleman, faying, that he hoped it would not
fare the worfe for having two fathers; and that his
fucceflbr Mr Stanhope would bring it to perfcdlion.
His calling himfelf the father of a project, which hath
fince been fo often employed to other purpofes than
were at firft declared, gave his enemies frequent oppor¬
tunity for fa tire and ridicule ; and it hath been farcafti-
cally obferved, that the father of this fund appeared in
a very bad light when viewed in the capacity of a nurfe.
In the next feflion of parliament, Walpole oppofed the
miniftry in every thing ; and even Wyndham or Ship-
pen did not exceed him in patriotifm. Upon a motion
in the houfe for continuing the army, he made a fpeech
of above an hour long, and difplayed the danger of a
Handing army in a free country, with all the powers of
eloquence. Early in 1720 the rigour of the patriot
began to foften, and the complaiiance of the courtier
to appear ; and he was again appointed paymafter of
the forces, and feveral of his friends were found foon
after in the lift of promotions. No doubt now remain¬
ed of his entire converfion to court meafures ; for, be¬
fore the end of the year, u-e find him pleading as ftrong-
ly for the forces required by the war-office as he had
before declaimed againft them, even though at this
time the fame pretences for keeping them on foot did
not exift.
It was not king before he acquired full miniflerial
power, being appointed firft lord commiffioner of the
treafury, and chancellor of the exchequer ; and, when
the king went abrsad in 1723, he was nominated one
of the lords juftices for the adminiftration of govern¬
ment, and was fworn foie fecretary of ftate. About
this time he received another diflinguifhed mark of the
royal favour ; his eldeft fon then on. his travels being
created a peer, by the title of Baron Walpole of Wal¬
pole. In 1725 he was made knight of the Bath, and
the year after knight of the Garter. The meafures of
his adminiftration, during the long time he remained
prime or rather foie miniiler, have been often canvaffed
with all the feverity of critical inquiry. It is difficult
to dilcern the truth through the exaggerations and mif.
reprefentations of party. He has indeed been accufed
of employing the finking fund for the purpofes of cor¬
ruption, of which it was long the faftiion to call him
the father ; but the man who refletfts on the tranfaftions
of Charles II. and his infamous cabal, will acquit him
of the latter part of this charge. He was an enemy to
war, and the friend of commerce ; and becaufe he did
not refent fome petty infults of the court of Spain fo
fuddenly as tne fiery part of the nation thought he
fhould have done, a formidable oppofition was formed
againft him in the houfej which had influence enough
to
W A L
[ 592 ]
W A L
Walpole, to employ in its caufe almoft all the wit of the nation,
v Pulteney and Pitt were the great leaders of the party
in the houfe of commons; while Bolingbroke and Pope
and Johnfon, and almoft every man of genius, exerted
themfelves without doors to enlighten, by pamphlets in
profe and verfe, the minds of the people, and fhow the
neceflity of a Spaniflr war. This he ftrenuoufly oppof-
ed, becaufe he knew that the foreign fettlements of that
power are very remote, and in a climate deftruftive to
•Englithmen j and that fuch of them as we might be
able to take, we could not poffibly retain. The oppo-
iition however prevailed. The nation was indulged in
a war, of which it furely had no caufe to boaft of the
f'uccefs 5 and it is now univeifally known, that the
greater part of thofe who with honeft intentions Lad, ei¬
ther in parliament or out of it, been engaged to run
down the minifter, lived to repent of their condudt, and
do juftice to the man whom they had fo pertinacioufly
vilified.
In order to encourage commerce and improve the
revenue, Sir Robert proje&ed a fcheme for an extenfion
of the excife, as the only means of putting a flop to the
frauds of merchants and illicit traders. This was ano¬
ther ground of clamour to the orators within, and the wits
without, doors ; and while the oppofition reprefented it
as a meafure big with public mifehief, Swift and Pope
occafionally alluded to it as an oppreffion calculated to
deprive private life of all its comforts. The minifter
was therefore obliged to abandon the fcheme , but in a
» fucceeding adminiftration it was partly carried into exe¬
cution, at the exprefs folicitation of the principal per-
fons concerned in that article of trade which it was iug-
gefted would be moft affefted by it •, and afterwards the
moft popular minifter that ever dire&ed the councils of
"this country declared in full fenate, that it a time fhould
ever arrive which was likely to render the projeft fea-
fible, he would himfelf recommend an extenfion of the
excife laws as a meafure of the greateft advantage to
commerce, to the revenue, and to the general interefts
of the kingdom.
In 1742 the oppofition prevailed*, and Sir Robert
being no longer able to carry a majority in the houfe
of commons, refigned all his places, and fled for ftielter
behind the throne. He was foon afterwards created
earl of Orford *, and the king, in confideration of his
long and faithful fervices, granted him. a penfion of
4000I. per annum. The remainder of his life he.fpent
in tranquillity and retirement, and died, in 1745, in the
71ft year of his age.
He has been feverely, and not unjuftly, cenfured tor
that fyftem of corruption by which he almoft avowed
that he governed the nation } but the objects which he
had in view are now acknowledged to have been in a
high degree praife worthy. Johnfon, who in the earlier
part of his life had joined the other wits in writing
againft his meafures, afterwards honoured his memory
for the placability of his temper, and for keening this
country in peace for fo many years j and Mr Burke
* Letters has * declared, that his only defeft as a .minifter was
•72 a Regi- the want of fufficient firmnefs to treat with contempt
u:ide Peace, jhat popular clamour, which, by his yielding to it, hur¬
ried the nation into an expenfive and unjuft war. But
his rancorous profecution of Atterbury bithop of Ro-
chefter (fee AtterBury), by a bill of pains and penal¬
ties, may be confidered as fomething worfe than a de-
fe£t: it w*as a fault for which no apology can be made*, Walpole
becaufe, whether that prelate was innocent or guilty, of wJjmpv
his guilt no legal proof ever appeared. In that inftance
the condufl of the minifter was the more extraordinary, y—^
that on other occafions he chofe to gain over the difaf-
fefted by mildnefs and beneficence, even when he had
fufficient proofs of their guilt. Of this the following
anecdote, communicated by Lord North to Dr JohnJon,
is a fufficient proof. Sir Robert having got into his
hands fome treafonable papers of his inveterate enemy
Shippen, fent for him, and burnt them before his eyes.
Some time afterwards, while Shippen was taking the
oaths to the government in the houfe of commons, Sir
Robert, who Itood next to him, and knew his principles
to be the fame as ever, fmiled ; upon which Shippen,
who had obferved him, faid “ Egad, Robin, that’s hard¬
ly fair.”
To w-hatever objettions his minifterial conduct may
be liable, in his private chara&er he is univerfally al¬
lowed to have had amiable and benevolent qualities.
That he was a tender parent, a kind mafter, a benefi¬
cent patron, a firm friend, an agreeable companion, are
points that have been feldom difputed j and lo calm and
equal was his temper, that Pulteney, his great rival and
opponent, faid, he was fure that Sir Robert Walpole
never felt the bittereft invectives againft him for half an
hour.
About the end of Queen Anne’s reign, and the be¬
ginning of George I.’s, he wrote the following pamph¬
lets. 1. The Sovereign’s Anlwer to the Gloucefter-
ffiire Addrefs. The Sovereign meant Charles duke of
Somerfet, fo nicknamed by the Whigs. 2. Anfwer to
the Reprefentation of the Houfe of Lords on the State
of the Navy, 1709. 3. The Debts of the Nation ftated
and confidered, in four Papers, 1710- 4. The Thirty-
five Millions accounted for, 1710. 5. A Letter from
a foreign Minifter in England to Monfieur Pettecum,
1710. 6. Four Letters to a Friend in Scotland upon
Sacheverell’s Trial j falfely attributed in the General
Dictionary to Mr Maynwaring. 7. A Short Hiftory
of the Parliament. It is an account of the laft fef-
fion of the queen. 8. The South-Sea Scheme confider¬
ed. 9. A Pamphlet againft the Peerage Bill, 1719.
10. The Report of the Secret Committee, June 9th,
1715.
WALRUS. See Trichecus, Mammalia Index.
WALSH, William, an Englifh critic and poet,
the fon of Jofeph Walth, Efq. of Abberley in Wor-
cefterlhire, was born about the year 1660. He became
a gentleman commoner ofWadham college, Oxford,
but left the univerfity without taking a degree. .His
writings are printed among the works of the Minor
Poets, printed in 1749* was gentleman of
the horfe in Queen Anne’s reign; and died in 1708.
He was the friend of Mr Dryden and of Mr Pope ; the
former of whom efteemed him the beft critic then living;
and Mr Pope has celebrated his charaaer in the Effay
on Criticifm.
WALSINGHAM, a town of Norfolk, with a mar¬
ket on Fridays, and a fair on Whit-Monday, for horfes
and pedlars ware ; it is feated not far from the lea ;
and in former times was famous for its college of ca¬
nons, and was greatly frequented by pilgrims who went
to pay their devotions to the image of the Virgin Mary
at the chapel, where there are two fine fprings, called
the
\V A L
Walfing'
ham.
1 the Virgin Manfs wells. Not many years ago there
were found here by a hufbandman, 100 urns full of aihes,
which were fuppofed to be thole which the Romans fill¬
ed with the athes of the dead. It is 22 miles north-
weft of Norwich, and 117 north-north-eait of London.
E. Long. o. 53. N. Lat. 52. 56.
WALSINGHAM, Thomas, an Englilh Benedic¬
tine monk of the monaftery of St Alban’s, w ho lived about
the year 1440. He applied himfeif to the hitfory and
antiquity of his country, in quality of hiftoriographer to
the king j and compofed the Hiftory of King Henry VI.
with other works.
Walsingham, Sir Francis, minifter and fecretary of
ftate during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and one of
the greateft politicians of his time, was defcended from
a noble and ancient family at Chiflehurft. After having
made great progrefs in his ffudies at Cambridge, he was
twice lent ambaflador to France, and at his return to
England was employed in the molt important affairs,
became fecretary of date, and was one of the commif-
ftoners for the trial of Mary queen of Scotland. Sir
Francis was undoubtedly one of the moft refined politi¬
cians and moft penetrating ftatefman that any age ever
produced. He had an admirable talent, both in dif-
covering and managing the fecret recedes of the heart.
He had his fpies in moft courts in Chriftendom, and al¬
lowed them a liberal maintenance j for it was his
maxim, That knowledge cannot be bought too dear.
In 1587 the kmg of Spain having made vaft prepara¬
tions, which furprifed, and kept all Europe in fufpenfe,
Walfingham employed his utmoft endeavours for the
dilcovery of that important fecret ; and accordingly
procured intelligence from Madrid, that the king had
informed his council of his having difpatched an exprefs
to Rome, with a letter written with his own hand to
the pope, acquainting him with the true defign of his
preparations, and begging his blefiings upon him; which
for fome reafons he could not difclofe till the return of
the courier. The fecret being thus lodged with the
pope, Walfingham, by means of a Venetian prieft, whom
he retained at Rome as a fpy, got a copy of the original
letter, which was ftolen out of the pope’s cabinet by a
gentleman of the bed-chamber, who took the key out
of the pope’s pocket while he flept. After this, by his
dexterous management, he caufed the Spaniards bills to
be protefted at Genoa, which ftiould have fupplied them
with money for their extraordinary preparations and
1 593 1
WAP
Wapen¬
take.
by this means he happily retarded this formidable inva- Walfing-
fion for a whole year. In ftiort, he (pent his whole ham
time and faculties in the fervice of Queen Elizabeth ;
on which account her majelty was heard to fay, “ That
in diligence and fagacity he exceeded her expectations.” 1
However, after all his eminent lervices to his country,
this man gave a remarkable proof at his death, which
happened on the 6th of April 1590, how far he pre¬
ferred the public intereft to his own ; he being fo poor,
that excepting his library, which was a very fine one,
he had fcarcely effe&s enough to defray the expence of
his funeral. His principal works are, 1. Memoirs and
Inftru&ions for the ufe of Ambaffadors, with his Letters
and Negociations. 2. Political Memoirs.
WALTHERIA, a genus of plants in the clafs mo-
nadelphia, and in the natural fyllem arranged under the
37th order, Columnferce. See Botany Index.
WAL1 ON, Bryan, Bifhop of Cheitei, a learned
Englifh divine, who gained great reputation by his edi¬
tion of the Polyglot bible, with his Prolegomena in the
beginning j which is more exatt, fays Father Simon,
than any other which had been publilhed on that fub-
jedf. He died in 1661.
WAMPUM, the money ufcd by the North Ameri¬
can Indians. It is much ufed in all their treaties as «t
fymbol of friendlbip. It is made of a Iheil of a particu¬
lar fpecies of Venus.
WAPEN TAKE, is the fame with what is called a
hundred; efpecialiy ufed in the north counties beyond
the river Trent. The word feems to be of Danifh ori¬
ginal, and to be fo called for this reafon : When firft
this kingdom, or part thereof, was divided into wapen¬
takes, he who was the chief of the wapentake or hun¬
dred, and who is now called a high conjlable, as loon as
he entered upon his office, appeared in a field on a cer¬
tain day on horfeback with a pike in his hand, and all
the chief men of the hundred met him there with their
lances, and touched his pike ; which was a fign that
they were firmly united to each other by the touching
their weapons. But Sir Thomas Smith fays, that an¬
ciently mufters were made of the armour and weapons
of the feveral inhabitants of every wapentake ; and
from thofe that c®uld not find fufficient pledges for
their good abearing, their weapons were taken away
and given to others j from whence he derives the
word.
W
R.
INTRODUCTION.
Ttfvifion of IN treating the fubjeft of war, we may confider it
the fubjedt. firft in a political and moral point of view, as one of
thofe powerful engines employed by civil governments,
to bring about fome ends which they deem beneficial to
the community over which they prefide; and fecondly,
in a theoretical and praRical point of view, as a fcience
or an art, which the neceffities or the follies of mankind
have rendered an important objedl of confideration, not
.only to certain individuals, but in fome meafure to fo-
ciety at large.
Vol. XX. Part II.
From the numerous calamities incident to war, it Politicai
fhould be prelumed that no wife or good government ob)ecls
would have recourfe to means fo dangerous and expen cau*eSi,f
five, till after all other means of producing the end$War*
they have in view had failed of fuccefs. The oftenfible
objedls for which a nation or community engages in a
war, are ufually to prevent or repel the affaults, en¬
croachments, or invafions of its neighbours j to revenge
fbme infult or injury which the community, its allies,
or dependents, may have fuftained ; to compel fome
other nation or community to refpeft what are called
the IdV) of nations, and the rights of civil focieiy ; or to
4 ^ preferve
594
Introduc¬
tion.
'•* Sacert.
w ^
preferve that due and equable balance of power among
neighbouring ftates, which has of late been confidered
as an effential point in the political economy of civilized
nations. We fay that thefe are ufually the ofenfible
objefts of war j for though it will fcarcely be denied
that ambition, avarice, religious bigotry, a defire of
dominion, and a third of military fame, have been the
real caufes of many of thofe long and bloody wars which
have defolated the face of nature, and heaped mifery
and wretchednefs on millions of human beings, we be¬
lieve few heroes and conquerors, either of ancient or
modern times, have had the honedy or effrontery to
avow7 thefe as the real motives of their military expedi¬
tions. Yet, if we examine the pages of hidory, we
fliall fcarcely find a war, from the Battle of the Kings
recorded by the facred hidorian, to the prefent conted
which has for 17 years involved all Europe in confufion
and bloodfhed, and reduced many of its faired dates
and provinces under the fuhje&icn of a fingle monarch,
in which one or other of thefe latter motives has not,
at lead to one party, been a principal inducement.
Among the political objefts of war, rve mud not
omit to mention one which, though perhaps lefs openly
avowed than any other, has, in monarchical and arido-
cratical governments, always formed a material part of
the date policy \—we mean the object of preventing
tumults and commotions among the people, by engaging
them in a foreign war. It ■was long ago obferved by a
good judge of human nature *, “ that no b©dy can be
healthful without exercife, neither natural body nor
politic and that “ to a kingdom or a date, a jud and
honourable w^ar is the true exercife.” That politicians
have often aided on thefe principles, is certain. On the
judice of the principles themfelves, we prefume not to
decide, though we may fafely exprefs a doubt whether
the remedy be not worfe than the difeafe, and whether
thefe popular commotions might not be prevented with
equal eafe, and with more advantage to the nation, by
employing the populace in iuch wmrks of improvement
as may advance the manufadures, commerce, or internal
comforts of the date.
An able and ingenious writer confiders a redundance
of population as one of the chief primary caufes of rvar.
“ One of its fird caufes and mod powerful impulfes,
infudrciency of room and food j
and, greatly as the circumdances of mankind have
changed fince it fird began, the fame caufe dill conti¬
nues to operate, and to produce, though in a fmaller
degree, the fame effeds. The ambition of princes
would want indruments of dedrudion, if the diftreffes
of the lower claffes did not drive them under their dan-
dards. A recruiting ferjeant always prays for a bad
harved, and a want of employment, or,'in other words,
I MaUhus a redundant population f.” This redundance be pro-
en Popv- p0fes to obviate, and thus to counterad one of the prin-
E&it. cipai caufes nf war, by throwing obdacles in the way of
Soo? marriage. Without calling in quedion the judnefs of
his pofition, we do not fee the neceffity of the remedy
which he propofes. We mud acknowledge ourfelves
fueh friends to the increafe of population as to think
that every encouragement ought to be given to it, in-
ftead of throwdng obdacles in its way. There are few
countries fo populous, or fo completely cultivated, as to
render it neceffary to plunge them into wars, in order
to diminiih the number of inhabitants, which might be
3
Exuberant
population
regarded
jmuycaufe was undoubtedly an
L ft.
abundantly fupported, were agriculture encouraged, and Introdnc-
gluttony repreffed. , tl0n~
Whatever may be the objeds for which a nation goes ^
to war $ whatever the caules which have induced her 0f
to have recourfe to fuch an expedient, we may venture, war.
from hidory and experience, to affirm that die will gain
little folid advantage by the con,*d. She may drive
an invading enemy from her dominions, and purfue
him to his own j die may acquire plunder and territoiy,
and may raife her name among the neighbouring dates
by her vidories and prowefs j but all thefe, except the
frjl, will i’carcely compenfate for the blood and treaiure
which die has expended, and for the check given to her
agriculture, manufadures and commerce, by drawing off
many of the labouring part of the community to fupply
the tieets and armies of the date. Thefe are the inevi¬
table confequences even of a fuccefsful war j and fhoold
it prove otherwife, the calamities and dillreffes of the
vanquifhed may readily be conceived. Even to the
eftablidied government of a date, war, while it appears
to drengthen their hands and increafe their influence, is
fraught wdth difficulty and danger. No fituaticn of af¬
fairs is fo well calculated to fliow the abilities or infuffi-
ciency of a cabinet as this, and melancholy is the fate
of that nation whole adminiftration is then conduded
by a weak, inexperienced, or profligate minidry } but
be they ever fo able or fo upright, dill the want of fuc-
cefs, or a reverfe of fortune, will lower them in the
opinion of the people, and will compel them at lad to
conclude a difadvantageous, perhaps a difhonourable
peace, or quit their pods and leave the talk to a more
popular or fuccefsful adminidration.
The evils of war do not terminate on the return of
peace. Many of the burdens which it had impofed on
the people mud dill continue, to difeharge the debt
contraded by the date j while the fudden difbanding of
the fleets and armies pours into the community numbers
of idle and diffipated men, averfe to labour, and accuf-
tomed to feenes of confufion, [laughter and rapine. At
no time are robberies, murders, or fedifions fo frequent
as on the termination of a long protraded war; at none
are the internal peace and quiet of a nation in fo much
danger.
On the moral evils of war we furely need not en- Moral evils
large. In itfelf, when undertaken wdthout neceffity, it of war.
is an ad of the mod criminal and atrocious nature \ and
the aggreffors are accountable for all the horrid confe¬
quences w’hich may attend it. “ The pomp and cir-
cumdance of glorious w'ar” may form a defirable fubjed
for the poet and the hidorian ; but the Chridian and the
philofopher mud regard it with horror and detedation,
as the greated evil with wThicb providence has been
pleafed to arm the hands of its miniders to punifh and ^
affiid mankind. A late amiable and learned prelate warfcarej,,
has laboured to prove that “the frequency, duration, ly lefs fre-
and cruelty of wars (in Chridendom) are lefs now than q«ent now-
in ancient times j” * but we think that neither his re a- ^‘1^n
fbning nor his examples are capable of edablifhing the
fird part of this pofition. If we take the lad yco t *
years, and compare it with an equal period 01 ancient germ. xiL
hidory •, if we recoiled!: the crufades, the almod conti¬
nual druggies between France and Britain, the civil
diffenfions in both thefe mighty empires, the wars be¬
tween the Rudians and their neighbours, the Turks, the
Poles, and the Swedes j if we advert to the reigns of
Edward
w
Ir.troduc- Edward III. of England, diaries V. and Philip II. of
, tlCin' i Spain, Louis XIV. of France, Guftavus Adolphus and
Charles XII. of Sweden, Frederick II. of Pruffta, and
Catherine II. of Huflia; and ladly, if we turn our at¬
tention to the long and ruinous con tells which diltin-
guiih our own times, we lhall find little caufe to boall
of having profited by the pacific lelTons of our Saviour,
whofe great obje£t was to promote “ peace on earth™
and good will and brotherly love among the children of
men.
Modem There is indeed one confolatory circumftancc with
wars lefs refpeft to the modern fyllem of warfare, that our wars
tdiaiTtkif/ are 1J0W fangu'naiT than thole of ancient times,
of ancient ^ie daughter which attended fome of the
times. battles in the Greek and Roman wars, where the great¬
er part ot the vanquilhed army was frequently put to
the fword, is familiar to our claflical readers $ but in
modern warfare, even of the large armies that have ap¬
peared in the field on the continent of Europe, we fel-
, dom find fo many as 30,000 killed and wounded on
both fides, a number vatlly inferior to what fell of the
Romans at Cannae, and by no means equal to the lofs
of the Carthaginians at the battle of Zama. This di~
minilhed daughter is attributed, and we believe with
jullice, to the ufe of fire-arms; and it is computed that
in this mode of fighting not more than one mulket ball
in 40 takes effe£l, and not more that one in 400 proves
fatal. The introduflion of thefe weapons, therefore,
however it may be declaimed againft by theorids,
mull be confidered as a real improvement in the art of
war ; and it is fincerely to be regretted that the ufe of
them diould be laid afide. If, horvever, the prefent
pra£lice of deciding battles by the bayonet and the
fabre be continued, it is to be feared that we diall foon
rival the ancients as much in the fanguinary nature of
8 our wars as in their frequency.
^fter we have faid on the impolicy of war, and
able. " the moral evils which attend it, it will fcarcely be ex-
pefted that we diould allow it to be judifiable, except
in cafes of necedity. Indeed we think that war can be
juftified only on the principles of felf-defence. When a
nation is invaded, or attacked in relation to her un¬
doubted rights and principles, it is then, and then only,
that (he has a pretence for war.v We will not, indeed,
go fo far as to aflert, that die ought to await the attack.
While die takes the bed methods for defending her ter¬
ritories at home, it is doubtlefs proper, efpecially for a
maritime date, to meet the enemy half-way, and by a
timely and fpirited refidance, endeavour to avert thofe
greater evils which would attend a fydem of pufillani-
tnity and negleft.
In the prefent date of human nature, war mud be re¬
garded as a necedary evil, and as it is fometimes un¬
avoidable, the principles and pra&ice of it mud be ftu-
died by thofe who are to fuperintend or to condu£l its
operations. It is this necedity that has given occafion
to the art of war, the practice of which is to form the
$ fubjefl of the prefent article.
War confi- Before we enter on the immediate obje£t of this eflfay,
dered theo- however, it may not be improper to enumerate thofe
reticaily. branches of knowledge which conditute the principles of
the military art, and of which no oOicer who expe6ls to
have a principal command in military operations diould
be ignorant. We lhall fird mention thofe fciences which
fhould iorm a part of the education of every command-
A Pi.
ing officer, whether military or naval \ and we diall Introduc-
then ditlinguilh between thofe which are mod applica-, t‘on’ .
ble to the land and the fea lervice. v '
Among the fird branches of a military education mud
be enumerated the modern languages of French and
German ; geography, by which we w’ould under-
dand, not merely the delctiption of countries, dates,
and kingdoms, but a knowledge of their political con-
ditution, relources, and productions, and of the man¬
ners, cudoms, and charaCler of their inhabitants ;
HISTORY, efpecially that of modern Europe, and of
the Greeks and Romans. Among particular hidories
we would recommend thofe of Polybius, Xenophon,
Tacitus, with the Commentaries of Casfar, in ancient
hidory j and Davila’s account of the civil wars of
France, Guicciardini’s hidory of the Italian wars,
the hidory of the feven years war by Frederick the
Great, with a particular attention to the bed hido¬
ries of his own country, and of the wars in which ffie
has been engaged. After thefe preliminary branches
follow the rudiments of mathematics, including com¬
mon and logarithmic arithmetic, the elements of
theoretical and practical geometry, plane and fpheri-
cal trigonometry, the principles of surveying, co¬
nic sections, and their application to projectiles $
certain parts of natural philofophy, efpecially mecha¬
nics ; and the principles of drawing plans, maps, and
charts.
Befides thefe, a military officer ffiould be indrufted
in fortification and GUNNERY, the nature of mili¬
tary exercifes, and the duties of the various officers at¬
tached to an army } while the naval officer ihould parti¬
cularly attend to ASTRONOMY, HYDRODYNAMICS, NA¬
VIGATION, the principles of seamanship, and of ship¬
building.
There is perhaps no art or profeffion, in the praClice Practice of
of which the fuperiority of example over precept is more war.
apparent than in war, infomuch that we may lay it
down as an axiom, that no man can be a foldier or a
failor from theory alone. It is not from books that we
are to learn the art of war, though there is no doubt
that they may greatly adid and improve the fkill and
experience acquired in the field or on the ocean. In
thefe a&ive feenes have been formed the great com¬
manders, whofe lives and aftions are peruied with fo
much avidity ; and the only method of fuccefsfuliy imi¬
tating their exploits, and emulating their fame, is to
encounter the dangers and the hardlhips to which they
were expofed, and to learn how to command, by fird
learning to obey. A confiderable (hare of the mecha¬
nical part of war may be acquired in a well-regulated
military or naval fchool $ but the experience neceffary
for a commander is to be gained only in actual fervice.
I he pradlical part of war is ufually divided into mili¬
tary laclics, and naval taEiics ; a divifion which we
ihall here adopt, though we have thought proper to
bring the whole under one article. As the fpace, which
We h^d originally allotted to thefe fubjeds, has unavoid¬
ably clen reduced one half, we ffiall be able to give
little more than a general outline, efpecially ot mild ary
taEiics, referving the fuller difeuflion for naval taEiics,
which, to a nation whofe chief dependence is on her
fleets, mufl be the mod ufeful and the mod intereding
part of the fubje£l.
It would be vain for us to attempt any hidorical ac-
4F2 count
59^ WAR.
Introduc- count of the progfeflive improvements that have been
, tlon' made in the art of war. Indeed this would be to repeat
much of what has already been detailed under the prin¬
cipal hiftorical articles ot this work $ for the hiftory of
nations, as it is commonly ti'eated, is little more than a
hitlory of their wars. We might, no doubt, bring for¬
ward much curious information refpedlimg the offenfive
and defenfive weapons of different ages and countries,
and the character and organization of their armies $ but
for thofe and other matters of a fimilar nature, we may
refer our readers to the following refpe£table authorities:
Vegetius De re mh'itari; Polybius’s Hi/iory, with the
Commentaries of Folard 5 Salmafius De re mi/itari Roma-
norum ; Tacitus’s Vita Agricola:; Rollin’s Ancient Hi-
fory; Potter’s Grecian Antiquities ; Rennet’s and A-
dam’s Roman Antiquities; Goguet’s Origin of Laws,
Arts, is’c. ; Daniel Hiftoire de la Milice Franpofe;
Gough’s Sepulchral Monmnents ; Afcham’s Toxophilus,
and Gvofe’s Hiftory of the Englifh Army, and Fffay on
Ancient Armour.
At a period like the prefent, when the two greateft
powers of Europe are ftruggling for glory and domi¬
nion, it will not be thought uninterefting, or irrelevant
to the fubjeft of the prefent article, if we offer a com¬
parative flatemem of the prefent military and naval efta-
blifhments of thefe trvo mighty empires, with a fketch
of the military character of their armies; and with thefe
jj we fhall conclude our preliminary obfervations.
Prefent mi- According to a ftatement made to the French go-
litaryefta- vernment at the commencement of 1805, the grand to-
bliflinient tal of the French armies confided of 570,964 men ; viz.
Fret^h infantry of the line, 341,412 ; light infantry, 100,130;
cavalry, 77.488 ; artillery, 46,489 ; engineers, 5445.
Since that time, more than 100,000 have been added,
and, according to the beft authority, the prefent total
* Edin. does not fall fhort of 700,000 men *. This vaft body
Review, divided into companies for both cavalry and in-
vui. xiu. fantry • a certain number of companies forming a batta-
4 * lion of infantry, or a fquadron of cavalry. The deno¬
mination of regiment is appropriated to the cavalry and
artillery, while a fimilar body of infantry is called a
half brigade. The commanding officer of a regiment is
called colonel; but the commander of a large body of
infantry is called chief of brigade. The names of lieu¬
tenant-colonel and major are changed for thofe of chief
of a battalion and chief of a fquadron. Thofe general
officers which in other armies are called major-generals,
are, in the French fervice, denominated generals of bri¬
gade, and lieutenant-generals are there generals of divi-
fion.
The corps of engineers has for its officers 8 infpe&ors
general, 34 dire£lors, 124 captains of the firft clafs,
117 captains of the fecond clafs, 33 lieutenants of the
firft clafs, 21 of the fecond clafs, and 20 pupils under
the lieutenants. Attached tp this corps are 6 compa¬
nies of miners, commanded by a chief of battalion.
Each company is officered by a captain-command¬
ant, a fecond captain, firft and fecond lieutenant.
Twelve battalions of miners; each battalion, eontaining
8 companies, forming in all 1606 men, including offi¬
cers. The battalion ftaff is compofed of a chief of bat¬
talion, an adjutant major, and an adjutant. Each com¬
pany is officered by a captain, a lieutenant, ^and fub-
Keutenant.
To raife and recruit this great sailitary force, the
French government has, fince the year 1798, had re- Introdtftv
courle to one of the moft tyrannical meafures which was tlon- ,
ever adopted by a defpotic monarchy, we mean that of ' v '
confcriplion, by which every man within a certain age,
is made liable, under circumftances of the greateft ri¬
gour, to ferve in the armies of the ftate. This fyftem
of confcription is exceedingly complex ; but we are en¬
abled, from a refpedtable periodical publication, to pre¬
fent luch a fummary of it as will be readily underftood.
France is divided into about 30 military governments,
fubjedt to a general of divifion and his ftaif, to which
commiffaries are attached as executive officers. The ci¬
vil diviiion confifts of 122 departments ; 24 of which
have been acquired fince the overthrow of the mo¬
narchy, exclufive of Tufcany, not included in any part
of this ftatement. The departments are divided into di-
ftrifts or arrondiffements, from three to five in number;
the arrondiffements into cantons, and the cantons into
municipalities, amounting to about 55,000. Each de¬
partment is governed by a prefeft and his council, com¬
pofed of a commiffary of police, a mayor, and certain
infpeftors, denominated counfellors of prefeBure; the
diftridf or arrondiffement, by a fubprefedt and his coun¬
cil, of a fimilar formation. The cantons and municipa¬
lities are under the fupervifion of an adminiftration, com¬
pofed of the civil authorities, with a prefident at their
head. A mayor, a commiffary of police, and two offi¬
cers of the government, ftyled adjunBs, are allotted to
each divifion having a population above 5000 fouls.
Thefe feveral authorities are in ftrift fubordination to
each other, and at the controul of the prefe&s and fub-
prefedts, who, themfelves, are charged with a weighty
and inflexible refponfibility as to the military levies.
By the code de la confcription, all Frenchmen, be¬
tween the ages of 20 and 25, are liable to ferve. They
are divided into five claffes, from which the municipal
adminiftration draws up the lifts for the ballot. Thefe
are tranfmitted to the prefers, by whom they are fent
to the war minifter, and when properly adjufted, the
fubprefedt proceeds to the drawing of the quota impofed
on each diftrift. The confcripts drawn are formed into
three divifions, the firft called confcripts for aBual fer¬
vice, the fecond the referve, and the third fupplementa-
ry confcripts. They are marched in companies of 100
men, to the places which are eftabliffied as depots,
where they are furnilhed with their arms and clothes.
After this they are trained and exercifed, fo as to be
inured to unremitting labour and fatigue.
What gives peculiar energy to the French military
fyftem, is the circumftance that their officers rife by me¬
rit and experience, and not by intereft. By a law of
the directory, no perfon (with the exception of engi¬
neers) could become officers, who had not ferved three
years in a fubordinate capacity. The revolution natu¬
rally opened the way to merit; and, feconded by this
admirable policy, has filled all the polls of their army
with men, who unite in themfelves the qualities of the
foldier, with the excellencies that qualify for command.
It is not hazarding too much to affert, that nine-tenths
of the prefent French officers have fprung from the
ranks. Educated in diftant camps, they know no other
country, and, habituated by long devotion to the trade
of war, it has become their element and their paffion.
Their whole fortune is flaked on the fword ; and their
attachment Is therefore neceffarily fecured, under tha
aufpicious.
w
Introduc- aufpicious influenc'e of a leader, whofe indefatigable am-
, tlon^ bition occupies them in their favourite puriuits, and
v whofe liberal impartiality feeds the hope of preferment,
and divides the fruits of conqueft. To their credit and
example is due much of that fpirit, which, notwith-
flanding the caufes of alienation hitherto obferved, feems
to animate the whole frame of the army j and no fmall
(hare of that portentous fuccefs which has attended the
courfe of the French arms. Of the eighteen mare-
chaux d'empire, fourteen have either emerged from the
ranks, or afeended from the loweft employments. Moll
of the generals of divifion, and others who hold the prin¬
cipal commands, have the fame origin, and fufficiently
* Ibid, p. prove, that war is an experimental fcience, and that mi-
431—4S1* litary renown is not the prerogative of birth, but the
harveft of toil, or the bounty of fortune *.
Late naval We have no certain means of afeertaining the prefent
nfent^" nava^ edablilhment of the French empire, though, as it
may be faid to have the command of the navies of Hol¬
land, Ruflia, and the remains of that of Denmark, it
muft ftill be regarded as of no trilling ftrength. The
principal fleets are indeed kept blocked up by thofe of
Britain, in the harbours of Breft, Rochefort, Toulon, the
Scheldt, and the Texel $ but the efcape of any of thefe
might be the means of conveying a confiderable military
force to the remaining colonies, or to the lefs powerful
allies of France. In 1791, the French fleet conlifted
of 73 {hips of the line, 67 frigates, 19 corvettes, and
67 fmall craft, making a total of 226. Since that time,
however, have taken place the great naval victories of
Howe, St Vincent, Duncan, and Nelfon, by which the
greater part of that navy has been carried into Britilh
ports.
Prefent mi- eftimating the military eftablilhment of Britain,
Rtary efta- we fhall, for the fake of more accurate comparifon, firll
blifliment take the fame period of 1805. The Britilh land forces
®: Britain. COnfifl:ed of 21,223 cavalry, 124,878 infantry (in¬
cluding 20,747 men f°r limited fervice, and 21,208 be-
longing to foreign and provincial corps in Britilh pay),
89,809 militia, 8559 artillery, belides about 430,000
volunteers, making a total of 674,469. To thefe muft
be added the royal artillery, the horfe brigade, the bri¬
gade of gunners and drivers, and companies of foreign
artillery, amounting to 16,670, and the corps of artifi¬
cers and labourers, including 704 men. Thus the
whole military force of Britain, in 1805, amounted to
f Playfair's 691,843 f.
Geography, . Since the palling of Mr Windham’s a<ft, this number
is fomewhat diminilhed, though our military force is
now probably more effbaive. At the end of 1808 it
flood as follows. Two regiments of life-guards, one re¬
giment of royal horfe-guards, 7 of dragoon guards, 25
of dragoons, 3 battalions of riflemen, 7 battalions of
foot-guards, 5 of light infantry, 176 battalions of in¬
fantry, a corps of royal horfe artillery, a regiment of
royal foot artillery, a corps of royal engineers, a bri¬
gade of artillery drivers, and a waggon train. The
dragoons, independent of the royal life and horfe guards,
amounted to 19,200 ; the battalions of riflemen and
light infantry to 8000 j the infantry of the line to
149,600 \ the king’s German legion to about 2o,coo ;
exdufive of about 96,000 regular militia, 250,000 local
militia, and about 50,000 volunteers; makiag an effec¬
tive force of about 580,000 men.
Each regiment of not more than 500 men is officer-
A R. 597
ed by a colonel, a lieutenant-colonel, a major, 10 cap- Introdu^-
tains, 10 lieutenants, 8 enfigns, an adjutant, quarter-, tl0n' ,
matter, payraafter, a furgeon and affiftant furgeon $ a ' v
fergeant major, a quartermafter-fergeant, with 30 ordi¬
nary fergeants, 30 corporals, a dium-major and 20
drummers. If the regiment amount to 750 men, it
has ufually an addition of fecond lieutenant-colonel, a
fecond major, 10 fergeants, and 10 corporals.
The gradation of rank among the officers of the Bri-
tifli army is as follows. Under the king, who com¬
mands the whole as captain-general, is the commander
in chief, then follow the field-marjhals, generals, lieu¬
tenant-generals, major-generals, brigadier-generals, co¬
lonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors, captains, and Jubal-
terns. The different departments of the army are un¬
der the fuperintendence of an adjutant-general, a quar-
lermajler-general, a barrach-majler general, a commijfary-
general, a paymajler-general, a board of ordnance, and a
medical board. See Adjutant, Quartermaster,
&.c.
The army of the line is recruited by enliftment j the
recruits receive a bounty, and are engaged to ferve for
a limited period, or for life. The militia is filled up by
ballot, in the feveral counties to which it belongs, and
alfo receives recruits by enliftment or by proxy. Hence
the Britith foldier, while he confiders himfelf as the fer-
vant of the king and the ftate, juftly boafts of partaking
in the general liberty of the fubjeff. He is proteffed
by fixed and definite laws, againft the dilcretionary
power of his commanding officer, and is encouraged to
perform his duty by the liberality of his country 5 and
not, as in France, compelled to it by the fear of pu-
niffiment. His difeipline indeed is ftrift j but he feels
none of that fevere and tyrannical coercion which
feems to be the firft principle of motion in the armies of
Napoleon.
In its naval eftabliffiment, Britain juftly boafts of be- Navaf
ing fuperior to every nation in the world. The number bliflunenu
of her fleets, and the courage and difeipline of her fea-
men, have given her the unrivalled dominion of the
feas, of which it would be difficult for the whole com-
bined navy of Europe to deprive her. In 1809, the
naval force of Britain confifted of 157 Ihips of the line,
19 from 50 to 44, 184 frigates, 181 floops, 308 brigs,
making a total of 849 in commiffion 5 befides 56 of the
line, 12 50’s, 56 frigates, 44 floops, 24 brigs, total
192 in ordinary and refitting y and 50 (hips of the line,
20 frigates, 20 floops, 10 brigs, total 100, building:
making a grand total of 1141.
The progreffive advance of our navy will appear by
attending to the following recital of its tonnage at dif¬
ferent periods, from the reign of Henry VIII. to the
prefent time.
At the death of Henry VIII.
Edward VI.
Mary,
Elizabeth,
James I.
Rebellion,
At the death of Charles I.
At the Rettoration,
At the death of Charles II.
Abdication of J ames 11:
Year-. Tons about
1547 12,400
1553 11,000
1558 7000
1603 17,000
1625 19,000
1641 22,400
1649 uncertain.
1660 57,460
1685 103,558
1688 101,900
At;
59s
Introduc¬
tion.
i—-.1
W A E.
'Year.
At the death of YTilllam III. 1702
Anne, I7I4
George I. 1727
George II. 1760
3 ill December, 1788
1806
1809
Tons about
I59,°00
167,170
170,860
321,200
413,660
776,000
800,000
* State¬
ment by
Lord Mel¬
ville.
Military
rhara&er
of the,
French
It appears, however, that notwithftanding the vaft in-
creafe of our navy, not a lingle dockyard has been add¬
ed to it lince the reign of William III. about 109 years
ago, at which time the tonnage of the naval force of
this kingdom amounted to nearly 160,000 tons j it is
now nearly 800,900 tons, or about five times as
large *.
In iketehing the military charafler of the French
and Britiih armies at the commencement of the 19th
century, we (hall avail ourfelves of the obferva lions of
an anonymous, but able and apparently impartial publi¬
cation, which appeared foon after the peace of Amiens,
entitled The Military CharaBer of the European Armies
at the Peace of Amiens.
The aftoni/hing fuccefs which has attended the
French arms on the continent of Europe, is to be at¬
tributed partly to the regular organization and fevere
difcipline eftablilhed by the Code de la Confeription, but
it is flill more to be aferibed to the (kill, experience, and
activity of their officers. The French generals early
difeorered the advantages refulting from difpatch. The
alertnefs of the foldiers, the lightnefs of their baggage,
and their inattention to regularity in time of a£lion, en¬
abled them to execute their movements with a celerity
which has frequently enfured fuccefs. In an open coun¬
try, lines could not be preferved without difficulty.
The French armies were therefore formed in columns.
Brigade fucceeded brigade, and when one divifion was
repulfed, and fell back on the columns in the rear, thofe
in their turn attacked the enemy, or fuftained his (hock,
and freffi troops perpetually came forward, to fupply
the place of thofe which had been defeated.
The French battalions have no field-pieces attached
to them ; but this w^ant is amply compenfated by their
f.ying artillery, which is compofed of the flowTer of the
French foldiers, and by its boldnefs and rapidity of
movement, fupplies the place of that large train of ar¬
tillery with which the other European armies are ufual-
ly burdened. It is a conftant maxim in the french
armies to Jvave a body of referve, compofed of their
belt troops, and under the command of an able general.
If the main body ffiould be beaten, the referve covers
their retreat, and on more than one oecafion it has
fnatched the vi&ory from the hands of the enemy.
The French generals, like rich and bold gamfters, are
inceffantly tempting fortune. They look upon their
Ioffes as nothing, provided they fucceed in the end.
The little value at which they eilimate their men, the
certainty of being able 16 replace them, the perfonal Introduce
ambition of their chief, and the cuftomary fuperiority of t tI0ri- ,
their numbers, afford them an advantage which cannot
be counteracted but by great fktll, condudl and ac-
tivity. .
The foldiers of Britain are as intrepid by land as herMiiitary
failors by fea. Their want of fuccefs on the continentcharadter
cannot be aferibed to their want of bravery, but rather of the Bri¬
to the organization of the Britiih armies, their inferiori-tlfl1'um*>
ty of numbers, or the inexperience of the officers by
whom they are commanded. Moll of their command¬
ing officers, inftead of conforming to general regula¬
tions, follow their own particular plans and ideas, ac¬
cording to their feveral geniufes, acquirements, and pre¬
judices. In a nation, which from the fpirit of its con-
ttitution and the habits of its people, is formed rather
for naval than military operations, a miniftry, how¬
ever enlightened, fcarcely poffeffes that authority which
is neceffary to give uniformity to the different depart¬
ments of the ar:-iy, to conilitute a regular and corre-
fponding whole, and to furmount thofe obllacles which
are thrown in the way of all uniformity of military
fyftem, by the diffance and diffribution of the troops.
The fmall numbers in which Britiih troops are general¬
ly compelled to a£t on the continent, and their mixture
with thofe of other nations, to which they are fometimes
even fubfervient, are circumftances extremely difadvan-
tageous.
In a military life, good faith, honour, and courage,
are the principal qualifications, and thefe are eminently
confpicuous in the Britiih army. Their military ar¬
dour is greater than what is feen in any other fervice,
but this is in a great meafure damped among the officers
by the difficulty of promotion. Intereft with minifters,
and the neceffity of raifing money to deiray the cx-
pences of the different departments of the ffate, though
far from being the moft equitable, are here unhappily
among the firli means of military promotion.
The foldiers of the Britiih army are pcffeffed of ele¬
ments to enable them, under a commander of abilities
and officers of experience, to be the belt troops in the
world. They require neither brandy nor felf-conceit to
make them brave •, their courage is innate j it is a na¬
tional inftinft. Their officers too ufually poffefs much
greater information on general topics than thofe oi all
other European nations, as education is more cultivated
in Britain than elfewhere. They are attached to their
profeffion, and follow it rather from generous motives
and military fpirit, than like mercenaries from a view of
interelt and profit.
On the political and moral principles of svar, fee
Cicero De Of hits, Grotius De Jure hclii et Pacts,
Puffendorff’s law of Nature and Nations, and Ma-
chkvel’s Difcorfi; and on the principles of war eonfider-
ed as a fcience, fee a memoir by Maizeroy, in the 40th
volume of Hifoire de PAcademic des Infcriptions et
Belles Lettres, and Folard’s Commentaries on Polybius.
Part I. MILITARY TACTICS.
17 ^
Mature and SOME writers on the military art diftinguilh taBics
object of from •what they call frategy; underftanding by the lat-
ter the fcience of military movements when not in fight
2
of the enemy, or at leaf! out of the range of their fliot 5
while they delcribe the former to be the fcience of mi¬
litary movements in fight of an enemy, or within the
iang«
Parti. W
Military range of cannon ihot. We do not fee the neceffity of
, 'Ia^!CS' , this ditfinftionj and under the head of military tadlics
we {hail confidcr whatever relates to military operations
on land.
It is not poflible for us, within the very fcanty limits
to which we are row reduced, to give any thing like a
regular treatife on the military art. We ihall therefore
endeavour to fele£t the molt ufeful and interefling topics,
and fupply the place of difquifition by numerous plates
with appropriate explanations.
The icience of military taffies comprehends the dif-
pofition and arrangement of troops, whether on marches,
in camps, or in line of battle 5 the attack and defence of
polls; the conftruflion and fuperintendence of the works
by which they art to be defended ; the conducing of
lieges ; and the defence of befieged places. Thefe are
the principal operations of a foldier, and thefe we fhall
briefly confider nearly in the order in which we have
18 enumerated them.
Of diredt- To direfl the march of an army is not one of the
marc’'6 f Parts a general’s duty. To do this with
a.n arirjy ability, he mull be well acquainted with the nature of the
country through which his troops are to pafs, with the ob-
flacles which are likely to oppofe them in their progrefs,
and with the difpofition of the inhabitants. Our buli-
rrefs here is only with the firft of thefe confiderations.
There are three deferiptions of countries which may
become the theatre of war; an open country interfered
by rivers, a mountainous, and a woody country. The
march of an army through the firft, as far as refpedls
the face of the country alone, is feldom difficult, except
in the pafiage of rivers, which we Ihall conlider by and
bye ; and the laft defeription of country is now fo un¬
common in Europe, that we need not dwell on it. A
mountainous country, however, prefents numerous diffi¬
culties to call forth the abilities and experience of a
commander, as in fuch a country, not only are the
roads winding and difficult of accefs, but the uneven-
nefs of the ground, and the intervals between the hills
render it very eafy for an enemy with a fmall force, to
19 oppofe and diftrefs a numerous army.
through a The plan in Plate DXLIV. is intended to illuftrate
mountain- the march of an army through a mountainous country,
ous.coun- ^ {hown the pofition of the army previous to its
^Plate march, with the artillery and baggage P, drawn up
DXLIV. under their proper efcorts, in front of the camp. At
B are parties of huffars conftituting the advanced guard
of the army on its march ; and at C - re parties of in¬
fantry forming the advanced guard of the columns in
which the army is difpofed. D reprefents the infantry
forming the head of the columns ; E the park of artil¬
lery and waggons attached to it; F, battalions of ar¬
tillery, G the cavalry, H the baggage of the army,
and I their efcort. A t K are parties of huffars, and at
L, parties of dragoons. M reprefents the infantry of
the referve forming the rear guard, and N plattoons of
infantry fent forward upon the heights, to cover the
flanks of the principal columns. At O are villages in
front of the pofition where the army is to encamp, and
which have been taken poffeffion of by the light in¬
fantry.
The number of columns into which the marchin?
army is to be divided, will depend on the number of
roads or acceffible approaches that lead to the pofition
tthich it is* to take up. In the prefent cafe there are
A , . . . . 599
only two principal roads, each leading acrofs the river, Military
and winding through the valleys to the principal heights, ladies,
fo that the army mull: march in two divifions. The
ufual difpofition of the columns is as follows, Four or
five brigades of infantry, according to the number which
compofes the army, ftiould be placed at the head of each
Column ; the fame partition ftiould be made with re¬
gard to the artillery, which mull follow the infantry ;
the cavalry muft march next, and the baggage of each
column, -well efcortcd by infantry, muft follow the ca¬
valry, then the reft of the corps of light horfe which
are not detached ; and the dragoons are placed the laft,
in order to difmount, and fuftain the rear guard in cafe
it fhall be attacked. 20
An army feldom proceeds far without encountering aOfthe pwfL
river in its march, and as it commonly happens in a^e0^r*"
country which has become the feat of war, that the'Cl5'
bridges are deftroyed or rendered impaffable, the army
muft crofs the river, either by fwimming, at fome ford,
or by temporary bridges thrown over lor the purpofe-
It is molt advantageous to crofs a river at fome part
where the ftream is divided by fmall illands, unlefs tire
river be fo lhallow that it may be eafily forded. If it be
neceffary to conftruifl a bridge, this is belt done by-
means of boats or pontoons, and all the neceffary ap¬
paratus (hould be ready at the place of crofting at an
appointed hour, and every meafure Ihould be taken to
avoid confuiion, and to be prepared for the enemy, who
will probably difpute the paffage. The two heads of
the bridge when conftnufted Ihould be entrenched, and
well furnifhed with troops, and if poflible, the iflands in
the neighbourhood Ihould be fortified by proper works,,
to prevent the enemy from deftroying the bridge, or in¬
commoding the labourers employed in its conftruftion.
If the river be narrow, it is bell to crofs at lome
place where it makes an angle, efpecially if, as com¬
monly happens, one of its banks be higher than the op-
polite bank, fo that the higher ground may be defended
by a battery. If the river be fordable by infantry, care
fhould be taken before hand to clear the bed at the ford,
and render the banks eafy of accefs.
The lower figure of Plate DXLV. illuftrates the paft PI,ate
fage of a river. AAA reprefent bridges of boats; B, jALJ*
redoubts by which the bridges are proteiled ; C, a bat- '
tery, under cover of which the infantry work at the
conftru&ion of the redoubts ; D, a battery to prevent
the enemy from annoying the army on its march ; E, .
the march of the army ; F, the artillery diftributed a-
mong the brigades of infantry ; G, infantry forming in
columns to open on the oppofite fide through the inter¬
vals of the redoubts ; H, march of the columns in the
front of the redoubts, where they halt to give time for a
part of the cavalry to form upon its flanks; I, a battery
erefled to facilitate the forming of the cavalry ; K, ca¬
valry, which, in gaining the oppofite Ihore, forms in
order of battle, and polls itfelf upon the flanks of the
infantry ; L, eight battalions in column upon the right
wing of the army, to go and examine the village, and
attack the enemy in it, in cafe he Ihould be poffefftd of
it ; M, huffars and dragoons, who have taken poffeftion
ot the height which is on the left wing of the army j
X, a brigade of infantry polled next the height, cover¬
ing the left wing of the cavalry ; O, the difpofition of
the army marching up to the enemy.
It is in general a very difficult talk to defend the pafl
fage
#00
Military
Tatlics.
To defend
the paflage
«f a river.
WAR.
Part I.
Fig. x.
22
Bafis of
modern mi¬
litary ope¬
rations.
Plate
DXLVI.
Fig. i.
Fagc of a fiver sgainfl an army that is determined on
eroding it. Indeed, if the river be of fuch a nature as
to prefent feveral points by which an enemy can crofs,
and if the defending army be not of fuch ftrength as to
meet their opponents in the field, fuch a defence will be
almoft impra&icable. Where it can be attempted, how¬
ever, and where fufficient notice can be procured of the
enemy’s approach, all the boats and barks found on the
river Ihould be removed or deftroyed, to prevent the ene¬
my from ufing them in conftru&ing his bridges. Both
banks of the river fhould be carefully reconnoitred, that
the fords and other accefiible points of paiTage may be
fufficiently obftru&ed ; and the ground which might
protect the enemy’s paffage, fliould in particular be at¬
tended to. Roads fofficiently wide to admit of many co¬
lumns, fhould be made along the fide of the river t® be
defended, that a great number of troops may be advan-
tageoufly difpofed. It mull be confefled, however, that
if the acceflible points extend along a confiderable tra6l
of country, and if the bank of the river next the enemy
overhang that on the oppofite fide, a defence will be
nearly impoffible.
The upper figure of Plate DXLV. (hews the manner
of difpofing the troops to defend the paffage of the ri¬
ver. A, the march of the main army in three parts to
defend the river } B, the camp of the light horfe, infan¬
try, and dragoons, on the wings of the army ; C, caftle
and village, guarded by light infantry j D, a town oc¬
cupied by the infantry belonging to the army j E,
bridge broken down j F, iflands occupied by infantry ;
G, pods of infantry diftributed along the fide of the ri¬
ver : H, batteries eftablifhed along the fide of the river;
I, pofts of cavalry, to keep the communication between
the camps ; K, bridges conftru&ed to preferve the com¬
munication of the iflands; L, bridges for the communi¬
cation of the camps.
Modern warfare is diftinguiflied from that of the an¬
cients, not more with refpeft to the arms which it em¬
ploys, than the multitude ef (lores, ammunition, and
provifions neceffary for a campaign. The number of
horfes now employed for drawing the artillery, -and the
ammunition waggons, as well as to mount the great in-
creafe of cavalry, confiderably adds to the quantity of
military (lores required by the troops. This has pro¬
duced the neceflity for magazines, ellabliflied in fuch
number, and at fuch diftances from each other, as may
*no(l expedite the operations of the campaign ; and thefe
magazines require not only to be fortified themfelves,
but to be (Irengthened by forts or redoubts in their vi¬
cinity. To thefe magazines modern writers on the art
of war have appropriated the term of bajis ef military
operations^ and the roads by which an army receives its
fubfiftence from the magazines, are called lines of ope¬
ration. The fituation of the principal magazine, and
the length and direftion of the lines of operation, are
confidered as of the higheft importance. With refpeft
to the firft and fecond of thefe, we mud refer to Tem-
plehoff’s Hiftory of the Seven Years War, where the
queftion is confidered with great minutenefs and feienti-
fic accuracy. The direction of a line operations may
be illuflrated by the firft feven figures of Plate DXLVI.
Fig. I. reprefents a line of operation forming the feg-
ment of a circle, having a line of pofts ACB towards
the enemy’s country, and two principal fortreffes DE
within the fegment. As this circular fegment is fup-
Fig. *.
FiS- 3-
Fig- *
Fig. £
Fig. &
pofed to lurround a part of the enemy’s territory, and is Military
(trengthened by the two fortreffes AB, at the extremi- Tactics,
ties of the bafis, it is elleemed the mod advantageous
form. On the other hand, if the fegment had its cir¬
cumference diiefted towards the enemy, as in fig. 2. it
would form the word poflible direction for a bafis; for
here the fortreffes CD, placed in the circumference, are
very much expofed, and might be eafily taken by de¬
tachments from the columns E and F. The only way
of preventing this would be to detach troops from A and
B laterally, to incommode the columns E and F, and
to take up a ftrong pofition either at g or h. The more
the fegment approaches to the elliptical form, as in fig.
3. it is the lefs fufceptible of defence, as is evident from
the relative pofition of the three fortreffes A, C, and B.
The line of operation reprefented by fig. 4. confiding
of falient and obtufe angles, fuch as A c B, B G, con-
ftitutes an excellent form, as it refembles the outworks
of a fortrefs, and it is as imprafticable for an enemy to
enter into the interior of this bafis, as to carry a curtain
between two flanks. The two fortreffes c d are not nearly
fo much expofed as C in fig. 3. as if one of them were
attacked, it would be eafy to make a diverfion from the
other into the enemy’s country. If the points which
terminate the bafis advance as in fig. 5. it will be a
favourable circumilance, efpecially if the moft advanced
poll were bounded by the fea, or by a large river.
The bafis which we have been confidering confifts of
curved or angular lines. Now, let us fuppofe two bafes,
the one A >5 B, fig. 6. forming merely a ftraight line,
while the other e eg df has two of its lines e c and df
advanced towards the enemy. This latter is the more
advantageous, as it expofes fo much more of the ene¬
my’s country. In general, it is a good rule to conltru6l:
fortreffes oppofite to thofe of the enemy, as here the for¬
trefs g, if moderately ftrong, is capable of protefting the
whole line from e to d, againft the three oppofite forts
A h B. It is a great fault for any part of a bafis to re¬
cede, as dc from the line of the enemy AB fig. 7. fo as
to form an angle with it, as here all the country be¬
tween A and c is expofed to the hoftile attacks of A
and B ; but, if the line were parallel to that of the
enemy, as de, it would be a good pofition.
Next to the eftablifhing of magazines, and providing Eftablith-
for their fecurity, and that of the lines by which they ment of
are connected, it is of the higheft importance for a ge-caniP5’
neral when he takes the field, to feleft the proper pofi-
tions ;vhere he may encamp his army, fo as to be rea¬
dily defended againft the attacks of a fuperior enemy,
and have an eafy communication with his own pofts. In
fele&ing fuch a fituation he muft be guided partly by
the nature of the country, and partly by the fituation of
the enemy ; but if poflible, he (hould choofe a pofitian
which is rather elevated, and which may be proteSed
on the flanks or rear, either by the natural fituation of
the ground, or by works thrown up for that purpofe.
It {hould not be too near the bank of a river, though it
may be of advantage to have fuch an objeft in front.
The encampment of an army in fuch a fituation is point¬
ed out by Plate DXLVII.; where A is the camp of p-ate
the main body of the army; B, an advanced camp,
compofed of dragoons and huffars, in order to cover the
right of the army, to guard the paffes by which the ene¬
my might inake incurfionS upon the flanks and rear of
the army, moled the convoys, and cut off the commu¬
nications
Fig. 7,
Part I.
W
Military
Tallies.
*4
Intrenched
camp.
Plate
DXLVIIL
Plate
DXLIX.
Fig. i.
nications j C, villages and bridges, guarded by the light
infantry j D, polls of difmounted dragoons in the front
of their camp ; E, polls of dragoons on horfeback, to
fecure the communication between their camp and that
of the main body of the army $ F, bridges built to keep
up the communication between the grand and the ad¬
vanced camp ; G, bridges and villages guarded by de¬
tachments of infantry j H, grand guards of horfe j I,
guards of infantry j K, bridge, village, and mill, guard¬
ed by the infantry belonging to the army ; L, camp of
dragoons and hollars, covering the left of the army, and
fupporting the light infantry j M, villages and bridges
guarded by the light infantry j N, polls of difmounted
dragoons in the front and on the flanks of their camp j
O, polls of dragoons on horfeback; P, polls and detach¬
ments of huflars, to patrole in front and on the flanks of
the army and their camp.
It often becomes neceflary, either from an inferiority
of numbers, or from the nature of the ground, to in¬
trench or fortify a camp. In general this is done by
deep ditches round the moll defencelefs part;
driving pallifades in front of this ditch ; forming an
embankment of felled trees, with their unlopped
branches pointing towards the enemy j or, where there
is time for fuch an operation, and where the proper
materials can be obtained, conftru£fing redoubts or
regular outworks, capable of being defended by artil¬
lery.
Plate DXLVIII. reprefents a camp intrenched in an
open country, without any peculiar advantages of de¬
fence. A, the main body of the army encamped be¬
hind its intrenchments ; B, the camp of the troops of
referve ; C, camp of the dragoons, to fecure the rear
of the army j D, camp of huflars, to cover the ground
on the right of the army; E, villages and redoubts
guarded by the light infantry, to fecure the camp
of the huffars; F, bridges built to fecure the com¬
munication of the army with the ground on the right,
and to favour the retreat of the troops polled on the op-
pofite fide ; G, brigades of artillery diftributed on the
flanks, and along the whole front of the army ; H, the
park of artillery j I, a bridge entrenched, to fecure the
communication between the army and the ground on
the left} K, villages and farm houfes, guarded by de¬
tachments of huflars and light infantry, to patrole in
front of the army.
In Plate DXLIX, are Ihown other methods of in¬
ti enening a camp in the neighbourhood of a town or
village, and in fituations where the camp can be proteft-
ed by inundations. Fig. i. reprefents an intrenched
camp in the neighbourhood of a town. A, a deep
marlhy valley, with an unfordable rivulet acrofs it. B,
a redoubt conftrufled on a mountain, by which the
right wing is appuyed. C, a fmall wood in front of the
mountain. D, a line which connefts two fleches toge¬
ther at the foot of the mountain, where the village of
Weilheim is fituated. E, a rivulet, over which are
thrown bridges of communication, to facilitate an in-
tercourfe between the camp and the redoubt on the
lull. F, an eminence with a gentle declivity, at the
foot of which is the village of Mansfeld, furrounded by
defiles and hollow roads. G, defiles and hollow roads.
H, lines which run along the circumference of the
heights about Weilheim, forming a retrenchment. I,
clofe works. L, a redoubt which malks the entrance
. Vol. XX. Part II.
60|
Military
Tallies.
A R'.
into Stemmern. M, a fmall wood, cut down in order
to have a full view in front of Stemmern. N, a thick
wood which covers fome high mountains by which the
left wing is fupported. O, an abattis which is made
acrols the wood for greater fecurity. P, infantry
pickets. Q, a redoubt on a fmall eminence, conftrudt-
ed for the purpoie of covering the opening behind the
left wing ot the camp. R, a line of communication
from the laft redoubt to the lelt of the intrenchment.
S, feveral paflages 30 feet broad andclofed in bychevaux-
de-frize, to afford an opportunity for the cavalry to ad¬
vance, ftiould the enemy be foiled in his attack againfl:
any part of the works. X, the infantry and cavalry
encamped behind the retrenchment; the infantry in
the firft line, and the cavalry in the fecond. U, X, Y,
Z, four roads behind the camp to facilitate the retreat
of the army, fhould it be prefled.
Fig. 2. and 3. reprefent an intrenched camp with in-Fig. *, 3,
undations in front. Fig. 1. a b, two dykes 40 paces
l°ng> 5 broad, and as many high. CD two rows of
flakes from 4 to 5 inches thick. E, the coffin formed
by means of flakes filled up. It is 8 feet broad. F,
the adjacent country, inundated by the rivulet being
forced out of its current by the laft dyke and by a and b.
G and H, the outlets which the rivulet feeks, to con¬
tinue its courfe. I, fmall creeks or ends of ditches dug
about the ground. Fig. 3. reprefents the current of a
rivulet, with a dyke to occafion inundations. Camp,,
with the feveral dykes in front, which are calculated to
produce inundations. The fpaces between thefe dykes
are called coffins, viz. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. ^
We have mentioned the works by which field polls Conftruc-
are fortified, and which are ufually called redoubts. Astion
the conftru£lion of redoubts is generally a work of thedoubts*
moment, and falls within the province of the command¬
ing officer of a detachment, it is proper that we fliould
here deferibe the moft uleful and expeditious methods
of raifing fuch works. Thefe methods are iiluftrated by
the plans in the upper part of Plate DL.
Fig. I. ffiows the plan of the ordinary fquare redoubt
which is conftrufted in the following manner: When
a proper fpot has been chofen, a line a AE is drawn of
a fufficient length, and at one extremity a is drawn a C
perpendicular to it. Then from a towards C and E are
fet off the dimenfions propofed for each fide of the para¬
pet within the fort, allowing 2 or 24 fathoms for 30
men, 4 fathoms for 50, and fo in proportion for a greater
number. Ihefe lines being afeertained, a picket is
placed at C, with a cord attached to it, and with the
length a C is deferibed an arch, and from the point £,
with the fame diftance, another arch is deferibed, inter¬
fering the former in F. Then joining EF and CF,
the fquare forming the inner parapet is completed.
Within this fquare, at the diftance of 2 or 3 feet, is de¬
feribed another fquare I, L, M, N, having its fides pa-
rallel to thole of the former. This marks the breadth
of the banquette, where the men are to be drawn up.
Again, on the outfide of the firft fquare at about 8
or 9 feet diftance is drawn a third fquare O, P, Q, R,
determining the outer fide and thicknefs of the paral
pet. This thicknefs is only calculated to refill mulket
balls j as, if it is to Hand again!! cannon, it ffiuuld b« at
leaft 18 feet. Lallly, at rather a greater diftance from
this third fquare is drawn a fourth S, T, V, X, marking
the breadth of a ditch that is to furround the redoubt.
4 G The
Plate
DL.
602
WAR.
Part I.
Military
Tadtics.
Fift *
F*g. 3.
The lines-being finifted, fafcines or faggots of brufli-
wood are to be laid between the two innermoft fcjuares,
as a foundation to fupport the earth of the oanquette 5
a fecond range is laid on the lines AB, GH, to iupport
the infide of the parapet, and a third on the fquare
O, P, £), B, to ftrer.gthen the outfide of the parapet,
leaving a fpace through all the fajcme^taxht ditch, on
the lide lead expoled to the enemy, as at B, for an en¬
trance. It is iometimes convenient to make this en-
trarce take a winding direflion, as is ftiown at T,
fig. 2.
Fig. 3. exhibits a fe&ion of thefe works, where AB is
the oreadth of the ditch at the top ; MN its breadth at
the bottom •, FN its Hope, on a line with the outfide of
the parapet, called the /carp, and GM its flope towards
the open country called the counterfcarp. AL and
ID reprefent the fafcines forming the outer and inner
Hopes of the parapet, the interval between them being
filled with earth trodden down bard. At E is the
banquette. DC is the thicknefs of the parapet below,
and IL its thicknefs above, which forms a Hope for the
more convenient firing ot muiketry.
In this fquare redoubt it is evident that the men mull
fire ftraight forward in lines perpendicular to the fides
of the {quarts, as in fig. 4. As it is often of great
confequence that the diredtions of firing Ihould crofs
each other, the better to flank the enemy, the banquette
is fometimes formed with angles, as in fig. 5- f° that the
men may (land two together in little redans. As, however,
fuch a conftru&ion takes up too much time and labour
for ordinary occafions, M. Le Cointe prefers a circular
redoubt, fuch as is reprefented at fig. 6. where the men
may fire from every part of the circumference. The
conftru&ion of fuch a redoubt is extremely fimple, and
differs only in its firft ftep, viz. deferibing the concentric
circles, which is done with a cord faftened at one end
by a picket at a central point C.
The ftrength of the redoubt will be much increafed,
if the ditch can be filled with water, as by turning into
it the ftream of a rivulet. See fig. 7. If the ground
be uneven, fo that the water will not run equally into
every part of the ditch, dams muft be raifed, as C, to
keep up the water in the higher parts, whence it may run
to the lower, after the former are full.
Fig. 7. reprefents a plan of the fquare redoubt, with
a wet ditch, when completed. A, the inner ground of
the redoubt; B, the bottom of the ditch; CDE, the
dam of earth } F a dam of boards, planks or fafcines j
G the upper part of the redoubt, made with fafcines or
with earth thrown out of the ditch *, H, the lower part
of the redoubt cut into the earth 5 I, the berme or fpace
left at the outer bottom of the parapet, to keep up the
earth \ L, the entrance of the redoubt} M, the infide
•of the parapet} N, the outfide of the parapet $ O, the
banquette; P, the glacis; Q., the river introduced to fill
the ditch with water.
uewLn- The attack and defence of pofts are among the mod
merits fent important departments of what the French call la petite-
to attack w guerre, and in a country where fortified towns are rare,
defend a 6 ~ . d . r  *---
Fig. 4.
Fig- 5.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
26
Of detach-
poft.
conftitute a confiderable part of field operations. We
ftiall confider them rather more at large than we have
the preceding parts of military taftics.
When an officer is detached either to attack or to
guard a poll, he ffiould provide himlelf with a cord re¬
gularly divided, for the purpofe of deferibing lines, and
Fig. 8.
railing temporary works, and fliould procure a Ikilful Military
and confidential guide, from whom he may derive the iatfl!C-‘
requifite information relpefting the nature of the coun¬
try, and the breadth and goodnefs of the roads. He
ffiould difpofe his party in fuch a manner that an ad¬
vanced guard of cavalry, as A, fig. 8. Plate DL, ftiould
fet out firft, preceded by a fmall detachment of about fix
horfemen, headed by a corporal, as B, C, C j two horfe-
men in the middle, and two on each fide. While the
main body is moving along the principal road, as from
H to F, a detachment ot about 8 or 1 2 horfemen, ac¬
cording to the ftrength of the corps, fliould be fent about
50 paces on each fide, by way of wings, as DD; and
from each of thefe wings 2 men ftiould keep 50 paces
farther out, as at EE, by which means the country will
be properly examined, and furprifes from the enemy pre¬
vented. On coming near a wood, as at NN, the caval¬
ry ffiould fpread, the better to fcour the outlkirts and
the wood itfelf. When the corps is numerous, the cavalrjr
ffiould be formed into fquadrons, as G, G, G, and the
infantry into platoons, as F, F, F, marching alternately
along the road.
If, on the march, the advanced guard come to a crofs
road, or the entrance of a hollow way, as at I, I, where it
is likely they may be met by a party of the enemy, they
fliould immediately prepare for an attack and if the
commander of the main body obfeive his advanced
guard in a&ion, he fficuld immediately draw off his pla¬
toons of infantry, and form them on the fide of the road,
as at L, L, L, or on fome neighbouring height, as at
M, M, that they may be out of the way of the enemy’s
cavalry, and ready to engage if occafion fhould re¬
quire it.
On the march the party fliould carefully avoid vil¬
lages, and rather halt or refrelh his men in a wood, or
fome other concealed fpot.
The commander of a detached party muft take the On re :on
fafeft and molt effe&ual methods to reconnoitre then01triKg-
country through which he is to pafs, without being ob-
ferved or fufpefted by the enemy. The method of
doing this recommended by M. Jeney will frequently
fucceed, and is as follows : He fuppofes himfelf with his
party at Soeft in Weftphalia A (fig. 2. Plate DEI),
and the enemy polled at Bervick B, two leagues from
him. To know the fituation of this place without Hir¬
ing from Soeft, he takes the map of the country •, and
from Soeft as the centre, he draws a circle, whofe cir¬
cumference paffes half a league beyond Bervick. He
draws a circle of the fame fize upon a leaf of paper, to
make his plan, as in fig. 2. and then places Soeft in the
centre A, and marks all the villages which he finds in
the map near the circumference upon his plan, with the
diftances and bearings as they are reprefented in the
map, making ufe of a pencil to mark the places DDD,
fo as to correft the errors more eafily which the map
may have led him to make.
Having thus formed his plan, with a fcale of two
leagues, he goes to the burgomafler ci the town of
Soeft, where he caufes fome of the moft intelligent inha¬
bitants to come, and fpeaking to them freely and openly,
induces them to communicate all the information for
which he has occafion.
The better to conceal his defigns, he begins his re¬
connoitring hy Brocklmfen, a village diftant fiom the
enemy. He afks the diftance from Soeft to Brockhu-
fen j
17
Plate-
DLI.
Fig. 2-.
Part T.
W
Military
Tactics.
28
Attack of
pofb.
fen j if they fay it is a league and three-fourths, he cor-
re61s the diftance of his plan, which made it two leagues;
then he informs himfelf of all that is to be found on the
road from Soeft to Brockhufen, chapels, houfes, woods,
fields, orchards, rivers, rivulets, bridges, mills, &c. If
they fay that a league from Soeft they pafs the village
of Kinderking, he marks that place upon his plan. He
alks if the road from Soeft to Kinderking be croffed by
any other road; if there be any morafs or heath ; if the
road be inclofed, paved, or ftraight; if there be any
bridges to pafs, and at what diftance. He takes care
to mark every thing on his plan, forgetting nothing,
even to mills, bullies, gibbets, gullies, fords, and every
thing that can be got from their information ; which
will probably be perfect, becaufe one always knows
more than another. He continues his queftions from
Kinderking to Brockhufen, and advancing by little and
little, obferves the fame method on the roads of the
other villages round, marked DDD. In this manner he
<?annot fail to acquire an entire knowledge of all the
places; belides, he finds himfelf imperceptibly inftrudl-
ed in the polition of the enemy, by feeing the different
roufes by which he can approach with the greateft fe-
curity.
For the attack of an enemy’s poll, fuch men fhould
be felefred as are brave, cool, and experienced ; or if
the affair require a confiderahle number, the detach¬
ment ftiould be divided into platoons, fome compofed of
picked men for the real attack, and others of ordinary
foldiers for feints. The men fhould be provided, be-
fldes their arms, with fuch inftruments as may be ne-
ceffary for pulling down or fcaling the enemy’s works,
fuch as fhovels and pickaxes for fafcine parapets ; hatch¬
ets or pallifadoes, for chevaux de frize, and fcaling lad¬
ders for ftone or brick work. Having made the proper
difpofiiion for his attack, and procured the necelfary
guides, the commander of the detachment fhould fet
out in the night, fo as to be at the place of attack
two or three hours before daybreak, taking care to
march with as little noife or parade as poflible.
If the port to be attacked be an ordinary redoubt,
fuch as we have defcribed in N° 25. on hearing the fig-
nal previouily agreed on, all the divifions are to rife at
once from the place where they (liould have lain con¬
cealed ; the firft ranks fhould leap into the ditch, and
loon after the fecond fhould follow, and both together
affift in undermining the angles of the fcarp, or cutting
away the flakes which may impede their progrefs. If
the parapet be faced with Hone or brick work, care
fhould be taken that the ladders be not too fhort, and
great expedition fhould be ufed in mounting them, and
efpecially in following the leading men in the aflault,
if they fhould be knocked down by the fire of the ene-
my.
Should the ditch be filled with water, and too deep
to be waded, it may be croffed on temnorary bridges
made of planks, fupported on empty calks, or the ditch
may be filled up with calks full of earth. If, as often
happens, the ground be obftru&ed w.th caltrops, thefe
A R. 703
muft be fwept awray by dragging trees with their leaves Military
and branches over the ground (a). , f
In attacking polls of confiderable magnitude, fuch ''
as villages, it is heft to divide the attack, and to make
a feint on thofe parts which feem heft defended, while
the true attacks are referved for thofe fituations which
fcem moft difficult of accefs, and where confequently,
the enemy is leaft upon his guard. As foon as part of
the village has been carried, fome divifions of the de¬
tachment fhould haften to ftrengthen their pofition, by
poffefiing thcrafelves of fome church, or high ground,
from which they annoy the enemy.
When a poll is once occupied, if it be thought of Defence af
fufficient confequence to retain it, the beft methodsPofts‘
fhould immediately be taken to protect it againft an at¬
tack of the enemy. The infantry to remain under arms in
the middle of the place, the cavalry to patrole without,
while the commanding officer, efcorted by a dozen
horfemen, goes to examine the environs to make his
arrangements ; having fent feveral fmall detachments
before, to cover him in time of reconnoitring.
Having remarked the places proper for his guard,
defence and retreat, as well as the dangerous ones by
which the enemy can make approaches fccretly to fur-
prife him, he fhould choofe the moft convenient in the
front* of his poll to fix his grand guard D, (fig. 1. Plate p^afe
DLL), which mull face the enemy. He muft mark
the heights for this guard to place their vedettes EEEE, Dg. 1.
and regulate the number according to the exigencies of
the fituation. In a covered country you muft not be
fparing of them, and muft reinforce every guard. At
50 paces from the front of the grand guard a non-
commiffioned officer with eight horfemen fhould be al¬
ways ready to fet out at K, to go and reconnoitre, when
the vedettes have obferved any party.
If the poft to be defended be merely a redoubt, it
will be proper to keep in readinefs a number of trees
cut down with their branches, to flop up any breaches
made by the enemy’s fhot. The men employed in the
defence fhould ftand in three ranks, the front and centre
ranks with fixed bayonets, and the third rank provided
with long pikes, fo as to projeft as far as the bayonets
of the front rank. On the enemy’s approach, the men
fhould referve their fire till the enemy come up to the
glacis, and the rear rank fhould be furnifhed wi.h hand
grenades, or lighted faggots, to throw among the ene¬
my, when they attempt to fcale the parapet.
In the defence of a village or fmall town, guards
fhould be polled at the entrance of the principal ftreets;
trenches fhould be cut acrofs the flreets, and cannon
planted behind them, while a detachment of cavalry
fhould occupy the market place, or broadeft ftreet, to
attack the enemy, if they force an entrance. If the
advanced guards are driven in, they ftiould retire with
coolnefs and deliberation, defending their pods from
houfe to houfe, till proper fupport can be given them
from the body of the detachment.
If there be any dangerous place capable of covering
the approaches of the enemy in the environs of the poft,
4 G 2 and
(a) The principal engines employed in the attack of polls, are reprefented in Plate DLV. to which we ftiall
prefently refer.
604 WAR. Part I
Military and out of the circuit of the patroles, there (hould be a
t Taftics. guar(j piaCed there, more or lefs ftrong according to the
’ importance of the place, and care ftiould be taken to
preferve the communication. The guards and picquets
being placed, the detachment that was fent out on the
roads muft be called in, and then go to work to lodge the
party in the gardens that open upon the country, and
the commanding officer’s quarters; beating down hedges,
filling up ditches, and levelling a piece of ground large
enough to draw up the whole corps. The horfes to be
put under cover in barns contiguous to the gardens; but
in cafe there are no baTns, they may fubftitute fheds open
or one fide, that the horfes may go out together in cafe
of an alarm. The officers ffiould occupy the houfes in
the neighbourhood of the ffieds, and one of each com¬
pany remain day and night with the company, to pre¬
vent any of the men from entering the village without
leave, upon any pretence. The commanding officer
muft acquaint the officers of his having chofen the place
M for the rendezvous in cafe of a retreat; which ought
to be at fome diftance from the village, and on the fide
he judges moft convenient for retiring to the army. At
funfet the grand guard are to return to the poft and join
the picquet, the half of each to mount alternately till
daybreak, and then the grand guard to return to the
place which they poffeffed the day before. The fentries
and vedettes ffiould be doubled, and all the paffages ffiut
up with waggons placed in two rows, except one for
Tallying out at in cafe of a retreat, made wide enough
for the psffage of the patroles or the whole cavalry.
The corporals of the ordinary guard ffiould lead the
relief of the vedettes every hour, fetting off together ;
but when they come to the paffage of the poft A, they
muft feparate into two parties, the one to the right to
relieve the vedettes BBB, the other to the left for the
vedettes CCC ; then each of them with the par¬
ties they have relieved ffiould go on at their head a
quarter of a league by the two routes pointed out in the
plan, to examine the environs, fuppofing an hour to
each. Befides this reconnoitring, the captain of the
grand guard ffiould fend two patroles in the night. To
fill up the intervals, they ffiould fet one about half an
hour after the corporals, and make the fame round.
Mode*of fn defenfive operations in an open country, the forti-
fortifying fying °f * village or a church-yard may often prove of
▼illages. importance, as fuch ports well defended may obftruft
the movements of the enemy, and give time for a fuffi-
cient force to collett to meet them in the field. We
ffiall therefore defcribe the moft approved mode of
ftrengthening thefe pofitions.
When it is propofed to fortify a village, inquiry
ffiould firft be made refpe£Hng the furrounding country,
whether there are woods, hills, or rivers near the vil¬
lage, whether the roads be acceffible, whether provi-
fions can be eafily obtained, &c. If the village is to
be occupied as a poft of defence merely, the woods, ri¬
vers, ravines, or heights, may afford advantageous out-
pofts or fituations for batteries or ambufcades ; but if it
is to be poffeffed as an advanced port on the eve of a
battle, the woods next the army ffiould be cut down,
the hollows filled up, and every thing removed which
may obftruft the freeft communication between the vil¬
lage and the main army ; while on the fide of the ene¬
my,. every obllruffion by works, trees,. &c. ffiould be
thrown in the way of his approach. The roads ffiould Military
be broken up or interfered with deep ditches. Tadics.
If there be good hedges or deep roads parallel to the T"
village, or in fuch a fituation as to front the enemy,
thefe will ferve as breaftworks, and for (belter. The
hedges ffiould be cut down to within four feet of the
bottom, their tops (loping towards the country, and
deep ditches ffiould be dug in front. If the roads are
deep, banquettes or Jleps muft be thrown up next the
hedge to raife the men to the proper height for firing.
For want of fuch natural means of defence, it will be
neceffary to throw up intrenchments on the fide next
the enemy and on the flanks.
Fig. i. Plate DLII. will explain the method of do- plate
ing this in a village, under ordinary circumftances. •DLIL
The village (lands in a plain, and in front of the army, FlS-I*
which is diftant from it about 600 paces, a. The front
of the intrenchment confifts of three (leeches or arrows,
c, dy joined together by lines. There are wolf-holes
before the works that cover the left flank e : the line g,
which erodes fome fwampy grounds, is broken in feve-
ral places /; and the grove of wood /, is cut down, to
prevent the enemy from approaching under cover of it.
As the right flank, confiding of a level plain, is more
expofed than any other quarter, in addition to the works
made of earth, which are thrown up at m, trees are
collefled, and heaped up in the form of an abattis, n.
Thefe are defended by a difeharge of mufquetry from
the intrenchments, whofe lines are raifed as high as pof-
fible behind the growing hedges 0, which inclofe the
gardens. It has however been judged neceffary to throw
the works up in a forward pofition />, and to have an
interval between them and the hedges, left the houfes
ffiould be fet on fire by the enemy, and the troops be
expofed to it. Every thing is left clear and open at
the back of the village, in order to fecure a free inter-
courfe with head-quarters.
Other meafures, however, muft be adopted in the
fortifying of villages which lie at fo great a diftance
from the camp, that the enemy might furprife and take
pofiefiion of them before any fuccours could be fent; for
in that cafe, intrenchments mull be thrown up through¬
out the whole of their circumference. If, on the
contrary, one of the wings of the army ffiould be fup-
ported by fuch a poft, it would be more judicious to
put the flank in a (late of defence, and to lengthen the
works in that quarter, to prevent the enemy from turn¬
ing i1-.
If it ffiould be judged expedient, under the circum¬
ftances of the army being cantoned, to fortify a village
which lies in a plain, other means muft be ufed ; for in
that cafe there would not be troops enough to defend it.
Should there be a fufficiency of men, intrenchments
muft be thrown up in the manner we have deferibed,
and fleeches muft be adopted to cover them behind,
with lines to conneft the vacant intervals ; but if there
be a fcarcity of foldiers, nothing but what is abfolutely
neceffary muft be done ; for it is highly impolitic to at¬
tempt more than can be eafily defended. Under thefe
circumftances you muft be fatisfied with ere6ling fmall
works, or ufing barricadoes to mafk the entrances ;
here and there likewife fleeches muft be con(tru6ted,
whofe communication will be kept up by the garden
hedges. If the village ffiould ftand on an eminence, it
may
Fait I. W
Military may be fortified with more facility, and many things
, i‘ic^1::s- . may be omitted, as the natural filuation is itfelf a re-
fpeftable poft.
Should there be a very great difproportion between
the extent of the village, and the number of men in¬
tended for its defence, and the latter Ihould be too
fmall, a part only mult be fortified, and the remainder
of the houfes mult be fecured by lines. Sometimes in¬
deed it is found neceflary to burn or deltroy them, to
prevent the enemy from approaching the fortified parts,
under cover of the buildings.
But if the garrifon Ihould not be fufficiently ftrong
even to defend a part of the village, you muft be con¬
tented with fortifying the church and church-yard, or
the caftle, if there be one. If any of thefe polls be
thought defenfible, troops muft occupy them on the
firft alarm ; but this muft be done in perfedl fafety,
and without the foldiers being expofed to be cut off on
their march. This precaution is above all others ne-
ceffary where villages are fo long and open that the
cavalry may enter them at every opening. On this ac¬
count the ordinary roads and avenues muft not only
be obftru&ed, but the garden hedges muft be repaired,
and every opening muft be clofed, which may be eafily
done by driving flakes into the earth, and nailing boards
acrofs them, which will prevent any hidden irruption of
the cavalry, from which alone any danger is to be ap¬
prehended on occafions of this fort *, for the infantry
would fcarcely advance, except by furprife, before the
garrifon could occupy its ftation. If any apprehenfions
are formed of an attack, the foldiers muft not be abfent
from their poft, either in the dulk of the evening, or at
night 5 they muft, on the contrary, be affembled in the
intrenchments during that period, to be ready in the
neighbouring houfes, always clothed and accoutred.
Method of church and church-yard afford an admirable poft
fortifying of defence, efpecially if, as ufually happens, they are
a church feated on an elevation. In fortifying fuch a poll, we
va^dC^UrC*1" ^10u^ block up every road and bye way leading to
' / it, by means of waggons or carts, with their wheels
'g- 2- 3- taken 0ff an(j loaded with dung or earth ; trees laid a-
crofs, or chevaux de frize. The narrow paths may be
barricadoed with rails, with their points Handing up¬
wards, and a little outwards, having behind them thick
branches of trees, or logs of wood, with a ditch in
front. Thefe previous precautions being taken, the
doors of the church ftiould be pierced in feveral places,
about eight feet from the bottom, with holes large
enough to admit the muzzle of the mufquct, and plat¬
forms ftiould be raifed with fteps within for the men to
fire from. Other loop holes (hould be made at the bot¬
tom of the doors, juft above the level of the ground,
and a ditch muft be dug within, about three feet deep,
fo as to admit of men firing from thence through thefe
lower loop-holes. See fig. 2. The doors muft alfo be
fecured by barricadoes, confifting of pallifades driven
feveral feet into the ground, and fet extremely thick,
fome being deeper thafi others, fo as to leave fpaces be¬
tween them and the top for loop-holes.. See a <7, fig. 3.
This barricado is technically called tambour. The
walls of the church muft alfo be pierced in various
places as direfted for the doors, fee fig. 3. and ditches
muft be dug within them, and fcaffolding erefted as be¬
fore.
Again, on the outfide of the church, a ditch is to be
A li. . 605
dug as clofe to the walls as is confident with fafety to Military
the foundation, about 12 feet in breadth at the top, and Tadtics.
four in depth j and from the further fide of this ditch
the ground ftiould be gradually Hoped towards the open
country. Through the main door of the church an
opening fliould be made about two feet above the
ground, fufficiently large to admit of one man palling
through without much difficulty, fo that when the church¬
yard becomes untenable, the garrifon may retreat into
the church.
It muft not be forgotten to fecure the means of a
crofs fire. If the church be built in the form of a crofs,
crofs firings may be eafily procured through the proper
loop-holes; but when this is not the cafe, loop-holes ffiould
be made through every falient angle of the building, or
tambours, fuch as reprefen ted in fig. 3. muft be formed
wherever it can be conveniently done.
Men muft be diftributed in the upper part of the
building. Thefe men will take out the tiles or Hates in
different places, in order to obferve the approaches of
the enemy, and to fire upon him when he comes within
mulket-ffiot. The lower windows of the tower or
fteeple muft likewife be barricadoed, and have loop¬
holes made in them. The pavement of the church mult
be taken up, and the ftones or bricks be carried to the
top of the building, to enable the befieged to let them
drop upon the enemy, when he gets fufficiently near.
In order to render the defence as prafticable as poffible,
you muft alfo eolledt fome large barrels or tubs, and
keep them conftantly at hand filled with water, for the
purpofe of extinguiffiing any fire which might break
out in the church, or be effefted by the enemy’s
ffiells.
Fig. 4. fliows a plan of the church and church-yard pjg. .
thus fortified, a, <7, <7, a, the wall of the church-yard j
b, c, tambour work in front of the entrances 5 d, the
church ; e, f tambour work conftrufted oppofite the
doors ; g, the facrifty or veftry.
Connedfed with the attack and defence of P°dsofambuf'
is the fubjedl of ambufeades, which we muft now briefly cades.
confider.
Aambulcads may be formed in any place where a
party may lie concealed, to furprife the enemy in paf-
fing. They are eafily carried into execution in woods,
hollow places, and large deferted buildings j but the
placing of an ambufeade in any fituation requires pre¬
vious accurate information with refpedt to the move¬
ments of the enemy. When the commander of a party
has been direfted to form an ambufeade, to furprife a
convoy of artillery, baggage, or provifions, or a body
of recruits going to reinforce the enemy, he Ihould firft
make every neceffary inquiry refpedfing the route which
the enemy is to take ; the fituation of the places near
which he is to pafs, and the poft to which he is about
to march. He muft alfo inquire with feeming anxiety
about the roads which lead in an oppofite direftion, on
which he ffiould feem more intent than on his main
obje<ft. Having concerted his plan, he ffiould fet out
at the head of his detachment if poffible, and leaving
his poft on the fide oppofite to his true route, the better
to conceal his defign. If the place where he intends
t:o plant his ambufeade be not far diftant, he ffiouJd come
into his true route about half way, and there place halt
his infantry in ambuffi to favour his retreat. But wherr
the country where he propofes going is diftant, and the
marchi
606 W A R. Parti.
Military march requires at leafl two nights, he mud; conduct his
la&ics. paj^y by meandring from wood to wood, if there be
v any. He mud not forget to provide neceffary refrelh-
ments for the day, which mull be palled in fome con¬
cealed place where he may not be perceived, and muft
caufe three rations of oats to be carried for each
horfe.
Proper precautions having been taken to guard any
crofs road or bridge that may lie near the place of am-
bufcade, the commanding officer fhould take care to be
at lead two hours before the enemy, and to place the
ambufcade on that fide, by which, if worded, he may
retire with the greated 1 ifety.
DLIU Plate DLIII. fig. 2- will illudrate the proper me-
^ ' thod of laying an ambufcade. A reprefents the infan-
l£' 2’ try of the furprifing party, which ought to be placed at
lead 600 paces behind B, the cavalry, fo that, if pur-
fued, they may both fall back to A, and make good
their retreat to the guard at the bridge or crois road j
or to another party of infantry placed in ambudi half
way. If the ambufcade be placed in a wood, an intelligent
non-commiffioned officer dtould be chofen to get upon a
high tree C, from which he can fee the march of the
enemy, and give notice of the mod effential circum-
flances. The fird of thefe is the feeing the advanced
guard ; the fecond is the approach of the corps, and
the third is the time when their front is advanced as
far as the ambufcade B ; for which the commanding of¬
ficer diould indruft the obferver what fignals he is to
make from the top of the tree, to communicate the ne¬
ceffary information without fpeaking, which may be
done by means of a fmall cord D, of a brown or green
colour, fo as to be lead perceptible. Let this cord be
placed as in the plan, fo that no branch interrupt it,
with one end in the hand of the obferver, and the other
in the commanding officer’s hand in the ambufcade B.
As foon as the advanced guard appears, the obferver
mud pull the cord, and the commanding officer caufe
the party to mount and remain in deep filence. If by
a dratagem, which is piaftifed for particular reafons,
the advanced guard is immediately followed by the
corps, which may be eafily known by their being more
numerous than ordinary, and not followed by any other
corps, that the commander may not be deceived by the
enemy, the cord ffiould be drawn a fecond time, and
a third time when their front is advanced as high as the
ambufcade. At that indant the party mud rufh out,
and furioufly attack the flanks of their centre in the fol¬
lowing manner.
If the advanced guard E is formed only of an ordi¬
nary number, they ffiould be allowed to pafs •, and at
the approach of the principal part or convoy F, the
chief to be informed by the fecond pulling of the cord.
At the moment the head of the convoy ffiall be ad¬
vanced as high as B, the cord mud be pulled the
third and lad time ; and at this fignal the party mud
ruffi out without being perceived, and fuddenly attack
the centre on the flank, engaging only with their fwords,
and making fuch a noife as to prevent the enemy from
hearing the orders of their officers. They mud difarm
all whom their bravery (hall throw in their rvay, taking
care not to fcatter or purfue too far, unlefs it be certain
that they are fo far from their army or parties, on ac¬
count of which they cannot be affefted j for in cither of
thefe cafes they will not fail to run at the noife, and di- Military
durb the retreat. 1 actics.
In all fecret expeditions, great circ.umfpe£Hon fliould ~v "
be ufed, that the party be not feen or betrayed ; as it
they be difcovered by the advanced guard before the
blow be druck, the enterprife mat be immediately
abandoned, and the party retire. When the guide, or
any one of the party deferts, and cannot be catched, a
retreat mud immediately be thought of, or the ambuf¬
cade mud be placed fomewhere elfe j but to prevent
fuch a misfortune, the officers (hould be charged to exa¬
mine frequently whether they have all their men.
An ambufcade fhould never be formed for cutting off
the enemy’s retreat, as this will drive him to defpair,
and make him rally and attack the party with defperale
refolution. There may be an exception to this, when
it is pretty certain that the whole party of the enemy
may be cut off or taken prifoners, either from the fmall-
nefs of their number, or from the peculiar fituation of
the place of ambufcade.
Several ambufeades fhould not be formed at once,
except for the purpofe of feizing foragers, in which cafe
they fhould be difpofed fo that the fentinels may fee
from one to another. Then the fird guard which fees
the foragers, {hould commence the attack, and can foon
be affified by the red of the party.
In all ambufeades, no fentries fhould be placed but
officers or non-commiffioned officers. On dow'ns, be¬
hind mountains, or in gullies, the fentries fliould lie with
their bellies on the ground, and their feet towards the
ambufcade, the body covered with a gray or green
cloak, according to the colour of the ground, with their
heads a little raifed and wrapped in a handkerchief of
draw green colour, or white in time of fnow, fo as not
to be eafily perceived. The number of fentinels can¬
not be determined, but they fhould be difpofed fo as to
watch on all fides of the ambufcade, and dop every one
who may inadvertently approach too near. The fentries
fhould give notice of what they difeover by gedures, to
which all the officers fhould be very attentive. In coun¬
tries where there are no woods, vineyards, or hedges,
an ambufcade may be placed in a field of hemp or corn,
or fome fort of grain, provided it be high enough to
cover the men, at lead with the help of art. When
the dalk of the corn is not high enough, fome of the in¬
fantry mud be fet to work with fpades and pickaxes,
which they mud have brought along with them, for the
purpofe of digging holes in the field deep enough to
make up for the defeftive height of the corn.
An ambufcade often forms part of a dratagem for
bringing on an aftion with a party of the enemy which __
would be fuperior, w’ere it not for fome advantage of
this kind, as in the following cafe. See Plate DLIII.
fig. I. Suppofe the whole party to fet out from A, pjg j,
marching under the conduft of a trudy guide by cover¬
ed wavs at a didance from the enemy. Being come to
the place C, which ought to be in the environs, and as
high as the field of battle, the infantry diould be con¬
cealed out of the road far from the fight of paffengers.
This mud be the centre of correfpondence with the
army 5 the rendezvous of the booty, and fupport the re¬
treat of all the cavalry, of which there ffiould be as
many detachments as there are attacks propofed to be
made. We ffiall fuppofe fix of 100 men each, and they
mud
2
f
Part I.
W
Military
Tadtics.
33
Of retreats.
Plate
BXLVI.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig- 10,
mufl go fecretly by particular routes to their refpe&ive
polls, E, D, F, G, H, I. Neither trouble nor expence
Ihould be (pared to procure good guides. Each detach¬
ment Ihould lie in ambulh half a league, if neceffary,
from the objeft of the attack JBKKKK.
The noife of the mufketry in the armies is to be the
fignal for their irruption ; and then bravery, intrepidity,
and courage will give wings to the people. The fecond
detachment D will glance imperceptibly between the
villages, and fall like thunder on the camp B ; and
while 80 attack all whom they meet, the other 20
ftiould light their torches at the fires that are to be
found everywhere, and fpread the flames rapidly to the
flraw of the tents. As they cannot fail to have the
picquet of the camp foon at their heels, they mull llrike
their blow with all poflible expedition, without flopping
to plunder, being content with the glory of having ex¬
cited a general alarm, capable of confounding the whole
army, and contributing to the gaining of a battle.
At the fame time that the detachment D attacks the
camp B, the others, E, F, G, H, muil with equal vio¬
lence attack the villages K, K, K, K, which they have
in front, doing the fame the firfl: did in camp, except
that they may feize as plunder every thing which they
can conveniently carry off, with which thefe villages
are commonly filled, feizing the bell horfes, hamftring-
ing others with the ftroke of a (word, and fetting fire to
all the places which contain the enemy’s baggage. Each
detachment Ihould caufe fome horfemen to advance be¬
yond the village, to obferve the motion of the troops,
wrho will not fail to run to their affntance. As foon as
they perceive them, they mufl make their retreat as fall
as poffible by the routes which the commanding officer
has preconcerted, and which are reprefented in the plate
by the coarfe lines. The fixth detachment I, in ambulh
on the fide of the road leading from the camp, (hould
r emain there, to feize all the enemy who think of faving
themfelves by flight.
When the commander of a detachment finds himfelf
obliged to abandon a poll, or that it is not worth de¬
fending, it becomes neceffary for him to prepare for his
retreat. This is often a difficult and dangerous affair,
and requires much prudence as well as bravery on the
part both of officers and men. If poffible, he ihould re¬
treat on that fide which forms a communication with
the general balls or line of polls occupied by his party.
The following obfervations on lines of retreat, connefted
with the lines of operation defcribed in N° 22, will be
found of importance.
A retreat on a fingle line is a fault of the utmofl
magnitude, for it is evident that if the army C (fig. 8.
Plate DXLVI.) retire from it towards B, along the
line AB, the enemy may fend befides, two corps c, */,
againll the flanks of this army, which would feparate it
at the point B, and in this cafe it would be furround-
ed. Nor is this the only difadvantage, for all the coun¬
try fituated to the right and left of the line AB, would
fall into the hands of the enemy j while, in a retreat, it
is always a rule to cover as much of the country as pof¬
fible.
A concentric retreat is of fuch a nature, that in an ex-
tenfive pofition they fall back to one more confined, fo
that the two lines of operation at the extremities AB,
(fig. 9.) unite at the objefl of retreat C, forming an
acute angle, or as at fig. 10.. an obtufe angle 3 fuch a
A R. 607
retreat would have no better iffue than the former. The Military
fame difadvantages which refult from retreats on a fingle tadtics.
line would likewife attend this. There is one circum- v " f
fiance which might induce a general to retreat in this
manner, and that is, with the view of covering any im¬
portant place, a capital, for example, by taking an ad¬
vantageous pofition, which is indicated by C, in the
figures 3 the important place required to be covered
would probably be at D. But neverthelefs this meafure
would be ineffedlual if the enemy were at all vcrfant in
the art of war, and operated on the flanks of the army
they were purfuing. The bell method of covering a
country, which is in our rear, is to proceed againft the
flanks of the enemy which is advancing 3 and by this
intrepid and bold movement, to change our defenfive
operations into thofe of an attack.
A retreat conduced in parallel lines, as the bafis AB, Fig. ip, ■
in four corps, 1, 2, 3, 4, or the lines AC, EG, FH, BD,
is doubtlefs better than the concentric retreats which we
have juit coRlidered. In the firll place, the country is
better covered by means of the parallel lines 3 fecondly,
the enemy cannot fo eafily infult the flanks of the re¬
treating army, provided that this is in a condition to per¬
form the fame manoeuvre with regard to them, and thus
obflrudl their progrefs; laftly, they would be afraid of
advancing with too much precipitation, from the moment
their attention is divided by the attempt which may be
made againil them. But there might be fomething ftill
better attending it, viz. to retire in an eccentric direc¬
tion, as we fhall ffiow prefently.
The excellence of parallel retreats is maintained from
the idea that they cover a country better, and likewife
flop the progrefs of an enemy, when oppofed in a direft
line. Certainly this appears evident to the eye ; but
the fight is often the medium only of error. It is the
ignis fatuus which leads us into the mire, and the pre-
fent inflance is a proof of it. This opinion was not in¬
deed well founded among our predeceffors, and ftill lefs
is it fo among the moderns. We do not now arreft the
progrefs of the enemy, by prefenting ourfelves to their
ftrongeft part, viz. their front 3 but on the contrary, by
intercepting their flanks, vjiich are the weakeft parts 3
by haraffing their rear 5 by menacing their provifions
and their communication with the fources of their vigour
and power. It follows from hence, that eccentric re¬
treats are the bell. An army (fig. 12.) who retires
from a, £, c, d, e, towards f g, A, i, k, runs no lifk of
feeing the enemy advance in the fegment f,k; for he
would, by fuch a movement, be in^danger of being fur-
rounded.
We may lay it down as a rule, that it is effentially
neceffary, in all retreats, to divide into different columns,
in order to divert the attention of the enemy 3 and it
is fully demonftrated that there is not in war a more
important maxim. We might ffiow that this method
of attracting the attention of the enemy to many diffe¬
rent points at once is, properly fpeaking, exciting a de¬
gree of apprehenfion with regard to his flanks and rear.
But it naturally refults from all that has been faid rela¬
tive to the inutility of diverging offenfive operations, as
well as thofe which are divefted by a fingle line, or by
an acute angle, that eccentric retreats are of all others
the moil preferable. Since concentric operations are
the moft advantageous in attacking, eccentric ones mull
neceffarily poJTefs the fame advantages in defence 3 every¬
thing;
A
5oS W A R. Part L
Military thing Htould be in oppcHtion, in two different kinds of fee that copies of the order of battle be given to thofe Military
Tactics, war£re> which are in their nature and interefts contra* that have a feparate command. The proper officers, iaC 1Cb- ,
diftory. ffiould take care that the Uoops under their command *
In conducing a retreat, as in all other field opera- be properly armed and equipped, and that they are al-
tions, an army fhould affume, as the principal objeft, its lowed time to reft and retreih themfelves before the en-
own Magazines, and the fafety of its lines of convoy, gagement. The heavy baggage, and every thing that
rather than the army of the enemy } and it (hould never might encumber the operations of the troops, ftiould be
take a pofition oppofite the enemy, but rather on one fide removed, and placed at a diftance under a proper guard.
34 of him. A referve fhoold be formed near the park of artillery,
battles. \ve have hitherto confidered military operations in confifting of fome of the braveft and beft difeiplined
the field, as they are fubfervient, or preparatory to, that troops, headed by the moft experienced officers. 3s
moft important c#nfequence of war, a battle. We tnuft In time of action, the commander in chief ftiould be Circumftan'*
now examine what are the caules which fliould induce a fo fituated as to be able to ilfue his orders with the ^
general to hazard or avoid a battle $ and if he determine difficulty, and to obferve as far as poffible the operations ^
on a general aftion, what are the beft methods of dil- of his troops, and more efpecially the effedls of the firft
poling the troops under his command. _ attack. Every other general officer muft keep his own
At prefent, aftions in the field are diftinguilhed into ftation, to dire£t the charge of the troops, or to rally
two kinds, according as they are more or lefs general, and re-form thofe which have been routed and difperfed.
When the whole of the adverfe armies are engaged, it is When the aftion becomes general, and is obftmately
called a battle; but where only a part of each is con- contefted, the commander-in-chief {hould diredl the
cerned, a combat. The latter of thefe, however defpe- principal efforts of his troops againft that part of the
rate, does not in general involve fuch important confe- enemy’s line which makes the greateft refiftance, and
quences as the former j but as in a general engagement, ftvould himfelf haften to this fpot, to animate his men
the vanquiftied party ufually lofe the greater part of to greater adivity and exertion by his prefence and ex-
their artillery and baggage, and are compelled to retire hortations..
and leave the country behind them at the mercy of the The artillery of the army {hould accompany the firft
vigors, a prudent general never hazards fuch Ioffes with- line, and the remainder of the troops {hould follow the
35 out important reafons. movements of thofe before them, fo as to preferve the
Reafons for When an army is fuperior to its opponents in number proper diftance between the lines, and march with the
hazarding or jjf - ijne difccird prevails among the chiefs of leaft poffible diforder and confufion. It the firft line
a ' the adverfe army j when a negleft of the ordinary pre- give way, the fecond {hould march up to its relief, and
cautions in marching, encamping, or other obvious either charge the enemy, or keep him employed till the
duties, demonftrate their incapacity ; when it is neceffary firft line has time to rally and re-form. If, however, as
to relieve a confiderable town or poft that is befieged often happens, the other lines are ftruck with a panic on
by the enemy ; when it is apprehended that the army obferving the repulfe of their, predeceffors, the referve
will be difperfed or ruined, without a general engage- {hould be brought up, and it is probable that their cou-
ment; when intelligence has been received that rein- rage and refolution will reanimate the fcattered troops,
forcements are approaching to the enemy, which will and turn the fortune of the day. 39
render him fuperior •, when the enemy has received, in In forming the order of battle, regard muft be paid Order ©f
fome preceding aaion, a confiderable check which he to the nature and fituation of the place where the battle battle.,
has not yet recovered, or when the army whofe general is to be fought; to the number and quality of the troops
is thus canvaffing the advantages and difadvantages of a engaged, and to the mode of fighting which is moft
battle, is in fucb a ftate, that every thing ought to be likely to take place during the aftion, or to decide the
hazarded for its relief, the commander is warranted in viftory. There are two principal methods ot forming
36 giving battle to the enemy. troops in order of battle, the column and the line. 1 he
Reafons for Qn contrary, when lefs Is to be hoped for from a former of thefe was moft in ufe among the ancients, has
avoiding a v;ftory than feared from a defeat j when the army is in- been greatly recommended by Folard in his comrnen-
general ferjor either in number, courage, or difeipline, to the taries on Polybius, and praftifed wfith the moft brilliant
enemy ; when it is in expeaation of being reinforced by fuccefs by the French armies fince their portentous revo-
a ftrong detachment of frelh troops *, when the enemy is lution. This order of battle is adapted chieny to ca es
fo advantageoufly polled that it would be impoffible to where the a&ivhy of. the troops can be relied on, ana
bring him to an engagement on equal terms, or to force where much firing with mulketry or artillery is not. ex-
his entrenchments ; or when there is a profpea, by tem- peaed to take place, and where of courfe the affair is to
porifing and declining battle, of ruining the army of the be decided principally by the pike or the bayonet. It
enemy by difeafe, famine, or defertion, it would be wrong is alfo well calculated for a bo y o m. antry w 10 are to
to place the fortune of the campaign on the iffue of a refill the attack of cavalry. It is obvious that from the
battle. clofe arrangement of troops m column, this dilpofition
Preparation When a general engagement has been refolved on, muft expofe them.more to the nre of a line, and muft
for a battle, the general is to devife the means of carrying it into endanger their being flanked or lurrounded by an enemy
execution, fo as to have the ftrongeft prefumption of whofe front is more extended. Ihe relative advantages
fuccefs. He is to arrange, with the officers of his ftaff, and difadvantages of the column and the line, will be
the manner in which the troops are to be divided and more readily perceived by attending to the following
difpofed, or wffiat is called the order of battle j he {hould principles.
affign to his fcveral officers their refpeaive polls, and From the order of battle as a bafis are deduced many
4:
Part X’ WAR.
Military inftruftlve principles relating to what are called lines of ous manner. From this it follows that the army
■ CS' aching and lines of firing, which conftitute a confider- AB, though the Wronger, can do nothing better at
40 abIe part of the elements of modern taftics. this time than quit the field of battle, as it will other-
Principles J here are as many line* of marching arifing from the wife be furrour.ded. Now, the attacking army have no
of marching order of battle, as there are foldiers in the firft rank of thing to do but to effeft an eccentric retreat : namely
^ lme or c?lurmn’ andras theiroldlers approach towards to fall back with the left wing upon ik, and wifh the
the enemy, thele lines of marching, at lealf in the inlan   >—  -•-> > _
609
Military
'Factics.
deduced
from the
order of
battle.
Plate
DXLVL
Pig- 13-
Pg- 14-
Fig.
try, produce lines of firing. It is the nature and rela¬
tive advantages of different lines of marching and firing
that wre now propofe to confider.
Let us fuppofe two lines of troops, A and B, fig. x3.
extended oppofite to each other, of which A is confider-
ably longer than B at each extiemity, or, as it is termed,
outflanks it. It is evident that B may be furrounded
by A, as from the fuperior numbers of A, B may be
attacked in flank and rear. It is therefore evident that
when the numbers are unequal, and the conteft is to be
decided by firing, the greater number muft prevail, if
both are arranged in lines.
Again, the line AB (fig. 14.) being attacked by the
line c d, the flank B cannot extend itfelf parallel to c d,
if this line advances always in front towards A. The
line attacked is furrounded, and even fo preffed upon,
that they muft all take flight towards A. If any troops
by chance fhould endeavour to form upon the line ef
they would not have time 5 taken in front and in flank
by the enemy’s fire, they could never refift fuch an at¬
tack. The cavalry would experience the fame difad-
vantages in a fimilar cafe. Horfemen attacked to the
right, to the left, and in front, could not defend them-
felves •, the celerity of the horfes, no doubt, would en¬
able them to deploy quicker than the infantry j but,
by the fame reafoning, the enemy’s cavalry, which is ad¬
vanced upon their flank, would likewife advance the
quicker from the point B, towards the oppofite wing A,
which a corps of infantry could not poflibly do. Thus
it would be equally difficult to form the line c/'; every¬
thing would be overthrown, and they muft retire in the
greateft diforder towards A. It is hence clear that
every effort fhould be made by an army in line of battle,
to turn the enemy’s flanks with its front.
Concentric lines of marching and firing well exe¬
cuted, are exceedingly important. Hence it is that a
fortrefs muft yield when it is befieged, as the fire from
the fortrefs is eccentric, while that of the befiegers is
concentric. Hence, too, forties from a garrifon rarely
fucceed, becaufe they are eccentric operations.
\\ hen an army is much weaker than its opponent, if
the former be compelled to an adion, it (hould throw
itfelf on the enemies flanks ; and to do this with effedf
the enemy’s front fhould be kept occupied, fo as to
draw off his attention from his flanks. If the line were
long, he would have time to convey all that part oppo¬
fite to the fide attacked, as A (fig. 1;.) into the line
ef before the attacking army e d could entirely over¬
throw and repulfe the flank B, which would be the ob¬
ject cf their efforts. In this cafe, things would again
be equal; for an engagement in front would take place
the iffue of which is always doubtful. If, however
they occupy the line AB, by corps fent for that pur-
pofe, as g and h, while, with a greater force, they at¬
tack in flank, then it would be impoffible for any part
of AB to throw themfelves into the line ef, before ha¬
ving beaten g h ; and the time would probably be too
fhort for this operation, \i c d pufhed in front in a vitror-
Vol. XX. Part II. 6
right upon Im, provided CD do not obftrua: the paffage j
for in that cafe, the retreat of the right wing, or of that
part of the army neareft the flank B, would be on //,
in order to create in the enemy c a feme folicitude for
his left flank d. It is by fuch eccentric retreats that
the purfuit of the enemy is prevented. They dare not
venture it, if they do not wifli to be taken in flank
themfelves, and to become in their turn expofed to an
efcalade and a concentric fire, and confequently a ter¬
rible havoc. Eccentric retreats in tactics are equally
as advantageous as in ftrategy. The latter kind alarm
the enemy with regard to his lines of operation, and
confequently prevent him from advancing ; the former
make him afraid of expofing his flanks and rear, and
hinder him from purfuing.
From thefe coniiderations it appears that it is no
great misfortune for an army to be‘attacked in its cen¬
tre, and divided. If the army be divided in two at the
centre, it will retire eccentrically on e and/(fig. 16.).
By this movement it will throw an obftacle in the way
of all farther progrefs on the part of the enemy, who
has divided in the middle the dotted line AB. It is
impoffible for the enemy c ^ to advance in front be¬
tween e and f; they would take him in flank on both
fides: he muft therefore advance in front towards f and
f both at the fame time. In this pofition e and/might
detach forces to the rear of c d, and operate at once on
its provifions and in its country. It would be fufficient
for that to fend fome corps from their flanks to the
points A, B. It is likewife poffible for them to ad¬
vance entirely to the left and right, if they have any
magazines at g and h, which neverthelefs would not b"e
expofed by the marching of the flanks towards A and
B, and would always be fhellered from the enterprifes of
c d. A third combination likewife would be to attack
immediately cd, which, from its pofition, would be ex¬
pofed on both its flanks. In this laft cafe, c d would
have no other refource than to operate on that part of
the flanks e and/ which are oppofite to the points A,B
to compel ef to retreat, and replace its front in the’di-
rection of A, B.
It docs not require a great body of men to occupy
the front of the enemy, while the reft of the army at¬
tacks the flanks. It is beft done by means of a fcattered
troop, or what the French call tirailleurs, confifting of
light infantry, which are ufually inftruaed in the fol¬
lowing manner. The troop, formed into two ranks,
divides in fuch a manner that there may be a fpace be¬
tween the two, as indicated in fig. 17. The fecond
rank, placed behind the intervals left by the firft, fecures
its flanks. When they attack, the fecond rank, CD
palling through the intervals of the firft AB, advances
to the line FF, and fires. The great advantage arifing
fiom this, is that of forming a more extenfive front thaw
when they are wedged in elbow to elbow; fecondly,
they keep up a move fatal fire with their mulketry, be¬
caufe each foldier, being unmolefted by the one next to
him, aims better, and continues his firing without in¬
terruption } thirdly, a lefs number of men is loft, becaufe
4 many
Fisr. iff.
Fig. 17.
6io
W A R.
Part I.
Military many of the enemy’s balls fall in the Intervals, and are
1 adhcs. confequently harmlels j but in the following method all
v thefe advantages are united in a more eminent degree.
Here the difperfed foldiers do not move in right lines,
Fig. xS. but circularly, as reprefented in fig. 18. When the
firft rank has fired, the men make a little turn to the
left, and run to the place occupied by the fecond rank,
the men of which advance rapidly in front to the place
which the former had quitted, and fire, while the other
rank is charging. Thus, each rank alternately advan¬
cing and retiring in circles, a conflant fire is kept up
on the enemy, with little hazard to the men. It muft
be allowed, however, that this method will fucceed on¬
ly when the enemy Hand firm ; for if they fly, the
former method is to be preferred.
If the attacking army be forced to retire, the tirail-
Fig. 19- lairs that fucceed them fliould flop at N° 2. fig. 19.
inftead of proceeding as far as N® 1. j while thole that
are already at N° 1. in retiring fall back farther than
N° 2. thus each rank fucceflively falling farther and
farther back, contefling every inch of ground.
It may perhaps be maintained, that it is better in at¬
tack to adopt clofe order, becaufe the lines of firing be¬
ing more approximate, they can keep a better fire j but
it may be replied, that if they are once on the flanks of
the enemy, and fufficiently near to ufe the mufket, it is
then of little importance whether they attack with clofe
ranks, or en tirailleurs, becaufe in either cafe the enemy
muft be beaten if they charge wdlh vigour. In fuch a
pofition, it would be difficult to throw one’s felf in the
Fig. ao. line ef (fig. 2C.) particularly if it be occupied in front,
as it ought to be, and it is neceflary, that the cavalry
fhould be near, in order to fuftain this attack.
The retreats of the infantry intended to occupy the
Tig. 21. front AB (fig. 21.), need not be either eccentric or in
flank, the principal objeft being to direft the attention
of the army AB from his flanks, which it is intended to
attack ; but thefe retrograde movements muft be con¬
duced direCly upon / f. If the retreat be ferious, and
it be really intended to abandon the front AB, and to
prevent the purfuit by creating in the enemy a folici-
tude for his flanks, then the retreat fhould be executed
eccentrically up g h.
Suopofe an army colleCed in an oblique pofition, as
Fig 22. at CD, fig. 22. and fuppofe it is to make an attack on
another army AB, coming round upon its flank. This
manoeuvre has been recommended by Folard, and was
praCifed long ago by Epaminondas, and in modern
times by Frederick the Great. It is however generally
confidered as inferior to the mode of attack illuftrated
in fig. 15. and AB might eafily avoid the danger by
moving along in line towards^ or taking the pofition
Kg. Indeed AB is itfelf, by its right wing A, in
fome degree enabled to aft on the offenfive againft the
left wing of CD, by moving round in the columns h i.
The confequence of this mutual manoeuvring would be,
that CD takes AB on its flank B, while it is itfelf
taken by AB on its own flank C; the two parts attack¬
ed will be probably beaten by the attacking army, and
after the combat they wdll both remain oppofite to each
other, though a little obliquely with refpeft to their
former front.
It is not always neceflary to re-form the ranks. Sup-
IV. 23. P0^ AB (fig. 23.) is attacked by the line CD, the left
wing might run difperfed towards ef and there make a Military
little turn to the right at a certain fignal, return quick- Tadhcs.
ly, attack the left flank D, and give it a rolling fire
from three fides, before D, in order to defend himfelf,
could take the form of an axe ((Pune katche) D
But, in order for fuch an attack to lucceed, the enemy’s
cavalry muft not be near. In cafe there be any to be
apprehended, the precaution to be adopted would be to
form into columns. If, therefore, attacks and retreats
take place in this manner, and, above all, if care has not
been taken to fuftain and cover them with a numerous
cavalry, the greater part of the taftical evolutions of the
infantry are rendered ufelefs. It is, however, indifpen-
fably neceflary that the troops ftiould always know how
to deploy from a column into a line of battle.
Captain Rdfch, a Pruffian officer, has difeovtred a
method of deploying, which appears to be by far the
eafieft and the beft yet known. During the march, the
divifions proceeding on the line AB (fig.- 24.) obferve Fig- *4*
the neceffary diftances. As foon as the divifion I
enters into the line of direftion AB, it is commanded
to the right or left, according to the fide which they
wiffi to face; the following divifion arrives, without
changing its ftep, to the very place where the preced ng
one has made its quart de converjion, and performs a fi-
milar one ^ the third, the fourth, and all the reft follow
the example. Each divifion having thus traverfed its
diftance, reaches the line of direftion, when that which
marches direftly in front has already made room.
This method is a ftep further towards the perfeftion
of deploying, which is to advance in front, for the divi¬
fion 1 is obliged to make a quart de converjion to the
left, before prefenting in front to the line, whilft, ac¬
cording ta the method of Captain Rbfch, this line is
formed merely by a halt-front. At the fame time, a
converfion is a movement which always requires many
paces, becaufe it is performed in the fegment of a circle.
In the two methods of deploying reprefented at fig.
24. and 25. the divifions traverfe the two fmalleft fides Fig. 25.
of a right-angled triangle (fee fig. 25.) The Pruflians
have introduced a method, in which only the hypothe-
nufe is deferibed : it is called the adjutant'sfep. The
adjutants, who know from experience the length of the
front of their battalions, mcafure with the gallop of
their horfes on the line of direftion, the fpace needfary
for appearing in battle (fig. 26.). Each battalion fe-
parates from the column, and marches by the neareft
road to where their adjutants ftand, at the numbers
I, 2, 3, 4, as intermediate points on the line of direc¬
tion AB. As foon as the firft divifion arrives at the
adjutant, it immediately deploys according to the me¬
thod already deferibed. If the officers who meafure
the front do not make any great miftake, the march in
front muft be executed much more quickly than by the
preceding method.
Let us now examine the beft method of throwing
back a wing into a line, fo that it may not be turned.
Suppofe an oblique line at c d (fig. 27.) with a crotchet Fig.
de formed to prevent being taken by the flank d; and
at the fame time, to have a line ready to repulie every
attack which the enemy AB, might attempt on the left
againft this flank. Such is the firft modification which
this kind of pofition offers to our examination. After
this line, en crochet, has difperfed every thing which op-
Parti. WAR. 6n
Military pofed its progrefs, it turns, till it arrive at the prolonga-
, ■tu<^1<-s^ ^ tion of the oblique front CD, and then takes the enemy
in flank.
* See Pruf- At the battle of Lifla #, feme battalions of grenadiers
fia, N° 35. were placed at the extremity of the right wing of the
cavalry; they overthrew the troops of Wirtembuvg,
and performed other dfential fervices. But fuch a po-
fition has this defedt, that it offers a flank to the enemy,
which can be enfiladed by his cannon. This would
Fig. 28. happen to c</ (fig. 28.), as well as d e, if the line AB
extended beyond, and turned the oblique front c d. It
would be poffible, by means of a fquare battalion, as
d, e, f g, to cover the Hank which is attacking in the
oblique order, but two fides of this fquare would be en¬
filaded by the cannon of the enemy. The defence of a
parallelogram is therefore much weaker than that of a
perfedt fquare.
Fig. 29. Fig. 29. reprefents what the Pm firms call a cremail-
Heie, a form extremely complicated, and liable to be
enfiladed by the enemy. Another and ftill more com-
Fig. 30. plicated form of this order of battlfe is feen at fig. 30.
Fig. 31. Figs. 3r. and 32. reprefent the order of battle in a
fquare, a form which is well adapted both to flrength
and convenience. When it is intended to reinforce the
fquare battalion againft cavalry, the third rank feparates
from the two others, and forms by itfelf a leffer fquare,.
within that formed by the front and centre rank?.
When this is done, if the enemy’s cavalry ftiould pene¬
trate into one of the angles of the fir ft fquare, the inner
fquare forms a falient angle by converfions to the right
Fig. 32. and left, as reprefented by the dotted lines fig. 3 2. fo as
by a crofs fire to drive the enemy back again.
Many have propofed to conduft retreats in various
fquare battalions ; but it is neceffary that they (hould
be fmall fquares, compofed at the utmoft of two or three
battalions 5 and it is requifite, that during the march,
whether by angles or fquares, they Ihould obferve be¬
tween each other fuch a pofition, that the fire of the
one flank ihould reach to the fides of the other in order
Fig- 33- to protea it. (fig. 33. Na 1, 2, 3.). This laft battalion
3 reaches the front 1, which laft performs the fame
fervice to the rear of 3, and to the front of 2 j 2, on its
fide, proteas the rear both of 1 and 3 It would be diffi¬
cult in the field, for thefe different fquares to preferve
fuch a compreffed pofition, and they would be in danger
of wounding or killing each other by their crofs firing.
Men well experienced in war have, however, preferred
retreats of infantry in fquare battalions, having the can¬
non in the centre or on the flanks, as reprefented in fig.
Fig- 34- 34* executing this movement, however, the di-
itances are fcarcely ever preferved, efpecially when it is
neceffary for a wing to deploy by a converfion during a
Fig. 35. retreat, fee fig. 35. in order to prevent the purfuit of the
enemy. In every other refpeft thefe retreats being ec¬
centric, are founded on good principles. See N°33.
When, after a difeharge of mufketry, an army has to
retire, this movement cannot be expe&ed to be executed
in order. In this cafe a flight always takes place, for
otherwife there would be no reafon for quitting the
field of battle. In this fituation it is neceffary to have
a line of cavalry behind the infantry, to fuftain them $
and then it is not fo bad as is generally imagined, to fly
haftily into the midft of the cavalry. It is only necef¬
fary that this fcattered infantry ffiould re-form immedi¬
ately, in the moft convenient place, in a wood, or on an
elevation ; and if they return quickly to the charge, they Military'
will difplay more courage, than in failing back, ftep by Factics.
ftep, and lofing a number of men ; for in the firft in- v
fiance it is a real and ufeful intiepidity, but in the (e-
cond it is nothing. If there be no cavalry to fuftain.
them in an open place, they mutt then remain united,
or otherwife be cut in pieces.
When it is poffible to effect a regular retreat, the
belt and eafieft method is to make a half-tuin to the
right with the whole line, and to march thus, progref-
fively falling back ; by this means they will fooner
efcape from the fire of the enemy than in any other
manner, and the order is much more eafily kept, which
is of importance, anddeferves to be properly appreciated.
There is not a more pitiable objedl than a fquare batta¬
lion furrounded by tirailleurs, (fig. 36.). All their Fig. 36'.
fliot are concentric, and confequently eminently effec¬
tive, while thofe of the fquares are eccentric, which
renders them almoft nugatory. The ranks of this un¬
happy fquare would foon be thinned by a well-dire£ted
fire, which could not mifs its aim ; and a battalion, in
this pofiticn, would find it impoffible to efcape deftruc-
tion.
The moft celebrated modification of the oblique
front, is that made by Frederick the Great, viz. the
oblique attack in rounds. Experience has not yet
proved what there is peculiarly excellent in this manner
of attacking ; and Captain Rbfch has flrewn that it is
not tenable in theory. He demonftrates that each
echellon would be received by the enemy with a fuperi-
or fire ; for. the one cd (fig. 37.) if it approach the Fig. 37.
line AB, within mulket ftiot, would be caught in its
flank c ; which being turned, and expofed to a fide fire,
would infenfibly deferibe an arch in its rear, to have its
adverfary in front. The divifion of the line AB, which
in this cafe would pour upon the flank c of the echellont
c d, fuch a fatal fire, would be in no way hindered by the
fecond ef, which is too far off to fire ; and, befides, the
firft two divifions of the wing f dare not fire, at leaft
not with fafety, if the echellon were 300 paces diftant,
for fear of reaching them in the flank c. Thus, the two
divifions of the line AB, which are oppofite to the e-
che/lon, cd, would continue their fire upon the fatal
rank c, without the leaft interruption. If they be not
more than 50 or 100 paces diftant, thefe inconveniences '
will not take place ; but at the fame time, the advan¬
tages which were expe&ed to refult from an attack en
echellon will be loft. Thefe advantages are, that, by
dividing the front, only one part is liable to be beaten,
as the others would be negle&ed ; while on the con¬
trary, in an oblique line, without any interruption, the
diforder rapidly fpreads through its whole extent. It
would be poffible, in order to derive every advantage
from this manoeuvre, to augment confiderably the fire of
the firft echcllon, as well as the one immediately fubfe-
quent, by doubling their lines, and leaving the others
weaker. Hence it is evident, that this mode of attack
is eligible only when we are a-head of an enemy ftrong-
er than ourfelves j for if we have a fuperior force, it is
certain that the moft energetic method would be to at¬
tack at once the adverfary in front and both flanks.
There is fcarcely an inftance previous to the battle of
Marengo, in which a fecond line of infantry has renew¬
ed the combat, by taking the place of the firft which
has been beaten. If the combat be continued with
4 H 2 bayonets,
6i 2 __ W A 11. Parti.
Military bayonet?, It would be fufficient for a divifion of the line
t° make a converfion on the flank of the tchellon
cr/,.while they are fighting in front, and overthrow it
before ef, 300 paces dillant, or even the fecond line of
the echetlon, could come up to afford it any afliflance.
Thus, according to all appearances, the line AB would
conquer all the echellons lucceflively, and this the more
ealiiy as they would be taken in flank as foon as c is
obliged to fly.
The molt ufeful, and in fadt the only procefs for re¬
inforcing an attack, is to have a fecond line of cavalry
behind a firft of infantry ; in cafe of bad fuccefs they fe-
cure and cover their retreat, and complete the diforder
of the enemy’s infantry, if they come to an engage¬
ment.
When the infantry is ranged en echiquier, a firft line
when beaten, may retreat by files through the lines in
the rear, without creating any diforder in the fecond, on
account of the extenfive fpaces j but it is not the fame
with the long phalanx in open order. The cavalry,
placed immediately behind the infantry, protedts an at¬
tack much better than if there were between them a
fecond line of infantry 5 for in the firlt inftance, there
tvould be no hindrance to their battening to the fuccour
of the runaways, and receiving them in their bofom.
Hence there fhouid be only tw’o lines, one of infantry,
and one of cavalry *, and this is the more important, be-
caufe the two lines of infantry cannot be ufeful, except
in as far as they are beyond the (hot of the cannon • it
is evident, therefore, that they Ihould be conlidered ra¬
ther as a referve of fretti troops than as a fecond line of
combatants. Hence, the fupperadded ftrength which
is fuppofed to be given to the echellonsy by double lines
of infantry, is quite i'ilufory.
Cannons which fire concentrically, aflitt greatly the
efficacy of an attack ; but this meafure may be employ¬
ed as well for right lines as for the echellons; in an at¬
tack of the latter kind, the batteries fhouid not be pla¬
ced before the divifion c d, but before efy to enfilade
that part of the line AB, which would attempt to fall
back to make a converfion, in cafe it were attacked in
flank by c d.
It is impoflible to take the enemy in flank by the di¬
agonal or fide-ftep, executed during the march, if, pre¬
vious to commencing their march, they are not already
confiderably by their wings j for they w7ould completely
fruftrate that fcheme, if they made diredfly with their
flanks a movement to the fide. During the fame time
they would pafs over a more confiderable extent of
ground than with an oblique ftep, becaufe they move in
a chreft line, and in front, and obliquely, both at the
fame time, which would confiderably fhorten their di-
ftance ; and likewife becaufe they march on one of the
fides and you on the hypothenufe, which is longer. It
is therefore impoflible to fucceed in ftretching beyond
the wings of the enemy, while they are advancing in
ftont in the order of battle, if they know how to con-
du£l themfelves.
There is, however, one advantage to be noticed,
which the e'che/lons poffefs over the uninterrupted ob¬
lique front, which is, not expofing the flank to the ene-
Tfiy advancing in front. The echellons naturally poflefs
this advantage, while the oblique front cannot obtain
it without being much more extenfive than the enemy’s
front} for the oblique line, formed into echellonsy
changes into a number of parallel lines by a convevfion Military
(fig. 38.), and they may, by this movement, defend, aAics. ^
their flanks againtt the enemy. But ftill the beft way
is to attack him in his own flanks, whilft his front is
amufed with detached corps, and the columns fhouid be
prepared for the principal attack out of fight of the
enemy, in the fame manner as an admiral adopts at a
confiderable diftance, his meafures for gaining the wind¬
ward of the enemy. No manoeuvres within cannon-
fliot, can poffibly be attended with fuccefs, if the enemy
be fkilful.
Much ufeful military inftru&ion may be derived from Lift of re-
perufing the accounts of the moft celebrated battles, de-markable
tailed by writers of ancient and modern hiftory ; and^at,:^es'
we could here enumerate a long lift of thefe engage¬
ments, many of which have been defcribed in the hi-
ftorical articles of this work. A few, however, mutt
fuffice. Of ancient battles we may notice thofe of
Marathon* in 490 B. C. •, Platsea, 479 •, Leuctra*,* See thefe
371 j the GranICUS*, 334 j ArbELA*, 3315 \.htarticles.
Thrafymene Lake f, 217; Cannae *, 216 j Zama *,f‘^ee
202 j MagnefiaJ, 190 j Nepheris, 147; Pharsalia*,^^
48 j and Philippi*, 42. Of modern battles, the moft j See SyVftf.
important are thofe of Hastings*, A. D. 1066 5 the|| See Ga%-
Indus||, 12215 Bannockburn §, 1314; Cressy*, 1346;"^-
Poictiers*, i356j Agincourt*, 1415 j Bofworth**,
1485; Flodden 15135 Pavia, 15255 Narva ff, j^/and
17005 Blenheim*, 17045 Ramillies*, 17065 Pul-405.
tavaff, 17095 Malflaquet *, 17095 Fontenoy f:J,** See
17455 Prague and Colin Jj||, 1757 J LilTa or Leu-^p^"^’
thenllll>I757i Minden»I759i Freyburg,17625 Jemappe,+t 5^^
17925 Tirlemont, 1793; Fleurus, 1794 5.Lodi, 1796 5j;a, N0
Zurich, 17995 Ulm, 18005 Marengo, 18005 Aufter-107. and
litz, 18055 and Wagram, in 1809. II^; ^ .
By way of illuftrating the modern French tallies,
and more fully explaining what has been faid on 11164x4.’
order of battle, we ftiall here give a detail of the battle [j!j See
of .lemappes, in w'hich Dumourier entirely defeated
General Clairfayt, by enticing him from a fituation^ ^
where he was impregnable. Battle of
In the beginning of November 1792, when Dumou-Jemappes.
rier arrived with his army in the vicinity of Mons, he ^late
found the Auftrian general Clairfayt occupying a ftrong .
pofition on the heights near the village of Jemappes,
where he had entrenched himfelf, and was defended by
nearly 100 pieces of cannon. The pofition of the Au-
ftrians was extremely formidable. Their right extend¬
ed to the village of Jemappes, and formed a fquare with
their front and left, which ftretched to the caufeway of
Valenciennes. They were polled on a woody moun¬
tain, where they had erected, in an amphitheatre, three
tiers of redoubts. Their whole force amounted to about
16,000 infantry, and 3000 cavalry.
The army of Dumourier was much more numerous
than that of Clairfayt, but not fo well fupplied with ar¬
tillery. The elevation of the Auftrian batteries, too,
gave them fuch an advantage, that the French cannon
could produce but little effeft.
On the 5th of November, Dumourier had fully re¬
connoitred the Auftrian camp, and, by way of feint,
made an attack with his infantry on the village of Car-
rignon, while he kept up a brilk cannonade on their
left. Towards evening the French army encamped op-
pofite to Jemappes, with its left wing extending to
Hootne, and its right to Fremery. As Dumourier re-
folvtd
Part I. W
Military folved to make a decilive attack on die heights of Je-
, la^ttca. mappes ^]-ie next morning, he ordered his troops to aban¬
don the village of Carrignon, which was commanded by
the enemy’s cannon.
On the morning of the 6th, he ordered his artillery to
be advanced and difpofed along the front of the line.
It was foon found, however, that little was to be done
with artillery, and that the great objesfl was, to entice
the Auftrian general from his ftrong poiition, and draw
him to the plain. For this purpofe, at noon of the 6th,
the French infantry formed in columns, and advanced
with the greateft fpirit and rapidity to the Auftrian in-
trenchments. The lower tier of redoubts was inftantly
carried ; but, as the centre of the French b-ecame en¬
dangered, and the Auftrian cavalry appeared defcend-
ing from the heights, and preparing to enter the plain,
with an evident intention of flanking the French co¬
lumns, Dumourier defpatched the duke of Orleans to
lead thofe columns againft the fecond tier of redoubts,
while a detachment of chaffeurs and hufl'ars flew to
check the progrefs of the Auftrian cavalry. Some
fmart Ikirmilhing between the cavalry on both fides now
enfued, and while this diverlion was taking place, the
left divifton of the French army pofleffed themfelves of
the village of Jemappes, while its centre obtained entire
poffeflion of the fecond tier of redoubts. In the mean
time the whole of the Auftrian cavalry had quitted the
heights, and engaged the French on the plain below
Jemappes. This was the point to which Dumourier had
wiftied to bring them, and now the fuperior numbers
and aftivity of the French quickly decided the fortune
of the day. The Auftrians were routed at every point,
and forced to abandon the field of battle, leaving 5000
of their dead, with the greater part of their artillery.
The lofs of the French, however, was confiderably
greater, and is, on good authority, eftimated at 14,000 ;
but this lofs appeared trifling to Dumourier, as by this
viblory he acquired pofleflion of the whole of the Auf¬
trian Netherlands.
The pofitions of the French and Auftrian forces in
this battle are reprefented in Plate DLIV. 1, The
centre of the Auftrian army, commanded by Clairfayt.
2, A part of this army commanded by General Lilien.
3, 'Another part under the command of General Beau¬
lieu. 4, Redoubts on the heights of Jemappes. 5, Au¬
ftrian intrenchments. 6, French columns advancing to
attack the intrenchments. 7, A battery. 8, Columns
of cavalry. 9, Columns attacking the eminences above
Mons. 10, Battery on the height of Fremery. ir,
The wood of Frefnee. 12, The plain on which the
French and Auftrian cavalry were engaged. 13, Au-
ftrian detachment.
The columns N° 9. were firft engaged •, and N° 6.
having obtained fome advantage, Dumourier ordered
the battery, N° 7. to be erefted, by which the redoubts,
N° 4. were fiienced. In the mean time the French ad¬
vanced againft the intrenchments, 5, and attacked in
front. From the left of the French army, as far as the
centre, the cavalry fought hand to hand, in the plain,
1 2, with the Auftrian horfe, which was dreadfully cut
up in the wood of Du Frefnee, 11. The right of the
Auftrians, being totally routed, gave way and fell back
on Mons. The fuperiority of the French in numbers is
evident from infpefting the columns in the plan.
After having dwelt fo long on that part of military
A B. 613
tadtics which relates to operations in the field, we mull Military
be extremely brief with refpect to the attack and de-, la(^C5-1
fence of fortified towTis. Indeed our principal objeft in 4 _
this part will be to explain the nature of a fiege, and of lieges,
the various circumftances that may occur, both on the
part of the befiegers, and on that of the belieged, ra¬
ther than to lay down a fyftem of inftnnftions for either
party. With this view', we (hall firft enumerate the
principal inftruments and engines employed in the at¬
tack or defence of a fortiefs, and explain the nature and
conftruftion of the works cenftrubted by the befiegers,
either for the purpofe of making their approaches to the
place, or for undermining its walls or cutw'orks. 44
In Plate DLV. are reprefented the principal inftru-^n^rumersts
merits employed in lieges. Fig. 1. is a fafcine for the
conftruftion of redoubts or temporary defence of a de- * pjtte
tachment. Figs. 2. 3. and 4. exhibit various view's of DLV.
what are called or cylindrical cafes of wicker Fig-1—2°’
work, open at both ends, for itickinginto the ground, as
feen at fig. 4. wThen they are filled with earth, and faf-
cines, &c. laid on them. Fig. 2. is a feblion of the ga¬
bion ; fig. 3. Ihew'S its hollow infide, and fig. 4. is its
elevation. Fig. 5. and 6. reprefent bags for holding
fand, the former empty, the latter full ; and fig. 7. re-
prefents the manner in which they are ufually diipofed
for the protection of the men. Fig. 8. is a fauciffon, or
very long clofe faggot, for laying over gabions. Fig. 9.
is the outline of a blind, which is ftuck into the earth
by the ftiarp flakes at its extremity, and hides the work¬
men frem the befieged. Fig. 10. reprefents what is
called a chandelier, and fig. 11. tw’o of thefe with faf-
cines piled up acrofs them. Fig. 12. is a cheval de
frize ; fig. 13. 14. 15. exhibit various views of a mant¬
let, or moveable blind placed on two wheels, ufed both
to protebl and conceal the w'orkmen of the befiegers.
Fig. 13. is a plan of the mantlet 5 fig. 14. a fide view
of it, and fig. 15. a view of its front next the enemy.
Fig. 16. is a madrier or fereen with tw7o leaves, move-
able on wheels; and fig. 17. reprefents a gate with
orgues or lattice w'ork on one fide, and a portcullis on
the other. Fig. 18. is a hook, and fig. 19. a fork ufed
in Tapping. Fig. 20. reprefents three caltrops or crow's
feet, ufed to fcatter over the ground, to prevent the ap¬
proach of cavalry, by laming their horfes feet. For a
fuller explanation of thefe inftruments, fee the feveral
articles in the general alphabet. 4^
When a town is about to be befieged, it is firft Of inveit-
ed; that is, a confiderable body of troops, ufually ca-inS'
valry, encamp in its neighbourhood, and take pofftflion
of all the avenues till the army arrive, which is to carry
on the regular operations of the fiege. 45
When the army has fat down before the place, its9^nesc^
firft objeft is, to afeertain the lines or direCHcn of the ^-^nrU*
works to be thrown up for the attack of the place.
Thefe are called lines of circiimvallation, and their di¬
rection is to be determined by the plan of the fortifica¬
tion about to be befieged. After afeertaining, in the
manner explained under Fortification, the number
of fides of which the polygon of the place confifts, and
the length of each, as well as the radius of a circle to
be drawn round the place, concentric with its works,
the polygon of the circumvallation is eafily deferibed.
This being traced, the engineer takes on each of the
extremities of its fides the lines BD and BE, fig. 21. Fig.
each of 15 fathoms, and from the points D and E,
taksu k
614. w
Military taTien for the centre and diftance of 25 fathoms, he de-
, 1,1 u?‘ . feribes two arcs cutting ecch other at F, whence are
drawn the lines FD, FE, for the faces of the redans
of the line of circumvallalion j thus are formed the fa-
lient parts EFD of this line, which ferve to flank it.
The fame operation is performed on every fide of the
tircumvallation, and then the principal line is traced.
The parapet within muft be fix or eight feet deep, and
without is made a ditch parallel to all its parts, three or
four fathoms in breadth. The parapet of the circum-
vallation will be 74. feet high, and the depth of the
ditch equal to the height of the parapet.
1 o make the profile of the circumvallation, let AB,
Fig. 22. fig. 22. be a line level with the country, and CD the
fcale of the profile. Let A be the fide of the town,
and B that of the country ; take AE of fix feet 3 from
the point E, raife the perpendicular EF, of three feet,
and draw the line AF, which will be the talus or Hope
of the banquette.
Draw FG parallel to AB, three feet from F to G,
and the line FG will be the breadth of the banquette.
On the point G raife the perpendicular GH, on the line
FG, 44 feet. Draw' from the point H, HK parallel
to AB 3 make HK 74- feet, HI, foot; draw GI,
which will be the infide of the parapet of circumvalla¬
tion.
From the point K, let fill on the line AB the per¬
pendicular KM 3 take KL 14- foot, and draw IL,
which will be the upper part of the parapet of the line
of circumvallation. Take MN equal to five feet, and
from the point N draw the perpendicular NO, and fet
off 74 feet from N to O. Draw OR parallel to AB,
making the diflance equal to 18 feet from O to R 3 draw
LN, and produce it to P, and LP will be the fcarp.
From the point R raife RS, perpendicular to OR, or
parallel to ON. Make £)R~OP, and draw QS, which
produce beyond S, three feet to V 3 then take SX equal
to fix feet, and draw VX, and the profile of the circum¬
vallation is completed 3 VO being the counterfcarp, and
VX the glacis.
At A and A (fig. 21.) are fmall half moons before
the gates of the circumvallation in the middle of the
_ curtains.
X)LVI. . Plate DLVI. at fig. 1. is reprefented the manner
Fig. 1. 2. 3. ^ which the lines of circumvallation were drawn at the
fiege of Philipfhurg in 1734. In thefe lines regular
baffions were conftrufted, as feen in fig. 2.
Fig. 4. and 5. of the fame plate reprefent another line
of circumvallation drawn round the city of Arras, when
it was befieged by the Spaniards in 1654. Before the
circumvallation were dug a great number of holes, two
feet in diameter, and i-J foot deep, in which were fa¬
ttened flakes for obftru&ing the approach of cavalry.
While the lines of circumvallation, which are intend¬
ed to protect the befiegers from the enemy without, are
conflrufled, all materials neceffary for the trenches are
got ready, and the figure and dire£lion of thefe are de¬
termined. If the place be regularly fortified, and ftand
on level ground, it is indifferent on which fide the be¬
fiegers commence their attack. Suppofe C, fig. 2.
Plate DLVII. to be the place befiaged, and A and B
two baftions to be attacked. The befiegers begin with
indefinitely producing towards the field the capitals of
thefe two baftions 3 in like manner the capital of the
half moon onpofite the curtain between thefe two ba-
2
Fig. 4. 5*
47
Of the
trenches
and paral¬
lels.
Plate
DLVII.
Fig, 2.
A R.
Part I,
ftions is produced. Eight hundred fathoms are fet off Military
from the falient angles D and E of the covert-way of Ta<ftics-
I and G. This done, the lines DH and DI are drawn,
each equal to 300 fathoms, and about the centre C with
the radius CH or Cl, is deferibed an arch produced be¬
yond H and I, and on this arch HI is conftru&ed the
firft parallel. Then on the fame lines DF, EG, are
taken the points M and N, each 140 fathoms diftant
from H and I 3 and through thefe points M and N,
about the centre C, is dtferibed another arch, on which
is conftrudted the fecond parallel. This fecond arch
will cut the produced capital of the half-moon in the
point L, which is to be obferved, in order to begin
from hence a trench which may extend to the falient
angle of the covert-way before this half-moon. Laftly,
through the points O and P, the diftance of 20 or 23
fathoms from the angles D and E, a third arch is de¬
feribed from the centre C, on which the third parallel
is conftrutfed. The firft parallel is terminated by pro¬
ducing the faces a b, a b, of the half-moons 1 and 2,
collateral to the baftions A and B 3 but the parallel is
extended 15 or 20 fathoms beyond the interfetftion of
this prolongation. The fecond parallel will be lefs ex¬
tended than the firft, by about 30 fathoms on each
fide, and the third lefs than the fecond by the fame di¬
ftance.
The trenches or approaches are now to be traced.
For this purpofe, the engineer takes a long ruler, and
lays it on the point G, fo that it may make with the
produced capital EG of the baftion B, an angle EGR,
whofe fide GS being produced, {hall meet no part of
the covert-way, and lhall be diftant about 10 or x 2 fa¬
thoms from the angles to which it approaches neareft.
GS is taken of any extent, and the ruler is put on the
point S 3 fo that it fhall make with GS fuch an angle
GST, as that the fide ST produced fhall not fall on
any part of the covert-way, but be 10 or 12 fathoms
diftant from the mod falient parts. This fide is termi¬
nated in T 3 and now the angle ST I is made, whofe fide
TI ftiould terminate at the point I, where it meets the
firft parallel. The fame operation being performed on
FH, the outline of the trenches is completed as far a.»
the firft parallel.
Fig. 1. of this plate illuftrates the method of con-
ftrutfting what are called lines of count erv dilation. Thefe
are drawn nearer the town than the lines of circumval¬
lation, but are conftru&ed on the fame principles.
They are employed chiefly when the garrifon of the
place is fo ftrong as to difturb the operations of the be-
fieging army by fallies.
In lieges where the garrifon is ftrong, it is often ne--
ceflary to cut parts of trenches, as VV (fig. 2). be¬
tween the fecond and third parallels, fo as to communi¬
cate with the main trench. Thefe parts of parallels
are denominated half parallels, or places of arms,
and are conftrufted in the followinCT manner. Let pi t
ABCDFGMQ (fig. 1. Plate DLV1II.) be a part of DLVIIL
the trenches, and let AB be one of the fides oppofite to Fig. 1.
the enemy ; produce AB, fo that BE fhall be five or
fix fathoms, and in FG take alfo five or fix fathoms
from I to L, which will give the ends of the trench
BFLI, the ufe of which is to cover the boyace or branch
IOMG, whereby the enemy will not know the place
where it falls into the trench AB, and to make room
for withdrawing tbofe who are in this part of the trench¬
es,
Part I.
Military
Taffies.
Ffg- 5-
, 48
Qf faps.
Plate
DLVill.
Fig. 6. 7. S
Plate
DLIX.
Fig. 1. 2.
49
©f batte¬
ries.
Plate
DLIX.
Fig- 3-
w
es, and that the paffage ntay be free at all the angles.
, In like manner produce the fide GM from M to N,
and the fide IC from O to P, and this will give the
end of the trench PilNOP, which will cover the branch
DCQ£>. The fame is to be done at all the angles of
the trench. The parapet of the trench being made to
cover it, ought to change fides alternately. If, for in-
Itance, Alb, in the preceding figure, be towards the
place, it is evident that the fide GN wdil be tow-ards it
alfo, and likewife the fide CD ; and therefore the para¬
pet of the trench is fuccefilvely conftmfted from the
light fide to the left, and from the left to the right.
Figs. 2. 3. 4. of this plate reprefent profiles oi the re
gular trenches and the places of arms, and require no
particular'explanation.
In tracing the trenches, it is of the greateft confe-
quence to afeertain the difiance of the extiemity of the
line of d"ue£tion to the top of the falient angle of the
covert-way. The following fimple method of doing
this is given by Vauban. Let A (fig. 5.) be the ver¬
tex of the falient angle of the covert-w’ay, and AB the
line of direction of the trench whofe length is required.
At the point B, draw BC perpendicular to AB, to
w-hich give any meafure, and at the point C draw CD
perpendicular to BC. In CD take any point E, and in
the line of direftion between it and the angle A place
a picquet G in the line BC. Meafure GC and CE,
and fay, as GC : BG :: CE : AB.
When in carrying on the trenches towards the town,
the workmen begin to be much annoyed by the fire of
the befieged, recourfe is had to what is called Japping,
which may be thus explained. Let ABC he the part
of the trenches advanced to A (fig. 6. Plate DLVIII.),
fo near the town as to render it impoflible, without evi¬
dent danger, to work any longer at the approaches, un-
lefs the men have fome cover againft the fire of the
place : and let the branch AD be traced by the engi¬
neer, not wdth a cord, as at the opening of the trench¬
es, but with fome pickets, which he has taken care to
place in the direftion this branch ought to have, to
ferve as a guide to the workmen. A cut is made in the
parapet BA of the trenches, and then the men defigned
to work by fap, who are therefore called fappers, will
move forward through the opening A fucceflively, eight
in number. Fig. 7. of Plate DLVIII. and fig. 1. of
Plate DLIX. will illufirate the mode of operation. The
firft Tapper rolls a mantlet before him, and places a ga¬
bion on the line AD, fig. 6. He then makes a fmall ex¬
cavation about fix inches from the gabion, of about one
foot and a half in depth, and as much in breadth,
emptying the earth which he digs up into the gabion.
He then pufhes forward his mantlet, fixes another ga¬
bion, and continues his trench as long as he is able.
He is followed by a fecond, w'ho widens the trench fix
inches in breadth away from the gabion, and fix in
depth. The reft follow this fecond, till the trench is
made three feet wide, and as many deep, and as foon as
the gabions are filled with earth, fafeines or fauciflons
are placed on their top, and the fuperfluous earth is
thrown over them, and on the eppofite fide, by way
of parapet.
Cannon are made ufe of at a fiege for two different
purpofes} the firft to drive aw-ay the enemy from their
defences, and the fecond to difinount their guns. To
produce thefe two effe&s, the batteries ftiould not be
6l N
A R.
above the mean reach of cannon-fhot from the place ; Military
that is, above 300 fathoms. Therefore there is no poftibi- 'Fancies,
lity of conftrufting them till the firft parallel be formed j
and as the diltance of this firft parallel from the place is
generally 300 fathoms, the batteries muft be on this line*
or beyond it, nearer the town. They muft always be pla¬
ced, when the ground will permit, on the produced
faces of the works attacked. Let Z be the centre of
the place attacked (fig. 3. Plate DLIX.), and the
trenches as well as the parallels completed. To find a
proper pofition for erecting batteries, produce the faces
AD, AC, BE, BF, of the two baftions attacked, till
their prolongation cuts the firif parallel. Produce alfo
the two faces OM and OL of the half-moon MOL of
the front attacked, and the faces HG and IK of the
two collateral half-moons x and 2, to the firit parallel,
and ere£t batteries on thole produced faces, as is feen in
P, Q, R, S, T, U, X, and Y. They are advanced be¬
yond the firft parallel 40 or 50 fathoms •, and are parted
from the trenches, that they may be ufed with greater
eale and convenience, and iefs trouble to the work¬
men. . so
When the works of the befiegers approach the glacis, Of tra-
they'aie continued in a zig-zag dire&ion, by ftiort an-verles*
gular trenches, but from the foot of the glacis they are
continued in the following manner. Two fets of fap¬
pers, prote&ed by their mantlets, make a fap on each
fide of the ridge of the glacis, with a deeper ditch than
ufual, and a parapet oa each fide. This is called a
double fap, and has acrofs it traverfes or banks three fa- piatc
thorns thick (fee Plate DLX. fig. I.), with fmall paf- DLX.
fages on one fide (fee fig. 4.) to preferve the communi- Fig-r.
cation. Thefe traverfes are conftrufled fo near to each
other, as to be a fufficient cover, by their elevation
and diftance, againft the fire of the place. In order
to guard againft the effeft of grenades, on coming
within their reach, or within 14 or 15 fathoms of the
covert-way, care muft be taken to cover this trench
with blinds, or to cover the upper part of it. Fig. 1.
and 2. of Plate DLX. fhew this direct trench. The
firft exhibits the plan, and the fecond the profile, which
paffes over one of the traverfes. This being done, and
the third parallel finifhed in the manner fuppofed, they
advance from this parallel on the glacis to each of the
falient angles of the covert-way of the front attacked,
and begin with making two or three Ihort turnings, as
marked on Plate DLX. fig. 6. along the ridge of the p-jg. &
glacis, fo as to occupy about one-third of it.. Thefe are
to be made as deep as is neceffary, to be a Ihelter
againft the fire of the covert-way 5 afterwards they may
proceed direftly along the ridge of the glacis bv a deep
ditch, to the falient angle of the covert-way. M. Vau¬
ban oblerves, that if we follow direftly the ridge of. the
glacis, this trench is made without much danger ; for
the palifade which is placed at the falient angle of the
covert-way, and the other two next it, do not prefent
directly to the ridge, but only oppofite to the faces,,
whe-e at moft there is only room for one or two fufi-
leers to fee the head of the trenches, and who are eafily
filenced by the fire of the third parallel, which ought
to be well ferved, and likewife by that of the ricochet-
On coming to the middle, or two-thirds of the glacis,
two new faps are made, 6 b, ibid, wh'ch embrace both
fides of the covert-way, to which thew a e aimoft paral¬
lel. Theii length is 18 or 20 fathoms, and about five'
broad.
6i6
Military
i'adlics.
FiS- 5-
Plate
DLXI.
Fig- J-
S*
Of batte¬
ries on the
covert¬
way.
Plate
DLX.
Fig. 6.
broad. They are covered at the end with crochets and
, winding traverfes, which prevent the fire of the covert¬
way from enfilading them ealily.
In this way is gradually effeded a lodgement on the
covert-w'ay, as is reprefented in fig. 5. where AAAA
is the trench, with EJBBB its traveries.
Plate DLXI. fig. 5. reprefents a profile of thefe
works, with three banquettes next the trench, by which
the parapet is railed, fo that the foldiers may fire over
into the covert-way. This work is called by Vauban,
the cavallier of the trench.
W hen the befieged are entirely driven out of the co-
vert-wray, the next thing to be done is the ereding of
batteries, in order to ruin the defences of the place, and
to make a breach. As it is neceflary for the befiegers
to make themfelves mafters of the half-moon C, (Plate
DLX. fig. 6.) before they can come to the body of the
place, which is defended by part of the faces of the baf-
tions A and B oppofite to its ditch, they muft begin wdth
ereding batteries on the covert-way oppofite to thefe parts.
They are marked on the plan e e. Batteries muft alfo
be ereded to make a breach on the half-moon. But,
before they are ereded, it will be proper to confider
what part of the face of the half-moon is to be attacked,
or rvhat part of the half-moon is to be entered. It muft
.not be at its flanked angle, becaufe an opening towards
the point would not afford a fufficient fpace to make a
lodgement able to withftand the enemy, and the troops
would be feen in their paffage by the two faces of the
baftions by which its flanked angle is defended. The
xnoft favourable paffage is towards the third part of its
face, reckoning from its flanked angle, becaufe by bat¬
tering at the fame time the twro faces near this part, the
whole point of the half-moon may be deftroyed, and a
large opening made there eafier than anywhere elfe.
Thus the batteries fox making a breach in the half-moon
C win be placed in d and b, and will occupy almoft
one-third of each of the faces of the half-moon from its
flanked angle. Thefe batteries are each to confift of
four or five pieces of cannon. When the faces of the
baftions A and B are well enfiladed by ricochet batte¬
ries, there will be no further occafion for the batteries
c, e, and when the half-moon is taken, the faces of the
baftions A and B may be deftroyed, by ufmg the batte¬
ries d, d, placing them in the fituation of e, e. Batte¬
ries muft alfo be ereaed to deftroy the flanks of the de-
mibaftions in the front of the attack ; and it is evident
that they can be placed nowhere but at /, f, on the co¬
vert-way. Befides thefe batteries, others are ereaed in
the re-entering places of arms of the covert-way, as in
h; and in h they ferve to batter the tenaille when
there is one, the curtain, and the faces of the ba¬
ftions. Sometimes they are of mortars for throwing
  While the workmen are employed in ereaing bat-
■and paffage teries on (he covert way, preparations are made for paf-
Softhe^ the dltCk °f the half moon- This is often a difli-
half-moon. Cu5t and danger°us undertaking, as this ditch is com¬
monly very deep, is well defended, and either filled with
water, or in general capable of being fo filled. The
defcent into the ditch is commonly effected by fubterra-
neous paffages or galleries, made like thofe of miners,
and etedfed in luch a manner-, that its opening into the
ditcii may be oppofite to the breach wThere it is intend¬
ed to make the affault. Thefe galleries are Hoping,
W A TV.
52
Defcent
and in general there are feveral for the fame paffage.
The paffage is made on each fide of the faces of the
half moon. See mm, fig. 6. Plate DLXI.
As the bufinefs of forming thefe galleries is liable to
be obftrudted by mines from the befieged, the workmen
a:e protedled by a guard of grenadiers. At fig. 1.
Plate DLXI. is leen a plan of the defcent under ground,
and of its opening into the dry ditch ; and fig, 2. gives
a profile of the fame paffage; fig. 3. gives a per-
fpective viewr ot the opening of this defcent, feen from
the bottom of the glacis, and fig. 4. a fimilar view of
the opening of the lame defcent, leen from the top of
the breach.
At Plate DLXII. fig. 1. is feen the plan of the paf¬
fage over a wet ditch in the open air ; that is to fay,
the gallery of which is an open lap. A is the opening of
it 5 at B, towards its opening, are feen the blinds laid on
its upper part, to fupport the fafcines with which it is
covered. On thefe blinds, at firft, is laid a bed of faf¬
cines, ranged according to the length of the gallery :
over this firft bed a fecond is laid, whereon the fafcines
are ranged according to the breadth of the gallery, as is
feen at B and C. D is the epaulement of fafcines,
which covers the paflage againft the fire of the place
by which it is flanked. E is part of the bridge of faf¬
cines ; and F is an elevation alfo of fafcines, intended
to cover the head of the work, and to fecure it from
the immediate fire of the place. Fig. 2. reprefents the pro¬
file of this defcent into the ditch. Fig. 3. gives its open¬
ing feen in perfpe&ive from the country j and fig. 4. its
opening into the ditch, alfo in perfpe&ive, as it appears
from the top of the breach.
The following references will explain fig. 5. of Plate
DLXII. a, cavaliers of the trenches, b, batteries of
ftone mortars, c, batteries to breach the half moon be¬
fore the hornwork. d, batteries againft the defence of
this half moon, e, paffages over the ditch before this
half moon, f lodgements in it. g, batteries againft
the flanks of the hornwork. h, batteries to breach the
half baftions of the hornwmrk. i, batteries againft its
curtain. /, lodgements in the half baftions, and in the
hormvork. m, paflages over the ditch before the re¬
trenchments in the hornwork. «, lodgements in thefe
retrenchments. 0, batteries againft the defences of the
collateral half moons. />, batteries to breach thofe half
half moons, q, paffages over the ditch before thefe
works, r, lodgements in the fame, j-, batteries to
breach the redoubts of the half moon, t, paffages over
the ditch before the redoubts, u, lodgements in the
redoubts, x, bridge ol fafcines. y, batteries againft
the defences of the baftion A. %, batteries to breach
this baftion. B, paffages over its ditch. C, lodgements
in the baftion A. D, lodgements on the border of the
ditch before the retrenchment of the baftion A. E,
paffages over the ditch before this retrenchment.
There are places which, without any fore-ditch, have
lunettes oppofite to the falient and re-entering angles of
the glacis, which are alfo enveloped by a fecond covert¬
way : fometimes they are vaulted and bomb-proof, as
at Luxemburg ; and fometimes they have only a ditch,
a parapet, and covert-way. Thofe which are vaulted
and bomb-proof are not eafily taken, becaufe the rico¬
chet firing and the bombs can do them no mifchief. In
that cafe they muft either be turned, or be taken by
mines. A woik is faid to be turned, when the befie¬
gers
Part I.
Military
Tadlics.
Plata
DLXI.
Fig. x—4.
Plate
DLXII.
Fig. x—4.
Fig- S-
Part t.
WAR.
617
Military gers get between that work and the place, and fo cut
, Taftks. 0g- thejr communication. Sometimes the lunettes have
v communication under ground, and then there is fcarcely
any other way of driving out the enemy but by mines.
This is tedious, but there is no other remedy. The
lunettes of the ditch are always defended by branches
of the covert-way, with which they have alfo a commu¬
nication like thofe of the lunettes, A, A, Plate
Plate DLXIII. fig. I. Tins plate, which repreients part of
DLXIII. Landau and its attacks in 1713, may ferve to give an
idea of the manner in which a work is turned. The
advanced lunette B, as well as the work C, called a
tenaille, is turned ; that is, the trenches cut off the com¬
munication betwuxt them and the place.
Principles We Thall conclude this fubjedt of the attack of forti-
to be ob- fied places, with the following principles to be obferved
ferved in by the befieging army.
offortified ^he approaches ought to be made, without being
■laces feen fr°m town, either direftly, obliquely, or in
r ' flank.
No more works fhould be made than are neceffary
for approaching the place without being feen ; that is,
the befiegers ought to carry on their approaches the
fliorteft way poflible, confiftently with being covered
againft the enemy’s fire.
All the parts of the trenches fliould mutually fupport
each other, and thofe which are furtheft advanced
ought not to be diftant from thofe which arc to defend
them above 120 or 130 fathoms.
The parallels or places of arms the mofl. diftant from
the town, ought to have a greater extent than thofe
which are neareft, that the befiegers may be able to
take the enemy in flank, Ihould they refolve to attack
the neareft parallels.
The trench ftiould be opened or begun as near as pof-
fible to the place, without expofing the troops too
much, in order to accelerate and diminilh the operations
of the fiege.
There is no fuch thing as giving any exa<ff rule in
regard to the diftance which ought to be obferved on
opening the trenches. On level ground, this diftance
may be 800 or 900 fathoms; but if there ftiould be a
hollow way in the vicinity of the place, the befiegers
are to take advantage of it, and open the trenches
nearer. In general, they are to regulate themfelves
according to the nature of the ground, more or lefs fa¬
vourable to the opening of the trenches. We {hall
fuppofe in the prefent work, that the opening ought to
be made within 800 fathoms of the covert way ; the
firft parallel within 300 fathoms, the fecond within
150, and the third at the foot of the glacis.
Care muft be taken to join the attacks, that they may
be able to fupport each other.
Never to advance a work unlefs it he well fupported $
and for this reafon, in the interval between the fecond
and third places of arms, the befiegers fhould make, on
both fides of the trenches, fmaller places of arms, ex¬
tending 40 or 50 fathoms in length, parallel to the Military
others, and conllrufted in the fame manner, which will ,
ferve to lodge the foldiers who are to protect the works " ' v
defigned to reach the third place of arms.
The batteries of cannon muft be placed in the conti¬
nuations of the faces of the pieces attacked, to filence
their fire, and that the approaches being protected, may
advance with greater fafety and expedition.
For this reafon the befiegers fliould always embrace
the whole front attacked, to have as much fpace as is
requifite to plant the batteries on the produced faces of
the works attacked.
The attack muft not be commenced with works that
lie clofe to each other, or with re-entrant angles, which
would expofe the attack to the crofs fire of the enemy. 54
Many circumftances refpefting the defence of forti-General re«
fied towns have already been anticipated, or may be™ar^sfon
colle&ed from what has been faid refpe&ing the opera- of fortified
tions of the befieging army. It is evident that the fuc- towns,
cefs or duration of the defence will depend in a great
meafure on the nature and ftrength of the works which 4^
form the fortification. Much, however, will alfo de¬
pend on the number, refolution, and refources of the
garrifon, and on the movements of the friendly army
by which the befiegers may be oppofed. It is eftimated
by M. Vauban, that the operations for a regular fiege
of a well fortified town, will take up about 41 days,
before the place can be carried by affault. Hence is
deduced a computation of the quantity of provifions,
ammunition, and ftores which ought to be colle&ed
for maintaining the fiege. The fame celebrated engi¬
neer calculates that the garrifon ought to confift of 600
times as many men as there are baftions in the fortifica¬
tion, allowing 600 men to each baftion. Befides the
neceffary defence of the works by the cannon on the
ramparts, and the mulketry of the foldiers, the garrifon
muft make occafional fallies j if weak, to difturb the
operations of the befiegers, and if very ftrong, to en¬
gage them in the field. As the fiege advances, and the
attacking army approaches the glacis, mines ftiould be
fprung, and Subterraneous paffages excavated, to de-
ftroy the enemy’s works, or cut off a part of their
men; . . . . . SS
Towards fupplying the unavoidable deficiencies in Reference
the above {ketch of military taftics, we may refer ourtoauthors
readers to Chirac’s Field Engineer, tranflated by Mul-
ler ; Le Cointe, Science des Pq/les Mi/itaires, or the a 1CS‘
Englifti tranflation ; Jeney’s work entitled Le Partifan,
allb tranflated into Englifti ; O’Rourke’s Treatife on the
Art of War ; EJfai General de FaElique ; Tielke on the
Art of War, and his Field Engineer; Dundas’s Prin¬
ciples of Military Movements ; Landmann’s Elements of
Taclies; Maizeroy’s Syjleme de TaBique; Archives
Militaires; Feuquiere’s Memoires ; Bland on Military
Difcipline ; Military InJlruBions for Officers detached in
the field; and the articles Battalion and Battle in
Rees’s Cyclopaedia.
PART II. NAVAL TACTICS.
BY naval taffies is underftood the art of arranging
fleets or fquadrons in fuch an order or difpofition as may
be moft convenient for attacking the enemy, defending
Vol. XX. Part II.
themfelves, or of retreating with the grealeft advan¬
tage. Naval taffies are founded on thofe principles
which time and experience have enabled us to deduce
4 I from
6i 8
Naval
Tadlics.
.56
Ordinary
divifion of
fleets.
!7.
Tefimtions.
from the improved ftate of modern
which has occafioned, not only a difference in the
mode of conffrudling and working (hips, but even in
in the total difpofition and regulation of fleets and fqua-
drons.
In the prefent part we propofe to lay down the
general principles of naval tactics, and to deferibe as
briefly as is confident with perfpicuity, the moft im¬
proved fyftems which are now adopted in the French
and Britiih navy. As we have elfewhere (lee Navi¬
gation and Seamanship) detailed the methods of
working fingle fhips, as they are unconnected with mili¬
tary operations, we ihall preiume that our readers are
already acquainted with thefe ordinary movements.
Fleets are generally divided into three fquadrons, the
van, centre, and rear, each under the command of a flag
officer. The admiral of the fleet, or chief in command,
leads the centre divifion, while the van is ufually com¬
manded by a vice-admiral, and the rear by a rear-admi¬
ral. Each fquadron is diftinguilhed by the pofllion of
the colours in the (hips of which it is compofed. Thus,
the fhips of the centre Iquadron carry their pendants at
the main-tcp-gallant mafl-head ; while thofe of the van
-flivifion have their pendants at the fore-top-gallant mafl-
head, and thofe of the rear at the mizen-top-maft-head.
Each fquadron, as far as poflible, conflfts of the fame
number of fhips, and as nearly as may be of the fame
force. In large fleets, the fquadrons are fometimes
again divided in a fimilar manner ; the van and tear of
the fquadron being headed by rear-admirals, or fenior
captains, called commodores. In the ufual mode of
forming the lines, each commanding admiral arranges his
{hip in the centre of his own fquadron, and thus the
admiral of the fleet is in the centre of the line. When
no enemy is in fight, the floops, ftore-fhips, fire-fhips,
and other fmall vefffls, are difperfed to windward of the
fleet, that they may be more eafily fupported, and more
readily anfwer fignals. The frigates lie to windward of
the van and rear of the convoy, thus keeping a good
look-out, and keeping the fmall vefiels in their proper
ilation. When failing in three columns, the centre ftill
keeps in the middle, while the van and rear form the
ftarboard or the larboard column, according to circum-
ftances. Thefe arrangements ate called orders of fail¬
ing, and will be better underftood from the following
definitions.
The ftarboard line of bearing, is that line on which
the arranged fhips of a fleet bear from each other, on a
clofe hauled line, whatever courfe they may be fleering,
fo that when the (hips haul their wdnd, or tack toge¬
ther, they may be on a line clofe hauled upon the {lar¬
board tack. The larboard line of bearing is that line
on which the fhips when hauling their wind, or tacking
together, may be foimed on a line clofe hauled on the
larboard tack. The fhips of a fleet are faid to be on a
line abreafl, when their keels are parallel to each other,
and their mainmafls lie in the fame ftmight line. Ships
are faid to lie in a line on the bow or quarter, when
they are arranged in a flraight line, cutting their keels
obliquely in the fame angle, fo that reckoning from
any intermediate (hip, the {hips towards one extremity
of the line will be on the bow of that fhip, while thofe
towards the other extremity r<ill be on her quarter.
When feveral fhips in the fame line fleer the fame
w a r». Fan n.
naval warfare, courfe, while that courfe is different from the line of
failing, they are faid to fail checquerwife. ■ jd ,
When the fhips of a fleet arranged in any of the or¬
ders of failing, and on the fame line, perform fucceflive-
ly the fame manoeuvre, as each gets into the wake of
the fhip that leads the van of the line or fquadron, tack¬
ing or veering, bearing away or coming to the wdnd in
the fame point of the wrake of the leading fhip, they are
faid to manoeuvre in fuccefjion. 58
There are ufually reckoned five orders of failing, ex-Illuftration
clufive of the line of battle, the order of retreat, Scc.^^e five
In the firft order (fee Plate DLXIV. fig. 1. and 2.) the^^.®
fleet is arranged on the farboard or larboard \iv.c of pitte
bearing, all the fliips fleering the fame courfe. In DLXIV.
thefe cafes the fleet, by hauling the wind when in the
{larboard line, as in fig. 1. will be ready to form theFi li an^
line on the ftarboard tack 5 and when ranged on the a.
larboard line of bearing, as in fig. 2. it will, by tack¬
ing, be ready to form the line on the larboard tack.
N. B. The arrows annexed to the diagrams on the
plates, mark the direction of the wind, as in ordinary
charts.
This firft order of failing is now' feldom employed,
except in pafling through a narrow flrait. In the fecond
order of failing, the fleet fleering any proper courfe, is
ranged in a line perpendicular to the direction of the
wind, as in fig. 3. This fecond order, befides being Fig. 3.
equally defective with the former, is fubje£t to the addi¬
tional difadvantage of rendering it extremely difficult
for the fhips to lack, without each ftiip falling on board
that next a-ftern.
In the third order of failing, the whole fleet is clofe
hauled, and ranged on the two lines of bearing, fo as to
form an angle of 12 points, having the admiral’s fliip
(A fig. 4.) in the angular point, and the whole fleet Fig. 4.,
fleering the fame courfe. Thus, fuppofing, as in the
plate, the wind at north, the ftarboard divifion of the
fleet will bear W. N. W. of the admiral, and the lar¬
board E. N. E. This order in fmall fleets or fquadrons,
is fuperior to either of the former*; but w’hen the fleet is
numerous, the line will be too much extended.
In the fourth order, the fleet is divided into fix or
more columns, and is thus more concentrated. The
commanders, ranged on the two lines of bearing, have
their fquadiens aftern of them on two lines parallel to
the direction of the wund ; the firft (hips of each column
being, with relpeft to the commander of the fquadron,
the one on his {larboard, and the other on his larboard
quarter. The diflance between the columns ftiould be
fiuh that the fleet may readily be reduced to the third
order of failing, and from that to the order of battle.
This order is adapted for fleets or convoys croffing the
ocean, and is reprefenled in fig. 5. But as it requires Fig. £
much time to reduce a fleet from this order to that of
battle, it is defective when in prefence of an enemy.
In the fifth order, the fleet, clofe hauled, is arranged
in three columns parallel to each other ; the van com¬
monly forming the weather, and the rear the lee co¬
lumn. See fig. 6. Fig. 7. reprefents the fame order,Fig 6. and
except that each column is here fubdivided into two, 7*
with the fhip bearing the commander of each fquadron
in the centre of each fubdivifion. _ S9
In forming the order or line of battle, the fliips ofOicfir of
the fleet are drawn up in a line nearly clofe hauled,battle,
ftanuing
w
Naval
Tallies.
60
Order of
retreat.
Fig- 9-
fix
Order of
convoy.
fis
Method of
Part II.
{landing under eafy fai!, fo that each {hip naay be at a
certain diftance from the, Ihip immediately a-bead, as a
cable’s length, or half that diflance. J?he firefhips and
frigates a-head and altern, form a line parallel to the
former, and to the windward of it, if the enemy be to
the leeward ; but to the leeward if the enemy be to
windward. This order is denoted by fig. 8, where the
fleet is failing on the {larboard tack., with the wind at
north.
When a fleet is compelled to retreat before a fupenor
force, it is ufually arranged in an order, the reverfe of
the third order of failing } the divifions of the fleet be¬
ing ranged in the two lines of bearing, fo as to form an
angle of 1350 or 12 points, the admirals {hips being in
the angular point, and the frigates, tranfports, &c. in¬
cluded within the wings to leeward. See fig. 9. where
the fleet is failing right before the wind. Though any
other dire£Uon may be taken, the two lines {till form
the fame angle.
The order of convoy is that in which the flrips are
all in each others wake, fleering in the fame point of
the compafs, and forming a right line. If the fleet is
numerous, it may be divided into three columns, which
are to be ranged parallel to each other, that of the ad¬
mirable occupying the centre, and all fleering the fame
courfe.
Having thus deferibed the ordinary pofitions of a
fleet, we muft explain the manoeuvres by which they
are produced, and w’e fhall begin with the orders of
failing.
To form a fleet in the firft order of failing, fuppofing
forming the the (hips to be in no particular order, that Ihip which is
firft order to lead on the propofed line of bearing for the order of
of failing, failing, runs to leeward of the greater part of the fleet,
and then hauls her wind under an eafy fail. Each of
the other {hips then proceeds to take the proper ftation,
by chafing the {hip, which is to be a-head of her, and
when in the w^ake of the leading {hip, adjufts her quan¬
tity of canvas fo as to preferve the proper diftance. The
{hips thus arranged aftern of each other, are in the line
of battle, and from this the firft order of failing is form¬
ed, by each {hip bearing away at the fame time, and all
fleering the propofed courfe.
In forming the fecond order of failing, the leading
{hip runs to leeward of fo many of the fleet as that each
{hip may readily fetch her wake, and then fleers a
courfe eight points from the wTind, under an eafy fail.
The line is formed by each (hip in the fame manner as
in the firft order, except that before bearing away, the
line is perpendicular to the diredlion of the wind, or
each {hip has the wind on her beam.
Ac, in the third order of failing, the admiral’s ftiip is
in the centre 5 to produce this pofltion, the fleet being
formed in a line on one of the lines ef bearing, and the
fliips fleering in each others wake, ten points from the
wind, the leading or leewardmoft {hip firft hauls her
wind. The fecond fliip does the fame as foon as (he
gets into the wake of the former, and this is done by
each fliip till the admirals fliips haul their wind, when
they reach the wake of the leading (hip. At the fame
time that the admiral’s {hip hauls her wind, the ftern-
moft half of the fleet does the fame. The fliips are
now in the third order of failing, from which the fleet
can be formed in line of battle on either tack.
To form the fourth order of failing (fee N° 38.), the
A E. 619
commanding admirals range thetnfelves on {ne two lines
«3
Second or¬
der of fail-
64
Third or¬
der.
of bearing, at a proper diftance from each other,^ fleer-^ Fafitics.
Plate
DLXV-
Fig. 1.
ing the propofed courfe, and the fliips of the feveral
columns take each their refpe£tive places, parallel toFourth Dr¬
ench other, and forming lines in the dire£tion of theder.
wind. # 66
To form the fifth order, the three leading {hips ofFifth order,
the divifions take their polls abreaft and to leeward of
each other, keeping their wind under an eafy fail; then
the fnips of each fquadron make fail, and take their
refpeftive flations at the proper diftance aftern of their
leaders, while the commanders of each divifion, and
the correfponding (hips of each, keep mutually abreaft
of each other. _ 67
In forming from the firft order of failing, if the {hipsFo form^
are running large on the tack that anfwers to the line^^/J16 0
of bearing on which they fail, and il the line is to be
formed on the fame tack, all the Ihips haul their wind
at once, or as quickly as pofiible after the next to
windward ; but if they be on the other tack, with re-
fpe& to the line of bearing, they all haul their wind
and tack or veer together. If the line of battle is to be
formed on the other line of bearing, the fliip moil to
leeward veers or tacks, and hauls her wind, while the
reft of the fleet veer or tack at the fame time, and fleerFi
with the wind four points free, and each {hip hauls her h
wind as foon as (he gets within the wake of the leader.
See fig. 10. Plate DLX1V. and fig. 1. Plate DLXV.
Suppofe the fleet running before the wind in the fe¬
cond order of failing j to form the line from this pofi-
tion, all the fliips haul up together on the proper tack,
prefenting their heads eight points from the wind at the
line on which they are arranged ; the leading {hip then
hauls her wind, immediately making fail, or ftiortening
fail, fo as to clofe or open the order, and the fame is
done fucceflively by all the reft (fee fig. 2.). p;g_ 4>
In a fleet running large in the third order, the line
of battle is formed by the wing which is in the line of
beaiing correfponding to the tack on which the line is
to be formed, and the {hip at the angle hauling their
wind together, while the {hips of the other wing haul
up together eight points from the wind. Each fliip
moving in this diredlion, till flie reach the wake of the
other wing, when (he hauls clofe up (fee fig. 3.). pig, 3.-
In forming the line of battle on the fame tack from
the fifth order of failing (as the fourth is not calculated
for forming a line of battle), the centre brings to, fo as
only to keep fleerage way j the weather column bears
away two points, and when it gets a-head of the centre,
hauls its wind, while the {hips of the lee column tack
together, and crowd fail to gain the wake of the centre,
when they retack together, and complete the line (fee
fig. 4.) j or, the weather column brings to, while thep;g>4^
centre and lee tack together, and bear away two points
free. When the ihips of the centre column have gained
the wake of the van, they retack together, and bring
to ; and when thofe of the lee have gained the rear
line, they retack together, and all fland on 5 or laflly,
the lee column brings to, the centre runs under eafv
fail two points free, to get a-head of the rear fquadron,
while the rear bears aw^y under a prefs of fail two points
free, to get ahead of the centre divifion.
2. Suppofe the weather and centre columns to interchange.
To form the line under thefe circumftances j the centre
{lands on, while the weather column bears away eight
4 I 2 points,
620
W A R.
Part II.
Naval
Tadlics.
Plate
DLXV.
% 5-
Fig. 6.
Fig- 7-
Plate
DLXVI.
Fig. i.
Fig- 2.
Fig- 3-
Fig- 4*
Fig- S-
points, and having reached the wake of the centre, which
now forms the van, hauls up; the fhips of the lee column
tack together, and run under a prefs of fail, within two
points free, fo as juft to gain the rear of the line; when
tney retack together (fee fig. 5.), or the lee' column
brings to, while the centre fquadron bears away three
points under eafy fail; and having reached the wake of
the van, hauls up, to form the centre divifion.
3. Suppofe the centre and lee columns to interchange.
The lee column ftands on clofe hauled under an eafy
fail, the weather column bears aways two points under a
prefs of fail, till it reach the head of the line, when it
hauls up, and the centre bears away eight points, and
when in the wake of the lee, now the centre, hauls its
wind. (See fig. 6.).
4. If the weather and lee columns interchange j the
lee column ftands on under a prefs of fail clofe hauled,
while the centre, under eafy fail, bears away two points,
and when it reaches the wake of the now van fquadron,
hauls its wind, and the weather column bears away
eight points, hauling up when in the wake of the centre.
(See fig. 7.).
5. Suppofe the centre column to form the van, and
the weather the rear divifion. Here the lee column
brings to, while the centre bears away' two points,
forming the line a head of the former, now the centre,
and the weather column veers away feven points on the
other tack, forming the rear fquadron. (See fig. 1.
Plate DLXVI.).
6. To form the line fo that the lee column may form
the van, and the centre the rear. The lee column is to
ftand on under a prefs of fail, while the weather bears
away three points under eafy fail, and the centre bears
away eight points, the ftiips of each column hauling
their wind, when in the wake of the now van divifion.
(See fig. 2.).
7. If the line of battle is to be formed on the other
tack, fo that the weather {hall form the van divifion,4 as
in the firft cafe, the {hips of the weather column firft
tack fucceffively, while thofe of the centre and lee
ftand on, the former under eafy fail, and the latter
Ihortening fail, the leading {hips tacking when in the
wake of the now van, taking great care that the {hips
of the centre and lee draw not too near to the fternmoft
{hips of the van, or to each other. (See fig. 3.).
8. To form the line on the other tack, when the
centre and weather columns interchange. The weather
column brings to, while the centre column ftands on, till
the leading {hip be fully able to clear the weather co¬
lumn, when the {hips of the centre tack fucceflively as
they reach the wake of the van. The lee column
ftands on, tacking fucceflively, as the {hips get into the
wake of the van, under moderate fail. (See fig. 4.).
9. In forming the line on the other tack, when the
centre and lee interchange. The centre brings to,
while the {hips of the weather tack under fliortened fail,
and the lee under a prefs of fail ftands on, the leading
{hip having gained the wake of the line, tacks, and is
followed in fucceflion by her divifion. The centre co¬
lumn fills and ftands on, when the firft {hip of that co¬
lumn, and the laft of the lee, bear from each other in
a direftion perpendicular to that of the wind. (See
fig. 5.).
10. To form on this fame tack, fo that the weather
and lee may interchange. The weather and centre
bring to, while the lee crowds fail, till it can pafs a-head Naval
of the weather column, wdren the {hips tack in fucceflion. , 1 adbc-- ,
As foon as the leading {hip of the centre, and the laft *
of the lee bear from each other in a line perpendicular
to the wind, the centre fills, and tacks in fucceflion
when in the w^ake of the now van, and the {hips of the
weather column do the fame when their leading {hip
and the laft of the centre are under fimilar circum-
ftances. (See fig. 6.). pig- 6.
11. Suppofe the centre is to form the van, and the
weather the rear, in forming the line on the other tack.
The weather brings to, while the other columns make
fail, till they can pafs a-head of the former on the other
tack, when they tack fucceflively. The weather co¬
lumn, when the others have paffed it, fills, and tacks to
form the rear. (See fig. 7.) Fig. 7.
12. Suppofe now the lee column is to form the van.
The weather and centre bring to, while the lee crowds
fail, and tacks when it can pafs a-head of the weather
column. When the laft Ihip of the now van has paffed
to windward of the former weather column, the van
ftiortens fail, to give time for the other columns to form,
and the weather and centre fill at the fame time, to gain
the wake of the van, when they tack in fucceflion. (Seeriv. 8.
fig. 8.). 68
We muft now {hew how a fleet may be difpofed in Fo form^
the principal orders of failing from the line of battle $ ot faiung
and here, as before, we have feveral varieties. from th|
1. To form the firft order of failing from the line of line of
battle on the fame tack. All the {hips are to bearbattle*
away together as many points as the admiral may direfl,
keeping in the line of bearing for the proper tack. The
fternmoft firft bears away, and the others follow in
quick fucceflion, to prevent running foul of each other.
2. If they are to form on the other tack; the lead¬
ing {hip bears away four points to leeward, and the reft
follow in fucceflion. The fternmoft ftrip having bore
away, the whole haul up, and will be in bearing for the
line on the other tack. (See fig. 9.). Fig. 5.
3. To form the fecond order of failing from the line
of battle, the whole fleet is to bear away together 10
points, fo that when the headmoft {hip, which firft pref-
fes fail, Ihall come abreaft of the fecond {hip, the fecond
{hip adapts her fail to keep in this bearing, and fo in
fucceflion, each taking care to keep the preceding {hip
in a line with herfelf, perpendicular to the dfreftion of
the wind. The whole fleet will now be before the
wind. (See fig. 10.). Fig. 10.
4. To form the third order, the whole fleet is to bear
away together ten points, the headmoft half, including
the centre {hip, carrying a degree of fail to preferve their
line of bearing, while each of the remaining fliips is
fucceflively to Ihorten fail, fo as to form the other line pjate
of bearing with refpeft to that on which they were be- DLXVII.
fore arranged. (See fig. 1. Plate DLXVIL). Fig- t.
5. To change from the line of battle to the fifth or¬
der on the fame tack. Of this evolution there are fe-
veral varieties, but we ftiall mention only two j firft,
when the van is to form the weather, and the rear the
lee column, and the fleet to keep as much as poflible to
windward.—In this cafe the van and centre tack to¬
gether, and run clofe hauled in bow and quarter line,
while the rear proceeds in its former courfe under eafy
fail. When each {hip of the centre is abreaft of the
correfponding {hip of the rear, the centre retacks,
while
/
Part If.
W A R.
621
Naval
Tallies.
while the van ftands on, till the centre and rear come
up, when it alfo retacks, and all the columns regulate
Plate t^e*r diftances. (See fig. 2.). Secondly, when the van
DLXVII. is to form the lee, and the rear the weather column.—
a- The van bears away under eafy fail, and goes at right
angles with the line a-head, while the centre runs tw7o
points free, each fhip fleering for that fliip of the van
which is to be a-breaft of her when in column. The
diflance muft be determined by the leader of the van,
who is not to haul up wnth her divifion, till fhe and the
flernmoft fliip of the centre column are in a line at
right angles with the wind, when both ftand on under
eafy fail, while the rear crowds fail to pafs to windward
Fig. 3. of both. (See fig. 3.).
6. To form the fifth order of failing from the line of
battle on the other tack—of which there are alfo feve-
ral varietiesj but wTe ftiall confineourfelves to two: Firft,
when the van is to form the weather, and the rear the
lee column j the van tacks in fucceffion, while the lead¬
ing fliip of the centre is to tack when the leader of the
van pafles him exa£Uy to windward, in which Are is fol-
Fig. 4.5 lowed by her divifion, and the rear manosuvres in the
fame manner with refpeft to the centre. (See fig. 4.).
Secondly, when the rear is to form the weather and the
van the lee column j the van tacks in fucceflion, and
when about, either ftiortens fail, or brings to, to allow
the other columns time to form. The centre and rear
then crowd fail, and tack in fucceflion, the former tacking
when its leader has the centre of the lee column in a
line at right angles with the wind, or when its centre
paffes a-Itern of the lee column. When the centre has
tacked, it regulates its rate of failing by the lee, and
both wait for the rear to pafs to windward. The rear
tacks when the leader has the firft fliip of the lee in h
line at right angles with the wind, or when its centre
fliip pafles a-ftern of the centre column. (See fig. 5.).
7. Fig. 6. reprefents the order of retreat formed
from the line of battle, the whole fleet going four
points free. This evolution is fo feldom required in a
Eritilh fleet, that we need not dwell on it.
To manoeu- There are various evolutions or manoeuvres performed
vre in line by a fleet when in line of battle, fome of which w7e mufr
of battle, here deferibfe.
Sometimes the fleet has to form the line on the other
tack, by tacking in fucceflion. To do this, the leading
fliip of the fleet tacks firft, after making more fail, or
after the fecond has ftiortened fail, to increafe the in¬
terval between them. When the firft fliip is about,
either the fecond makes more fail, or the third fliortens
fail, and as foon as the fecond gets into the wake of the
leader, fhe tacks, putting down the helm juft as Ihe
opens the weather quarter of the firft fliip, already on
the other tack. In the fame manner, each of the other
fliips tacks when in the wake of the leader 5 and the
fliips already about muft preferve their proper diftances,
by ftiortening fail, if neceflary, till the whole fleet be
on the other tack. If a ftiip fhould mifs flays, fhe mull
immediately fill again on the fame tack, and make fail
with all poflible expedition, taking care not to fall to
leeward. Thus fhe will get a-head, and to windward
of the following fliips, wdiich will fucceflively perform
their evolutions in the w7ake of the fnips that are already
on the other tack, {landing on rather further than if the
Fig. 7. fliip a-head had not milled flays. (See fig. 7.).
Eut fuppofe the Ihips are not to tack in fucceflion.
Naval
Tadlics.
Fig- 5*
Fig. 6.
To form the line on the other tack, the whole fleet
veers together 5 the rear fliip hauls her wind on the,
other tack, and ftands on, while the reft go two points
free on the other tack, and haul up as they fucceflively
gain the wake of the leading fhip. (See fig. 8.). F^- 8-
If the line is to veer in fucceflion, the van ftiip veers,
and ftands foiy points free on the other tack, hauling
her wind when clear of the fternmoft ftiip, and the reft
follow and haul up in fucceflion. (See fig. 9.). Fig. 9.
Sometimes the fleet has to turn to windward while in
line of battle. The belt way to do this, when there is
good fea-room, is for all the fliips to tack together,
when the fleet will be in line of battle on the one board,
and in bow and quarter line on the other. If, however,
the fleet be turning to windward in a narrow channel,
it is heft for the fliips to tack in fucceflion, as, were they
all to tack together, the van would be foon in with the
land on one fide, while the ftern fhip, foon after the
fleet had retacked, would be too near the land on the
other fide.
If the van and centre are to interchange ; the van is
to bear away a little, and then bring to, while the centre
pafles on to windward, edging a little, to get a-head of
the former van on the fame line ; the rear, coming on
under an eafy fail, edges away likewife, to gain the
wake of the now centre fquadron. (See fig. 10.). Fig. io.
If the van and rear are to interchange j the van and
centre are to bear away a little, and then bring to, fo
that the van may bear away a little more to the lee¬
ward than the centre. The rear ftands on to gain the
head of the line ; and when a-breaft of the former van,
the centre fills, and both Handing on, form a-head of the
now rear, by edging down till they are in a line with it.
(See fig. 11.). _ Fig n.
If the centre and rear are to interchange} the van
ftands on under an eafy fail, while the centre bears
away a little, and brings to, and the rear at the fame
time carries a prefs of fail to pafs the centre to wind¬
ward, and get into the wake of the van. The van and
centre then edge away to gain the line, with the nowpjg. I2
rear fquadron, which then fills. (See fig. 12.). 70
Several evolutions are required while a fleet is in the To manoeu-
fifth order of failing, and of thefe we (hall notice fome ^e,in ^
of the more important. offailin^
When the columns are to tack in fucceflron, the (hips 3
of the lee muft tack firft, as they have moft diftance to
run, and when the leader of the centre comes a-breaft
of the leader, to leeward, or at right angles with the
clofe-hauled line on the other tack on which the leader
eft the lee is now moving, fhe tacks and is followed fuc-
ceflively by the {hips of her divifion. The weather
column manoeuvres in the fame manner, paying the fame
regard to the centre. Here the weather column is ftill
to windward, and fhould the columns have clofed too
much, or be too far afunder, the order may be recover¬
ed, either by the lee or windward column bearing
away, fo as to make an angle equal to that propofed
between any column, and a line joining the leader of
that column, and the fternmoft ftiip of the next. (See
fig. 13.). Fig. 13,
When all the columns are to tack together; the
fternmoft (hips put in flays together; and when in flays,
their feconds a-head put down their helms, and fo on
through the whole fleet. Each column will then be in
bow and quarter line. (See fig. 14.). Fig. 14,-
When
62 2*
W A R.
Fart II.
Plate
DLXVII.
i'ig- 13-
Plate
DLXVIII.
Fig- i-
•FTg. 2.
Fig- 3-
Fig. 4-
When the columns are to veer in fucccffion; the
leader of the lee column mull fteer four points free on
the other tack, followed by the Ihips of that divifion,
and when fhe is clear of the fternmoft (hips of that divi¬
fion, {he hauls up. The fame evolution is performed
by the centre and w’eather ihips fucceffively, {landing on
till they bring the point at which the lee column began
to veer to bear in a right line to leeward of them. They
likewife fucceflively fpring their luffs when the point at
which the lee column hauled its wind, bears right to
leeward, (See fig. 15.).
Suppofe the fleet, when in the fifth order of failing is
to turn to windward j let the {hips be fo arranged that
the leaders and correfponding {hips may be in the diiec-
tion of the wind. The van ftiips mull tack together,
which are followed in fucceflion, each by the remain¬
ing {flips of the divifion, when they reach the wake of
their leaders, or the fame point when they tacked } fo
that there will always be three {hips in flays at once, till
the whole fleet is on the other tack. The fleet then
{lands on to any propofed diftance, and retacks as before.
(See fig. 1. Plate DLXVIII.).
When the weather and centre columns interchange $
the weather and lee lie to, or only keep fteerage way.
The centre column tacks together, and forming a bow
and quarter line, goes clofe hauled to gain the wake of
the weather column j it then tacks together, and Hands
on, while the weather column bears away to its new
ftation in the centre, and the lee column fills. (See fig.
2.).
When the weather and lee columns are to inter¬
change ; the centre column muft bring to j while the
lee Hands on under a prefs of fail ; and wrhen its ftern-
moil fhip can pafs to windward of the van of the centre
column, that is, when the centre fliip of the lee is in a
perpendicular line to the diredlion of the wind with the
van of the centre column, the lee column then tacks
together, and Hands on clofe hauled till it comes in a
line with the centre column, when it goes large two
points to get into the fituation which the weather co¬
lumn left; and then veers together, hauling the wind
for the other tack. At the beginning of the evolution
the weather column bears awTay together under little
fail, and goes large fix points on the other tack, to get
into the wake of the centre column ; it then hauls to
the former tack, going two points large, till it comes a-
breafl of the centre column, when it brings to, and
waits for the now wTeather column. (See fig. 3 ).
Suppofe the weather column is to pafs to leervard 5
the weather column is to Hand on under eafy fail, while
the centre and lee tack together, carrying a prefs of fail
till they reach the wake of the weather column, when
they retack, and crowd fail till they come up with it.
The weather column, when the others have gained its
wake, bears away two points, to gain its ftation to lee¬
ward, when it brings to, till the other columns, now the
weather and centre, come up. (See fig. 4.).
Suppofe the lee column is to pafs to windward. The
weather and centre columns bring to, while the lee co¬
lumn carries fail and tacks in fucceflion i,as foon as the
leading {hip can weather the headmoft {hip of the wea¬
ther column ; and when anived on the line on which
the weather column is formed, it retacks in fucceflion,
forms on the fame line, and either brings to or Hands
on under eafy fail. If it brings to, the other two co-
a
lurans bear away together two points, to put themfelves Naval
a-breaft of the column now to windward j but if the ,
now weather column Hood on under an ealy fail, they
may bear away only one point, to gain their proper Ha¬
ttons. (See fig. 5.). *>g-5-
It is of the greateft importance that each fhtp of a
fleet or fquadron preferve her proper ftation and di¬
ftance wdth refpefl to the reft. Thefe may be regu¬
lated in two ways, either by obfervation with the qua¬
drant, or by what is called the naval fquare. This
fquare is ufually conftru£le.d in the following manner.
On fome convenient place in the middle of the quar- 7T
ter-deck is deferibed the fquare AECD, fig. 6. having
the fides AD and BC parallel to the keel of the {hip. ute of tlie
Through the centre G, the line EF is drawn parallel tonaval
AD or BC, and the diagonals AC and BD are drawn.fcIliare*
The angles EGD, EGC are bife£led by the ftraight ^
lines GH, GI, and thus the naval fquare is completed.
Now the angles FGD, FGC are — 4 points each, be¬
ing each half a right angle, therefore the angles EGD,
EGC, the complements of thefe angles, are each — 12
points, and confequently the angles EGH, EGI are
each = 6 points, being each half of the laft angles.
Now, if a Ihip be running clofe hauled on the {lar¬
board tack, in the direftion FE, the diredlion of the
wind will be IG, and her clofe hauled courfe on the
other tack will be GC •, but if fhe be running clofe
hauled on the larboard tack in the fame direftion, her
direftion when clofe hauled on the {larboard tack will
be GD.
Now-, to apply the naval fquare to the keeping of
(hips in their refpedlive ftations, fuppofe the fleet formed
on the fifth order of failing, clofe hauled, the cor-
rtfponding {hips of the columns coinciding with the di-
reftion of the wind, in order to run to windward with
greater facility. The correfponding {hips in the column
muft be kept in the dire&ion of GH, or GI, according
to the direction of the wind and the tack they are on,
while all the fliips of the fame column muft be in the di-
redlion of EF. (See fig. 7.). Fig. 7.
Again, fuppofe the (hips arranged in three columns
on one of the lines of bearing, and clofe hauled on the
other tack* The fliips of each column will be in the
direction of one of the diagonals, while the correfpond¬
ing {hips of the other columns will be in the direction of pj g
the other diagonal. (See fig. 8.).
Sometimes the line of battle is difordered on the To rdtore
wind’s {hifting, and requires to be reftored. Of thisthe ordel'
there are feveral cafes, a few of which we {hall notice, the
1. When the wind comes forward lefs than 6 points. WhkL
In this cafe the whole fleet except the leader brings to.
The leading {hip, that the fame diftances between the
{hips may be preferved on reftoring the line, fleers a
courfe as a b (fig. 9.), fo as to be at right angles with Fig. 9.
the middle point between the former and prefent direc¬
tion of the w ind. His required courfe may be known
by adding half the number of points the wind has ftiifted
to eight points, and applying this fum to the former
clofe-hauled courfe. When the leader has arrived at
the new clofe-hauled line with refpeil to the fecohd
fhip a-head, this fln’p immediately fills, and bears away
as many points as the leader ; and when both thefe have
reached the clofe-hauled line with refpedt to the third
fliip, {lie alfo fills, and bears away j and thus with the
reft in fucceflion j and when they have got into the
clofe-hauled
Part IT. W
Naval clofe-hauled line b e with the flernmoft fliip, they all
, Taftics. jlau^ wincl together, and the fternmoft fhip fills
Plate and Hands on clofe hauled.
DLXVIII. This may be expeditioully performed, if the whole
fleet fall off as foon as the wind Ihifts, the fame number
of points, and the leader bear away e^ght points from
the middle between the former and prefent dire&ions of
the wind, or when the wind drifts nearly fix points, if
the leader bear away eight points from the piefent di¬
rection of the wind, and hauls her wind as loon as the
fternmolt fhip bears from her in the clofe-hauled line,
while the iecond fliip bears away when the reaches the
Tvake of the leader, and hauls her wind when Are has
again gained his wake. The third, fourth, &c. fhips
bear away, and alfo haul their wind in fucceflion, till
the fternmoft and the whole line be formed again. (See
Fig. io. fig. IQ.).
2. Suppofe the wind comes forward lefs than fix
points, and the order of battle is to be re-formed on
the other tack. In this cafe all the fhips are to veer
round till their heads came to the requihte point with
refpeft to their former courfe, when the rear fhip, now
become the van, hauls clofe by the wind, followed fuc-
ceffively by the other fhips. Should the wind come a-
head more than fix points, but lefs than twelve, the fleet
is to manoeuvre as before, but if it fhift exa&ly twelve
points a-head, the tack muff be changed.
3. Laffly, fuppofe the wind to fhift oft—if lefs than
two points, the leader hauls her wand, while the fleet
Hands on as before, each fucceffively hauling her wind
as fhe gains the wake of her leader. If the tack is to be
changed, the w'hole fleet tack together, and tire ftern-
moff fliip, now the leader, hauls up, ivhile the reft bear
down and haul up in fucceflion.
Should the wind change 16 points, all the fhips im¬
mediately brace about for the other tack, by which
means the fleet will be going four points large j then
the fhips inftantly tacking or veering together, the order
of battle will be reftored or formed again on the fame,
tack as before the wind changed.
It is inconfiffent with the nature of our plan to be
more minute on the various evolutions of a fleet, when
not in aftion with the enemy. Our nautical readers
will find abundant information of this kind in the ufual
works on naval taffies, efpecially the Elements and
EraBice of Rigging, Seamanjhip, Naval TaBics, &c. of
which the lateft edition is in 4 vols 8vo. ; and The
SyJIe/n of Naval TaBics, with coloured figures, both
publiihed by Steel.
Having deferibed and illuftrated the principal evo¬
lutions which are performed by fleets or fquadrons
under ordinary circumftances, we are prepared to con-
fider the nature and confequences of a naval engage-
1 ment*
Circum- forming a fleet for battle, it is proper to confider
fiances to the fize and number of the fhips of which it is to con-
be confider- and the diftance at which they are to be placed
in ^ fleet" refpe<^ to eac^ of^r. In the prefent fyftem of
fofa&ion. naval warfare, it is generally deemed of advantage to
have the fhips that are to form the principal line as large
as peflible j for though large {hips are not fo eafily and
expeditioufly worked as thofe of a fmaller fize, they are
moft ferviceable during the aflion, both as carrying a
greater weight of metal, and as being lefs expofed to
aaaterial injury, either from the enemy’s fliot, or from.
^ R. 623
the weather. In boarding too, a large fhip muff have Naval
greatly the fuperioriiy over a fmaller, both from her ^a<^ics- ,
greater height, and from the number of hands which *
Ihe contains. With refpefl to the number of fhips, it is
of advantage that they be not too numerous, as if the
line be too extenfive, the fignals from the centre are
with difficulty obferved.
In arranging a fleet in line of battle, it is proper to
regulate the diftance fo that the fhips {hall be fufficient-
ly near to fupport each other, but not fo dole as that a
dxfabled fhip may not readily be got out of the line
without difturbing the reft of the fleet. 74
It has long been deemed a point of great confequence
with the commander of a fleet to gain the weather gage,,^^11^*^
or to get to windward of the enemy, before coming to ^weather
adlion. In deciding on the propriety of this, much will gage,
depend on the relative ftrenglh of each fleet, and on the
ftate of the weather at the time. We fhall ftate the ad¬
vantages and difadvantages of the weather gage, as
they are commonly laid down by writers on naval
ta&ics, though we may obferve by the way, that if a
fleet be much fuperior to its opponent, it is feldom of
confequence whether it engages to windward or to lee¬
ward.
A fleet to windward of the enemy is thought to pof-
fefs the following advantages. It may approach the
leeward fleet at pleafure, and can of courfe accelerate or
deky the beginning of the engagement. If more nu¬
merous, it may fend down a detachment on the rear of
the enemy, and thus throw him into confufion. It may
alfo readily lend down firefhips on the enemy’s fleet,
when thrown into confufion or difabled. It may board
at any time, and is fcarcely incommoded by the fmoke
of the enemy. The reverie of thefe circumftances, of
courfe, aft againft a leeward fleet.
The difadvantages of being to windward of the ene¬
my refpeft chiefly the circumftances attending a retreat,
fhould this be neceffary. The windward fleet can fel¬
dom retire without paffing through the enemy’s line j
and if in attempting to retreat, the windward fhips tack
together, thofe of the leeward fleet may do the fame,
rake the weather fhips in flays, and follow them on the
other tack, having now the advantage of the wind. In
ftormy weather, the windward ihips can feldom open
their lower deck ports, and the lee guns are not eafily
managed after firing. Again, any difabled fhips can¬
not eafily quit the line without difordering the reft of
the fleet, and expofing either that or themfelves to be
raked by the enemy to leeward. A leeward fleet has
the advantages of ferving their lower-deck guns in all
weathers ; of being able to retreat at pleafure ; of draw¬
ing off without difficulty their difabled fhips j of form¬
ing with more readinefs the order of retreat, or of con¬
tinuing the aftion as long as convenient y of having it
in their power when fuperior in number, to double the
enemy, and of cannonading with great effeft the wind¬
ward fhips as they bear down for the attack.
As an engagement between two adverfe fhips is in
fome meafure an epitome of an engagement between two ,
fleets* we fhall firft briefly deferibe the former, as it
takes place under ordinary circumftances, and fliall then'
notice the ufual manner of condufting a general engage¬
ment.
A naval engagement may be divided into three fta-eSj,
the preparation, the aBion, aad the repair.
When*
624.
Naval
Tallies.
75 .
Defeription
of an en¬
gagement
between
two fliips.
76
Prepara¬
tion.
77 .
"he atlion
w
When an enemy’s Hup heaves in fight, and it is thought
advifable to bring her to an engagement, orders are firft
given to clear for attion, which is begun by the boat-
fwain and his mates piping up the hammocks, in order
to clear the fpace between decks, for the more eafy ma¬
nagement of the guns, as well as to afford the men on
the quarter-deck, &c. a better proteftion againft the
enemy s {hot, the hammocks being ifow^ed in the net¬
tings above the gunwale and bulwarks. After this,
the. boatfwain’s mates go to work to fecure the yards,
W’hich. is done by fattening them with ftrong chains or
ropes in addition to thofe by which they are fufpended.
Ihey likewife get ready fuch materials as may be ne-
ceflary for repairing the rigging, if it fhould be cut a-
way, or otherwife damaged by the enemy’s fhot. In the
mean time the carpenter and his mates prepare fhot
plugs and mauls, to flop any dangerous fhot holes that
may be made in the hull near the furface of the water,
and. provide the neceffary iron work for refitting the
chain-pumps, if their machinery fhould be injured dur¬
ing the engagement j while the gunner and his mates,
and. the quarter gunners, examine the guns, to fee that
their charges are dry, and provide every thing that may
be required for fupplying the great guns and fmall arms
with ammunition. The mafter and mailer’s mates fee
that the fails are properly trimmed, according to the
fituation of the fhip, and increafe or reduce them as may
be found neceffary j and the lieutenants vifit the differ¬
ent decks, to fee that all is clear, and to take care that
the inferior officers do their duty.
When the hoftile ffiips have approached within a pro¬
per diflance of each other, the drums beat to arms j the
boatfwain and his mates pipe all hands to quarters ! All
the men who are to manage the great guns repair im¬
mediately to their refpeflive flations. The crows, hand-
fpikes, rammers, fponges, powder-horns, matches, and
train tackles, are placed in order by the fide of the
guns: the hatches are immediately clofed, to prevent
fculkers from getting below ; the marines are drawn up
on the quarter-deck, &c. the laffiings of the guns are
call loofe, and the tompions withdrawn. The whole
artillery, above and below', is run out at the ports, and
levelled to the point blank range, ready for firing.
When thefe neceffary preparations are completed,
and the officers and crew ready at their refpeftive na¬
tions, and wffien the two ffiips are fufficiently near each
other, in a proper relative fituation for the ffiot to take
full effe£l, the aflion commences with a vigorous can¬
nonade from the great guns, accompanied by the whole
efforts of the fwivels and fmall arms. The firing is fel-
dom performed in vollies, as that would (hake the ffiip
too much, but the. guns are loaded and fired one after
another, with as much difpatch and as little confufion
as poffible, care being taken to fire only when each gun
is properly dire&ed to its objeft. During the firing,
the lieutenants traverfe the decks, to fee that the battle
is profecuted with vivacity, and that the men do their
duty, while the midffiipmen fecond their injunctions,
and give the neceffary affiflance where required, at the
guns.committed to their charge. The youngefl of thefe
inferior officers, are generally employed to carry orders
from the captain. The gunners are all this time em¬
ployed in the magazines, filling cartridges, which are
carried along the decks in boxes by the boys of the
ihip. W hen the aClion has continued fo long, or has
A R.
Part II.
produced fuch an cffeCt, that one of the ffiips mufl yield Naval
or retreat, if the vanquiffied ffiip cannot get off, ffie Taftics.
acknowledges her inferiority by linking, or hauling  
down her colours, when fire is, as foon as poffible, taken
poffeffion of by the viClor, the commander of which
fends a part of his own crew into the captured ffiip, and
brings away mofl of her officers and men on board his
own ffiip, as prifoners of war. g
.The engagement being concluded, they begin to re-Repair,
pair j the guns are fecured by their breechings and
tackles, with all convenient expedition. Whatever fails
have been rendered unferviceable are unbent, and the
wounded mails and yards ftruck upon deck, to be fiflied
or replaced by others. 1 he Handing rigging is knotted,
and the running rigging fpliced where neceffary. Pro¬
per fails are bent in the room of thofe which have been
difplaced as ufelefs. The carpenter and his mates are
employed in repairing the breaches made in the {hip’s
hull, by ffiot plugs, pieces of plank, and ffieet lead.
The gunner and his affiflants are bufied in repleniffiino-
the allotted number of charged cartridges, to fupply the
place of thofe which have been expended, and in refitting
w hatever furniture of the guns may have been damaged
by the affion.
A general engagement between two adverfe fleets ofEngage-
couife involves a greater variety of circumfiances, andraentbe-
requires greater judgement, and more comprehenfiveflWeen tWQf
fkill in the commanding officer. fleets.
When the commander of a fleet has difeovered an
enemy’s, fleet, his principal objeft, if he be fufficiently
ilrong, is to bring it to a&ion as foon as poffible. Every
inferior confideration gives way to this important objeft,
and all neceffary preparations are immediately made to
prepare for fuch an event. . The flate of the wind and
fituation of the enemy will in general regulate his con-
dud wdth regard to the dipofition of his fliips on that
occafion. To facilitate the execution of the admiral’s
orders, the whole fleet is difpofed in three fquadrons, and
each of thefe claffed into three divifions, under the com¬
mand of different officers. Before the adion begins,
the adverfe fleets are drawn up in two lines, as formerly
deferibed. As foon as the admiral difplays the fignal
for the line of battle, the feveral divifions feparate from
the columns in which they were difpofed in the ufual
order in failing, and every ffiip crouds fail to get into
its ftation in the wake of the next a-head ; and a proper
diftance from each other is regularly obferved from the
van to the rear. The admiral, however, occafionally
contrafts or extends his line, fo as to regulate the length
of his line by that of his adverfary. This is more par¬
ticularly neceffaty to prevent his being doubled, by
which his van and rear would be thrown into diforder.
When the hoftile fleets approach each other, the courfes
are commonly hauled upon the brails, and the top-gal¬
lant fails, and flay fails furled. The movement of each
ffiip is regulated chiefly by the main and fore-top fails
and the jib : the mizen-top fail being referved to haften
or retard the courfe of the fliip 5 and by filling or back-
ing, hoifling or lowering it, to determine her velocity.
The fignal for a general engagement is ufually difplay-
ed when the fleets are fufficiently near each other, to be
within the range of point-blank ffiot, fo that the guns
may be levelled with fome certainty of execution. Af¬
ter the battle has commenced, it is carried on much in'
the fame manner as between two fhips, except that each
veffel
Part II.
V/ A R.
625
Naval
Tadlics.
* For par¬
ticular
Bntifli na¬
val ajflions.
fee Camp¬
bells Lives
vf the Ad-
veffel of the fleet, befifles attending to her own move¬
ments, has to obferve the fignais made by the command¬
ing officer, and repeated by the frigates on the van and
rear. The chief objebt of the admiral is to keep his
line as complete as poffible, by ordering (hips from thole
in referve to fupply the place of fuch as may have been
difabled, and to annoy the enemy as much as poffible,
both by ftrengthening the feeble parts of his own line,
and, if circurntlances admit of it, by fending down fire-
ihips upon that of the enemy. When the engagement
draws near a clofe, either by the defeat of the enemy, or
by the difabled date of either fleet, fignais are made from
the admiral, to take poffeffion of fuch of the enemy’s
firips as have Aruck, to tow his own difabled Ihips into
a place of fecurity, and either to chafe the remainder of
the enemy’s fquadron, or, if that be impracticable, to
draw off his own fliips to be refitted. *
Such are the general incidents attending an engage¬
ment at fea, modified of courfe by numerous circum-
ftances, of which a general defcription can convey no
idea. There are, however, various movements and evo¬
lutions connected with a naval engagement, which it will
7nirils, and fog neceffary for us to notice.
Beat/on's
Naval and
Military
Memoirs
of Great
Britain.
80
To difpute
the wea¬
ther gage
with an
fc'tiemy.
81
To force
the enemy
To action.
W^here the weather gage is deemed of fufficient im¬
portance, it is often an objeCt with twm fleets to difpute
it with each other. When the enemy is to windward,
and it is wilhed to gain the weather-gage of him, the
fleet to leeward ffiould avoid extending itfelf the
length of the enemy’s line, in order to oblige them to_
edge down upon theirs, if they intend to attack them j
which will be a mean, if they flill perfid in doing fo, of
lofing the advantage of the wind. It is impoffible for
a fleet to leeward to gain to windward, fo long as the
enemy keep the wind, unlefs a change happens in their
favour; therefore all that a fleet to leeward can do
mult be to wait with patience for fuch a change, of which
they will undoubtedly avail themfelves, as well as of any
inadvertency the enemy may commit in the mean time.
And as long as the fleet to leeward does not extend its
line the length of the enemy’s, it will be impoffible for
the latter to bring them to aClion without running the
hazard, by bearing down, of lofing the advantage of the
wind, which both fleets will be fo defirous of preferving.
That an admiral may take advantage of fuch fhifts of
wind as occafionally happen, he mud endeavour to get
his drips into fuch fituations where thefe drifts mod
frequently take place. It is well known to experienced
naval officers, that particular winds reign mod on cer¬
tain coads, or off certain headlands. Here, therefore,
the admiral ffiould await the approach of the enemy $
and though by this plan he may fometimes be unfuccefs-
ful, he w'ill more frequently gain a material advantage.
The difpofition of proje6Kng headlands, and the letting
of tides or currents, often contribute materially towards
gaining the wind of the enemy. The fleet to wind¬
ward fhould keep that to leeward as much as poffible
abread of it j and thus, unlefs the wfind changes confi-
derably, they will preferve the advantage they have
gained. They fhould alfo force them to keep their
wind, unlefs they think it prudent not to engage, in
which cafe it would be better to keep altogether out of
fight.
When the enemy appears defircus of avoiding an ac¬
tion, there are various methods of attempting to force him
toeneage ; as fird, when he has the weather gage. In
Vol. XX. Part II.
this cafe the lee fleet, which is defirous of bringing on Naval
an engagement, mud keep always on the fame tack with ladtics. ^
the enuny to windward, taking care to keep their own
fliips fo exaftly abread of the enemy, as to prevent io-
fing fight of them j and hence be ready to take advan¬
tage of the fird favourable fliift of wfind to make the at¬
tack. An alteration of the courle may be bed at¬
tempted in the night. The lee fleet mud have frigates
on the look-out, and thefe mud continually give notice
by fignal of the manoeuvres and court'd of the retreating
deet to windward. Thus the weather fleet is always
expofed to purfuit, without being able to get off unfeen j
hence mud fooner or later be compelled to an engage¬
ment, unlefs they can get into iome friendly port, or
Ihould be favoured by a gale of wind lufficient to difperle
both deets, and thus prevent the podibility of a general
engagement.
Secondly, when the enemy is to leeward.—If the lee
fleet keep clofe to the wind in the order of battle, the
fleet to windward is to fland on in the fame manner till
it be abread of the enemy, (hip to (hip, and at the fame
time to bear away, and deer fo as to biing their refpec-
tive opponents on the fame point of the compafs with
themfelves. Thus the adverfe fleets will be fufficiently
near each other to begin the action, by each (hip’s pre-
fenting her bow to the (hip abread of her in the order
of failing, which may be eafily changed for the order of
battle, by all the (hips hauling together clofe to the
wind, in the moment which precedes the aflion. If the
fleet to leeward appear inclined to engage, it may bring
to, to prevent lofing time, and after this they will fill
as foon as the aftion commences, becaufe it is of ad-
vange to a lee line to be advancing ahead. As the lee
fleet fills and dands in clofe by the wind, the weather
line ffiould keep abread, before it bears away, to come
within the requifite didance, that the van (hip of the
weather fleet may always keep to windward of the lead¬
ing (hip of the lee line, and be guarded againd any Ihift
of wind ahead.
If the lee fleet bear away four points to move their or*
der of battle on the other tack, and avoid the aftion, filing
off in fucceffion in the wake of the van (hip, the wea¬
ther line, by bearing away all together eight points, can¬
not fail, as both fleets are fuppoled to fail equally, to
pafs through the middle of their line, and force them to
fight with difadvantage, if their extent be double the
diftance between the two fleets. If the extent of the
fleet be lefs than the above limitation, then the weather
fleet wfill divide the lee fleet more unequally j and if
the di(lance between the fleets be confiderable, the wea¬
ther fleet will be able to break through the line. If
the lee fleet bear away four points all together, being of
equal extent with the fleet to windward, a; d their di¬
dance from each other equal to that of the length of
one of the lines ; ffiould the weather deet bear away at
the fame time eight points, they will approach very near
the dernmod of the retreating fleet j but they will not
have it in their power to cut off any part of that fleet,
even with an equality of failing; fo that the only ad¬
vantage gained by this manoeuvre will be an ability of
attacking the rear, and bringing it to a£h‘on.
If the van (hip and the red of the weather fleet had
a tufficient velocity to keep the centre ftfip of the lee
line on the fame point of bearing; in that cafe, the lead¬
ing (hip may break through the enemy’s line about the
4 K middle
■\
/
626
W A R.
Part II.
Naval
Tatftics.
81
To avoid
coming to
action.
8a
To doable
an enemy.
middle fliip of tlie centre divifion *, for, fuppofing the
fleets in the order of battle, on the ftarboard tack, fleer¬
ing eaft, with the wind at Ibuth fouth-eaft, being at two
leagues dittance from each other, both the lines being
four leagues in extent; then the lee line bearing away
all together four points, will run north-eaft; while the
fleet to windward, bearing away all together eight
points, will fleer north; the van fliip of which will
keep the centre divifion of the lee line in the point of
bearing north-weft. As fhe is fuppofed to be able to
continue in this pofition, it follows, that the van of the
weather line muft clofe the centre of the flying line to
leeward, after having run four leagues. The time and
tlillance neceflary to cut off a retreating fleet may al¬
ways be known according to the laft fuppofition. If
the lee fleet fhould get on the other tack, and run large,
ftill in the order of battle, they will be fooner forced to
adtion by the weather fleet, who have only to bear a-
way eight or nine points on the fame tack, ©r run right
before the wind.
As in forcing a fleet to action, there are two princi¬
pal cafes in which a fleet may avoid an adlion, where
circumftances are not fufhciently favourable •, firft, when
the enemy is to windward, and fecondly, when he is to
leeward. In the former cafe the lee fleet fhould form
the order of retreat, if the enemy are in view, and run
on the fame tack as their leading fhip ; but if he is ftill
out of fight, and they have received intelligence of his
approach, by their frigates on the look-out, they may
bear away large, without confining themfelves to keep
the wind diredlly off, unlefs when in the order of re¬
treat. In the fecond cafe, it feldom happens that the
weather fleet can be forced to an engagement, becaufe
it can always ftand on that tack which increafes its di-
flance from the enemy } that is, by ftanding on one
tack while the enemy is on the other. The windward
fleet muft of courfe not keep too near the enemy, and
take all poflible means of avoiding being abreafl of
him.
It is often of advantage to double the enemy j that is,
to bring a part of the fleet round upon his van or rear,
fo as to place him between two fires. This manoeuvre
alfo refolves itfelf into two principal cafes : firft, when
the enemy is to windward j fecondly, when he is to lee¬
ward. In the firfl: cafe, the lee fleet that attempts to
double the enemy, fhould extend itfelf abreafl: of him,
fo that its van or rear may extend beyond his line, in
order to overreach him, by tacking in fucceffion, fo that
the extended part of the line may get up to windward.
If this manoeuvre be properly executed, it will be impof-
fible for the (hips of the weather line long to maintain
their ftations, for no veffel clofely attacked by two others
of equal force can long refill.
It is of fome confequence to determine whether the
attempt to double fhould be made on the van or the rear
of the enemy, as on the propriety of adopting the one
or the other of thefe meafures, may in a great meafure
depend the iffue of the battle. In the prefent cafe, it
is moft eafy to double the van of the enemy, becaufe if
they are engaged by the (hips abreaft of them, thofe
which are advanced ahead will be able, by making all
fail, to get in the perpendicular to the diredlion of the
wind with the van of the enemy, and tack in fucceflion
to gain the wind of them on the other board, thus keep¬
ing them to leeward > and when they are come fufficient-
ly to windward, they are again to go about, in order to Naval
keep the two headmbft fhips of the enemy’s line conti- ; 'ladhcs. ^
nually under their fire. If there be two or three fhips ‘
to tack in fucceflion and gain the wind of the enemy,
they may edge down on the van of the water line at
pleafure, keeping themfelves a little to windward of it j
and as that van is already engaged by the other fhips a-
breaft on the other fide, the muit neceflarily be foon dil-
abled. If they bear away, they muft drop upon the
line with which they are engaged to leeward, while the
fhips to windward ftill continue to cannonade them. If
they attempt going about, in order to attack more clofe¬
ly the fhips to windward, they will be raked, while in
flays, by their opponents to leeward and to windward,
wflro enfilading them with whole broadfides, which they
cannot return, mull complete their diforder. If they
make fail, in order to fruttrate the defign of the flaps
inclined to double, thofe with which they are engaged
abreaft to leeward have only to perform the fame ma¬
noeuvre, and keep them under their fire •, while the
others, after having haraffed them as much as poffible,
will do their belt to perform the fame manoeuvre on the
fucceeding fhips.
If any of the fhips in the van of the weather line are
difabled in their malts or yards, they will drop aftern,
and run foul of the next fucceeding fhip, and thele again
on the next aftern. Thus, the enemy’s order of battle
will be broken, while on the other hand the lee line is
preferved j and tbofe fhips which have gained the wind
of the enemy will, without engaging more fhips than
they can manage, contribute to increale the confufion.
When the enemy is to leeward, and the weather fleet
attempts to double, the fhips of the weather line mull
extend their van beyond that of the enemy, and then
veer in order to bring the headmoft fhips of the lee line
between two fires. It muft not, however, be concealed,
that it is much more dangerous to the fhips engaged in
this fervice to attempt doubling a fleet to leeward, than
one to windward, as if difabled, or feparated too far
from their own fleet, they cannot fo eafily extricate
themfelves, and rejoin the fleet. 83
When one fleet attempts to double another, this lat-To. av«lcl
ter will of courfe do all in their power to avoid the im-j^jg < ou'
pending danger •, and this they will the more readily do,
according to their number, or their fituation. If the
fleet thus threatened be to windward, one of the me¬
thods propofed to avoid being doubled, is to extend th»
line towards the point threatened, fo as to leave a greater
fpace between the (hips; but in doing this, there is a
rifk of having the line broken by the fuperior enemy.
Another method fuggefted is, for the flag fhips of the
windward fleet to oppofe themfelves to thofe of the lee
line, which is fuppofed to render feveral of the enemy’s
fhips in the intervals of little ufe ; but one great incon¬
venience of this manoeuvre is, that it leaves the van and
rear moft expofed to the enemy’s fire, and that the rear
divifion in particular is in great danger of being doubled.
To remedy thefe defefls, the largeft fhips fhould be
placed in the van and rear of each divifion, and the
fleet muft regulate its failing in fuch a manner that its
rear {hall never be aftern of the rear of the enemy.
When the enemy is to leeward, the weather fleet is to
keep aftern of the enemy, fo that the van of the wea¬
ther fleet, may be oppofed to, and attack the enemy’s
centre. Hence the enemy’s van will become ufelefs for
fonie
Part II. W A
Naval fome time ^ and fliould it attempt to tack and doujle
■ ^ a<~^CS* on weatiicr fleet, much time will be loft in perfoim-
v ing that evolution j and it alfo runs the rilk ol being fc-
parated by the calm which often happens in the courle
of an engagement, occafioned by the difcharge of the
guns. A confiderable interval might alfo be left be¬
tween the centre and van, if neceflary piecautions be
S4 taken to prevent the van from being cut off.
Of chafing. There are feveral circumftances of importance to be
confidered in the fubject of chafing, i. e. when one fhip
or fleet purfues another, called the chafe, either to bring
85 her or them to aftion, or to oblige them to furrender.
In the cafe When a Angle ftfip chafes another, it is to be prefum-
of Angle eci Jn general, that one of them is the better failer,
though this is not always the cafe, and ftill by proper
manceuvering the chafing ftfip, or chafer, may gain on
the chafe. In the following obfervations, however, we
fhall fuppofe the chafer to fail fafler than the chafe.. The
manoeuvres of the chafer will depend on her being to
windward or leeward of the chafe.
When the chafe is to windward, it is evident that as
foon as ftie perceives a ftrange ftiip which fhe takes for
an enemy, fhe will haul her wind, in order to prolong
the chafe, as otherwife her retreat would foon be cut off.
The chafer then Hands on alfo nearly clofe hauled, till
fhe has the chafe on her beam •, fhe then tacks, and
Hands on clofe hauled till the chafe is again on her
beam, and then retacks. In this manner Hie continues
tacking every time fhe brings the chafe perpendicular to
her courfe on either board ; and by thus manoeuvring, it
is certain that the chafer will, by the fuperiority only
of her failing, join the other in the fhorteft time. For
fince the chafer tacks always as foon as the chafe is per¬
pendicular to her courfe, fhe is then at the fhortefl di-
Hance pofiible on that board ; and fince the chafer is
fuppofed to be the fafler failer, thefe fhortefi diflances
will decreafe every time the chafer tacks. It is there¬
fore of advantage to the chafe to keep conflantly on the
fame courfe, without lofing her time in going about, as
tacking cannot be fo favourable to her as to her adver-
fary, w’hofe failing is fuperior. If the captain of the
chafer fhould fo little underHand his profeflion as to
Hand on a long way, and tack in the wake of the chafe,
the befi thing {he can do is to heave in flays, and pafs
to windward of him on the other tack, except fhe fhould
find herfelf likely gaining advantage by going large j
for if the chafer perfifls in tacking in the wake of the
other fhip, the purfuit will be very much prolonged.
When the chafe is to leeward, the chafer is to fleer
that courfe by which fhe thinks fire will gain moft on
the chafe. If, after having run a fhort time, the chafe
is found to draw more aft, the chafer fhould then bear
away a little more; but if the chafe draw ahead, the
chafer fliould haul up a little, and thus the courfe may
be fo regulated that the chafe may always bear on the
fame point, and then the chafer will get up with the
chafe in the fhorteft time poflible 5 for if any other
courfe were fleered, the chafer would be either too far a-
head or too far aftern, and hence the purfuit would be
prolonged. The chafe fhould run on that courfe which
will carry her direftlv from the chafer, and fliould con-
fider which is her beft trim with refpe£l to the wind,
that fhe may move with the greateft poflible rapidity
from the chafer; for fome fhips have more advantage in
R. 627
going large, others witn the wind right aft, and others Naval
when clofe hauled. . . Tac*lcs- .
Another method has been propofed for chafing a ftiip g(5
to leeward, that is, by conftantly fleering direttly for Curve of
the chafe : in this cafe, the trail defcribed by the chafer purfuit.
is called the line or curve of purfuit. To illuftrate this,
let A (fig* II* Plate DLXVIII.) reprefent the chafer, 13LXVIII*
and B the chafe direftly to leeward of her, and running pig. IU;
with lefs velocity than the purfuer, in the diredlion BC,
perpendicular to that of the wind. Now7, to conftruft
this curve, let B £ be the diftance run by the chafe in
any fhort interval of time ; join K b and make A 1
equal the diflance run by the chafer in the fame time.
Again, make bc,cd,de, ej\ &c. each equal to B A;
join 1 c, and make 1, arrA 1 ; join id, and make
2, 3 equal to A 1 j proceed in like manner till the two
diflances carried forward meet as at C, and a curve de¬
fended through the points A, 1, 2, 3, &c. will repre¬
fent nearly the curve of purluit; and the lefs the inter¬
val A 1 is taken, the more accurately will the curve be
formed. In this particular cafe, the length of the di¬
ftance BC may be found as follows, provided the di¬
ftance AB and the proportional velocities of the two
fhips be known.
Let the velocity of the chafe be denoted by a frac¬
tion, that of the chafer being unity. Multiply the gi¬
ven diftance AB by this fraftion, and divide the pro¬
duct by the complement of the fquare of the fame frac¬
tion, and the quotient will be the diftance run by the
chafe B. Suppofe AB, the diftance of the chafe di-
reftly to leeward of the chafer, be taken at 12 miles,
and fuppofe the velocity of the chafe three-fourths of
that of the chafer •, what will be the diftance run by
I 2 X “ Q
the chafe before fhe is overtaken ? Now -—jji— ~T
o X—=20- miles j and fince the velocity of the chafer
7 7
to that of the chafe is as 4 to 3, hence the diftance run
by the chafer will be =20- X -=27- miles. As the
7 4 7
chafer alters her courfe at every point, and probably
fails better wdth the wind in one diredtion with refpedt
to her courfe than when the wind is in another direc¬
tion, her velocity will be different at different points of
the courfe. Thus, fuppofe her to fail fafter when the
wind is on the quarter, her velocity will conftantly in-
creafe to a certain point, and will then diminifh. Hence
in real pradlice the curve of purfuit will not be exadtly
what is laid down in the above problem, and of courfe
the meafure of BC will differ a little from what we have
there laid down. See RESISTANCE of Fluids and Sea¬
manship. _ 87
If the whole fleet is to give chafe, the admiral will in the cafe
make the proper fignal, and then each fhip will inftant- of fleets,
ly make all the fail poflible. If the retreating fleet is
aot much inferior to the other, a few of the fafteft fail-
ng veffels only are to be detached from the fuperior
Beet, in order to pick up any ftragglers, or thofe fhips
which may have fallen aftern 5 and the remaining part
of the fleet will keep in the fame line or order of failing
is the retreating fleet, fo that they may, if poflible,
force them to adtion. But if the retreating fleet is much
inferior, the admiral of the fuperior fleet will make the
4 K 2 fignal
628
Naval
Tallies.
88
Defedls of
the ufixal
line of
battle.
89
Principles
of de Gre¬
nier’s me¬
thod of tac
tics.
Plate
DLXVIII.
Fig. i a.
w
fignal for a generaT chafe, and then each Ihip will im-
. mediately crowd all the fail poflible after the retreating
fleet 3 or, if the chafe be itill lefs numerous, the admi¬
ral will detach one of the fquadrons of his fleet, by
holding the proper fignal for that purpofe, and he will
follow’ with the remainder of the fleet. The fquadron
that chafes, fhould be very careful not to engage too
far in the chafe, for fear of being overpowered 3 but at
the fame time to endeavour to fatbfy themfelves with re¬
gard to the objedl ol their chafe. They mull pay great
attention to the admiral’s fignals at all times 3 and, in
order to prevent reparation, they Ihould collect them¬
felves before night, efpecially if there be any appearance
of foggy weather coming on, and endeavour to join the
fleet again. The fhips are diligently to obferve when
the admiral makes the fignal to give over chafe 3 that
each regarding the admiral’s fhip as a fixed point, is to
work back into her ftation, to form the order or line
again as quickly as the nature of the chafe and the di-
ftance will permit.
When a fleet is obliged to run from an enemy who is
in fight, it is ufual to draw up the fhips in that form or
order, called the order of retreat; and the admiral,
when hard purfued, without any probability of efcaping,
ought, if practicable, to run his {hips afhore, rather
than fuffer them to be taken afloat, and thereby give
additional ftrengtk to the enemy. In fhort, nothing
fhould be neglected that may contribute to the prefer-
•vation of his fleet, or prevent any part of it from falling
into the hands of the conqueror.
We have now gone through the principal evolutions
of fleets and fquadrons, nearly as they are deferibed in
the 'Element.'; of rigging, featnanfljip, and naval taffies,
and other approved publications on fimilar fubjeCls. We
have indeed omitted the method of forcing an enemy’s
line, and of avoiding being forced, becaufe the forma-
will be readily underflood from what wre have to add on
the improved method of taftics of M. Grenier, and Mr
Clerk of Eldin.
Various defeCls have been obferved in the taClics
ufually employed at fea, efpecially in a line of battle,
and in the mode of bringing an enemy to action. The
ufual order of battle firft introduced by the duke of
York, afterwards James II. of England, is defective
from its length. Its great extent makes it difficult for
the admiral to judge what orders are proper to be iffued,
to the fliips ftationed at the extremities, while his fig¬
nals, however diftinCtly made, are liable to be miftaken
by the commanders of thefe fhips. Befides, the extre¬
mities of a long line, efpecially if it be to leeward, are
necefiarily defencelefs, as the enemy may throw himfelf
with a fuperior force on the van or rear, and cut either
of thefe off before it can be properly fupported by the
other fquadrons. Vifcount de Grenier, wEo was, we be¬
lieve, one of the firft to notice thefe defeCls, propo-
fed to remedy them by introducing a new order of
battle.
The leading principles of De Grenier’s taCtics are
founded on the following confiderations. It is evident
that each fhip of a fleet mull at all times occupy the
'cen’re of a certain horizon. This horizon De Grenier
divides into two unequal parts, calling the greater the
direff and graduated /pace, and the lefs the indireff,
croffed, and ungraduatedfpacc. The reafon of thefe ap¬
pellations is, that on the greater fegment of the horizon-
A E. Part II.
tal circle there are 20 different points, which may be Naval
marked by degrees from one of the clofe-hauled lines to Tallies,
the other, and to which a fhip may fail from the centre v 1
by fo many direCt courfes without tacking 3 whereas
from the other 12 points, including that from which the
wind blows, file cannot arrive but by fleering crols
courfes, which muft neceffarily delay her progrels, Sup-
pofe now a fleet to leeward, fo difpored that only a part
of it can fight with another equally numerous, and
ranged to windward in a fingle line, and let the lee
fleet be ranged on three fides of a lozenge a b, c d, ef
(fig. 12.). The fquadron a b, which is moft to wind¬
ward, being drawn up in line of battle, cannot be
fought but by an equal number AB, CD, EF. All
the reft of that fleet therefore muft remain inactive, uin-
lefs the fhips which are not engaged ffiould try to pafs
to leeward of the fleet a b, c d, ef But fhould the
flaps of the weather fleet, which are placed between B
and F, bear away as they appear in the figure between
C 1 and F z, the fhips between A and B, which are
fighting to windward, cannot bear away with them.
Suppofe now that the fhips between C i and F i have
paffed to leeward, the fquadrons c d, ef which are
ranged according to De Grenier’s fyftem, and have not
yet been engaged, fhould come to windward and join
with their friends a b againft that fquadron of the ene¬
my AB which is hill to windward and engaged; it is
almofl impoffible but that the fquadron AB muft be de-
firoyed by fo great a fuperiority, before it could receive
afliftance from the fliips to leeward between C 1 and
F /.
De Grenier propofes only three orders of failing, one His or der*
when a fleet is to pafs a firait} a fecond when rt fleers 01 failing,
in open lea, on the look out for an enemy, or with a
view to avoid him 3 and a third when on an exlenflve
cruife difpofed fo that it cannot be eafily furprifed or
broken. Of thefe three orders only the fecond and
third differ from the ufual orders of failing. The former
of thefe is reprefented by fig. 1. Plate DLX1X. where Plate
the columns a b, c d, ef are difpofed on three fides of IfifiXIX.
a regular lozenge, on the two clofe-hauled lines. The 1‘ a"*
fliips of the two divifions c d., ef fometimes to wind-
ward (as in fig. 2.) and fometimes to leeward (as in
fig. I.) of the third divifion ab, are to be formed on
two parallels of one of the clofe-hauled lines in the
wakes of their refpedtive headmoft fhips 3 while the third
divifion a b is to be ranged ahead or aftern of the others
on the other clofe-hauled line, fleering chequerwife the
fame courf'e as the other divifions.
When ab is to windward oi c d and ef (fig. i.j,
De Grenier calls that the windward primitive order of
failing, and when to leeward (fig. 2.), the fleet is laid
to be in the leeward primitive order of failing. Thefe
are the two principal pofitions in almoft every cafe, and
with very little variety, may become the order of battle,
of chafing, &c.
His third order is illuftrated by fig. 3. where the di-Fig .3.
vifions a b and ef are fuppofed at the diftance of
about fix leagues from each other 3 cd and ef refting
on the extremities of the bafe of a triangle STV, while
the centre fhip of the divifion a b lefts on its fummit T 3
none of the divifions could be cut off by an enemy, how¬
ever formidable, feen from its centre fhip at the diflance
of fix leagues. For if, on the proper fignal, the divi¬
fion a b fhould fleer from T toward X, on the courfe
oppofite
Tactics.
51
His order
of battle.
Plate
at the
he can
Part II.
Naval oppofite to the clofe-hauled line it fleered beiore, an
the two diviftons cd and ef fleer Irom V and S to¬
wards X iikewile, it is piain that eacu of thefe civinons
would have only three leagues to run to join the other
two, while the enemy which was fir ft perceived
diftance of flx leagues, muft run nine before
come up with the neareft of thele Squadrons.
To form De Grenier’s order of battle reprefented in
fig. 4. and 5. it will be fufficient for the Ships of the
three divifions ranged in the windward primitive order
rf.r^andof failing (lee N° 90.) to heave in flays ail together, and
' get on the other tack on the oppofite line of bearing
(fig. 4.) • or for the fliips in the leeward primitive order
at once to haul the wind on the fame tack as they fleer \
and they will find themfelves in order of battle, fig. 5*
When the two columns c d and ef, are Vo leeward of
tire third divifion a b, ranged in order of battle, thus is
called the natural order of battle, and when c d and ef
are to windward ol a b, this is the inverted order oj bat¬
tle. The former of thefe is calculated for a fleet com¬
bating to leeward, and the latter for a fleet which muft
fight to windward.
FiV. 5. To explain the advantages of thefe difpolitions, let us
fuppofe the line AB, CD, EF, fig. 6. to reprefent an
enemy’s fleet to windward in the ufual order of battle,
on the clofe-hauled line, and on the Starboard tack, and
let a £ be one of the divisions of a fleet difpofid accord¬
ing to the now natural order, on the Starboard tack,
while the line c d, ef, reprefent the other two divifions
Standing on chequerwife on the fame tack, but formed
on the oppofite clofe hauled line. W7hen the enemy
comes to attack this latter fleet on a fuppofition that it
is inferior to their own, their divifions AB and EF, in
order to attack the Ships a or b, muft bear away. Now,
to prevent the attack, each of the divifions c d, ef,
muSt make the following evolutions according to their
refpe&ive Situations, and the manoeuvres ol the enemy.
1. The Ships of the divifion a b are to Slacken as much as
poflible their headway, and form a very clofe line, till
the enemy makes a movement to attack the headmoft or
fternmoft Ship of that division. 2. the Ships of the di¬
vifion c d are to make fail till they come under the fe-
cond or third Ship of the rear of the line of battle a b,
when they will take the fame fail as the Ships of that di¬
vision, to preferve that position until the hoftile Ships
make their evolution to attack the rear Ships of that di¬
vision. In this Situation the Ships of the divifion c d
will be able to obferve the manoeuvres of the enemy, in
order to change tack, and form themfelves in order of
battle on the oppofite board as foon as the hoftile Ships
Shall have run over a certain fpace *, becaufe the Ships of
the division c d, fleering afterwards clofe hauled in the
wake of the fternmoSf Ship of the divifion ah, will be
able to cover the rear Ships of that divifion, and get the
weather-gage of the hoftile divifions which are bearing
away *, rake their Ships •, run along fide of them ; double
their rear-guard, and put it between two fires, if thofe
hoftile Ships are followflng in the wake of each other di¬
vide it, if they bear away chequervvife, or gain to wind¬
ward, and put between two fires the enemy’s divifion
CD, while engaged with the divifion a b. 3. The di¬
vifion ef may abandon their poll, and run chequerwise
under a prefs of fail as foon as the enemy falls ahead of
ab; that if the enemy’s divifion AB attempts to fall
on ef or on the van of a they may, by going about,
W A Pt. 629.
d fleer in order of battle clofe hauled on the oppofilc line, _/
and cover the Ship a, double the hoftile division CD a- , f 1
head, or divide AB which is running chequerwise on
the oppofite tack.
Fig. 7. marks another method of manoeuvring by the Fig. 7*
divifions c d, eJ, when the enemy’s Ships aie arranged in a
Single line not well formed. 92
Figs. 8. and 9. illustrate De Grenier’s method ofDe Gre-
placing the admiral’s Ship, and the frigates and tranf-niei s me-
poi ts attached to a fleet. A, fig. 8. is the admiral £ A
placed ahead of the fleet, at a Short diftance from the ^miral’s
headmoSt of the fecond divifion, and in the fame direc- fhip, fri-
iion oi the wind as the headmoit Ship of the firll divifion j gates and
f f are two frigates obServing the fame rule and pofition
with reipect to the van Ship of the third, and rear of the '
firft division. When the Sleet is in order oS battle, as in
fig. 9. the admiral’s Ship A is in the centre of the k>
z .nge, and two of the frigates, ff on the fourth fide oi
lozenge. The tranfhorts and ftore-Ships, when the fleet
is in order of failing or convoy, occupy the fpace cir-
cumfcribed by the lozenge, but in order of batde they
are difpol’ed in a line oppofite to that of the enemy.
We cannot enter on a more minute or latisfaftory ac¬
count of this fyftem ; for a full exposition of which we
muft refer to the original work entitled V Art de Guerre
cn Mer, ou TaBique Nava/e, &c. par M. ie Vifcouipte
de Grenier, or the extratls from it contained in the
Elements and Pra&ice of Rigging and Seamatjhip. Pd
We muft now turn our attention to the improvements Mr Cierl.-s
in ta&ics fuggefted by our countryman Mr Clerk ;—t u KS>
improvements which have received the approbation of
feveral diftinguithed officers of the British navy, and to
hints derived from which we are in a great mealure
indebted for fome of the moft Signal vidories which
have heaped additional honour on the naval power of
Britain. 94
Before entering on an explanation of Mr Clerk’s tac-^T^f^3
tics, we muft briefly Slate his objedions to the ufual
method of bringing (hips to adion, by the weather Ship method of
or fleet Sleeving diredly down upon the enemy. By attack,
doing this, the enemy to leeward often has an oppor¬
tunity of completely difabling the Ships making the at¬
tack, as the former can ufe all their guns on one fide,
while the latter can only ufe their bow chafes. Sup-
pofe B, fig. 10. Plate DLXIX. to reprefent a Ship of pjate
80 guns to windward, in fight of an enemy’s Ship of DLXIX.
equal force F, to leeward. Now, if B bears down di-Flg. 10.
redly upon F, the latter, by lying to, as in fig. ii.andtI*
will prefent a broadfide of 40 guns, all bearing for a
considerable time on B, while the latter coming down
headwife, can only bring the two light guns of lier fore¬
castle to bear on F, not to mention that F, by lying
broadfide to, will have her marts and rigging little ex-
pofed to the enemy’s {hot, while B Standing head on, is
expofed to be raked by every Shot from F, and in par¬
ticular her rigging is in the utmoft danger. p-
Inftead of this objedionable mode of attack, Mr His new
Clerk propofes that B having the wind, Should run method,
down aftern as in the dotted line at fig. 12. till five gets^S3^'*
into the courfe of F, near her wake, or in Such a posi¬
tion as will bring her parallel to F’s courfe, and within
a proper diftance, when She can run up clofe along fide
of F, and engage on equal terms; or, that She Should
Shoot ahead, then veer, and run down on the weather
hew of F, as in fig. 13. till She can force the chafe to
beaj:
6^o
W A R.
Naval
Tallies.
96
Effedls of
hring at
Plate
DLXIX.
Fig. 14.
97
One fliip
of a line of
battle
cannot be
many ho-
itile fhips
at once.
Fig- is-
bear away to leeward, keeping clofe by her, on equal
terms, taking care in both cafes not to put it in the
power of F to bring her broadlide to bear on her with¬
out retaliation.
 6 _ Fig. 14. is employed by Mr Clerk to illuftrate the
the hull or different procedure of a French and Britilh man of war
Egging- in firingj tbe former at the rigging, and the latter at
the hull of the enemy, with their effe&s. Let F repre¬
sent a large fliip deiirous of avoiding a clofe engage¬
ment, but lying to, to receive with advantage an ene¬
my’s fliip B, of equal force. Suppofe that F, by firing
at the rigging ot B, may have carried away fome of
the principal ftays, feveral of the windward flirouds, a
fore-topmaft, or other rigging of lefs confequence, with¬
out having wounded a fingle man 5 and fuppole a fecond
fliip confort to F, receiving an enemy’s fliip like B, but
firing only at her hull, fo as to kill'^o or 40 men, with¬
out damaging her rigging. Now, when F and her
confort wifli to avoid a clofe engagement, it is evident
that that ftiip B, which has loft part of her rigging, is
much more difabled from coming to clofe aftion than
her confort whofe rigging is entire, though flie may
have loft a great number of her men.
By the fcheme at fig. 15. it is intended to illuftrate
the impoflibility of one ftiip being expofed to the fire of
many ftiips at one time. Let I, H, F, H, I, reprefent
expofed to five Ships in line of battle ahead, about a cable’s length,
the fire of or 240 yards afunder, and fuppofe the length of each
fliip to be 40 yards, fo that the whole fpace between
the head of one fliip and the head of that next adjacent
equals 280 yards. Let the perpendicular line FK, ex¬
tending from the beam of F fix cables lengths or 1440
yards, be divided into fix equal parts. It is evident
that any fliip ftationed at E in the line FK, 720 yards
diftant, cannot long be expofed to the fire of more than
the centre ftiip F of this fquadron. For if we fuppofe
that H and K ahead and aftern of F, can bring their
broadfides to bear on E j by putting themfelves in posi¬
tions for that purpofe, they will not only diforder their
own line, but one will leave her head and the other her
ftern expofed to a raking fire from the oppofite ftiips
BB in the enemy’s line. If B can fuffer little from the
two ftiips H, H, at the diftance of 720 yards, it is evi¬
dent that ftie will fuffer ftill lefs from thefe Ships as She
approaches nearer the enemy’s line. Again, if inftead
of a cable’s length afunder, we fuppofe the Ships I, F, I,
two cables length afunder, to bear on the Ship B. It is
evident from the figure that in this cafe B will not be
more expofed to the fire of I and I at the diftance of 1440
yards than She was to that of H and H at half that di¬
ftance j and fo in Similar caffs.
In explaining the principles on which we are to judge
of the advantages or defe&s of different modes of bring¬
ing of flu's ^pS t0 a^;i'on» Clerk fuppofes a fleet of 10, 20
to adion is or n,ore ^'P5 8° guns each, drawn up in line of bat-
founded. tie to leeward, as at F, fig. 16. and lying to wfith an
Fig. 17. intention to avoid an aftiori j while another fleet, as B,
of equal number and force, alfo drawn up in line of
battle, three or four miles to windward, wishes to make
an attack, and come to clofe quarters on equaj terms.
The fleets being thus difpofed, Should the fleet at B at¬
tempt running down to attack the fleet at F, each Ship
Handing head an to the oppolite Ship in the leeward
Jine, it is to be expefted, from what we have already
ftated, that the attacking Ships will be difabled, at leaft
Part 1L
9s
Principles
on which
in their rigging, before they can come to clofe a&ion j Naval
but fuppofe that the commander of the weather Sleet, Fa<ftics-
though his Ships have been difabled in their rigging du-.,^”
ring their courie ana to leeward, fig. 17. has madeflS'I7'
them bring to at a great diftance, but iufficiently near
to injure F. This latter fleet, which has been endea¬
vouring to avoid an adfion, wall now bear away with
little injury to a new Station, as G, and there remain
out of the reach of B’s ihot, and this fleet muft repair
its rigging before it can make another attack.
Again, fuppofe that the fleet B, inftead of Standing Fig.
head on, wrere to run down in an angular courfe, as at
fig. 18. It is plain that if any Ship in this angular line
Should be crippled, her defeft in failing will occafion a
confufion of Several of the other Ships in that line. It
may be faid that the Stoppage of one Ship a-head will
not neceffarily produce a Stoppage of eveiy Ship a-Stern
of her, becaufe they may run to leeward of the difabled
Ship ; but we muft obferve that by this time the Ships
a-head in the van A may be engaged, and confequently
not having much head way, are nearly Stationary, So
that each Ship a-ftern, in attempting to bear down as at
D, D, muft be confined to a certain courfe, and muft run
the riSk of being raked in coming dowm before the wind,
and confequently of being disabled before coming up
with the enemy.
Thirdly, the van of the fleet B having attained their Fig. 13,
Station at A, a-breaft of the van of F, fig. 19. and ha- ^
ving begun the aftion, the van Ships of F, with a view
to retreat, may throw in a broadfide on the van of B,
and then bear away in fucceffion, as at H, followed by
the reft of the fleet F, which, after exchanging broad¬
fides with the van of B, may draw up in a new line two
or three miles to leeward at 11, fig. 20.
Suppofe again, for further illustration, that B, fig. 1. Plate
Plate DLXX. reprefents a fleet putting before the wind, DFXX*
each fliip intending, when brought to at a determined Fls- *'
distance at A, to take up her particular antagonists in
the line of the enemy F to leeward ; and let F be fup-
pofed at reft, without any motion a-head. It is eafy to
conceive that while the alternate Ships of F’s line, under
cover of the Smoke, withdraw' from battle to GGG, the
intermediate Ships left behind them in the line will be
fufficient to amufe even the whole of B’s fleet, till the
Ships G Shall form a new line HH as a fupport from the
leeward. In fuch cafe B, after being difabled, and not
having forefeen the manoeuvre, will neither be able to
prevent the intermediate Ships with which he is engaged *
from bearing aw-ay to join their friends, nor, were he
able, would it he advifable to follow them, for the fame
manoeuvre with equal S’uccefs can again and again be re¬
peated.
To explain the relative motion of thefe two fleets, letp^
F, fig. 2. reprefent a fleet of 12 ftiips in line of battle, a ^
cable’s length afunder, and fuppofe the length of each
Ship from the end of the jib-boom to the ftern to be 36-g
fathoms. The whole fleet will occupy a fpace of tu'o
English miles ; and if it be fuppofed to fail in the di-
redlion FG, at the rate of four knots an hour, it will
in an hour have moved to G, four miles from its former
pofition.
Now, let there be an oppofite fleet B, alfo 12 fhips,
Situated four miles to windward, and let the point A be
a quarter of a mile right to windward of the point G.
Then, if B by bearing away in the dire&ion BA, gain
the
99 ,
New mode
of attack
from the
windward.
Part II. w
Naval the point A at the fame time that the leeward fleet F
Iaclics. j-jas arrived at G, B will have moved nearly at ihe late
' v ' of 54 miles an hour, and the angle contained between
the direftion of its line of bearing and its prefent courle
will be nearly four points.
Secondly, in fig. 3. if F, by carrying more fail, move
at the rate of fix miles an hour, from F 4o G, then B,
with a more flanting courfe, will have more difficulty
in keeping the line a-breaft while coming down to the
attack^ owing to the additional obftru&ion which will
attend each fucceeding ffiip in fuch a flanting courfe.
Again, if the leeward fleet (hall lie up one point higher,
as FG, fig. 4. the rears of the two fleets will be removed
to a much greater diftance, and the van A muft be
fooner up with the enemy’s van, and of courfe fo much
farther from fupport, while F bringing up his {hips in
fucceffion, may difable the van of A, and afterwards
bear away at pleafure with little injury, as at H. Now
B being fuppofed difabled, and having his rear D di-
ftra&ed, will be unable to prevent F from efcaping.
From thefe confiderations it appears that a fleet, to
windward, by extending its line of battle with a view
to flop and attack the whole line of an enemy’s fleet to
leeward, mufi: labour under confiderable difadvantages,
and will fcarcely fucceed in the attempt.
On thefe principles Mr Clerk explains the reafon
why, before the commencement of the prefent conteft
between Britain and France, the French fleets fo re¬
peatedly efcaped from the Britifli, without any ferious
defeat or lofs, viz. by avoiding a general engagement,
and difabling the Britiffi van as it bore down to attack
them. He therefore recommends a different mode of
attack from the windward, which rve fliall proceed to
illuftrate by proper diagrams.
Fig. 5. Let F (fig. 5.) reprefent a fleet in line of battle,
under eafy fail, willing to avoid an aftion, but ready to
receive an attack in the ufual way, from another fleet
B, three or four miles to windward, arranged in three
columns. How (hall B make the attack on F, fo as,
without aiming at the improbable advantage of taking
or deftroying the greater part of this fleet, they may fe-
cure three or four of the fternmoft ffiips ? Mr Clerk
advifes, that a fufficient ftrength be detached to fecure
thefe (hips, while the admiral keeps aloof with the reft
of his fleet, difpofed as in the figure, ready to make the
neceffary obfervations and give the requifite fupport to
the detached {hips. If F continues to avoid an a£Hon
by {landing on in line, the detachment, coming into
the pofition BA, will fecure the three {hips at I ; and
if the headmoft {hips of F were to tack, and be follow-
Fig- <5. ed by the reft in fucceffion as at fig. 6. not only the
three {hips at I will be left at the mercy of the fnips
detached from B, but two more, as G, will be expofed
to an attack from another fquadron of B at C. If all
Fig. 7. the {hips of F tack together, as in fig. 7. the delay, and
probably the confufion, confequent on this manoeuvre,
will ftill more endanger the fternmoft {hips, or will
bring on a general and clofe aftion. Again, if F at¬
tempts to haul off, beginning with his fternmoft {hip G,
Fig. 8. and and then runs to leeward, as at fig. 8. he will expofe his
9- fffips to a raking fire from B, and ftill endanger his
fternmoft {hips by getting too far to leeward for their
fupport or if the headmoft {hips at FI, fig. 9. veer firft,
to be followed by the reft aftern, the danger would be
ftill greater. Thus it appears that in every affignable
A R. 6ix'
cafe, a fleet to leeward, avoiding an attack from an equal ^T^al
or fuperior windward, as here advifed, by preferving the ,. ' ^ ,
line, will rifle the lofs of three or more of their fternmoft
{hips.
Now, let us fuppofe that F, while {landing on in Fig. 10, n>
line on the larboard tack, when threatened with an at-12,
tack on his rear From B, veers and paffes on oppofite
tacks to leeward (fee fig. 10.). The confequence of
this will be, that bis headmoft {hips will be forced to
leeward by B, and compelled to engage under difad-
vantageous circumftances, and the difadvantage to F
will be much the fame, whether he again veers and re¬
fumes his former pofition, as at G, fig. 11. or Hands on
before the wind, as at P, fig. 12.
We have hitherto fuppofed that the wind has been Fig. 13-
fixed in one point; but let us fuppofe it to flflft, and
let us inquire what will be the effe£l of fuch a circum-
ftance on the two lines F and B. While the fleets are
in the former pofition, F in line, and B in four divi-
fions B, B, B, A, fleering E, with the wind at N, fig.
13. let the wind ftflft to the weft. The only confe¬
quence of this will be, that F will be thrown ftill far¬
ther to leeward, to its greater difadvantage. But let
the wind ftflft to E, fo as to be a-head, as in figs. 14. Figs. 14,
and 15. Still if the admiral of B manages properly,atld Is’
and carefully watches the motions of F, this change
will produce no advantage to the latter. For B has
nothing to do but veer as the wind comes round, fo as
to bring his {hips to windward of the three fternmoft
{hips of F, and to leeward of the reft of his line, fo as
to cut off the three fternmoft fliips.
If the wind ffiould be fuppofed to veer from point to
point all round the compafs, fo that the fleet F, main¬
taining the weather-gage of B, fliall make a circuit
round B to leeward ; ftill if B a£l cautioufly, F will lofe
the three threatened fhips.
Laftly, fuppofe the wind ftiould inftantly ftiift to a Fig. 16,
point oppofite to what it was at the commencement of
the attack, as from N. to S. Before it can be afeer-
tained whether fuch a change will be to the advantage
or difadvantage of F, the relative fituations of the two
fleets muft be confidered. Suppofe that the van and
centre be feparated at fome diftance from his rear, and
that in confequence this fleet fliall have taken fuch a
pofition as is ftiown at fig. 16. Though in this cafe heFlg- lS-
will have got to windward, his three fliips can never
be regained or preferved from the attack of B. The
molt favourable fituation for F would be when the fleets
were in the pofition denoted by fig. 13. as then he
could not only fupport his three fliips with advantage,
but even threaten, and cut off a part of B’s detachment.
In attempting this, however, he incurs the rifle of com¬
ing to a clofe engagement, which we have fuppofed him
to be feduloufly avoiding. 1QO
Befides this method of attack from the windward by From the
detachments from the main fleet, Mr Clerk fliows how leeward,
a fuccefsful attack may be made by a fleet to leeward,
by its breaking the enemy’s line, and this either near
the rear, near the centre, or not far from the van, of
which cafes the two former will be moft likely to prove
fuccefsful. The enemy’s line can be cut only when
the two hoftile fleets veer on oppofite tacks. The moft
fimple method of effefting this is for the van fliip of the
attacking fquadron, inftead of ranging parallel to that
of the enemy, and to leeward of him, to pafs through
thev
* See
Clerk's
Effay on
Naval
Tactics,
fecond
^Edition.
tot
Battle of
Trafalgar,
0<5lober
2 41, 1805.
W A
the firfl Interval that offers, followed by the reft of the
line, which is thus led acroi’s that of the enemy. In
confequence of this manoeuvre, the van of the leeward
fleet will be to windward of the enemy’s rear, and thus
the attacking fquadron will have its line entire, while
that of its adverfary is divided. Again, the Ihips of the
rear divifion, having their progrefs ob;.'.u£ted, will pio-
-bably crowd on each other, get into confufton, and be
driven to leeward. We cannot detail the different cafes
mentioned by Mr Clerk ; but for thefe and many other
valuable fuggeftions on the fubjeft of naval tabfics, wre
mufl refer to his ufeful and ingenious Effay *.
The above is a very faint and meagre outline of Mr
Clerk’s taftics, but it is all which our limits enable us
to give. It will afford general readers fome idea of the
nature of the propofed improvements, and profeflional
men wdli naturally confult the original ejfay.
On tnefe or fimilar principles is founded the method
of breaking through the enemy's line, and thus cutting off
a part of his fleet, fo fuccefsfully adopted by the Briiifli
-admirals in the great naval aftions that have diftinguiftied
the late and prefent wars with France. We cannot
better illuftrate the principles above laid down, than by
giving a fhort detail of the laft of thefe memorable en¬
gagements, the Battle of Trafalgar. With this
we fhall conclude our flcetch of naval taffies, and our
praftical obfervations on the art of War.
After having been long blocked up in the harbour of
Cadiz, the combined French and Spaniih fleet effedfed
their efcape, while the Britifh fleet, under the com¬
mand of Lord Nelfon, was at a confiderable diftance.
On the 19th of Odlober 1805, the (hips wdiich had
been left to watch the njotions of the enemy, communi¬
cated to the commander in chief the agreeable intelli¬
gence, that the combined fleet had put to fea, and was
failing with light winds in a wefterly diredlion. Lord
N-dfon concluding that their deftination muft be the
Mediterranean, immediately made all fail with his flips
for the entrance of the ftraits. Here he was informed
by Captain Blackwood, that the enemy had not yet
paffed the ftraits.
On the 21 ft of Odlober, at daylight, Cape Trafal¬
gar bearing eaft by fouth about feven leagues diftant,
the combined fleet was difeovered about fix or feven
miles to the eaftward. The wind was about weft, and
very light. As Lord Nelfon had long expefted to fall
in with the enemy’s fleet, he had concerted with his of¬
ficers the beft and moft expeditious meafures for bring¬
ing them to a fpeedy and decifive affion. As foon,
therefore, as they hove in fight, he immediately made
the fignal for the Britifh fleet to bear up in two co¬
lumns, as they formed in order of failing. The com¬
bined fleet was drawn up in line of battle, with their
heads to the northward, and had formed the line with
great clofenefs and correflnefst It confifted of 33 fliips
of the line, 18 French, and 15 Snanilh, under Admiral
Villeneuve, as commander in chief, who occupied the
•centre in the Bucentaure, while the Spanifh admiral,
Gravina, led the rear in the Prince of Afturias. The
Britifh fleet confifted of 27 (hips, including three fixiy-
ffours. Lord Nelfon headed the van in the Victory,
R* Part IT,
having under him the Temcraire, Neptune, Conqueror, Naval
Leviathan, Ajax, Orion, Agamemnon, Minotaur, Spar-, iuc^cs‘ „
tiate, Britannia, Africa, with the Euryalus, Sirius, *
Phoebe, and Naiad frigates, Pickle fchooner, and En~
treprenante cutter; while the rear, confiding of the
Royal Sovereign, Mars, Belleifle, Tonnant, Bellero-
phon, Coloifus, Achdle, Polyphemus, Revenge, Swift-
fure, Defence, Thunderer, Defiance, Prince, and Dread¬
nought, was led by Vice-admiral Coliingwood in the
Royal Sovereign.
As the mode of attack adopted by the Britifh was
unufiutl, the combined fleet was obliged to draw up
their line in a new manner. It formed a crefcent, with
its convexity to leeward, fo that in leading down to
their centre, the rear divifion of tire Brrdftt had both
their van and rear abaft the beam. Belore the adlion
commenced, every alternate (hip was about a cable’s
length to windward of her fecond ahead and aftern,
thus forming a kind of double line, and appearing,
when on their beam, to leave a fmall interval between
them wdthout crowding their (hips. The French and
Spaniards were not formed in feparate divifions, but in¬
termixed without any apparent regard to order of na¬
tional fquadrons. As the Britilh commander had previ-
oufly communicated to his flag-officers and captains his
pre-concerted mode of attack, few fignals were necef-
fary, and none were made on approaching the enemy,
except to diredt clofe order as the lines bore down.
The a£Hon commenced at noon, by the leading fliips
of both columns, breaking through the enemy’s line,
the Vi&ory about the tenth (hip from the van, and the
Royal Sovereign about the twelfth from the rear j the
fucceeding ftiips breaking through in every part aftein
of their leaders, and engaging the enemy at the very
muzzles of their guns. By this manoeuvre the van of
the enemy was unengaged, and thus the inferiority of
the Britifh, in point of number, was of kfs confequence,
while the fuperior fkill and bravery of Britifh (eamen
foon acquired a decided advantage. The conflifl was
fevere, as the enemy’s (hips were fought with a gallan¬
try highly honourable to their commanders. The Bri¬
tifh attack, however, was irrefiftible. About three
P. M. many of the enemy’s fhips had ftruck their co¬
lours, and their line had given way. Ten fhips of the
line, and the frigates, under Admiral Gravina, made
their efcape, and flood to leeward cowards Cadiz. The
five headmoft fhips of their van tacked, and, handing
to the fouthward, to windward of the Brit’fh fine, were
brought to aflion, and the fternmoft of them taken.
Nineteen fhips of the line, with three flag-officers, in¬
cluding the commander in chief, remained in the hands
of the Britilh. Never wras there a viflory more glori¬
ous or more decifive 5 never was the pre eminence of
the Britifti flag more triumphantly confpicuous.
The events iubfequent to this memorable battle, and
the Ioffes fudamed on either fide, having little connec¬
tion wdth the fubjecl of the prefent article, need not be
here detailed. They are frefh in the memory of our
r eaders, and Biitain ftill laments the lofs of her immor¬
tal Nelfon *. * See Nel¬
fon.
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Plate DXXX.
mjrr«A> <rou2pp
WAR
War Man-of4VAR Bird. See PelicaKus, Ornitholo-
7 II GY Index.
Warburton. WAR-Cry was formerly cuftomary in the armies of
moft nations, when juft upon the point ot engaging.
Sometimes they were only tumultuous (bouts, or horrid
yells, uttered with an intent to ftrike terror into their
adverfaries; fush as is now ufed by the Indians in Ame¬
rica, called the war-whoop.
WARBLES, a dii'eafe of horfes, fee Farriery In¬
dex.
WARBURTON, William, a learned Englifti bi-
fhop, was defcended from an ancient family in Chefhire,
and was the fecond fon of George Warburton, an attor¬
ney at Newark in the county of Nottingham, was born
at Newark, December 24. 1698. He was firft put to
fchool there under a Mr Twells, but had the chief part
of his education at Okeham in Rutlanefthire, where he
continued till the beginning of the year I7I4> and foon
after he was put out clerk to an eminent attorney of
Great Markham in Nottinghamfhire, where he conti¬
nued till the year 1719, when he returned to his family
at Newark j but whether he pra£tifed there or elfewhere
as an attorney, is not knowm.
He had always expreffed a ftrong inclination to take
orders j and the love of letters, which tended to retard,
rather than forward, his progrefs in the profeflion chofen
for him by his friends, growing every day ftronger in
him, it w’as deemed expedient to give way to that in¬
clination. He therefore devoted himfelf to the ftudies
neceffary to fit him for the church, and at length in
1723 he was ordained deacon, and prieft in 1727.
In 1728 he was prefented by Sir Robert Sutton to
the reftory of Brand-Broughton, in the diocefe of Lin¬
coln, where he fpent the greater part of his life, and
compofed all the great works which will carry his fame
down to pofterity. In the fame year he was put upon
the king’s lift of Mafters of Arts, erefted on his ma-
jefty’s vifit to the univerfity of Cambridge. He had al¬
ready publithed fome juvenile performances, which dif-
played genius and reading, and attra&ed confiderable
notice ; but it was not till the year 1736 that he may
be faid to have emerged from the obfcurity of a private
life into the notice of the world.—The firft publication
which rendered him afterwards famous now appeared,
under the title of “ The Alliance betrveen Church and
State •, or, the Neceffity and Equity of an Eftablifhed
Religion and a Teft Law •, demonftrated from the Ef-
fence and End of Civil Society, upon the fundamental
Principles of the Law of Nature and Nations.” In
* Review of treatife, fays Bi (hop Horfley *, the author “ hath
the Cafe of ftiown the general good policy of an eftablifhment, and
the Proto- neceftity of a Test for its fecurity, upon principles
jlant ij- republicans themfelves cannot eafily deny. His
'Lotul. 17S7. work is one of the fineft fpecimens that are to be found
Preface, perhaps in any language, of fcientific reafoning applied
to a political fubjeft.”
At the clofe of the Alliance was announced the
fcheme of the Divine Legation of Mofes, in which he
had then made confiderable progrefs. The firft volume
of this work was publifhed in January 1737-8, under
the title of “ The Divine Legation of Mofes demon¬
ftrated on the Principles of a religious Deift, from
the Omiftion of the Do&rine of a future State of Re-
wa-. ds and Punifhments in the Jewifti Difpenfation, in
fix books, by William Warburton, M. A. author of
Vol. XX. Part II.
WAR
the Alliance between Church and State and met Warburton,
with a reception which neither the fubjedl, nor the man- v
ner in which it was treated, feemed to authorile. It
was, as the author afterwards obierved, fallen upon in
fo outrageous and brutal a manner as had been fcarce
pardonable, had it been “ The Divine Legation of Ma¬
homet.”—It produced feveral anfwers, and fo much
abufe from the authors of “ The Weekly Milcellany,”
that in lefs than two months he was conftrained to de¬
fend himfelf, in “ A Vindication of the Author of the
Divine Legation ot Mofec, from the Afperfions of the
Country Clergyman’s Letter in the Weekly Mifcellany
of February 24. 1737-8, 8vo.”
Mr Warburton’s extraordinary merit had now attrac¬
ted the notice of the heir apparent to the crorvn, in
whofe immediate fervice we find^ him in June 1738,
when he publifhed “ Faith working by Charity to
Chriftian Edification, a Sermon, preached at the laft
epifcopal Vilitation for Confirmation in the Diocefe of
Lincoln ; with a Preface, (liowing the Reafon of its
Publication; and a Poftfcript, occafioned by fome Let¬
ters lately publifhed in the Weekly Mifcellany; by Wil¬
liam Warburton M. A. Chaplain to his Royal Highnefs
the Prince of Wales.”
The Effay on Man” had now been publifhed fome
years; and it is univerfally fuppofed, that the author
had, in the compofition of it, adopted the philofophy of
Lord Bolingbroke, whom, on this occafion, he had fol¬
lowed as his guide, without underftanding the tendency
of his principles. In 1738, M. de Croufaz wrote fome
remarks on it, accufing the author of Spinozifm and Na-
turalifm ; which falling into Mr Warburton’s hands, he
publifhed a defence of the firft epiftle, and foon after of
the remaining three, in feven letters ; of which fix were
printed in 1739, and the feventh in June 1740, under
the title of “ A Vindication of Mr Pope’s Effay on
Man, by the author of the Divine Legation.” The
opinion which Mr Pope conceived of thefe defences, as
well as of their author, will be bed feen in his letters.
In confequence, a firm friendfhip was eftablilhed be¬
tween them, which continued with wndiminiftied fervour
until the death of Mr Pope ; who, during the remainder
of his life, paid a deference and refpedft to his friend’s
judgement and abilities, which will be confidered by
many as almoft bordering on fervility.
Towards the end of the year 1739, Mr Warburton
publilhed a new and improved edition of the firft vo¬
lume of the Divine Legation; and in 1741, appeared
the fecond part, which completed the argument, though
not the entire plan of that work. “ A work, fays
BHhop Hurd *, in all views of the moft tranfcendant * Life of
merit, whether we confider the invention or the execu- Warburton
tion. A plain fimple argument, yet perfeftly new,prefxed to
proving the divinity of the Mofaic law, and laying a/'‘J ;
fure foundation for the fupport of Chriftianity, is there
drawn out to a great length by a chain of reafoning fo
elegantly connefted, that the reader is carried along it
with eafe and pleafure ; while the matter prefented to
him is fo ftriking for its own importance, fo embellifhed
by a lively fancy, and illuftrated from all quarters by
exquifite learning and the moft ingenious difquifition,
that in the whole compafs of modern or ancient theolo¬
gy, there is nothing equal or fimilar to this extraordi¬
nary performance.”
This is the panegyric of a man refle&ing with ten-
4 L dernefs
[ 633 1
'■* Life of
.Pope.
WAR l 63
Warbmton. dernefs on the memory of his friend and benefaffor ;
y-—' j,u(. jt approaches mUch nearer to the truth than the
cenfures of thofe cabaliftic critics, who, fattening upon
fame weak part of the Divine Legation, or perhaps
never having looked into it, have ridiculoufly contended
that the author was far from being eminent its a fcho-
lar, and that his work is inimical to the caufe of Chri-
ftianity ! Putting partiality alide, there is in the Divine
Legation of Mofes abundant evidence of the malignant
folly of this charge, as no man can read and underttand
that work without being convinced that its author was
a Chriftian, not only fincere but zealous 5 that he was,
what Johnfon calls him *, “ a man of vigorous faculties,
of a mind fervent and vehement, fupplied, by unlimited
and incelfant inquiry, with a wonderful extent and va¬
riety of knowledge, which had neither depreffcd his
imagination nor clouded his perfpicuity ", and that to
every work, and this work in particular, he brought a
memory full fraught, with a fancy fertile of original
combinations, exerting at once the powers of the fcho-
lar, the reafoner, and the wit.” But we think it mutt
be acknowledged, that his learning was too multifarious
to be always exaft, and his inquiries too eagerly puttied
to be always cautious. We have no hefkation, how¬
ever, to fay, that to the divine this great work, with all
its imperfeflions, is, in our opinion, one of the molt
valuable that is to be found in any language.
In the fummer 1741, Mr Pope and Mr Warburton,
in a country ramble, took Oxford in their way. The
univerfity was naturally pleafed at the arrival of two
fuch ftrangers, and feemed delirous of enrolling their
names among their graduates. The degree of D. D.
was intended for the divine, and that of LL. D. for
the poet : but intrigue and envy defeated this fcheme ;
•and the univerfity loft the honour of decorating at the
fame time the two greateft geniufes of the age, by the
fault of one or two of its members. Pope retired with
dome indignation to Twickenham, where he confoled
himfelf and his friend with this farcattic refleftion—
“ We {hall take our degree together in fame, whatever
we do at the univerfity.”
The friendfliip of this eminent poet was of fervice to
Mr Warburton in more refpefts than that of increafing
his fame. He introduced and warmly recommended
him to moft of his friends, and among others to Mr
Murray, afterwards earl of Mansfield, and Ralph Al¬
len, Efq. of Prior-park. In confequence of this intro-
duiflion, we find Mr Warburton at Bath 1742; where
lie printed a feimon which had been preached at the
Abbey-church on the 24th of October, for the benefit
of Mr Allen’s favourite Charity, the General Hofpital
or Infirmary. In this year alfo he printed a Differta-
tion on the origin of books of chivalry, at the end of
Jarvis’s Preface to a tranflation of Don Quixote, which
Mr Pope tells him, he had not got over two para¬
graphs of, before he cried out, siut Ernfmus, aut Dia-
bo!;iS.
In 1742, Mr Warburton publilhed “ A Critical and
Philofophical Commentary on Mr Pope’s Effay on Man,
in which is contained a Vindication of the faid Effay
from the Mvfreprefentation of M. de Refnal, the French
Tranflator, and of M. de Croufaz, Profeffor of Philo-
fophy and Mathematics in the Academy of Laufanne,
the Commentator.” It was at this period, when Mr
Warburton had the entire confidence of Mr Pope, that
4 ] WAR
he advifed him to complete the Dunciad, by changing Warburton.
the hero, and adding to it a fourth book. This was k
accordingly executed in 1742, and publithed early in
1743, with notes by our author ; who, in confequence
ot it, received his lhare of the abule which Mr Cibber
liberally beftowed on both Mr Pope and his annotator.
In the latter end of the lame year he pukliflied complete
editions of “ The Effay on Man,” and “ The Effay on
Critjcifm j” and from the fpecimen which he there ex¬
hibited of his abilities, it may be prefumed Mr Pope de¬
termined to commit the publication of thofe works
which he fhould leave to Mr Warburton’s care. At
Mr Pope’s defire, he, about this time, reviled and cor¬
rected the “ Effay on Homer,” as it now Hands in the
lalt edition of that tranflation.
The publication of “ The Dunciad” was the laft fer¬
vice which our author rendered Mr Pope in his lifetime.
After a lingering and tedious illnefs, the event of which
had been long forefeen, this great poet died on the 30th
of May 1744; and by his will, dated the 1 2th of the
preceding December, bequeathed to Mr Warburton one
half of his library, and the property of all inch of his
works already printed as he had not otherwile difpofed
of or alienated, and all the profits which Ihculd arife
from any edition to be printed after his death : but at
the fame time directed that they fliouid be publifhcd
without any future alterations.
“ In J 744, Mr Warburton turned his attention to
the feveral attacks which had been made on the “ Di¬
vine Legation,” and defended hinuelf in a manner
which, if it did not prove him to be poffeffed of much
humility or diffidence, at leait demonftrared, that he
knew how to wield the weapons of controverfy with the
hand of a mailer. Elis firft defence now appeared, un¬
der the title of “ Remarks on feveral occalional Reflec¬
tions, in Anfwer to the Reverend Dr Middleton, Dr
Pococke, the Mailer of the Charter-Houle, Dr Richard
Grey, and others ; ferving to explain and jollify divers
Paflages in the Divine Legation, objected to by thole
learned Writers. To which is added, A General Re¬
view of the Argument of the Divine Legation, as far
as it is yet advanced ", wherein is confldered the Rela¬
tion the feveral Parts bear to each other and the whole.
Together with an Appendix, in Anfwer to a late Pam¬
phlet intitled, An Examination of Mr W ’s fecond
Propofition.” This was followed next year by “ Re¬
marks on feveral occafional Refleftions, in Anfwer to
the Reverend Doctors Stebbing and Sykes; ferving to
explain and juftify the Two Differtations in the Divine
Legation, concerning the Command to Abraham to
offer up his Son, and the Nature of the Jewilh Theo¬
cracy, objected to by thefe learned Writers. Part II.
and lair.” Both thefe anfwers are couched in thole
high terms of confident fuperiority, which marked al-
molt every performance that fell from his pen during
the remainder of his life.
On the 5th of September 1745, the friendflup be¬
tween him and Mr Allen was more clolely cemented by
his marriage with Mifs Tucker, who furvived, and is
now, if alive, Mrs Stafford Smith of Prior-park. At
that important crifis our author preached and publiihed
three feafonable fermons : 1. “ A faithful Portrait of
Popery, by which it is feen to be the Reverie of Chrif-
tianity, as it is the Dellnuftion of Morality, Piety, and
Civil Liberty. Preached at St James’s, Weflirtinfter,
October
WAR [ 635
Wartoton. 0<?lober 1745.” 2. “A Sermon occafioned by the
prefent unnatural Rebellion, &c. Preached in Mr Al¬
len’s Chapel at Prior-park, near Bath, November 1745*”
3. “ The Nature of National Offences truly ftated.—
Preached on the General Fail-day, Dec. 18. 1745-6.”
On account of the laft of thefe fermons, he was again
involved in a controverfy with his former antagoniil Dr
Stebbing, which occafioned “ An Apologetical Dedica¬
tion to the Reverend Dr Henry Stebbing, in Anfwer to
his Cenfure and Mifreprefentations of the Sermon preach¬
ed on the General Fall, &ck”
Notwithilanding his great connexions, his acknow¬
ledged abilities, and his eilabliilied reputation, a reputa¬
tion founded on the durable bafis of learning, and up¬
held by the decent and attentive performance of every
duty incident to his ftation j yet we do not find that he
received any addition to the preferments given him in
1728 by Sir Robert Sutton (except the chaplainihip to
the prince of Wales), until April 1746, when he was
unanimoufly called by the Society of Lincoln’s Inn to
be their preacher. In November he publifhed “ A Ser¬
mon preached on the Thanfgiving appointed to be ob-
ferved the plh of QXober, for the Suppreffion of the
late unnatural Rebellion.” In 1747 appeared his edi¬
tion of Shakefpeare and his Preface to Clariffa ; and in
the fame year he publiihed, 1. “ A Letter from an Au¬
thor to a Member of Parliament concerning Literary
Property.” 2. “ Preface to Mrs Cockburn’s Remarks
upon the Principles and Reafonings of Dr Rutherford’s
Effay on the Nature and Obligations of Virtue, &c.”
3. “ Preface to a Critical Inquiry into the Opinions and
PraXice of the ancient Philofophers, concerning the
Nature of a Future State, and their Method of teach¬
ing by double DoXrine,” (by Mr Towne) 1747, fe-
cond edition. In 1748, a third edition of “ The Alli¬
ance between Church and State, correXed and enlar¬
ged.”
“ In 1749, a very extraordinary attack was made on
the moral charaXer of Mr Pope, from a quarter where
it could be leaft expeXed. An infignificant pamphlet,
under the name of A Patriot King, was that year pub¬
liihed by Lord Bolingbroke, or by his direXion, with
a preface to it, refleXing highly on Mr Pope’s honour.
The provocation was limply this : The manufeript of
that trivial declamation had been intruded to the care
of Mr Pope, with the charge (as it was pretended) that
only a certain number of copies fhould be printed. Mr
Pope, in his excefiive admiration of his guide, philofa-
pher, and friend, took that opportunity, for fear fo in¬
valuable a treafure of patriot eloquence fhould be loll to
the public, to exceed his commifiion, and to run off
more copies, which were found, after his death, in the
printer’s warehoufe. This charge, however frivolous,
was aggravated beyond meafure j and, notwithffanding
the proofs which Lord Bolingbroke had received of
Pope’s devotion to him, envenomed with the utmoli ma¬
lignity. Mr Warburton thought it became him to vin¬
dicate his deceafed friend ; and he did it fo effeXually,
as not only to filence his acCufer, but to cover him with
confofion
About this time the publication of Dr Middleton’s
Inquiry concerning the miraculous Powers of the Chrif-
tian Church, gave rife to a controverfy, which was ma¬
naged with great warmth and afperity on both fides, and
not much to the credit of either party. On this occa-
]
WAR
* Hurds
Life of
War bur¬
ton.
fion Mr Warburton pu’ lilhed an excellent performance, Wivburtofo
written with a degree of candour and temper, which, it
is to be lamented, he did not always exercife. The
title of it rvas'“ Julian ; or a Difcourfe concerning the
Earthquake and fiery Eruption which defeated that Em¬
peror’s attempt to rebuild the Temple at Jerufalem,
-A- fecond edition of this difcourfe, “ with Ad¬
ditions,” appeared in 1751, in which year he gave the
public his edition of Mr Pope’s Works, with Notes, in
nine volumes 8vo ; and in the fame year printed “ An
Anfw^er to a Letter to Dr Middleton, inferted in a
Pamphlet intitled, The Argument of the Divine Lega¬
tion fairly Hated,” &c.; and “ An Account of the
Prophecies of Arife Evans, the Wellh Prophet in the
lall Century,” annexed to the firll volume of Dr Jortin’S
Remarks on Eccleliallical Hiltory, wfoich afterwards
fubjeXed him to much trouble.
In 1752, Mr Warburton publilhed the firll volume
of a courle of fermons, preached at Lincoln’s Inn,’ in-
titled, “ The Principles of Natural and Revealed Reli¬
gion, occafionally opened and explained j” and this was
two years afterwards followed by a fecond. After the
public had been fome time promifed, it may, from the
alarm wfoich was taken, be almolt faid threatened with,
the appearance of Lord Bolingbroke’s Works, they were
about this time printed. The known abilities and infi¬
delity of this nobleman had created apprehenfions in the
minds of many people, of the pernicious effeXs of his
doXrines ; and nothing but the appearance of his whole
force could have convinced his friends, how little there
was to be dreaded from arguments againll religion fo
weakly fupported. Many anfwers were foon publilhed,
but none with more acutenefs, folidity, and fprightli-
nefs, than “ A View of Lord Bolingbroke’s Philofophy,
in tw'o Letters to a Friend, 1754 the third and
fourth letters were publilhed in 1755, with another edi¬
tion of the two former; and in the fame year a fmaller
edition of the whole ; which, though it came into the
world without a name, wras univerfally aferibed to Mr
Warburton, and afterwards publicly owned by him. To
fome copies of this is prefixed an excellent complimen¬
tary ephtle from the prefident Montefquieu, dated May
26. 1754.
At this advanced period of his life, that preferment
which his abilities might have claimed, and which had
hitherto been withheld, feemed to be approaching to¬
wards him. In September I754> he was appointed one
of his majdiy’s chaplains in ordinary •, and in the next
year was prefented to a prebend in the cathedral of
Durham. About this time the degree of DoXor of Di¬
vinity was conferred on him by Dr Herring, then arch-'
bilhop of Canterbury. A new imprelfion of The Di¬
vine Legation being now' called for, he printed a fourth
edition of the firlt part of it, correXed and enlarged, di¬
vided into two volumes, with a dedication to the earl of
Hardwicke. The fame year appeared “ A Sermon
preached before. his Grace Charles Duke of Marlbo¬
rough, Prefident, and the Governors of the Hofpital
for the Smallpox and for Inoculation, at the Parilh-
church of St Andrew, Holborn, April the 24th, 1755.”
And in 1756, Natural and Civil Events the Inltru-
ments of God’s Moral Government ; a Sermon, preach¬
ed on the lall public Fall-day, at Lincoln’s Inn Cha¬
pel.”
In 1757, Dr Warburton meeting with Mr Hume’s
4 L 2 traX,
i
WAR [ 636 ] WAR
Warfrurton. tracr, entitled, The Natural Hiilory of Religion, filled
v~"''' the margin of the book, as well as fome interleaved flips
of paper, with many fevere and (hrewd remarks on the
infidelity and naturaiifm of the author. Thefe he put
into the hands of his friend Dr Hurd, w7ho, making a
few alterations of the flyle, added a ihort introduftion
and conclufion, and publifhed them in a pamphlet, en¬
titled, “ Remarks on Mr David Hume’s Natural Hi-
ftory of Religion, by a Gentleman of Cambridge, in a
Letter to the Reverend Dr Warburton.” This lively
attack upon Mr Hume gave him fo much offence, that
he thought proper to vent his fpleen on the fuppofed au¬
thor, in the poithumous difcourle which he called his
Life ; and thus to do greater honour to Dr Hurd than
to any other of his numerous antagonifts.
Towards the end of the year 1757, Dr Warburton
was promoted to the deanery of Bnitol \ and in the be¬
ginning of the year 1760, he was, through Mr Allen’s
intereft with Mr Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, ad¬
vanced to the bifhopric of Gloucelter. That great mi-
nifler is known to have declared, “ that nothing of a
private nature, fince he had been in office, had given
him fo much pleafure as bringing our author on the
bench.” There was, however, another miniftcr, who
dreaded his promotion, and thought he few a fecond
Atterbury in the new bitfiop of Gloucefter 5 but War¬
burton, fays Bilhop Hurd, had neither talents nor incli¬
nation for parliamentary intrigue or parliamentary elo¬
quence : he had other inftruments of fame in his hands,
and was infinitely above the vanity of being caught
' Dryden.
“ With the fine notion of a bufy man
He was cenfecrated on the 20th of January 1760,
and on the 30th of the feme month preached before the
houfe of lords. In the next year he printed “ A Ra¬
tional Account of the Nature and End of the Sacra¬
ment of the Lord’s Supper.” In 1762, he publifhed
“ The Doffrine of Grace 5 or the Office and Opera¬
tions of the Holy Spirit vindicated from the Infults of
Infidelity and the Abufes of Fanaticifm, 2 vols 12mo ;
and in the fucceeding year drew7 upon himfelf much il¬
liberal abufe from fome waiters of the popular party, on
occafion of his complaint in the houfe of lords, on the
15th of November 1763, againft Mr Wilkes, for put'
tirig his name to certain notes on the infamous “ Effay
on Woman.”
In 1765 he publifhed a new edition of the fecond
part of the Divine Legation, in three volumes ; and as
it had now received his lafl hand, he prefented it to his
great friend Lord Mansfield, in a dedication wdiich de-
ferves to be read by every perfon who efteems the wHl-
f)eing of fociety as a concern of any importance. It was
the appendix to this edition which produced the well-
known controverfy between him and Dr Lowth, which
we have noticed elfewhere (fee Lowth), as doing no
great honour, by the mode in which it was conduced,
to either party. In the next year he pave a new and
much improved edition of the Alliance between the
Church and State. This w7as followed, in 1 767, by a
third volume of fermons, to which is added, his firft
i riennial Charge to the Clergy of the Diocefe of Glou-
cefler 5 which may be fefely pronounced one of the moft
valuable difcourfes of the kind that is to be found in
our own or any other language. With this publication
he doled his literary couvfe j except that he made an
effort towards publifhing, and a&ually printed, the ninth Warburtom
and laft book of the Divine Legation. This book, with Wad.
one or two occafional fermons, and fome valuable direc-
tions for the ffudy of theology, have been given to the
world in the fplendid edition of his works in feven vo¬
lumes 410, by his friend and biographer the prefent bi-
fhop of Worcefter. That prelate confeffes, that the
ninth book of the Divine Legation difplays little of that
vigour of mind and fertility of invention which appear
fo confpicuous in the former volumes; but he adds, per¬
haps truly, that under all the difedvantages with which
it appears, it is the nobleft effort which has hitherto
been made to give a rationale of Chriftianity.
While the bilhop of Gloucefter was thus exerting his
laft ftrength in the caufe of religion, he proje&ed a me¬
thod by which he hoped to lender it effedual fervice
after his death. He transferred 500I. to Lord Mans¬
field, Sir Eardley Wilmot, and Mr Charles Yorke, up¬
on truft, to found a lecfture, in the form of a courfe of
fermons, to prove the truth of revealed religion in ge¬
neral, and of the Chriftian in particular, from the com¬
pletion of the prophecies in the Old and New Tefta-
ment, which relate to the Chriftian church, efpecially
to the apoftacy of Papal Rome. To this foundation we
owe the admirable Introdu£!ory Le&ures of Hurd, and
the well-adapted Continuation of Halifax and Bagot.
It is a melancholy refledlion, that a life fpent in the
conftant purfuit of knowledge, frequently terminates in
the lots of thofe powers, the cultivation and improve¬
ment of which are attended to with too ftrift and una¬
bated a degree of ardour. This was the cafe with Dr
Warburton 5 and it feems probable that this decline of
intelledlual vigour was aggravated by the lofs of his on¬
ly fon, a promiling young man, who died of a confump-
tion but a ftiort time before the biftiop, who himfelf re-
figned to fate in the year 1779, and in the 81ft of his
age. A neat marble monument was eredted to his me¬
mory in the cathedral of Gloucefter.
WARD, Dr Seth, an Englifh prelate, chiefly di-
ftinguifhed f@r his knowledge in mathematics and aflro-
nomy, was born at Buntingford in Hertfordftiire, about
the year 1617. He was admitted of Sidney college,
Cambridge, where he applied with great vigour to his
ftudies, particularly to the mathematics, and was chofen
fellow of his college. He was much involved in the
confequences of the civil war, but boon after the Refto-
ration obtained the bifliopric of Exeter ; in 1667, he
was tranflated to Salifbury •, and in 1671 was made
chancellor of the order of the garter j he was the firft
Proteftant biftiop that enjoyed that honour, and he pro¬
cured it to be annexed to the fee of Salifbury. Biftiop
W ard was one of thofe unhappy perfons who have the
misfortune to furvive their fenfes, which happened in
confequence of a fever ill cured ; he lived to the Revo¬
lution, without knowing any thing of the matter, and
died in 1690. He was the author of feveral Latin
works in mathematics and aftronomy, which were
thought excellent in their day ; but their ufe has been
fuperfeded by later difcoveries and the Newtonian phi-
lofophy.
Ward, is varioufly ufed in our old books : a ward
in London is a diftriift or divifion of the city, commit¬
ted to the fpecial charge of one of the aldermen; and
in London there are 26 wards, according to the num¬
ber of the mayor and aldermen, of which every one has
his
W A R
Ward-hold- his ward for his proper guard and jurifdi&ion,
ing reft is divided into wards ■, and aprifonis called a ward.
II Laftly, the heir of the king’s tenant, that held in capite,
\\ anui.re.^ termed a ward during his nonage 5 but this ward-
ftrip is taken away by the ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 24.
WARD-Holding, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxv.
I. and clxvi. 3.
IVARD-Hook, or IVadd-Aook, in Gunnery, a rod or
ftaff, with an iron end turned ferpentwile, or like a
fcrew, to draw the wadding out of a gun when it is to
be unloaded.
WARDEN, or Guardian, one who has the charge
or keeping of any perfon, or thing, by office. Such is
the warden of the Fleet, the keeper of the Fleet pri-
fon •, who has the charge of the prifoners there, efpcci-
ally fuch as are committed from the court of chancery
for contempt.
WARDHUYS, a port of Norwegian Lapland, 120
miles fouth-eaft of the North Cape. E. Long. 31. 12.
N. Lat. 70. 23.
WARDMOTE, in London, is a court fo called,
which is kept in every ward of the city ; anfwering to
the curiata comitia of Rome.
WARDROBE, a clofet or little room adjoining to a
bedchamber, ferving to difpofe and keep a perfon’s ap¬
parel in j or for a fervant to lodge in, to be at hand to
wait, &c.
Wardrobe, in a prince’s court, is an apartment
wherein his robes, wearing apparel, and other neceffa-
ries, are preferved under the care and diredlion of pro¬
per officers.
In Britain, the Major or Keeper of the Great Ward¬
robe was an officer of great antiquity and dignity.
High privileges and immunities were conferred on him
by King Henry VI. which were confirmed by his fuc-
ceffors 5 and King James I. not only enlarged them, but
ordained that this office ftiould be a corporation or body
politic for ever.
It wns the duty of this office to provide robes for the
coronations, marriages, and funerals of the royal fami¬
ly j to furnifh the court with hangings, cloths of Hate,
carpets, beds, and other neceffaries ; to furnifh houfes
for ambafladors at their firft arrival; cloths of ftate, and
other furniture, for the lord lieutenant of Ireland, and
all his majefty’s ambaffadors abroad j to provide all
robes for foreign knights of the garter, robes for the
Index, vol. knigbts of the garter at home; robes and all other fur¬
niture for the officers of the garter j coats for kings,
heralds, and purfuivants at arms j robes for the lords of
the treafury, and chancellor of the exchequer, &c.; li¬
very for the lord chamberlain, grooms of his majefty’s
privy chamber, officers of his majefty’s robes •, for the
two chief juftices, for all the barons of the exchequer,
and feveral officers of thefe courts j all liveries for his
majefty’s fervants, as yeomen of the guard, and war¬
dens of the Tower, trumpeters, kettle-drummers, and
fifes j the meffengers, and all belonging to the ftables,
as coachmen, footmen, littermen, poftilions, and grooms,
&c. all the king’s coaches, chariots, harnefl'es, faddles,
bits, bridles, &c. the king’s watermen, game-keepers,
&c. alfo furniture for the royal yachts, and all rich em¬
broidered tilts, and other furniture for the barges.
Befides the mafter or keeper of the wardrobe, who
had a falary of 2000I. there was his deputy, who had
i.jpl. and a comptroller and a patent clerk, each of
Beatfbn'
Political
[ 637 ] WAR
A fo- whom has a falary of 300I. Befides many other infe- Wardrobe;,
rior officers and fervants, who were all fworn fervants ^a1^ ip‘,
to the king.
There was likewife a removing wardrobe, who had
its own fet of officers, and Handing wardrobe-keepers at
St James’s, Windfor Caftle, Hampton Court, Kenfing-
ton, and Somerfet Houle j but the whole of the ward¬
robe eftablifhment was abolifhed by aid of parliament in
1782, and the duty of it in future to be done by the
lord chamberlain.
WARDSHIP, in chivalry, one of the incidents of
tenure by knight-fervice. See FEODAL System, KNIGHT
Service, and Tenure.
Upon the death of a tenant, if the heir was under the
age of 21, being a male, or 14, being a female, the
lord was intitled to the wardfhip of the heir, and was
called the guardian in chivalry. This wardfhip con-
fifted in having the cuftody of the body and lands of
fuch heir, without any account of the profits, till the
age of 21 in males, and 16 in females. For the lawr
fuppofed the heir-male unable to perform knight-fervice
till 215 but as for the female, fhe was fuppoled capable
at 14 to marry, smd then her hufband might perform
the fervice. The lord therefore had no wardfhip, if at
the death of the anceftor the heir-male was of the full
age of 21, or the heir-female of 14 : yet if fhe was then
under 14, and the lord once had her in ward, he might
keep her fo till 16, by virtue of the ftatute of Weft min*
fter, 1. 3 Edw. I. c. 22. the two additional years being
given by the legiflature for no otherjeafon but merely to
benefit the lord.
This wardfhip, fo far as it related to land, though it
was not nor could be part of the law of feuds, fo long
as they were arbitrary, temporary, or for life only j yet
when they became hereditary, and did confequently of¬
ten defcend upon infants, who by reafon of their age
could neither perform nor ftipulate for the fervices of
the feud, does not feem upon feodal principles to have
been unreafonable. For the wardfhip of the land, or
cuftody of the feud, w*as retained by the lord, that he
might out of the profits thereof provide a fit perfon to
fupply the infant’s fervices till he fliould be of age to
perform them himfelf. And if we confider a feud in its
original import, as a ftipend, fee, or reward for a£tual
fervice, it could not be thought hard that the lord fhould
withhold the ftipend fo long as the fervice was fufpend-
ed. Though undoubtedly to our Englith anceftors,
where fuch ftipendary donation was a mere fuppofition
or figment, it carried abundance of hardfhip ; and ac¬
cordingly it was relieved by the charter of Henry I.
which took this caftody from the lord, and ordained
that the cuftody, both of the land and the children,
fhould belong to the widow or next of kin. But this
noble immunity did not continue many years.
The wardfhip of the body was a confequence of the
wardfhip of the land ; for he who enjoyed the infant’s
eftate was the propereft perfon to educate and maintain
him*in his infancy : and alfo, in a political view, the
lord was moft concerned to give his tenant a fuitable
education, in order to qualify him the better to perform
thofe fervices which in his maturity he was bound to
render.
When the male heir arrived at the age of 21, or the
heir-female at that of 16, they might fue out their li¬
very or oujerlemain ; that is, the delivery of their lands
out*
W A f, [ 633 ] WAR
Wardfhip out of their guardian’s hands. For this they were obli-
w ged to pay a fine, namely, half-a-year’s profits of the
■ land ; though this feems exprefsly contrary to magna
charta. However, in confideration of their lands hav¬
ing been fo long in ward, they were excufed all reliefs,
and the king’s tenants alfo all primer feifins. In order
to afcertain the profits that arofe to the crown by thefe
fruits of tenute, and to grant the heir his livery, the iti¬
nerant juftices, or juftices in eyre, had it formerly in
charge to make inquifition concerning them by a jury
of the county, commonly called an inquifitio f>oJl mor¬
tem; which wTas inftituted to inquire (at the death of
any man of fortune) the value of his eftate, the tenure
by which it was holden, and who, and of what age,
his heir wTas j thereby to afcertain the relief and value
of the primer feifin, or the wardftiip and livery accruing
to the king thereupon. A manner of proceeding that
came in procefs of time to be greatly abufed, and at
length an intolerable grievance it being one of the
principal accufations againft Empfon and Dudley, the
wicked engines of Henry VII. that by colour of falfe
inquifitions they compelled many perfons to fue out li¬
very from the crown, who by no means were tenants
thereunto. And afterwards a court of wards and live¬
ries was erefted, for conducing the fame inquiries in a
more folemn and legal manner.
When the heir thus came of full age, provided he
held a knight’s fee, he was to receive the order of
knighthood, and rvas compellable to take it upon him,
or elfe pay a fine to the king. For in thofe heroical
times no perfon was qualified for deeds of arms and chi¬
valry who had not received this order, which was con¬
ferred with much preparation and folcmnity. We may
plainly difcover the footfteps of a fimilar cuftom in what
'Tacitus relates of the Germans, who, in order to qua¬
lify their young men to bear arms, prefented them in a
full aflembly with a fliield and lance •, which ceremony
is fuppofed to have been the original of the feodal
knighthood. Thb prerogative, of compelling the vaf-
fals to be knighted, or to pay a fine, was exprefsly re-
cognifed in parliament by the ftatute tfe mi/itibus,
1 Edw. II. j was exerted as an expedient for raifing
money by many of our beft: princes, particularly by
Edw. VI. and Queen Elizabeth; but this was the oc-
cafion of heavy murmurs when exerted by Charles I. :
among whole many misfortunes it was, that neither him-
Telf nor his people feemed able to diftinguiih between
the arbitrary ftretch and the legal exertion of preroga¬
tive. However, among the other conceftions made by
that unhappy prince before the fatal recourfe to arms,
he agreed to divert himfelf of this undoubted flower of
the crown ; and it was accordingly aboliftied by ftatute
16 Car. I. c. 20.
WARE, a town of Hertfordihire, with a market on
Tuefdays, and a fair on the laft Tuefday in April, and
Tuefday before St Matthew’’s day (Sep. 21.) for horfes
and other cattle. It is a large, well frequented, and
well inhabited thoroughfare town, feated on the river
Lea, 21 miles north of London. It carries on a great
trade in malt and corn, which they are continually fend¬
ing in large quantities to London. E. Long. o. 3.
N. Lat. 51. 50.
WARN, in Law, is to fummon a perfon to appear
in a court of juftice.
WARNING of Tenants, in Scots Law. See Warning
Law, N° clxvii. 16. 11
WARP, in the manufactures, a name for the . *'.
threads, whether of filk, wool, linen, hemp, &c. that
are extended lengthwife on the weaver’s loom } and
acrofs which the workman, by means of his fhuttle paf-
fes the threads of the woof, to form a cloth, ribband,
fuftian, or the like.
Warp, a fmall rope employed occafionally to remove
a ftup from one place to another, in a port, road, or ri¬
ver. And hence,
To Warp, is to change the fituation of a (hip, by
pulling her from one part of a harbour, &c. to fome
other, by means of Warps, which are attached to buoys >
to anchors funk in the bottom j or to certain Rations
upon the ftiore, as ports, rings, trees, &c» The fhip is
accordingly drawn forwards to thofe Rations, either by-
pulling on the warps by hand, or by the application, of
fome purchafe, as a tackle, windlafs, or capftern, upon
her deck.
When this operation is performed by the ftiip’s leffer
anchors, thefe machines, together with their warps, are
carried out in the boats alternately towards the place
where the ftup is endeavouring to arrive : fo that when
ftie is drawm up clofe to one anchor, the other is carried
out to a competent diftance before her, and being funk,
ferves to fix the other warp, by which (he is farther ad¬
vanced.
Warping is generally ufed when the fails are unbent,
or when they cannot be fuccefsfully employed, which
may either arife from the unfavourable ftate of the wind,
the oppofition of the tide, or the narrow limits of the
channel.
WARRANDICE, in Scots Law. See Law, N*
clxiw 11.
WARRANT, is a power and charge to a conftable
or other officer to apprehend a perfon accufed of any
crime. It may be iffued in extraordinary cafes by the
privy council, or fecretaiies of ftate ; but moft com¬
monly it is iflued by juftices of the peace. This they
may do in any cafes where they have a jurifdiclion over
the offence, in order to compel the perfon accufed to
appear before them •, for it would be abfurd to give
them power to examine an offender, unlefs they had alfo
power to compel him to attend and fubmit to fuch exa¬
mination. And this extends to all treafons, felonies, and ^ackn
breaches of the peace ; and alfo to all fuch offences as comm/nt.
they have power to punifh by ftatute. Before the grant-vol. iv. p.
ing of the warrant, it is fitting to examine upon oath the 29°-
party requiring it, as well to afcertain that there is a fe¬
lony or other crime aftually committed, without which
no warrant ffiould be granted ; as alfo to prove the caufe
and probability of fufpe&ing the party againlt whom the
warrant is prayed.
This warrant ought to be under the hand and feal of
the juftice ; ftiould fet forth the time and place of mak¬
ing, and the caufe for which it is made ; and ffiouid be
directed to the conftable, or other peace officer, or it
may be to any private perfon by name. A general war¬
rant to apprehend all perfons fufpefted, without naming
or particularly deferibing any perfon in fpecial, is ille¬
gal and void for its uncertainty j for it is the duty of the
magiftrate, and ought not to be left to the officer, to
judge of the ground of fufpicion. Alfo a warrant to ap¬
prehend
WAR [ 639 ] WAR
Warrant prebend all perfons gudty of fucb a crime, u> no legal
'I warrant} for the point upon which its authority refts, is
Warren a faQ t0 be decided on a fubfequent trial j namely,
^ whether the perfon apprehended thereupon be guilty or
not guilty. When a warrant is received by the officer,
he is bound to execute it, fo far as the juii(diction of
the magffirate and himlelf extends. A warrant from
any of the jultices of the court of king’s bench extends
over all the kingdom, and is tefted or dated England:
but a warrant of a judice of the peace in -one county,
muft be backed, that is, figned, by a juftice of another
county, before it can be executed there. And a warrant
for apprehending an Engliffi or a Scotch offender, may
be indorfed in the oppofite kingdom, and the offender
carried back to that part of the united kingdom in which
the offence was committed.
WARRANTY, Warrantia, in Lava, a promife,
or covenant, by deed, made by the bargainer for him-
felf and his heirs, to warrant and fecure the bargainee
and his heirs, againft all men, for enjoying the thing a-
greed on or granted between them.
WARREN, Sir Peter, an admiral, diftinguiffied by
his virtue, learning, and undaunted courage, was delcend-
ed from an ancient family in Ireland, and received a
fait able education to qualify him for a command in the
royal navy, in which he ferved for feveral years with
great reputation *, but the tranfaftion which placed his
great abilities in their full light, was the taking of
Louilhourg in the year 1745, when he was appointed
commodore of the Britilh fquadron fent on that fervice.
He joined the fleet of tranfports from Bofton in Canfo
bay on the 25th of April, having under his command
the Superb of 60, and the Launcefton and Eltham of
40 guns ; he was afterwards joined by feveral other
men of war fent from England, and took poffeffion of
Louilhourg on the 17th of June. The French, exafper-
ated at this lofs, were conftantly on the watch to retake
it ; and in 1 747 fitted out a large fleet for that purpofe,
and at the fame time another fquadron to profecute their
fhccefs in the Eaft Indies. Thefe fquadrons failed at
the fame time 5 but the views of the French were ren¬
dered abortive by the gallant admiral Anfon and Sir
Peter Warren, who had been created rear-admiral, who
with a large fleet of (hips fell in with the French, de¬
feated the whole fleet, and took the greatefl part of the
men of war. This was the laft fervice Sir Peter render¬
ed to his country as a commander in the Britilh fleet 5
for a peace being concluded in the fucceeding year, the
fleet was laid up in the feveral harbours.
He was now chofen one of the reprefentatives in par¬
liament for Weftminfler ; and in the midft of his popu¬
larity he paid a vifit to Ireland, his native country,
where he died of an inflammatory fever in 175 2, fin-
cerely lamented by all ranks of people ; and an elegant
monument of white marble was ere&ed to his memory
in Weftroinfter. abbey.
Warren, is a franchife or place privileged by pre-
feription or grant from the king, for the keeping of
beafts and fowls of the warren •, which are hares and
coneys, partridges, pheafants, and fome add quails, wood¬
cocks, and water-fowl, &c. Thefe htingfer,? natura,
every one had a natural right to kill as he could : but
upon the introduftion of the foreft laws at the Norman
conqueft, thefe animals being looked upon as royal game,
and the folc property of our favage monarchs, this fran¬
chife of free-warren was invented to prolecl them, by Warren-
giving the grantee a foie and exclufive power of killing ^ || .
Inch game, fo far as his warren extended, on condition . "
of his preventing other peilons. A man therefore that
has the franchile of warren, is in reality no more than a
royal game-keeper : but no man, not even a lord of a
manor, could by common law juflify fporting on ano¬
ther’s foil, or even on his own, unlefs he had the liberty
of free-warren. This franchife is almoft fallen into dil-
regard fince the new ftatutes for preferving the game j
the name being now chiefly preferved in grounds that
are fet apart for breeding hares and rabbits. There are
many initanccs of keen fportfmen in ancient times, who
have fold their eltates, and referved the free-warren, or
right of killing game, to themfelves: by which means it
comes to pals that a man and his heirs have fometirnes
free-warren over anorther’s ground.
A warren may lie open j and there is no necefiily of
incloflng it as there is of a park. If any perfon offend
in a free-warren, he is punilhable by the common law,
and by ffatute 21 Edw. III. And if any one enter
wrongfully into any warren, and chafe, take, or kill, any
coneys without the confent of the owner, he flrall forfeit
treble damages, and fuffer three months impriionment,
&c. by 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 25. When coneys are on
the foil of the party, he hath a property in them by rea-
fon of the poffcflion, and aftion lies for killing them ;
but if they run out of the warren and eat up a neigh¬
bour’s corn, the owner of the land may kill them, and
no a£lion will lie.
WARSAW, a large city of Poland, the capital of
that country, and of the province of Mafovia. It is built
partly in a plain, and partly on a gentle afeent riling
from the banks of the Viftula, which is about as broad
as the Thames at Weflminfter, but very (hallow in fum-
mer. This city and its fuburbs occupy a vail extent of
ground, and are fuppofed to contain 70,000 inhabitants,
among whom is a great number of foreigners. The whole
has a melancholy appearance, exhibiting the ftrong con¬
trail of wealth and poverty, luxury and diflrefs, which
pervades every part of this unhappy country. The rtreets
are fpacious, but ill paved j the churches and public
buildings are large and magnificent •, the palaces of the
nobility are numerous and fplendid ; but the greateft
part of the houfes, particularly in the fuburbs, are mean
and ill-conftrufted wooden hovels.—Warfaw is 160 miles
fouth-eaft by fouth of Dantzic, 130 north-north-eaft of
Cracow, and 300 north-eaff by north of Vienna. E.
Long. 21. 6. N. Lat. 50. 14.
WART. See Surgery Index.
WARWICK, the capital ©f Warwickfhire in Eng¬
land, and from which this county derives its name. It
is very ancient, and fuppofed by Camden to be the place
called by the Romans Prcrjtdium, where the Dalmatian
horfe were pofted. It (lands on a rock of freellone, of
which all the public edifices in the town are built. At
(he Norman invafion it was a confiderable place; and
had many burgeffes, of whom 1 2 were obliged by their
tenure to accompany the king in his wars. It is fup-
plied with water brought in pipes from fprings half a
mile from the town, befides what it derives from the
wells within it made in the rock : and it is eafily k pt
clean, by being fituated upon a declivity. Four ftreets,
from the four cardinal points of the cornpafs, meet in the
centre of the town. The principal public buildings are
St
WAR [ 640 ] WAS
Yv .-nvick- gt Mary’s, a very ftately edifice, an hofpital, a town-
houfe of freeftone, three charity fchools, and a noble
bridge over the Avon. It has had feveral charters but
is governed at prefent by a mayor, 12 brethren, 24 bur-
geffes, See. It contains 5775 inhabitants 5 and gives
title of earl to the family of the Greviiies. W. Long.
I. 36. N. Lat. 52. 20.
WARWICKSHIRE, a county of England, 47
miles in length, by 30 in breadth. It is bounded at its
northern extremity by a point of Derbylhire ; on the
north-weft by Staffordlhire j on the north-eaft by
Leieefterftiire j on the eaft by Northamptonlhire ; on
the fouth-weft by Gloucefterlhire, and on the fouth-eaft
by Oxfordftiire. It is fituated partly in the diocefe of
Lichfield and Coventry, and partly in that of Wor-
cefter ; it contains four hundreds, and one liberty, one
city, 12 market towns, 158 parilhes ; fends fix members
to parliament, and the population is computed at
208,190. The air is mild, pleafant, and healthy. The
river Avon divides the north part of it, or the Wood¬
lands, from the fouth, called the Feldon j and the foil of
both is rich and fertile. Its produftions are corn, malt,
wood, wool, cheefe, coal, iron, and limeftone. The
chief rivers of this county are the Avon, Tame, and
Arrow. Warwick is the capital 5 but Birmingham is
far fuperior to it in refpeft of trade and manufadtures, and
even to any other town in England.
Birmingham, in this county, of which the account
given in the }order of the alphabet is very deficient, is
one of the moft remarkable towns in England, or per¬
haps in Europe, for the extent, variety, elegance, and
Utility of its manufadtures. This town was little di-
ftinguilhed previous to the reign of Charles II. but
fince that period it continued to increafe in extent and
importance. In the year 1700, the number of ftreets
in Birmingham was only 30 they are now nearly 2 go.
In the year 1779 there were only three houfes on a
particular fpot, which in 1791 contained 833.
Birmingham owes its profperity and population to its
manufadlures, which are in a great meafure the confe-
quence of its vicinity to coal, aided by the fpirited and
induftrious exertions of a few individuals. It has been
Hated, and no doubt with great truth, that its profperity
is in no fmall degree indebted to its exemption from the
reftridlions of borough and corporate laws. To give
fome notion of the progrefs and extent of the manufac¬
tures of this place, it may be mentioned that the late
Mr Taylor, who introduced gilt buttons, japanned,
gilt, and painted fnuff-boxes, with various articles of
manufafture in enamel, died in 1775, at the age of 64,
having ’amaffed a fortune of 200,0001. In painting
fnuff-boxes at fo low a rate as one farthing each, one
man could gain 3I. 1 os. per week. The weekly pro¬
duce of Mr Taylor’s manufa&ure of buttons amounted
to 800I. befide many other valuable and curious pro¬
ductions.
The manufactory of Meffrs Boulton and Watt,
which for its extent, variety, and importance, ftands un¬
rivalled in Europe, has been already noticed under the
word Soho. T he new coinage of copper, which has been
often defervedly admired, and the re-ftamped dollars,
are the productions of the Soho manufactory. The
firft coining mill was ereCted at Soho in 1783. It is
now fo much improved, that eight machines driven by
the fleam-engine, are going on at the fame time. Each
1
of thofe machines, ftrikes from 70 to 84 pieces of the Wafii
fize of a guinea per minute, and hence tire whole eight li.
machines work off in one hour between 30,000 and ^ alking-
40,000 coins. The different proceffesof the machinery ,
are, 1. Rolling the maffes of copper into ftieets. 2. Roll¬
ing them through cylindrical fteel rollers. 3. Clipping
the pieces of copper for the dye. 4. Shaking the coin in
bags. 3. Striking both fides of the coin, and then mill¬
ing it; after which it is difplaced, and another is intro¬
duced, to be fubjeCted to the fame operation. But the
moft extraordinary contrivance of this ingenious ma¬
chinery is, that a precife account of every coin which
paffes through it is regularly kept, fo that it is im-
poflible to praftife fraud.
Befide the branches of induftry already mentioned,
there are manufaftories of guns, bayonets, and fwords,
of fporting guns, of wdiips, of japan ware, of numerous
works in brafs and fteel, both for ornament and ufe,
and at one time of leather to a confiderable extent.
Birmingham contains a mufeum of natural and arti¬
ficial curiofities, a handfome theatre, rebuilt fince J791,
feveral churches belonging to the eftablifhment, various
diffenting meeting houfes, and a number of charitable
eftablifliments. In the neighbourhood of Birmingham
there are three extenfive breweries *, and by means of
canals this place has the advantage of eafy communi¬
cation with almoft every part of the kingdom.
WASH, among diftillers, the fermentable liquor
ufed by malt diftillers. See Brewery.
WASHING, in Painting, is when a defign, drawn
with a pen or crayon, has fome one colour laid over it
with a pencil, as Indian ink, biftre, or the like, to make
it appear the more natural, by adding the Ihadow of
prominences, apertures, &c. and by imitating the parti¬
cular matters whereof the thing is fuppofed to confift.
Thus a pale red is employed to imitate brick and
tile; a pale Indian blue, to imitate water and fiate j
green, for trees and meadows; faffron or French berries,
for gold or brafs 5 and feveral colours for marbles.
WASHING of Ores, the purifying an ore of any me¬
tal, by means of water, from earths and ftones, which
would otherwife render it difficult of fufion.
WASHINGTON, a city of North America, and
now the metropolis of the United States. It is feat-
ed at the junction of the rivers Potomac and the
Eaftern Branch, extending about four miles up each, in¬
cluding a tra£t of territory fcarcely to be exceeded, in
point of convenience, falubrity, and beauty, by any in
the world. This territory, which is called Columbia,
lies partly in the ftate of Virginia, and partly in that of
Maryland, and was ceded by thofe two ftates to the U-
nited States of America, and by them eftabliftied to be
the leat of government after the year 1800. It is di¬
vided into fquares or grand divifions, by ftreets running
due north and fouth, and eaft and weft, which form
the ground-work of the plan. However, from the Ca¬
pitol, the prefident’s houfe, and fome of the important
areas in the city, run diagonal ftreets, from one material
objeH to another, which not only produce a variety of
charming profpefts, but remove the infipid famenefs
which renders fome other great cities unpleafing. The
great leading ftreets are all 160 feet wide, including a
pavement of 10 feet, and a gravel walk of 30 feet plant¬
ed with trees on each fide, which will leave 80 feet of
paved ftreet for carriages. The reft of the ftreets are in
general
WAS [ 641 ] WAS
Waflimg- general no feet wide, with a few only 90 feet, except
ton- North, South, and Eaft Capitol Streets, which are 160
'r feet. The diagonal ftreets are named after the refpec-
tive dates compoling the Union, while thofe running
north and fouth are, from the Capitol eaftward, named
Ka/l Firjl Street, Eajl Second Street, &c. and thofe weft
of it are in the fame manner called Wejl Firjl Street,
Wejl Second Street, &cc. Thofe running eaft and weft
are from the Capitol northward named North A Street,
North B Street, &c. and thofe fouth of it are called
■South A Street, South B Street, &c. The fquares or di-
vifions of the city amount to 1150. The reftangular
fquares generally contain from three to fix acres, and
are divided into lots of from 40 to 80 feet in front, and
their depth from about no to 300 feet, according to
the fize of the fquare. The irregular dividons produced
by the diagonal ftreets are fome of them frnall, but ge¬
nerally in valuable fituations. Their acute points are all
to be cut off at 40 feet, fo that no houfe in the city will
have an acute corner. All the houfes muft be of brick
or ftone. The area for the Capitol (or houfe for the le-
giflative bodies) is fituated upon the moft beautiful emi¬
nence in the city, about a mile from the Eaftern Branch,
and not much more from the Potomac, commanding a
full view of every part of the city, as well as a confider-
able extent of the country around. The preftdent’s houfe
will ftand upon a rifing ground, net far from the banks
qf the Potomac, poffefling a delightful water profpeft,
with a commanding view of the Capitol, and fome other
material parts of the city.
The city being fituated upon the great port road, ex-
a£tly equidiftant from the northern and fouthern extre¬
mities of the Union, and nearly fo from the Atlantic
ocean to the river Ohio, upon the beft navigation, and
in the midft of the richeft commercial territory in Ame¬
rica, commanding the moft extenfive internal refources,
is by far the moft eligible fituation for the refidence of
congrefs; and it is now prefling forward, by the public-
fpirited enterprife, not only of the people of the United
States, but alfo of foreigners.
WASHINGTON, George, the celebrated commander of
the American army, and the firft prefident of the Uni¬
ted States, after their feparation from the mother-coun-
tiy, was born in the year 1732, in the parifli of Wafti-
ington in Virginia. He was defeended from an ancient
family in Chefture, of which a branch was eftablifhed
in Virginia about the middle of the 17th century. Lit¬
tle is known concerning his education, or the early
years of his life. Before he was 20 years of age, he
ivas appointed a major in the colonial militia, and had
then an opportunity of difplaying thofe military and po¬
litical talents which have fince rendered his name fo fa¬
mous throughout the world. In the difputes which
arofe between the French and Englilh officers, about
fettling the limits of Canada and Louifiana, Major
Waffiington was employed by the governor of Virginia
as a negociator, and he fucceeded in preventing a threat¬
ened invafion of the Engliffi frontiers by the French
and their Indian allies 5 but, in the following year,
when hoftilities feemed inevitable, he was appointed
lieutenant-colonel, and foon after to the command of a
regiment raifed by the colony for its own defence. In
I755> Colonel Waffiington ferved as a volunteer in the
unfortunate expedition of General Braddock, and in that
expedition, which was attended with great difficulty,
Vol. XX. Part II.
he exhibited fo much calmnefs and intrepidity, that the Wafhmg-
utmoft confidence was repofed in his talents, and per- ton-
fe£t obedience paid to his commands by the whole ar- v~"
my. After having been employed in a different and
more fuccefsful expedition to the river Ohio, the ftate
of his health required him, about the year 1758, to re-
fign his military fituation j and in the fixteen following
years, during which period he married Mrs Cuitis, a
Virginian lady, of amiable charafter and refpe&able
connexions, it would appear that he refided chiefly at
his beautiful feat of Mount Vernon, and was occupied
in the cultivation of his eftate.
When the difaffeXion of the Americans to the Bri-
tiffi government had become pretty general, and had at
laft fpread to the colony of Virginia, Colonel Waffiing¬
ton was appointed a delegate from that ftate to the con¬
grefs which met at Philadelphia on the 26th OXober
1774, and foon after he was appointed to the command
of the xVmcrican army, which had affembled in the pro¬
vinces of New England. The conduX of Walhington
during the whole of the war, as well as during the pe¬
riod that he prelided in the government of the United
States, has been fo fully detailed in another part of
this work, that it would be unneceffary repetition, even
to give a general outline of it in this place. See Ame¬
rica.
Waffiington refigned the prefidency in 1796, after
having publiffied a farewell addrefs to his countrymen.
This addrefs was remarkably diftinguilhed for the fim-
plicity and ingenuoufnefs, moderation and fobriety, the
good fenfe, prudence and honefty, as well as fincere af-
feXion for his country and for mankind, which the au¬
thor of it had always exhibited; it feemed to be a perfeX
piXure of his wffiole life. From the time of his refigna-
tion till the month of July 1798, he lived in retirement
at his feat of Mount Vernon. At this period, when the
unprincipled aXors in the French revolution w'ere carry¬
ing on their wicked machinations in every part of the
world to which their influence extended, the United
States refolved to arm by land and fea in their own de¬
fence. General Walhington was called from his re¬
tirement, and the command of the army was beftovTed
upon him. This he accepted, becaufe he confidered, as
he himfelf expreffed it, “ every thing we hold dear and
facred was ferioufly threatened, although he had flatter¬
ed himfelf that he had quitted for ever the boundlefs
field of public aXion, inceffant trouble, and high refpon-
fibility, in which he had long aXed fo confpicuous a
part.” In this fituation he continued during the remain¬
ing ffiort period of his life. On Thurfday the 12th of
December 1799, he was feized writh an inflammation in
the throat, and w^as carried off on Saturday the 14th of
the fame month, in the 68th year of his age. In his
dying moments he difplayed the fame calmnefs, fimpli-
city, and regularity, which had uniformly marked his
conduX through life. He faw the approaches of death
without fear ; and he met them without parade. Even
the perfeXly well ordered ftate of the minuteft particu¬
lars of his private bufinefs bear the ftamp of that conftant
authority of prudence and praXical reafon over his ac¬
tions which wras always the moft prominent feature of
his charaXer.
Washington is the name of many counties, towns,
and villages in the American ftates ; a circumftance
which affords a ftriking proof in what degree of efteera
4 M and
w A T [ 642 ] WAT
vVafp, an(j veneration the name from which they are derived
Wrftxh. ^ vvas held by the inhabitants of the new world.
WASP. See Vj^sfa, Entomology Index.
WATCH, in the art of war, a number of men port¬
ed at any paffage, or a company of the guards who go
on the patrole.
Watch, in the navy, the fpace of time wherein one
divilion of a fhip’s crew remains upon deck, to perform
the neceiTary fervices, whilft the reft are relieved from
duty, either when the veffel is under fail or at anchor.
_ The length of the fea-watch is not equal in the (hip¬
ping of different nations. It is always kept four hours
by our Britilh feamen, if we except the dog-watch, be¬
tween four and eight in the evening, that contains twTo
reliefs, each of which are only two hours on deck. The
intent of this is to change the period of the night-watch
every 24 hours; fo that the party watching from eight
till 1 2 in one night, {hall watch from midnight till four
in the morning on the fucceeding one. In France the
duration of the wratch is extremely different, being in
fome places fix hours, and in others feven or eight j and
in Turkey and Barbary it is ufuaily five or fix hours.
A (hip’s company is ufually claffed into two parties;
one of which is called the Jlarboard and the other the
larboard watch. It is, however, occafionally feparated
into three divifions, as in a road or in particular voyages.
In a (hip of war the watch is generally commanded
by a lieutenant, and in merchant-fhips by one of the
mates 5 fo that if there are four mates in the latter, there
are two in each watch; the firft and third being in the
larboard, and the fecond and fourth in the (larboard
watch : but in the navy, the officers wrho command the
watch ufually divide themfelves into three parties, in or¬
der to lighten their duty.
Watch, is alfo ufed for a fmall portable movement,
or machine, for the meafuring of time j having its mo¬
tion regulated by a fpiral fpring.
Watches, ftri&ly taken, are all fuch movements as
fhow the parts of time ; as clocks are fuch as publifti it,
by ftriking on a bell, &c. But commonly the name
watch is appropriated to fuch as are carried in the
pocket ; and clock to the large movements, whether
they ftrike the hour or not. See Clock.
The invention of fpring or pocket-watches belongs to
the prefent age. It is true, rve find mention made of a
watch prefented to Charles V. in the hiftory of that
prince : but this, in all probability, was no more than a
kind of clock to be fet on a table, fome refemblance
whereof we have dill remaining in the ancient pieces
made before the year 1670. There was alfo a ftory of
a watch having been difcovered in Scotland belonging
to King Robert Bruce $ but -this we believe has turned
out altogether apocryphal. The glory of this very ufe-
ful invention lies between Hr Hooke and M. Huyghens 5
but to which of them it properly belongs, has been
greatly difputed; the Englilh afcribing it to the former,
and the French, Hutch, &c. to the latter. MrBerham,
in his Artificial Clockmaker, fays roundly, that Hr
Hooke was the inventor j and adds, that he contrived
various ways of regulation. Oneway was with a loadftone :
Another with a tender ftraight fpring, one end whereof
played backwards and forwards with the balance ; fo
that the balance was to the fpring as the bob to a pen-
du’um, and the fpring as the rod thereof: A third me¬
thod was with two balances, of which there were divers
forts 5 fome having a fpiral fpring to the balance for a
regulator, and ethers without. But the way that pre-'
vailed, and which continues in mode, was with one ba¬
lance, and one fpring running round the upper part of
the verge thereof: Though this has a difadvantage,
which thofe with two fprings, &c. were free from j in
that a fudden jerk, or contufed (hake, will alter its vi¬
brations, and put it in an unufual hurry.
The time of thefe inventions was about the year
1> as appears, among other evidences, from an in-
feription on one of the double balance tvatches prefented
to King Charles II. viz. Rob. Hooke inven. 1658. T.
Jompion/«7>, 1675* I he invention prelently got into
reputation, both at home and abroad j and two of them
were fent for by the dauphin of France. Soon after
this, M. Huygen’s watch with a fpiral fpring got abroad,
and made a great noife in England, as if the longitude
could be found by it. It is certain, hotvever, that his
invention was later than the year 1673, when his book
de Horol. Ofcillat. was publilhed j wherein he has not
one word of this, though he has of feveral other con¬
trivances in the fame way.
One of thefe the lord Brouncker fent for out of
France, where M. Huygens had got a patent for them.
This watch agreed with Hr Hooke’s in the application
of the fpring to the balance; only M. Huygens’s had a
longer fpiral fpring, and the pulfes and beats were much
(lower. The balance, inftead of turning quite round, as
Hr Hooke’s, turns feveral rounds every vibration.
Mr Herham fuggefls, that he has reafon to doubt M.
Huygens’s fancy firft was fet to work by fome intelli¬
gence he might have of Hr Hooke’s invention from Mr
Oldenburgh, or fome ether of his correfpondents in Eng¬
land j and this, notwithftanding Mr Oldenburgh’s at¬
tempt to vindicate himfelf in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, appears to be the truth. Huygens invented divers
other kinds of watches, fome of them without any
firing or chain at all j which he called, particularly,
pendulum watches.
Striking Watches are fuch as, befides the proper
watch-part for meafuring of time, have a clock-part for
ftriking the hours, &c.
Repeating WATCHES, are fuch as by pulling a firing,.
&c. repeat the hour, quarter, or minute, at any time of
the day or night.—This repetition was the invention of
Mr Barlow, and firft put in pradlice by him in larger
movements or clocks about the year 1676. The con¬
trivance immediately fet the other artifts to work, who
foon contrived divers ways of effedling the fame. But
its application to pocket-watches was not known before
King James II.’s reign ; when the ingenious inventor
above mentioned, having dire£led Mr Thompfon to
make a repeating watch, was foliciting a patent for
the fame. The talk of a patent engaged Mr Quare
to refume the thoughts of a like contrivance, which
he had had in view fome years before : he now ef-
feffed it; and being preffed to endeavour to prevent
Mr Barlow’s patent, a w^atch of each kind was produced
before the king and council ; upon trial of which, the
preference was given to Mr Quare’s. The difference
between them was, that Barlow’s was made to repeat
by pufhing in tw’O pieces on each fide the watch-box ;
one of which repeated the hour, and the other the quar¬
ter : whereas Quare’s was made to repeat by a pin that
ftuck out near the pendant, which being thrull in (as
now
Watch.
—v—^
WAT t 643 ] WAT
Watch, now it is done by thrufting in the pendant itfelf), repeat-
> ed both the hour and quarter with the fame thruft.
Of the Mechanifm of a WATCH, properly fo called.
Watches, as well as clocks, are compofed of wheels and
pinions, and a regulator to direft the quicknefs or flow-
nefs of the wheels, and of a fpring which communicates
motion to the whole machine. But the regulator and
fpring of a watch are vaflly inferior to the weight and pen-
pjate dulum of a clock, neither of which can be employed in
DLXXI. watches. In place of a pendulum, therefore, we are
Fig. 1. obliged to ufe a balance (fig. 1.) to regulate the motion
Fig. a. of a watch 5 and a fpring (fig. 2.) which ferves in place
of a weight, to give motion to the wheels and balance.
The wheels of a watch, like thofe of a clock, are
placed in a frame formed of two plates and four pillars.
Fig. 3. Fig- 3- reprefents the infide of a watch, after the plate
Fig. 4. (fig. 4.) is taken off. A is the barrel which contains the
fpring (fig. 2.) ; the chain is rolled about the barrel,
Fig. 5. with one end of it fixed to the barrel A (fig. 5.), and
the other to the fufee B.
Fig. <J.
Fig- 7*
Fig. S.
When a watch is wound up, the chain which was up¬
on the barrel winds about the fufee, and by this means
the fpring is ftretched $ for the interior end of the fpring
is fixed by a hook to the immoveable axis, about which
the barrel revolves) the exterior end of the fpring is fix¬
ed to the infide of the barrel, which turns upon an axis.
It is therefore cafy to perceive how the fpring extends it¬
felf, and how its elafticity forces the barrel to turn round,
and confequently obliges the chain which is upon the fu¬
fee to unfold and turn the fufee; the motion of the fu¬
fee is communicated to the wheel C (fig. 5.) ; then, by
means of the teeth, to the pinion c, which carries the
wheel D ; then to the pillon d, which carries the wheel
E 5 then to the pinion e, which carries the wheel F j
then to the pinion f upon which is the balance-wheel
G, whofe pivot runs in the pieces A called the potance,
and B called a follower, which are fixed on the plate
fig. 4. This plate, of which only a part is reprefented,
is. applied to that of fig. 3. in fuch a manner that the
pivots of the wheels enter into holes made in the plate
fig. 3. Thus the impreffed force of the fpring is com¬
municated to the wheels : and the pinionjf being then
connected to the wheel F, obliges it to turn (fig. 5.).
This wheel afts upon the palettes of the verge, 1, 2,
(fig. I.), the axis of which carries the balance HH,
(fig. 1.). The pivot I, in the end of the verge, enters
into the hole c in the potance A (fig. 4.). In this fi¬
gure the palettes are reprefented ; but the balance is on
the other fide of the plate, as may be feen in fig. 6.
The pivot 3 of the balance enters into a hole of the
cock BC (fig. 7.), a perfpeftive view of which is repre¬
fented in fig. 8. Thus the balance turns between the
cock and the potance c (fig. 4.), as in a kind of cage.
The aftion of the balance-wheel upon the palettes 1, 2
(%- I-)> the fame with what we have defcribed with
regard to the fame wheel in tire clock ; i. e. in a watch,
the balance-wheel obliges the balance to vibrate back¬
wards and forwards like a pendulum. At each vibra¬
tion of the balance a palette allows a tooth of the ba¬
lance-wheel to efcape 3 fo that the quicknefs of the mo¬
tion of the wheels is entirely determined by the quick¬
nefs of the vibrations of the balance 3 and thefe vibra¬
tions of the balance and motion of the wheels are pro¬
duced by the a&ion of the fpring.
But the quicknefs or flownefs of the vibrations of the
balance depend not folely upon the a£Hon of the great Watch,
fpring, but chiefly upon the a&ion of the fpring a, b, c, v—-
called the fpiralfpring (fig. 9.), fituated under the ba-Fig. 9.
lance H, and reprefented in perfpeftive (fig. 6.). The
exterior end of the fpiral is fixed to the pin a, (fig. 9.)
Ihis pin is applied near the plate in a, (fig. 6.) ; the
interior end of the fpiral is fixed by a peg to the centre
of the balance. Hence if the balance is turned upon
itfelf, the plates remaining immoveable, the fpring will
extend itfelf, and make the balance perform one revolu¬
tion. Now, after the fpiral is thus extended, if the ba¬
lance be left to itfelf, the elallicity of the fpiral will
bring back the balance, and in this manner the alter¬
nate vibrations of the balance are produced.
In fig. 5. all the wheels above defcribed are reprefent¬
ed in fuch a manner, that you may eafily perceive at
firlt fight how the motion is communicated from the bar¬
rel to the balance.
In fig. 10. are reprefented the wheels under the dial-Fig. 10.
plate by which the hands are moved. The pinion a is
adjufted to the force of the prolonged pivot of the wheel
D (fig. 5.), and is called a cannon pinion. This wheel
revolves in an hour. The end of the axis of the pinion
a, upon which the minute-hand is fixed, is fquare ; the
pinion (fig. 10.) is indented into the wheel b, which is
carried by the pinion a. Fig. 11. is a wheel fixed upon Fig. ir.
a barrel, into the cavity of which the pinion a enters,
and upon which it turns freely. This w’heel revolves in
12 hours, and carries along with it the hour-hand. For
a full account of the principles upon which watches and
all time-keepers are conftrudfed, we muft refer our read¬
ers to a fliort treatife, entitled Thoughts on the Means
of improving Watches, by Thomas Mudge.
WATCH-Glaffes, in a flu’p, are glaffes employed to
meafure the period of the watch, or to divide it into any
number of equal parts, as hours, half-hours, &c. fo that
the feveral llations therein may be regularly kept and
relieved, as at the helm, pump, look-out, &c.
WATCtl-Worb. There is one part of the movements
of clocks and watches of which we have yet given no
particular account. This is the method of applying the
maintaining power of the wheels to the regulator of the
motions, fo as not to injure its power of regulation.
This part of the conftruftion is called ScAPEMENT, and
falls to be defcribed under the prefent article, to which
we have referred from ScAPEMENT. t
The motions of a clock or watch are regulated by a Objedts of
pendulum or balance, without which check the wheels fcapements.
impelled by the weight in the clock, or fpring in the
watch, would run round with a rapidly accelerating mo¬
tion, till this fliould be rendered uniform by fridlion,
and the refiftance of the air. If, however, a pendulum or
balance be put in the way of this motion, in fuch a man¬
ner that only one tooth of a wheel can pafs, the revolu¬
tion of the wheels will depend on the vibration of the
pendulum or balance.
We cannot here enter on an hiflorical account of the
improvements that have been made on the regulating
powers of clocks and watches, nor Can we detail the
principles on which their adtion depends. It will be
fufficient here to notice the moft fimple conftrudlion of
fcapements, and then to defcribe two or three of the
moft improved conftrudlions that have been applied to
time-keepers.
We know that the motion of a pendulum or balance
4 M 2
is
WAT
Watch.
Belt ordi¬
nary fcapC'
ment for
clocks.
Fig. 12.
Vibrations
»f pendu¬
lums are ifo-
ciuonous.
is alternate, while the preffure of the wheels is conftant
ly exerted in tire fame dire&ion. Hence it is evident
that fome means muft be employed to accommodate
thefe different motions to each other. Now, when a
tooth of the wheel has given the pendulum or balance
a motion in one direction, it muft quit it, that the pen¬
dulum or balance may receive an impulfion in the oppo-
fite direction. This efcaping of the tooth has given rife
to the term fcapemcnt.
The ordinary fcapement is extremely fimple, and
may be thus illuftrated. Let * y fig. 12. Plate DLXXI.
reprefent a horizontal axis, to which the pendulum p is
attached by a {lender rod. This axis has two leaves
c and d, one near each end, and not in the fame plane,
but fo that when the pendulum hangs perpendicularly
at reft, c fpreads a few degrees to the right, and d as
much to the left. Thefe are called the pallets. Let
a f b reprefent a wheel, turning on a perpendicular axis
e o in the order a f e b. The teeth of this wheel are
in the form of thofe of a faw, leaning forward in the
direction of the rim’s motion. This wheel is ufually
called the crown-wheel, or in watches the balance-wheel.
See Clock and W atch. It generally contains an odd
number of teeth. In the figure the pendulum is repre-
fented at the extremity of its excurfion towards the right,
the tooth a having juft efcaped from the pallet c, and b
having juft dropt on d. Now it is evident that while
the pendulum is moving to the left, in the arch p g, the
tooth b {till preffes on the pallet d, and thus accelerates
the pendulum, both in its defcent along p h, and its af-
cent up h g, and that wThen </, by turning round the
,axis x y, raifes its point above the plane of the wheel,
tne tooth b efcapes from it, and i drops on r, now near¬
ly perpendicular. Ihus^is preffed to the right, and
the motion of the pendulum along g is accelerated.
Again, while the pendulum hangs perpendicularly in
tne line x the tooth by prefling on //, will force
the pendulum to the left, in proportion to its lightnefs,
and if it be not too heavy, will force it fo far from the
perpendicular, that b will efcape, and i will catch on c,
and force the pendulum back to />, when the fame mo¬
tion will be repeated. Ihis effeftwillbe more remark¬
able, if the rod of the pendulum be continued through
x y, and have a ball q on the other end, to balance p.
When b efcapes from */, the balls are moving with a
certain velocity and momentum, and in this condition
the balance is checked when i catches on c. It is not,
how-ever, inftantly flopped, but continues to move a
kittle to the left, and i is forced a little backward by the
pallet c. It cannot make its efcape over the top of the
tooth z, as all the momentum of the balance was gener¬
ated by the force of b, and i is of equal powrer. Be-
iides, when i catches on r, and the motion of c to the
le.t continues, the kwer point of c is applied to the
race of 2, which now a£ts on the balance by a long lever,
foon flops its motion in that dire&.ion, and continuing
to prefs on c, urges the balance in theoppofite diredtion.
It is eafy to fee that the motion of the wheel here muft
De hobbling and unequal, which has given to this fcape-
ment the name of the recoiling fcapement.
In confidering the utility of the following improved
fcapement for clocks, we muft keep in mind the fol¬
lowing propofition, which, after the above illuftration,
fcarcely requires any diredl proof. It is, that the natu-
i;i violations oi a pendulum are i/ochronousj or are per-
t «44 ]
WAT
formed in equal times. The great objedl of the fcapement Watch,
is to preferve this ifochronous motion of the pendulum, ‘“““v——^
As the dcfedl of the recoiling fcapement was long 4
apparent, feveral ingenious artifts attempted to fubftitute Cumming’a
in its place a fcapement that thould produce a more re-fcaPement
gular and uniform motion. Of thefe, the fcapementfor clocksi
contrived by Mr Gumming appears to be one of thebig- I3*
molt ingenious in its conftruftion, and moft perfedl in
its operation. The following conftrudlion is fimilar to
that of Mr Gumming but rendered rather lefs complex
for the purpofe of ftiortening the defcription.
Let ABC, fig. 13. reprefent a portion of the fwing '
wheel, of which O is the centre, and A one of the
teeth j Z is the centre of the crutch, pallets, and pendu¬
lum. The crutch is reprefented of the form of the let¬
ter A, having in the circular crofs piece a flit ik, alfo
circular, Z being the centre. The arm Z F forms the
firft detent, and the tooth A is reprefented as locked on
it at F. D is the firft pallet on the end of the arm Z d
moveable round the fame centre with the detents, but
independent of them. The arm d e \.o which the pallet
D is attached, lies wholly behind the arm Z F of the
detent, being fixed to a round piece of brafs efg, hav¬
ing pivots turning concentric with the axis of the pen¬
dulum. To the fame piece of brafs is fixed the horizon¬
tal arm e H, carrying at its extremity the ball H, of
fuch fize, that the aftion of the tooth A on the pallet D
is juft able to raife it up to the pofition here drawn.
Z P /> reprefents the fork, or pendulum rod, behind
both detent and pallet. A pinp projects forward, coming
through the flit 2 i, without touching either margin of
it. Attached to the fork is the arm m 22, of fuch length
that, when the pendulum rod is perpendicular, the an¬
gular diftance oi n q from the rod <? y H is juft equal to
the angular diftance of the left fide of the pin p from the
left end 2' of the flit i k.
Now, the natural pofition of the pallet 0 is at ?, re¬
prefented by the dotted lines, refting on the back of the
detent F. . It is naturally brought into this pofition by
its own weight, and ftill more by the weight of the ball
H. The pallet D, being fet on the forefide of the arm
at Z, comes into the fame plane with the detent F and
the fwing-wheel, though here reprefented in a different
pofition. Ihe tooth C of the wheel is fuppofed to have
efeaped from the fecond pallet, on wdiich the tooth A
immediately feizes the pallet D, fituated at forces it
out, and then refts on the detent F, the pallet D lean¬
ing on the tip of the tooth. After the efcape of C, the
pendulum, moving down the arch of femivibration, is
reprefented as having attained the vertical pofition.
Proceeding ftill to the left, the pin p reaches the extre¬
mity 2 of the flit 2 k •, and, at the fame inflant, the arm
n touches the rod ^ H in y. The pendulum proceeding
a hairsbreadth further, withdraws the detent F from the
tooth, which now even pufties off the detent, by a£ling
on the inclining face of it. The wheel being now un¬
locked, the tooth following C on the other fide afts on
its pallet, pufhes it off, and refts on its detent, which
has been rapidly brought into a proper pofition by the
a£!ion of A on the inclining face of F. By a fimilar
adtion of C on its detent at the moment of efcape, F
was brought into a polition proper for the wheels being
locked by the tooth A. As the pendulum ftill goes on,
the ball H, and pallet connedled with it, are carried by
tks arm m nr and before the pin p again reaches the
tftd
W A T
[ 645 ]
WAT
Watch, end of the flit, which had been fuddenly withdrawn by
‘“'“-v the aftion of A on F, the pendulum comes to reft. It
now returns towards the right, loaded with the ball H
on the left, and thus the motion loft during the laft vi¬
bration is reftored. When the pin />, by its motion to
the right, reaches the end k of i k, the wheel on the
right fide is unlocked, and at the fame inftant the weight
H being raifed from the pendulum by the action of a
tooth like B on the pallet D, ceafes to a6I.
In this fcapement, both pallets and detents are de¬
tached from the pendulum, except in the moment of un¬
locking the wheel, fo that, except during this ftiort in¬
terval, the pendulum may be faid to be free during its
whole vibration, and of courfe its motion muft be more
- equable and undifturbed.
Scapements The conftrufting of a proper fcapement for watches
for watches, requires peculiar delicacy, owing to the fmall lize of the
machine, from which the error of of an inch has as
much effeift as the error of a whole inch in a common
clock. From the neceffary lightnefs of the balance, too,
it is extremely difficult to accumulate a fufficient quan¬
tity of regulating power. This can be done only by
giving the balance a great velocity, which is effe&ed by
concentrating as much as poflible of its weight in the
rim, and making its vibrations very wide. The balance
rim of a tolerable watch fhould pafs through at leaft ten-
6 inches in every fecond.
Vibrations In confidering the moft proper fcapements for watches,
of a balance we may aflume the following principle, viz. that the of-
are ilochro- cillations of a balance urged by its fpring, and undifturb-
ed by extraneous forces, are ifochronous.
Belt ordi- 1° ordinary pocket watches, the common recoiling
nary foape- fcapement of clocks is ftill employed, and anfwers the
common purpofes of a watch tolerably well, fo that, if
properly executed, a good ordinary watch will keep time
within a minute in the day. Thefe watches, however,
are fubjedt to great variation in their rate of going, from
any change in the power of the wheels.
The following is confidered as the beft conftrudtion
of the common watch fcapement, and is reprefented by
fig. 14. as it appears when looking ftraight down on the
end of the balance arbor. C marks the centre of the
balance and verge ; CA reprefents the upper pallet, or
that next the balance, and CB the lower pallet; F and
I) are two teeth of the crown wheel, moving from left
to right; E, G, are two teeth in the lower part, moving
from right to left. The tooth D appears as having juft
efcaped from the point of C A, and the tooth E as
having juft come in contadl with CB. In pradtice, the
fcapement (hould not be quite fo ciofe, as by a fmall in¬
equality of the teeth, D might be kept from efcaping at
all. The-following are thought the beft proportions:
The di(lance between the front of the teeth (that is, of
G, F, E, D), and the axis C of the balance, is of FA,
the diftance between the points of the teeth. The
length CA, CB of the pallets is ^ of the fame degrees,
and the front DH or FK of the teeth makes an angle of
250 with the axis of the crown wheel. The Hoping
fxie of the tooth muft be of an epicycloidal form, fuiteT
to the relative motion of the tooth and pallet.
It appears from thefe proportions, that by the adlion
of the tooth D, the pallet A can throw out till it reach
/?, 1 20° from CL, the line of the crown-wheel axis. To
this if we add BCA = 950, we (hall have LC arz.\'io°.
Again, B will throw opt as far on the other lidex
ment for
watches.
Fig- 14-
Now, if from 240°, the fum of the extent of vibration Watch,
of both pallets, we take 950 the angle of the pallets, y—^
the remainder 1450 will exprefs the greateft vibration
which the balance can make, without ftriking the front
of the teeth. From feveral caufes, however, this mea-
fure is too great, and 120° is reckoned a fufticient vibra¬
tion in the beft ordinary Icapement. 7
Of the improvements on the fcapements of watches, Graham’s1
one of the moft important is that by Mr George Graham, h°rizontal
which we lhall proceed to defcribe. DE, fig. j^. caPement"
reprefents part of the rim of the balance wheel j A and 15-aiir*
C, two of its teeth with their faces b e formed into1
planes, inclined to the circumference of the wrheel in an
angle of about 150, fo that the length b e oi the face
may be nearly quadruple of its height e m. Let a cir¬
cular arch ABC be defcribed round the centre of the
wheel, .and through the middle of the faces of the teeth.
The axis of the balance will pafs through fame point B-
of this arch, and the mean circumference of the teeth
may be faid to pafs through the centre of the verge. On
this axis is fixed a portion of a thin hollow cylinder b c
made of hard tempered fteel, or of fome hard and tough
ftone, fuch as ruby or fapphire. By this conftrudlion
the portion of the cylinder occupies 2i0°of the circum¬
ference. The edge by to which the tooth approaches
from without, is rounded off on both angles. The
other edge d is formed into a plane, inclined to the ra¬
dius about 30°. Now, fuppofe the wheel preffed for¬
ward in the diredlion AC, the point b of the tooth,
touching the rounded edge, will pufti it outwards, turn¬
ing round the balance in the diredlion b c d. The
heel e of the tooth will efcape from this edge when it is
in the pofition and e is in the pofition f. The point b
of the tooth will now be at </, but the edge of the cy¬
linder will be at 1. The tooth therefore refts in the in-
fide of the cylinder, while the balance continues its vi¬
bration a little way, in confequence of the impulfe it>
has received from the adlion of the inclined plane.*
When this vibration is ended, by the oppofition of the?
balance fpring, the balance will return, and the tooth
now in the pofftion B, rubbing on the infide of the cy¬
linder, the balance comes back into its natural pofi¬
tion bed, with an accelerated motion by the adtion of
its fpring, and would of itfelf vibrate as far as the other
fide. It is, however, affifted again by the tooth, which
preffes on the edge d, puthes it afide till it attain the pofi- -
tion h, when the tooth entirely efcapes from the cylin¬
der. At this inftant the other edge of the cylinder,
having attained the pofition /, is in the way of the next
tooth, which is now in the pofition A, while the balance
continues its vibration, the tooth refting and rubbing on
the outfide of the cylinder. When this vibration is finifh-
ed,- the balance, by the adlion of the fpring,. refumes its
firft motion, and as foon as the balance gets into its na¬
tural pofition, the tooth begins to act on the edge b,
pifties it afide, efcapes from it, and drops as before in. the
infide of the cylinder. In this conftrudtion the arch of
adlion or fcapement is 30° twice the angle which the
face of a tooth makes with the circumference.
It is neceffary to explain how the cylinder is connect¬
ed with the verge, fo as to make fuch a great revolution
lound the tootn of the wheel. The triangular tooth
e b m is placed on the top of a little pillar fixed into
the end of the piece of brals m ID formed in the rim of
the wheel. X'hus the plane of the wedge tooth is pa-
X tfOldL
W atch
"8
Lepaute’s
improve¬
ment.
Fig. 18 &
19.
WAT [ 646
rallel to the plane of the wheel, but at a fmall dxftance
above it. The verge is reprefen ted at fig. 16, and con-
fifts of a long hollow cylinder of hard iteel, having a
great portion of the metal cut out. If fpread out fiat,
this cylinder would affume the form of fig. .17 j and if
we conceive this flat piece rolled up till the edges GH,
and G' H' unite, we fhall have the exaft form. The
part afted on by the point of the tooth is denoted by
the dotted line b d, and the part D, I, F, E, ferves to
conned! the two ends.
This fcapement of Mr Graham is called a hori¬
zontal fcapement, becaufe the balance is parallel to the
other wheels.
Another fcapement of a fuperior ccnftrudlion was
contrived by M. Lepaute of Paris, and is of fuch a An¬
gular form as to render it extremely difficult toilluftrate
it by a figure. The reprefentations at fig. 18 and 19
will, however, give general readers fome idea of its
mode of adlion, and a Ikilful artift will eafily fee how
the feveral parts may be adapted to each other. ABC
fig. 18. reprefents part of the rim of the balance wheel,
having the pins 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. projecting from its
faces ; the pins 1, 3, 5, being on the fide next the eye,
and the pins 2 and 4 on the oppofite fide. D is the
centre of the balance and verge, and the fmall circle
round D reprefents its thicknefs. But the verge in this
place is crooked, that the rim of the wheel may not be
intercepted by it. To it is attached a piece of hard
tempered fteel ah c which the part a b c is a con¬
cave arch of a circle, having D for its centre. It wants
about 30° of a femicircle. The reft c d\% alfo an arch
of a circle, having the fame radius with the balance
wheel. In the natural pofition of the balance, a line
drawn from D, through the middle of the face c d, is a
tangent to the circumference of the wheel. But if the
balance be turned round till the point d of the horn
come to d', and the point c come to 2, in the circumfer¬
ence in which the pins are placed, the pin preffing on
the beginning of the horn or pallet, pufhes it afide, Hides
along it, and efcapes at d, having generated a certain
velocity in the balance. Let another pallet fimilar to
that now deferibed be placed on the other fide of the wheel,
but in a contrary pofition, with the afting face of the
pallet turned away from the centre of the wheel. Let
it be fo placed at L, that the moment the pin 1 on the
upper fide of the wheel efcapes from the pallet c </,the
pin 4 on the lower fide of the wheel falls on the end of
the circular arch efg of the other pallet. Now, if the
pallets be connected by equal pulleys G and F on the
axis of each, and a thread round both, fo that they (hall
turn one way 5 the balance on the axis D, having received
an impulfe from the pin 1, will continue its motion from
A towards i, and will carry the other pallet with a fimi¬
lar motion round the centre E from h to k. The pin 4
avill theretore reft in the concave arch gf e as the pallet
turns round. When the force of the balance is fpent, the
pallet c d returns towards its firft pofition. The pallet
g h turns with it, and when the point of the firft has ar¬
rived at d, the beginning g of the other arrives at the pin
4 } and, proceeding farther, this pin efcapes from the
concave arch efg, and fades along the pallet g h, pufh-
ing it afide, and of courfe urging the pallet round the
centre E, and the balance on the axis 13 round at the
fame time, and in the fame direftion. The pin 4 efcapes
from the pallet g h, when h arrives at 3 5 but while the
4
WAT
pin 4 is Hiding along the yielding pallet g h, the pin 3 Watch,
is moving in the circumference BDA ; and the inftant —
that the pin 4 efcapes from /x at 3, the pin 3 arrives at
2, where the beginnings of the concave arch c ^ is ready
to receive it. It therefore refts on this arch, while the
balance continues its motion, and this may continue till
the point b of the arch comes to 2. The balance now
flops, its force being fpent, and then returns 5 and the
pin 3 efcapes from the circle at c, Hides along the yield-
ing pallet c d, and when it efcapes at 1, another pin on
the lower fide of the wheel arrives at 4, and finds the
aich gfe ready to receive it. And thus the vibration
of the balance will be continued.
I rom the above defeription we may deduce the pro¬
per dimenfions of the parts of the pallet. Thus, the
length of the pallet c d ox g h, muft be equal to the in¬
terval between two fucceeding pins, and the diftance of
the centres DE, muft be double of that interval. The
radius D s or E^, may be as fmall as we chooie. The
concave arches cb a md gfe, muft be continued fo far
as to allow a pin to reft on them during the whole ex-
cutfion of the balance. The angle of fcapement, in
which the balance remains under the influence of the
wheels, is obtained by drawing the lines D c and D d,
and we fhail find that this angle cD d is here about 30°,
though it may be made either greater or lefs than this.
. Fig. 19. explains how the two pallets may be com- p;
bined on one verge. KL is the verge with a pivot at ,S’ ^
each end. It is bent like a crank MNO, to admit the
balance wheel between its branches. EC reprefents this
wheel, feen edgewife, with its pin alternately on dif¬
ferent fides. The pallets are alfo reprefented by b c d
and hgf fized to the infide of the branches of the qrank,
fronting e?.ch other. The pofition of their adting faces may
be feen in the preceding figure, on the verge D, where the
pallet g h is reprefented by the dotted line 2 r7, as fituat-
ed behind the pallet c d. The remote pallet 2 z is fo
placed, that when the point d of the near pallet is quit¬
ted by a pin 1 on the upper fide of the wheel, the angle
formed by the face and the arch of reft of the other pal¬
let is juft ready to receive the next pin 2, which lies on
the lower fide of the rim. It is plain that the a£Hon
here will be the fame as if the pallets were on feparate
axes. 'I he pin 1 efca.pes from d, and the pin 2 is re¬
ceived on the arch of reit, and locks the wheel, while
the balance continues in motion. When the balance
returns;' 2 gets off the arch of reft, puffies afide the pallet
2 1, efcapes from it when z gets to 1, and then the point
c is ready to receive the pin 3, &c. The vibrations
may be increafed by giving a fufficient impulfe through
the angle of fcapement, but they cannot exceed a cer¬
tain quantity, otherwife N, the top of the crack, would
ftrike the rim of the wheel. The vibrations may be
eafily increafed to 180°, by placing the pins at the very
edge of the wheel; and by placing them at the points of
long teeth, fo that the crank may get in between them,
the vibrations may be carried to a much greater extent.
'I he conftrudtion juft deferibed is exceedingly ingeni¬
ous; and if the machinery be well executed, this icape-
ment will excel the horizontal fcapemtnt of Graham,
both as it has but two adting faces to form, and as it ad¬
mits of making the circle of reft extremely final], with¬
out leffening the adting face of the pallet. The con-
ftrudtion is, however, very delicate and difficult, and
muft require a very nice workman.
An
WATCH Work.
"Clate 1) I i X X I .
VIZ -7^r***/1 < .f'rw /j/ts /
V’/'etfri
WAT [ 647 ] WAT
Watching, _^n excellent fcapement of much more eafy conilruc-
^atL1' , tion, is that commonly called Duplaie's jcapement, and
^ with this we (hall conclude our account of watch-wo:k.
Duplaie’s lrig» 20. reprefents the eilential parts fomewhat magni-
fcapement. fled. AD a portion of the balance-wheel, having teeth
Fls-10’ / h, g, at tlie circumference. Thefe teeth are for pro¬
ducing the reft of the wheel, while the balance is mak¬
ing excurfions beyond the fcapement. This is effected
by an agate cylinder s on the verge. This cylinder
has a notch 0. When the cylinder turns round in the
diredtion 0p g, the notch eafily palfes the tooth B which
is relting on the cylinder furface 5 but when it returns in
the direction qp 0, the tooth B gets into the notch, and
follows it, preffing on one fide of it till the notch comes
into the polition o. The tooth being then in the poll*
tion h, efcapes from the notch, and another tooth drops
on the convex furface of the cylinder at B. The ba¬
lance-wheel is alfo furniihed with a fet of flat-fided pins,
Handing upright on its rim reprefented by a D. There
is likewife fixed on the verge a larger cyiinder GFC a-
bove the fmaller one 0p q, with its lower furface clear
of the wheel, and having a pallet C, of fapphire, firmly
indented into it, and projedting fo far as to keep clear
of the pins on the wheel. The polition of this cylinder,
with refpedt to the fmaller one below it, is fuch that
the tooth b being efcaped from the notch, the pallet C
has juft part the pin a, vehich was at A while B refted
on the fmall cylinder j but it moved from A to a, while
B moved to b. The wheel being now at liberty, the
pin a exerts its preffure on the pallet C in the rnoft di¬
rect manner, and gives it a ftrong impulfion, fallowing
and accelerating it till another tooth flops on the little
cylinder. The angle of fcapement depends partly on the
projedtion of the pallet, and partly on the diameter of
the fmall cylinder, and the advance of the tooth B into
the notch. Independent of the adtion on the fmall cy¬
linder, the angle of fcapement would be the whole arch
of the larger cylinder between C and *. But a (tops be¬
fore it be clear of the pallet, and the arch of impulfion is
fhottened by all the fpace defcribed by the pin while a
tooth moves from B to b. It flops at d.
For an account of other fcapements we muft refer our
readers to the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at
Paris for 1748, Cumming’s E/ementsof C/ock and Watch-
worh, a French work entitled Machines approuvees par
PAcademic des Sciences, and Young’s LeBures on Na¬
tural Philofophy, vol. i. p. 193, and Plate 16, vol. ii. p.
*93-
WATCHING, in Medicine, is when the patient
cannot (leep. In fevers it is a dangerous fymptom, and
if long continued ends in a delirium.
WATER, a well known fluid, diffufed through the
atmofphere, and over the furface of the globs, and a-
bounding in a certain proportion in animals, vegetables,
and minerals.
The ufes of water are fo univerfally known, that it
would be fuperfluous to enumerate them in this article.
It is eflential to animal and vegetable life ; it makes eafy
the intercourfe between the moft diftaxt regions of the
world •, and it is one of the moft ufeful powers in the
mechanic arts. It is often found combined with various
fubftances, and is then frequently beneficial in curing or
alleviating difeafes.
Thofe properties of water which fit it for anfwering
Biechanical purpofes are explained in other articles of
this Work (fee Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, N° 3. Water.
Resistance, and Rivers) j and tor the difcovery of the
compotilion of w'ater, fee Chemistry Index.
Mineral Waters. For the method of analyfing them,
fee alto Chemistry Index.
Under the title of MINERAL Waters, we have given
an analyfF oi the molt remarkable waters in Europe.
Holy WATER, which is made ufe of in the church of
Rome, as alio by the Greeks, and by the other Chri-
ftians of the Eaft of all denominations, is water with a
mixture or fait, blefied by a prieft according to a fet
form of benediftion. It is ufed in the blefling of per-
fons, things, and places; and is likewife confidered as a
ceremony to excite pious thoughts in the minds of the
faithful.
The priefts, in blefling it, firft, in the name of God,
commands the devils not to hurt the perfons who (hall
be iprinkled with it, nor to abufe the things, nor dif-
quiet the places, which (hall likevvife be fo fprinkled.
He then prays that health, fafety, and the favour of
heaven, may be enjoyed by fuch perfons, and by thofe
who (hall uie fuch things, or dwell in fuch places. Vef-
ments, veflels, and other fuch things that are let apart
lor divine fervice, are fprinkled with it. It is fometimes
fprinkled on cattle, with an intention to free or pre-
ferve them from diabolical enchantments 5 and in fome
ritual books there are prayers to be faid on fuch occa-
fions, by which the lafety of fuch animals, as being a
temporal blefling to the poffeflbrs, is begged of God,
whofe providential care is extended to all his creatures.
The hope which Catholics entertain of obtaining fuch
good effe&s from the devout ufe of holy water, is
grounded on the promife made to believers by Chrifi:
(St Mark xvi. 17.), and on the general efficacy of the
prayers of the church ; the petition of which prayers
God is often pleafed to grant ; though fometimes, in his
Providence, he fees it not expedient to do fo. That
fuch effeffs have been produced by holy water in a re¬
markable manner, has been afferted by many authors of
no fmall weight; as, namely, by St Epiphanius, Haer.
30th ; St Hierom, in the Life of St Hilarion ; Theo-
doret Hijl. Eccl. lib. v. cap. 21.; Palladius, Hi/l. Lauf ;
Bede, lib. v. cap. 4.
As a ceremony (fays the Catholic), water brings to
our remembrance our baptifm ; in which, by w’ater, we
were cleanfed from original fin. It alfo puts us in mind
of that purity of ccnfcience which we ought to endea¬
vour always to have, but efpecially when we are going
to worfhip our God. The fait, which is put into the
water to preferve it from corrupting, is alfo a figure of
divine grace, which preferves our fouls from the corrup¬
tion of fin 5 and is likewife an emblem of that wifdom
and diferetion which ought to feafon every aftion that a
Cbriftian does, and every word that he fays. It is wont
to be blefied and fprinkled in churches on Sundays, in
the beginning of the folemn office. It is kept in veffels
at the doors of the fame churches, that it may be taken
by the faithful as they enter in. It is alfo often kept in
private houfes and chambers.
Putrid Water, is that which has acquired an offen-
five fmell and tafte by the putrefcence of animal or ve¬
getable fubftances contained in it. It is in the higheft
degree pernicious to the human frame, and capable of
bringing on mortal difeafes even by its fmell. It is not
always from the apparent muddinefs of waters than we
can.
WAT [ 648 ] WAT
can judge of their difpofition to putrefy j fome which
are leemingly very pure being more apt to become pu¬
trid than others which appear much more mixed with
heterogeneous matters. Under the article Animalcule,
N° 23, is mentioned a fpecies of infedts which have the
property of making water ftink to an incredible degree,
though their bulk in proportion to the fluid wdiich lur-
rounds them is lefs than that of one to a million. Other
fubftances no doubt there are which have the fame pro¬
perty ; and hence almoft all water wdrich is confined
from the air is apt to become offenfive, even though
kept in glafs or floneware veffels. Indeed it a common
oblervation, that water keeps much longer fweet in
glafs veffels, ox in thofe of earthen or ftonervare, than in
thofe of wood, where it is exceedingly apt to putrefy.
Hence, as fliips can only be fupplied with water kept in
wooden cafks, failors are extremely liable to thofe dif-
eafes w'hich arife from putrid wrater ; and the difcovery
of a method by which water could eafily be prevented
from becoming putrid at fea would be exceedingly va¬
luable. This may indeed be done by quicklime^ for
when water is impregnated with it, all putrefcent mat¬
ters are either totally deftroyed, or altered 4n fuch a
manner as never to be capable of undergoing the putre-
fa&ive fermentation again. But a continued ufe oflime-
wrater could not fail of being pernicious, and it is there¬
fore neceffary to throw' down the lime ; after which the
water will have all the purity neceffary for preferving it
free from putrefaflion. This can only be done by means
of fixed air j and mere expofure in broad fhallow veffels to
the atmofphere wTould do it without any thing elfe, only
taking care to break the cruft which formed upon it.
Tw'o methods, however, have been thought of for doing
this with more expedition. The one, invented by Dr
Alfton, is, by throwing into the water impregnated with
lime a quantity of magnefia. The lime attrafts fixed
air more powerfully than magnefia ; in confequence of
which the latter parts with it to the lime : and thus be¬
coming infoluble, falls along with the cauftic magnefia
to the bottom, and thus leaves the w'ater perfectly pure.
Another method is that of Mr Henry, who propofes to
throw down the lime by means of an effervefcing mix¬
ture of oil of vitriol and chalk put down to the bottom
of the wTater calk. His apparatus for this purpofe is as
fimple as it can well be made, though it is hardly prob¬
able that -failors will give themfelves the trouble of ufing
it ; and Dr Alfton?s fcheme would feem better calculat¬
ed far them, rvere it not for the expence of the magne¬
fia *, which indeed is the only obje&ion made to it by
Mr Henry. Putrid water may be reftored and made
potable by a procefs of the fame kind.
Of late it has been difcovered that charcoal poffeffes
many unexpefted properties, and, among others, that of
preferving water from corruption, and of purifying it af¬
ter it has been corrupted. Mr Lowitz, whofe experi¬
ments on charcoal have been publifhed in CrelPs Che¬
mical Journal, has turned his attention to this fubjeft in
a memoir read to the Economical Society at Peterf-
burgh. He found that the effefl of charcoal was ren¬
dered much more fpeedy by ufing along with it fome
fulphuric acid. One ounce and a half of charcoal in
powder, and 24 drops of concentrated fulphuric acid
(oil of vitriol), are fufficient to purify three pints and a
half of corrupted water, and do not communicate to it
any fenfible acidity. This fmall quantity of acid renders
4
it unneceffary to ufe more than a third part of the char- Water,
coal powder which would otherwife be wanted j and the ''“‘"■V'—
lefs of that powder is employed, the lefs is the quantity
of water loft by the operation, which, in fea-voyages, is
an object worthy of confideration. In proportion to the
quantity of acid made ufe of, the quantity of charcoal
may be diminiftied or augmented. All acids produce
nearly the fame effedts:. neutral falls alfo, particularly
nitre and lea-fait, may be ufed, but fulphuric acid is pre¬
ferable to any of thefe ; rvater which is purified by
means of this acid and charcoal will keep a longer time
than that which is purified by charcoal alone. When
we mean to purify any given quantity of corrupted wa¬
ter, we ftiould begin by adding to it as much powder of
charcoal as is neceffary to deprive it entirely of its bad
fmell. To afeertain whether that quantity of powdered
charcoal was lufficient to effedl the clarification of the
faid water, a fmall quantity of it may be paffed through
a linen bag, tw o or three inches long 5 if the water,
thus filtrated, ftill has a turbid appearance, a frefh quan¬
tity of powdered charcoal muft be added, till it is be¬
come perfectly clear : the whole of the water may then
be paffed through a filtering bag, the fize of which fhould
be proportioned to the quantity of water. If fulphuric
acid, or any other, can be procured, a fmall quantity
of it fhould be added to the water, before the charcoal
powder.
The cleaning of the cafks in wdiich w'ater is to be
kept in fea-voyages fhould never be negledted : they
fhould be well waftied with hot water and land, or with
any other fubftance capable of removing the mucilagi¬
nous particles, and afterwards a quantity of charcoal
duft fhouid be employed, which will entirely deprive
them of the mufty or putrid fmell they may have con-
traded.—The charcoal ufed for purifying water fhould
be well burnt, and afterwards beat into a fine powder.
Sea-WATER. See SEA-Water.
WATEE-Carts, carriages conftruded for the purpofe
of watering the roads for feveral miles round London ;
a precaution abfolutely neceffary near the metropolis,
where, from fuch a vaft daily influx of carriages and
horfes, the duft would otherwife become quite infuffer-
able in hot dry weather. Pumps are placed at proper
diftances to fupply theie carts.
WATEE-Ordeal. See ORDEAL.
Water, among jewellers, is properly the colour or
luftre of diamonds and pearls. The term, though lefs
properly, is fometimes ufed for the hue or colour of
other ftones.
Watee-Bellows. See Machines for blowing Air in¬
to Furnaces.
WaTEE-Colours^ in Fainting, are fuch colours as are
only diluted and mixed up with gum-water, in contra-
diftindion to oil-colours. See COLOUR-Making.
WATER-Gang, a channel cut to drain a place by car¬
rying off a ft ream of water.
JVATER-Hen. See Parra, Ornithology Index.
WATER-Lines of a Ship, certain horizontal lines fup-
pofed to be drawn about the outfide of a fhip’s bottom,
clofe to the furface of the water in which fhe floats.
They are accordingly higher or lower upon the bottom,
in proportion to the depth of the column of water re¬
quired to float her.
WATER-Logged, the ftate of a fhip when, by receiving
a great quantity of water into the hold, by leaking, &c.
fhe
WAT
[ 649 3
W A T
Water¬
logged
'll
Water-
Ipout.
(lie has become heavy and inafHve upon the lea, fo as to
yield without refiftance to the efforts ol every wave tufh-
ing over her decks. As, in this dangerous fituation, the
centre of gravity is no longer fixed, but du£luating from
J place to place, the liability of the Ihip is utterly loll :
Ihe is therefore almoft totally deprived of the ule of her
fails, which would operate to overfet her, or prefs the
head under water. Hence there is no refource for the
crew, except to free her by the pumps, or to abandon
her by the boats as foon as poffible.
WATER-Sail, a fmall fail fpread occafionally under
the lower ftudding-fail, or driver-boom, in a fair wind
and fmooth fea.
WateR-Ou%el. See Turdus, Ornithology Index.
WATER-Spout, an extraordinary meteor, confiding of
a large mafs of water colledled into a fort, of column, and
moved with rapidity along the furface of the fea.
The bed account of the water fpout which we have
met with is in the Pail. Tranf. Abridged, vol. viii. as
obferved by Mr Jofeph Harris, May 21. 173 2, about
funfet, lat. 32° 30' N. ; long. 90 E. from Cape Florida.
“ When firft we law the fpout (fays he), it was whole
and entire, and much of the thape and proportion of a
fpeaking trumpet; the fmall end being downwards, and
reaching to the fea, and the big end terminated in a
black thick cloud. The ipout itfelf was very black,
and the more fo the higher up. It feemed to be exactly
perpendicular to the horizon, and its fides perfectly
fmooth, without the lead ruggednefs. Where it fell
the fpray of the fea rofe to a confiderable height, which
made fomewhat the appearance of a great fmoke. From
the firft time we faw it, it continued whole about a mi¬
nute, and till it was quite diffipated about three minutes.
It began to wade from below, and fo gradually up,
while the upper part remained entire, without any vi-
fible alteration, till at lad it ended in the black cloud
above; upon which there feemed to fall a very heavy
rain in that neighbourhood.—There was but little wind,
and the Iky elfewhere was pretty ferene.”
Water-fpouts have by fome been fuppofed to be mere¬
ly electrical in their origin j particularly by Signior
Be.ccaria, who fupported his opinion by fome experi¬
ments. But if we attend to the fuccedive phenomena
neceffary to conditute a complete water-fpout through
their various ftages, we (hall be convinced, that recourfe
mud be had to fome other principle in order to obtain a
complete folution.
Dr Franklin, in his Phyfical and Meteorological Ob-
fervations, fuppofes a water-fpout and a whirlwind to pro¬
ceed from the fame caufe \ their only difference being,
that the latter paffes over the land, and the former over
the water. This opinion is corroborated by M. de la
Pryme, in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, where he de-
fcribes two (pouts obferved at different times in York-
fhire, whofe appearances in the air were exaftly like
thofe of the fpouts at fea, and their effects the fame as
thofe of real whirlwinds.
A fluid moving from all points horizontally towards
a centre, mud at that centre either mount or defcend.
If a hole be opened in the middle of the bottom of a
tub filled with water, the water will flow from all fides
to the centre, and there defcend in a whirl: but air
flowing on or near the futface of land or water, from all
fides towards a centre, muft at that centre afcend j be-
caufe the land or water will hinder its defcent.
Vol. XX. Part IL
The do&or, in proceeding to explain his conceptions,
begs to be allowed two or three pofitions, as a founda¬
tion for his hypothefis. 1. That the lower region of air
is often more heated, and fo more rarefied, than the up¬
per, and by confequence fpecifically lighter. The cold-
nefs of the upper region is manifeited by the hail, which
falls from it in warm weather. 2. That heated air may
be very moid, and yet the moidure fo equally diffufed
and rarefied as not to be vifible till colder air mixes with
it ; at which time it condenfes and becomes vifible.
Thus our breath, although invifible in fummer, becomes
vifible in winter.
Thefe circumdances being granted, he prefuppofes a
tra£l of land or fea, of about 60 miles in extent, un-
Iheltered by clouds and unrefredied by the wind, during
a fummer’s day, or perhaps for feveral days without in-
termiflion, till it becomes violently heated, together with
the lower region of the air in contaft with it; fo that
the latter becomes fpecifically lighter than the fuperin-
cumoent higher region of the atmofphere, wherein the
clouds are ufually floated : he fuppofes alfo that the aic
furrounding this traft has not been fo much heated du¬
ring thofe days, and therefore remains heavier. The
confequence of this, he conceives, ftiould be, that the
heated lighter air ihould afcend, and the heavier de¬
fcend ; and as this riling cannot operate throughout the
whole trail at once, becaufe that would leave too ex-
tenfive a vacuum, the rifing will begin precifely in that
column which happens to be lighted or mod rarefied j
and the warm air will flow horizontally from all parts
of this column, where the feveral currents meeting, and
joining to rife, a whirl is naturally formed, in the fame
manner as a whirl is formed in a tub of water, by the
defcending fluid receding from all fides of the tub to¬
wards the hole in the centre.
And as the feveral currents arrive at this central
rifing column with a confiderable degree of horizontal
motion, they cannot fuddenly change it to a vertical
motion: therefore as they gradually, in approaching
the whirl, decline from right to curve or circular lines,
fo, having joined the whirl, they afcend by a fpiral mo¬
tion j in the fame manner as the water deicends fpirally
through the hole in the tub before mentioned.
Ladly, as the lower air neared the furface is more
rarefied by the heat of the fun, it is more impreffed by
the current of the furrounding cold and heavy air which
is to affume its place, and confequently its motion to¬
wards the whirl is fwifted, and fo the force of the
lower part of the whirl dronged, and the centrifugal
force of its particles greated. Hence the vacuum which
inclofes the axis of the whirl (hould be greated near the
earth or fea, and diminiih gradually as it approaches the
region of the clouds, till it ends in a point.
This circle is of various diameters, fometimes very
large.
If the vacuum paffes over water, the water may rife
in a body or column therein to the height of about 32
feet. This whirl of air may be as invifible as the air
itfelf, though reaching in reality from the water to the
region of cool air, in which our low fummer thunder¬
clouds commonly float j but it will foon become vifible
at its extremities. The agitation of the water under
the whirling of the circle, and the fvvelling and rifing
of the water in the commencement of the vacuum, ren¬
ders it vifible below. It is perceived above by the
4 N warm
Water-
fpout.
WAT r 650 ] WAT
"Water- warm air being brought up to the cooler region, where
fpout, jts moiftme begins to be condenfed by the cold into
works* vapour, and is then firft difcovered at the higheft
part, which being now cooled condenfes what rifes be¬
hind it, and this latter a&s in the fame manner on the
fiicceeding body 5 where, by the contadl of the vapours,
the cold operates fader in a right line downwards, than
the vapours themfelves can climb in a fpiral line up¬
wards : they climb however; and as by continual ad¬
dition they grow denfer, and by confequence increafe
their centrifugal force, and being rifen above the con¬
centrating currents that compofe the whirl, they fly off,
and form a cloud.
It feems eafy to conceive, how, by this fucceflive con-<
denfation from above, the fpout appears to drop or de-
fcend from the cloud, although the materials of which
it is compofed are all the while afcending. The con-
denfation of the moifture contained in fo great a quan¬
tity of warm air as may be fuppofed to rife in a fhort
time in this prodigioufly rapid whirl, is perhaps fufficient
to form a great extent of cloud ; and the friction of the.
whirling air on the fides of the column may detach
great quantities of its water, difperle them into drops,
and carry them up in the fpiral whirl mixed with the
air. The heavier drops may indeed fly off, and fall in¬
to a fhower about the fpout 5 but much of it will be
broken into vapour, and yet remain vifible.
As the whirl weakens, the tube may apparently fe-
parate in the middle ; the column of water fubfiding,
the fuperior condenfed part drawing up to the cloud.
The tube or whirl of air may neverthelefs remain en¬
tire, the middle only becoming invifible, as not contain¬
ing any vifi’Je matter.
Dr Lindlay, however, in feveral letters publilhed in
the Gentleman’s Magazine, has controverted this theory
of Dr Franklin, and endeavoured to prove, that water-
fpouts and whirlwinds are diffin£I phenomena ; and that
the water which forms the water-fpout, does not a-
icend from the fea, as Dr Franklin fuppofes, but de-
feends from the atmofphere. Our limits do not permit
us to infert his arguments here, but they may be feen
in the Gentleman’s Magazine, volume li. p. 559, 615 •,
vol. liii. p.,1025and vol. Iv. p. 594. We cannot
avoid obferving, however, that he treats Dr Franklin
with a degree of afperity to which he is by no means
entitled, and that his arguments, even if conclufive,
prove nothing more than that fome water-fpouts certain¬
ly defeend ; which Dr Franklin hardly ever ventur¬
ed to deny. There are fome very valuable differtations
on this fubjefl bv Proftffor Wilcke of Upfal.
IVjTER-JVorh. Under this name may be com¬
prehended almoft every hydraulic ftrufture or contri¬
vance ; fuch as, canals, conduits, locks, mills, water en¬
gines, &c. But they may be conveniently arranged
under two general heads, ift, Works which have for
their objeft the conducing, railing, or other wife ma¬
naging, of water ; and, 2dly, Works which derive their
efficacy from the impulfe or other sftion of water.
The JirJl clafs comprehends the'methods of Amply con-
dufting water in aquedufts or in pipes for the fupply of
domeftic confumption or the working of machinery :
It comprehends alfo the methods of procuring the fup-
plies neceffary for thefe purpofes, by means of pumps,
water, or fire, engines. It alfo comprehends the fub-
fequent management of the water thus conduced, Water-
whether in order to make the proper diflribution of it works'
according to the demand, or to employ it for the pur-
pofe of navigation, by lockage, or other contrivances.
—And in the profecution of thefe things many fubor-
dinate problems will occur, in which practice will de¬
rive great advantages from a fcientific acquaintance
with the ifubjeft. The fecond clafs of vpater-works is
of much greater variety, comprehending almoft every
kind of hydraulic machine ; and would of itfelf fill
volumes. Many of thefe have already occurred in va¬
rious articles of this Didlionsry. In deferibing or treat¬
ing them, we have tacitly referred the difeuflion of
their general principles^ in which they all refemble
each other, to fome article where they could be taken
in a connefted’ body, fufceptible of general fcientific dif¬
euflion, independent of the circumftances which of ne-
ceflity introduced the particular modifications required
by the ufes to which the ftruftures veere to be applied.
That part of the prefent article, therefore, which em¬
braces thefe common principles, will chiefly relate to
the theory of water mills, or rather of water wheel*;
becaufe, when the neceffary motion is given to the axis
of the water wheel, this may be fet to the performance
of any talk whatever.
CL ASS I.
I. Of the con dueling of Water.
This is undoubtedly a bufinefs of great importance,
and makes a piincipal part of the praffice of the civil
engineer : It is alfo a bufinefs fo imperfe&ly underftood,
that we believe that very few’ engineers can venture to
lay, with tolerable- precifion, what will be the quantity
of w’ater W’hich his work will convey, or what plan and
dimenfions of conduit will convey the quantity which:
may be propefed. For proof of this we fhall only refer
our readers to the fa&s mentioned in the article Ri¬
vers, N° 27, See.
In that article vre have given a fort of hiftory of the
progrefs of our knowledge in hydraulics, a branch of
mechanical philefophy which feeras to have been entire¬
ly unknown to the ancients. Even Archimedes, the
author of almoft all that we know in hydroftatics, ieems
to have been entirely ignorant of any principles by
which he could determine the motion of water. The
mechanical fcience of the ancients feems to have reach-
no farther than the doctrine of equilibrium among-
bodies at reft. Guglielmini firft ventured to confider
the motion of water in open canals and fin rivers. Its
motion in pipes had been partially corfidered in de¬
tached feraps by others, but not fo as to make a body
of dodhine. Sir Ifaac Newton fiift endeavoured to
render hydraulics fufceptible of mathematical demon-
ftration : But his fundamental propofit on has not yet
been freed from very fericus objedfions ; nor have the
attempts of his fucceffors, fuch as the Bernouliis, Euler,
D’Alembert, and others, been much more fuccefsful :
fo that hydraulics may ft ill be ccnfidered as very im-
perfedf, and the general conclufions which we are ac-
cuftomed to receive as fundamental propofitions are not
much better than matters of obfervation, little fupported
by principle, and therefore requiring the moft ferupu-
lous
2
W AT [65
wor!-?" ^oas.cau"lon appHcatibn of them to any hitherto
T ' . untried cafe. When experiments are multiplied fo as
to include as great a variety of cafes as poffible ; and
when ihefe are cleared of extraneous circumitances, and
properly arranged, we mult receive the conclufions
draivn from them as the general laws of hydraulics.
The experiments of the abbe Boilut, narrated in his Hy-
drodynamique, are of the greateft value, having been
made in the cafes of mod general frequency, and being
made with great care, lire grealeit fervice, however,
has been done by the chevalier Buat, who faw the
fully of attempting to deduce an accurate theory from
any principles that we have as yet learned, and the ne-
ceflity of adhering to fuch a theory as could be deduced
bom experiment alone, independent of any more gene¬
ral principles. Such a theory muft be a juft one, if the
experiments are really general, unaffefted by the parti¬
cular circumitances of the cafe, and if the ciaffes of ex¬
periment are fufficiently cemprehenfive to include all
tJie cafes which occur in the mod important practical
quefhons. Some principle w'as neceflary, however, for
connecting thefe experiments. The fufficiency of this
prmaple was not eafiljr afeertained. M. Buat’s way of
edabhihing this was judicious. If the principle is ill-
xounded, the refults of its combination in cafes of a&ual
experiments muft be irregular j but if experiments,
leemmgly very unlike, and in a yaft variety of diflimilar
cities, give a train of refults which is extremely regular
and confident, we may prefume that the principle, which
in this manner harmonizes and reconciles things fo un¬
like, <IS founded in the nature of things j and if this
principle be fuch as is agreeable to our cleareft notions
ot the internal mechanifm of the motions of fluids, our
preiumption approaches to convidion.
X roceeding in this way, the chevalier Buat has col-
ieCmd a prodigious number of fads, comprehending al-
moft every cafe of the motion of fluids. He firft claffed
thtm according to their refemblance in feme one parti-
a£d obfer.ved tbe differences Which accompanied
tneir differences in other circumftances; and by confider-
mg what could produce thefe differences, he obtained
general ru.es, deduced from fad, by whk*h thefe dif-
lerences could be made to fall into a regular feries. He
then arranged all the experiments under feme other
°f ’■ffe™bla!lCfe and purfued the fame me-'
^ and by fall°wing this out, he has produced a ge-
•<?ral propoution, which applies to the whole of this
W A T
numerous lift of experiments with a precifion far exceed¬
ing our utmoft hopes. This propolition is contained in
N° 59. of the article Rivers, and is there offered as
one jff the moft valuable relults of modern fcience.
We muft, however, obferve, that of this lift of ex¬
periments there is a very large clafs, which is not di-
icd, but requires a good deal of refledion to enable us
to draw a confident conclufion ; and this is in cafes
which are very frequent and important, viz. where the
declivity is exceedingly fmall, as in open canals and
rivers. The experiments were of the following Forms :
Two large cifterns were made to communicate with
each other by means of a pipe. The furfaces of the
water m thefe cifterns were made to differ only by a
fmall fradion of an inch : and it is fuppofed that the
motion in the communicating pipe will be the fame as
m s very long pipe, or an open canal, having this very
minute declivity. We have no difficulty in admitting
the conclufion ; but we have fefcn it contefted, and it is
by no means intuitive. We had entertained hopes that
this important cafe would hav^e been determined by dired
ex.P5llirif'n^s’ wb*cb tbe writer of this article was com-
rniliioned to make by the Board for Encouraging Im¬
provements and Manufactures in Scotland : But the in¬
firm ftate of his health was always an effedual bar to
the accomplithment of this defirable object. This, how¬
ever, need not occafion any helitation in the adoption
of M. Buat’s general propofition, becaufe the experi¬
ments which we are now criticifing fall in precilely with
the general train of the reft, and fhoW no general de-
\iation which would indicate a fallacy in principle.
\\ e apprehend it to be quite unneceffary to add much
to what has been already delivered on the motion of wa¬
ters in an open canal. Their generalprogrejfive mo¬
tion, and confequently the quantity delivered by an
aqueduct of any dope and dimenfion, are fufhciently de¬
termined ; and all that is wanted is the tables which
we promifed in N3 65. of the article Rivers, by which
any peifen wfeo underftands common arithmetic mav,
in five minutes time or lefs, compute the quantity of
water which will be delivered by the aqueduT, canal,
conduit, or pipe ; for the theorem in N° 59. of this ar¬
ticle applies to them all without diftimftion. We there-
fore ^ take this opportunity of inferring thefe tables,
which have been computed on purpofe for this work
with great labour.
Water
works.
4 N 2
Table:
W A T
[ 652 ]
WAT
Table I. Logarithms of the Values of the Numerator of the Fraction —for evenj Value of the Hydraulic
Lv^+i,6
Tnean Depth d : Alfa the Value of 0,3 ( \/7—G>0«
d.
0,1
0,2
o,3
0,4
o,5
0,6
o,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
1
2
*,3
4
5
6
1.7
8
!,9
2,0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3,0
'5,1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4,°
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
o.3
Log. of X
307 (-y/ d—0,1 )(\/ d—0,l)
1.82208
2.02786
2-13753
2.21343
2.27040
2.31618
2-35441
2.38710
2.41588
2.44138
2.46431
2.48518
2.50426
2. C2lS C
2.53818
2.55345
2.56769
2.58112
2.59381
2.60580
2.61713
2.62803
2.63839
2.64827
2.6C772
2.66681
2.67556
2.68395
2.69207
2.69989
2.70743
2.71472
2.72181
2.72866
2-73531
2.74178
2.74805
2-7 5417
2.76009
2.76589
2-77153
2.77704
2.78240
2.78763
2.79277
2.79779
2.80269
2.80747
0,06
0,1
0,13
0,16
0,18
0,2
0,22
0,24
0,25
0,27
0,28
°,3
°,31
0,32
o,34
o,35
0,36
o,37
0,38
o,39
0,4
0,41
0,42
o,44
o,45
o,45
0,46
o,47
0,48
o,49
o,5
0,51
0,52
c,53
o,53
o,54
o,55
0,56
0,56
o,57
0,58
o,59
o,59
0,6
0,6
0,61
0,62
0,63
d.
4,9
5,o
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6,0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7,°
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
,0
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
5
8,6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9,o
9,i
9,2|
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Log. of
307
2.81216
2.81674
2.821 25
2.82567
2.83000
2.83222
2.83840
2.84248
2.84648
2.85043
2.85431
2.8581 2
2.86185
2.86554
2.869161
2.87271
2.87622
2.87966
2.88306
2.88641
2.88971
2.89296
2.89614
2.89930
2.90241
2.90549
2.90851
2.9II5O
2.91445
2.91734
2.92022
2.92305
2.92584
2.92860
2-93I33
2-93403
2.93670
2-93933
2.94192
2.94449
2.94703
2-94954
2.95202
2.95447
2.95690
2.95930
2.96167
2.96402
0,3
_x
•</ d—0,1)
0,63
0,63
0,65
0,65
0,66
0,67
0,67
0,68
0,68
0,69
0,69
o,7
o,7
0,71
0,72
o,73
o,73
o,74
o,75
o,75
0,76
0,76
o,77
o,77
0,78
0,78
o,79
o,79
0,8
0,8
0,81
0,82
0,82
0,83
0,83
0,84
0,84
0,85
0,85
0,86
0,86
0,87
0,87
0,88
0,88
0,89
0,89
0,9
d.
Log_of
307 (*/ <—0,1)
9.7
9.8
9.9
10
11
12
!3
15
16
r7
18
*9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
2.96634
2.96865
2.97093
2.97319
2.99454
3.01401
3.03189
3.04843
3.06383
3.07820
3.09170
3.io44i
3.11644
3‘i2783
3.13867
3.14899
3.15885
3.16828
3‘17734
3.18601
3-i9438
3.20243
3.21020
3.21770
3.22495
3.23196
3.23877
3.24537
3.2 C176
3-25799
3.26404
3.26903
3.27566
3.28125
3.28669
3.29201
3.29720
3.30227
3.30722
3.31207
3.31681
3-32I45
3.32599
3"33043
3.3348o
3.33908
3.34327
0,3
x
d—0,1)
0,9
0,91
0,91
0,92
o,97
1,01
1,05
1,09
2,17
1,21
1,24
1,28
M1
!,34
1,38
1,41
i,44
M7
2,5
i,53
1,56
1,58
1,61
2,64
2,67
2,69
1,72
2,74
i,77
i,79
1,82
1,84
1,87
2,89
1,91
2,93
i,95
1,98
2,00
2,03
2,05
2,07
2,09
2,11
2,13
2,15
d.
54
55
56
57
58
59
6c
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
72
72
73
74
75
76
7
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
Log. of
07 (-v/4—o,i)
o,3
X
(a/^ —0,1)
3.34738
3.35 243
3-35539
3.35928
3.363 2 2
3.36687
3.37057
3.37421
3.37778
3.38230
3.38477
3.38817
3.39258
3.39483
3.39809
4.40150
3.40446
3.40758
3.42065
3.42369
3.42667
3.42962
3.42253
3.42540
3.42823
3.43203
3.43380
3.43653
3.43923
3.44189
3.44452
3.44712
3.44968
3.45222
3-45473
3.45721
345965
3.46208
4.46448
3.46685
3.46920
3.47252
3.47381
3.47608
3.47833
3.480 c6
3.48277
2,17
.2,19
2,21
2,23
2,25
2*27
2,3
2,31
2,33
2,35
2,37
2,39
2.41
2.42
2,44
2,46
2.48
2.49
2.52
2.53
2,55
2.57
2.58
2,60
2.62
2.63
2,65
2,67
2,69
2,7
2,72
2.74
2.75
2.77
2.78
2.79
2,81
2,83
2.85
2.86
2.88
2.89
2,91
2.93
2.94
2.95
2,97
X
Table
W A T
[ 653 3
WAT
Table II. Logarithms of the Values of the Denominator of the Fra&ion 0’1^- for every Value of the Slopes.
j1—s *^-1,6
Log. of
7_LV/—
r>3
i»4
r>5
1.6
^7
1.8
1.9
2,0
2,1
2,2
2>3
2.4
2»5
2.6
2’7
2,8
2.9
3»°
3»i
3»2
3*3
3.4
3*5
3.6
3*7
3*8
3^
4)
4*i
4*2
4*3
4*4
4*5
4*6
4*7
4*8
4*9
!5>c
5*i
5*2
5*3
5*4
5*<
5*6
5*7
5*8
5*9
6,o
6.1
6.2
6*3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6,9
7,o
7.1
7.2
9.7x784
9.74210
9.76388
9.78376
9.80202
9.81882
9.83461
9.8493°
9.86314
9.87622
9.88857
9*9003I
9-9II53
9.92267
9-93247
9.94231
9-95I73
9.96085
9.96942
9.97818
9.98632
9.99427
0.00200
0.00945
0.01669
0.02373
0.03064
0-03733
0.04383
0.05015
0.05638
0.06245
0.06839
0.07412
0.07898
0.08533
0.09081
0.0961 c
0.10131
0.10644
0.11147
0.11635
o.i?tc8
0.12595
0.13061
°*I35I9
0.13970
0.14410
0.14844
0.15274
0.15697
0.16113
0.16522
0.16927
0.17322
0.17713
0.18099
0.18477
0.18854
0.19229
0.19584
0.19886
0.20298
Log. of
LvATT
0.20651
0.20997
0.21336
0.21674
0.22109
0.22335
0.22663
0.22982
0.23297
0.23611
0.23923
0.24229
0.24532
0.24832
0.25128
0.25422
0.25709
0.25996
0.26281
0.26560
0.26839
0.27116
0.27387
0.27656
0.27921
0.28186
0.28450
0.28709
0.31170
0.33425
0.35488
0.37420
o-39235
0.40926
0.42521
0.44028
o-45439
0.46776
0.48044
0.49262
0.50433
0.51548
0.52621
0-53656
0.54654
0.55606
0.56526
0.57415
0.58263
0.59095
0.59901
0.60692
0.61448
0.62180
0.62900
0.63599
0.64276
0.64933
0.65571
0.66200
0.66811
0-^74I3
Log. of
7—W7+T
76 '• ✓
0.67997
0.68574
0.69135
0.69688
0.70226
0.70749
0.71265
0.71767
0.72263
0.72746
0.73223
0.73695
°-74I55
0.74601
o-75043
0.75481
0.75906
0.76328
0.76745
0.77151
0.78276
0.77945
o.78333
0.78718
0.79092
0.76463
0.79824
0.80182
0.80536
0.80882
0.81231
0.81571
0.81908
0.82236
0.82562
0.82885
0.83206
0.8a 92?
0.83835
0.84142
0.84442
0.84739
0.85034
0.05327
0.85618
0.85908
0.86189
c.86463
0.86741
0.87017
0.87286
0.87552
0.87818
0.88076
0.88338
0.88593
0.91014
0.93212
0.95236
0.97109
0.98843
1.00466
170
180
19c
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
33°
34°
350
360
37°
380
39°
400
410
420
43°
440
45°
460
476
480
490
500
510
520
53°
54°
55°
56c
570
580
590
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
670
680
690
700
710
72c
73°
740
750
760
770
780
9c
1.01983
1.03410
1.04751
1.06026
1.07237
1.08390
1.09489
1.10542
I-lI553
_i.12523
I-I3453
I-M345
1.15204
1.1603 c
1.16838
1.17612
1.18363
1.19092
1.19803
1.20490
1.21158
1.21806
1-22435
1.23048
1.23647
1.24232
1.24805
1.2C360
1.25903
1.26433
1.26951
1.27461
I-27957
1.28445
1.28923
1.29391
1.29851
1.30300
1.30740
1.3H72
I-3I597
1-32015
1.32426
1.32830
1.33226
1.33614
1-33997
1-34373
1-34743
1.35x08
1.35468
1-35823
1.36170
i-365i3
1.36851
i-37i85
I.375I3
I-37839
i-38i57
1.38471
1.38782
1.39089
1-3939I
800
810
820
83c
840
850
860
870
880
890
900
910
920
930
940
950
960
97°
980
99!
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
6co
700
800
900
2000
2100
2200
2300
24OO
2500
2600
2700
2800
29OO
3OOO
100
3200
aaoo
3400
35oo
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700
4800
4900
5000
5i°(
Log. of 
V'—L \/ 1
1.30690
I.39985
I.40277
1.40564
1.40678
1.41128
1.41408
1.41683
I-4I953
1.42220
1.42487
1.42746
1.43005
1.43263
I-43515
1.43464
1.44011
1.44254
1.44498
1-4473 7
1.44976
1.47223
1.49269
I-5II48
1.52885
1.54497
1.56014
i-574i6
i-58747
1.60004
1.61195
1.62325
1.63403
1.64432
1.65414
1.66358
1.67261
1.68133
1.68971
1.69780
1-70558
I-7I3I3
1.72042
1.72750
I-73435
1.74099
1.74746
1-75373
1.75984
i-76578
i-77I59
J-77725
1.78277
1.78814
1-79339
1-77851
1.80352
1.80875
1.81321
1.81790
1.8.'?249
1.82699
5200
5300
5400
5500
5600
57oo
580c
590c
6000
6100
6200
630c
6400
6500
6600
6700
680c
6900
700c
7100
1
7300
7400
7500
7600
7700
7800
7900
8000
8100
8200
8300
840c
8500
860c
8700
8800
8900
9000
9100
9200
9300
9400
95oo
9600
9700
9800
9900
10000
1000
12000
3°o<
14000
5000
16000
7000
18000
19000
20000
21000
22000
23000
24000
Log. of
C—iyT+7
1.83142
I-83575
1.84002
1.84421
1.84833
*•85237
1.85634
1.86022
1.86404
1.86778
1.87146
1.87507
1.87863
1.88213
1.88558
*•89233
1.89564
1.89891
1.90214
1.90532
1.90845
I-9II54
1-9x458
1- 9I757
1.92052
1.92344
1.92632
1.92916
1.93x97
*•93475
*•93749
1.94020
1.94287
*•9455*
1.94811
1.95069
*-95324
*.95576
1.95826
1.96073
1.96317
*■96559
*.96797
*-97033
1.97267
1.97497
1.97726
*.97952
2.00099
2.02056
2- 03855
2.05518
2.07065
2.08512
2.09869
2.11148
2.12357
2-i35°3
2.14594
2-*5633
2.16624
2-*7573
WAT
[ 65+ ]
WAT
Table I. confiRs of three columns.—Column 1. en¬
titled d, contains the hydraulic mean depths of any con¬
duit in incheSi This is fet down for every loth of an
inch in. the firft 10 inches, that the anfvvers may be
more accurately obtained for pipes, the mean depth of
which feldom exceeds three or four inches. The column
is continued to 100 inches, which is fully equal to the
hydraulic mean depth of any canal.
Column 2. contains the logarithms of the values of
d—0.1, multiplied by 307 ) that is, the logarithm of
the numerator of the fraction ( y' _?—)_ jn
65. of the article Rivers.
Column 3. contains the produft of the values of
d—0.1 multiplied by 0.3
Table II. confifts of tw-o columns.—Column 1. en¬
titled j", contains the denominator of the fraction exprefs-
ing the (lope or declivity of any pipe or canal; that is,
the quotient of its length divided by the elevation of
one extremity above the other. Thus, if a canal ©f one
mile in length be three feet higher at one end than the
other, then s is m76o.
3. .
Column 2. contains the logarithms of the denomina¬
tors of the above mentioned fraction, or of the different
values of the quantity *Js—L»^/J'-f-j .6.
Thefe quantities were computed true to the third
decimal place. Notwithflanding this, the laft figure
in about a dozen of the firft logarithms of each table is
not abfolutely certain, to the neareft unit. But this can¬
not produce an error of 1 in 100,000.
Examples of the life of thefe Tables.
area of a circle whofe diameter is i), and divide by
103.4. Or> by logarithms,
Add the log. of 20.08 - - 1.30276
log. of 60" - - 1.778x5
log. of 5* or 25 - - 11.39794
log. of 0.7854 - - 9.89509
4-37394
2.01451
Subtraft the log. of 103.4
Remains the log. of 228.8 pints - 2*35943
Example 2U The canal mentioned in the article
Rivers, N° 63. was 18 feet broad at the furface, and
7 feet at the bottom. It was 4 feet deep, and had a
declivity of 4 inches in a mile, ^uery, The mean ve¬
locity ?
I. The flant fide of the canal, correfponding to 4 feet
deep and 54 projection, is 6.8 feet ; therefore the border
touched by the water is 6.84-74-6.8, =20.6. The
184-7 _
area is 4 X - ^ 1, =50 fquare feet. Therefore dtz
£=2.427 feet, or 29.124 inches. The logarithm
correfponding to this in Table I. is 3.21113, and the
correction for vifcidify from the third column of the
fame Table is 1.58.
2. The flope is one-third of a foot in a mile, or one
foot in three miles. Therefore j is 15.840. The loga¬
rithm corrifponding to this is 2.08280.
3. From
SubtraCI
3.21113
2.08280
Example r. Water is brought Into the city of Edin¬
burgh in feveral mains. One of thefe is a pipe of five
inches diameter. The length of the pipe is 14.637 feetj.
and the refervoir at Comifton is 44 feet higher than the
rciervoir into which it delivers the water on the Caftle
Hill. ^uerify The number of Scotch pints which this
pipe fhould deliver in a minute ?
1. We have =1.25 inches. The logarithm
correfponding to this dy being nearly the mean be¬
tween the logarithms correfponding to 1.2 and 1.3 is
2.49472.
2. We have s~ or 332.7. The logarithm
cotrefponding to this in Table II. is had by taking pro¬
portional parts for the difference between the logarithms
for ^=330 and j'r=340, and is 1.18533.
3. From 2.49472
Take 1.18533
Remains 1.30939, the logarithm of 20.385 inches.
4. In column 3. of Table I. oppofite to dtx 1.2 and
^=1.3 are 0,3 and 0.31, of which the mean is 0.305
inches, the correction for vifcidity.
5. Therefore the velocity in inches per fecond is
20.385—0.305, or 20.08.
6. To obtain the Scotch pints per minute (each con¬
taining 103.4 cub5c inches), multiply the velocity by
€0, and this produCt by 5*, and this by 0,7854 (the
Remains 1.12833=log. of 13.438 inches.
SubtraCt for vifcidity 1.58
Velocity per fecond - 11.858
This velocity is confiderably fmalkr than what was
obferved by Mr Watt. And indeed we obferve, that
in the very fmall declivities of rivers and canals, the for¬
mula is a little different. We have made feveral com-
parifons with a formula which is effentially the fame with
Buat’s, and comes nearer in thefe cafes. Inftead of ta¬
king the hyperbolic logarithm of 4-1.6, multiply
its common logarithm by 24, or multiply it by 9, and
divide the produft by 4 ; and this procefs is vaftly eafier
than taking the hyperbolic logarithm.
We have not, however, prefumed to calculate tables
on the authority of our own obfervations, thinking too
refpeCtfully of this gentleman’s labours and obfervations.
But this fubjeCl will, ere long, be fully eftablifhed on a
ferie? of obfervations on canals of various dimenfions and
declivities, made by feveral eminent engineers during the
execution of them. Fortunately Mr Buat’s formula is
chiefly founded on obfervations on fmall canals j and is
therefore moft accurate in fuch works where it is moft
neceffary, viz. in mill courfes, and other derivations for
working machinery.
We now proceed to take notice of a few circum-
ftances which deferve attention, in the conftruftion of
canals, in addition to thofe delivered in the article
Rivers.
When a canal or aqueduct is brought off from a bafon
or
WAT [ 655 ] W A T
W.j»ter- cr larger ilream, it ought always to be widened at the
, v>'c^'vS- entry, if it is intended for drawing off a continued
ftreara of water : For fuch a canal has a Hope, without
which it can have no current. Suppofe it filled to a
dead level to the farther end : Take away the bar, and
the water immediately begins to flow off at that end.
But it is fovie time before any motion is perceived at
the head of the canal, during all which time the motion
of the water is augmenting in every part of the canal j
confequently the Hope is increafing in every part, this
being the foie caufe of its ftream. When the water at
the entry begins to move, the Hope is fcarcely fenfible
there ; but it fenfibly deepens every moment with the
increale ot velocity, which at laft attains its maximum
relative to the Hope and dimenfions of the whole canal ;
and this regulates the depth of water in every point
down the ftream. When all has attained a date of per¬
manency, the dope at the entry remains much greater
than in any other part of the canal 5 for this Hope mud
be fuch as will produce a velocity fufficient for fupplying
its TRAIN'.
And it mud be remembered, that the velocity which
mud be produced greatly exceeds the mean velocity cor-
refponding to the train of the canal. Sappofe that this
is 25 inches. There mud be a velocity of 30 inches at
the furface, as appears by the Table in the article Ri¬
vers, N° 80. This mud be produced by a real fall at
the entry.
In every other part the flone is fufficient, if it merely
ferves to give the water (already in motion) force
enough for overcoming the fri&ion and other refiftances.
But at the entry the water is dagnant, if in a bafon, or
it is moving pad laterally, if the aqueduft is derived
from a river; and, having no velocity whatever in the
direction of the canal, it mud derive it from its Hope.
The water thersfore which has acquired a permanent
form in fuch an aqueduft, mud necedarily take that form
Plate which exa&ty performs the offices requifite in its diffe-
DLXXIII. rent portions. The furfac? remains horizontal in the
Fig. 1. bafon, as to KC (fig. 1.), till it comes near the entry
of the canal AB, and there it acquires the form of an
undulated curve CDE ; and then the fuiface acquires
an uniform dope EF, in the lower part of the canal,
where the xvater is in train.
If this is a drain, the difcharge is much lefs than
might be produced by the fame bed if this hidden dope
could be avoided. If it is to be navigated, having only
a very gentle dope in its whole length, this fudden dope
is a very great imperfeftioa, both by diminiffiing the
depth of water, which might otherwife be obtained along
the canal, and by rendering the paffage of boats into
the bafon very difficult, and the coming out very ha¬
zardous.
All this may be avoided, and the velocity at the en¬
try may be kept equal to that which forms the train of
the canal, by the fimple procefs of enlarging the entry.
Suppofe that the water could accelerate along the Hopes
of the canal, as a heavy body would do on a finely po¬
ll Hied plane. If we now make the width of the entry
in its different parts inverfely proportional to the fic¬
titious velocities in thofe parts, it is plain that the flepe
of the furface will be made parallel to that of the canal
which is in train. This will require a form fomewhat
like a bell or fpeaking trumpet, as may eafily be fiiown
by a mathematical difeuflion. It would, however, be
fo much evafated at the bafon as to occupy much room,
and it would be very expenfive to make fuch an exca¬
vation. But we may, at a very moderate expence of
money and room, make the increale of velocity at the
entry almoft infenfible. This fiiould always be done,
and it is not all expence : for if it be not d^ne, the wa-
tei will undermine the banks on each fide, becaufe it is
moving very fwirtly, and will make an excavation for
ilfelf, leaving all the mud in the canal below. We
may obfevve this enlargement at the entry of all natural
derivations from a balon or lake. It is a very inftruc-
tive experiment, to fill up this enlargement, continuing
the parallel Hides of the drain quite to the fide of the
lake. We (hall immediately obfeive the water grow
dial lower in the drain, and its performance will diminidi.
Suppofing the ditch carried on with parallel fides quite
to the fide of the bafon, if w.'e build two walls or dykes
fioni the extremities of thofe fides, bending outwards
with a proper curvature (and this will often be lefs coft-
ly than widening the drain), the difcharge wall be great¬
ly increafed. We have feen indances where it was nearly
doubled.
i lie enlargement at the mouths of rivers is generally
owing to the fame caufe. The tide of dood up the ri¬
ver produces a fuperficial Hope oppofite to that of the
river, and this widens the mouth. This is mod re¬
markable when the tides are high, and the river has lit¬
tle Hope.
After this great fall at the entry of the canal, in
which all the filaments are much accelerated, and the
inferior ones mod of all, things take a contrary turn.
The water, by rubbing on the bottom and the Hides, is
retarded ; and therefore the fedlion mud, from being
ftiallow, become a little deeper, and the furface will be
convex for fome diftance till all comes into train. When
this is edabliftied, the filaments neared the bottom and
Hide are moving flowed, and the furface (in the middle
eipecially) retains the greateft velocity, gliding over the
red. The velocity in the canal, and* the depth of the
feclion, adjuft themfelves in fuch a manner that the dif¬
ference between the furface of the bafon and the furface
of the uniform feftion of the canal correfponds exaclly
to the velocity. Thus, if this be obferved to be tw;o
feet in a fecond, the difference of height will be - Eths
of an inch.
All the practical quedions that are of confiderable im¬
portance refpedling the motion of w'ater in aquedudh,
may be eafilr, though not elegantly, folved by means .ff
the tables.
But it is to be remembered, that thefe tables relate
only to uniform motion, that is, to water that is in train,
and where the velocity iuffers no change by lengthening
the conduit, provided the Hope remain the* fame. It is
much more difficult to determine what wall be the velo-
city, &c. in a canal of which nothing is given but the
form, and Hope, and depth of the entry, without faying
bow deep the water runs in it. And it is here that the
common do&rines of hydraulics are mod in fault, and
unable to teach us how deep the water will run in a ca¬
nal, though the depth of the bafon at the entry be ner-
feftly known. Between the part of the canal which
is in train and the baion, there is an interval where the
water is in a date of acceleration, and is afterwards re¬
tarded.
T he determination of the motions in this interval is
exceedingly
WAT [65
Water- exceedingly difficult, even in a re&angular canal. It
.works. was one great aim of M. Bust’s experiments to afeertain
v this by meafuring accurately the depth of the water.
But he found that when the Hope was but a very few
inches in the whole length of his canal, it was not in
train for w7ant of greater length •, and when the flope
was Hill lefs, the fmall fraftions of an inch, by which
he rvas to judge of the variations of depth, could not be
meafured with fufficient accuracy. It would be a moll
defirable point to determine the length of a canal, whofe
dope and other dimenfions are given, which will bring
it into train •, and what is the ratio which will then ob¬
tain between the depth at the entry and the depth which
will be maintained. Till this be done, the engineer
cannot afeertain by a direft procefs what quantity of
•water will be drawn off from a refervoir by a given
canal. But as yet this is out of our reach. Experi¬
ments, however, are in view which will promote the in-
veftigation.
But this and fimilar queftions are of fuch importance,
that we cannot be faid to have improved hydraulics, un-
lefs w'e can give a tolerably precife anlvver. This we
can do by a fort of retrograde procefs, proceeding on
the principles of uniform motion eftablifhed by the Che¬
valier Buat. We may fuppofe a train maintained in the
canal, and then examine whether this train can be pro¬
duced by any fall that is poflible at the entry. If it can,
we may be certain that it is fo produced, and our pro¬
blem is folved.
We (hall now point out the methods of anfwering
fome chief quellions of this kind.
1. Given the (lope s and the breadth tu of a
canal, and the height H of the furface of the water in
the bafon above the bottom of the entry ; to find the
depth h and velocity V of the ftream, and the quantity
of w'ater O which is difeharged ?
The chief difficulty is to find the depth of the ftream
where it is in train. For this end, we may fimplify the
hydraulic theorem of uniform motion in N° co. of the
JWd
6 ]
W A T
article River j making V:
v/ S
where g is the
Ifccity in. the canal will be
N y ^ w -\-2 h
—
height which will produce this velocity is , Y
2Gb\ui-j-2/r/
Now this is the ftape at the entry of the canal which
produces the velocity that is afterwards maintained
againft the obftruftions by the flope of the canal. It
is therefore aril—ft. Hence we deduce
h~-
+
y8Hw+(TO(i^+,j_2Hy
at the entry, g=:G and
velocity (in inches) acquired in a fecond by fall¬
ing, d is the hydraulic mean depth, and .y/ S Hands for
V S—L ^/Sff-1.6 N is a number to be fixed by ex¬
periment (fee River, N° 53.) depending on the con-
traftion or obftruftion fuftained at the entry of the
canal, and it may in moft common cafes be taken =244 ;
fb that N y may be fomewhat lefs than 307. To
find it, we may begin by taking for our depth of ftream
a quantity h, fomewhat fmaller than H the height of
the furface of the bafon above the bottom of the canal.
With this depth, and the known width of the canal,
we can find the hydraulic depth d (See Rivers, N° 48).
Then with \J d and the flope find V by the Table :
make this This gives N
v ^ \ d
This value of N ^ is fufficiently exaft ; for a fmall error
®f depth hardly affe£fs the hydraulic mean depth.
After this preparation, the expreflion of the mean ve-
xy
J-
.v
The
Water¬
works.
If there be no contra£lion
9 _1
2 G 2’
Having thus obtained the depth h of the ftream, we
obtain the quantity of water by combining this with the
width w and the velocity V.
But as this was but an approximation, it is neceffary
to examine w’hether the velocity V be pcflible. This is
very ealy. It muft be produced by the fall H—h. We
(hall have no occafion for any correftion of our firft af-
fumption, if h has not been extravagantly erroneous, be-
caufe a fmall miftake in h produces almoft the fame va¬
riation in d. The teft of accuracy, however, is, that
together with the height which will produce the ve¬
locity V, muft make up the whole height H. Affum-
ing h too fmall, leaves H—h too great, and will give a
fmall velocity V, which requires a fmall value of H—h.
The error of H—h therefore is always greater than
the error we have committed in our firft affumption.
Therefore when this error of H—h is but a trifle, fuch
as one-fourth of an inch, we may reft fatisfied with our
anfwer.
Perhaps the eafieft procefs may be the following :
Suppofe the whole ftreana in train to have the depth H.
The velocity V obtained for this depth and flope by the
Table requires a certain productive height u. Make
V'H -\-u : H=zH : h, and h will be exceedingly near
the vruth. The reafon is obvious.
2. Given the difeharge (or quantity to be fur-
niftied in a fecond) £), the height H of the bafon above
the bottom of the canal, and the flope ; to find the di¬
menfions of the canal ?
Let x and y be the depth and mean width. It is
plain that the equation !~:= n/7gn/h^ x will give
a value of y in terms of x. Compare this with the va-
0 V~Kg
I.,*. y obtained from the equation
This will give an equation containing
y —2. X
only x and known quantities. But it will be very com¬
plicated, and we muft have recourfe to an approxima¬
tion. This will be beft underftood in the form of an
example.
Suppofe the depth at the entry to be 18 inches, and
the flope ToVo* ^J,et 1200 cu^c ^eet water per mi¬
nute be the quantity of water to be drawn off, for work¬
ing machinery or any other purpofe : and let the canal
be
WAT [ 657
be fuppofed of the beft form, recommended in N° 69.
of the article River, where the bafe of the Hoping fide
J is four-thirds of the height.
V*
The flighted confideration will fliow us that if 
744
be taken for the height producing the velocity, it can¬
not exceed 3 inches, nor be lefs than 1. Suppofe it
= 2, and therefore the depth of the ftream in the canal
to be 16 inches; find the mean width of the canal by
the equation wz=.  -, in which Q
]
W A T
.5(^-0.. (72-0.3)
is 20 cubic feet (the 60th part of 1200), V'S is
28.153, —*J1000 — looo-f-1.6, and This
gives w—5.52 feet. The fe&ion n—^.^ feet, and
Vrr32.6 inches. This requires a fall of 1.52 inches in-
ftead of 2 inches. Take this from 18, and there re¬
mains 16.48, which we fliall find not to differ one-
tenth of an inch from the exadl depth which the w^ater
will acquire and maintain. We may therefore be fatis-
fied with affuming 5.36 feet as the
w „ mean width, and
3.53 feet for the width at the bottom.      ^ ^ ^ a ^ ^
This approximation proceeds on this confideration, ftream will be had by meanr"of\he\dghrwhich muff
that when the width dumnifhes by a fmall quantity, and be taken for the whole depth at the entry, in order t<x
his own experience alone, acknowledging that he had
no theory to inffruft him. The work was carried no
farther, it being found that the city could be fupplied
at a much fmaller expence by fleam engines ere&ed by
Boulton and Watt. But the fafts which occurred in
the partial execution of the aquedudl are very valuable#
If M. Perronet’s aqueduft be examined by our general
formula, j will be found sr^gA.^., and ^18.72, from
W’hich w-e deduce the velocity cz: i8y, agreeing with the
obfervation with afionithing precifion.
The experiments at Turin by Michaelotti on canals
were very numerous, but complicated with many cir-
cumftances which would render the difcuflion too long
for this place. When cleared of thefe circumftancei,
which we have done with fcrupulous care, they are alfo
abundantly conformable to our theory of the uniform
motion of running waters. But to return to our fub-
je<ff :
Should it be required to bring off at once from the
bafon a mill courle, having a determined velocity for
driving an underfhot wheel, the problem becomes eafier,
becauie the velocity and flope combined determine the
hydraulic mean depth at once *, and the depth of the
s by a fmall quantity, and
in the fame proportion that the depth increafes, the hy¬
draulic mean depth remains the fame, and therefore the
velocity alfo remains, and the quantity difcharged chan¬
ges in the exafl proportion of the fettion. Any minute
error which may refult from this fuppofition, may be
corre<fled by increafing the fall producing the velocity,
in the proportion of the firft hydraulic mean depth to
the mean depth correfponding to the new dimenfions
found for the canal. It will now become 1.53, and V
will be 32.72, and the depth will be 16.47. The
quantity difcharged being divided by V, will give the
feftion =7.333 feet, from which, and the new depth,
we obtain 5.344 for the width.
This and the foregoing are the moft common quef-
tions propofed to an engineer. We afferted with fome
confidence that few of the profeffion are able to anfwer
them with tolerable precifion. We cannot offend the
profeflional gentlemen by this, when we inform them
that the Academy of Sciences at Paris were occupied
-during feveral months with an examination of a plan
propofed by M. Parcieux, for bringing the waters of
the Yvette into Paris j and after the moft mature con¬
fideration, gave in a report of the quantity of wrater
which M. De Parcieux’s aqueduft would yield, and
that their report has been found erroneous in the pro¬
portion of at leaft 2 to 5 : For the waters have been
brought in, and exceed the report in this proportion.
Indeed long after the giving in the report, M. Perro-
net, the moft celebrated engineer in France, affirmed
that the dimenfions propofed were much greater than
were neceffary, and faid that an aqueduft of 54 feet
wdde, and 34 deep with a flope of 15 inches in a thou-
fand fathoms, would have a velocity of 12 or 13 inches
per fecond, which would bring in all the w’ater furniffi-
ed by the propofed fources. The great diminution of
expence occafioned by the alteration encouraged the
community to undertake the work. It was accordingly
begun, and a part executed. The water was found to
run wnth a velocity of near 19 inches when it was 3-J
feet deep. M. Perronet founded his computation on
Vol. XX. Part II.
produce the required velocity.
In like manner, having given the quantity to be dif¬
charged, and the velocity and the depth at the entry,
we can find the other dimenfions of the channel j and
the mean depth being found, wTe can determine the
flope.
When the flope of a canal is very fmall, fo that the
depth of the uniform ftream differs but a little from that
at the entry, the quantity difcharged is but final]. But
a great velocity, requiring a great fall at the entry,
produces a great diminution of depth, and therefore it
may not compenfate for this diminution, and the quan¬
tity difcharged may be fmaller. Improbable as this may
appear, it is not demonftrably falfe; and hence we may
fee the propriety of the following
Quejlion 3. Given the depth H at the entry of a
rectangular canal, and alfo its width to ; required the
flope, depth, and velocity which will produce the great-
eft poffible difcharge ?
Let x be the unknown depth of the ftream. H—x
is the productive fall, and the velocity is 2 G
H—x. This multiplied by tu # will give the quan¬
tity difcharged. Therefore to.v ^2 G — .v muft
be made a maximum. The common procefs for this
will give the equation, 2 H=3 *■, or The mean
velocity will be 2 G, yH ; the feCtion will be
yTt/H, and the difcharge =| ^2 GtoHH, and
With thefe data the flope is eafily had
TO-j-yH 1 J
by the formula for uniform motion.
If the canal is of the trapezoidal form, the invefliga-
tion is more troublefome, and requires the refolution of
a cubic equation.
It may appear ftrange that increafing the flope of a
canal beyond the quantity determined by this problem
can diminifh the quantity of w^ater conveyed. But one
of thefe two things muft happen j either the motion will
not acquire uniformity in fuch a canal for w'ant of
4 O length.
WAT
WAT [ 6jS
length, or the difcharge muft diminlih. Suppcfing,
however, that it could augment, we can judge how far
this can go. Let us take the extreme cafe by making
the canal vertical. In this cafe it becomes a fimple
weir or wafteboard. Now the difcharge of a wafte-
   1 i
board is-|v 2 G —(-§- hy1* The maximum de¬
termined by the preceding problem is to that of the
tvafleboard of the fame dimenfions as H^/yH : H" —
(iH)4, or as H : Hv/H—'-HN/4H, =5773 :
6465, nearly = 9 : 10.
Having given the dimenfions and Hope of a canal,
we can difcover the relation between its expenditure and
the time j or we can tell how much it whll fink the fur-
face of a pond in 24 hours, and the gradual progrefs of
this effieft j and this might be made the fubjedf of a
particular problem. But it is complicated and difficult.
In cafes where this is an interefting objedf, we may
iolve the quellion with fufficient accuracy, by calculat¬
ing the expenditure at the beginning, fuppofing the ba¬
ton kept full. Then from the known area of the pond,
we can tell in what time this expenditure will fink an
inch ; do the fame on the fuppofition that the water is
cne-third lower, and that it is two-thirds lowTer (noti¬
cing the contrathion of the furface of the pond occafion-
ed by this abflraftion of its waters). Thus we fhall ob¬
tain three rates of diminution, from which we can ea-
fily deduce the defired relation between the expenditure
and the time.
Aquedufls derived from a bafon or river are com¬
monly furnifired with a fluice at the entry. This chan¬
ges exceedingly the flale of things. The Hope of the
canal may be preciftly fuch as wrili maintain the mean
velocity of the water which pafles under the fluice : in
which cafe the depth of the ftream is equal to that of
the fluice, and the velocity is produced at once by the
head of water above it. But if the flope is lefs than
this, the velocity of the iffuing water is diminifhed, and
the water muft rife in the canal. This muft check the
efflux at the fluice, and the water wall be as it were
ftagnant above what comes through below it. It is ex¬
tremely difficult to determine at what precife flope the
water will begin to check the efflux. The contraction
at the lower edge of the board hinders the water from
attaining at once the whole depth which it acquires af¬
terwards, when its velocity diminiffies by the obftruc-
tions. While the regorging wffiich thefe obftruClions
occafion does not reach back to the fluice, the efflux is
not affeCted by it.—Even wfflen it does reach to the
fluice, there will be a lefs depth immediately behind it
than farther down the canal, where it is in train *, be-
caufe the fwift moving water which is next the bottom
drags with it the regorged water which lies on it : but
the canal muft be rapid to make this difference of depth
fenfible. In ordinary canals, with rfloderate flopes and
velocities, the velocity at the fluice may be fafely taken
as if it were that which correfponds to the difference of
denths above and below the fluice, where both were in
train.
Let therefore H be the depth above the fluice, and /i
the depth in the canal. Let e be the elevation of the
flu’ce above the foie, and let b be its breadth. The
difcharge will be eb^/ii—// ^2 G for the fluice, and
A
, i N f /'
-lit h  ; r
\/ s -lit -}- 2 /i
for the canal. Thefe muft
the fame. This gives the equation eb JnZj.JTQ
— w h ^i — */—containing the folution of
/y/ S W 2 h °
all the queftions which can be propofed. The only un¬
certainty is in the quantity G, which exprefles the velo¬
city competent to the paffage of the w7ater through the
orifice, circumftanced as it is, namely, fubje&ed to con-
traftion. This may be regulated by a proper form gi¬
ven to the entry into this orifice. The contra&ion may
be almoft annihilated by making the mafonry of a cy¬
cloidal form on both fides, and alfo at the lower edge
of the fluice-board, fo as to give the orifice a form re-
fembling fig. 5. D, in the article Rivers. If the fluice
is thin in the face of a bafon, the contraction will reduce
2 G to 296. If the fluice be as wide as the canal, 2 G
will be nearly 500.
^uejlion 4. Given the head of water in the bafon H,
the breadth by and elevation e of the fluice, and the
breadth 10 and flope f of the canal, to find the depth h
of the ftream, the velocity, and the difebarge ?
We muft (as in ^ucjiion 2.) make a firft fuppofiticn
for h, in order to find the proper value of d. Then the
, n/nI . ,
-u> n -A—— gives n ~
equation e b
V s
w*Ngd+^ w'Ugd * Ifthlsva~
lue fhall differ confrderably from the one which we af-
fumed in order to begin the computation, make ufe of
it for obtaining a new value of d, and repeat the opera¬
tion. We fhall rarely be obliged to perform a third
operation.
The following is of frequent ufe :
^ue/Hon 5. Given the dimenfions and the flope, with
the velocity and difcharge of a river in its ordinary
ftate, required the area or feClion of the fluice which
will raife the waters to a certain height, ftill allowing
the fame quantity of w-ater to pafs through ? Such an
operation may render the rivers navigable for fmall craft
or rafts above the fluice.
The problem is reduced to the determination of the
fizc of orifice which will difcharge this water with a ve¬
locity competent to the height to which the river is to
be raifed j only we muft take into confideration the ve¬
locity of the water above the fluice, confidering it as
produced by a fall which makes a part of the height
produftive of the whole velocity at the fluice. There¬
fore H, in our inveftigation, muft confift of the height
to which we mean to taife the waters, and the height
which will produce the velocity wdth which the waters
approach the fluice : h, or the depth of the ftream, is
the ordinary depth of the river. T hen (ufing the for-
r , , x , L ™ hj^gd,
mer fymbols) wre have " —
G e1 j H ( G e* b* s\
Q
2 G >r (H—h)
v/2G (H—h)'
If the area of the fluice is known, and we would
learn the height to which it will raife the river, we have
Q1
H—h — for the expreffion of the rife of the
2 G e ox
water
WAT [ 659 ] W A T
Water- waler above its ordinary level. But trom this we muft
work5, the height which would produce the velocity of
y—nver j fo that if the liuice were as wide as the river,
and were raifed to the ordinary furface of the water,
- Q  which expreffes the height that produces the
2G e* U*' ‘ r
velocity under the liuice, muft be equal to the depth of
the river, and H—/; will be =0.
The performance of aqueduct drains is a very import¬
ant thing, and merits our attention in this place. While
the art of managing waters, and of conducting them fo
as to anfvver our demands, rendeis us very important
fervice by embellilhing our habitations, or promoting
our commercial intercourfe, the art of draining creates
as it were new riches, fertilizing traits of bog or marlh,
which was not only ufelefs, but hurtful by its umvhole-
fume exhalations, and converting them into rich paf-
tures and gay meadows. A wild country, occupied by
marlhes wiiich are inacceftible to herds or flocks, and
ferve only for the haunts of water-fowls, or the retreat
of a few poor filhermen, when once it is freed from the
waters in which it is drowned, opens its lap to receive
the moft precious feeds, is foon clothed in the richeft
garb, gives life and abundance to numerous herds, and
never fails to become the delight of the induftrious cul¬
tivator who has enfranchifed it, and is attached to it by
the labour which it colt him. In return, it procures
him abundance, and fupplies him with the means of
daily augmenting its fertility. No fpecies of agricul¬
ture exhibits fuch long-continued and progreftive im¬
provement. New families flock to the fpot, and there
multiply j and there nature feems the more eager to re¬
pay their labours, in proportion as Ihe has been obliged,
againft her will, to keep her treafures locked up for a
longer time, chilled by the waters. The countries
newly inhabited by the human race, as is a great part
of America, efpecially to the fouthward, are ftill co¬
vered to a great extent with marlhes and lakes; and
they would long remain in this condition, if population,
daily making new advances, did not increafe induftry,
by multiplying the cultivating hands, at the fame time
that it increafes their wTants. The Author of this beau¬
tiful world has at the beginning formed the great maf-
fes of mountain, has fcooped out the dales and Hoping
hills, has traced out the courfes, and even formed the
beds of the rivers : but he has left to man the care of
making his place of abode, and the field which muft
feed him, dry and comfortable. For this talk is not be¬
yond his powers, as the others are. Nay, by having
this given to him in charge, he is richly repaid for his
labour by the very ftate in which he finds thofe coun¬
tries into which he penetrates for the firft time. Being
covered with lakes and forefts, the juices of the foil are
kept for him as it were in referve. The air, the burn¬
ing heat of the fun, and the continual walhing of rains,
would have combined to expend and diflipate their ve¬
getative nowers, had the fields been expofed in the fame
decree to their acftion as the inhabited and cultivated
countries, the moft fertile moulds of which are long
fince lodged in the bottom of the ocean. All this would
have been completely loft through the whole extent of
South America, had it not been protected by the fo¬
refts which man muft cut down, by the rank herbage
which he muft burn) and by the marlh and bog which
he muft deftroy by draining. Let not ungrateful man Water-
complain of this. It is his duty to take on himfelf the
talk of opening up treafures, prelerved on purpofe for
him with fo much judgement and care. If he has dii-
cernment and fenfibility, he will even thank the Author
of all good, who has thus hufbanded them for his ufe.
He will co-operate with his beneficent vievss, and will
be careful not to proceed by wantonly {hatching at pre-
fent any partial good, and by picking out what is moft
eafily got at, regardlels of him who is to come after¬
wards to uncover and extract the remaining riches of
the ground. A wife adminiftration of fuch a country
will think it their duty to leave a jult {hare of this inhe¬
ritance to their defcendants, who are entitled to expeft
it as the laft legatees. National plans of cultivation
Ihould be formed on this principle, that the fteps taken
by the prel'ent cultivators for realising part of the riches
of the infant country (hall not obftrudt the works which
will afterwards be neceffary for alfo obtaining the re¬
mainder. This is carefully attended to in Holland and
in China. No man is allowed to conduct the drains, by
which he recovers a piece of marlh, in fuch a way as to
render it much more difficult for a neighbour, or even
for his own fucceftbr, to drain another piece, although
it may at prefent be quite inacceffible. There remains
in the middle of the moft cultivated countries many
marlhes, which induftry has not yet attempted to drain,
and where the legifiature has not been at pains to pre¬
vent many little abufes which have produced elevations
in the beds of rivers, and rendered the complete drain¬
ing of feme fpots impoffible. Adminiftration Ihould at¬
tend to fuch things, becaufe their confequences are
great. The fciences and arts, by which alone thefe dif¬
ficult and coftly jobs can be performed, fhould be pro¬
tested, encouraged, and cheriffied. It is only from
fcience that we can obtain principles to direst thefe
arts. The problem of draining canals is one of the
moft important, and yet has hardly ever occupied the
attention of the hydraulic fpeculatift. We apprehend
that M. Buat's theory will throw great light on it j
and regret that the very limited condition of our pre¬
fent work will hardly afford room for a flight Iketch of
what may be done on the fubjeft. We (hall, however,
attempt it by a general problem, which will involve
moft of the chief circumftances which occur in works of
that kind.
QueJ}. 6. Let the hollow ground A (fig. 2.) be in-Fig. t.
undated by rains or fprings, and have no outlet but
the canal AB, by which it difeharges its water into the
neighbouring river BCDE, and that its furf'.ce is nearly
on a level with that of the river at B. It can only
drain when the river finks in the droughts of fumtner ;
and even if it could then drain completely, the putrid
marlh would only be an infesffing neighbour. It may
be propofed to drain it by one or more canals; and it is
required to determine their lengths and other dimenfions,
fo as to produce the bell: effe&s ?
It is evident that there are many circumftances to
determine the choice, and many conditions to be at¬
tended to.
If the canals AC, AD. AG, are re^pesffively equal
to the portions BC, BD, BE, of the river, and have
the fame Hopes, they will have the fame difeharge ; but
they are not for this reafon equivalent. The long ca¬
nal AE may drain the marlh completely, while the Ihort
4 O 2 one
WAT [660
one AC will only do it in part; becaufe the difference
of level between A and C is but inconliderable. Alio
the freflies of the river may totally obftrud the opera¬
tion of AC, while the canal AE cannot be hurt by
them, E being fo much lower than C. Therefore the
canal mull be carried fo far down the river, that no frelhes
there Ihall ever raife the waters in the canal fo high as
to reduce the dope in the upper part of it to fuch a level
that the current {hall not be fufficient to carry off the
ordinary produce of water in the marfo.
Still the problem is indeterminate, admitting many fo-
lutions. This requifite difcharge may be accompliihed
by a fhort but wide canal, or by a longer and narrower.
Let us firft fee what folution can be made, fo as to accom-
pliih our purpofe in the moft economical manner, that is,
by means of the fmalkft equation,—We (hall give the
folution in the form of an example.
Suppofe that the daily produce of rains and fprings
raifes the water inch on an area of a fquare league,
which gives about 120,000 cubic fathoms of water.
Let the bottom of the bafon be three feet below the fur-
face of the frefhes in the river at B in winter. Alfo,
that the {lope of the river is 2 inches in 100 fathoms, or
TtfVodth, and that the canal is to be 6 feet deep.
The canal being fuppofed nearly parallel to the river,
it muff be at'lead 1800 fathoms long before it can be
admitted into the river, otherwife the bottom of the bog
will be lower than the mouth of the canal j and even
then a hundred or two more fathoms added to this will
give it fo little dope, that an immenfe breadth will be
neceffary to make the difcharge with fo fmall a veloci y.
On the other hand, if the dope of the canal be made
equal to that of the river, an extravagant length will be
neceffary before its admidion into the river, and many
obftacles may then intervene. And even then it muff
have a breadth of 13 feet, as may eafily be calculated by
the general hydraulic theorem. By receding from each
of thefe extremes, we {hall diminilh the expence of ex¬
cavation. Therefore,
Let x and y be the breadth and length , and h the
depth (6 feet), of the canal. Let q be the depth of
the bog below the furface of the river, oppofite to the
the dope of
j WAT
and -- — ? is the difference of height for the canal.
This quantity being divided by y, gives the -value of
y 
4=^ . Therefore the equation for the canal be¬
comes
x 2 h
Nj-y >z3 x* 
^ 1 , /, ~
Hence we deduce
3 A*#*#
y-
__D*O-f- 2/4andy—D*042/S)
. /
'Ngqliix'ix l
3N<§7/s.v*_
>‘)
N g 3 #3
If we fubftitute thefe
bafon, D the difcharge in a fecond, and -
the river. We muff make h x y 2. minimum, or
xy+yx-o.
The general formula gives the velocity
V= 3 ( ^—o, 1). This
\/ s — L 0 j 4. i, 6
would give x and y; but the logarithmic term renders it
very complicated. We may make ufe of the fimple form
On? d .  .
V = —-y -g •, making V nearly 2 y b.
be fufficiently exaft for all cafes which do not deviate
for from this, becaufe the velocities are very nearly in
the fubduplicate ratio of the dopes.
To introduce thefe data into the equation, recolledl
>hat V —-j d——-~X ■, As to S, recolleft that
n x * 4- 2 /$
$e canal being fuppofed of nearly equal length with
the river, - will exprefs the whole difference of height,
This will
values in the equation y x x y—0> and reduce it, we
obtain finally,
^_3, = 3,
If we refolve this equation by making N(§r=:(296)*, or
87616 inches j ancl^ ;= i1^00* we
obtain ar = 392 inches, or 32 feet 8 inches, and or
V = 18,36 inches. Now' putting thefe values in the
exadt formula for the velocity, we obtain the dope of
the canal, which is nearty o>62, inches in 100
fathoms.
Let / be the length of the canal in fathoms. As the
river has 2 inches fall in 100 fathoms, the whole fall is
AZ ancl that of the canal is — 2Z The difference of
100 100
thefe two mud: be 3 feet, which is the difference between
the river and the entry of the canal. We have there¬
fore / zz 36 inches. Hence / = 2604 fa-
\ 100 /
thorns \ and this multiplied by the fedlion of the canal
gives 14177 cubic fathoms of earth to be removed.
This may furely be done, in molt cafes, for eight {hil¬
lings each cubic fathom, which does not amount to 6000I.
a very moderate fum for completely draining of nine
fquare miles of country.
In order to judge of the importance of this problem,
we have added twro other canals, one longer and the
other ihorter, having their widths and dopes fo adjuiled
as to enfure the fame performance.
Width. Velocity. Slope. Length. Excavation.
Feet. Inches.
42 14.28 ttttY 2221 I5547
32| 18.36 TT7YT 26°+ MI77
21 28.57 7381 25833
We have contidered this important problem in its
naoft fimple date. If the bafon is far from the river, fo
that the drains are not nearly parallel to it, and there¬
fore have lefs dope attainable in their courfe, it is more
difficult. Perhaps the bed method is to try two very
extreme cafes and a middle one, and then a fourth, nearer
to that extreme which differs lealt from the middle one in
the
WAT [
tlie quantity of excavation. Tins will point out on
which fide the minimum of excavation lies, and alfo the
law by which it diminifhes and afterwards increafes.
Then draw a line, on which fet off from one end the
lengths of the canals. At each length ere& an or-
dinate reprefenting the excavation ; and draw' a regular
curve through the extremities of the ordinates. From
that point of the curve which is neareft to the bafe line,
draw another ordinate to the bafe. This wall point out
the beft length of the canal with fufficient accuracy. The
length will determine the flope, and this will give the
w’idth, by means of the general theorem. N. B. Thefe
draining canals mud always come off from the bafon with
evafated entries. This will prevent the lofs of much fall
at the entry.
Two canals may fometimes be neceffary. In this cafe
expence may frequently be faved, by making one canal
flow into the other. This, however, muft be at fuch a
didance from the bafon, that the fwell produced in the
other by this addition may not reach back to the imme¬
diate neighbourhood of the bafon, otherwife it would
impede the performance of both. For this purpofe, re-
courfe muft be had to Problem III. in N° 104. of the
article River. We mu-ft here obferve, that in this re-
fpe<ft canals differ exceedingly from rivers j rivers en¬
large their beds, fo as always to convey every increafe
of waters; but a canal may be gorged through its
whole length, and will then greatly diminiih its dif-
charge. In order that the lower extremity of a canal
may convey the waters of an equal canal admitted in¬
to it, their jun&ion muft be fo far from the bafon, that
the fwell occafioned by railing its waters nearly 4 more
(viz. in the fubduplicate ratio of 1 to 2) may not reach
back to the bafon.
This obiervation points out another method of econo¬
my. Inftead of one wide canal, we may make a narrower
one of the whole length, and another narrow one reach¬
ing part of the way. and communicating with the long
canal at a proper diftance from the bafon. But the
lower extremity will how be too (hallow to convey the
waters of both. Therefore raife its banks by ufing the
earth taken from its bed, which muft at any rate be dif-
pofed of. Thus the waters will be conveyed, and the
expence, even of the lower part of the long canal, will
fcarcely be increafed.
Thefe obfervations muft fuffice for an account of the
management of open canals •, and we proceed to the con-
fideration of the conduct of water in pipes.
This is much more fimple and regular, and the gene¬
ral theorem requires very trifling modifications for
adapting it to the cafes or queftions that occur in the
praftice of the civil engineer. Pipes are always made
round, and therefore d is always 4^ of diameter.
The velocity of water in a pipe which is in train, is
661 ] WAT
Let L be the length, and // the fall which would pro¬
duce the velocity with which the water enters the pipe,
and actually flows in it, after overcoming all obftruc-
tions.- This may be expreffed in terms of the velocity
V*
by ^-gr, G denoting the acceleration of gravity, cor-
refponding to the manner of entry. When no methods
are adopted for facilitating the entry of the water, by a
bell-lhaped funnel or otherwife, 2 G may be affumed
as =r 500 inches, or 42 feet, according as we meafure
the velocity in inches or feet. The flope is —, zz
_v __ goyfy/y—0,1)
-■>(5
 Ly/j’ff- 1,6
307
--0,3).
».y/r—— L y/J" I , 6
The chief queftions are the following :
1. Given the height H of the refervoir above
the place of delivery, and the diameter and length of
the pipe, to find the quantity of water difcharged in a
feqpnd ^
H—-
2 G, which muft be put into the general formula.
This would make it very complicated. We may fimpli-
fy it by the confideration that the velocity is very fmall
in comparifon of that arifmg from the height H :
confequently ^ is very fmall. Alfo, in the lame pipe,
the refiftances are nearly in the duplicate ratio of the ve¬
locities when thefe are fmall, and when they differ little
among themfelves. Therefore make 6 = taking
^ by guefs, a very little lefs than H. Then compute
the mean velocity v correfponding to thefe data, or take it
from the table. If ^ -j-
the mean velocity V
proportion :
” * = H
2 G
be = H, we have found
' 2 G '
V*
'2G 1
v. If not, make the following
V* . .
—p:, which is the fame with
2 G
H
2G’
V? -}-2G^*
— °> 3 ( d—o,) or=(y/</
this, h -f = t'* = H : V*, and V* is =
2G A+
v* H , ^TT
■ <7»* • ^ CZ-IT
“ 2 G /i v*, —
_____
If the pipe has any bendings, they muft be calculated
for in the manner mentioned in the article River, N°
101 j and the head of water neceffary for overcoming
V*
this additional refiftance being called —, the lait pro¬
portion muft be changed for
^uejf. 2. Given the height of the refervoir, the
length of the pipe, and the quantity of water which is
to be drawn off in a fecond; to find the diameter of the
pipe which will draw it off ?
Let d be confidered as zz -Jth of the diameter, and let
1 : c reprefent the ratio of the diameter of a circle to its
circumference. The feftion of the pipe is ^cd*. Let
the quantity of water per fecond be Q ; then —is the
mean velocity. Divide the length of the pipe by the
height of the refervoir above the place of delivery, di-
minilhed by a very fmall quantity, and call the quotient
S. Confider this as the flope of the conduit j the gene¬
ral formula now becomes
Q.  3°7 (W—0,1) ...
47*- °'3 C^-0’0' or
\ed*1
Water¬
works.
JL
4 a/1
W A
C^7(V'7--P,i)
v/s
■°>3 (v^—o,i)-
[ 662 ]
We may
\V A T
negleft the laft term in every cafe of civil pra&ice, and
alfb the fmall quantity o,i. This gives the very Ample
formula,
Q. _ 3°7
4c d1 y'S
from which we readily deduce
_Q^/S
4^X307
3858
This procefs gives the diameter fomewhat too fmall.
But we eafily reftify this error by computing the quan¬
tity delivered by the pipe, which will differ a little
from the quantity propofed. Then obferving, by this
equation, that two pipes having the fame length and
the fame Hope give quantities of water, of which the
fquares are nearly as the fifth powers of the diameter, we
form a new diameter in this proportion, which will be
almoft perfe6tly exact.
It may be obferved that the height affumed for deter¬
mining the Hope in thefe two queitions will feldom dif¬
fer more than an inch or two from the whole height of
the refervoir above the place of delivery j for in conduits
of a few hundred feet long, the velocity feldom exceeds
four feet per fecond, which requires only a head of three
inches.
As no inconvenience worth minding refults from
making the pipes a tenth of an inch or fo wider than is
barely fufficient, and as this generally is more than the
error arifing from even a very erroneous aifumplion of h,
the anfwer firft obtained may be augmented by one or
two tenths of an inch, and then we may be confident
that our conduit will draw off the intended quantity of
water.
We prefume that every perfon who affumes the name
of engineer knows how to reduce the quantity of water
meafured in gallons, pints, or other denominations, to
cubic inches, and can calculate the gallons, &c. furnifh-
ed by a pipe of known diameter, moving with a veloci¬
ty that is meafured in inches per fecond. We farther
fuppofe that all care is taken in the conllruftion of the
conduit, to avoid obftru&ions occafioned by lumps of
folder hanging in the infide of the pipes j and, particu¬
larly, that all the cocks and plugs by the way have
waterways equal to the feftion of the pipe. Undertakers
are moft tempted to fail here, by making the cocks too
fmall, becaufe large cocks are very coftly. But the
employer Ihould be fcrupuloufly attentive to this j be¬
caufe a Ample contraction of this kind may be the
throwing aw'ay of many hundred pounds in a wide pipe,
which yields no more wnter than can pafs through the
fmall cock.
The chief obftruCtions arife from the depoAtion of
fand or mud in the low^er parts of pipes, or the collec¬
tion of air in the upper parts of their bendings. The
velocity being always very moderate, fuch depoAtions of
heavy matters are unavoidable. The utmoft care Ihould
therefore be taken to have the water freed from all fuch
things at its entry by proper Altration •, and there ought
to be cleanAng plugs at the lower parts of the bendings,
or rather a very little rvav beyond them. When thefe
are opened, the water iflues with greater velocity, and
carries the depoAtions with it.
It is much more difficult to get rid of the air which
2
chokes the pipes by lodging in their upper parts. This Water-
is fometimes taken in along with the water at the re- works,
fervoir, when the entry of the pipe is too near the fur-
face. This fimuld be carefully avoided, and it coils no
trouble to do fo. If the entry of the pipe is two feet
under the furface, no air can ever get in. Floats Ihould
be placed above the entries, having lids hanging from
them, which will Amt the pipe before the water runs
too low,
But air is alfo difengaged from fpring-water by mere¬
ly paffing along the pipe. When pipes are fupplied by
an engine, air is very often drawn in by the pumps in a
difengaged (late. It is alfo difengaged from its llate of
chemical union, when the pumps have a fuftion-pipe of
10 or 12 feet, which is very common. In whatever
way it is introduced, it colledts in all the upper part of
bendings, and chokes the paffage, fo that fometimes not
a drop of water is delivered. Our cocks fhould be
placed there, which fhould be opened frequently by
perfons who have this in charge. Defaguliers deferibes
a contrivance to be placed on all fuch eminences, which
does this of itfelf. It i« a pipe with a cock, terminat¬
ing in a fmall cillern. The key of the cock has a hol¬
low ball of copper at the end of a lever. When there
is no air in the main pipe, water comes out by this dif-
charger, Alls the ciftern, raifes the ball, and thus Amts
the cock. But when the bend of the main contains
air, it rifes into the ciAern, and occupies the upper part
of it. Thus the floating ball falls down, the cock opens
and lets out the air, and the ciflern again filling with
water, the ball riles, and the cock is again fhut.
A very neat contrivance for this purpofe was invent¬
ed by the late Profefibr Ruflel of Edinburgh. The cy¬
lindrical pipe BCDE (flg. 3.), at the upper end of ap;^ ^
bending of the main, is ferewed on, the upper end of 0
which is a flat plate perforated with a fmall hole F.
This pipe contains a hollow copper cylinder G, to the
upper part of which is faflened a piece of foft leather
H. When there is air in the pipe, it comes out by the
hole A, and occupies the difeharger, and then efcapes
through the hole F. The water follows, and, rifing in
the difeharger, lifts up the hollow cylinder G, cauAng
the leather H to apply itfelf to the plate CD, and fhut
the hole.
eA lofs of water.
It is of the moA material confequence that there be
no contra£Hon in any part of a conduit. This is evi¬
dent •, but it is alfo prudent to avoid all unneceflary en¬
largements. For ■when the conduit is full of water
moving along it, the velocity in every feflion is inverfe-
ly proportional to the area of the fefbon : it is therefore
diminifhed wherever the pipe is enlarged ; but it muft
again be increafed where the pipe contrafls. This can¬
not be without expending force in the acceleration.
This confumes part of the impelling power, whether
this be a head of water, or the force of an engine. See
what is faid on this fubjett in the article Pumps, N° 83,
&c. Nothing is gained by any enlargement 5 and every
contrafhion, by requiring an augmentation of velocity,
employs a part of the impelling force precifely equal to
the weight of a column of water whofe bafe is the con¬
tracted paflage, and whofe height is the fall which
would produce a velocity equal to this augmentation.
This point feems to have been quite overlooked by en¬
gineers of the Arft eminence, and has in many inftances
greatly
Thus the air is difeharged without the fmall-
WAT [ 663 ] WAT
Water- greatly dimlnlllied the performance of their oefl; works,
■works. It is no lefs detrimental in open canals ; becaufe at
v every contrsftion a imall fall is required for reftoring
the velocity loft in the enlargement of the canal, by
which the general flope and velocity are dimmilhed.
Another point which muft be attended to in the con¬
ducing of water is, that the motion fhould not be fub-
fultory^ but continuous. When the water is to be driven
along a main by the ftrokes of a reciprocating engine,
it fhould be forced into an air-box, the fpring of which
may preferve it in motion along the whole fubfequent
main. If the water is brought to reft at every fuccef-
five llroke of the pifton, the whole mafs muft again be
put in motion through the whole length of the main.
This requires the fame ufelefs expenditure of power as
to communicate this motion to as much dead matter j
and this is over and above the force which may be ne-
ceftary for railing the water to a certain height’, which
is the only cir cum (lance that enters into the calculation
of the power of the pump-engine.
An air-box removes this imperfeCion, becaufe it
keeps up the motion during the returning ftroke of the
pifton. The compreflion of the air by the aftive ftroke
of the pifton muft be fuch as to continue the impulfe in
oppofiiion to the contrary preffure of the water (if it is
to be raifed to fome height), and in oppofition to the
fri&ion or other refiftances which arife from the motion
that the water really acquires. Indeed a very confider-
able force is employed here alfo in changing the motion
of the water, which is forced out of the capacious air-
box into the narrow pipe ; and when this change of mo¬
tion is not judicioufly managed, the expenditure of
power may be as great as if all were brought to reft
and again put into motion. It may even be greater,
by caufing the water to move in the oppoftte dire£Hon
to its former motion. Of fuch confequence is it to have
all thefe circumftances fcientifically conftdered. It is in
fuch particulars, unheeded by the ordinary herd of en¬
gineers or pump-makers, that the fuperiority of an in¬
telligent practitioner is to be feen.
Another material point in the conduCI of water in
pipes is the diftribution of it to the different perfons
who have occafion for it. This is rarely done from the
rifing main. It is ufual to fend the whole into a ciftern,
from which it is afterwards conducted to different places
in feparate pipes. Till the difcovery of the general
theorem by the chevalier Buat, this has been done with
great inaccuracy. Engineers think that the different
purchafers from water-works receive in proportion to
their refpeClive bargains when they give them pipes
whofe areas are proportional to thefe payments. But
we now fee, that when thefe pipes are of any confider-
able length, the waters of a larger pipe run with a
greater velocity than thofe of a {mailer pipe having the
fame flope. A pipe of two inches diameter will give
much more water than four pipes of one inch diameter ;
it will give as much as five and a half fuch pipes, or
more ; becaufe the fquares of the difcbarges are very
nearly as the fifth powers of the diameters. This point
ought therefore to be carefully confidered in the bar¬
gains made with the proprietors of water-works, and
the payments made in this Proportion. Perhaps the
moft unexceptionable method would be to make a dou¬
ble diftribution. Let the water be firft let off in its
proper proportions into a fecond feries of fmall cifterns,
and let each have a pipe which will convey the whole Water-
water that is difcharged into it. The firft dillribution , v-'ork>-
may be made entirely by pipes of one inch in diame¬
ter j this would leave nothing to the calculation of the
diilributor, for every man would pay in proportion to
the number of fuch pipes which run into his own cif-
fein.
In many cafes, however, water is diftributed by pipes
derived from a main. And here another circumftance
comes into adlion. When water is palling along a pipe,
its preffure on the fides of the pipe is diminilhed by its
velocity and if a pipe is now derived from it, the
quantity drawn off is al!o diminilhed in the fubduplicaCe
ratio of the prefllires. It the preffure is reduced to
one fourth, one-ninth, one-fixtcenth, &c. the difcharge
from the lateral pipe is reduced to one-half, one-third,
one-fourth, &c.
It is therefore of great importance to determine, what,
this diminution of preffure is which arifes from the mo¬
tion along the main.
It is plain, that if the water fuffered no refiftance in
the main, its velocity would be that with which it en¬
tered, and it would pafs along without exerting any
preffure. If the pipe were (hut at the end, the preffure
on the fides would be the full preffure of the head of
■water. If the head of water remain the fame, and the
end of the tube be contra&ed, but not flopped entirely,
the velocity in the pipe is diminilhed. If we would
have the velocity in the pipe with this contracted mouth
augmented to what it was before the contraction was*
made, we muft employ the preffure of a pifton, or of a
head of water. This is propagated through the fluid,
and thus a preffure is immediately excited on the fides
of the pipe. New obftruCtions of any kind, arifing
from friCtion or any other caufe, produce a diminution
of velocity in the pipe. But when the natural velocity
is checked, the particles reaCt on what obftruCts their
motion ; and this aCtion is uniformly propagated through
a perfeCt fluid in every direction. The refiftance there¬
fore which we thus afcribe to friCtion, produces the
fame lateral preffure, which a contraction of the ori¬
fice, which equally diminilhes the velocity in the pipe,
would do. Indeed this is demonftrable from any di-
ftinCt notions that we can form of thefe obftruCtions.
They proceed from the want of perfeCt fmoothnefs,
which obliges the particles next the fides to move in
undulated lines. This excites tranfverfe forces in the
fame manner as any conftrained curvilineal motion. A
particle in its undulated path tends to efcape fiom it,
and aCts on the lateral particles in the fame manner that
it would do if moving fingly in a capillary tube having
the fame undulations ; it would prefs on the concave
fide of every fuch undulation. Thus a preffure is ex¬
erted among the particles, which is propagated to the
fides of the pipe ; or the diminution of velocity may
arife from a vifeidity or want of perfeCt fluidity. This
obliges the particle immediately preffed to drag along
with it another particle which is withheld by adhe-
fion to the fides. This requires additional preffure
from a pifton, cr an additional head of water; and
this preffure alfo is propagated to the fides of the
pipe.
Hence it fhould follow, that the preffure which water
in motion exerts on the fides of its conduit is equal to
that which is competent to the head of water which
impels
Water¬
works.
Fig. 4-
- ^ A T [" 664 J
impels it'xnto the pipe, diminifhed by the head of water of water
„ competent to the Siftual velocity with which it moves
along the pipe. Let H reprefent the head of water
which impels it into the entry of the pipe, and h the
head which would produce the actual velocity ; then
H—h is the column which would produce the prtffure
exerted on its fides.
This is abundantly verified by very fimple experi¬
ments^ Let an upright pipe be inferted into the fide of
tne main pipe. When the water runs out by the mouth
of the main, it will rife in this branch till the weight of
the column balances the preffure that fupports it 5 and
if we then afcertain the velocity of the iffuing water by
means of the quantity diicharged, and compute the
head or height neceflary for producing this velocity,
and fubtraft this from the height of water above the
entry of the main, we fhall find the height in the branch
precifely equal to their difference. Our readers may
fee this by examining the experiments related by
Gravefande, and {till better by confulting the experi¬
ments narrated by Bolfut, § 558, which are detailed
with great minutenefs; the refills correfponded accu¬
rately wdth this propofition. The experiments indeed
were not heights of water fupported by this preffure,
but water expelled by it through the fame orifice. In¬
deed the truth of the propofition appears in every way
we can confider the motion of w^ater. And as it is of
the firft importance in the pra&ice of conducing water
(for. reafons which will prefently appear), it merits a
particular attention. When an inclined tube is in train,
the accelerating power of the water (or its weight dimi-
nifhed in the proportion of the length of the oblique co¬
lumn to its vertical height, or its weight multiplied by
the fra&ion which expreffes the dope), is in equili-
brio with the obftru&ions; and therefore it exerts no
preffure on the pipe but what arifes from its weight
alone. Any part of it would continue to Aide down
the inclined plane with a conrtant velocity, though de¬
tached jrom what follows it. It therefore derives no
preffure from the head of water which impelled it into
the pipe. The fame muft be faid of a horizontal pipe
infinitely fmooth, or oppofing no refiftance. The water
would move in this pipe with the full velocity due to
the head of water which impels it into the entry. But
when the pipe oppofes an obftruftion, the head of water
is greater than that which would impel it into the pipe
with the velocity that it adually has in it; and this ad¬
ditional preffure is propagated along the pipe, where it
is balanced by the aftual refiftance, and therefore ex¬
cites a quaqua verfum preffure on the pipe. In fhort,
whatever part of the head of water in the refervoir, or
of the preffure which impels it along the tube, is not
employed in producing velocity, is employed in a&ing
againft fome obftruftion, and excites (by the readtion of
this obftrudlion) an equal preffure on the tube. The
rule therefore is general, but is fubjedl to fome modifica¬
tions which deferve our attention.
In the limply inclined pipe BC (fig. 4.), the preffure
on any.point Sis equal to that of the head AB of water
which impels the water into the pipe, wanting or minus
that of the head of water which would communicate to
it the velocity with which it a&uafly moves. This we
{hall call a?, and confider it as the weight of a column
WAT
whofe length alfo is In like manner H
may be the column AB, which impels the water into
the pipe, and would communicate a certain velocity-,
and h may reprefent the column which would commu¬
nicate the adlual velocity. We have therefore x—
H—h.
In the pipe HIKL, the preffure at the point I is AH
h—IO, crK—h—iO j and the preffure at K is H—-
/-f-PK.
And in the pipe DEFG, the preffure on E is r=AR
^ EM, ~rl—h—EM } and the preffure at F is H
•—/,-fFN.
W e. muft caremlly diftinguilh this preffure on any
fquare inch of the pipe from the obllrudtion or refiftance
which that inch adfually exerts, and which is part of the
caufe of this preffure. The preffure is (by the laws of
hydroftatics) the fame with that exerted on the water
by a fquare inch of the piiton or forcing head of water.
I his muft balance the united obftrudtions of the whole
pipe, in as far as they are not balanced by the relative
weight of the water in an enclofed pipe. Whatever be
the inclination of a pipe, and the velocity of the water
m it, there is a certain part of this refiftance which may
not be balanced by the tendency wftiich the water has
to Hide along it, provided the pipe be long enough 5 or
if the pipe is too ihort, the tendency down the pipe may
more than balance all the refiftances that obtain below.
In the firft cafe, this overplus muft be balanced by an
additional head of water; and in the latter cafe the pipe
is not in train, and the w-ater will accelerate. There is
fomething in the mechanifm of thefe motions which
makes a certain length of pipe neceffary for bringing it
into train ; a certain portion of the furface which afts
in concert in obftru&ing the motion. We do not com¬
pletely underftand this circumftance, but we can form a
pretty diftinft notion of its mode of afting. The film
of water contiguous to the pipe is withheld by the ob-
ftrudlion, but glides along; the film immediately with¬
in this is withheld by the outer film, but glides through
it: and thus all the concentric films glide within thofe
around them, fomewhat like the Aiding tubes of a fpy-
glafs, w-hen we draw it out by taking hold of the end
of the innermoft. Thus the fecond film paffes beyond
the firft or outermoft, and becomes the outermoft, and
rubs along the tube. The third does the fame in its
turn ; and thus the central filaments come at laft to the
outfide, and all fuftain their greateft poffible obftruftion.
When this is accomplilhed, the pipe is in train. This
requires a certain length, which we cannot determine
by theory. We fee, however, that pipes of greater dia¬
meter muft require a greater length, and this in a pro¬
portion which is probably that of the number of fila¬
ments, or the fquare of the diameter. Buat found this
fuppofitisn agree well enough with his experiments. A
pipe of one inch in diameter fuftained no change of ve¬
locity by gradually fliortening it till he reduced it to fix
feet, and then it difeharged a little more water. A pipe
of two inches diameter gave a fenfible augmentation of
velocity when Ihortened to 25 feet. He therefore fays,
that the fquare of the diameter in inches, multiplied by
72, will exprefs (in inches) the length neceffary for put¬
ting any pipe in train.
The refiftance exerted by a fquare inch of the pipe
makes but a fmail part of the preffure which the whole
refiftances
Water¬
works.
I
WAT [ 665 ] WAT
refinances occafion to be exerted there before they can
be overcome. The refiftance may be reprefented by —,
when d is the hydraulic depth (one-fourth of the dia¬
meter), and s the length of a column whofe vertical
height is one inch, and it is the relative weight of a
column of water whofe bafe is a fquare inch, and height
is d. For the refiftance of any length s of pipe which
is in train, is equal to the tendency of the water to Aide
down (being balanced by it) j that is, is equal to the
■weight of this column multiplied by —. The magni¬
tude of this column is had by multiplying its length by
its feflion. The fedtion is the produdl of the border /i
or circumference, multiplied by the mean depth d, or it
is bd. This multiplied by the length, is bds ; and this
multiplied by the Hope - is bd, the relative weight of
the column whofe length is j. The relative weight of
one inch is therefore and this is in equilibrio with
the refiftance of a ring of the pipe one inch broad.
This, when unfolded, is a parallelogram b inches in
length. One inch of this therefore is -, the relative
s
weight of a column of water having d for its height and
a fquare inch for its bafe. Suppofe the pipe four inches
in diameter, and the flope =r 253, the refiftance is one
grain •, for an inch of water weighs 253 grains.
This knowledge of the preflure of water in motion is
of great importance. In the management of rivers and
canals it inftrudls us concerning the damages which they
produce in their beds by tearing up the foil; it informs
us of the ftrength which wTe muft give to the banks:
but it is of more confequence in the management of clofe
conduits. By this we muft regulate the ftrength of our
pipes 5 by this alfo we muft afcertain the quantities of
water which may be drawn off by lateral branches from
any main conduit.
With refpeft to the firft of thefe obiedts, where fe-
curity is our foie concern, it is proper to confider the
preffure in the moft unfavourable circumftances, viz.
when the end of the main is (hut. This cafe is not
unfrequent. Nay, when the water is in motion, its ve¬
locity in a conduit feldom exceeds a very few feet in a
fecond. Eight feet per fecond requires only one foot
of water to produce it. We fhould therefore eftimate
the ftrain on all conduits by the whole height of the re-
fervoir.
In order to adjuft the ftrength of a pipe to the ftrain,
we may conceive it as confiding of two half cylinders
of infuperable ftrength, joined along the two feams,
where the ftrength is the fame with the ordinary
ftrength of the materials of which it is made. The in-
fide preffure tends to burft the pipe by tearing open
thefe feams ; and each of thefe two feams is equal to the
weight of a column of water whofe height is the depth
of the feam below the furface of the refervoir, and whofe
bafe is an inch broad and a diameter of the pipe in
length. This follows from the common principles of
hydroftatics.
Suppofe the pipe to be of lead, one foot in diameter
and 100 feet under the furface of the refervoir. Water
Vol. XX. Part II.
weighs 624 pounds per foot. The bafe of our column
is therefore -r^th of a foot, and the tendency to burft
the pipe is 100 X 62^ X wthz^-M-0* =521 pounds
nearly. Therefore an inch of one feam is ftrained by
2604 pounds. A rod of lead one inch fquare is pulled
afunder by 860 pounds (fee STRENGTH of Materials,
N° 40.). Therefore, if the thicknels of the leam is
— Ifrr inches, or one-third of an inch, it will juft with-
ftand this ftrain. But we muft make it much ftiongcr
than this, efpecially if the pipe leads from an engine
which fends the water along it by ftarts. Belidor and
Defaguliers have given tables of the thicknefs and
weights of pipes which experience has found fufficient
for the different materials and depths. Defaguhers fays,
that a leaden pipe of three-fourths of an inch in thick¬
nefs is ftrong enough for a height of 140 feet and dia¬
meter of (even inches. From this wre may calculate all
others.. Belidor fays, that a leaden pipe 12 inches dia¬
meter and 60 feet deep lliould be half an inch thick :
but thefe things will be more properly computed by
means of the lift given in N° 40 of the article STRENGTH
of Materials.
The application which we are moft anxious to make
of the knowledge of the preffure of moving waters is
the derivation from a main conduit by lateral branches.
This occurs very frequently in the diftribution of wa¬
ters among the inhabitants of towns; and it is fo im-
perfe£!ly underftood by the greateft part of thofe wdro
take the name of engineers, that individuals have no fe-
curity that they flrall get even one half of the water
they bargain and pay for ; yet this may be as accurate¬
ly afcertained as any other problem in hydraulics by
means of our general theorem. The cafe therefore
merits our particular attention.
It appears to be determined already, when we have
afcertained the preffures by which the water is impelled
into thefe lateral pipes, efpecially after we have faid
that the experiments of Boffut on the actual difcharges
from a lateral pipe fully confirm the theoretical dodhine.
But much remains to be confidered. We have feen that
there is a vaft difference between the difcharge made
through a hole, or even through a Ihort pipe, and the
difcharge from the far end of a pipe derived from a
main conduit. And even when this has been afcer¬
tained by our new theory, the difcharge thus modified
will be found confiderably different from the real ftate
of things : For when water is flowing along a main
with a known velocity, and therefore exerting a known
preflure on the circle which we propofe for the entry of
a branch, if we infert a branch there water will go along
it: but this will generally make a confiderable change
in the motion along the main, and therefore in the pref¬
fure which is to expel the water. It alfo makes a con¬
fiderable change in the whole quantity which paffes
along the anterior part of the main, and a ftill greater
change on what moves along that part of it which lies
beyond the branch : it therefore affefts the quantity ne-
ceffary for the whole fupply, the force that is required
for propelling it, and the quantity delivered by other
branches. This part therefore of the management of
water in conduits is of confiderable importance and in¬
tricacy. We can propofe in this place nothing more
than a folution of fuch leading queftions as involve the
chief circumftances, recommending to our readers the
perufal of original works on this fubjed. M. Boffut’s
4 P experiments
WAT
[ 666 ]
WAT
Water- experiments are fully competent to the eftahlKhment of
, works- the fundament principle. The hole through which the
lateral difcharges were made was but a few feet from
the refervoir. The pipe was fucceflively lengthened, by
which the refinances were increafed, and the velocity
diminifhed. But this did not affeft the lateral difcharges,
except by affe&ing the preffures j and the difcharges
from the end of the main were fuppofed to be the fame
as when the lateral pipe w'as not inferted. Although
this was not ftriftly true, the difference was infenfible,
becaufe the lateral pipe had but about the 18th part of
the area of the main.
Suppofe that the difcharge from the refervoir remains
the fame after the derivation of this branch, then the
motion of the water all the way to the infertion of the
branch is the fame as before $ but, beyond this, the dif¬
charge is diminifhed by -all that is difcharged by the
branch, with the head x equivalent to the preffure on
the fide. The difcharge by the lowrer end of the main
being diminifhed, the velocity and refiftance in it are
alfo cHmihifhed. Therefore the difference between x
and the head employed to overcome the fridlion in
this fecond cafe, would be a needlefs or inefficient
part of the whole load at the entry, which is impofiible 5
for every force produces an effeff, or it is deflroyed by
fome reaflion. The effeft of the forcing head of water
is to produce the greateft difcharge correfponding to
the obftruftions j and thus the difcharge from the re¬
fervoir, or the fupply to the main, nouft be augmented
by the infertion of the branch, if the forcing head of
water remains the fame. A greater portion therefore
of the forcing head w'as employed in producing a great¬
er difcharge at the entry of the main, and the remain¬
der, lefs than x, produced the preffure on the fides. This
head was the one competent to the obftru&ions refult-
ing from the velocity beyond the infertion of the
branch j and this velocity, diminifhed by the difcharge
already made, wras lefs than that at the entry, and even
than that of the main wdthout a branch. This will ap¬
pear more diftinftly by putting the cafe into the form
of an equation. Therefore let H—k be the height due
to the velocity at the entry* of which the effeft obtains
only horizontally. The head x is the only one which
adls on the fides of the tube, tending to produce the
difcharge by the branch, at the fame time that it muft
overcome the obftruftions beyond the branch. If the
orifice did not exift, and if the force producing the ve¬
locity on a (hort tube be reprefented by 2:G, and the
feftion of the main be A, the fupply at the entry of the
main would be A n/2~Gv/H x 5 and ^ ^ orifice
had no influence on the value of », the difcharge by the
orifice would be
is the head neceffary for the main with a branch, w Water-
. n. . . . TT —y') works,
may inftitute this proportion, y : H—y~x — } >.
and this 4th term will exprefs the head producing the velo¬
city in the main beyond the branch (as H-—y would have
done in a main without a branch). This velocity beyond
the branch will be 2 ——>andthe difcharge
at the end will be A*/2 G*/If to this we
add the difcharge of the branch, the fum will be the
whole difcharge, and therefore the whole fupply. There¬
fore we have the following equation, As/2 OyJH—y—
duce the value of x
being its difcharge by
means of the head H, when the end of the main is fhut j
for the difcharges are in the fubduplicate ratio of the
heads of water by which they are expelled; and there¬
fore v/H ; ■v/i:v:=^ : D *f But kave fcea
that x muft diminifh *, and we know that the obftruc-
tions are nearly as the fquare roots of the velocities,
when thefe do not diffen much among themfelves.
Therefore calling y the preffure or head which balances
the refiftances of the main without a branch, while x
From this we de-
2GH A*
This va«
(A^G^V+5r)‘+2GA‘'
lue of x being fubftituted in the equation of the difcharge
5 of the branch, which was wiH give the dif¬
charges required, and they will differ fo much the more
from the difcharges calculated according to the fimple
theory, as the velocity in the main is greater. By the
fimple theory, we mean the fuppofition that the lateral
difcharges are fuch as would be produced by the head
H—hy where H is the height of the refervoir, and h
the head due to the aftual velocity in the main.
And thus it appears that the proportion of the dif-
charge by a lateral pipe from a main that is {hut at the
far end, and the difcharge from a main that is open,
depends not only on the preffures, but alfo on the fize
of the lateral pipe, and its diftance from the refervoir.
When it is large, it greatly alters the train of the main,
under the fame head, by altering the difcharge at its
extremity, and the velocity in it beyond the brtmch $
and if it be near the refervoir, it greatly alters the
train, becaufe the diminiftied velocity takes place through,
a greater extent, and there is a greater diminution of the
refiftances.
When the branch is taken off at a confiderable di¬
ftance from the refervoir, the problem becomes more
complicated, and the head x is refolved into two parts y,
one of which balances the refiftance in the firft part of
the main, and the other balances the refiftances beyond
the lateral pipe, with a velocity diminifhed by the
difcharge from the branch.—-A branch at the end of
the main produces very little change in the train of the
P1?6- . . ,
When the lateral difcharge is great, the tram may be
fo altered, that the remaining part of the main will not
run full, and then the branch will not yield the fame
quantity. The velocity in a very long horizontal tube
may be fo fmall (by a finall head of water and great
obftruftions in a very long tube) that it will juft run
full. An orifice made in its upper fide will yield no¬
thing 5 and yet a finall tube inferted into it will carry a
column almoft as high as the refervoir. So that we can¬
not judge in all cafes of the preffufes by the difcharges,,
and vice vcrfa,
M
WAT [ 667 ] WAT
Water- If there be an inclined tube, having a head greater
works. ^|lan what js competent to the velocity, we may bring
',^v it into train by an opening on its upper fide near the re-
fervoir. This will yield fome water, and the velocity
will diminifh in the tube till it is in train. If we fhould
now enlarge the hole, it will yield no more water than
before.
And thus we have pointed out the chief circumftances
which affeft thefe lateral difcharges. The difcharges
are afterwards modified by the conduits in which they
are conveyed to their places of deftination. Thefe be-
ing generally of fmall dimenfions, for the fake of eco¬
nomy, the velocity is much diminiflred. But, at the
fame time, it approaches nearer to that which the fame
conduit would bring dire£lly from the refervoir, becaufe
its fmall velocity wnll produce a lefs change in the train
of the main conduit.
We (hould now treat of jets of water, which ftill
make an ornament in the magnificent pleafure grounds
of the wealthy. Some of thefe are indeed grand ob-
jefts, fuch as the two at Peterhoff in Ruflia, which fpout
about 60 feet high a column of nine inches diameter,
which falls again, and fiiakes the ground with its blow.
Even a fpout of an inch or two inches diameter, lancing
to the height of ijo feet, is a gay obje£l, and greatly
enlivens a pleafure-ground j efpecially when the changes
of a gentle breeze bend the jet to one fide. But we
have no room left for treating this fubjeft, which is of
fome nicety *, and muft conclude this article with a very
fhort account of the management of water as an a£tive
power for impelling machinery.
II. Of Machinery driven by Water,
This is a very comprehenfive article, including almoft
every poftible fpecies of mill. It is no lefs important,
and it is therefore matter of regret, that we cannot enter
into the detail which it deferves. The mere defcription
of the immenfe variety of mills wdiich are in general ufe,
would fill volumes, and a fcientific defcription of their
principles and maxims of conftru&ion would almofi:
form a complete body of mechanical fcience. But this
is far beyond the limits of a work like ours. Many of
thefe machines have been already defcribed under their
proper names, or under the articles which give an ac¬
count of their manufJflures ; and for others we muft re¬
fer our rea'ders to the original works, where they are de¬
fcribed in minute detail. The great academical collec¬
tion Des Arts et Metiers, publifhed at Paris in many
folio a’olumes, contains a defcription of the peculiar ma¬
chinery of many mills •, and the volumes of the Ency¬
clopedic Methodique, which particularly relate to the me¬
chanic arts, already contain many more. All that we
can do in this place is, to confider the chief circum¬
ftances that are common to all water-mills, and from
which all muft derive their efficacy. Thefe circum¬
ftances are to be found in the manner of employing wTa-
ter as an afting power, and moft of them are compre¬
hended in the conftru&ion of water-wffieels. When we
have explained the principles and the maxims of con-
ftruftion of a water-wheel, every reader converfant in
mechanics knows, that the axis of this wheel may be
employed to tranfmit the force imprelfed on it to any
fpecies of machinery. Therefore nothing fubfequent to
this can with propriety be confidered as water-works.
Water-wheels are of two kinds, diftinguithed by the Water-
manner in which water is made an impelling power, works‘
viz. by its weight, or by its impulfe. This requires a v "
very different form and manner of adaptation; and this
forms an oftenfible diftin&ion, fufficiently obvious to
give a name to each clafs. When water is made to aft
by its weight, it is delivered from the fpout as high on
the wheel as poffible, that it may continue long to prefs
it down : but when it is made to ftrike the wheel, it is
delivered as low as poffible, that it may have previoufly
acquired a great velocity. And thus the wheels are
faid to be overshot or undershot.
Of Overfoot Wheels.
This is nothing but a frame of open buckets, fo dif-
pofed round the rim of a wheel as to receive the water
delivered from a fpoutfo that one fide of the wheel is
loaded with water, while the other is empty. The con-
fequence muft be, that the loaded fide muft defcend.
By this motion the wTater runs out of the lower buckets,
while the empty buckets of the rifing fide of the wheel
come under the fpout in their turn, and are filled with
water.
If it were poffible to conftruft the buckets in fuch a
manner as to remain completely filled with water till
they come to the very bottom of the wheel, the preffure
with which the w’ater urges the wheel round its axis
would be the fame as if the extremity of the horizontal
radius were continually loaded with a quantity of water
fufficient to fill a fquare pipe, whofe feftion is equal to
that of the bucket, and whofe length is the diameter of
the wheel. For let the buckets BD and EF (fig. 5.) pjg
be compared together, the arches DB and EF are equal. a
The mechanical energy of the water contained in the
bucket EF, or the preffure with which its weight urges
the wheel, is the fame as if all this water were hung on
that point T of the horizontal arm CF, where it is cut
by the vertical or plumb-line BT. This is plain from
the moft elementary principles of mechanics. There¬
fore the effeft of the bucket BD is to that of the bucket
EF as CT to CF or CB. Draw the horizontal lines
PB b b, QD dd. It is plain, that if BD is taken very
fmall, fo that it may be confidered as a ftraight line,
BD : BO~CB : BP, and EF : b ^=CF : CT, and
EF x CTrr^^X CF. Therefore if the prifm of water,
whofe vertical feftion \s b b d d, were hung on at F, its
force to urge the wheel round would be the fame as that
of the water lying in the bucket BD. The fame may
be faid of every bucket j and the effeftive preffure of
the whole ring of water AyHKFI, in its natural fitua-
tion, is the fame with the pillar of water a h h a hung
on at F. And the effeft of any portion BF of this ring
is the fame with that of the correfponding portion bY fb
of the vertical pillar. We do not take into account
the fmall difference which arifes from the depth B or Yf
bccaufe we may fuppofe the circle defcribed through
the centres of gravity of the buckets. And in the far¬
ther profecution of this fubjeft, we ftiall take fimilar li¬
berties, with the view of fimplifying the fubjeft, and
faving time to the reader.
But fuch a ftate of the wheel is impoffible. The
bucket at the very top of the wheel may be completely
filled with water j but when it comes into the oblique
pofition BD, a part of the water muft run over the
outer edge ?, and the bucket will only retain the quan-
4 P 2 tity
WAT [ 66B j WAT
Water- tity ZBD ^J, and if the buckets are formed by parti-
, wor^s- tions dire&ed to the axis of the wheel, the whole water
v muft be run out by the time that they defcend to the
level of the axis. To prevent this many contrivances
have been adopted. The wheel has been furrounded
with a hoop or fweep, confiding of a circular board,
which comes almoft into contaft with the rim of the
wheel, and terminates at H, where the water is allowed
to run off. But unlefs the work is executed with un¬
common accuracy, the wheel made exadlly round, and
the fweep exaftly fitting it, a great quantity of water
efcapes between them j and there is a very fenfible ob-
ftruflion to the motion of fuch a wheel, from fomething
like friftion between the water and the fweep. Froft
alfo effe&ually flops the motion of fuch a wheel. Sweeps
have therefore been generally laid afide, although there
are fituations where they might be ufed with good
effeft.
Mill-wrights have turned their whole attention to the
giving a form to the buckets which (hall enable them
to retain the water along a great portion of the circum¬
ference of the wheel. It would be endlefs to defcribe
all thefe contrivances ; and wre fhall therefore content
ourfelves with one or two of the mod approved. The
intelligent reader will readily fee that many of the cir-
cumdances which concur in producing the ultimate ef-
feft (fuch as the facility w ith which the water is re¬
ceived into the buckets, the place which it is to occupy
during the progrefs of the bucket from the top to th«
bottom of the wheel, the readinefs with which they are
evacuated, or the chance that the water has of being
dragged beyond the bottom of the wheel by its adhefion,
&c. &c.) are fuch as do not admit of precife calculation
or reafoning about their merits j and that this or that
form can feldom be evidently demondrated to be the
very bed podible. But, at the fame time, he will fee
the general reafons of preference, and his attention will
be dire£!ed to circumdances w'hich mud be attended to,
in order to have a good bucketed wdieel.
Pig. 6. Fig. 6. is the outline of a wheel having 40 buckets.
The ring of board contained between the concentric
circles QDS and PAR, making the ends of the buckets,
is called the Shrouding, in the language of the art,
and QP is called the depth of Jhrouding. The inner
circle PAR is called the Sole of the wheel, and ufually
confids of boards nailed to drong wooden rings of com-
pafs timber of confiderable fcantling, firmly united with
the Arms or radii. The partitions, which determine
the form of the buckets, confid of three different planes
or boards AB, BC, CD, which are varioufly named by
different artids. We have heard them named the Start
or Shoulder, the Arm, and the Wrest (probably for
wrid, on account of a refemblance of the whole line to
Tig. 7. the human arm) •, B is alfo called the Elbow. Fig. 7.
reprefents a fmall portion of the fame bucketing on a
larger fcale, that the proportions of the parts may be
more didin£Uy feen. AG, the foie of one bucket, is
made about ^th more than the depth GH of the fhroud-
ing. The dart AB is 4 of AI. The plane BC is fo
inclined to AB that it would pafs through H 5 but it is
made to terminate in C, in fuch a manner that FC is
^ths of GH or AI. Then CD is fo placed that HD is
about JH.
By this condru&ion, it follows that the area FABC
is very nearly equal to DABC j fo that the water
which will fill the fpace FABC will all be contained Water-
in the bucket when it diall come into fuch a pofition works-
that AD is a horizontal line $ and the line AB will
then make an angle of nearly 350 with the vertical, or
the bucket will be 350 from the perpendicular. If the
bucket defcend fo much lower that one half of the water
runs out, the line AB will make an angle of 250, or
240 nearly, with the vertical. Therefore the wheel,
filled to the degree now mentioned, wTill begin to lofe
water at about 4th of the diameter from the bottom,
and half of the water will be difcharged from the lowed
bucket, about ^th of the diameter farther down. Thefe
lituations of the difcharging bucket are marked at T
and V in fig. 6. Had a greater proportion of the buc¬
kets been filled with water when they were under the
fpout, the difcharge would have begun at a greater
height from the bottom, and we (hould lofe a greater
portion of the whole fall of water. The lofs by the
prefent condrudlion is lefs than -rg-th (fuppofing the wa¬
ter to be delivered into the wheel at the very top), and
may be eftimated at about -sJg-th ; for the lofs is the
verfed fine of the angle which the radius of the bucket
makes with the vertical. The verfed fine of 350 is
nearly 3-th of the radius (being 0.18085), or i^th of
the diameter. It is evident, that if only 4 of this wa¬
ter were fupplied to each bucket as it paffes the fpout,
it would have been retained for io° more of a revo¬
lution, and the lofs of fall would have been only about
i^th.
Thefe obfervations ferve to (how, in general, that an
advantage is gained by having the buckets fo capacious
that the quantity of water which each can receive as it
paffes the fpout may not nearly fill it. This may be ac-
complilhed by making them of a fufficient length, that
is, by making the wheel diffidently broad between the
two ffiroudings. Economy is the only objedion to this
pra&ice, and it is generally very ill placed. When the
work to be performed by the wheel is great, the addi¬
tion of power gained by a greater breadth will foon com-
penfate for the additional expence.
The third plane CD is not very frequent; and mill¬
wrights generally content themfelves with continuing
the board all the way from the elbow B to the outer
edge of the wheel at H j and AB is generally no mors
than one-third of the depth AI. But CD is a very evi¬
dent improvement, caufing the wheel to retain a very
fenfible addition to the water. Some indeed make this
addition more confiderable, by bringing BC more out¬
ward, fo as to meet the rim of the wheel at H, for in-
ftance, and making HD coincide with the rim. But this
makes the entry of the water fomewhat more difficult
during the very ffiort time that the opening of the
bucket paffes the fpout. To facilitate this as much as
poffible, the water ffiould get a direction from the fpout,
fuch as will fend it into the buckets in the moft perfeft
manner. This may be obtained by delivering the water
through an aperture that is divided by thin plates of
board or metal, placed in the proper pofition, as we
have reprefented in fig. 6. The form of bucket laft
mentioned, having the wreft concentric with the rim, is
unfavourable to the ready admiffion of the water; where¬
as an oblique wreft conducts the water which has miffed
one bucket into the next below.
The mechanical confideration of this fubjeft alfo fhows
us, that a deeg ffirouding, in order to make a capacious
bqcket?
WAT [ 669 ] WAT
Water- bucket, is not a good method : it does not make the
works, buckets retain their water any longer ; and it diminithes
1 v the effective fall of water : for the water received at the
top of the wheel immediately falls to the bottom of the
bucket, and thus Ihortens the fi&itious pillar of water,
which we Ihowed to be the meafure of the cffedlive or
ufeful preffure on the wheel: and this concurs with our
former reafons for recommending as great a breadth of
the wheel, and length of buckets, as economical conli-
derations will permit.
A bucket wheel was fome time ago executed by Mr
Robert Burns, at the cotton mills of Houfton, Burns, and
Co. at Cartfide in Renfrewlhire, of a conltru&ion en¬
tirely new, but founded on a good principle, which is
Fig. 8. fufceplible of great extenfion. It is reprefented in fig. 8,
The bucket confifts of a ftart AB, an arm BC, and a
wreft CD, concentric with the rim. But the bucket is
alfo divided by a partition LM, concentric with the foie
and rim, and fo placed as to make the inner and outer
portions of nearly equal capacity. It is evident, with¬
out any farther reafoning about it, that this partition
will enable the bucket to retain its water much longer.
When they are filled one-third, they retain the whole
water at 180 from the bottom ^ and they retain one half
at 11°. They do not admit the water quite fo freely as
buckets of the common conftrudlion j but by means of
the contrivance mentioned a little ago for the fpout (al¬
fo the invention of Mr Burns, and furniftied with a rack-
work, which raifed or deprefled it as the fupply of water
varied, fo as at all times to employ the whole fall of
the water), it is found, that a flow-moving wheel al¬
lows one-half of the water to get into the inner buckets,
efpecially if the partition do not altogether reach the ra?
dius drawn through the lip D of the outer bucket.
This is a very great improvement of the bucket
wheel; and when the wheel is made of a liberal breadth,
fo that the water may be very {hallow in the buckets, it
feems to carry the performance as far as it can go. Mr
Burns made the firfl: trial on a wheel of 24 feet diame¬
ter •, and its performance is manifeftly fuperior to that of
the wheel which it replaced, and which was a very good
one. It has alfo another valuable property : When the
fupply of wrater is very fcanty, a proper adjuftment of
the apparatus in the fpout will direct almofi: the whole of
the w7ater into the outer buckets which, by placing it
. at a greater difiance from the axis, makes a very fenfible
addition to its mechanical energy.
We faid that this principle is fufceptible of confider-
able extenfion j and it is evident that two partitions will
increafe the effeft, and that it wdll increafe with the
number of partitions: fo that when the pra&ice now be¬
gun, of making water-wheels of iron, {hall become ge¬
neral, and therefore very thin partitions are ufed, their
number may be greatly increafed without any inconve¬
nience : and it is obvious, that this feries of partitions
muft greatly contribute to the ftiffnefs and general firm-
nefs of the whole wheel.
There frequently occurs a difficulty in the making of
bucket wheels, when the half-taught mill-wright at¬
tempts to retain the water a long time in the buckets.
The water gets into them with a difficulty which he can¬
not account for, and fpills all about, even wdien the buc¬
kets are not moving away from the fpout. This arifes
from the air, which muft find its way out to admit the
water, but is obflrufted by the entering water, and oc-
cafions a great fputtering at the entry. This may be en- Water-
tirely prevented by making the fpout confiderably nar- works,
rower than the wheel. This will leave room at the two 'r~~
ends of the buckets for the efcape of the air. This ob-
ftruction is vafily greater than one would imagine ; for
the water drags along with it a great quantity of air,
as is evident in the Water-blqfl deicribed by many au¬
thors.
There is another and very ferious obftru&ion to the
motion of an overfirot or bucketed wheel. When it
moves in back water, it is not only refifted by the wa¬
ter, when it moves more Howdy than the wheel, which
is very frequently the cafe, but it lifts a great deal in
the rifing buckets. In fome particular ftates of back
water, the defcending bucket fills itfelf completely with
wrater; and, in other cafes, it contains a very confider-
able quantity, and air of common denfity •, while in
fome rarer cafes it contains lefs water, with air in a con-
denfed ftate. In the firfl; cafe, the rifing bucket muft
come up filled with water, which it cannot drop till its
mouth get out of the water. In the fecond cafe, part
of the water goes out before this $ but the air rarefies,
and therefore there is ftill fome water dragged or lifted
up by the wheel, by fu£liou as it is ufually called. In
the lafi: cafe there is no fuch back load on the rifing fide
of the wheel, but (which is as detrimental to its per¬
formance) the defcending fide is employed in condenf-
ing air j and although this air aids the afeent of the ril¬
ing fide, it does not aid it fo much as it impedes the de¬
fcending fide, being (by the form of the bucket) nearer
to the vertical line drawn through the axis.
All this may be completely prevented by a few holes
made in the fturt of each bucket. Air being at leaft
800 times rarer than water, will efcape through a hole
almoft 30 times fafter with the fame preflure. Very mo¬
derate holes will therefore fuffice for this purpofe : and
the fmall quantity of water which thefe holes difeharge
during the defeent of the buckets, produces a lofs which
is altogether infignificant. The water which runs out
of one runs into another, fo that there is only the lofs of
one bucket. We have feen a wheel of only 14 feet dia¬
meter working in nearly three feet of back water. It
laboured prodigioufiy, and brought up a great load of
water, which fell from it in abrupt dafttes, which ren¬
dered the motion very hobbling. When three holes of
an inch diameter were made in each bucket (12 feet
long), the wheel laboured no more, there was no more
plunging of water from its rifing fide, and its power on
the machinery wras increafed more than one-fourth.
Thefe practical obfevvations may contain information
that is new even to feveral experienced mill-wrights.
To perfons lefs informed they cannot fail of being ufe¬
ful. We now proceed to confider the aflion of water
thus lying in the buckets of a wheel j and to afeertain
its energy as it may be modified by different circum-
ftances of fall, velocity, &e.
With refped to variations in the fall, there can be
little room for difeuflion. Since the atffive preffure is
meafured by the pillar of water reaching from the hori¬
zontal plane where it is delivered on the wheel, to the
horizontal plane where it is fprlled by the wheel, it is
evident that it muft be proportional to this pillar, and
therefore wje muft deliver it as high and retain it as long
as poflible.
This maxim obliges us, in the firft place, to ufe a
wheel
WAT [ 6?o ] WAT
Water- wheel whofe diameter is equal to the whole fall. We
. wQi-ks. ' not gajn any thing by employing a larger wheel;
v for although we {hould gain by uiing only that part of
the circumference where the weight will aft more per¬
pendicularly to the radius, we (hall lofe more by the ne-
ceflity of difeharging the water at a greater height from
the bottom : For we mull fuppofe the buckets of both
the wheels equally well conftrufted ; in which cafe, the
heights above the bottom, where they will difeharge the
water, will increafe in the proportion of the diameter of
the wheel. Now, that we lhall lofe more by this than
we gain by a more direft application of the weight, is
plain, without any further reafoning, by taking the ex¬
treme cafe, and hippofing our wheel enlarged to fuch a
fize, that the ufelefs part below is equal to our whole
fall. In this cafe the water will be fpilled from the
buckets as foon as it is delivered into them. All inter¬
mediate cafes, therefore, partake of the imperfeftion of
this.
When our fall is exceedingly great, a wheel of an
equal diameter becomes enormoudy big and expenfive,
and is of itfelf an unmanageable load. We have feen
wheels of 58 feet diameter, however, which worked ex¬
tremely wTell; but they are of very difficult conftruc-
tion, and extremely apt to warp and go out of ffiape by
their weight. In cafes like this, where we are unwill¬
ing to lofe any part of the force of a fmall ftream, the
befl form of a bucket wheel is an inverted chain pump.
Inftead of employing a chain pump of the beft conftruc-
Fig. > tion, ABCDEA (fig. 9.) to raife water through the
upright pipe CB, by means of a force applied to the
upper wheel A, let the water be delivered from a fpout
F, into the upper part of the pipe BC, and it will prefs
down the plugs in the lower and narrower bored part of
it with the full weight of the column, and efcape at the
dead level of C. This weight will urge round the wheel
A without any defalcation : and this is the moft power¬
ful manner that any fall of water whatever can be ap¬
plied, and exceeds the moft perfeft overffiot wheel. But
though it excels all chains df buckets in economy and in
effeft, it has all the other imperfeftidns of this kind of
machinery. Though the chain of plugs be of great
ftrength, it has fo much motion in its joints that it needs
frequent repairs ; and when it breaks, it is generally in
the neighbourhood of A, on the loaded fide, and all
comes down with great a crafti. There is alfo a lofs of
power by the immerfion of fo many plugs and chains in
the water ; for there can be no doubt but that if the
plugs were big enough and light enough, they would
buoy and even draw up the plugs in the narrow part at
C. They muft therefore diminiffi, in all other cafes, the
force with which this plug is pieffed down.
The velocity of an overffiot wheel is a matter of very
great nicety ; and authors, both fpeculative and prafti-
cal, have entertained different, nay oppofite, opinions
on the fubjeft. Mr Belidor, whom the engineers of
Europe have long been accuftomed to regard as facred
authority, maintains, that there is a certain velocity re¬
lated to that obtainable by the whole fall, which wall
procure to an overffiot wheel the greateft performance.
Defaguliers, Smeaton, Lambert, De Parcieux, and
others, maintain, that there is no fuch relation, and that
the performance of an overffiot wffieel will be the greater,
as it moves more (lowly by an increafe of its load of
work. Belidor maintains, that the aftive power of wa-
4
ter lying in a bucket wheel of any diameter is equal to Watef-
that of the impuife of the fame wTater on the floats of an worivS‘
underflmt wheel, when the water iffues from a fluice in
the bottom of the dam. The other writers whom we
have named aflert, that the energy of an underffiot
wheel is but one half of that of an overthot, aftuated by
the fame quantity of water falling from the fame height.
To a manufafturing country like ours, which derives
aftonilhing fuperiority, by which it more than compen-
fates for the impediments of heavy taxes and luxurious
living, chiefly from its machinery, in which it leaves all
Europe far behind, the decifion of this queftion, in fuch
a manner as (hall leave no doubt or mifconception in
the mind even of an unlettered artift, muft be confider-
ed as a material fervice : and we think that this is eafily
attainable.
When any machine moves uniformly, the accelerating
force or preffure aftually exerted on the impelled point
of the machine is in equilibrio wdth all the refiftances
which are exerted at the working point, with thofe arif-
ing from friftion, and thofe that are excited in different
parts of the machine by their mutual aftions. This is
an inconteftable truth j and though little attended to by
the mechanicians, is the foundation of all praftical
knowledge of machines. Theiefore, when an overffiot
wheel moves uniformly, with any velocity whatever, the
water is afting with its whole weight: for gravity would
accelerate its defeent, if not completely balanced by
fome reaftion ; and in this balance gravity and the re-
afting part of the machine exert equal and oppofite pref-
fures, and thus produce the uniform motion of the ma¬
chine. We are thus particular on this point, becaufe
we obferve mechanicians of the firft name employing a
mode of reafoning on the queftion now before us which
is fpecious, and appears to prove the conclufion which
they draw j but is neverthelefs contrary to true mecha¬
nical principles. They affert, that the flower a heavy
body is defeending (fuppofe in a fcale fufpended from an
axis in peritrochea), the more does it prefs on the fcale,
and the more does it urge the machine round : and
therefore the flower an overftiot wheel turns, the greater
is the force with which the water urges it round, and
the more work wall be done. It is very true that the
machine is more forcibly impelled, and that more work
is done : but this is not becaufe a pound of water preffes
mOre ftrongly, but becaufe there is mere water preffing
on the wheel j for the fpout fupplies at the fame rate,
and each bucket receives more water as it paffes by it.
Let us therefore examine this point by the unque-
ftionable principles of mechanics.
Let the overffiot wheel Aj^H (fig. 5.) receive the
water from a fpout at the very top of the wheel ; and,
in order that the wheel may not be retarded by drag¬
ging into motion the water Amply laid into the upper-
moft bucket at A, let it be received at B, with the ve¬
locity (direfted in a tangent to the wheel) acquired by
the head of water AP. This velocity, therefore, muft
be equal to that of the rim of the wheel. Let this be
v, or let the wheel and the water move over v inches
in a fecond. Let the buckets be of fuch dimenfions,
that all the water which each receives as it paffes the
fpout is retained till it comes to the pofition R, where it
is difeharged at once. It is plain that, in place of the
feparate quantities of water lying in each bucket, we
may fubftitute a continued ring of water, equal to their
WAT [ 671 ] W A T
Water- fum, and uniformly dirtributed in the fpac« BER gy/3.
works, 'pjjjg conftitutes a ring of uniform thicknefs. Let the
area of its crofs feftion /3 B or Fy be called a. We
have already demonlfrated, that the mechanical energy
v/ith which this water on the circumference of the wheel
urges it round, is the fame with what would be exerted
by the pillar brrb prefling on Fy crafting by the
lever CF. The weight of this pillar may be exprelfed
by or « xP3 } and if we call the radius CF of
the wheel R, the momentum or mechanical energy of
this weight will be reprelented by d X PS X R»
Now, let us fuppofe that this wheel is employed to
raife a weight W, which is fulpended by a rope wound
round the axis of the wheel. Let r be the radius of
this axle. ri hen W X^ is the momentum of the work.
Let the weight-rife with the velocity u when the rim of
the wheel turns with the velocity v, that is, let it rife
ri inches in a fecond.
Since a perfeft equilibrium obtains between the pow«r
and tire work when the motion is uniform, we mult have
W x « X PS X R. But it is evident that R r r=zv : u.
Therefore W x X ^ X PS.
Now the performance of the machine is undoubtedly
ineafured by the weight and the height to which it is
raifed in a fecond, or by W X». Therefore the ma¬
chine is in its belt poffrble ftate when a x^ X PS is a
maximum. But it is plain that « x'y is an invariable
quantity •, for it is the cubic inches of water which the
fpout fuppiies in a, fecond. If the wheel moves fall,
little water lies in each bucket, and a is fmall. When
v is fmall, a is great, for the oppofite reafon ; but a X
remains the fame. Therefore we muft make PS a maxi¬
mum, that is, we mufi: deliver the water as high up as
polfible. But this diminilhes AP, and this diminifhes
the velocity of the wheel: and as this has no limit, the
propofition is demonftrated ; and an overlhot wheel does
the more wrork as it moves floweft.
Convincing as this difcuffion muft be to any mecha¬
nician, we are anxious to imprefs the fame maxim on
the minds of praftical men, unaccuftomed to mathema¬
tical reafoning of any kind. We therefore beg indul¬
gence for adding a popular view of the queftion, which
requires no fuch inveftigation.
We may reafon in this way : Suppofe a wheel having
30 buckets, and that fix cubic feet of water are deliver¬
ed in a fecond on the top ot a wheel, and difcharged
without any lofs by the way at a certain height from
the bottom of the wheel. Let this be the cafe, what¬
ever is the rate of the wheel’s motion •, the buckets be¬
ing of a fufficient capacity to hold all the water which
falls into them. Let this wheel be employed to raife a
weight of any kind, fuppofe water in a chain of 30
buckets, to the fame height, and with the fame velo¬
city. Suppofe, farther, that when the load on the
rifing fide of the machine is one half of that on the
wheel, the wheel makes four turns in a minute, or one
turn in 13 feconds. During this time 90 cubic feet of
water have flowed into the 30 buckets, and each has
received three cubic feet. Then each of the riling
buckets contains x-i feet and 45 cubic feet are deli¬
vered into the upper ciftern during one turn of the
wheel, and 180 cubic feet in one minute.
Now, fuppofe the machine fo loaded, by making the
rifing buckets more capacious, that it makes only two
turns in a minute, or one turn in 30 feconds. Then
each defcending bucket muft contain fix cubic feet of Water-,
water. If each bucket of the rifing fide contained three works,
cubic feet, the motion of the machine would be the
fame as before. This is a point which no mechanician
will controvert. When two pounds are fufpended to
one end of a ftring w-hich pafles over the pulley, and'
one pound to the other end, the defcent of the two
pound will be the fame with that of a four pounds
weight, which is employed in the fame manner to draw-
up two pounds. Our machine would therefore continue
to make four turns in the minute, and would deliver 90
cubic feet during each turn, and 369 in a minute. But,
by fuppofition, it is making but twcji turns in a minute :
this muft proceed from a greater load than three cubic
feet of water in each rifing bucket. The machine
muft therefore be raifing more than 90 feet of water du¬
ring one turn of the wheel, and more than 180 in the
minute.
1 hus rt appears, that if the machine be turning twice
as flow as before, there is more than twice the former
quantity in the rifing buckets, and more will be raifed
in a minute by the fame expenditure of power. In
like manner, if the machine go three times as flow,
there muft be more than three times the former quantity
of water in the rifing buckets, and more work will be
done.
But we may go farther, and affert, that the more we
retard the machine, by loading it with more work of a
fimilar kind, the greater will be its performance. This
does not immediately appear from the prelent difcuflion :
But let us call the firft quantity of water in the rifing
bucket A ; the water railed by four turns in a minute
will be 4X 3°X A, =120 A. The quantity in this
bucket, when the machine goes twice as flow, has been
ftrown to be greater than 2 A (call it 2 A-f.r) ; the
water raifed by two turns in a minute will be 2x30
X 2 A-j-^—120 A-J-60 a;. Now, let the machine go '
four times as flow, making but one turn in a minute,
the rifing bucket muft now contain more than twice
2 A-f.v, or more than 4 A-f 2«,- call it 4A-f 2
The work done by one turn in a minute will now be
30 X4A4-2 A-{-y:=i20 A-J-60 A-J-joy.
By fitch an induftion of the work, done wuth any
rates of motion we choofe, it is evident that the per¬
formance of the machine increafes with every diminu¬
tion of its velocity that is produced by the mere addition
of a fimilar load of work, or that it does the more work
the flower it goes.
We have fuppofed the machine to be in its flate of
permanent uniform motion. If we confider it only in
the beginning of its motion, the refult is ftill more in
favour of flow motion : For, at the firft aftion of the
moving power, the inertia of the machine itfelf con-
fumes part of it, and it acquires its permanent fpeed by
d«grees ; during which, the refiftances arifing from the
work, friftion, &c. increafe, till they exaftly balance
the preffure of the water ; and after this the machine
accelerates no more. Now the greater the power and
the refiftance ariiing from the work are, in proportion
to the inertia of the machine, the fboner will all arrive
at its ftate of permanent velocity.
Fhere is another circumftance which impairs the per¬
formance of an overfhot wheel moving with a great ve¬
locity, viz* the effefts of the centrifugal force on the
water..
WAT [ 672 ] WAT
ZorS' walcr,'n ,t!’e b“ckets. Our mill-Wrights know well mathematicians: but they hare yielded; and we fee
enough, that too great velocity will throw the water them adopting maxims of conftru&ion more agieeable to
out ot the buckets j but few, if any, know exadly the found theory ; making their wheels of great breadth
diminution of power produced by this caufe. The fol- and loading them with a great deal of work. Mr Euie^
lowing very fimple conftruaion will determine this : fays, that the performance ot the bell mill cannot ex-
Fig. 10. (fig- jo ) be an overlhot wheel, of which ceed that of the worft above J-th : but we have feen a
A , IS Jr6 upright diameter, and C is the centre. tlream of water completely expended in driving a fmail
IViake Lr the length or a pendulum, which will make flax mill, which now drives a cotton mill of 4000
two vibrations during one turn of the wheel. Draw fpindles, with all its carding, roving, and drawing
, . t0 the elPow any °f the buckets. The water in machinery, befides the lathes and other engines of the
this hucket, mftead of having its furface horizontal, as fmith and carpenters workihops, exerting a force not
JNU, will have it m the dire&ion a O perpendicular to lefs than ten times what fufficed for the flax mill.
1 E very nearly. rJhe above dilcuflion only demonftrates in general the
hor the time of falling along half of FC is to that of advantage of flow motion ; but does not point out in
' two vibrations of this pendulum, or to the time of a re- any degree the relation between the rate of motion and
volution of the wheel, as the radius of a circle is to its the work performed, nor even the principles on which
circumference : and it is well known, that the time of it depends. Yet this is a fubjeft fit for a mathematical
moving along half of AC, by the uniform adlion of the invefligation 5 and we would profecute it in this place,
centrifugal force, is to that of a revolution as the radius if it were neceffary for the improvement of pra£tical
of a circle to its circumference. Therefore the time of mechanics. But we have feen that there is not, in the
defciibing one half of AC by the centrifugal force, is nature of things, a maximum of performance attached
equal to the time of defcribing one half of f C by gra- to any particular rate of motion w'hich fhould therefore
vity. Thefe fpaces, being fimilarly defcribed in equal be preferred. For this reafon we omit this difcuflion of
times, are proportional to the accelerating forces. mere fpeculative curiofity. It is very intricate : For
Therefore iFC : 4 AC, or FC : AC — gravity : cen- we mult not now exprefs the preffure on the wheel by a
tnfugal force. Complete the parallelogram FCEK. conjlant pillar of water incumbent on the extremity of
A particle at E is urged by its weight in the direftion the horizontal arm, as we did before when w!e fuppofed
KE, with a force which may be expreffed by FC or the buckets completely filled ; nor by a fmaller conjlant
KE ; and it is urged by the centrifugal force in the pillar, correfponding to a fmaller but equal quantity ly-
direftion CE, with a force ~ A.Q or CE. By their ing in every bucket. Each different velocity puts a
combined adlion it is urged in the dire6Hon FE. different quantity of water into the bucket as it paffes
Therefore, as the furface of Handing water is always at the fpout $ and this occafions a difference in the place
right angles to the aftion of gravity, that is, to the where the difcharge is begun and completed. This cir-
plumb-line, fo the furface of the waiter in the revolving cumffance is fome obftacle to the advantages of very
bucket is perpendicular to the aflion of the combined flow motions, becaufe it brings on the difcharge looner.
force FE. . _ All this may indeed be expreffed by a fimple equation
Let NEO be the pofition of the bucket, which juft of eafy management j but the whole procefs of the me-
holds all the water which it received as it paffed ‘the chanical difcuflion is both intricate and tedious, and the
fpout when not affected by the centrifugal force j and relults are fo much diverfified by the forms of the buc-
let NDO be its pofition when it would be empty. Let kets, that they do not afford any rule of fufficient gener-
the vertical lines through D and E cut the circle de- ality to reward our trouble. The curious reader may
fcribed round C with the radius CF in the points H fee a very full inveftigation of this fubjeft in two differ-
and I. Draw HC, IC, cutting the circle AOB in L tations by Elvius in the Swedilh Tranfaaions, and in
and M. Make the arch d' § equal to AL, and the the Hydrodynatmque of Profeffbr Karftner of Gottingen ;
arch e s equal to AM : I hen and Ct will be the who has abridged thefe Differtations of Elvius, and
pofitions of the bucket on^ the revolving wheel, corre- confiderably improved the whole inveftigation, and has
fponding to CDO and CEO on the wheel at reft. Wa- added fome comparifons of his dedudions with the a&ual
ter will begin to run out at s, and it will be all gone at performance of fome great works. Thefe comparifons,
I he demonftration is evident. however, are not very fatisfadlory. There is alfo a
The force which now urges the wheel is ftill the valuable paper on this fubjeft by Mr Lambert, in the
weight really in the buckets : For though the water be Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin for the year 1775.
urged in the direction and with the force FE, one of its From thefe differtations, and from the Hydrodynamique
conftituents, CE, has no tendency to impel the wheel j of the abbe Boffut, the reader will get all that theory
and KE is the only impelling force. can teach of the relation between the preffures of the
It is but of late years that mills have been conftrufled power and work on the machine and the rates of its
or a^en^ed with that accuracy and fcientific Ikill motion. The pra6lical reader may reft with confidence
which are neceffary for deducing confidential conclufions on the fimple demonftration we have given, that the
from any experiments that can be made with them; and performance is improved by diminiftiing the velocity,
it is therefore no matter of wonder that the opinions of All we have to do, therefore, is to load the machine,
mill-wrights have been fo different on this fubjedl. There and thus to diminilh its fpeed, unlefs other phyfical cir-
is a natural wifti to fee a. machine moving brilkly ; it has cumftances throw obftacles in the way : but there are
the appearance of aflivity : but a very flow motion al- fuch obftacles. In all machines there are little inequali-
ways looks as if the machine were overloaded. For this ties of a£Hon that are unavoidable. In the a£Hon of a
reafon mill-wrights have always yielded flowly, and wheel and pinion, though made with the utmoft judg-
with fome relu&ance, to the repeated advices of the ment and care, there are fuch inequalities. Thefe in-
4 creafe
Water¬
works.
WAT r
creafe by the changes of form occafioned by the wearing
of the machine—much greater irregularities arife from
the fubfultory motions of cranks, hampers, and other
parts which move unequally or reciprocally. A ma¬
chine may be fo loaded as juft to be in equilibrio with
its work, in the favourable pofition of its parts. When
this changes into one lefs favourable, the machine may
ftop ; if not, it at leaft ftaggers, hobbles, or works un¬
equally. The rubbing parts bear long on each other,
with enormous preflures, and cut deep, and increafe fric¬
tion. Such flow motions muft therefore be avoided.
A little more velocity enables the machine to get over
thofe increafed reliftances by its inertia, or the great
quantity of motion inherent in it. Great machines pof-
lefs this advantage in a fuperior degree, aud will there¬
fore work fteadily with a fmaller velocity. Thefe
circumftances are hardly fufceptible of mathematical
difcuflion, and our beft reliance is on well diredled ex¬
perience.
For this purpofe, the reader will do well to perufe
with care the excellent paper by Mr Smeaton in the
Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1759. This diflertation
contains a numerous lift of experiments, moft judici-
eufly contrived by him, and executed with the accu¬
racy and attention to the moft important circumftances,
Which is to be obferved in all that gentleman’s perfor¬
mances.
It is true, thefe experiments were made with fmall
models j and we muft not, without great caution, trans¬
fer the refults of fuch experiments to large works. But
we may fafely transfer the laws of variation which re-
fult from a variation of circumftances, although we muft
not adopt the abfolute quantities of the variations them-
felves. Mr Smeaton was fully aware of the limitations
to which conclufions drawn from experiments on models
are fubjefl, and has made the applications with his ufual
lagacity.
_ His general inference is, that, in fmaller works, the
rim of the overlhot-wheel ftiould not have a greater ve¬
locity than three feet in a fecond j but that larger mills
may be allowed a greater velocity than this. When
every thing is executed in the beft manner, he fays that
the work performed will amount to fully two-thirds of
the power expended ; that is, that three cubic feet of
water defeending from any height will raife two to the
lame height.
It is not very eafy to compare thefe dedu&ions with
obfervations on large works ; becaufe there are few cafes
where we have good meafures of the refiftances oppofed
by the work performed by the machine. Mills employ¬
ed for pumping water afford the beft opportunities. But
the inertia of their working gear diminilhes their ufeful
performance very fenfibly ; becaufe their great beams,
pump-rods, &c. have a reciprocating motion, which
muft be deftroyed, and produced anew in every ftroke.
We have examined fome machines of this kind which
are efteemed good ones ; and we find few of them whofe
performance exceeds one half of the power expended.
By comparing other mills with thefe, we get the beft
information of their refiftances. The comparifon with
mills worked by Watt and Boulton’s fteam-engines is
perhaps a better meafure of the refiftances oppofed by
different kinds of work, becaufe their power is very
diftinftly known. We have been informed by one of
the moft eminent engineers, that a ton and a half of
Vol. XX. Part II.
673 ] WAT
water per minute falling one foot will grind and drefs
one buihel of wheat per hour. Ihis is equivalent to 9
tons falling 10 feet.
If an overlhot-wheel oppofed no refiftance, and only
one bucket were filled, the wheel would acquire the ve¬
locity due to a fall through the whole height. But
when it is in this ftate of accelerated motion, if another
bucket of water is delivered into it, its motion myft be
checked at the firft, by the neceftity of dragging forward
this water. If the buckets fill in fucceftion as they
pafs the Ipout, the velocity acquired, by an unrefiftiw'
wheel is but half of that which one bucket would give.
In all cafes, therefore, the velocity is diminilhed by the
inertia of the entering water when it is fimply laid into
the upper buckets. The performance wfill therefore be
improved by delivering the water on the wheel with
that velocity with which the wheel is really moving.
And as we cannot give the direction of a tangent to the
wheel, the velocity with which it is delivei^d on the
wheel muft be fo much greater than the intended veloci¬
ty of the rim, that it lhall be precifely equal to it when
it is eftimated in the dire&ion ©f the tangent. Three or
four inches of fall are fufficient for this purpofe ; and it
fhould never be negleded, for it has a very fenfible in¬
fluence on the performance. But it is highly improper
to give it more than this, with the view of impelling
the wheel by its ftroke. For even although it were
proper to employ part of the fall in this way (which we
fhall prefently fee to be very improper), we cannot pro¬
cure this impulfe ; becaufe the water falls among
other water, or it (hikes the boards of the wheel with
fuch obliquity that it cannot produce any fuch eff ft.
It is a much debated queftion among mill-wrights,
Whether the diameter of the wheel ftiouid be fuch as5
that the water will be delivered at the top of the wheel >
or larger, fo that the water is received at fome diftance
from the top, where it will aft more perpendicularly to
the arm ? We apprehend that the obfervations formerly
made will decide in favour of the firft praftice. The
fpace below, where the water is difeharged from the
wheel, being proportional to the diameter of the wheel,
there is an undoubted lofs of fall attending a large wheel;
and this is not compenfated by delivering the water at a
greater diftance from the perpendicular. We flrould
therefore recommend the ufe of the whole defeending
fide, and make the diameter of the wheel no greater
than the fall, till it is fo much reduced that the centri¬
fugal force begins to produce a fenfible effeft. Since
the rim can hardly have a fmaller velocity than three
feet per fecond, it is evident that a fmall"wheel mud
revolve more rapidly. This made it proper to infert
the determination that we have given, of the lofs of
power produced by the centrifugal force. But even
with this in view, we fhould employ much fmaller wheels
than are generally done on fmall falls. Indeed the lofs
of water at the bottom may be diminiflied, by nicely
fitting the arch which furrounds the wheel, fo as not to
allow the water to efcape by the fides or bottom. While
this improvement remains in good order, and the wheel
entire, it produces a very fenfible tffeft; but the paffage
widens continually by the wearing of the wheel. A
bit of ftick or ftone falling in about the wheel tears off
part of the fhrouding or bucket, and frofty weather fre¬
quently binds all faft. It therefore feldom anfwers ex-
peftations. We have nothing to add on this eafe
4 Q. to
Water¬
works.
WAT
Water¬
works.
Fij.
to \vbat we nave already extrafled from Mr Smeaton’s
u D:ffertation on the Subject of Erealt or half Overfhot
Wheels.
There is another form of wheel by which water is
made to a£t on a machine by its weight, which merits
confideration. This is known in this country by the
name of Barker's null, and has been defcribtd by Defa-
gulie^s, vol. ii. p. 460. It confifls of an upright pipe
or trunk AB (fig. 11.), communicating with two hori¬
zontal branches BC, B c, which have a hole C c near
their ends, opening in oppofne direhlions, at light angles
to their leng hs. Suppole water to be poured in at the
top from the fpout F, it will run out by the holes C
and c with the velocity coirefponding to the depth of
thet'e holts under the furface. The confequence of this
mud be, that the arms wfiil be prefled backwards 5 for
there is no foiid furface at the hole C, on which the
lateral prelfu e of the water can be exerted, while it a£ts
with its full force on the oppofite fide of the arm. This
unbalanced prefilire is equal to the weight of a column
having the orifice for its bale, and twice the depth under
the furface of the water in the trunk for its height.
This meafure of the height may feem odd, becaule if
the orifice were fhut, the preflure on it is the weight of
a column reaching from the furface. But when it is
open, the water blues with nearly the velocity acquired
by falling from the furface, and the quantity of motion
produced is that of a column of twice this length, mov¬
ing with this velocity. This is actually produced by
the prefiure of the fluid, and mull therefore be accom¬
panied by an equal reaftion.
Now fuppofe this apparatus fet on the pivot E, and
to have a fpindle AD above the trunk, furnifhed with a
cylindrical bobbin D, having a rope wound round it,
and palling over a pulley G. A weight W may be
fufpended there, which may balance this backward pref-
fure. II the weight be too fmall for this purpole, the
retrograde motion of the arms will wind up the cord,
a-nd raife the weight; and thus we obtain an adting
machine, employing the preflure of the water, and ap¬
plicable to any purpofe. A runner millftone may be
put on the top of the fpindle ; and we fliould then pro¬
duce a flour mill of the utmoft fimplicity, having neither
wheel nor pinion, and fubjeft to hardly any wear. It
is fomewhat furprifing, that although this was invented
at the beginning of this century, and appears to have
fuch advantage in point of fimplicity, it has not come
into u!e. So little has Dr Delaguliers’s account been
attended to (although it is mentioned by him as an ex¬
cellent machine, and as highly inftrudlive to the by-
dr-ulift), that the fame invention was again brought
forward by a German profelfor (SegnerJ as his own,
and has been honoured by a feries of elaborate difquifi-
tions concerning its theory and performance by Euler
and by John B rnoulli. Euler’s Diflfertations are to be
found in. the Memoirs of the Academy of' Berlin, 1751,
&c. and in the Nov. Comment. Petropol. tom. vi. Ber¬
noulli’s are at the end of his Hydraulics. Both thefe
authors agree in faying, that this machine excels all
other methods of employing the force of water. Simple
as it appears, its true theory, and the belt form of con-
firuflion, are mod abflrufe and delicate fubjefls; and it
is not eafy to give fuch an account of its principles as
will be underflood by an ordinary reader.
We fee, in general, that the machine muft prefs back-
r 674 ]
WAT
wards j and little inveftigation fuffices for underftanding
the intenfity of this prefiure, when the machine is at red.
But when it is allowed to run backwards, withdrawing
itl'df from the prefiure, the intenfity of it is dimin:flied'>j
and if no other circumftances intervened, it might not
be difficult to fay what particular prefiure correlponded
to any rate of motion. Accordingly, Defaguhers, pre-
fuming on the fimplicity of the machine, affirms the
picflure to be the weight of a column, which would
produce a velocity of efflux equal to the difference cf the
velocity of the fluid and of the machine j and hence he
deduces, that its performance will be the greateft pof-
fible, when its retrograde velocity is one third of the
velocity acquired by falling from the furface, in which
cale, it wnl raife Aj-ths of the water expended to the
fame height, which is double of the performance of a
mill acled on by the impulfe of water.
But this is a very imperfedf account of the operation.
When the machine (corfflru&ed exadlly as we have
defended) moves round, the water which iffues defeends
in the vertical trunk, and then, moving along the hori¬
zontal arms, partakes of this circular motion. This ex¬
cites a centrifugal force, which is exerted againft the
ends of the arms by the intervention of the fluid. The
whole fluid is iubjefted to this preffure (increafing for
every fedlien acrofs the arm in the proportion of its di-
ftance from the axis), and every particle is preffed with
the accumulated centrifugal foices of all the iediions
that are nearer to the axis. Every iedfion therefore
fuftains an adlual preflure proportional to the fquare of
its diftance from the axis. This increafes the velocity
of efflux, and this increai’es the velocity of revolution ;
and this mutual co-operation would feem to terminate in
an infinite velocity of both motions. But, on the other
hand, this cucuiar motion mult be given anew to every
particle of water as it enters the horizontal arm. This
can be done only by the motion already in the arm, and
at its ex. ence. Thus there mult be a velocity which
cannot be overpaffed even by an unloaded machine.
But it is alfo plain, that by making tire horizontal arm .
very capacious, the motion of the water from the axis to
the jet may be made very flow, and much of this dimi¬
nution of circular motion prevented. Accordingly,
Euler has recommended a form by which this is done in
the moft eminent degree. Fits machine confifts of a
hollow conoidal ring, of which fig. 12. is a fedtion.
The part AH ^ rt is a fort of a funnel bafon, which re¬
ceives the water from the fpout F •, not in the diredtion
pointing towards the axis, but in the diredlion, and with
the precife velocity, of its motion. This prevents any
retardation by dragging forward the water. The water
then paff-s down between the outer conoid AC c a and
the inner conoid HG^ h along fpiral channels formed
by partitions foldered to both conoids. The curves of
thefe channels are determined by a theory which aims at
the annihilation of all unneceflary and improper motions
of the water, but which is too abflrufe to find a place
here. The water thus condudfed arrives at the bottom
C G, eg. On the the outer circumference of this bottom
are arranged a number of fpouts (one for each channel),
which are all diredfed one way in tangents to the cir¬
cumference.
Adopting the common theory of the readlion of fluids,
this fflould be a very powerful machine, and fhould raife
Tyths of the water expended. But if we admit the re¬
adlion
Fijn 12.
WAT [ 675 ] WAT
Water- aftlon to be equal to the force of the iiTuing fluid (and
V‘0l'vi’' , we do not fee how this can be refufed), the machine
muit be nearly twice as powcihd. We therefore repeat
our wonder, that it has not been brought intoufe. But
it appears that no trial has been made even of a model 5
fo that we have no experiments to encourage an engineer
to repeat the trial. Even the late author, Profeffor
Segner, has not related any thing of this kind in his
Exercitationes Hydraulics, where he particularly de-
fcribes the machine. This remiffnefs probably has pro¬
ceeded from fixing the attention on Euler’s improved
conflru&ion. It is plain that this muft be a molt cum¬
brous mafs, even in a fmall fize requiring a prodigious
veffel, and carrying an unwieldy load. If we examine
the theory which recommends this conftrudtion, we find
that the advantages, though real and fenfible, bear but
a fmall proportion to the whole performance of the fim-
ple machine as invented by Dr Barker. It is therefore
to be regretted, that engineers have not attempted to
realize the firlt projedf. We beg leave to recommend
it, with an additional argument taken from an addition
made to it by Mr Mathon de la Cour, in Rozier’s
Journal de Physique, January and Auguft 1775. This
Fig. 13. gentleman brings down a large pipe FEH (fig. 13.)
from a refervoir, bends it upward at H, and introduces
it into tivo horizontal arms DA, DB, which have an
upright fpindle DK, carrying a millftone in the ftyle of
Dr Barker’s mill. The ingenious mechanician will
have no difficulty of contriving a method of joining thefe
pipes, fo as to permit a free circular motion without
lofing much water. The operation of the machine in
this form is evident. The water, preffed by the column
FG, fiorvs out at the holes A and B, and the unba¬
lanced preffure on the oppofite fides of the arms forces
them round. The compendioufnefs and other advan¬
tages of this conflrudlion are moft linking, allowing us
to make ufe of the greateft fall without any increafe of
the fize of the machine. It undoubtedly enables us to
employ a ftream of water too fcanty to be employed in
any other form. The author gives the dimenfions of an
engine which he had feen at Bou"g Argental. AB is
92 inches, and its diameter 3 inches •, the diameter of
each orifice is i-?- •, FG is 21 feet ; the pipe D w7as fit¬
ted into C by grinding ; and the internal diameter of D
• is 2 inches.
When the machine was performing no rvork, or was
unloaded, and emitted water by one hole only, it made
115 turns in a minute. This gives a velocity of 46 feet
per fecond for the hole. This is a curious faff : For
the water would iflfue from this hole at reft with the ve¬
locity of 37-y. This great velocity (which was much
lei’s than the velocity with which the wrater adlually
quitted the pipe) was undoubtedly produced by the pro¬
digious centrifugal force, which was nearly 17 times the
weight erf the water ?n the orifice.
The empty machine weighed 80 pounds, and its
weight was half-fupported by the upper preffure of the
water, fo that the fridlion of the pivots wTas much di-
miniflred. It is a pity that the author has given no ac¬
count of any -work done by the machine. Indeed it was
only working vendlators for a large hall. His theory
by no means embraces all its principles, nor is it well-
founded.
We think that the free motion round the neck of the
feeding-pipe, without any lofs of water or any confidcr-
able friflion, may be obtained in the following manner : Water-
AB (fig. 14.) reprefents a portion of the revolving hori- , wor^s-
zontal pipe, and CEec part of the feeding pipe. The ~ v
neck of the firft is turned truly cylindrical, fo as to turn
eafily, but without ftrake, in the collar Cc of the feed¬
ing-pipe, and each has a ftioulder which may fupport the
other. That the fri&ion of this joint may not be great,
and the pipes deftroy each other by wearing, the hori¬
zontal pipe has an iron fpindle EF, fixed exaftly in the
axis of the joint, and refting with its pivot F in a ftep
ct hard fteel, fixed to the iron bar GH, which goes
acrofs the feeding-pipe, and is firmly fupported in it.
This pipe is made bell-fhaped, widening below7. A col¬
lar or hofe of thin leather is fitted to the infide of this
pipe, and is reprefented (in feftian) by LKM m k /.
This is kept in its place by means of a metal or wooden
ring N n, thin at the upper edge, and taper fltaped.
This is drawn in above the leather, and ftretches it, and
caufes it to apply to the fide of the pipe all around.
There can be no leakage at this joint, becaufe the wa¬
ter will prefs the leather to the fmooth metal pipe ; nor
can there be any fenfible friftion, becaufe the water gets
at the edge of the leather, and the w'hole unbalanced
preffare is at the fmall crevice, between the two metal
fhoulders. Thefe fiioulders need not touch, fo that the
friflion muft be infenfible. We imagine that this me¬
thod of tightening a turning joint may be ufed with
great advantage in many cafes.
We have only further to obferve on this engine, that
any imperfeftion by w7hich the paffage of the water is
diminiftied or obftrutled produces a faving of wrater
which is in exaft proportion to the diminution of effeft.
The only inaccuracy that is not thus compenfated is
when the jets are not at right angles to the arms.
We repeat our w'ilhes, that engineers w7ould endea¬
vour to bring this machine into ufe, feeing many fitua-
tions where it may be employed to great advantage.
Suppofe, for inftance, a fmall fupply of water from a
great height applied in this manner to a centrifugal
pump, or to a hair belt paffing over a pulley, and dip¬
ping in the water of a deep well. This would be a hy¬
draulic machine exceeding all others in fimplicity and
durability, though inferior in effefl to fome other con-
ftruflions.
2. Of Underfoot Wheels.
All wheels go by this name where the motion of the
water is quicker than that of the partitions or boards of
the wheel, and it therefore impels them. Thefe are
called the float-hoards, ox floats, of an underlhot wheel.
The water, running in a mill-rowr, with a velocity de¬
rived from a head of water, or from a declivity of chan¬
nel, ftrikes on thefe floats, and occafions, by its deflec¬
tions fidewife and upwards, a preffure on the fl _>ats fuffi-
cient for impelling the wheel.
There are few points of praSical mechanics that
have been more confidered than the aftion of water on
the floats of a wheel •, hardly a book of mechanics being
filent on the fubjeft. But the generality of them, at
leaft fuch as are intelligible to perfons who are not very
much converfant in dynamical and mathematical dlfcuf-
fion, have hardly done any thing more than copied the
earlieft dedn&ions from the Ample theory of the refift-
ance of fluids. The coufequence has been, that our
practical knowledge is very imperfedl; and it is ftill
4 O 2 chiefly
WAT
t 676 ]
WAT
chiefly from experience that we muft learn the perform¬
ance of underlhot wheels. Unfortunately this flops
J their improvement; becaufe thofe who have the only
opportunities of making the experiments are not fuffi-
ciently acquainted with the principles of hydraulics, and
are apt to afcribe differences in their performance to
trifling noflrums in their eonftru&ion, or in the manner
of applying the impulfe of the water.
We have faid fo much on the imperfeftion of our
theories of the impulfe of fluids in the article RESIST¬
ANCE of Fluids, that we need not repeat here the de-
feds ol the common explanations of the motions of un-
derihot wheels. The part of this theory of the impulfe
of fluids which, agrees beft with obfervation is, that the
impulfe is in the duplicate proportion of the velocity with
which the water frikes the float. That is, if v be the
velocity of the ftream, and u the velocity of the float,
we fhall have F, the impulfe on the float when held faft
to its impulfe f on the float moving with the velocity u,
as v* to v—id, and f—Yy. -——
v*
This is the prelfure a&ing on the float, and urging
the wheel round its axis. The wheel muft yield to this
motion, if the refiftance of the work does not exert a
fuperior preffure on the float in the oppofite diredion.
By yielding, the float withdraws from the impulfe, and
this is therefore diminilhed. The wheel accelerates, the
refiflances increafe, and the impulfes diminilh, till they
become an exad balance for the reftftances. The mo¬
tion now remains uniform, and the momentum of im¬
pulfe is equal to that of refiftance. The performance of
the mill therefore is determined by this •, and, whatever
be the conftrudion of the mill, its performance is beft
when the momentum of impulfe is greateft. This is
had by multiplying the preffure on the float by its ve¬
locity. Therefore the momentum will be expreffed by
Fx
- X »• But fince F and sj* are conftant quan-
titles, the momentum will be proportional to uyv—«*•
Let x reprefent the relative velocity. Then v—x will
be —and the momentum will be proportional to v—x
X **, and will be a maximum when v—^X^* is a
maximum, or when v x*—x3 is a maximum. This will
be difcovered by making its fluxion =0. That is,
2vx x— 3 x1 x~o.
and 2 v x—3 x*—o
«r 2 v—3 x~o
and 2 ^=3 x, and A=r4 v } and therefore v—x, or
», \ v. That is, the velocity of the float muft be
one third of the velocity of the ftream. It only remains
to fay what is the abfolute preffure on the float thus cir-
cumftanced. Let the velocity v be fuppofed to arife
from the preffure of a head of water h. The common
theory teaches that the impulfe on a given furface S at
reft is equal to the rveight of a column h S j put this in
place of F, and 4 in place of v—u* and y v for u.
This gives us S ^ x ^ for the momentum. Now the
power expended is S ^ or the column S h moving with
the velocity v. Therefore the greateft performance of
an underlhot wheel is equivalent to railing °f *he
water that drives it to the fame height.
But this is too fmall an eftimation *, for the preffure
everted on a plane furface, fituated as the float of a mill¬
wheel, is confiderably greater than the weight of the co- V
lumn S h. This is nearly the preffure on a furface 1
wholly immerfed in the fi iid. But when a fmall vein
ftrikes a larger plane, fo as to be deflefted on all fides in
a thin flieet^ the impulfe is almoft double of this. This
is in fome meafure the cafe in a mill wheel. When the
ftream ftrikes it, it is heaped up along its face, and falls
back again—and during this motion it is afting with a
hydroftatic preffure on it. When the wheel dips into an
open river, this accumulation is lefs remarkable, becaufe
much efcapes laterally. But in a mill courfe it may be
confiderable.
We have confidered only the aflion on one float, but
feveral generally a<ft at once. The impulfe on moft of
them muft be oblique, and is therefore lefs than when
the fame ftream impinges perpendicularly j and this di¬
minution of impulfe is, by the common theory, in the
proportion of the fine of the obliquity. For this reafon
it is maintained, that the impulfe ot the whole ftream on
the lowTeft floatboard, which is perpendicular to the
ftream, is equal to the firm of the impulfes made on all
the floats which then dip into the water; or that the
impulfe on any oblique fl»at is precifely equal to the im¬
pulfe which that part of the ftream would have made on
the loweft floatboard had it not been interrupted.
Therefore it has been recommended to make fuch a
number of floatboards, that when one of them is at the
bottom of the wheel, and perpendicular to the ftream,
the next in fucceffion (hould be juft entering into the
water. But fince the impulfe on a float by no means
annihilates all the motion of the water, and it bends
round it and hits the one behind with its remaining
force, there muft be fome advantage gained by employ¬
ing a greater number of floats than this rule will per¬
mit. This is abundantly confirmed by the experiments
of Smeaton and Boffut. Mr Boffut formed three or
four fuppofitions of the number of floats, and calculated
the impulfe on each j according to the obfervations made
in a courfe of experiments made by the Academy of
Sciences, and inferted by us in the article RESISTANCE
of Fluids ; and wLen he fummed them up, and compared
the refults with his experiments, he found the agreement
very fatisfa&ory. He deduces a general rule, that if
the velocity of the wheel is one-third of that of the
ftream, and if 72 degrees of the circumference are im¬
merfed in the ftream, the wheel ftiould have 36 floats.
Each w’ill dip one-fifth of the radius. The velocity be¬
ing {fill fuppofed the fame, there {hould be more or fewer
floats according as the arch is lefs or greater than 72 de¬
grees.
Such is the theory, and fuch are the circumftanees
w’hich it leaves undetermined. The accumulation of the
wTater on a floatboard, and the force with w'hich it may
{fill ftrike another, are too intricate to be afligned with
any tolerable precifion : For fuch reafons we muft ac¬
knowledge that the theory of underlhot wheels is {fill
very imperfeft, and that recourfe muft be had to expe¬
rience for their improvement. We therefore ftrongly
recommend the perufal of Mr Smeaton’s experiments on
underlhot wheels, contained in the fame differtation with
thofe we have quoted on overfliot wheels. We have
only to obferve, that to an ordinary reader the experi¬
ments w'ill appear too much in favour of underftiot wheels.
His aim is partly to eftablifli a theory, which will ftate
the relation between their performance and the velocity
of
WAT [ 677 ] WAT
Water- of the ilream, and partly to ftate the relation between
works, pOWCr expended and the work done. -The velocity
” v”~ in his experiments is always coniiderably berow tnat
which a body would acquire by falling from the furface
of the head of water 5 or it is the velocity acquired by
a (It or ter fall. Therefore if tve eftitmte the power ex¬
pended by the quantity of water multiplied by this di-
minithed tall, we (hail make it too (mall } and the dif¬
ference in fome cafes is very great : yet, even with thefe
concefiions, it appears that the utmoft performance of
an underthot wheel does not furpafs the railing one-third
of the expended water to the place from which it came.
It is therefore far inferior to an overfhot wheel expend¬
ing the fame power } and Mr Belidor has U-d engineers
into very miftaken maxims of condruftion, by faying
that overlhot wheels Ihould be given up, even in the cafe
of great falls, and that we (hould always bring on the wa¬
ter from a (luice in the very bottom of the dam, and
bring it to the wheel with as great velocity as polTible.
Mr Smeaton alfo fays, that the maximum takes place
when the velocity of the wheel is two-fifths of that of
the dream, inftead of two-fixths according to the theory;
and this agrees with the experiments of B (Tut. But he
meafured the velocity by means of the quantity of water
which run pad. This mud give a velocity fomewhat
too fmall; as will appear by attending to Boat’s obfer-
vations on the fuperficial, the mean, and the bottom ve¬
locities.
The red of his obfervations are mod judicious, and
well adapted to the indruction of practitioners. We
have only to add to them the obfervations of Des Par-
cieux and Boflut, who have evinced, by very good ex¬
periments, that there is a very fenfible advantage gained
by inclining the floatboards to the radius of the wheel
about 20 degrees, fo that the lowed floatboard (hall not
be perpendicular, but have its point turned up the dream
about 20 degrees. This inclination caufes the water to
heap up along the doatboard, and aft by its weight. The
floats (hould therefore be made much broader than the
vein of water interrupted by them is deep.
Some engineers, obferving the great fuperiority of
overdiot wheels above underfbot wheels driven by the
fame expence of power, have propofed to bring the wa¬
ter home to the bottom of the wheel on an even bot¬
tom, and to make the floatbcard no deeper than the a-
perture of the fluice, which would permit the water to
run out. The wheel is to be fitted with a clofe foie and
fides, exaftly fitted to the end of this trough, fo that if
the wheel is at red, the water may be dammed up by
the foie and floatboard. It. will therefore prefs forward,
the floatboard with the whole force of the head of water.
But this cannot anfwer ; for if we fuppofe no floatboards,
the water will flow out at the bottom, propelled in the
manner thofe perfons fuppofe ; and it will be fupplied
from behind, the water comingyfoxu/y from all parts of
the trough to the hole below the wheel. But now add
the floats, and fuppofe the wheel in motion with the ve¬
locity that is expedted. The other floats mud drag in¬
to motion all the water which lies between them, giv¬
ing to the greated part of it a motion vadly greater
than it would have taken in con-fequence of the preflure
of the water behind it; and the water out of the reach
of the floats will remain dill, which it would not have
done independent of the floitboards above it, becaufe it
would have contributed to the expence of the hole. The
motion therefore which the wheel will acquire by tills Water,
conftrudtion mud be fo different from what is expedled,, wor^s-
that we can hardly fay what it will be. ——y—
We are therefore perfuaded, that the bed way of de¬
livering the water on an underlhot wheel in a clofe mill-
courfe is, to let it Aide down a very fmooth channel,
without touching the wheel till near the bottom, where
the wheel (hould be exadtly fitted to the courfe ; or, to
make the floats exceedingly broader than the depth of
the vein of water which glides down the courfe, and al¬
low it to be partly intercepted by the firfl floats, and
heap up along them, aiding by its weight, after its im¬
pulse has been expended. If the bottom of the courfe be
an arch of a circle defcribed with a radius much greater
than that of the wheel, the water which Aides down will
be thus gradually intercepted by the floats.
Attempts have been made to conflrudt water-wheels
which receive the impulfe obliquely, like the fails of a
common wind-mill. This would, in many fituations, be a
very great acquifition. A very flow but deep river could
in this manner be made to drive our mills; and although
much power is loll by the obliquity of the impulfe, the
remainder may be very great. It is to be regretted,
that thefe attempts have not been more zealoufly profe-
cuted ; for we have no doubt of their fuccefs in a very
ferviceable degree. Engineers have been deterred, be¬
caufe when fuch wheels are plunged in an open dream,
their lateral motion is too much impeded by the motion
of the dream. We have feen one, however, which was
very powerful : It was a long cylindrical frame, having
a plate danding out from it about a foot broad, and fur¬
rounding it with a very oblique fpiral like a cork-fcrew.
This was plunged about one-fourth of its diameter
(which was about 12 feet), having its axis in the direc¬
tion of the dream. By the work which it was perform¬
ing, it feemed more powerful than a common wheel
which occupied the fame breadth of the river. Its
length was not lefs than 20 feet : it might have been
twice as much, which would have doubled its power,
without occupying more of the water way. Perhaps
fuch a fpiral, continued to the very axis, and moving
in a hollow canal wholly filled by the dream, might be
a very advantageous way of employing a deep and flow
dream.
But mills with oblique floats are mod ufeful for em¬
ploying fmall dreams, which can be delivered from a
fpout with a great velocity. Mr Boffut has confidered
thefe with due attention, and afcertained the bed modes
of condruftion. There are two which have nearly e-
qual performances : 1. The vanes being placed like thofe
of a wind-mill, round the rim of a horizontal or vertical
wheel, and being made much broader than the vein of
water which is to drike them, let the fpout be fo di¬
rected that the vein may drike them perpendicularly.
By this meafure it will be fpread about on the vane in
a t*:n (beet, and exert a preffure nearly equal to twice
the weight of a column whofe bafe is the orifice of the
fpout, and whofe height is the fall producing the velocity.
Mills of this kind are much in ufe in the fouth of
Europe. The wheel is horizontal, and the vertical axis
carries the milldone ; fo that the mill is of the utmoft
fimplicity: and this is its chief recommendation ; for
its power is greatly inferior, to that of a wheel condrud-
in the ufual manner.
2, The vanes may be arranged round the rim of thac
Vv'heelj
WAT [ 678 ] WAT
Water- wheel, not like the fails of a wind-mill, but in planes
W0lks' , inclined to the radii, but parallel to the axis, or to the
v planes palling through the axis. They may either ftand
on a foie, like the oblique floats recommended by De
Parcieux, as above mentioned: or they may ftand on
the fide of the rim, not pointing to the axis, but afide
from it.
This difpofition will admit the fpout to be more con¬
veniently difpofed either for a horizontal or a vertical
udieel.
We lhall conclude this article by defcribing a con¬
trivance of Mr Burns, the inventor of the double buc¬
keted wheel, for fixing the arms of a water-wheel. It
is well known to mill-wrights that the method of fixing
them by making them to pafs through the axle, weak¬
ens it exceedingly, and by lodging w^ater in the joint,
fbons caufes it to rot and fail. They have, therefore, of
late years put caft-iron flanches on the axis, to w’hich
each arm is bolted : or the flanches are fo falhioned as
to form boxes, ferving as mortifes to receive the ends of
the arms. Thefe anfwer the purpofe completely, but
are very expenfive •, and it is found that arms of fir
bolted into flanches of iron, are apt to work loofe. Mr
Burns has made wooden flanches of a very curious con-
ftruflion, which are equally firm, and coft much lefs
than the iron ones.
This flanch confifts of eight pieces, four of which
Fig. 15. compofe the ring reprefented in fig. 15. meeting in the
joints a b, a b, a b, a b, directed to the centre O. The
other four are covered by thefe, and their joints are re¬
prefented by the dotted lines */3, xfi, tt(Z. Thefe
two rings break joint in fuch a manner that an arm MN
is contained between the two neareft; joints a'Z*'of the
one, and <*' /3' of the other. The tenon formed on the
one end of the arm A, See. is of a particular lhape :
one fide, GF, is dire£led to the centre O ; the other
fide, BCDE, has a fmall flioulder BC 5 then a long
fide CD diredled to the centre O; and then a third part
DE parallel to GF, or rather diverging a little from it,
fo as to make up at E the thicknefs of the flroulder BC j
that is, a line from B to E would be parallel to CD. This
fide of the tenon fits exactly to the correfponding fide of
the mortife \ but the mortife is wider on the other fide,
leaving a fpace GFK /; a little narrower at FK than at
G h. Thefe tenons and mortifes are made extremely
true to the fquare ; the pieces are put round the axle,
with a few blocks or wedges of foft wood put between
them and the axle, leaving the fpace empty oppofite to
the place of' each arm, and firmly bolted together by
bolts between the arm mortifes. The arms are then put
in, and each is prelfed home to the fide CDE, and a
wedge HF of hard wood is then put into the empty part
of the mortife and driven home. When it comes through
the flanch and touches the axle, the part which has come
through is cut off with a thin chifel, and the wedge is
driven better home. The fpaces under the ends ofahe
arms are now filled with wedges, which are driven home
from oppofite fides, till the circle of the arms Hands
quite perpendicular on the axle, and all is faff. It needs
no hoops to keep it together, for the w’edging it up
round the axle makes the two half rings draw clofe on the
arms, and it cannot flart at its own joints till it cruflres
the arms. FIoops, however, can do no harm, when all
is once wedged up, but it would be improper to put
them on before this be done.
2
A very curious hydraulic machine wras ere£tecl at Zu- Water-
rich by H. Andreas Wirtz, a tinplate worker of that, works-
place. The invention fliows him to be a perfon of very v " '
uncommon mechanical knowledge and fagacity. As it
is a machine which, operates on a principle widely dif¬
ferent from all other hydraulic machines, and is peally
excellent in its kind, we prefume that our readers vvill
not be difpleafed with fome account of it.
Fig. 16. is a Iketch of the feftion of the machine, as Fig. 16.
it was firit erefted by Wirtz at a dyehoufe in Limmat,
in the fuburbs or vicinity of Zurich. It confifts of a
hollow cylinder, like a very large grindflone, turning
on a horizontal axis, and partly plunged in a ciftern of
water. The axis is hollow at one end, and communi¬
cates with a perpendicular pipe CBZg part of which is
hid by the cylinder. This cylinder or drum is formed
into a fpiral capal by a plate coiled up within it like
the main fpring of a watch in its box ; only the fpires
are at a diltance from each other, fo as to form a con¬
duit for the water of uniform width. This fpiral parti¬
tion is well joined to the two ends of the cylinder, and
no water efcapes between them. The outermoft turn
of the fpiral begins to widen about three-Tourths of a
circumference from the end, and this gradual enlarge¬
ment continues from Q to S nearly a femicircle : this
part may be called the Horn. It then wddens fuddenly,
forming a Scoop or fliovel SS'. The cylinder is fup-
ported fo as to dip feveral inches into the water, whofe
furface is reprefented by VV'.
When this cylinder is turned round its axis in the di-
re&ion ABEO, as expreffed by the two darts, the
fcoop SS' dips at V7, and takes up a certain quantity c£
water before it emerges again at V. This quantity is
fufficient to fill the taper part S£), which we have call¬
ed the Horn ; and this is nearly equal in capacity to
the outermoft uniform fpiral round.
After the fcoop has emerged, the water paffes along
the fpiral by the motion of it round the axis, and drives
the air before it into the rifing-pipe, where it efcapes.-—
In the mean time, air comes in at the mouth of the
fcoop ; and when the fcoop again dips into the water,
it again takes in fome. Thus there is now a part filled
with w’ater and a part filled with air. Continuing this
motion, we fhall receive a fecond round of water and
another of air. The water in any turn of the fpiral
will have its two ends on a level ) and the air between
the fucceflive columns of water wdll be in its natural
ftate ; for fir.ee the paffage into the rifing-pipe or Main
is open, there is nothing to force the water and air into
any other pofition. But fince the fpires gradually dimi-
nilh in their length, it is plain that the column of water
will gradually occupy more and more of the circumfe¬
rence of each. At laft it will occupy a complete turn
of fome fphal that is near the centre ; and when fent
farther in, by the continuance of the motion, fome of 'it
will run back over the top of the fucceeding fpiral.
Thus it will run over at K 4 into the right-hand fide
of the third fpiral. Therefore it will pufli the water of
this fpire backwards, and raife its other end, fo that it
alfo will run over backwards before the next turn be
completed. And this change of difpofition will at lafl:
reach the firft or outermoft fpiral, and fome water will
run over into the horn and fcoop, and finally into the
ciftern.
. But as foon as water gets into the rifing-pipe, and
rifes
WAT r 679 ] WAT
Water- rifes a little in it, it flops the efcape of the air when the
works, next fcoop of water is taken in. Mere are now two co-
v lumns oi water aeling againtl each other by hydroiiatic
preffure and the intervening column of air. xhey mud
Comp refs the air between them, ana the water and air
columns will now be unequal. I his will have a gene¬
ral tendency to keep the whole water bajk, and cauie
it to be higher on the left or riling fide of each fpire
than on the right defcending fide. The excefs of height
will be jud fuch as produces the compreflion of the air
between that and the preceding column ot water. This
will go on increaling as the water mounts in the rifing-
pipe ; for the air next to the rifing-pipe is comprelLd at
its inner end with the weight ot the whole column in
the main. It mult be as much comprefi'ed at its outer
end. This mult be done by the water column without
it •, and this column exerts this preffure partly by reafon
that its outer end is higher than its inner end, and part¬
ly by the tranfmiflion of the pieffure on its outer end
by air, which is fimilarly compreffed from without.
And thus it will happen that each column ot water, be-
ing higher at its outer than at its inner end, comprcffes
the air on the wmter column beyond or within it, which
tranfmits this preffure to the air beyond it, adding to it
the preffure arifing from its own want of level at the
ends. Therefore the greated comprefiion, viz. that of
the air next the main, is produced by the fum of oil the
tranfmittedpreffures; and theie are the lum of all the
differences between the elevation of the inner ends of
the water columns above their outer ends : and the
height to which the water will rife in the main will be
juft equal to this fum.
D raw the horizontal lines K'K 1, K'K 2, K'K 3, &c.
and w «, ot w, ot«, &c. Suppofe the lefl-hand fpaces
to be filled with water, and the right-hand fpaces to be
filled with air. There is a certain gradation of com-
preffion which will keep things in this pofition. The
fpaces evidently decreafe in arithmetical progreflion ; fo
do the hydrodatic heights and prefiures of the water co¬
lumns. If therefore the air be denfe in the fame pro¬
greflion, all will be in hydroftatical equilibrium. Now
this is evidently producible by the mere motion of the
machine •, for fince the denfity and compreflion in each
air column is fuppofed inverfely as the bulk of the co¬
lumn, the abfolute quantity of air is the fame in all j
therefore the column firfl: taken in will pafs gradually
inwards, and the increafing compreflion will caufe it to
occupy precifely the whole right-hand fide of every
fpire. The gradual diminution of the water columns
will be produced during the motion by the water run¬
ning over backwards at the top, from fpire to fpire, and
at lafl: coming out by the fcoop.
It is evident that this difpofition of the air and water
will raife the water to the greateft height, becaufe the
hydroftatic height of each water column is the greatefi:
poflible, v’z. the diameter of the foire. This difpofi-
tion may be obtained in the following manner : Take
CL to CB as the denfity of the external air to its den¬
fity in the lafl column next the rifing-pioe or main ;
that is, make CL to CB as 33 feet (the height of the
column of water which balances the atmofphere), to
the lum of 33 feet and the height of the rifing- ipe.
Then divide RL into fuch a number of turns, that the
fum of their diameters thall be equal to the height of
the main ; then bring a pipe ftraight from L to the cen¬
tre C. The reaion of all this is very evident.
But when the main is very high, this conftruclion
will require a very great diameter ot tiie drum, or many
turns ot a very nanow pipe. In luch caies it will be
much beiter to make Uie fpiral in the tonn of a cork-
1'crew, as in fig. 17. initead of this fiat form like a
watch-fpring. The pipe which forms the fpiral may be
lapped round the iruiium ot a cone, whole greateit dia¬
meter is to the lealt (which is next to the rifing-pipe)
in the fame proportion that we afligned to CB anil CL.
By this conltrudion the water will itand in every round
fo as to have its upper and lower furfaces tangents to the
top and bottom ot the fpiral, and the water columns
will occupy the whole alcending fide of the machine,
while the air occupies the defetnding fide.
This form is vaftly preferable to the flat : it will al¬
low us to employ many turns of a large pipe, and there¬
fore produce a great elevation of a large quantity of waier.
The fame thing will be Hill better done by lapping
the pipe on a cylinder, and making it taper to the end,
in fuch a proportion that the contents of each round
may be the lame as when it is lapped round the cone.
It wall raife the water to a greater height (but with an
increafe of the impelling power) by the fame number of
turns, becaufe the vertical or prefling height of each co¬
lumn is greater.
Nay, the lame thing may be done in a more Ample
manner, by lapping a pipe of uniform bore round a cy¬
linder. But this will require more turns, becaule the
water columns will have lefs differences between the
heights of their two ends. It requires a very minute
invelligation to fliow the progrefs of the columns of air
and water in this conftiudion, and the various changes
of their arrangement, before one is attained which will
continue during the working of the machine.
We have chofen for the defeription of the machine
that conftruftion which made its principle and manner
of working moft evident, namely, rvhich contained the
fame material quantity of air in each turn of the fpiral,
more and more comprefied as it approaches to the rifing-
pipe. We fliould otherwife have been obliged to in-
veftigate in great detail the gradual progrefs of the wa¬
ter, and the frequent changes of its arrangement, be¬
fore we could lee that one arrangement would be pro¬
duced which would remain conftant during the working
of the machine. But this is not the belt conflrubtion.
We fee that, in order to raife water to the height of a
column of 34 feet, which balances the atmolphere, the
air in the lait fpire is compreffed into half its bulk ; and
the quantity of tvater delivered into the main at each
turn is but half of what was received into the firft fpire,
the reft flowing back from fpire to fpire, and being dif-
charged at the fpout.
But it may be conftru&ed fo as that the quantity of
water in each fpire may be the fame that was received
into the firft ; by which means a greater quantity (dou¬
ble in the inftance now given) will be delivered into the
mainland raifed to the fame height by very nearly the
fame force—Ibis may be done by another proportion
of the capacity of the fpires, whether by a change of
their caliber or of their diameters. Suppofe the bore to
be the fame, the diameter mull be made fuch that the
conftant column of water, and the column of air, com¬
preffed
Water¬
works.
—v  
Fig. 17.
WAT [ 6*o 1 WAT
Water- preffed to the proper degree, may occupy the whole
works' , circumference. Let A be the column of water which
balances the atmofphere, and h the height to which the
water is to be raifed. Let A be to A-j-/5 as I to tn.
It is plain that m will reprefent the denfity of the air
in the laft fpire, if its natural denfity be I, becaufe it is
preffed by the column A-}-/£, while the common air is
preffed by A. Let i repreient the conftant water co¬
lumn, and therefore nearly equal to the air column in
the firft fpire. The whole circumference of the laft
fpire muft be i4-~, in order to hold the water I, and
m
i A
the air compreffed into the fpace — or -r 
r 1 A-f/fc
The circumference of the firft fpire is i -f-l or 2. Let
D and d be the diameters of the firft and laft fpires $
we have 2 : i +— —'D\d. or 1 m \ m \ —Yi \ d.
m
Therefore if a pipe of uniform bore be lapped round a
cone, of which D and r/ are the end diameters, the fpi-
rals will be very nearly fuch as will anfwer the purpofe.
It will not be quite exaft, for the intermediate fpirals
will be fomewhat too large. The conoidal fruftum
fliould be formed by the revolution of a curve of the lo¬
garithmic kind. But the error is very trifling.
With fuch a fpiral, the full quantity of water which
was confined in the firft fpiral will find room in the laft,
and will be fent into the main at every turn. This is a
very great advantage, efpecially when the water is to
be much raifed. The faving of power by this change of
conftru&ion is always in proportion of the greateft com-
preflion of the air.
The great difficulty in the conftruftion of any of thefe
forms is in determining the form and pofition of the
horn and the fcoop ; and on this greatly depends the
performance of the machine. The following inftruc-
tions will make it pretty eafy.
Fig. iS. Let ABEO (fig. 18.) reprefent the firft or outer-
moft round of the fpiral, of which the axis is C. Sup-
pofe it immerged up to the axis in the water VV', we
have feen that the machine is moft effeftive when the
fuifaces KB and O n of the water columns are dirtant
the whole diameter BO of the fpiral. Therefore let the
pipe be firft fuppofed of equal caliber to the very mouth
E which we fuppofe to be juft about to dip into the
water. The furface O « is kept there, in oppofition to
the preflure of the water column BAO, by the com¬
preffed air contained in the quadrant OE, and in the
quadrant which lies behind EB. And this compreffion
is fupported by the columns behind, between this fpire
and the rifing pipe. But the air in the outermoft qua¬
drant EB is in its natural ftate, communicating as yet
with the external air. When, however, the mouth
E e has come round to A, it will not have the water
Handing in it in the fame manner, leaving the half fpace
BEO filled with compreffed air ; for it took in and
confined only what filled the quadrant BE. It is plain,
therefore, that the quadrant BE muft be fo thaped as
to take in and confine a much greater quantity of air j
fo that when it has come to A, the fpace BEO may
contain air fufficiently denfe to fupport the column AO.
But this is not enough : For rvhen the ivide mouth,
now at A «s, rifes up to the top, the furface of the wa¬
ter in it rifes alfo, becaufe the part AO o a n more ca-
1
pacious than the cylindric part OE e o which fucceeds
it, and which cannot contain all the water that it does.
Since, then, the wuter in the fpire rifes above A, it
will prefs the water back fiom 0« to fome other pofi¬
tion m' n\ and the prefling height of the water column
will be diminiftied by this rifing on the other fide of O.
In Ihort, the horn muft begin to widen, not from B,
but from A, and muft occupy the whole femicircle
ABE ; and its capacity muft be to the capacity of the
oppofite cylindrical fide as the fum of BO, and the
height of a column of water which balances the atmo¬
fphere to the height of that column. For then the air
which filled it, when of the common denfity, will fill
the uniform fide BEO, when compreffed fo as to ba¬
lance the vertical column BO. But even this is not
enough ; for it has not taken in enough of water.
When it dipped into the ciftern at E, it carried air
down with it, and the preffure of the water in the ci¬
ftern caufed the water to rife into it a little way j and
fome water muft have come over at B from the other
fide, which was drawing narrower. Therefore when
the horn is in the pofition EOA, it is not full of wa¬
ter. Therefore when it comes into the fituation OAB,
it cannot be full nor balance the air on the oppofite
fide. Some will therefore come out at O, and rife up
through the water. The horn muft therefore, ift, Ex¬
tend at leaft from O to B, or occupy half the circumfe¬
rence j and, 2dly, It muft contain at leaft twice as
much water as would fill the fide BEO. It will do
little harm though it be much larger ; becaufe the fur-
plus of air which it takes in at E will be difcharged, as
the end E ^ of the horn rifes from O to B, and it will
leave the precife quantity that is wanted. The overplus
water will be difcharged as the horn comes round to
dip again into the ciftern. It is poffible, but requires
a difcuffion too intricate for this place, to make it of
fwch a fize and fhape, that while the mouth moves from
E to B, palling through O and A, the furface of the
water in it {hall advance from E * to O «, and be ex-
a£Hy at O when the beginning or narrow end of the
horn arrives there.
We muft alfo fecure the proper quantity of water.
When the machine is fo much immerfed as to be up to
the axis in water, the capacity which thus fecures the
proper quantity of air will alfo take in the pro¬
per quantity of water. But it may be erefted fo as
that the fpirals {hall »ot even reach the water. In this
cafe it will anfwer our purpofe if we join to the end of
the horn a fcoop or {hovel QRSB (fig. 19.), which is
fo formed as to take in at leaft as much water as will
fill the horn. This is all that is wanted in the begin¬
ning of the motion along the fpiral, and more than is
neceffary when the water has advanced to the fucceed*
ing fpire \ but the overplus is difcharged in the way we
have mentioned. At the fame time, it is needlefs to
load the machine with more water than is neceffary,
merely to throw it out again. We think that if the
horn occupies fully r^ore than one-half of the circumfe¬
rence, and contains as much as will fill the whole
round, and if the fcoop lifts as much as will certainly
fill the horn, it will do very well.
N. B. The fcoop muft be very open on the fide next
the axis, that it may not confine the air as foon as it
enters the water. This would hinder it from receiving
water enough.
V7afer-
works.
Fig.
The
J
W. T-nazrv tS*cicfy?
*
w
The following dlmenfions of
Florence, and whofe performance correfponded extreme¬
ly well with the theory, may feirve as an example..
The fpiral is formed on a cylinder of 10 feet diame¬
ter, and the diameter of the pipe is 6 inches. I he
fmaller end of the horn is of the fame diameter 5 and it
occupies three-fourths of the circumference, and it is
7 r%ths inches wide at the outer end. Here it joins the
icoop, which lifts as much water as fills the horn, which
contains SwTedi(h cubic inches, each — ^*577
Englilh. The machine makes fix turns in. a minute,
and raifes 1354 pounds of water, or 22 cubic feet, 10
feet high in a minute.
The above account will, we hope, fufficiently explain
the manner in which this Angular hydraulic machine
produces its effe£t. When every thing is executed by
the maxims which we have deduced from its principles,
we are confident that its performance will correspond to
the theory ; and we have the Florentine machine as a
proof of this. It raifes more than Trlhs what, the
theory promifes, and it is not perfeft. Ihe fpiral is of
equal caliber, and is formed on a cylinder. . The fric¬
tion is fo inconfiderable in this machine, that it need not
be mended : but the great excellency is, that whatever
imperfeftion there may be in the arrangement of the air
and water columns, this only affe&s the elegance of the
execution, caufing the water to make a few more turns
in the fpiral before it can mount to the height required *,
but waftes no power, becaufe the power employed is al¬
ways in proportion to the fum of the vertical columns of
water in the rifing fide ©f the machine ; and the height
to which the wrater is railed by it is in the very fame
proportion. It (hould be made to move very flow7, that
the water be not always dragged up by the pipes, which
would caufe more to run over from each column, and
diminifh the preflure of the remainder.
If the rifing-pipe be made wdde, and thus room be
made for the air to efcape freely up through the water,
it will rife to the height afligned j but if it be narrow,
fo that the air cannot get. up, it rifes almoft as flow as
the water, and by this circumftance the water is. raifed
to a much greater height mixed with air, and this wTith
hardly any more power. It is in this way that we can
account for the great performance of the Florentine ma¬
chine, which is almoft triple of what a man can do writh
the fineft pump that ever wTas made: indeed the per¬
formance is fo great, that one is apt to fufpefl fome in¬
accuracy in the accounts. The entry into the rifing-
pipe ftiould be no wider than the laft part of the fpiral;
and it wmuld be advifable to divide it into four channels
by a thin partition, and then to make the rifing-pipe
very wide, and to put into it a number of flender rods,
which would divide it into flender channels that would
completely entangle the air among the water. 1 his
will greatly increafe the height of the heterogeneous co¬
lumn. It is furprifing that a machine that is fo very
promifing fhould have attracted fo little notice. \\ e do
not know of any being ereifted out of Switzerland ex¬
cept at Florence in 1778. The account of its perform¬
ance w7as in confequence of a very public trial in I779>
and honourable declaration of its merit, by S:g. Loren¬
zo Ginori, who ere£led another, which fully equalled
it. It is fhortly mentioned by Proffffor Sulzer of Ber¬
lin, in the Sammlungen Vertnifcklen Schriften for 17 cq.
A defeription of it is publilhed by the Philofophical So-
Vol. XX. Part II.
W A T
ciety at Zurich in 1766, and in the deferiptions pub- Water-
lilhed by the Society in London for the encouragement
of Arts in 1776. The celebrated Daniel Bernoulli has -w^erianct,
publilhed a very accurate theory of it in the Peterlhurgh w—y—
Commentaries for 1772, and the machines at Florence
were erected according to his inftrudlions. Baron Al-
ftromer in Sweden caufed a glafs model of it to be made,
to exhibit the internal motions for the inftrudtion of ar-
tifts, and alio ordered an operative engine to be erect¬
ed } but we have not feen any account of its perform¬
ance. It is a very intricate machine in its principles 5,
and an ignorant engineer, nay the molt intelligent, may
ereft one which lhall hardly do any thing 5 and yet, by
a very trifling change, may become very powerful. We
prefume that failures of this kind have turned the atten¬
tion of engineers from it ; but we are perluaded that it
may be made very effe&ive, and we are certain that it
mult be very durable. Fig. 20. is a fedion of the man- Fig. 2<?»-
ner in which the author has formed the communication
between the fpiral and the rifing-pipe. P is the end of
the hollow axis wdfich is united with the folid iron axis.
Adjoining to P, on the under fide, is the entry from
the laft turn of the fpiral. At O is the collar which
refts on the fupports, and turns round in a hole of bell-
metal. ff is a broad llanch call in one piece with the
hollow part. Beyond this the pipe is turned fomewhat
fmaller, very round and finooth, fo as to fit into the
mouth of the rifing-pipe, like the key of a cock. This
mouth has a plate e e attached to it. There is another
plate (id, wdiich is broader than e e, and is not fixed tor
the cylindrical part, but moves eafily round it. In this
plate are four ferews, fuch as g, g, which go into holes
in the plate ff and thus draw the two plates ff and
dd together, with the plate ee between them. Pieces
of thin leather are put on each fide of e e; and thus all
efcape of water is effe&ually prevented, with a very mo¬
derate compreflion and friflion.
WATERFORD, a city and fea-port of Ireland, in
a county of the fame name, with a bilhop’s fee. It is the
fecond place in the kingdom, and is a wealthy, populous
city, enjoying many ample privileges. The ftreets are
narrow, and the air is not very healthy j but it has an
excellent harbour, feated as well for trade as any in the
world, and ftiips of the greateft burden may ride at the
quay. It Hands on the river Sure, 8 miles north of St
George’s Channel, 26 fouth of Kilkenny, and 75 fouth
by weft of Dublin. W. Long. 6. 54. N. Lat. 52. 18.
WATERFORD, a county of Ireland, 46 miles in length,
and 25 in breadth ; bounded on the fouth by St George’s
Channel 5 on the weft by Cork ; on the north by the ri¬
ver Sure, wEich feparates it from Tipperary and Kil¬
kenny ; and on the eaft by Waterford Haven, which
parts it from Wexford. It contains 71 parifhes, and
fends 10 members to parliament. It is a fine country,
very pleafant and rich, and the principal place is of the
fame name.
WATERING, in the manufactures, is to give a
luftre to fluffs, &c. by wetting them lightly with gum-
water, and then palling them through the prefs or ca¬
lender whether hot or cold. The gum-water ought to
be pure, thin, and clear, otherwife the folds of the ffuff"
will all flick together : the operation muff alfo be per¬
formed when the water is very hot, that it may penetrate.
Watering Meadows. See Meadows.
WrAT ERL AND, Dr Daniel, a learned Englilh
4 li divine
AT t 681 ]
machine erefted at
WAT [ 682 ] WAX
Waterland, divine who diftinguKhed himfelf greatly in theological
, Warfon. controverfies, was born in 1683 at Wafely in Lincoln-
y {hire, of which place his father was re&or. He had his
academical learning at Magdalen college, Cambridge,
where he drew up a ufeful trail, which went through
feveral editions, intitled, Advice to a Young Student,
with a Method of Study for the firfi four years. In 1713
he became mailer of the the college, was foon after ap¬
pointed chaplain to George I. and in 1720 preached the
firft courfe of leilures founded by Lady Moyer in de¬
fence of our Lord’s divinity. He went through feveral
promotions j and at the time of his death in 1740, was
canon of Windfor, archdeacon of Middlefex, and vicar
o. Twickenham. Befides his controverfial writings, he
publiihed two volumes of fermons.
WATLING-street. See Way.
WATSON, Dit Robert, an elegant hiftorian, was
born at St Andrew’s in Scotland, about the year 1730. He
was the fon of an apothecary of that place, who was alfo
a brewer. Having gone through the ufual courfe ot lan¬
guages and philoiophy at the fchool and univerfity of his
native place, and alfo entered op the fludy of divinity, a
defire of being acquainted with a larger circle of literati,
and of improving himfelf in every branch of knowledge,
carried him, firft to the univerfity of G lafgowq and afur-
W'ards to that of Edinburgh. The period of theological
Rudies at the univerfities of Scotland is four years : but
during that period, young men of ingenious minds find
fufficient leifure to carry on and advance the piufuits of
general knowledge. Mr Watfon purfued his Rudies
with ardour. Few' men ever ftudied more confiantly.
It was a rule with him tp fludy eight hours every day j
and this law he obferved during the whole courle of his
life. An acquaintance with the polite writers of Eng¬
land, after the union of the two kingdoms, became ge¬
neral in Scotland j and in Watfon’s younger years, an
emulation began to prevail of writing pure and elegant
Englilh. Mr Wat fop applied himfelf w.ith great indu-
ftry to the principles of philofophical or univerfal gram¬
mar 5 and by a combination of thefe, wdth the authority
of the beft Engliflr writers, formed a courfe of le&ures
on ftyie or language. He proceeded to the Rudy of
rhetoric or eloquence j the principles of which he endea¬
voured to trace to the nature of the human mind. He
delivered a courfe of 2e£lures in Edinhm'gh on thefe fub-
jefts; and met with the countenance, approbation, and
friendfhip of Lord Kames, Mr Hume, with other men of
genius and learning.
At this time he had become a preacher ; and a va¬
cancy having happened in one of the churches of St
Andrew’s, he offered himfelf a candidate for that living,
but was difappointed. Soon after he was appointed pro-
feffor of logic ; and he obtained alfo a patent from the
crown, conflituting him profeffpr of rhetoric and belles
lettres. The fludy of logic, in St Andrews, as in mcfl
other places, wras at this time confined to fyllogifms,
inodes, and figures. Mr Watfon, vyhofe mind had been
opened by converfation, and by reading the writings of
the wits that had begun to flouiifli in the Scotch capi¬
tal, prepared and read, to his fludent&a courfe of meta-
phyfics and logics on the mofl enlightened plan ; in
which he analyzed the powers of the mind, and entered
deeply into the nature of the different fpecies of evidence
of truth or knowledge. By his hiflory of Philip II. Dr
Watfon attained in his lifetime a confiderable degree of
celebrity j and his hiflory of Philip III. publiflied after W-uk*
his death, has added to his fame. Of this lafl perform-
ance, however, he lias only completed the firfl four *
books; the two lafl were written by the editor of his ma-
nufcript, at the defire of the guardians of his children.
On the death of Principal Tulideph, Dr Watfon,
through the earl of Kinnoull, was appointed his iuccel-
for } in which ftation he lived only a few years. He
married a lady of Angular beauty and virtue, daughter
to Mr Shaw, profcflor of divinity in St Mary’s college,
St Andrew’s. By this lady he had five daughters, who
furvived him.
WATTS, Dr Isaac, a learned and eminent diffent-
ing minifler, was born at Southampton in 1674, of pa¬
rents eminent for piety, and conliderable fufferers for
confoience-fake. In 1690 he was fent up to London for
academical education under the tuition of the Rev. Mr
Thomas Rowe ; and in 1696 was himfolf engaged as
tutor to the ion of Sir John Hartopp, Bart, at Stoke
Newington. He began to preach in 1698, and met
with general acceptance; and after officiating as an af-
fiftant to the Rev. Dr Ifaac Chauncy, he fucceedtd in
his pafforal charge in 1702, and continued to prefide
over that church as long as he lived. Though his whole
ipcorae did not amount to an hundred a-year, he allot¬
ted one third of it to the poor. He died in 1748. His
numerous works have rendered his name famous among
people of every denomination, both in this and other coun¬
tries, and have been tranflated into a variety oflanguages.
Efls Lyric Poems, his Pfalms and Hymns, and his Divine
Songs for Children, are a fufficient proof qf his poetical
talents, and have had an amazing number of editions.
His logic and philofophy have been much admired. He
qlfo wrote works upon a variety of other fobje£ts, and
printed leveral volumes of his lermons. He was admir¬
ed for the miidnefs and benevolence of his difpofition
and the fweetnefs of his manners. After his death,
his works were colle&ed, and publiffied in fix volumes
quarto.
WAVE, in Phihofophy, a cavity in the furface of
water, or other fluids, with an elevatiop afide thereof.
The waves of the fea are of two kinds, natural and
accidental. The natural waves are thofe which are ex-
adlly proportioned in fize to the ftrength of the wind,,
whofe blowing gives origin to them. The accidental
waves are thofe occafioned by the wind’s reading upon
itfelf by repercuflion from hills and mountains, or high
fhores, and by the waffling of the waves themfelves,
otherwife of the natural kind, againfl rocks and ffioals:
all thefe caufes give the waves an elevation, which they
can never have in their natural ftate. For the height of
the waves, fee Sea.
Stilling WAVES by means of Oil. See Sea.
WAVED, in Pleraldry, is laid of a bordure, or any
ordinary or charge, in a coat of arms, having its out¬
lines indented in manner of the riling and falling of
waves : it is ufed to denote, that the firft of the family
in rvhofe arms it ftands, acquired its honours by fea-
fervice.
WAVING, in the fea-language, is the making figns
tp a veffel to come near or keep off.
WAX, or Bees WAX, in Natural lliftory, a firm
and folid fubftance, moderately heavy, and of a fine yel¬
low colour, formed by the bees from the pollen of
flowers. See Afis.
$he
WAX [ 683 ] WAY
WaY. The bell fort is that of a lively yellow colour, and an
—-y— i agreeable fmell, fomewhat like that ot honey : when
new, it is toughith, yet eafy to break but by age it
becomes harder and more brittle, lofes its fine colour,
and in a great meafure its fmell.
It appears that wax and the pollen have for their balls
a fat oil, which paffes to the Hate of refin by its combi¬
nation with oxygen. If the nitric or muriatic acid be
dio-efted upon fixed oil for feveral months, it paffes to a
Hale relembling wax. Wax, by repeated diftillations,
affords an oil which poffeffes all the properties of vola¬
tile oils. It is reduced into water and carbonic acid by
combuftion. The colouring matter of wax is infolubie
in water and in alcohol.
Fixed alkalies diffolve wax, and render it foluble in
water. It is this faponaceous folution which forms the
punic wax. It may be ufed as the bafis of feveral co¬
lours •, and may be made into an excellent pafte for walh-
ing the hands. Ammoniac likewiie difiolves it; and as
this folvent is evaporable, it ought to be preferred when
it is propofed to ufe the wax as a varnilh.
From the common yellow wax, by bleaching, is form¬
ed white-wax, fometimes called, very improperly, vir¬
gin-wax. The greater the furface is in proportion to
the quantity, the {boner and more perfeftly this opera¬
tion, is performed. The ufual way is to melt the wax in
hot water ; when melted, they prefs it through a ftrainer
of tolerable fine linen, and pour it into round and very
(hallow moulds. When hardened by cooling, it is taken
out and expofed to the fun and air, fprinkling it now
and then with water, and often turning it : by this
means it foon becomes white. The bell fort is of a
clear and almoft tranfparent whitenefs, dry, hard, brittle,
and of an agreeable fmell, like that of the yellow wax,
but much weaker.
The common yellow wax is of very great ufe both in
medicine and in many of the arts and manufaftures. It
has been fometimes given internally in dyfenteries and
erofions of the intellines ; but its great ufe is in the mak¬
ing ointments and plafters, and the greater part of tbofe
ef the (hops owe their confiilence to it. The white wax
is alfo an ingredient in fome of the cerates and ointments
of the drops j and is ufed in making candles, and in
many of the nicer arts and manufaftures where wax is
required.
Sealing-WAX, or Spani/h-lVA X, is a compofition of
gum lac, melted and prepared with refins, and coloured
with fome fuitable pigment.
There are two kinds of fealing-wax in ufe •, the one
bard, intended for fealing letters, and other fuch pur-
pofes 5 the other foft, defigned for receiving the impref-
fions of feals of office to charters, patents, and fuch writ¬
ten inftruments. The bed hard red fealing-wax is made
by mixing two parts of drell lac, well powdered, and
refin and vermilion, powdered, of each one part, and
melting this combined powder over a gentle fire 5 and
when the ingredients feem thoroughly incorporated,
working the wax into flicks. Seed-lac may be fubfiitut-
ed for the ibell-lac •, and inflead of refin, boiled Venice
turpentine may be ufed. A coarfer, hard, red fealing-
wax, may be made, by mixing two parts of refin, and
of {hell-lac, or vermilion and red lead, mixed in the
proportion of one part of the vermilion to two of the red
lead, of each one part •, and proceeding as in the former
preparation. For a cheaper kind, the vermilion may be
omitted, and the ffiell-lac alfo, for very coarfe ufts. Wax
of other colours is made by fubftituting other colouring ^
matters for vermilion, as verditer lor blue, ivory black
for black wax. For uncoloured, foft fealing-wax, take
of bees wax, one pound $ of turpentine, three ounces j
and of olive oil one ounce } place them in a proper
veffel over the fire, and let them boil for fome time }
and the wax will be then fit to be formed into rolls or
cakes for ufe. For red, black, green, blue, yellow, and
purple foft fealing-wax, add to the preceding compofi¬
tion an ounce or more of any ingredients diredled above
for colouring the hard fealing-wax, and tlir the mafs
till the colouring ingredients be incorporated with the
wax.
IVAX-lVork, the reprefentation of the faces, &c. of
peifons living or dead j made by applying plaiter of
Paris in a kind of palte, and thus forming a mould con¬
taining the exadl reprefentation of the features. Into
this mould melted wax is poured, and thus a kind of
mafks are formed j which being painted and fet wfith
glafs eyes, and the figures dreffed in their proper habits,
they bear fuch a refemblance that it is difficult to di-
flinguifh between the copy and the original.
WAY, a paffage or road.
The Roman ways are divided into confular, praeto¬
rian, military, and public 5 and of thele we have fouf
remarkable ones in England: the firfl, Watling-flreet,
or Watheling-flreet, leading from Dover to London,
Dunflable, Toucefler, Atterflon, and the Severn, extend¬
ing as far as Anglefea in Wales. The fecond, called
Hikenild or IkenildJlreet, flretches from Southampton
over the river Ifis at Newbridge ; thence by Camden
and Litchfield ; then paffes the Derwent near Derby,
and ends at Tinmouth. The third, called Fojfe-wai/y
becaufe in fome places it was never perfefted, but lies as
a large ditch, leads from Cornwall through Devonfhire,
by Tethbury, near Stow in the Wolds; and befide Co¬
ventry to Leicefter, Newark, and fo to Lincoln. The
fourth, called Erming or ErminageJfreet, extends from
St David’s, in Wales, to Southampton.
Wat Covert, Gang, Hatch. See COVERT Way,
Gang, &lc.
Wat of a Ship, is fometimes the fame as her rake, or
run forward or backward : but this term is moll com¬
monly underflood of her failing.
WAT-Leaves, in the coal bufinefs. See CoalerY,
N° 3.
Right of WATS, in Law. This may be grounded on
a fpecial permiffion •, as when the owner of the land
giants to another a liberty of palling over his grounds,
to go to church, to market, or the like : in which cafe
the gift or grant is particular, and confined to the gran¬
tee alone 5 it dies with the perfon ; and if the grantee
leaves the country, he cannot affign over his right to
any other ; nor can he juflify taking another perfon in
his company. A way may be alfo by prefcription ; as
if all the owners and occupiers of fuch a farm have im-
memorially ufed to crofs another’s ground ; for this im¬
memorial ufage fuppofes an original grant, whereby a
right of way thus appurtenant to land may clearly be
created. A right of way may alfo arife by a£l and ope¬
ration of law j for if a man grants me a piece of ground
in the middle of his field, he at the fame time tacitly
and impliedly gives me a way to conee at it ; and I may
crofs his land for that purpofe without trefpafs. For
^ 4 R 2 when
Wax,
Way.
W E A [ 684 ] W E A
when the law doth give any thing to one, it giveth im¬
pliedly whatfoever is neceffary for enjoying the fame.
By the law of the twelve tables at Rome, where a man
bad the right of w-ay over another’s land, and the road
was out of repair, he who had the right of way might
go over any part of the land he pleafed j which was the
eftablilhed rule in public as well as private w^ays. And
the law of England, in both cafes, feems to correfpond
with the Roman.
WAYFARING tree. See Viburnum, Botany
Index.
WAYGHTES, or Waits, a word which is ufed
only in the plural number, and fignifies hautboys. It is
now applied to the performers on thefe and other mufi-
cal infxruments, by a tranfition from the inftruments
themfelves, and particularly to thofe performers who
parade the ftreets by night, about the Chriftmas feafon
of the year.
WAYWODE, is properly a title given the gover¬
nors of the chief places in the dominions of the czar of
Mufcovy. The palatises, or governors of provinces in
Poland, alfo bear the quality of warjwodes or wai-
wodes. The Poles likewife call the princes of Wallachia
and Moldavia waywodes ; as efteeming them no other
than on the foot of governors ; pretending that Walla¬
chia and Moldavia are provinces of Poland. Everywhere
elfe thefe are called hofpodars. Du Cange fays, that the
name waywode is ufed in Dalmatia, Croatia, and Hun¬
gary, for a general of an army : and Leunclavius, in his
Pandeds of Turkey, tells us, it ufually fignifies captain
or commander.
WEANING, putting a child away from the breaft,
and bringing it to ufe common food.
WEAR, or Weer, a great flank or dam in a river,
fitted for the taking of fifli, or for conveying the ftream
to a mill. New wears are not to be made, or others al¬
tered, to the nuifance of the public, under a certain pe¬
nalty. See River.
WEARING, or Veering, in Seamanjhip. See Sea¬
manship.
WEASEL. See Mustela, Mammalia Index.
WEATHER denotes the ftate of the atmolphere
with regard to heat and cold, wind, rain, and other me¬
teors. See Meteorology.
Weather, in fea-language, is ufed as an adje&ive,
and applied by mariners to every thing lying to wind¬
ward of a particular fituation : thus, a (hip is faid to have
the weather-gage of another, when (he is farther to
windward. Thus alfo, when a (hip under fail prefents
either of her (ides to the wind, it is then called the wea-
ther-Jide or weather-board; and all the rigging and fur¬
niture fituated thereon are diftinguilhed by the fame epi¬
thet, as the weather-Jhsrouds, the weather-lifts, the %vea-
iher-braces, &c.
To Weather, in fea-language, is to fail to windward
of feme (hip, bank, or head-land.
WEATHER-Cock, a moveable vane, in form of a cock,
or other (hape, placed on high, to be turned round ac¬
cording to the dire£tion of the wind, and point out the
quarter from whence it blows.
Weather Glafs. See Barometer.
WEATHERING, among failors, fignifies the doub¬
ling or failing by a head-land or other place.
WEAVING, the art of working a web of cloth,
Ilk* or other fluff, in a loom with a (huttle. For an
idea of the manner in which this is performed, fee Weaving.,
Cloth. _ " v '
WEAVING-Loom, a machine for weaving cloth, filk,
&x. by railing the threads of the warp in order to throw
in the (hoot, and flrike it clofe. Of thefe there are va¬
rious kinds, diitinguiflied by the different forts of cloths,
fluffs, filks, &c. in which they are employed, and
which are chiefly diftinguifhed by the number and va¬
riety of the threads they raife in order to work the warp,
either plain or in figures, by making more or lefs of the piate
woof or (hoot appear through the warp. In order toDLXXV.
give a general idea of weaving, we (hall here deferibe p-
the parts of the common weaver’s loom. Fig. 1. in
which ef, ef are the front pods, and g, g the back ports
of the loom ; ///, m m, m m are the latns in their place
at Q, or, as they are called in fome parts of Scotland,
thtleadles, and in others the Jlaves. They are compof-
ed of flrong threads, ftretched between two horizontal
bars, an upper and a lower. The threads of one lam
are fo difpofed as to pais between the upper threads of
the warp, while they admit the lower threads to pafs
through loops or fmall holes in them, and the difpofi-
tion of the threads of the other lam is fuch, that while
they pafs between the lower threads of the warp, they
admit the upper threads to pafs through the fmall holes
juft mentioned. The lams are fulpended from the crofs
bar or lam-bearer HH, by means of ropes n, n palling
from the upper bars of the lams over the pulleys at EE,
and balanced by weights at the other ends. From the
lower bar of each lam or headle a rope paffes to the
treadles or moveable bars at OO ; fo that when a foot
preffes a treadle, the lam faflened to it finks, while the
other rifes by means of the balancing weight fufpended
from the pulley at E. The workman then throws in
the woof by means of the (buttle, and clofes it by one
or two ftrokes of the lay or batten, of which WB, V B
are called the /words, CC the cap, or in Scotland the
upper Jhell, DD the block or under Jhell, and PP the
reed or comb contained between thefe (hells. LL is the
bench on which the workmen fit *, for the loom which
our figure reprefents is eonftrufted for weaving cloth of
fuch a breadth as to require two workmen, who have
their quills in a box d on the middle of the bench on
which they fit. Between the workmen’s bench and the
batten or lay is the breajl-bar I, I, a fmooth fquare beam,
in which there is an opening to let the web through as
it is wove. From this opening the web SS paffes to the
knee roll or web beam GG, round which it is rolled by
means of the fpokes, vifible in the figure, and kept from
being unrolled by a wheel with teeth and clench, vifi¬
ble likewife in the figure. In fome looms the web paf¬
fes from the knee roll to the wooden frame X, to be
dried as it is wrove. Oppofite to the breafl-bar, and on
the other fide of the batten or lay, is the cane-roll or
yarn-beam, on which the warp is rolled when put into
the loom, and from which it is gradually unrolled as the
work proceeds. TT are bobbins filled with yarn of the
warp to mend fuch threads of it as may be broke in the
weaving •, and B £, B £ are clues of the fame kind of
yarn with the borders of the warp, to mend fuch threads
as may there be broken.
Fig. 2. reprefents the common (buttle with the va-Fig ^
cuity in the middle, in which the quill with the woof is
placed on a fpindle or axis. As this (buttle is thrown
with one hand in at one fide of the warp, and received
with
Weaving.
3-
Fig. 4.
Kg- 5-
W E A [ 68
vrilli the other hand at the other lide, it is ouvious, that
when the web is of a breadth too great for a man to
reach from one fide of it to the other, two workmen
muft be employed and much time loft, lo remedy this
inconveniency, a new fhuttle has, in this country, been
latelv brought into very general ule, and called theyfy-
ing (buttle, becaufe it flies through the warp with won¬
derful rapidity on two fteel rollers RR (fig. 3.) This
fhuttle is not thrown with the hand, but moved back¬
wards and forwards by a very Ample piece of machinery,
of which fig. 4. will give the reader a fufficiently accu¬
rate conception. To each end of the batten or lay L is
faftened a kind of open box B, b, with the bottom or
horizontal fide exa&ly on a level with the threads of
the warp of the intended web. In each of thefe boxes
is a vertical piece of wood D, d, of confiderable thick-
nefs, called a driver. This driver is moved eafily on an
iron fpindle or axis from one end of the box to the other
by means of a flender rope CCCD, and a handle H is
feen in the figure. When the weaver is to begin his
work, he lays the fhuttle on its rollers in the box B
with the iron tip T (fig. 3.) touching, or almoft touch¬
ing, the driver D (fig. 4.). Then moving the handle
H, with a hidden jerk, towards the box b, the driver
D forces the fhuttle with a rapid motion through the
warp till it ftrikes d, which is impelled by the ftroke ta
the further end of the box b. The two drivers D and
d have now changed their pofitions in their refpe&ive
boxes fo that the driver which was at the front of its
box before, is now at the further end of it, and vice
verfa. Then by a fudden jerk of the hand towards B
the fhuttle is driven back till it ftrike D 5 and thus is
the work continued without the weaver having occafion
ever to ftretch his arms from one margin of the web to
the other. That the fhuttle may not, by the unfteadi-
nefs of the workman’s hand, be driven zig-z-ag through
the warp or out of the place in which it ought to move,
the guiding or driving rope CCCD is made to pafs through
fmooth holes or loops C, C, at the ends of the ropes EC,
EC, fufpended either from the crofs bar on the top of
the loom or from the f.voids of the batten.
This fhjattle, we ihould think, a great improvement in
every kind of weaving loom, though fome of the older
tradefmen, with whom we have converfed on the fubjeft,
contend, that it is valuable only in what they call light
work, fuch as cotton or linen cloth, or when the web, if
woollen, is very broad.
But as the labour of weaving is pretty fevere, Mr
Robert Millar, an ingenious calico-printer in the coun¬
ty of Dumbarton, Scotland, wifhing to leflen it, invent¬
ed, fome years ago, a weaving-loom, which may be
wrought by water, fleam, horfes, or any other power,
for which invention he received a patent in 1796. The
following is his own defcription of his patent weaving-
loom :
Fig. 5. reprefents a fide view of the loom, A A, BB,
CC, DD, being the frame, a is an axis (which we
fhall call the fpindle) acrofs the frame. On this axis is
a fheeve b, two inches thick, having a groove round it,
two inches deep, and half an inch wide. The bottom
of this groove is circular, except in one part c, where
it is filled up to the top 5 a lever d refts on the bottom
of this groove, and is lifted up by it when the elevation
c comes round to the fituation reprefented in the figure.
By this motion, the lever a£ts on the ratchet-wheel <?.
5 ] W E A
by the catch t, and draws it forward one tooth, each re- Weaving-,
volution of the flieeve. This ratchet-wheel is in an iron *
frame g g, which alfo properly carries the two catches t
and u, which are conne£led with it at v. The catch u
holds the ratchet-wheel in its pofition, while the lever
d and the catch t, are moved by the groove c in the
flieeve. On the arbor of the ratchet is a fmall pinion
/r, working in the wheel f; this wheel is fixed on the
end of the roller e of fig. 7. On the fide of the flieeve
b is fixed a wiper k, which lifts the treadle /. This
treadle turns on its joints in the ftieeve E, which is fixa
ed to the fide of the frame A and D ; it is kept pref-
fing on the bottom of the groove in the fheeve by a
fpring tn, fixed to the frame fide A, and having a flen¬
der rod « from its extremity, joining it with the treadle
at /. From the point of the treadle there goes a belt 0,
which paffes over the pulley />, which is feen edgewife
in this figure, and is joined to the top of the fly pin y,
of fig. 6. At the end of the frame A is the ihort poll
F ; on this refts the yarn-beam y, having a iheeve r,
over which paffes a cord, having a weight s fufpended
to it. The other end of this cord is faftened to the
fpring v ; the weight caufes the yarn-beam to ftretch
the web from the ratchet-wheel e, with its catch u ; and
the fpring v allows the rope to Aide on the ftieeve as
the ratchet is drawn round during the working.
Fig. 6. is a front view of the loom, a a the fpin-Fig. <>#•
die which carries the flieeve b, and the wipers d and //,
which move the treadles w, w, of fig. 5. Thefe ufe
the treadles of the headles, with which they are con-
ne&ed by cords from the fhafts of the headles r, r.
From the upper fhaft there go two leathern belts
to the roller y, furnifhed each with a buckle, for tight¬
ening them at pleafure. The two wipers c, c, on the
fhaft a, which ferve for taking back the lay, have the
two treadles x, x, in fig. 7. with a belt from each paf-
fing over the roller ^ 2 of fig. 6. and fixed to the fword
of the lay. From the fwords of the lay forward is fix¬
ed a belt to each end of the roller i; from this roller
there goes a cord to the fpringy, which ferves for tak¬
ing forward the lay which is hinged on the rocking-
tree t. The ftar-wheel b of fig. 3. and the flieeve b of
fig. 1. are fixed to the oppofite ends of the fpindle a
without the frame ; and both the wheel and flieeve have
a wiper h fixed to them for moving the treadles. In
order to drive the (buttle, the belts 0, 0, go from the
points of the treadles, over the pulleys/),/>, to the top
of the fly-pin q : This turns on a pin joint in a rail ry
which goes acrofs the loom. From its lower end there
go two fmall cords to the fliuttle drivers g, g, which
Hide on the iron rods n, n. A long iron rod v goes
acrofs the lay, and is hung on two centres at the ends.
In this rod v are fixed two finall crooked wires
iU, w, which are more diftindtly marked in the little
figure w above, which reprefents a feftion of the lay.
The dot at the lower end of the wire vo, in this figure,
is the fedlion of the rod v. The fliuttle paffes between
thefe wires and the lay every (hot, and lifts them up,
caufing the rod v to turn round a little. But if the
fliuttle fliould not pafs thefe wires, nor lift them, it
would be drawn home by the lay, and deftrcy the web.-
To prevent this, there is fixed on one end of the rod v
a flout crooked wire s, having a broad or flat head,
which naturally refts on a plate of iron, marked and
fixed to the back of the lay. This plate has a flit in
in-
tV E A
Weaving. Its middle about an inch deep.
roj 2 of fig. 7. on which is a (hort ftud, which is
caught by the wire * when the wire w is not lifted
back by the pafling Ihuttle. This will flop the lay
from coming home, and wrill let off the loom.
Fig. 7. Fig. 7. is another fide view of the loom oppofite to
fig, 5. On the fpindle a is the itar wheel on the out-
fide of the loom-frame, on the arms of which wheel is
fixed the wdper k, as the fimilar wiper is fixed to the
ftieeves on the other end of the fpindle. The wipers
wrhich drive the Ihuttles are fixed on oppofite fquares of
the fpindle, and work alternately. Below the ftar-
wheel is a pinion c, which is on a round fpindle, turned
by the water-wheel, by means of a wheel on this fpin¬
dle. In a wheel on this fpindle are two ftuds, on which
the pinion c Aides off and on, as the loom is fet off and
6n by the lever </. At the farther end of this lever is
the weight j, hanging by a cord which paffes over a
pulley /, fixed at the outer end of the fpring-catch on
which the lever d refts j and thus the loom is drawn in
at the upper end of the lever d. But w’hen the Ihuttle
does not lift the wire *, it catches on the ftud on the
rod a 2, which is connefted with the fpring-catch, and
the lever d flies off with the weight s, and the loom
flops working. On the head of the poft F is the yarn-
beam. The rollers e and f are cylinders, preffed toge¬
ther by a fcrew-lever, and take away the'cloth between
them at a proper rate. In the roller is a groove for
a band for driving the roller ^, on which the cloth w-ihds
itfelf as it is wrought. Wherever fprings are mention¬
ed to be ufed in the above defeription, weights may be
ufed in their ftead, and to the fame effeft, and more
efpecially upon the treadle of fig. 5. for driving the
{buttle.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. is a reprefentation of a ribband loom. 1. Is
the frame of the loom. 2. The caftle, containing 48
pulleys. 3. The branches, on which the pulleys turn.
4, The tires, or the riding-cords, which run on the pul¬
leys, and pull up the high-liffes. 5. The .lift-fticks, to
which the high-liffes are tied* 6. The high-liffes, or
lifts, are a number of long threads, with platines, or
plate-leads at the bottom ; and ringlets, or loops, about
their middle, through which the cords or crofs-threads
of the ground-harnefs ride. 7. The plate-leads, or pla-
tiues, are flat pieces of lead? of about fix inches long,
and three or four inches broad at the top, but round at
the bottom *, fome ufe black flates inftead of them : their
life is to pull down thofe liffes w’hich the wwkman had
raifed by the treadle, after his foot k taken off. 8. Th&
branches or cords of the ground harnefs, which go
through the loops in the middle of the high-liffes : on
the well ordering of thefe cords chiefly depends the art
of ribbon-weaving, becaufe it is by means of this con¬
trivance that the weaver draw's in the thread or filk
that makes the flower, and rejeiffs or excludes the reft.
9. The batton : this is the wooden frame that holds the
reed or fhuttle, and beats or clofes the wrork : where,
obferve, that the ribbon-weaver does not beat his work j
but as foon as thtf fliuttle is paffed, and his hand is taken,
away, the batton is forced, by a fpring from the top,
to beat the wrork clofe. 10. The {buttle, or reed. 11.
The fpring of the batton, by which it is made to clofe
the work. 12. The long-harnefs are the front reeds,
by which the figure is raifed. 13. The linguas are the
long pieces of round or fquare lead, tied to the end of
2
[ 685 ] WEB
In this flit refts the each thread of the long-harnefs to keep-them tight. Weaving
14. The broad piece of wood, about a foot fquare, H
leaning fomewhat forward, intended to cafe the weaver , e er',
as he ftoops to his {buttle ; it is fixed in the middle of
the breaft-beam. Some weavers, inftead of this, have
a contrivance of a cord or rope that is faftened to the
front-frame, and comes acrofs his bread: j this is called
a JlapfalL 15. The feat-bench ; this leans forward very
much. 16. The foot-ftep to the treadles. 17. The
breaft-b«!am, being a crofs-bar that paffes from one of
the ftandards to the other, fo as to front the workman’s
breaft: to this breaft-bar is fixed a roll, upon which the
ribbon paffes in its way, to be rolled upon the roller,
that turns a little below. 18. The clamps, or pieces of
wrood, in which the broaches that confine the treadles
reft. 19. The treadles are long narrow pieces of w'ood,-
to the ends of which the cords that move the liffes are
faftened. 20. The treadle-cords are only diftinguiftied
from the riding-cords by a board full of holes, which
divide them, in order to prevent the plate-leads, w'hich
are tied to the high-liffes, from pulling them too high
when the workman’s foot is off the treadle : which flop
is made by a knot in the treadle-cord, too big to be
forced through that hole in the board. 21. The lams
are twTo pieces of thin narrow boards, only ufed in plain
works, and then to fupply the place of the long-harnefs.
22. The knee-roll, by which the weaver rolls up his
ribbon as be fees proper, or by bit and bit as it is finifti-
ed. 23. The back-rolls, on which the warp is rolled.
It is to be obferved, that there is always as many rolls
as colours in the work to be wove. 24. The clamps,
which fupport the rollers. 25. The returning-fticks,
©r, as others call them, the refurns, or the tumblers, or
pulleys, to which the tiers are tied, to clear the courfe
of cords through the high-liffes. 26. The catch-board
for the tumblers. 27. The tire-board. 28. The but¬
tons for the knee-rolls and treadle-board, deferibed in
N° 20.
It is ftated in the proceedings of the National Infti-
tute of France, that a report was prefented to that body
concerning a new machine for weaving ribbed {lock¬
ings. The advantages which this machine poffeffes
are faid to be, that it may be erefted at one-half of the
expence of the Engliih flocking frame, and that its
movements are much lighter. The experience of its
operations for twTo years has confirmed thefe advantages.
Of the nature and conftru&ion of this machine we have
had no opportunity of obtaining any information ; but
we thought it worth while to infert this {hort notice,
with the view of diredling the attention of fuch of our
readers as may be interefted in the improvement of fuch
manufaflures.
WEB, a fort of tiffue or texture formed of threads
interwoven with each other; fome whereof are extended
in length, and called the warp ; others are drawn acrofs,
and called the woof*
WEBER A, a genus of plants belonging to the daft
and order pentandria mohogynia. See Botany Index.
WEBSTER, Alexander, D. D. was the fon of
James Webfter, minifter of the Tolbooth church in Edin¬
burgh, and born in that city about the year 1707. He
was only 13 years of age at the death of his father, and
of courfe could derive little-from parental inftru&ion or
example. He ftudied at the univerfity of Edinburgh
the feveral branches of learning with great approbation,
particularly
WE A V IN G.
It 'Z'/'crs/ ?
Tlate Di;XX\r.
'
WEAVING .
Plate DLXXVI.
l i\ > ^ */<& ■
TW/^AI II
'—• ■ ' ■ ' ■
WEB [fiSy] WEE
Webfter.
particularly thofe connefted with the mathematics, for
which he difcovered au early piedileftion. He after¬
wards attended the ledtures of the profefibr of divinity,
and in the year 1733 he was ordained minifter of the
parilh of Culrofs, and in June 1737, he was admitted to
be one of the minilters of the Tolbooth church of Edin¬
burgh. His eloquence was noble and manly, his piety
confpicuous, and the dilcharge of his paltoral duties
faithful and laborious. To theft qualities he added an
enlightened zeal for the external interefts of the church,
ajealoufyof corruption, a hatred of falfe politics and
tyrannical meafures, which fometirnes expofed him to ca¬
lumny from the guilty, but fecured him the eiteem of
all who could value independence of foul and integrity of
heart.
The profperity of fortune which placed Mr Webfter
in the church of his father, and rellored him to the po-
lilhed fociety of his native city, was not confined to thefe
favours. Eleven days after his fettlement in Edinburgh,
he obtained the hand of Mary Erlkine, a young lady of
confiderable fortune, and nearly related to the noble fa¬
mily of Dundonald. i he genius of Mr Webfter now
began to unfold itfelf. Family connexions extended
his acquaintance with the nobility. Edinburgh then
poffelTed a number of men, both in civil and ecclefiafti-
cal ilations, who have faved or adorned their coun¬
try. With thefe he was foon to co operate in defending
the proicftant interefts from the arms and artifices of re¬
bellion.
In the year 1733, five or fix minifters feceded from
the church, and being anxious to draw away as many
as poftible from the communion which they had renoun¬
ced, they invited down to Scotland in 1741, Mr George
Whitefield, a young preacher of great piety and extra¬
ordinary pulpit talents. On his way to Dunfermline,
he was met and entertained at Edinburgh by Mr Web¬
fter and fome of his brethren. From them he learned
the ft ate of church parties in Scotland and though he
Kept his promife of preaching firft in Fife, he declined
conneXing himfelf with any particular feX. Difap-
pointed of his influence and affiftance, the Seceders
aferibed the effeXs of his preaching to forcery and the
devil, while Mr Webfter, in a pamphlet which he pu-j
blifhed on the occafion, attributed them to the influence
of the Holy Spirit, an opinion regarded by the Seceders
as unfpeakable wickednefs.
In the year 1743, Mr Webfter remained in the city
when it w7as taken by the rebels, and employed his uni-
verfal popularity and vigorous eloquence in retaining
the minds of the people in the interefts of the houfe of
Hanover. His exertions in this were not overlooked by
moft of the fpirited gentlemen who aXed in quelling
the rebellion. He became an intimate friend of Duncan
Forbes of Culloden, Lord Milton, and others.
He preferved to the lateft period of his career, that
aXivity both of mind and body, which dirtinguifhed
him in the prime of life, obtaining at laft his frequent
wilh and prayer, an eafy and peaceful death, after a
very Ihort indifpofition, on the 25th of January 1784.
His remains were dtpofited in the Grayfriars church¬
yard ; and it is not a little remarkable that neither pri¬
vate friendlhip nor public generofity has yet come for-
wnrd to teftify its regard for trvo of the moft eminent
charaXers of the church of Scotland. The allies of
ebfter and Blair repofe in the fame cemetry, undiftin-
guifhed from the lefs illuftrious dead. No monumental Webfter
itone marks the place -of their dull. It
Nature endowed Dr Webfter with ftrong faculties, ^V(-'e^s-
which were afterwards improved by a confiderable lhareof
erudition. He was a mailer in the knowledge of the world
and ol human nature j his addrels was engaging} his
wit ftrong as his mind } his convivial powers, as they
are called, enchanting. He had a conllilucional ftrength
againit intoxication, which made it dangerous in moft
men to attempt bringing him into fuch a ftate. His
charaXer as a minifter was popular in the extreme.
His voice was harmonious, and his figure noble. To
the poor he was a father and a friend, a liberal patron to
poor ftudents. In his perfon he was tall, and of a thin
and meagre habit. His features were ftrongly marked,
and the conformity of the whole indicated genius and
independence.
To him the widows of the clergy are indebted for the
eftablilhment of the celebrated Scheme, the plan of
which he matured in his mind foon after he Was appoint¬
ed a minifter of the Tolbooth church. By it the wi¬
dows of minifters are entitled to the annual fum of 10,
15, 20, or 25 pounds, according as the clergy pay into
the fund yearly, 2I. 12s. 6d.—3I. 18s. pd.—5I. 5s.
or 61. 1 is. 3d, or to their children in fums of ioo—-
150—200—or 250I, in favour of which an aX of par¬
liament was obtained in terms of a petition (17 Geo. II.)
with liberty to employ the furplus of the annual payments
and expences in loans of 30I. each among the contribu¬
tors, and to put out the remainder at intereft, on proper
fecurity, A fecond aX was procured in the 22d year
of the fame reign (1748) granting liberty to raife the
capital to 8o,oocl, including the fums lent to contribu¬
tors. The fund is conceived to commence from the
25th March 1744. This was followed by another aX
in the year 17 70, difeontinuing the loan granted to
contributors, and granting liberty to raife the capital
to iQOjOOol. } and the whole economy of the inftitution
was then fixed and determined, a report of the ftate of
the fund being ordered to be made annually to the Ge¬
neral Affembly by the truftees, which was to be after¬
wards printed. The fuccefs of the fcheme has been com¬
plete.
WEDGE, one of the mechanical powers. See Me¬
chanics.
W EDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, fo
called fi om a Saxon idol named Woden, fuppofed to be
Mars, worftiipped on this day.
AJh-WEDNESDAT, the firft day of Lent, fo-called
from the cullom oblerved in the ancient Chriftian church,
of penitents exprefling their humiliation at this time, by
appearing in fack-cloth and afhes.
WEED, a common name for all rank and wild
herbs, that grow of themfelves, to the detriment of
other ufeful herbs they grow among.
Weed, in the miners language, denotes the degene¬
racy of a load or vein of fine metal into an ufelefs mar-
cafite.
W^EEDS, aifo denote a peculiar habit, worn by the re-
liXs of perfons deceafed, by way of mourning.
WrEEK, in chronology, a divifion of time comprifing
feven days. See Flanetart Days and Sabbath.
PaJfion-WEEK, or the Ho/y WEEK, is the laft week
in Lent, wherein the church celebrates the myftery of
our Saviour’s death and paffion.
Weeks-
Lentes
12
24
72
96
r44
192
576
6912
WEI [ 688 ]
WEEKS Ember. See Ember.
Feajl of Weeks. See Pentecost.
WEEVER. See Trachinus, Ichthyology Index.
WEEVIL, in Zoology, a fpecies of curculio. See
Curculio, Entomology Index ; and for the method
of deilroying this troublefome and deftrudlive infedt, fee
Granary and Vermin.
WEIGELIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs and order pentandria monogynia. See Botany
Index.
WEIGH, a weight of cheefe, wool, &c. containing
256 pounds avoirdupois. Of corn, the weigh contains
40 bufhels j of barley or malt, fix quarters. In fome
places, as Effex, the weigh of cheefe is 300 pounds.
WEIGHING, the adt of examining a body in the
balance to find its weight.
WEIGHING Anchor, is the drawing it out of the
ground it had been call into, in order to fet fail, or quit
a port, road, or the like.
WEIGHT, in Phyjics, a quality in natural bodies,
whereby they tend downwards towards the centre of the
earth. Or, weight may be defined in a lefs limited man¬
ner, to be a power inherent in all bodies whereby they
tend to fome common point, called the centre of gravi-
ty, or, to fpeak more accurately, to one another : and
that with a greater or lefs velocity, as they are more or
lefs denfe, or as the medium they pafs through is more
or lefs rare. See Mechanics.
Weight, in commerce, denotes a body of a known
weight appointed to be put in the balance againft other
bodies whofe weight is required.
The fecurity of commerce depending, in a good mea-
lure, on the juftnefs of weights, which are ufually of
lead, iron, or brafs, moft nations have taken care to pre¬
vent the falfification thereof, by flamping or marking
them by proper officers, after being adjufted by fome
original ftandard. Thus, in England, the ftandard of
weights is kept in the exchequer by a particular officer,
called the clerk of the market.
Weights may be diftinguiffied into ancient and mo¬
dern.
I. Ancient Weights.
1. Thofe of the ancient Jews, reduced to the Engliffi
troy weight, will Hand as in the following table :
lb. oz. dwt.
Shekel - - _ 009
W E I
oz. dwt.
O O
gr
r\ ^ §
Siliqute
3^2 V
18
24
36
48
x44
1728
Obolus
9r$
12
16
48
576
Scriptulum
Drachma
o 18
'T*
24
28896
Sextula
72
Sicilicus
Duella
2
3 °T
4 134
4836
Uncia
O 18
I 2
Libra 10 18
5t
j34
T. he Roman ounce is the Engliffi avoirdupois ounce,
which they divided into feven denarii, as well as eight
drachmas.
3. Attic Weights.
Englifh Troy Weight
Drachma
100
6000
Mina
oz. dwt. gr.
O 2 16.9
I 10 10
60 Talent
67 7 5
gr-
24
60
3000
VTaneh
50 Talent
236 104
113 10 1 104
II. Modern Weights.
1. Englifh Weights.—Mr Renardfon, in a paper pub-
liffied in the Philofophical Tranfadions, has proved, that
at firlt there was but one weight in England, and that
this was the avoirdupois. Troy weight was introduced
in the time of Henry VII. : At prefent, both the troy
and avoirdupois weights are ufed in England. Troy
weight feems to have derived its name from Troyes, a
town in France, where a celebrated fair was kept. It
is ufed for weighing gold, filver, jewels, filk, and all
liquors. The avoirdupois is ufed for weighing other
things.
Table of Troy Weight, as ufed by the
Apothecaries.
2. Roman weights, reduced to Engliffi troy weight,
will hand as is in the following table:
Goldfmiths, (b‘c.
Grains.
24
480
Penny-Weights.
Ounce.
Pound.
20
5760! 240 1 13
Grains.
20
60
480
Scruple. 3
Dram. 5
Ounce. 5
24
5760
288
8
96
12
Pound.
The troy pound in Scotland, which by ftatute is to
be the fame as the French pound, is commonly fuppofed
equal
Weight.
1
W E I
Weight, equal to 15 ounces and three quarters troy Englifh
weight, or 7560 grains. But by a mean of the ftand-
ards kept by the dean-of-guild of Edinburgh, it weighs
7599-Ti- or 76o° grains*
[ 689 ]
WEI
Table of Avoirdupois Weigh.
Drams.
16
256
7168
28672
57344°
An ounce.
16
448
I792
3584°
A pound.
28
112
2240
A quarter.
A hundred.
A ton.
80
20
The avoirdupois pound is equal to 7004 troy grains,
the avoirdupois ounce to 437‘75 grains> and it follows
of confequence, that the troy pound is to the avoirdu¬
pois pound as 88 to 107 nearly j for as 88 to 107, fo is
5760 to 7003.636 : that the troy ounce is to the avoir¬
dupois ounce as 80 to 73 nearly; for as 80 to 73, fo is
480 to 438. An avoirdupois pound is equal to lib.
2 oz. 1 idwts. 20 gr. troy j a troy ounce is equal to I oz.
i.55dr. avoirdupois-, an avoirdupois dram contains
27.34375 grains 5 175 troy pounds are equal to 144
avoirdupois pounds.
The moneyers have a peculiar fubdivilion of the grain
troy : thus,
rGrainT
Th'\ Drok [ int0
(_PeriotJ
{!
20 Mites,
24 Droits.
20 Periots.
24 Blanks.
Grains.
24
72
576
Penny-weight.
Gros.
Ounce.
24
4608^ 192
9216 384
8
64
128
8
16
Marc.
JPound.
Vol. XX. Part II.
Half-ounce.
16
32
3200
Ounce.
Half-quarter pound.
Quarter-pound.
16 8
1600 8oo
400
Half-pound.
200
Pound.
io° | Quintal.
The Englilh weights are ufed in the United Provinces
of America.
2. Trench Weights.—Different weights were formerly
ufed in moft of the different provinces of France :
Thefe, however, have undergone very material altera¬
tions fince the revolution in that kingdom. See Mea- .
sure. But as a knowledge of the ancient weights of
that country is of importance, on account of the books
in which they are ufed, we infert the following tables.
The Paris pound contains 16 ounces, and is divided
two ways.
Deulkens.
16
512
10240
81920
Troy ken.
Vierling.
8
256
5120
40960
128
2560
20480
As.
32
640
5120
Angle.
Ounce.
20
160
8 jMarc.
The marc is equal, according to M. Tillet, to 4620
French grains.
4 S The
Weight.
The weights of the firft divifion are ufed to weigh
gold, filver, and the richer commodities; and the
weights of the fecond divifion for commodities of lefs
value.
The Paris 2 marc, or pound weight, is equal to 7560
grains troy, and the Paris ounce equal to 472.5 grains
troy.
lb. oz. dwt. gr.
The Paris pound = 1 3 15 o troy.
The Paris ounce = 0 o 19 16.5 troy.
A grain troy = 1.2186507 of a Paris grain.
But the pound was not the fame throughout France.
At Lyons, e. gr. the city pound was only 14 ounces :
fo that 100 Lyons pounds, made only 86 Paris pounds.
But befide the city pound, they had another at Lyons
for filk, containing 15 ounces. At Thouloufe, and
throughout the Upper Languedoc, the pound was 13
ounces and a half of Paris weight. At Marfeilles, and
throughout Provence, the pound was 134 ounces of
Paris weight. At Rouen, befide the common Paris
pound and marc, they had the weight of the vicomte j
which was 16 ounces, a half, and five-fixths of the Paris
weight. The weights enumerated under the two ar¬
ticles of Englifh and French weights are the fame that
are ufed throughout the greateft part of Europe \ only
under fomewhat different names, divifions, and propor¬
tions.
French weights were formerly ufed in all the French
American fettlements.
3. Dutch Weights.—The weight ufed in Amfterdam
and all over Holland is called Troy weight, and is ex-
a£lly the fame with that ufed at Bruffels. The Dutch
weights are as follows:
W E I
' Clght' -. Amfterdam pound ufed in commerce is divided
'"""‘into 16 ounces, 32 loots, or 128 drams. This pound
contains 2 marcs troy, and ought therefore to weigh
only 10240 as: but it weighs 10280 j fo that it is a
little heavier than the troy pound of Amfterdam: 2561b.
of commerce are equal to 2571b. troy of Holland. Two
different pounds are ufed by apothecaries; the one con¬
taining 2 marcs, the other only i|. The firft is called
nrfenic pound weight *, it contains 16 ounces, the ounce
8^ drams, the dram 8 fcruples, the fcruple 20 grains.
Ihe fecond is called the apothecary's pound j it is divid¬
ed into 12 ounces, or 24 loots. Three arfenic pounds
are equal to 4 apothecary’s pounds.
The Dutch ftone
The Lifpundt, or LI.
The hundred weight rr ICO
The Schippondt, or Sch. lb. = 300
4. Spanifh Weights.—The marc of Caftile, ufed for
Weighing gold and filver, is divided as follows;
Grains (gold weight).
Grain (filver weight).
Tomine (gold weight).
Tomine (filver weight).
Adarme
l* 690 ] WEI
are ufed at Genoa, the pefo grojfo (heavy weight), and Weight,
the pefo fottile (light weight) : the latter is ufed for' ‘—v ■-
weighing gold and filver, the former for other things.
The pound of the pefo fottile is equal, according to Til-
let, to 1 marc, 2 ounces, 24 gros, 30 grains French. Il¬
ls divided into 8 ounces, the ounce into 24 deniers, and
the denier into 24 grains. The pound of the pefo groflb
is equal to 1 marc, 2 ounces, 3 gros, 5 grains, French.
It is divided into 12 ounces :
rr 8 commercial lb.
= 15
12*
12
124-
37
75
12
36
72
96
92VV
600
576
4800J4608 400
3^
7^t
714
2-2T
5°
48
l6
384 128
Ochava.
Caftellano.
Ounce.
l^7
8
64
?0
8 Marc.
7 oz.
The marc, according to Tillet, is equal to / 
4 gros? 8 grains French, which is equal to 4785 as of
Holland. One hundred marcs of Caftile rr about 934-
marcs of Holland ; 100 marcs of Holland — 107 marcs
of Caftile. Medicines are fold by the fame marc j
but it is divided differently, containing 8 ounces, 64
drachms, 192 fcruples, 384 obolos, 1152 caradteras,
4608 grains.
The Spanifh commercial pound is divided into two
marcs, called marcs qfTejo, each of which is equal to
the marc of Caftile. This pound is divided into 16
ounces, 256 adarmes, 9,216 grains.
5. Weights of Portugal.—The Lilbon marc for effay-
ing filver coin of 12 deniers, and the denier of 24
grains. The marc of Portugal for weighing gold and
filver is equal, according to Tillet, to 7 ounces 3-*- gros,
and 34 grains French, which makes 4776 ^ of Holland ;
io that it is exaftly the fame with the Lifbon pound. It
is divided into 8 ounces, 64 outavas, 192 fcruples, 4608
grains.
The pound confifts of 2 marcs, 16 ounces, or 96
outavas; the arroba of 32 lb. j the quintal of 4 arrobas,
or 128 lb. 100 Oporto pounds make 87-jth pounds of
commerce of Amfterdam.
6. Weights of Italy.—Genoa. Two kinds of weights
The cantaro = 100 lbs. pefo groffo.
The rub bo — 25 lbs.
The rotolo rr i-Jlb.
too lbs. pefo groffo = 644-lb.of commerce of Amfterdam.
100 lbs. pefo fottile = 129 marcs troy of Holland.
Rome. The Roman pound confifts of 12 ounces, the
ounce of 24 deniers, the denier of 24 grains. The Roman
pound, according to Tillet, is equal to 1 marc, 3 ounces,
i gros, 14 grains, French.
Venice. The marc for weighing gold and filver con¬
tains 8 ounces, 32 quarti, 1152 carati, or 4608 grani.
An hundred marcs of Venice rr 97^ marcs troy of Hol¬
land, xoo marcs of Holland = 103 of Venice.* In Ve¬
nice they alfo ufe z pefo grojfo and pefo fottile. 100 lbs.
pefo groffo = 944 commercial lbs. of Amfterdam.
too lbs. pefo fottile =614 ditto.
7. Swedijh Weights.—The marc for weighing gold
and filver is equal to 16 lods, 64 quentins, or 4384 as.
The pound of 32 lods, ufed for weighing food, is equal,
according to lillet, to 1 marc, 5 ounces, 7 gros,
8 grains French, which makes 88484 as troy of Holland.
This anfwers exaftly to the weight of the different
pounds, as fixed in Sweden, viz. 8848 as ~ the pound
for weighing articles of food; 7821^ as — marc
ufed in the mines \ 7450tIx as — niarc ufed in towns
and in the country ; 70784 as =_marc ufed for weigh¬
ing iion ; 7416 as — pound ufed in medicine.
The fkippund
The centner
The waag
The ften
The Swedifti as
400 lbs. for weighing food.
120 lbs.
165 lbs.
32 lbs.
1 as of Holland troy.
8. German Weights.—Vienna. The marc of Vienna
for weighing gold and filver is divided into 16 loths,
64 quintals, or 256 deniers or pfenings; the loth into
4 quintals, or 16 pfenings. This marc, according to
I diet, is equal to 1 marc, 1 ounce, 1 gros, 16 grains,
French, ~ 5831 as troy Holland. The pound of
Vienna is divided into 2 marcs, or 4 viertings; the
mark into 8 ounces, 16 loths, 64 quintals, or 266 pfe¬
nings.
Hamburgh. The marc for effaying gold is divided
into 24 carats; the Carat into 12 grains. The marc
for filver is divided into 16 loths, and the loth into 18
grains. Thefe marcs confift each of 288 grains, and
are therefore equal. This marc, ufed in Hamburgh for
gold and filver, is the marc of Cologne, which is equal
according to Tillet, to 7 ounces, 5 gros, 74 grains,
French, rr 4866 as troy of Holland. It is divided into
8 ounces, 16 loths, 64 quentins, 256 pfenings, 4352
efches, or 65536 richt pfenings theile. The apothecary
pound ufed in Hamburgh, and almoft all Germany, is
divided into 12 ounces, 96 drachms, 288 fcruples, or
5760 grains; an ounce is equal to 621 as of Holland.
Tha
WEI [ 691 ] W E I
Weight.
The pound of commerce is equal, according to Tillet,
to 10085 as of.Holland ; for half a pound is equal to
7 ounces, 7 gros, 23 grains, French. This pound is di¬
vided into 16 ounces, 32 loths, 128 quentins, or 512
pfenings.
9. Ruffian Weights.—The berckowitz = 400 lbs.
The poud - - =40 lbs.
The pound is divided into 32 loths, or 96 folotnuks.
One hundred Ruffian lbs. — i66t marcs, or 82-^ lbs. of
Amfterdam. One hundred lbs, of commerce of Amfter-
dam — i2o|-th lbs. of Ruffia.
10. Weights nfed in the fever al parts of Ajia, the T.af
Indies, China, Perfa, &c.—In Turkey, at Smyrna, &.c.
they ufe the batman, or battemant, containing 74 occos;
the occo contains 4 chekys or pounds, each of which,
according to Tillet, is equal to I marc 2 oz. 3 gros.
28 gr. French. The Turkiffi weights are divided as
follows:
Cantaras. Batmans. Occos. Rotolos. Chckis. Mefcals. Drachms.
i = 7F ^ 44—100 =176 =11733-^=17600
i = 6= 13^= 24 = 1600 = 2400
X — 2 ^—I 4   266-y — 400
I = 141= U7f= 176
I = 66y= IOO
I = 14
At Aleppo there are three forts of rottos 5 the firft
720 drachms, making about 7 pounds Engliffi, and fer-
ving to weigh cottons, galls, and other large commodi¬
ties 5 the fecond is 680 drachms, ufed for all filks but
xvhite ones, which are weighed by the third rotto of 700
drachms. At Seyda the rotto is 600 drachms.
The other ports of the Levant, not named here, ufe
fome of thefe weights $ particularly the occa, or ocqua,
the rottoli, and rotto.
The Chinefe weights are, the piece for large commo¬
dities : it is divided into 100 catis or cattis, though
lome fay into 125J the cati into 16 taels or tales,
each tael equivalent to 14 of an ounce Engliffi, or the
weight of one rial and TL, and containing 12 mas or
maffes, and each mas 10 condrins. So that the Chinefe
piece amounts to 137 pounds Engliffi avoirdupois, and
the cati to 1 pound 8 ounces. The picol for filk con¬
taining 66 catis and 4 j the bahar, bakaire, or barr, con¬
taining 300 catis.
Tonquin has alfo the fame weights, mcafures, &c. as
China. Japan has only one weight, viz. the cati; which,
however, is different from that of China, as containing
20 taels. At Surat, Agra, and throughout the ftates
of the Great Mogul, they ufe the man, or maund, where¬
of they have two kinds; the king’s maund, or king’s
weight j and the maund limply j the firft ufed for the
weighing of common provifions, containing 40 feers, or
ferres j and each feer a juft Paris pound. The common
maund, ufed in the weighing of merchandife, confifts like-
wife of 40 feers, but each feer is only eftimated at 12
Paris ounces, or \ of the other feer.
The maund may be looked upon as the common weight
of the Eaft Indies, though under fome difference of
name, or rather of pronunciation ; it being called mao
at Cambaya, and in other places mein and maum. The
feer is properly the Indian pound, and of univerfal ufe ;
the like may be faid of the bahar, tael, and catti, above
mentioned.
The weights of Siam are the piece, containing two.
ffians or cattis; but the Siamefe catti is only half the
Japanefe, the latter containing 20 taels and the former
only 1 o; though fome make the Chinefe catti only 16
taels, and the Siamefe 8. The tael contains 4 baats, or
ticals, each about a Paris ounce ; the baat 4 ielings or
mayons \ the mayon 2 fouangs j the fouang 4 payes ;
the paye 2 clams j the fompaye half a fouang.
It is to be obferved, that thefe are the names of their
coins as well as weights; filver and gold being commo¬
dities there fold, as other things, by their weights.
In the ille of Java, and particularly at Bantam, they
ufe the gantan, which amounts to near 3 Dutch pounds.
In Golconda, at Vifapour, and Goa, they have the fu-
ratelle, containing 1 pound 14 ounces Engliffi j the man-
galis, or mangelin, for weighing diamonds and precious
Hones, weighing at Goa 5 grains, at Golconda, &c.
54 grains. They have alfo the rotolo, containing 144
ounces Englilh ; the metricol, containing the fixth part
of an ounce j the wall for piaftres and ducats, containing
the 73d part of a rial.
In Perfia they ufe two kinds of batmans or mans ; the
one called cahi or cheray which is the king’s weight,
and the other batman of Tauris. The firft weighs 13
pounds 10 ounces Engliffi ; the fecond 64 pounds. Its
divifions are the ratel, or a 16th 5 the derhem, or drachm,
which is the 50 th 5 the mefchal, which is half the derhem}
the dung, which is the fixth part of the mefchal, being
equivalent to 6 carat grains; and, laftly, the grain, which
is the fourth part of the dung. They have alfo the vakie,
which exceeds a little our ounce $ the fah-cheray, equal
to the 1170th part of the derhem $ and the toman, ufed
to weigh out large payments of money without telling j
its weight is that of 50 abaffes.
11. Weights at Cairo in Egy/)/.—Almoft every kind
of goods has its own weight; thefe are regulated by the
cantaren or principal weight.
Hotels.
The ordinary cantaren, or hundred weight, weighs 100
The cantaren of quickfilver and tin - 102
coffee, wine, and iron - 105
ivory - - 100
almonds and other fruits 115
woods for dying - 120
arfenic and other drugs - 125
minium and cinnabar - 130
gum-arabic, aloes, and other aro¬
matics - - 133
Weight.
The ratel or rotoli is nearly equal to the pound of
Marfeilles; 108 lbs. of Marfeilles are equal to no ro-
tels. The Marfeilles pound confifts of 13 ounces of
Paris j fo that the 100 lbs. of Marfeilles are equal to
8ilbs. Paris, and xoolbs. Paris = 123165. of Marfeilles.
We ffiall fubjoin here Mr Fergufon’s table for com¬
paring the Englilh avoirdupois pound with foreign
pounds:
London pound
Antwerp
Amfterdam
Abeville
Ancona
Avignon
Bourdeaux
Bologna
1.0000
1.04
I.I III
1.0989
0.78
0.8928
1.0989
0.8
4 S
Bruges
Calabria
Calais
Dieppe
Dantzic
Ferrara
Flanders
Geneva
2
I.0204 Rergufon's
q <75 Tables and
I.0989
0.862
o-75
°-9433
1.07
Genoa
Weight.
Genoa, grofs
Hamburgh
Lifbon
Leghorn
Horimberg
Naples
Paris
Prague
Placentia
W E
0.7
1.0865
o-75
i-i363
0.71
’ i-i*35
1.2048
0.^2
I
Rochelle
Rome
Rouen
Seville
Thouloufe
Turin
Venice
Vienna
E 69
0.8928
0.7874
1.1089
0.9259
0.8928
0.82
1.06
1.23
In order to fhow the proportion of the feveral weights
ufed throughout Europe, we fhall add a reduftion of
them to one ftandard, viz. the London pound.
The 100 lb. of England, Scotland, and Ireland are
equal to
lb. oz.
91 8 of Amfterdam, Paris, &c,
96 8 of Antwerp or Brabant.
88 o of Rouen, the vifcounty weight.
106 o of Lyons, the city weight.
90 9 of Rochelle.
107 11 of Thouloufe and Upper Languedoc.
113 o of Marfeilles or Provence.
81 7 of Geneva.
93 5 of Hamburgh.
89 7 of Francfort, &c.
96 I of Leiplic, &c.
137 4 of Genoa.
132 11 of Leghorn.
1 153 11 of Milan.
152 o of Venice.
154 10 of Naples.
97 o of Seville, Cadiz, &c.
104 13 of Portugal.
96 5 of Liege.
112 Ruftia-
107 tt* of Sweden.
89 4 Denmark.
A curious weighing machine was fome time ago in¬
vented by M. Hanin of Paris, whereby the weights of
the principal countries in Europe, and the relative pro¬
portions they bear to each other, are fhown at one view.
For this he received a bounty of 20 guineas from the
Society inftituted at London for the encouragement of
Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. The following is
a defcription of this ingenious machine.
p'at® Figure 1. reprefents the back of the machine, which
F- . j being fufpended by the ring A, and a weight hung to
the hook B, the fpring C, C, C, made fall by ftrong
fcrews at g, is drawn downwards j and the bar D hav¬
ing a rack thereon at ey turns the pinion f in proportion
Fig* 2. to the weight of the body hanging thereto. Figure 2.
{hows the face of the machine, on which is a number
of concentric circles, and the weights of feveral coun¬
tries of Europe engraved thereon, as expreflfed by the
words on a line with them. In the centre of this face
is a ring fixed to the fmall plate, turned by the pinion
f, ftiown at figure 1. From this ring a hand pro-
jefts, w'hich, by the turning of the pinion, points to
fuch part of the circle as is marked with the rveight
hung to the hook B 5 and thereby {hows what weight of
any of the countries mentioned, is equal to the pounds
troy of London, which are engraved on the outer circle,
or to the pounds avoirdupois, which are engraved on the
fecond circle, and fo of the reft. A Aider moves on the
hand, which may be brought to any of the circles at
2 ] WEI
pleafure, in order to point out the relative weight with W<
greater precifion.
Many attempts have been made to introduce an uni¬
formity of weights and meafures into the commercial
world } but hitherto they have all failed. The accom-
pliftiment of fuch an undertaking would be of infinite
advantage to mankind, and certainly claims the moft
ferious attention of thofe who by their fituation can
alone bring it about. The undertaking is indeed dif¬
ficult, but furely not impoflible. Something of this
kind has been attempted and adopted in France; and,
as the method is Ample, and exceedingly well adapted
for calculation, it furely deferves to be imitated. See
Measure.
Weight of Air. See Pneumatics, N° 14—19.
Regulation of WEIGHTS and Meafures, is a branch
of the king’s prerogative. See Prerogative and Mea¬
sure.
As weight and meafure are things in their nature ar¬
bitrary and uncertain, it is therefore expedient that they
be reduced to fome fixed rule or ftandard : which ftand¬
ard it is impoflible to fix by any written law or oral pro¬
clamation \ for no man can, by words only, give another
an adequate idea of a foot rule, or a pound weight. It
is therefore neceffary to have recourfe to fome vifible,
palpable, material ftandard ; by forming a comparifon
with which all weights and meafures may be reduced to
one uniform fize; and the prerogative of fixing this
ftandard, our ancient law vefted in the crown, as in
Normandy it belonged to the duke. This ftandard was
originally kept at Winchefter: and we find in the laws
of King Edgar, near a century before the conqueft, an
injun&ion that the one meafure, which was kept at Win¬
chefter, ftiould be obferved throughout the realm. Moft
nations have regulated the ftandard of meafures of length
by comparifon with the parts of the human body j as
the palm, the hand, the fpan, the foot, the cubit, the ell
{ulna or arm), the pace, and the fathom. But as thefe
are of different dimenfions in men of different propor¬
tions, our ancient hiftorians inform us, that a new- ftand¬
ard of longitudinal meafure was afeertained by King
Henry the Firft j w-ho commanded that the ulna, or an¬
cient ell, which anfwers to the modern yard, ftiould be
made of the exa£l length of his own arm. And one
ftandard of meafure of length being gained, all others
are eafily derived from thence •, thofe of greater length
by multiplying, thofe of lefs by dividing, that original
ftandard. Thus, by the ftatute called compoftio ulna-
rum et perticarum, five yards and a half make a perch $
and the yard is fubdivided into three feet, and each foot
into 12 inches 5 which inches will be each of the length
of three grains of barley. Superficial meafures are de¬
rived by iquaring thofe of length j and meafures of ca¬
pacity by cubing them. The ftandard of weights was
originally take from corns of wheat, w’hence the lowTeft
denomination of weights we have is ftill called a grain ;
32 of which are dire&ed, by the ftatute called compofitio
menfurarum, to compofe a penny weight,where of 20 make
an ounce, 12 ounces a pound, and fo upw’ards. And upon
thefe principles the fivft ftandards were made ; which,
being originally fo fixed by the crown, their fubfequent
regulations have been generally made by the king in
parliament. Thus, under King Richard I. in his par¬
liament holden at Weftminfter, A. D. 1197, h was
ordained that there fliould be only one weight and one
meafure
W E L [ 693 ] WE R
Weight meafure throughout the kingdom, and that the cuftody
of the affize, or ftandard of weights and meafures, fhould
J ' ■ be committed to certain perfpns in every city and bo¬
rough ; from whence the ancient office of the king’s
aulnager feems to have been derived, whofe duty it was,
for a certain fee, to meafure all cloths made for fale, till
the office was abolilhed by the llatute 1 ith and 12th
William III. c. 20. In King John’s time this ordi¬
nance of King Richard was frequently difpenfed with for
money j which occafioned a provifion to be made for
enforcing it, in the great charters of King John and his
fon. Thefe original ftandards were called pondus regi/,
and menfura domini regis, and are dire&ed by a variety of
fubfcquent ftatutes to be kept in the exchequer chamber,
by an officer called the clerk of the market, except the
wine gallon, which is committed to the city of London,
and kept in Guildhall.
The Scottijb ftandards are diftributed among the old-
eft boroughs. The el wand is kept at Edinburgh, the
pint at Stirling, the pound at Lanark, and the firlot at
Linlithgow.
Various ftatutes have been enacted for regulating
and enforcing an uniformity of weights and meafures j
%nd by the articles of union, the Engliffi ftandards are
eftabliffied by law over all Great Britain. But the
force of cuftom is fo ftrong, that thefe ftatutes have been
ill oblerved. The Scottifti ftandards are ftill univerfally
retained for many purpofes j and likewife a variety of
local weights and meafures are ufed in particular places
of both countries, which differ from the general ftand¬
ards of either.’
WEINMANNIA, a genus of plants of the cla£s
oBandria, order monogynia, and arranged in the natu¬
ral claffification with thofe plants the order of which
is doubtful. The calyx is four-leaved, the corolla has
four petals, and the capfule is bilocular and biroftra-
ted. There are fix fpecies, none of which are natives
of Britain.
WELD, or Wold. See Reseda, Botany
and Dyeing.
WELDING heat, in fmithery, a degree of heat given
to iron, &c. fufficient to make the furfaces of tw o pieces
incorporate upon being beaten together with a hammer.
WELL, a hole under ground, ufually of a cylindri¬
cal figure, and walled with ftone and mortar : its ufe.is
to colled! the water of the ftrata around it.
Well, an apartment formed in the middle of a ffiip’s
hold to inclofe the pumps, from the bottom to the lower
decks. It is ufed as a barrier to preferve thofe machines
from being damaged by the fridlion or compreffion of
the materials contained in the hold, and particularly to
prevent the entrance of ballaft, &c. by which the tubea
would prefently be chocked, and the pumps rendered
incapable of fervice. By means of this inclofure, the ar¬
tificers may likewife more readily defcend into the hold,
in order to examine the ftate of the pumps, and repair
them as oecafion requires.
WELL-Raom of a Boat, the place in the bottom where
the water lies between the ceiling and the platform of
the ftern-lheets, whence it is thrown out into the fea
W'ith a fcoop.
Burning-WELL. See BURNING-Spring.
WELL of a Fifking-veffel, an apartment in the middle
of the hold, which is entirely detached from the reft,
being lined with lead on every fide, and having the bot¬
tom thereof penetrated with a competent number of fmall Well
holes paffing alfo through the fhip’s floor j fo that the^,^
falt-water running into the well is always kept as frelh ■ ert“mp,i
as that in the fea, and yet prevented from communicat¬
ing itfelf to the other parts of the hold.
WELL-hole, in building, is the hole left in a floor for
the ftairs to come up through.
WELLS, a city of Somerfetftiire, and fee of a bi-
ffiopj the bifliop of Bath being alfo that of Wells.—It,
is fuppofed to take its name from the many fprings and
wells that are near it. It is not very large j but is
adorned with handfome buildings, both public and pri¬
vate. Its cathedral is a very beautiful ftru&ure, adorn¬
ed with images and carved ftone rvork. The biffiop’s
palace joins to the cathedral; and on the other fide are
the houfes for the prebendaries. In the market place is
a fine market houfe, fupported by pillars. It is govern¬
ed by a mayor, and fends two members to parliament.
The chief manufa&ure is knit hofe. W. Long. 2. 27,
N. Lat. 51. 12.
WEN, a tumor or excrefcence arifing on different
parts of the body, and containing a cyftus or bag filled
with fome peculiar kind of matter. See N^evus, Sur¬
gery Index.
WEREGILD, the price of homicide ; paid partly to
the king for • the lofs of a fdbjedft, partly to the lord
whofe vaffal he wras, and partly to the next of kin of the
perfon (lain.
WERST, Wurst, or Verfl, a Ruffian meafure equal
to 3500 Engliffi feet. A degree of a great circle of the-
earth contains about 104 wrerfts and a half.
WERTURIAN or UraLIAN Mountain.!, a famous
chain of mountains forming part of the boundary of A-
fia. It begins diftin&ly (for it may be traced interupt-
edly farther fouth) near the town of Kungur, in the go¬
vernment of Kafan, in latitude 570 20'; runs north, and
ends oppofite to the Waygatz ftrait, and rifes again in
the ifle of Nova Zemlja. The Ruffians alfo call this
range Semennoi Poias, or, the girdle of the world; from
a fuppofition that it encircled the univerfe. Thefe were
the Ripheei monies : Pars mundi damnata a natura re-
rum) et denfa merfa caligine* ; of which only the fouth- # />/,•„,v
ern part was known to the ancients, and that fo little as Hijl. Nat~
to give rife to numberlefs fables. Beyond thefe were ^lb-iv*
placed the happy Hyperborei, a fuftion moft beautifully caF* 1®*
related by Pomponius Mela. Moderns have not been
behind-hand in exaggerating feveral circuraftances rela¬
tive to thefe noted hills. Yffirand Ides, who crofted
them in his embaffy to China, afferts that they are 5C0O
toifes or fathoms high ; others, that they are covered
with eternal fnow. The laft may be true in their more
northern parts 'T but in the ufuab paffages over them,
they are free from it three or four months.
The heights of part of this chain have been taken by
M. 1’Abbe d’Auteroche : who, with many affurances
of his accuracy, fays, that the height of the mountain
Kyria near Solikamlkaia, in latitude 6o°, does not ex¬
ceed 471 toifes from the level of the fea, or 286 from
the ground on which it ftands. But, according to M.
Gmelin, the mountain Pauda is much higher, being
752 toifes above the fea. From Peterftnirgh to this
chain is a vaft plain, mixed with certain elevations or
platforms, like iflands in the midft of an ocean. The
eaftetn fide defeends gradually to a great diftance into
the wooded and moraffy Siberia, which forms an im -
menfis.
WES
Werturian, menfe inclined plane to the Icy fea.  ^
11W el]cy. from jjjg great rJvevs taking their rife on that fide,
fome at the amazing diftance of latitude 46° j and, af¬
ter a courfe of above 27 degrees, falling into the Fro¬
zen ocean, in latitude 7/ 30'. The Yalik alone, which
rifes near the fouthern part of the eaftern fide, takes a
fouthern direttion, and drops into the Cafpian fea. The
Dwina, the Peczora, and a few other rivers in European
■Ruflxa, (hew the inclined plane of that part. All of them
run to the northern fea } but their courfe is comparatively
fiiort. Another inclination direffs the Dnieper and the Don
into the Eaxine, and the vaft Wolga into the Cafpian fea.
WESLEY, John, a very extraordinary character,
and founder of the feft of Methodifts, was the fon of
the Reverend Samuel Wefley, reftor of Epworth in the
ifie of Axholme in Lincolnfhire, and was born in that
village in the year 1703. His very infancy was di-
ftinguifhed by .an extraordinary incident j for when he
was only fix years old, the parfonage-houfe at Epworth
was burnt to the ground, and the flames had fpread with
fuch rapidity, that few things of value could be faved.
His mother, in a letter to her fon Samuel Wefley, then
on the foundation at Weftminfter fchool, thanks God
that no lives were loft, although for fome time they
gave up Poor Jacky, as fhe exprefles herfelf; for his fa¬
ther had twice attempted to refcue the child, but was
beaten back by the flames. Finding all his efforts in-
effe&ual, he refigned him to Divine Providence. But
parental tendernefs prevailed over human fears, and Mr
Wefley once more attempted to fave his child. By fome
means equally unexpe&ed and unaccountable, the boy
got round to a window in the front of the houfe, and
was taken out, by one man’s leaping on the fhoulders of
another, and thus getting within his reach. Imme¬
diately on his refcue from this very perilous fituation, the
roof fell in. This extraordinary efcape explains a cer¬
tain device, in a print of Mr John Wefley, engraved by
Vertue, in the year 1745, from a painting by Williams.
It reprefents a houfe in flames, with this motto from the
prophet, “ Is he not a brand plucked out of the burn¬
ing ?” Many have fuppofed this device to be merely
emblematical of his fpiritual deliverance •, but from this
circumftance it is apparent that it has a primary as well
as a fecondary meaning ; it is real as well as allufive.
In the year 1713 he was entered a fcholar at the
charter-houfe in London, wdiere he continued feven
years under the tuition of the celebrated Dr Walker,
and of the Rev. Andrew Tooke author of The Pan¬
theon. Being elefted to Lincoln college, Oxford, he
became a fellow of that college about the year 1721;,
took the degree of Mafter of Arts in 17 26, and was’
joint tutor with the Rev. Dr Hutchins the rettor. He
difcovered very early an elegant turn for poetry. Some
of his gayer poetical effufions are proofs of a lively fancy
and a fine claflical tafte; and fome tranflations from the
Latin poets, while at college, are allowed to have great
merit. He had early a ftrong impreflion, like Count
Zinzendorf,^ of his defignation to fome extraordinary
work. This impreflion received additional force from
fome domeftic incidents; all which his adlive fancy
turned to his own account. His wonderful prefervation,
already noticed, naturally tended to cherilh the idea of
his being defigned by Providence to accomplifh fome
purpofe or other, that was out of the ordinary courfe of
human events. The late Rev. Samuel Badcock, in a
4
.. r 694 ] wes
Tins rs evident letter inferted in the Bibliotheca Topographies Britan-
nica, N° XX. fays, “ Ihere were fome ftrange pheno-1
mena perceived at the parfonage at Epworth, and fome
uncommon noifes heard there from time to time, which
he was very curious in examining into, and very parti¬
cular in relating. I have little doubt that he confidered
Wefley.
himfelf the chief objedl of this wonderful vifitation. In¬
deed his father’s credulity was in fame degree aftefled
by it ; fince he collected all the evidences that tended
to confirm the ftory, arranged them with fcrupulous ex-
aftnefs, in a manuicript confifting of leveral ftieets, and
which is ftill in being. I know not wThat became of the
ghoft of Epworth ; unlefs, confidered as the prelude to
the noife of Mr John Wefley made on a more ample
ftage, it ceafed to fpeak when he began to aft.”
“ The dawn of Mr Wefley’s public million (conti¬
nues Mr Badcock) was clouded with myfticifm j that
fpecies of it which affefts filence and folitude ; a certain
inexplicable introverfion of the mind, which abftrafts
the paflions from all fenfible objefts ; and, as the French
Quietifts exprefs it, peifefts itfelf by an abforption of
the will and intelleft, and all the faculties, into the
Deity.” In this palpable obfeure the excellent Fenelon
led himfelf, when he forfook the (hades of Pindus, to
wander in queft of pure Ime with Madam Guyon ! Mr
Wefley purfued for a while the fame ignis fatuus with
Mr William Law and the Ghoft of De Renty. A ftate,
however, fo torpid and ignoble, ill-fuited the aftive ge¬
nius of this Angular man. His elaftic mind gained
(Length by compreflion 5 thence burfting glorious, he
pafied (as he himfelf fomewhere fays) “ the immenfe
chafm, upborne on an eagle’s wings.”
The reading of the writings of this Mr William Law,
the celebrated author of Chriflian Perfeftion, and of A
Serious Addrefs to the Chriftian World, contributed
moreover, to lead Mr John Wefley and his brother
Charles, wfith a few of their young fellow-ftudents, into
a more than common ftriftnefs of religious life. They
received the facrament of the Lord’s Supper every week •
obferved all the fafts of the church ; vifited the prifons •
rofe at four in the morning ; and refrained from all a-
mufements. From the exaft method in which they dif-
pofed of every hour, they acquired the appellation of
Methodifts; by which their followers have been ever
fince diftinguifhed.
But a more particular account of the origin of this
feft, we fliall give from a celebrated publication. “ The
Methodifls (fays the editor of this work) form a very
confiderable clafs, principally of the lower people in this
country. They fprung. up about fifty years ago at Ox¬
ford, and were foon divided into two parties; the one
under the direftion of Mr George Whitefield, and the
other under that of two brothers, John and Charles
Wefley. Thefe leaders, and, if we except Mr William
Law, founders of the Methodifts, were educated at Ox¬
ford, received epifcopal ordination, and always profefled
themfelves advocates for the articles and liturgy of the
eftabliftied church ; though they more commonly prac-
tifed the diffenting mode of worftiip. But conceiving a
defign of forming feparate communities, fuperior in
fanftity and perfeftion to all other Chriftian churches,
and imprefled to a very confiderable degree by a zeal
pf an extravagant and enthufiaftic kind, they became
itinerant preachers j and, being excluded from moft of
our churches, exercifed their miniftry in private houfes,
fields,
WES [ 695 ] WES
Wefley. fields, &c. not only in Great Britain and Ireland, but
"•—y ' alfo in America j thus collecting a very confiderable
number of hearers and profelytes, both among the mem¬
bers of the eftabliihed church and the diffenters. The
theological fyftem of Mr Whitefield and his followers is
Calviniftic ; that of Mr Wefley and his difciples Armi-
nian j and the latter maintains the poffibility of attain¬
ing finlefs perfection in the prefent ftate. The fubordi-
nate teachers of both thefe clafles of Methodifts are ge¬
nerally men of no liberal education ; and they pretend to
derive their minifterial abilities from fpecial communica¬
tions of the Spirit. The Methodifts of both parties, like
other enthufiafts, make true religion to confift principal¬
ly in certain affedions and inward feelings which it is
impoflible to explain } but which, when analyfed, feem
to be mechanical in their fpring and operation; and they
generally maintain, that Chriftians will be moft likely to
fucceed in the purfuit of truth, not by the didates of
reafon, or the aids of learning, but by laying their
minds open to the direction and influence of divine
illumination j and their conduCt has been direCted by
impulfes.”
Our readers will judge for themfelves, according to
their various modes of education, and to the different
lights in which they may refpeCtively view the doCtrines
of our common Chriftianity, whether this reprefentation
of the origin of the Methodifts, and of their diftinguilh-
ing tenets, be accurate and juft.—Not prefuming to fit
in judgement on the religious opinions of any man, we
{hall only obferve, that an appellation originally given
in reproach, has been gloried in ever fince by thofe who
have diftinguiflied themfelves as the followTers either of
Mr Whitefield or of Mr Wefley. “ After the way call¬
ed Methodifni, fo worfhip they the God of their fathers.”
But the ridicule and contempt which the Angularity of
their conduCt produced, both John and Charles Wefley
were w'ell qualified to bear. They were not to be inti¬
midated by danger, aCluated by intereft, or deterred by
difgrace.
The boundaries of this ifland were Icon deemed by
Mr Wefley too confined for a zeal which difplayed the
piety of an apoftle, and of an intrepidity to which few
miflionaries had been fuperior. In 1735 he embarked
for Georgia, one of our colonies, which was at that time
in a ftate of political infancy } and the great objeCt of
this voyage was to preach the gofpel to the Indian na¬
tions in the vicinity of that province. He returned to
England in 1737. Of his fpiritual labours, both in this
country and in America, he himfelf has given a very
copious account, in a feries of Journals printed at differ¬
ent periods. Thefe journals drew upon our laborious
preacher and his coadjutors fome fevere animadverfiorrs
from two right reverend prelates Dr George Laving-
ton bilhop of Exeter, and Dr William Warburton bi-
fl\op of Gloucefter. The former publiihed, in three
parts, The Enthufiafm of the Methodifts and Papifts
compared; the third part of this performance contain¬
ing a perfonal charge of immoral conduft. Mr Wefley,
in his vindication, publifhed a letter to his lordftup,
which produced a reply from the latter.
Bilhop Warburton’s attack is contained in his cele¬
brated treatife, entitled The Doftrine of Grace : or,
The Office and Operations of the Holy Spirit vindicat¬
ed from the Infults of Infidelity, and the Abufes of Fa-
naticifm ; concluding with fome thoughts, humbly of¬
fered tp the confideration of the Eftabliftied Clergy, Weftey.
with regard to the Right Method of defending Relr- v——
gion againft the Attacks of either party ; 2 vols. fmall
8vo, 1762. There is much acute reafoning, and much
poignant and fprightly wit, in his Doftrine of Grace \
but there is too much levity in it for a grave bilhop,
and too much abufe for a candid Chriftian. On this
occafion, Mr Wefley publiihed a letter to the bilhop,
in which, with great temper and moderation, as well as
with great ingenuity and addrefs, he endeavoured to
{belter himfelf from his lordlhip’s attacks j not only un¬
der the authority of the Holy Scriptures, but of the
church itfelf, as by law eftabliihed.
On his return from Georgia, Mr Wefley paid a vifit
to Count Zinzendorf, the celebrated founder of the fe£l
of Moravians, or Hernhutters, at Hernhut in Upper
Lufatia. In the following, year he appeared again in
England, and with his brother Charles, at the head of
the Methodifts. He preached his firft field-fermon at
Briftol, on the 2d of April 1738", from which time his
difciples have continued to increafe. In 1741, a ferious
altercation took place between him and Mr Whitefield.
In 1744, attempting to preach at an inn at Taunton,
he was regularly filenced by the magiftrates. Although
he chiefly refided for the remainder of his life in the me¬
tropolis, he occafionally travelled through every part of
Great Britain and Ireland, eftablilhing congregations in
each kingdom. In 1750 he married a lady, from whom
he was afterwards feparated. By this lady, w ho died in
1781, he had no children.
We have already mentioned Mr Wefley as a very va¬
rious and voluminous writer. Divinity, both devotional
and controverfial, biography, hiflory, philofophy, poli¬
tics, and poetry, were all, at different times, the fub-
je&s of his pen : and, whatever opinion may be enter¬
tained of his theological fentiments, it is impoflible to
deny him the merit of having done very extenfive good
among the lower claffes of people. He certainly poffefs-
ed great abilities, and a fluency which wras well accom¬
modated to his hearers, and highly acceptable to them.
He had been gradually declining for three years before
his death 5 yet he fiill rofe at four in the morning, and
preached, and travelled, and wrote as ufual. He preach¬
ed at Leatherhead, in Surrey, on the Wednefday before
that event. On the Friday following, appeared the firft
fymptoms of his approaching diffolution. The four fuc-
ceeding days he fpent in praifing God; and he left this
fcene, in which his labours had been fo extenfive and ft>
ufeful, at a quarter before teu in the morning of the 2d
of March 1791, in the 88th year of his age. His re¬
mains, after lying in a kind of ftate at his chapel in the
city-road, dreffed in the facerdotal robes which he ufu-
ally wore, and on his head the old clerical cap, a bible
in one hand, and a white handkerchief in the other,
were, agreeably to his own directions, and after the
manner of the interment of the late Mr Whitefield, de-
pofited in the cemetry behind his chapel, on the morn¬
ing of the 9th March, amid an innumerable concourfe
of his friends and admirers j many of whom appeared in
deep mourning on the occafion. One Angularity was
obfervable in the funeral fervice. Inftead of, “ We give
thee hearty thanks, for that it hath pleafed thee to de¬
liver this our brother j” it was read “ our father.” A
fermon, previoufly to the funeral, had been preached by
Dr Thomas Whitehead^ one of the phyficians to the
London
WES
Wefley, London hofpital j and on the 13th the different chapels
e^:• , of his perfuafion in London were hung with black.
v It has been juftly obferved of Mr Wefley, that his
labours were principally devoted to thofe who had no
inftru&or ; to the highways and hedges j to the miners
in Cornwall, and the coalliers in Kingfwood. Thefe
unhappy creatures married and buried among themfelves,
and often committed murders with impunity, before the
Methodifts fprung up. By the humane and active en¬
deavours of Mr Wefley and his brother Charles, a fenfe
of decency, morals, and religion, was introduced into
the lowefl claffes of mankind j the ignorant were in-
ftrufled, the wretched relieved, and the abandoned re¬
claimed. His perfonal influence was greater, perhaps,
than that of any other private gentleman in any coun¬
try.—But the limits of this article will not permit us to
expatiate further on the chara&er of this extraordinary
man.
WEST, Gilbert, was the fon of Dr Weft, preben¬
dary of Winchefter, and chaplain to King George I. but
at 12 years of age loft his father. He ftudied at Win¬
chefter and Eton fchools, and from thence was placed
in Chrift-church college, Oxford. His ftudious and fe-
rious turn inclined him to take orders; but Lord Cob-
ham, his uncle, diverted him from that purfuit, and
gave him a cornetcy in his owm regiment. This pro-
ieflion he foon quitted, on account of an opening of an¬
other nature, which prefented him with a flattering pro-
fpeft of advancement in life. A number of young gentle¬
men were to be elefted from the univerfities, and, at the
expence of government, were to be taught foreign lan¬
guages ; and then fent to the fecretaries office, to be ini¬
tiated into bufinefs, and trained there for public fervices,
as envoys, ambaffadors, &c. Mr Gilbert Weft was one
of the few pitched upon 5 and on his firft introduftion
into that office, Lord Townfend, fecretary of ftate,
treated him with Angular marks of regard, and the
ftrongeft inclinations to ferve him were teftiffed from all
quarters. But his uncle Lord Cobham’s ftrong oppofl-
tion to the meafures of the government, rendered thefe
advantages entirely fruitlefs ; and the minifters honeftly
told Mr Weft, that he muft not expeft them to diftin-
guifh his merit, as any favours conferred upon him would
be imputed as done to his uncle Lord Cobham. Mr
Weft now left that office, and all his views of making
his fortune ; and entering into marriage, retired to Wick¬
ham in Kent, where he lived in great domeftic comfort
and tranquil happinefs. He was there viflted by his va¬
luable friends, who held the moft delightful converfe of
wit, humour, and learning, fupported upon the prin¬
ciples of virtue, found reaioning, and folid ffiendffiip,
which rendered the whole cheerful, animating, and in-
ftruflive. Mr William Pitt, who was one of thofe that
compofed this happy fociety, becoming paymafter, ap¬
pointed Mr Weft treafurer to Chellea-hofpital j and he
obtained a feat at the council-board, in confequence of
a friendfhip contrafted at the fchool with one of the
duke of Devonfliire’s fons, who procured of his grace
his being nominated one of the clerks extraordinary of
that office. Towards the latter part of Mr Weft’s life,
he wholly applied himfelf to the ftudy of the Scriptures j
being extremely anxious to try his utmoft endeavours to
reconcile the feeming inconAftencies which gave the
enemies to revealed religion a handle to doubt and dif-
jcredit their authenticity. His obfervations on the re-
4
WES
furredlion, which, it has been faid, were written to con- Welt
Arm the wavering faith of his great friends Pitt and H
Lyttleton, bear ample teftimony to his reafoning powers "
and the fincerity of his religion ; while his trantlations
of Pindar Ihow him to have been an eminent. Greek
fcholar, and very conAderable poet. He had a mind
replete with virtue, and was an honour to his country j
but died at 50 years of age.
West, one of the cardinal points of the horizon, dia¬
metrically oppoAte to the eaA ; and ftriftly deAned the
interfe&ion of the prime vertical with the horizon on
that Ade the fun fets in.
WESTMINSTER, a city which forms the weft
part of the capital of Britain, but has a government di-
ftin& from the reft. This city had its name from the
Atuation of its abbey, anciently called a tninjler, in re-
fpeft of that of St Paul. That part properly called the
city of Weftminfter, comprehending the pariffies of St
John and St Margaret, was once an iftand formed by
the Thames, called Thorney ijland, from the thorns with
which it was overrun $ and the abbey that flood in it,
Thorney-abbey. The liberties of Weftminfter contain
the feveral parifhes of St Martin in the Fields, St
James’s, St Anne, St Paul, Covent-Garden, St Mary 1c
Strand, St Clement Danes, St George, Hanover Square,
and the precinft of the Savoy. The government, both
of the city and liberties, is under the jurifdi&ion of the
dean and chapter of Weftminfter, in civil as well as eccle-
Aaftical affairs; and their authority extends to the precinft
of St Martin le Grand, by Newgate-ftreet, and in fome
towns of Effex, which are exempted from the jurifdiflion
of the biffiop of London and the archbifhop of Canter¬
bury j but the management of the civil part has, ever
Ance the Reformation, been in the hands of laymen,
defied from time to time, and conArmed by the dean
and chapter. The chief of thefe laymen are the high-
fteward, the deputy-fteward, and the high-bailiff, who
hold their offices for life. There are alio 16 burgeffes
and their affiftants, put of which are defied two head-
burgeffes, one for the city, and the other for the liber¬
ties. Another officer is the high-conftable, who has all
the other conftables under his direflion.
WESTMORELAND, a county of England, bound¬
ed ©n the north and north-weft by Cumberland *, on the
fouth and fouth-eaft by Yoiklhire j and on the fouth
and fouth-weft by Lancalhire. Its extent from north-
eaft to fouth, is 40 miles, and its breadth from the call
projeflion to that in the weft, 42. It is generally di¬
vided into the baronies of Kendal and Weftmordand :
the former is very mountainous, but the latter is a large
champaign country. Thefe are the only principal divi-
Aons of this county, which contains eight market towns,
26 pariffies, and 41,617 inhabitants. It lies partly in
the diocefe of Chefter, and partly in that of Carlifle.
The earl of Thanet is hereditary Iheriff of the county,
•which fends only four members to parliament. The air
is clear, Aiarp, and falubrious, the natives being fddom
troubled with difeafes, and generally living to old age.
The foil is various $ that on the mountains is very bar¬
ren, while that in the valleys is fertile, producing good
corn and grafs, efpecially in the meadows near the ri¬
vers. In the hilly parts on the weftern borders it is ge¬
nerally believed there are vaft quantities of copper ore,
and veins of gold ; fome mines of copper are worked,
but moft of the ore lies fo deep that it will not anfwsr
[ 696 ]
Wet item
WET C 697 ] W H A
WeftmoVe- the expence. This county yields the finefl: Hate, and
land abundance of excellent hams are cured here. The prin-
Wetftein cTa^ r^vers are, the Eden, the Lone, and the Ken. It
■ . has alfo feveral fine lakes, the principal of which is
Winander Mere, or Windermere water. In the foreft
of Martindale, to the fouth of Ulls-water, the breed of
red deer {fill exifts in a wild {fate.—Appleby is the
county town.
WESTPHALIA, formerly a duchy of Germany,
bounded to the eaft by the bifhopric of Paderborn, and
the territories of Waldeck and Hefle j to the fouth by
the counties of Witgenftein and Naffau, and the duchy
of Berg ; to the north by the bifliopric of Munfter and
the county of Lippe. It is about 40 miles in length
and 30 in breadth. The lower part of it is very fruit¬
ful, yielding plenty of corn and cattle, and fome fait
fprings. The higher affords iron ore, calamine, lead,
copper, fome filver and gold, fine woods, cattle, game,
fifh, with a little corn. The rivers, that either pafs
through the duchy or along its borders, are the Rahr,
the Lenne, the Bigge, the Dimel, and the Lippe. There
are 28 towns in it, befides boroughs and cloifters. The
provincial diets are held at Arenfberg. In the year
1180, the emperor Fred. I. made a donation of this
duchy to the archbifhopric of Cologne, which was con¬
firmed by fucceeding emperors; and in 1638, the laft
duke of Arenlherg ceded to it alfo the county of Arens-
berg.
Westphalia, one of the circles of Germany, an¬
ciently the people inhabiting between the Wefer and
the Rhine, were called Wejiphalians; and hence that
tra£f got the name of We/lphalia : but thevcircle of that
name is of a larger extent, being furrounded by the cir¬
cle of Burgundy, or the Auftrian Netherlands, the Unit¬
ed Provinces, and the North fea, with the circles of the
Upper and Lower Rhine, and comprifing a great many
different ffates.
The fummoning princes and direftors of the circle of
Weftphalia, were the biftiops of Munfter, alternately
with the eleftors of Brandenburg and Palatine, as dukes
of Cleve and Juliers. The archives belonging to it were
before the war (1797) kept at Duffeldorp. Its quota
of men and money is fomewhat more than the ninth part
of the whole fum granted by the empire. With refpett
to religion, it is partly Proteftant and partly Catholic ;
but the Proteftants predominate, and are, at leaft the
greater part of them, Calvinifts. The air of this coun¬
try is not reckoned very wholefbme, and towards the
north is extremely cold in winter. The foil in general
is marfhy and barren ; yet there is forae good corn and
pafture land ; but the fruit is chiefly ufed to feed hogs ;
and hence it is that their bacon and hams are fo much
valued and admired.
Weftphalia now forms one of the kingdoms eftablifti-
ed by Bonaparte.
WESTRING I A, a genus of plants, formed from
cunila fruticofa, which was difcovered by Dr Solander
in New Holland. Dr Smith defcribes it as approaching
nearer to rofemary, and places it after teucrium in the
clafs didynamia.
WE F-couch, Coming-heap, a term ufed by the malt-
fters for one of the principal articles of malt-making.
See Brewing, N° 4.
WE IS FEIN, John James, a learned German di¬
vine, was born at Bafil in 1693. On his admiflion to
Vol. XX. Part II.
the miniftry, he maintained a thefts De varus Novi Te-
Jlamend Le&ionibus ; in which he (bowed that the great ^Ji
variety of readings of the New Teftament afford no ar- ‘n 0l'
gument againft the authenticity of the text. He had made
thefe various readings the object of his attention ; and
travelled into foreign countries to examine all the MSS.
he could come at. In 1730, he pubhfhed Prolegomena
ad Novi 1 ejlamenti Greeci editionem occuratijjimam, la'c.
Some divines, dreading his unfettling the prelent text,
procured a decree of the fenate of Bafil againft his un¬
dertaking, and even got him prohibited from officiating
in the miniftry ; on which he went to Amfterdam,
wdiere the Remonftrants named him to fucceed the fa¬
mous Le Clerc, then fuperannuated, as profeffor of phi-
lofophy and hiftory. At laft he publilhed his edition of
the New Teftament, in 2 vols. folio, 1752; in which he
left the text as he found it, placing the various readings,
with a critical commentary, underneath ; fubjoining two
epiftles of Clemens Romanus, till then unknown to the
learned, but difcovered by him in a Syriac MS. of the
New Teftament. He alfo publifhed fome fmall works;
and is faid to have been not only an univerfal fcholar,
but to have abounded in good and amiable qualities. He
died at Amfterdam in 1754.
WETTER AVI A, the fouthem divifion of the !and-
gravate of Heffe in Germany, lying along the northern
bank of the river Maine, and comprehending the coun¬
ties of Hanau and Naffau.
WEXFORD, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Munfter, 38 miles in length, and 24 in breadth;
bounded on the north by Wicklow, on the eaft by St
George’s channel, on the fouth by the Atlantic ocean,
on the weft by Waterford and Kilkenny, and on the
north by Catherlough. It contains 109 parifhes, and
formerly fent 18 members to the Irifli parliament. It
is a fruitful country in corn and grafs ; and the princi¬
pal town is of the fame name.
Wexford, a fea-port of Ireland, capital of a county
of the fame name. It was once reckoned the chief city
in Ireland, being the firft colony of the Englilh, and is
ftill a large handfome town, with a very commodious
harbour at the mouth of the river Slana, on a bay of St
George’s channel, 63 miles fouth of Dublin. W. Long.
6. 3. N. Lat. 52. 18.
WHALE. See Bal^ena and Physeter, Ceto-
LOGY Index.
Whale, one of the conftellatlons. See Astronomy.
WHALE-Bone. For it* natural hiftory, fee Cetology
Index.
A patent was granted in O&ober 1806 to Robert
Bowman of Leith, in Scotland, for making hats, caps,
and bonnets for men and women, of whalebone; harps
for harping or cleanfing corn or grain ; and alfo the bot¬
toms of fieves and riddles, and girths for horfes ; and
alfo a cloth or -webbing for making into hats, caps, &c.;
and for the backs and feats of chairs and fofas, gigs,
coaches, and other fimilar carriages ; and the bottoms of
beds ; as alfo re^ds for weavers.
Whale- FiJhenj. See Cetology.
WHARF, a fpace on the banks of a haven, creek,
or hithe, provided for the convenient loading and un¬
loading of veffels.
W HARTON, Philip duke of, a nobleman of the
moft brilliant parts, but of the moft whimfical, extrava¬
gant, and inconfiftent turn of mind, was educated by his
4 T father’s
W H A
Wharton; father’s exprefs order at home.
'"“'Y'-’-'' a young lady, the daughter of Major-General Holmes,
 _ 1.    ^ J V-> i r- ♦Viflnov'c t t i o t*to rvr ri il r>r\1in rr r^r rum
which dilappointed his father’s views of difpofing of him
in fuch a marriage as would have been a coniiderable
addiiion to the fortune and grandeur of his illuftrious
family ; yet that amiable lady deferved infinitely more
felicity than die met with by this alliance. This pre¬
cipitate marriage is thought to have haflened the death
of his father ; after which the duke, being free from pa¬
ternal reftiaints, plunged into thofe excelfes which ren¬
dered him, as Pope expreffes it,
“ A tyrant to the wife his heart approv’d j
“ A rebel to the very king he lov’d.”
In the beginning of the year 1716, he began his tra¬
vels j and as he was defigned to be inftrufted in the
Ifricleii Whig principles, Geneva was thought a proper
place for his refidence, He firft paffed through Holland,
and vifited feveral courts of Germany and being arriv¬
ed at Geneva, conceived fuch a difguit againft his go¬
vernor, that he left him, and fet out poll for Lyons,
where he wurote a letter to the chevalier de St George,
who then refided at Avignon, and prefented him a very
fine flout horfe j wdiich the chevalier no fooner received
than he fent a man of quality to him, who took him pri¬
vately to his court, where he was entertained with the
greatefl marks of efleem, and had the title of duke of
Northumberland conferred upon him. He, however,
remained there but one day, and then returned poll to
Lyons, whence he fet out for Paris. He likewife paid
a vifit to the confort of Janies II. who then refided at
St Germains, to whom he alfo paid his court. During
his flay at Paris, his winning addrefs and abilities gain¬
ed him the efteem and admiration of all the Britifla fub-
jefts of rank of both parties.
About the latter end of December 1716, he arrived
in England, whence he foon after fet out for Ireland,
where, though under age, he was allowed the honour
to take his feat in the houfe of peers, and immediately
diftinguilhed himfelf, notwithftanding his former con-
dufl, as a violent partizan for the miniftry } in confe-
quence of which zeal the king created him a duke. He
no fooner came of age than he was introduced to the
houfe of lords in England with the fame blaze of repu¬
tation. In a little time be oppofed the court, and ap¬
peared one of the moft vigorous in defence of the bifhop
of Rochefler ; and foon after printed his thoughts tw'ice
a-wTeek, in a paper called the True Briton, feveral thou-
fands of which were circulated.
The duke’s boundlefs profufion had by this time fo
burdened his eftate, that by a decree of Chancery it was
veiled in the hands of truftees for the payment of his
debts, allowing him a provifion of 1 200I. per annum for
his fubflftence. This being infufficient to fupport his
title with fuitable dignity, he went abroad and {hone to
great advantage, with refpefl to his perfonal charafter,
at the imperial court. From thence he made a tour to
Spain : the Englilh minifter was alarmed at his arrival,
fearing that his grace wras received in the charafler of
an ambaffador : upon which the duke received a fum-
mons under the privy-feal to return home} but inllead
of obeying it, be endeavoured to inflame the Spanifh
court againll that of Great Britain, for exercifing an aft
of power, as he calls it, within the jurifdiftion of his
Catholic majefly. He then afted openly in the fervice
[ 698 ] w H A
He very early married of the Pretender, and was received at his court with the Whavto*.
greateft marks of favour.
While his grace was thus employed, his neglefted
duchefs died in England on the 14th of April 1726,
without ilfue. Soon after the duke fell violently in love
with M. Oberne, one of the maids of honour to the
queen of Spain, the daughter of an Irilh colonel, whofe
fortune chiefly^confifted in her perfonal accomplilhments.
All his friends, and particularly the queen of Spain, op¬
pofed the match } but he falling into a lingering fever,
occafioned by his difappointment, the queen gave her
confent, and they were foon after married. He then
fpent lome time at Rome, where he accepted ol a blue
garter, allumed the title of duke of Northumberland,
and for a while enjoyed the confidence of the exiled
prince. But not always keeping within the bounds of
Italian gravity, it became neccflary for him to remove
from hence } when, going by lea to Barcelona, he wrote
a letter to the king of Spain acquainting him that he
would aililt at the liege of Gibraltar as a volunteer.
Soon after he wrote to the chevalier de St George, ex¬
prefling a defire to vilit his court } but the chevalier ad-
vifed him to draw near to England,
The duke feemed refolved to iollow his advice } and
fetting out with his duchefs, arrived in Paris in May
1728, whence he foon after proceeded to Rouen, where
he took up his refidence } and was lo far from making
any conceflion to the government of England, that he
did not give himlelf the leall trouble about his ellate, or
any other concern there } though, on his arrival at
Rouen, he had only about 600I. in his pofleflion, and a
bill of indictment was preferred again!! him in England
for high-treafon. Soon after the chevalier fent him
2000I. which he fquandered away in a courfe of extra¬
vagance } when, to fave the charges of travelling by
land, he went from Orleans to Nantz by water, and
flaid there till he got a remittance from Paris, which
was fquandered almolt as foon as received. At Nantz
he was joined by his ragged fervants, and from hence
took flapping with them for Bilboa, when the queen of
Spain took the duchefs to attend her perfon. About
the beginning of the year 1731, the duke, who com¬
manded a regiment, was at Lenda, but declined fo1 fall
that he could not move without afliftance } yet when
free from pain did not lofe his gaiety. He, however,
received benefit from fome mineral waters in Catalonia }
but foon after relapfed at a fmall village, where he was
utterly deftitute of all the neceffaries of life, till fome
charitable fathers of a Bernardine convent removed him
to their houfe, and gave him all the relief in their power.
Under their hofpitable roof he languilhed a week, and
then died, without one friend or acquaintance to clofe
his eyes } and his funeral was performed in the fame
manner in which the fathers inter thofe of their own
fraternity.
Thus died Philip duke of Wharton, “ who, like
Buckingham and Rochefter (fays Mr Walpole), com¬
forted all the grave and dull, by throwing away the
brighteft profufion of parts on witty fooleries, debauch¬
eries, and ferapes, which mix graces with a great cha-
rafter, but never can compofe one.
“ With attachment to no party, though with talents
to govern any party, this lively man changed the free
air of Weftminiler for the gloom of the Efcurial, the
profpeft of King G.eorge’s garter for the Pretender’s}
and
W H E t 7
Wimtan, auj Vvitli indifference to all religion, the frolic lord who
, vilc‘,1:- had written the ballad on the archbiihop of Canterbury,
died in the h?roit of a capuchin. It is difficult to give
an account fof the works of a man whofe library was a
tavern, and'women of pleafure his mufes. A thoufand
fallies of Jhis imagination may have been loll. There
are only two volumes in 8vo, called his Life and Writ¬
ings. Thefe contain nothing of the latter, but 74
numbers of the True Briton, and his fpeech in defence
of the biffiop of Rochefter. His other works are the
ballads above mentioned ; the Drinking Match at
Eden-hall, in imitation of the Chevy Chace, printed in
a milcellany called Whartoniana; and a parody of a
fong fung at the opera-houfe by Mrs Tofts. His lord-
ffiip alfo began a play on the Rory of the queen of
Scots.”
WHEAT. See Triticum, Botany Index ; and
for the culture of wheat, fee Agriculture Index.
The three principal kinds of bad wheat are, the
blighted, the fmutty, and the worm-eaten. Blighted
wrheat is that of which the ftalk is a little twifled and
rickety, the blade, being of a bluiffi green and curled up,
the grain alfo is green and tubercled; fmutty wheat
appears as if great part of the ear had been burnt, forne
fmall parts only being free, and, in particular, the Rem
that riles in the centre of the ear, round which the grain
is ranged : worm-eaten or rotten wheat is corrupted
without lofmg much of its natural form, or external ap^
pearance; the hulk is filled with a greafy black pow-
P/ r-e Dii- t*er’ t^at is infufferably fetid. It appeared, from the
fir union by experiments of M. Tillet, that there was a kind of in-
‘the Acade- feftious quality in all thofe kinds of wffieat : fo that if
°f-Boar-found wheat was fprinkled with the flour of fmutty or
dfabx. rotten wffieat, the crop produced would be rotten or
fmutty. It appeared allb, that among the grain which
was produced from ground manured with the flraw of
difiempered wheat, there was a much greater proportion
of diRempered wheat than in that produced from ground
manured with the Rraw of good wffieat: the great fecret
then was to deftroy the principle of this contagion in
the wffieat that w'as put into the ground 5 and M. Tillet
found, as the refult of a great number of experiments,
that if the grain, before it is fowed, be w’ell moiflened
wuth a folution of fea-falt, or nitre, in common water,
none of the enfuing crop will be fmutty, or othemife
defe&ive, either in kind or quality ; not only fuppofing
the grain that is fowed to be found, and the foil to be
good, but even fuppofing the grain to be Rrewed w'ith
the dour of fmutty wheat, and the ground manured with
bad ffrauu
The following receipt for preventing fmutty wffieat
was publiffied in 1769 by order of the" Society for the
Encouragement of Arts : they received it from Mr
John Reynolds of Adilham in Kent.
A tub is to be procured that has a hole at bottom, in
which a Raff and tap-hofe is to be fixed over a whifp of
Rraw, to prevent any fmall pieces of lime paffing (as in
the brewing wTay) ; this done, wffi put 70 gallons of wa¬
ter, then a corn buffiel heap-full of Rone-lime, unflaked,
Rirring it well till the whole is diffolved or mixed, let¬
ting it Rand about 30 hours, and then run it oft' into
another tub as clear as we can (as praftifed in beer):
this generally produces a hoglhead of good Rrong lime-
water j then add three pecks of fait, 42 pounds, which,
with a little ftirring, will foon diffolve; thus we have
99 ] Vv H E
a proper pickle for the purpofe of brining and liming our WL-eaf,
feed-wheat without any manner of obftacle, which is v,r^eel-
more than can be faid in doing it the common way, and icani3ges-
greatly facilitates the drilling. V
Herein we Reep the wheat in a bread-bottomed bafket
of about 24 inches diameter, and 20 inches deep (for
large fowing, made on purpole), running in the grain gra¬
dually in fmall quantities from 10 to 12 gallons up to 16
gallons, Rirring the fame. What floats, we fkim off w’ith
a ftrainer, and is not to be fown: then draw up the bafket
to drain over the pickle, for a few minutes 5 all which
may be performed within half an hour, fufficiently
pickled; and fo proceed as before. This done, the
wheat will be fit for fowing in 24 hours, if required;
but if defigned for drilling, two hours pickled will be
found belt } and if prepared four or five days before¬
hand, in either cafe it makes no difference at all; but
fliould the feed be clammy, and flick to the notches in
the drill-box, more lime muff; be added to the lime-wa¬
ter ; here the mafter muft ufe his diferetion, as the cafe
requires; for feme lime has much more drying or
aftringent qualities in it than others. If fea-water can
be obtained conveniently, much lefs fait will fuffice, but
fome will be found neceffary even then, otherwife the
grains will not float, a thing of more confequencc
than is generally imagined, and it ought to be fkimmed
off and thrown afide for poultry, &c.
WHEEL, in Mechanics, a Ample machine, confift-
ing of a round piece of wood, metal, or other matter,
which revolves on its axis. See Mechanics.
WliEEL-Carriages. See Mechanics for an account
of the general principles.
No kind of wheel-carriages are of more importance
to a commercial and manufadluring country than ftage
coaches; and perhaps in no kingdom of Europe has the
fyftem of travelling in public vehicles been carried to
greater perfeflion, as to comfort and fpeed, than in Bri¬
tain. I he danger, however, of travelling by thefe
coaches makes ccnfiderable deduction from their accom¬
modation otherwife : it is but too well known that this
mode of travelling is liable to frequent and ferious acci¬
dents. Every attempt therefore that promifes to be ufe-
ful in diminifhing Rich danger fliould have all poffible
publicity. With this view we are much gratified in
having an opportunity of laying before our readers the
following account of an invention to render ftage
coaches more fecure from danger, obligingly tranfmitted
to us by the inventor, the reverend William Milton of
Heckfield, Hants. For this invention that gentleman
has obtained a patent.
The danger of ftage coaches arifes fometimes from
overturning, and fometimes from breaking down. The
overturn is, in general, occafioned either by taking two
fide-wheels into too deep a hole or ditch, or over too
high a bank; or, fecondly, by running down more
quickly than the carriage is calculated to do, from the
top to the ftdes of a rounded road j or, laftly, by turn¬
ing a fliarp coiner with too great velocity. In the two
firft cates the danger arifes from the centre of gravity of
the total coach and load being placed too high j and in
the laft inflance, of turning the (harp corner, from the
fame centre (but which we muft now confider as the
centre of the vis mertiaf} being alto placed too high.
The danger in the two firft cafes grows often out of the
very circumftances of the road, and meets every one’s
4 T 2 comprehenlion ;
W H E [ 700 ] W H E
Wh'^cl- compvehenfion : the lafl, which is lefs obvious, is gene-
, <aniageg. ^ rai]y ow;ng to the mere will of the driver 5 and the bet-
v~ " ter the road, the more is he tempted, without any inten¬
tion, to go on to produce it: it requires therefore to be
more generally underftood than it is. It may be thus
explained :—A carriage is going along a ftraight level
road at the rate of nine miles an hour: then, though
you imagine the horfes or pulling power to be in an in-
ftant withdrawn, yet will the carriage continue its mo¬
tion fox ten, fifteen, or more yards, and at firft with the
fame veloeity, and in the fame Jiraight line, in confe-
quence of the acquired motion. Suppofing, now, the
coach with its four horfes going the nine miles an hour
along a fine level road, but which has a fharp andfud-
den corner to turn ;—the coachman knows it, and wilhes
to keep his velocity; the horfes are aware of both—
and by the animal dexterity with which they are gifted,
contrive to make the turn without remitting any thing of
their fpeed. Notfo the coach which follows them; that has
a tendency to perfevere in its Jiraight line ; and the cen¬
tre of its effort to do fo is the centre of its vis inertice,
the very centre of its gravity. If this centre be low, the
turn of the corner may be made with no other incon¬
venience than a ftiort awkward Hide of the hind wheels,
onward in the original direElion $ whereas, if it be high,
there will be no Hide, but the coach will be overturned,
and overturned nearly at that point where its broadfide
is at reflangles to the ftraight line of road it has been
thus forced to quit: for at that point the bafe againft
fuch an overturn will be the moft difadvantageous, and
the check to the onward motion the greateft. The
remedy offered againft all thefe caufes of the overturn,
(whether by a ditch, batik, rounded road, or fharp corn-
erf is to bring down this centre, by placing as much of
the luggage as poffible in a luggage-box, below the body
of the carriage ; the body not being higher than ufual.
From the overturn, we pafs to the confideration of
the breaking-down; this we muft reckon on happen¬
ing as often in thefe patent ftage coaches as in others.
Wheels will come off or fail, or axles will break, in fu¬
ture, as they have done heretofore; but againft the dif-
aftrous and fatal confequences of fuch accidents the re¬
medy offered may be thus defcribed.—On each fide of
the luggage-box, with their periphery below its floor,
and each as near as may be requifite to its refpeftive
aclive wheel, there is placed a fmall frong idle wheel,
ready in cafe of breaking down, on either fide, to catch
the falling carriage, and infantly to continue its previous
velocity, till the coachman can pull up his horfes, thereby
preventing that fudden fop to rapid motion, which at
prefent conftantly attends the breaking-down; and
which has fo frequently proved fatal to the coachman
and outfide paffengers. In cafe a fore-wheel comes
off, each end of the fore-carriage has its idle wheel.
By this proviflon we lhall be, to all ejfeB offafety, con¬
tinually travelling with two carriages under us. The
bottom of this luggage-box is meant to be about four¬
teen inches from the ground; and the idle wheels feven,
fix, or five ; but if at a ftill lefs diftance, little inconve¬
nience would refult \ for when either of them takes
over an obftacle in the road, it inftantly, and during
the need, difeharges its refpeflive a&ive wheel from the
ground, and works in its ftead. If thefe two principles
of fafety w ere applied to the defeription of the feveral
ftage-coach accidents we meet with, there is no doubt
but a general convi&ion would arife, that the fafety by Wheel-
thefe modes is (in vehicles of all kindsj, perhaps as carnages
great as can conjif with rapid loco-motim; and wheeler
fooner or latter, legifative authority, in Icfme lhape or
other, may judge rt neceffary to interpofe,r/or the pur-
pofe of controlling a prejudice againft the form ejfen-
tial to this mode of fafety. The trial and proof which
thefc principles have been brought to, have not only
been by public exhibition, and with preparation j but
in all the fuddennefs, alio, of a&ual heavy work : and the
refult in both cafes has been fo exadly the fame, as to
give continual ajfurance of the full effeft of the remedy,
as often as the cafualties of the road ftiall bring it into
aflion.
The aim in the arrangement of this coach of fafety,
has been to bring dowm the load, and confequently the
center of gravity, as low as poflible : this is thought to
make the coach . look heavy; and this wwd, by the
. ready operation of a prejudice, has been transferred to
its going; and one fpecific reafon added withal, that,
becaufe the load is low, the draught muf be heavy.
This point, however, has, in the prefence of 10 or 12
competent perfons,* been brought to the moft decifive
proof j and it comes out, that it is as indifferent to
draught, as it is material to danger or fafety, whether
a ton be placed on the roof of a coach, or a ton on the
floor of the patent luggage-box, about 15 or 16 inches
from the ground.
It has been a Iked, “ What would this coach do in
flowThe queftion has been thus anfwered by the
refult of a&ual work •, for the patent coach, after being
detained on the road with feveral other coaches, by a
fudden fall of fnow, when at laft they ftarted together,
came in fx or feven hours before any of them. They
were bound in prudence, to go cautioufly along the
ground, whofe unevennefs was invifible j while the pa¬
tent coach dallied along it with all the confidence and
fafety of a poft-chaife. See Plate DLXXVII.
Wheel-Animal. See Animalcule, N° 16—23.
WHEEL, Perfan. See Agriculture.
Wheel, Potter's See Porcelain.
Wheel is alfo the name of a kind of punilhment to
which great criminals are put in divers countries. In
fome, affaffms, parricides, and robbers on the highway,
are faid to be condemned to the wheel, when they are
to have their bones firft broken with an iron bar on a
fcaffold, and then to be expofed, and left to expire on
the circumference of a wheel. In Germany they break
their bones on the wheel itfelf.—Of this cruel punish¬
ment, it is not certain who was the inventor: it was.
firft ufed in Germany, and was, indeed, but rarely prac-
tifed anywhere elfe, till the time of Francis I. of France;
who, by an edi£l: of the year 1534* appointed it to be
infli&ed on robbers on the highway.
WHEELER, Sir George, a learned traveller and
divine, was the fon of Colonel Wheeler of Charing in
Kent, and was born in 1650 at Breda, where his pa¬
rents as royalifts were then in exile. Fie travelled
through various parts of Greece and the Eaft, in com¬
pany with Dr James Spon of Lyons ; and taking orders
on his return, was inftalled a prebend of Durham, made
vicar of Bafingftoke; and afterward re&or of Houghton
le Spring. He publiftied an account of his Travels in
1682 in folio; and in 1689, his Obfervations on An¬
cient Edifices of Churches yet remaining in the Eaft,
compared
f
Wheelings
, I!
Whidah.
W H I F 70
compared with Eufebius: alfo the Proteilant IVxonaftery,
or Chriftian Oeconomics. He died in I724‘
WHEELINGS, in the military art, are different
motions made both by horfe and foot, either to the right
and left, or to the right and left about.
General Rules for WHEELING—The circle is divid¬
ed into four equal points : thence, wheeling to the right
or left, is only a quarter of the circle ; wheeling to the
right or left about, is one half or the circle.
When you wheel to the right, you are to clofe to the
right, fo near as to touch your right-hand man, but with¬
out prefling him ; and to look, to the left, in order to
bring the rank about even.
When you wheel to the left, you are to clofe to the
left, and look to the right as above diretted. This rule
will ferve for all the wheeling by ranks ; as when a bat¬
talion is marching by fubdiviffons with their ranks open,
then each rank wheels diftinftly by itfelf, when it comes
to the ground on which the ranks before it wheeled, but
not before.
In wheeling, the men are to take particular care
neither t’o open nor clofe their ranks, and to carry their
arms well.
In wheeling, the motion of each man is quicker or
flower, according to the diftance he is from the right or
the left: thus, when you wdieel to the right, each man
moves quicker than his right-hand man ^ and wheeling
to the left, each man moves quicker than his left-hand
man ; the circle that every man wheels being larger,
according to the diftance he is from the hand he wheels
to} as may be feen by defcribing feveral circles within
one another, at two feet diftance from each, which is
nearly the fpace every man is fuppofed to take up.
WHELK, a fpecies of (hell-fifli. See Buccinum,
Conchology Index.
WHELP, the young of a dog, fox, lion, or any wild
beaft.
Whelps, in a ftiip, the Teaman’s term for thofe
brackets which are fet up on the capftan clofe under the
bars ; they give the fweep to it, and are fo contrived
that the cable winding about them may not furge fo
much as it might otherwife do if the body of the cap¬
ftan were quite round and fmooth.
WHETSTONE, a ftone fo called, becaufe k ferves
for the whetting of edge tools upon. See Mineralogy
Index.
WHEY, the ferum or watery part of milk.
WHIDAH, a kingdom of Africa, on the coaft. of
Guinea, and to the weft of the Gold Coaft •, extending
about 10 miles along the fea. It is a populous country,
well furnifhed with large villages 5 and there are fo
many fmall ones, that they are not above a mufket-fhot
from each other.—The houfes are fmall, round at the
top, and encompaffed with mud walls or hedges, to¬
gether with a great number of all forts of beautiful and
lofty trees, which afford the moft beautiful profpeft in
the world, infomuch that thofe that have been here re*
prefent it as a perfeft paradife. The fields are always
green, and they cultivate beans, potatoes, and fruits;
nor will the negroes here let a foot of ground remain
uncultivated. They fow again the very next day after
they have reaped. The inhabitants are greatly civili¬
zed, very refpeftful to each other, efpecially to their
fuperiors, and very induftrious. The women brew the
beer, drels the vi&uals, and fell all forts of commodities
Whidah
I 1 W H I
at the market. Thofe that are ri«h employ their wives
and flaves in tilling the land, and they carry on a con-
fiderable trade with the produfl, as well as in flaves \ <
for fome of them are able to deliver 1000 of the latter
every month. The chief men have generally 40 or 50
wives, the principal captains 300 or 400, and the king
4000 or 5000. They are extremely jealous, and, on
the leaft fufpicion, will fell them to the Europeans for
flaves. If any one happen to touch one of the king’s
wives accidentally, he is doomed to perpetual flavery. It
is no wonder then that the women are not fond of being
the king’s wives; and fome of them will prefer a fpeedy
death to fuch a miferable life. They have no diftinc-
tion of hours, days, weeks, months, or yearsk The rite
of circumcifion is ufed here 5 but they are not able to
tell why they ufe it, nor whence it is derived. They
are fucb great gamefters, that they will flake all they
have at play, not excepting their wives and children.
They have a vaft number of idols •, and they deify the
moft contemptible animal that they fee firft in a morn¬
ing, and even ftocks and ftones. Their principal re¬
gard is for fnakes, very high trees, and the fea. An
Englifti fa£tor, juft arrived, found a fnake in the houfe
belonging to the faftory, and killed ij without the leaft
fcruple 5 which fo incenfed the negroes, that they were
for revenging the death of the fnake, not only upon him
that killed it, but upon the whole faftory ; but by
means of prefents, and the interpofition of the people of
the other factories, the affair was made up, and the fnake
honourably interred. However, to prevent fuch acci¬
dents, they gave them warping not to do the like for
the future. They have oxen, cows, goats, ftieep, hogs,
turkeys, ducks, and hens; which laft are extremely
plentiful. There are many elephants, buftaloes, tigers,
feveral kinds of deer, and a fort of hares. 1 he fruits
are citrons, lemons, oranges, bananas, tamarinds, &c.
and they have vaft numbers of palm-trees, from which
they obtain wine. Whidah was conquered by the king
of Dahomy. Their trade confifts of flaves, elephants
teeth, wax, and honey. The Englifti faftory is 200
miles eaft of Cape Coaft Caftle, wfithin land. Bows, ar¬
rows, beautiful aflaguays, and clubs, are the principal
weapons of the nation.
WHIDAW-Bird. See Emberiza, Ornitholo^
GY Index $
WHIG, a perfon belonging to a political party in
Britain, oppofite to the Tories. See Tories, and Bri¬
tain.
WHIMBREL. See Scolopax, Ornithology
Index.
WHIN. See Ulex, Bqtany Index.
WHINCHAT. See Motacilla, Ornithology
Index.
WHIP, or Whip-Staff, in a fhip, a piece of timber,
in form of a ftrong ftaflF, faftened into the helm, for the
fteerfman, in fmall (hips, to hold in his hand, in ordjgr to
move the rudder, and direft the fhip.
WHIRLPOOL, an eddy, vortex, or gulf, where the
water is continually turning round.
Thofe in rivers are very common, from various acci¬
dents, and are ufually very trivial, and of little confe-
quence. In the fea they are more rare, but more dan¬
gerous. Sibbald has related the effefts of a very re¬
markable marine whirpool among the Orcades, which
would prove very dangerous to ftrangers, though it is
of
W H I [ 7o
Whirlwind. •n0- cr,nl'e<iucnce to t!'le people K-lio are ufed to it.
t -^his is not fixed to any particular place, but appears in
various parts of the limits of the fea among thefe ifknds.
Wherever it appears, it is very furious; and boats, &c.
would inevitably be drawn in and periih with it'; but the
people who navigate them are prepared for it, and al¬
ways carry an empty veffel, a log of wood, or large
bundle of tfraw, or fome fuch thing, in the boat with
them ; as foon as they perceive the whirlpool, they tofs
this within its vortex, keeping themfelves out : this fub-
flance, whatever it be, is immediately received into the
centre, and carried under water; and as foon as this is
done, the furface of the place where the whirpool was
becomes fmooth, and they rowr over it with fafety ; and
in about an hour they fee the vortex begin again in
fome other place, ufually at about a mile’s diftance from
the firif.
W HIRLWIND, a wind which moves in a fpiral di-
redfion, as well as horizontally, which is exceedingly
rapid and impetuous, but only of fliort duration.
Or Franklin’s opinion of the origin of whirlwinds
has been already given in the article WATER-Sfiout. If
his theory be true, it will follow, that no hurricane ever
can be fo violent as to remove an obftacle of the fize of
only one cubic inch, provided that was fupported by a
power equivalent to 15 pounds; for this is the utmoil
force of the atmofphere when rufhing into a perfedl va¬
cuum, which never could take place in the centre of a
whirlwind or water-fpout. Indeed, notwithftanding the
dreadful effedb fometimes obferved from hurricanes and
whirlwinds, we (hall eafily perceive, that the utmoft of
their power always falls very far fhort of this. The di¬
minution of the fpecific gravity of the air by only one-
fourth in the middle of the column, would produce fuch
an afflux of air from all quarters, that an obflacle pre-
fenting a furface of one foot fquare, would require a force
ai 5°4 pounds to prevent it from being carried away;
which the ftrongeft walls that can be built by human
art could fflarce refifi. Nay, even the tenth part of
this, or the diminution of the gravity of the atmofphere
by one-fortieth part, would produce a prefifure of up¬
wards of 50 pounds on every fquare foot of furface,
which, it is to be doubted, whether any of our common
houfes could refill.
Some philofophers afcribe the vacuum in the atmo¬
fphere, to which, according to Dr Franklin’s theory,
whirlwinds are owing, to a llream of eleftric matter ruffl¬
ing with violence into the atmofphere out of the earth.
But they do not inform us how this matter comes to be
accumulated in that part of the earth ; what induces
it to pafs out of the earth ; how it paffes invifibly
through pure air ; or what ferves it for a con¬
ductor. It leems to be the fafhion among certain
philofophers to afcribe every phenomenon, with the
caufe of which we are unacquainted, to electricity.
But this is merely fubftituting a new name, and ferves
rather to retard than advance our knowledge of nature.
Some kinds of whirlwinds move with a flow motion,
and are injurious only by their vortex ; while others
feem to do mifchief as well by their progrefflve as their
whirling motion. Of this kind are thofe called typhous;
which, by their frequently following the courfe of ri¬
vers, leem thus alffl to difeover their eleCtrical origin.
Of tlie deftructive efFeCts of thefe, we have an initance
in what happened in Charleftown in South Carolina, on
2
Whift.
J ] W h 1
the III June 1761. It was 6.(1 obferved about noon.Wl.irlaM
on land, upwards of 50 miles weft by fouth of Charles- 11
town, and deftroyed feveral houfes, &c. as it palled
along, in many places making wide avenues through
the woods; from whence every tree and fflrub was torn
up, and great branches of trees were driven about in
the column as it palled along. It direCled its courfe
to Afflley river, down which it came with furprifing
velocity ; in its appearance refembling a column of
Imoke or vapour, whofe motion was very irregular anti
tumultuous. Its momentum was fo great, that Alhley
river was ploughed to the bottom, and the channel laid
ba^‘ r,As ca,me d.own. this river, it made a conftant
node like thunder ; its diameter being computed about
306 fathoms. It was met at White Point by another of
the lame kind which came down Cooper’s river, but with
inferior ftrength ; however, on their meeting together
the agitation of the air was much greater, while the*
clouds, which were driving in all direftions to the place,
feemed to be precipitated, and whirled round with in¬
credible velocity. It then fell upon the fflipping in the
road ; entirely deftroying fome, and damaging others :
being fcarce three minutes in its paffage, though the di¬
ftance was near two leagues. In that fflort time it did
damage to the amount of 2o,oool.; and had not its di*
redhon been altered by that gulf which came down
Cooper s river, it muft have totally deftroyed Charlef¬
town, as no obftacle whatever feemed capable of refift-
ing its fury.
WHISKY, a term fignifying water, and applied in
Scotland and in Ireland to a diftilled liquor drawn from
barley.
WHISPERING-places. See Acoustics, N* 24,
WHIST, a well known game at cards, which re¬
quires great attention and filence ; hence the name.
1 his game is played by four perfons, who cut for
partners; the two higheft and the two loweft are toge¬
ther, and the partners fit oppofite to each other : The
perfon who cuts the loweft card is to deal firft, giving
one at a time to each perfon, till he comes to the laft
card, which is turned up for the trump, and remains
on the table till each perfon has played a card. The
peifon on the left hand fide of the dealer plays firft, and
whoever wins the trick is to play again, thus goin’a on
till the cards are played out. The ace, king, queen, and
knave of trumps, are called honours; in cafe any three
of thefe honours have been played between, or by either
of the two partners, they reckon for two points towards
the game; and if the four honours have been played be¬
tween, or by either of the two partners, they reckon for
four points towards the game, the game confifting of
ten points. The honours are reckoned after the tricks;
all above fix tricks reckoning alfo towards the game.
Cteneraf Ru/es for playing the Game of Whist. 
1. He who is to play firft fflould lead from the ftron^eft:
fuit. If he has a fequence of king, queen, and knave,
or queen, knave and ten, he may fafely lead the higheft
of the fequence ; but if he has five or fix in number, he
muft begin with the loweft. He muft always begin
with the higheft trump, by which he forces out the fu-
perior trumps, and can come in again, to make his ftrono-
fuit. &
2. He fflould never be afraid to play trumps when he
has five in his hand, even of the fmalleft, although he
may not have any good cards of any other fuit.
3. With
W H I [ 703 ] w H 1
Wliift. Witli ace and king ot any two fuits, and only two
■"■’V or three fmall trumps, the aces and kings fhould be
played out, in order to make as many tricks as podible;
and having but two or three fmall trumps, he fhould
never force his partner to trump, if he finds he cannot
follow fuit 5 but endeavour to throw the lead into his
partner’s hand.
4. He fhould in general return his partner’s lead, un-
lefs he has fome capital cards of his own.
5. As this game is played with the lurch, that is, to
fave half the flake, five points muft be made before the
game is out: he fhould not venture to play trumps
when he is four of the game, unlefs he is very firong,
having at leaf! an honour and three trumps, or ace,
king, and trvo fmall ones.
6. When the game is fcored nine, at which ftage the
honours reckon for nothing, he fhould be flill more cau¬
tious how he plays trumps, even if he is flrong in hand,
and give his partner an opportunity of trumping the ad-
verfaries fuits, in cafe he is deficient in them.
7. If his adverfaries are fix or feven love of the game,
he fhould play a forward or bold game, that he may
have a chance, at the rifk of a trick or tvro, to come
up with them. If he has but three trumps and other
good cards, he may play trumps, efpecially if he has a
fequence, or queen, knave, and a fmall one.
8. He fhould always rifk a trick or two when the
game is much in his favour •, becaufe a new deal is of
greater confequence to the adverfary than one or two
points are to him.
9. When the player finds there is a likelihood of ei¬
ther faving the game or his lurch, he fhould rifk the odd
trick •, but if the game is five all, and he can make two
tricks in his own hand, he fhould make them, in order
to fecure the difference of two points, which make the
game near two to one in his favour.
10. A good player fhould begin with a fmall trump,
when he has ace, king, and four fmall ones; for this
reafon, if his partner has a better trump than the laft
player, which is an equal w7ager but he has, he has a
chance of fetching out all the trumps, by having three
rounds of them.
11. The odds are always in his favour that his part¬
ner holds an honour j confequently if he has king,
queen, and four fmall ones, he fhould begin with a fmall
one.
1 2. When queen, knave, and four fmall trumps are
dealt him, he fhould play a fmall one firft, the odds be¬
ing in his favour that his partner holds an honour} if
he has knave, ten, and four fmall trumps, he fhould alfo
begin with a fmall one, for the fame reafon.
13. If he has knave, ten, eight, and three fmall
trumps, the knave fhould be played firft, by which means
the nine may be prevented from winning a trick, the
odds being in his favour that three honours are played
in two rounds.
14. If an honour is turned up againft him on his left
hand, and he has ten, nine, and eight, with two or three
fmall trumps; when he is to play, he fhould play through
the honours with the ten, which wall force the dealer to
play his honour to a difadvantage, if the dealer does not Wluft.
choofe to leave it to the option of his adverfary whether
he will pafs it or not; but if he has fix trumps of a lower
denomination, and not ten, nine, and eight, and no ho¬
nour turned up againft; him, he Ihould begin with a fmall
one.
15. In general, when he has two capital cards in
trumps, and two or three fmall ones, he fhould begin
wdth a fmall one, for the reafon afligned in N® I 2.
16. When he has ace, king, knave, and twm fmall
trumps, or even one fmall trump, by firft playing the
king, and putting the lead into his partner’s hand, who
will play a trump ; judging him to have ace and knave,
from his beginning with the king: in this cafe the knave
fhould be fineffed (a), nothing being againft: him but
the queen.
17. If he has knave, ten, eight, and two fmall trumps,
by playing the knave firft, it is odds but in two rounds
of trumps the nine falls, or he may fineffe the eight
when his partner returns trumps.
18. With five trumps of a lower denomination, he
fhould begin wdth the fmalleft, unlefs he has a fequence
of ten, nine, and eight; then he fhould begin with the
ten.
19. When he has king, queen, ten, and one fmall
trump, he muft begin with the king, and wTait for his
partner’s return of the trumps, in order to fineffe the
ten, by w'hich means be may win the knave.
20. In order to prevent the ten from wanning, when
he has queen, knave, nine, and one fmall trump, he
muft begin with the queen. And in cafe he has knave,
ten, eight, and one fmall trump, he fhould begin with
the knave, that the nine may not win.
21. If he has ten, nine, eight, and one fmall trump,
he fhould begin wdth the ten j thereby he ftrengthens
his partner’s hand, leaving it at his option to take it or
not.
22. He fhould begin with a fmall one, when he has
the ten and three fmall trumps.
2^. If he has a good fuit, and ace, king, and four
fmall trumps, he mult play three rounds of trumps, in
order to fecure his ftrong fuit from being trumped.
24. When he has king, queen, ten, and three fmall
trumps, he fhould begin with the king, becaufe he has a
chance of the knave’s coming down in the fecond round ;
and to fecure his ftrong fuit, he fhould not wait to fineffe
the ten. If he fhould have queen, knave, and three fmall
trumps, and fome good fuit to make, he muft begin with
a {mall one.
25. If be has knave, ten, eight, and twm fmall trumps,
with a ftrong fuit, he fhould begin with the knave, in
order to make the nine fall in the fecond round 5 but if
he has knave, ten, and three fmall trumps, with a good
fuit, he fhould play a fmall one firft.
26. With ten, nine, eight, and one fmall trump, pro¬
vided he has a good fuit, he fhould begin with the ten 5
by which means he may get the trumps out, and have a
chance of making his ftrong fuit.
The following obfervations will enable a player to
know that his partner has no more of a fuit which either
of
(a) Fineffe, is to play a fmall card which may win, keeping the fuperior card or cards to lay over the right-
hand adverfary.
mift.
w h;i
of them has played. Suppofe he leads from queen, ten,
nine, and two imall cards of any fuit, the fecond hand
puts on the knave, his partner plays the eight j in this
cafe, he having queen, ten, and nine, it is a demonftra-
tion, if his partner plays well, that he can have no more
of that fuit. By that difeovery, he may play his game
accordingly, either by forcing his partner to trump
that fuit, if he is ftrong in trumps, or by playing ano¬
ther fuit. If he has king, queen, and ten of a fuit,
and he leads his king, his partner plays the knave j this
alfo demonftrates he has no more of that fuit. If he has
king, queen, and many more of a fuit, and begins with
the king, in fome cafes it is good play in a partner,
when he has the ace and one fmall card in that fuit on¬
ly, to win the king with the ace j for fuppofe the part¬
ner to be very ftrong in trumps, by taking the king
with the ace, he gets the lead and trumps out, and hav¬
ing cleared the board of trumps, his partner returns his
lead j and the ace being out, there is room for him to
make that whole fuit, which could not have been done
if the partner had kept the ace. Suppofe he has no
other good card in his hand befides that fuit, he lofes
nothing by the ace’s taking his king •, and if it fhould
fo happen that he has a good card to bring in that fuit,
he gains all the tricks which he makes to that fuit by
this method of play : as his partner has taken his king
with the ace, and trumps out upon it, he has reafon to
imagine that his partner has one of that fuit to return
him } for which reafon he fhould not throw away any of
that fuit, even to keep a king or queen guarded.
Method of playing when an honour is turned up on the
right hand.—Suppofe the knave is turned upon his right
hand, and that he has king, queen, and ten ; in order to
win the knave, he muft begin with the king j by which
means, his partner may fuppefe him to have queen and
ten remaining, efpecially if he has a fecond lead, and he
does not proceed to play the queen.
Suppofe the knave turned up as before, and he has
ace, queen, and ten, by playing his queen, it anfwers
the purpofe of the former rule.
When the queen is turned up on his right hand, and
he has ace, king, and knave, by playing his king, it an¬
fwers the fame purpofe of the former rule.
In cafe an honour is turned up on his left hand, fup-
pofing he fhould hold no honour, he fhould play trumps
through the honour as foon as he gets the lead ; but if
he fhould hold an honour (except the ace), he muft be
cautious how he plays trumps, becaufe, in cafe his part¬
ner holds no honour, his adverfary will play his own
game upon him.
Method of playing the fequences.—The higheft in fe-
quences of trumps fhould be played, unlefs he has ace,
king, and queen ; and then he fhould play the loweft,
which informs his partner of the ftate of his game.
When he has king, queen, and knave, and two fmall
•nes, which are not trumps, he fhould begin with the
knave, whether he is ftrong in trumps or not, as he
makes way for the whole fuit by getting the ace out.
If he is ftrong in trumps, and has a fequence of queen,
knave, ten, and two fmall cards of a fuit, he fbould play
the higheft of his fequence ; for if cither of the adverfa-
ries fhould trump that fuit in the fecond round, being
alfo ftrong in trumps, be will make the remainder of
that fuit, by fetching out the trumps. When he has
W H I
knave, ten, and nine, and two fmall cards of a fuit, he Whift.
may play in the like manner. u—
If king, queen, and knave, and one fmall card of any
fuit, is the cafe, whether ftrong in trumps or not, he
fhould play the king j and when there are only four in
number, the fame method of play fhould be obferved by
inferior fequences.
When weak in trumps, he fhould begin by the loweft
of the fequence, provided he has five in number, becaufe
if his partner has the ace of that iuit he will make it.
If he has the ace and four fmall cards of a fuit, and
weak in trumps, leading from that luit, he fhould play
the ace. When ftrong in trumps, the game may be
played otherwife.
How to make a flam, or win every trick.—Suppofe A
and B partners againft C and D, and C to deal, A to
have the king, knave, and nine, and feven of hearts,
which are trumps, a quart-major in fpades, a tierce-major
in diamonds, and the ace and king of clubs. Then fup¬
pofe B to have nine fpades, two clubs, and two diamonds.
Alfo fuppofe D to have ace, queen, ten, and eight of
trumps, with nine clubs, and C to have five trumps and
eight diamonds. A leads a trump, which D wins, and
D is to play a club, which his partner C is to trump ; C
leads a trump, which his partner D wins 5 D then will
lead a club, which C will trump •, and C will play a
trump, which D will win •, and D having the heft trump
will play it j after which D having feven clubs in his
hand, makes them, fo that he flams A and B.
How to play any hand of cards according to the nearefl
calculations of his partner's holding certain winning
cards :
1. That he has not one certain winning
card, is -
2. That he has not two certain winning
cards, is -
But it is about 5 to 4 that he has one
or both, or -
3. That he has one card out of any three
certain wanning cards, is about
4. That he has not three certain winning
cards is about 31 to 1, or
5. That he has not two ef them, is about
7 to 2, or
6. That he has not one of them, is about
7 to 6, or
7. That he holds one or two of them, is
in his favour about 13 to 6, or
8. And about 5 to 2 that he holds 1, 2,
or all three of them.
The ufe of thefe calculations is for a whift-player to
play his cards to the moft advantage. For inftance,
As the firft calculation is two to one that his partner
does not hold one certain winning card.—Suppofe then
a fuit is led, of which the fecond player has the king
and a fmall one only, he fhould put on the king, be¬
caufe the odds are in his favour, that the third player
cannot win it. For the fame reafon, when he is fe¬
cond player, and to lead, he fhould play a king in pre¬
ference to a queen, becaufe it is two to one the ace does
not take it j but it is five to four the queen will be
taken by either ace or king, which may be in the third
hand.
According
[ 704 1
2 to I
17 to 2
32 to 25
5 to 7,
681 to 22
547 to I j6
378 to 325
481 to 222
4
I
W H I [ 705 1 W H I
Whift, According to tlie fecond calculationj of its being five
. ^ to four that his partner holds one certain winning card
Out of any two: If he has two honours in any fuit, he
can play to an advantage, knowing it is five to four in
favour of his partner’s having one of the two honours ;
and by the fame rule, if he is fecond player, having a
queen and one final! card, by playing the queen he plays
five to four againft himfelf.
It is obvious, from the third calculation, which proves
it to be five to two that his partner hafs one card out of
any three certain winning cards, that he who plays the
knave fecond hand, having but the knave and one fmall
card of the fame fuit', muft play five to two againft him¬
felf, and difcovers his game to a great difadvantnge ; for
which reafon, he ftiould play the loweft of any fequence
which he may hold in his hand, as the knave, if he has
king, queen, and knave j the ten, if he has queen, knave,
and ten, &c. By fo doing, his partner has an opportu¬
nity of judging what card to play in that fuit, according
, to the odds for or againft him.
Game/im- ^rorn t^e above calculation, if he has ace, king, and
proved *wo fmaH trumps, he is entitled to win four tricks out
by Beau- of fix, provided he has four winning cards of any fuit j
fort. or five tricks out of feven, if he has five winning cards
of any fuit: by playing two rounds of trumps, and ta¬
king out eight of them, it is five to two but his partner
has a third trump $ and if it ftiould be fo, he makes the
tricks intended.
WHISTON, William, an Englifti divine of great
parts, uncommon learning, and ot lingular charadler,
was born in 1667 at Norton near Twycroffe in the
county of Leicefter, where his father was re6Ior. He
was admitted of Clarehall, Cambridge, where he pur-
fued his ftudies, particularly in the mathematics, and
commenced tutor ; which his ill health at length forced
him to decline. Having entered into orders, he became
chaplain to Dr More bilhop of Norwich in 1694; and
in this ftation he publilhed his firft wrork, entitled A New
Theory of the Earth, &c. in which he undertook to
prove the Mofaic dodtrine of the earth perfectly agree¬
able to reafon and philofophy. This work brought no
fmall reputation to the author. In the beginning of
the 18th century he was made Sir Ifaac Newton’s deputy,
and afterwards his fucceffbr, in the Lucafian profeiTor-
<hip of mathematics 5 when he refigned a living he had
in Suffolk, and went to refide at Cambridge. About
this time he publilhed'feveral fcientifical works, explana¬
tory of the Newtonian philofophy; and he had the ho¬
nour to be one of the firft, if not’the very firft, who ren¬
dered thefe principles popular and intelligible to the ge¬
nerality of readers. About the year 1710, he was
known to have adopted Arlan principles, and was form-
ing projedls to fupport and propagate them : among
other things, he had tranflated the Apoftolical Confti-
tutions into Englifh, which favoured the Arian do&rine,
and which he afferted to be genuine. The confequence
was, that he was deprived of bis profcfforlhip, and ba-
nilhed the univerfity ; he neverthelefs purfued his fcheme,
by publiftnng the next year his Primitive Chriftianity
Revived, 4 vols, 8vo, for which the convocation fell
upon him very vehemently. On his expulfion from
Vol. XX. Part II.
Cambridge, Mr Whifton fettled in London; where, WMrtotf,
without fuffering his zeal to be intimidated, he continued Whitby,
to write, and propagate his Primitive Chriftianity, tvith as.' v
much ardour as if he had been in the moft flouriftiing cir-
cumitances. In 1721, a fubfeription was made for the
fupport of his family, which amounted to 470I. For
though he drew profits from reading aftronomical and
philofophical ledlures, and alfo from his publications,
which were veiy numerous, yet thefe of themfelves would
have been very infufficient: nor, when joined with the
benevolence and charity of thofe who loved and efteemed
him for his learning, integrity, and piety, did they pre¬
vent his being frequently in great diftrefs. He continued
long a member of the church of England, and regularly
frequented its fervice, though he difapproved of many
things in it: but at laft he w'ent over to the Baptifts, and
attended Dr Forfter’s meeting at Pinner’s hall, Broad-
ftreet. Among other performances not fpecified above,
he wrote Memoirs of his own life and writings, which,
contain fome curious particulars.
He was remarkable for fpeaking the plaineft truths on
every occafion, and to perlons of every degree. During
the year 1725, that he, with Dr Clarke, Dr Berkeley,
and others, had the honour to attend £)ueen Caroline
on a certain day of every week, to talk of the progrefs
of fcience, her majefty one evening took occafion to pay
him a juft compliment on his truth and integrity, re-
quefting that he would, with his ufual plainnefs, point out
to her any fault that he might have obferved in her con-
duff. At firft he begged to be excufed, adding, that
few perfons could bear to have their faults plainly told
to them, and leaft of all royal perfonages, who, from
their elevation, are neceffarily furrounded by flatterers, to
whofe lips truth is a ftranger. Her majefty, replied,
that he w'as to confider her not as a queen, but as a phi-
lofopher j and that philofophy is of very little ufe, if it
cannot enable its profeffors to bear without offence
truths neceffary to their owm improvement. Upon this
he told her, that the greateft fault which he had obfer¬
ved in her conduct, was her indecent behaviour in the
houfe of God, which, he affured her, had made very un¬
favourable impreflions on the minds of many perfons, who
coming to town from diftant parts of the country, had
gone to the chapel to obtain a fight of her majefty, the
king, and the royal family. The queen made no reply j
but in about fix weeks afterwards renewed her requeft,
that Mr Whifton would point out the moft glaring im¬
proprieties in her conduct. To this he anfwered, that
he had laid dowm a maxim, from wdrich he could not de¬
viate, never to point out to any perfon more than one
fault at a time, and never to give a fecond reproof till
he had obferved Ibrne good confequence to have arifen
from the firft (a). Much to the queen’s honour, Ihe
was pleafed with this plain-dealing, and continued to
think favourably of Mr Whifton. This honeft, but
whimfical and credulous man, died in 1762, at the ad¬
vanced age of 95.
WHITBY, Dr Daniel, a very learned Englifh di¬
vine, was born at 1638, and bred at Oxford; wkere, in
1664, he was elefted perpetual fellow of his college.
He afterwards became chaplain to Dr Seth Ward, bi-
4 U fliop
(a) Bifhop Berkeley was prefent at thefe converfations, and from his fon we received the account we have given
ot them. 1 hey are likewife mentioned, but not ftated fo accurately, by Biftiop Newton in his own Life.
W H I [ ] \V H I
Whitby (hop of Salitbury ; who collated him in 1668 to the pre-
Whitejield ^enc^ ^rate^)ury >n church, and foon after to that
  ^ ,, of Hufborn and Burbach. In 1672 he was admitted
chanter of the faid church, on the death of Mr John
South, and then, or foon after, reftor of St Edmund’s
church in Salifhury. He was made a prebendary of
Taunton Regis in 1696, and died in 1726. He was
ever ftrangely ignorant of worldly affairs, even to a de¬
gree that is fcarcely to be conceived. His writings are
numerous, and well known j particularly his Commen¬
tary on the New Teftament.
Whitey, a fea-port town in the north riding of
Yorkfhire, feated on the river Elk, near the place where
it falls into the fea. The houfes are neat, flrong, and
convenient) the number of inhabitants about 9000.
Ship-building is their principal employment. W. Long,
o. 24. N. Lat. 54. 30.
WHITE, one of the colours of natural bodies.
White of the Eye, denotes the firft tunic or coat of
the eye, called albuginea. See Anatomy, N” 142.
White of Egg. See Albumen and Egg.
WHITE Friars, a namb common to feveral orders of
monks, from being clothed in a white habit.
WHITE Sea, is a bay of the Frozen ocean, fo called in
the north part of Mufcovy, lying between Ruffian Lap-
land and Samoieda *, at the bottom of which Hands the
city of Archangel. This was the chief port the Ruffi¬
ans had before their conqueft of Livonia.
White Colour, white lead for painting. See Che¬
mistry, N° 1856.
WHITE Iron, or Tin plate, iron-plates covered over
with tin ; for the method of making which, fee Latten,
Chemistry, N° 1956.
In 1681 tin-plates were manufactured in England
by one Andrew Yarranton, who had been fent to Bo¬
hemia to learn the method of making them. But
the manufacture wTas foon afterwards difeontinued. It
was revived in 1740, and has now arrived at as great,
if not greater, perfection in this country than in any
other.
White Lead. See Chemistry, N° 1856.
Whitest hr oat. See Motacilla, Ornithology
Index.
WHITEFIELD, George, the celebrated preacher
among the people called Methodifts, was born in the
year 1714, at the Bell in the city of Gloucefter, which
was then kept by his mother. At about 12 years of
age he was put to a grammar-fehool; but his mother
entering into a fecond marriage, which proved a difad-
vantageous one, he, when about 15, put on a blue apron,
and ferved her in the capacity of a drawer or waiter.
After continuing about a year in this fervile employ¬
ment, (he turned over the bufinefs to his brother ; who
marrying, and George not agreeing wuth his lifter in¬
law, he left the inn. Some time after, meeting with an
old fchool-fellow, then a fervitor in Pembroke college,
Oxford, he was induced to attempt getting into the
fame college in a like capacity, and fucceeded. Here
Mr Whitefield, who from his own account appears to
have always had a ftrong tinClure of enthufiafm in his
conftitution from his very childhood, diftinguiftied him-
felf by the aufterity of his devotion, and acquired con-
fiderable eminence in fome religious affemblies in that
city. At the age of 21, the fame of his piety recom-
ittended him fo effeClually to Dr Benfon, then bilhop of
Gloucefler, that he made him a voluntary offer of ordi- Whitefield
nation. Immediately after this regular admiffion into jl
the miniftry, Mr Whitefield applied himfelf to the molt
extraordinary, the moft: indefatigable, duties of his cha- '
raCter, preaching daily in prifons, fields, and open ftreets,
wherever he thought there w'ould be a likelihood of
making profelytes. Having at length made himfelf
univerfally known in England, he embarked for Ame¬
rica, where the tenets of Methodifm began to fpread
very fall under his friends the WelLys $ and firft deter¬
mined upon the inftitution of the orphan-houfe at Geor¬
gia, which he afterwards effeCted. After a long courfe
of peregrination, his fortune increafed as his fame ex¬
tended among his followers, and he ereCted two very
extenfive buildings for public worfliip, under the name
of Tabernacles ; one in Tottenham-Court Road, and the
o * er in Moorfields. Here, with the help of fome
affiftants, he continued for feveral years, attended by
very crowded congregations, and quitting the kingdom
only occafionally. Befides the two tabernacles already
mentioned, Mr Whitefield, by being chaplain to the
countefs dow7ager of Huntingdon, rvas connedled w-ith
two other religious meetings, one at Bath, and the other
at Tunbridge, chiefly ere<3ed under that lady’s patron¬
age. By a lively, fertile, and penetrating genius, by the
mod unwearied zeal, and by a forcible and perfuafive de¬
livery, he never failed of the defired effe£t upon his ever
crowded and admiring audiences. In America, however,
which always engaged much of his attention, he was
deftined to finiffi his courfe •, and he died at Newberry,,
about 40 miles from Bofton in New England, in 1770.
WHITEHAVEN, a fea-port town of Cumberland,
with a market on Tuefday, and one fair on Auguft ift
for merchandife and toys. It is feated on a creek of the
Iriftr fea, on the north end of a great hill, waftred by
the tide of flood on the weft fide, where there is a large
rock or quarry of hard white ftone, which gives name to
the place, and which, with the help of a ftrong ftone-
wall, fecures the harbour, into which fmall barks may
enter. It is lately much improved in its buildings, and
noted for its trade in pit-coal and fait, there being near
it a valuable coal-mine, which runs a confiderable
way under the fea. They have a cuftom-houfe here j
and they carry on a good trade to Ireland, Scotland,
Chefter, Briftol, and other parts. It is 10 miles fouth-
weft of Cockermouth, and 305 north-weft of London.
W. Long. 3. 34. N. Lat. 54. 36.
WHITENESS, the quality which denominates or
conftitutes a body white.
WHITES, or Fluor Albus. See Medicine, N°
250-
WHITING. See Gadus, Ichthyology Index.
WHITLOW, or Whitloe. See Surgery Index.
WHITSUN-Farthings, otherwife called Smoke-
farthings or ^uadrantes Pentecofales, a compofition for
offerings which were anciently made in Whitfun-w-eek
by every man in England, who occupied a houfe with a
chimney, to the cathedral church of the diocefe in which
he lived.
WHITSUNDAY, a folemn feftival of the Chriftian
church, obferved on the fiftieth day after Eafter, in me¬
mory of the defeent of the Holy Ghoft upon the apofiles
in the vifible appearance of fiery cloven tongues, and of
thofe miraculous powers which wTerc then conferred upon
them.
It
W II Y
Whitfiui-
day
C 7° 7 I
W H Y
It is called Whitfunday, or White-Sunday; becaufe
this being one of the dated times for baptifm in the an-
Whytt. cient church, thofe who were baptifed put on white gar-
—-y——ments, as types of that fpiritual purity they received in
baptifm. As the defcent of the Holy Ghoft upon the
apoRles happened upon the day which the Jews called
Penteco/l, this fellival retained the name of Pentecojl
among the Chriftians.
IVlJITSUNDAr IJle, one of the New Hebrides, which
lies about four miles to the fouth, runs in the fame direc¬
tion, and is of the fame length, having more doping ex-
pofures than Aurora : it appears to be better inhabited,
and to contain more plantations.
^ WHORTLEBERRY. See Vaccinium, Botany
Index.
WHY FT, Dr Robert, an eminent phyfician, born
at Edinburgh on the 6th September 1714, was the fon
of Robert YVhytt, Efq. of Bennochy, advocate. This
gentleman died fix months before the birth of our au¬
thor, who had alfo the misfortune to be deprived of his
mother before he had attained the feventh year of his
age. After receiving the fird rudiments of fchool-edu-
cation, he was fent to the univerfity of St Andrew’s j
and after the ufual courfe of indruftion there, in cladx-
cal, philofophical, and mathematical learning, he came
to Edinburgh, where he entered upon the dudy of me¬
dicine, under thofe eminent medical teachers, Monro,
Rutherford, Sinclair, Plummer, Aldon, and limes. Af¬
ter learning what was to be acquired at this univerfity,
in the profecution of his dudies he vifited foreign coun¬
tries ; and after attending the mod eminent teachers
at London, Paris, and Leyden, he had the degree of
Doftor of Phyfic conferred upon him by the univerfity
of Rheims in 1736, being then in the 22d year of his
age-
Upon his return to his native country, he had the fame
honour alfo conferred upon him by the univerfity of St
Andrew’s ; where he had before obtained, with applaufc,
the degree of Mader of Arts.
Not long after-wards, in the year 1737, he rvas ad¬
mitted a Licentiate of Medicine by the Royal College
of Phyficians of Edinburgh *, and the year following he
was raifed to the rank of a Fellow of the College. From
the time of hrs admiition as a licentiate, he entered upon
the practice of phyfic at Edinburgh 5 and the reputation
which he acquired for medical learning, pointed him
but as a fit fucceffor for the fird vacant chair in the
univerfity. Accordingly, when Dr Sinclair, whofe
eminent medical abilities, and perfuafive powers of ora¬
tory, had contributed not a little to the rapid advance¬
ment of the medical fchool of Edinburgh, found that
thofe confpicuous talents which he poffefled could no
longer be exerted in the manner which they once had
been, when he enjoyed bodily vigour unimpaired by
age and powers of mind unclouded by difeafe, he re-
figned his academical appointments in favour of Dr
Whytt.
This admiflion into the college took place on the
20th of June 1746 ; and he began his fird courfe of the
inditutions of medicine at the commencement of the
next winter-feflion. The abilities which he difplayed
from his academical chair, in no particular difappointed
the expectations which had been formed of his leftures.
The Latin tongue was the language of the univerfity of
Edinburgh j and he both fpoke" and wrote in Latin
with lingular propriety, elegance, and perfpicuity. At
that time the fydem and fentiments of Dr Boerhaave,1
which, notwithdanding their errors, mud challenge the
admiration of lated ages, were very generally received
by the mod intelligent phyficians in Britain. Dr Whytt
had no fuch idle ardour for novelties as to throw them
entirely afide becaufe he could not follow them in every
particular. The inditutions of Dr Boerhaave, there¬
fore, furniOred him with a text for his leftures; and he
was no lefs luccefsful in explaining, illudrating, and
edablifhing the fentiments of the author, when he could
freely adopt them, than in refuting them by clear, con-
neffed, and decifive arguments, when he had occafion
to differ from him. The opinions which he himfelf pro-
pofed, were delivered and enforced with fuch acutenefs
of invention, fuch difplay of fads and force of argument,
as could rarely fail to gain univerfal affent from his nu¬
merous auditors ; but free from that felf-fufficiency
which is ever the offspring of ignorance and conceit, he
delivered his conclufions with becoming modedy and
diffidence.
From the time that he fird entered upon an academi¬
cal appointment, till the year 1756, his preleflions were
confined to the inditutions of medicine alone. But at
that period his learned colleague Dr Rutherford, who
then filled the praflical chair, who had already taught
medicine at Edinburgh with univerfal applaufe for more
than thirty years, and wdro had been the fird to begin
the inditution of clinical leflures at the Royal Infirmary,
found it neceffary to retire from the fatiguing duties of
an office to which the progrefs of age rendered him un¬
equal. On this crifis Dr Whytt, Dr Monro, fen. and
Dr Cullen, each agreed to take a (hare in an appoint¬
ment in which their united exertions promifed the higheft
advantages to the univerfity. By this arrangement du-
dents, who had an opportunity of daily witneffing the
praflice of three fuch teachers, and of hearing the
grounds of that praCtice explained, could not fail to de¬
rive the mod folid advantages.
In thefe two departments, the inditutions of medicine
in the univerfity, and the clinical leCfures in the Royal
Infirmary, Dr Whytt’s academical labours were attend¬
ed with the mod beneficial confequences both to the du-
dents and to the univerfity. But not long after the pe¬
riod we have lad mentioned, his leCtures on the former
of thefe fubjeCls underwent a confiderahle change.
About this time the illudrious Gaubius, who had fuc-
ceeded to the chair of Boerhaave, favoured the world
with his Injlitntiones Pathologiee. This branch of medi¬
cine had indeed a place in the text which Dr Whytt
formerly followed j but, without detraCling from the
charader of Dr Boerhaave, it may judly be faid, that
the attention he had bedowed upon it was not equal to
its importance. Dr Whytt was fenfible of the improved
date in which pathology now appeared in the writings
of Boerhaave’s fucceflbr; and he made no delay in
availing himfelf of the advantages which were then af¬
forded.
In the year 1762, his pathological leCtures were en¬
tirely new-rnodelled. Following the publication of
Gaubius as a text, he delivered a comment, which was
read by every intelligent dudent with the mod unfeign¬
ed fatisfaCtion. In thefe leCtures he collected and con-
denfed the fruits of accurate obfervation and long experi-
ence, Enriched by all the opportunities of information
4 U 2 which
WHY
[ 708 ]
W I c
Whytt. which he had enjoyed, and by all the difcernment which
 ' he was capable of exerting, they were juftly confidered
as his moft finiihed produftion.
For a period of more than twenty years, during which
he was juftly held in the higheft efteem as a lefturer at
Edinburgh, it may readily be fuppofed that the extent
of his praftice correfponded to his reputation. In faft,
he received both the firft emoluments, and the higheft
honours, which could here be obtained. With exten-
flve praflice in Edinburgh, he had numerous confulta-
tions from other places. His opinion on medical fub-
iffts was daily requefted by his moft eminent contem¬
poraries in every part oi Britain. Foreigners of the firft
diftindlion, and celebrated phyficians in the moft remote
parts of the Britifti empire, courted an intercourfe with
him by letter. Befides private teftimonies of efteem,
many public marks of honour were conferred upon him
both at home and abroad. In I752> was eie&ed a
fellow of the Royal Society of London j in 1761, he
was appointed firft phyfician to the king in Scotland j
and in 1764, he was chofen prefident of the Royal Col¬
lege of Phyficians at Edinburgh.
But the fame which Dr Whytt acquired as a pra&i-
tioner and teacher of medicine, were not a little increafed
by the information which he communicated to the medi¬
cal world in different publications. His celebrity as an
author was ftill more extenfive than his reputation as a
profeffor.
His firft publication, An Effay on the Vital and
other Involuntary Motions of Animals, although it had
been begun foon after he had finifhed his academical
courfe of medical education, did not come from the
prefs till 1751 ; a period of fifteen years from the
time that he had finiihed his academical courfe, and
obtained a degree in medicine : but the delay of this
publication was fully compenfated by the matter which
it contained, and the improved form under which it
appeared.
The next fubjeft which employed the pen of Dr
Wiiytt was one of a nature more immediately prafti-
cal. His Effay on the Virtues of Lime-water and
Soap in the Cure of the Stone, firft made its appear¬
ance in a feparate volume in \*]§2. Part of this fecond
work had appeared feveral years before in the Edinburgh
Medical Effays: but it was now prefented to the world
as a diftinft publication with many improvements and
additions.
His third work, intitled Phyfiological Effays, was
firft publiftied in the year 1755. This treatife confifted
of two parts ; ift, An Inquiry into the Caufes which
promote the Circulation of the Fluids in the very fmall
Veffels of Animals} and 2dly, Obfervations on the Sen-
fibility and Irritability of the Parts of Men and other
Animals, occafioned by Dr Haller’s treatife on that fub-
jedt. The former of thefe may be confidered as an ex-
tenfion and farther illuftration of the fentiments which
he had already delivered in his Effay on the Vital Mo¬
tions, w'hile the latter was on a fubjeft of a controverfial
nature. In both he difplayed that acutenefs of genius
and ftrength of judgement which appeared in his former
writings.
From the time at which his Phyfiological Effays were
publiftied, feveral years were probably employed by our
author in preparing for the prefs a larger and perhaps a
more important work than any yet mentioned, his Ob¬
fervations on the Nature, Caufes, and Cure of thofe Dif-
orders which are commonly called nervous, hypochon¬
driac, and hysteric. This elaborate and ufeful work was _
publilhed in the year 1764.
The laft of Dr Whytt’s writings is intitled, Obferva¬
tions on the Dropfy in the Brain. This treatife did not
appear till twm years after his death ; when all his ether
wrorks were colledled and publithed in one quarto vo¬
lume, under the diredtion of his fon and of his intimate
friend the late Sir John Pringle.
Befides thefe five works, he wrote many other papers,
which appeared in different periodical publications $ par¬
ticularly in the Philofophical Tranfadtions, the Medical
Effays, the Medical Obfervations, and the Phyfical and
Literary Effays.
At an early period of life, foon after he had fettled as
a medical pradlitioner in Edinburgh, he entered into the
married ftate. His firft wife was Mifs Robertfon, filler
to General Robertfon governor of New York. By her
he had two children j both of whom died in early infan¬
cy, and their mother did not long furvive them. A few
years after the death of his firft wife, he married as a
fiecond wife Mifs Balfour, After to James Balfour, Efq.
of Pilrig. By her he had fourteen children j but in
thefe alfo be w'as in fome refpe&s unfortunate 5 for fix
of them only furvived him, three fons and three daugh¬
ters, and of the former two are fince dead. Although
the feeling heart of Dr Whytt, amidft the diftreffes of
his family, muft have often fuffered that uneafinefs and
anxiety which in fuch circumftances is the unavoidable
confequence of parental affedlion and conjugal lovej yet
he enjoyed a large (hare of matrimonial felicity. But
his courfe of happinefs was terminated by the death of
Wiiytt
Wicket.
his wife, which happened in the year 1764: and it is
not improbable that this event had fome (hare in haften-
ing his own death 5 for in the beginning of the year
1765 his health was fo far impaired, that he became
incapable of his former exertions. A tedious complica¬
tion of chronical ailments, which chiefly appeared under
the form of diabetes, was not to be refifted by all the
medical Ikill which Edinburgh could afford •, and at
length terminated in death, on the 15th of April 1766,
in the 5 2d year of his age.
WIBURGH, a confiderable town of Denmark, in
North Jutland, with a biftiop’s fee, remarkable for being
the feat of the chief court of juftice in the province.
The hall where the council affembles has the archives of
the country, and efcaped the terrible fire that happened
in the year 1726, and w’hich burned the cathedral-
church, that of the Black Friars, the town-houfe, and
the bi(hop’s palace *, but they have all been rebuilt more
magnificent than before. It is feated on the lake W eter,
in a peninfula, 25 miles north-weft of Slefwick, and 110
north-by-weft of Copenhagen. E. Long. 9. 50. N. Lat.
56. 20.
WICK, a royal borough on the eaft coaft of the
county of Caithnefs. It is (mall, and the ftreets narrow,
but a few of its buildings are an ornament to the place.
The prefent harbour is very inconvenient, but it is pro-
pofed to ereft a new one, which will be of great im¬
portance to the fafety of navigation along that coaft.
The population of the whole parifti in 1793 amounted
to 5000.
WICKER, fignifies made of fmall twigs.
WICKET, a fmall door in the gate of a fortified
place,
W I c
C 709 1
W I G
Wickiiff. place, &c. or a hole in a door through which to view
- v“ what paffes without.
WICKL1FF, John, the firft divine in Europe who
had refolution to attempt a reformation of religion, was
born about the year 1324, in the parifh of \\ ycliff, near
Richmond, in Yorkfhire. He was educated at Oxford,
firft in Queen’s and afterwards in Merton college, of
which he was a probationer-fellow. Having acquired
the reputation of a man of great learning and abilities,
in 1361 he was chofen mailer of Baliol-hall, and in
1365 conftituted wrarden of Canterbury college, by the
founder Archbilhop Simon de Iflip J but in 1367, he was
ejefted by the regulars, together with three fecular fel¬
lows. He thought their proceedings arbitrary, and
therefore appealed to the pope j but inftead of obtaining
redrefs, the ejeftment was confirmed in 1370. This
difappointment probably contributed fomewnat towards
his enmity to the fee of Rome, or rather to confirm that
enmity •, for he had long before written againlt the
pope’s exaftions and corruptions of religion. Flowever,
his credit in the univerfity continued ; for having taken
the degree of doftor in divinity, he read public ledlures
with great applaufe ; in which he frequently expofed
the impofitions of the Mendicant friars. About this
time he publilhed a defence of hisfovereign Edw ard III.
againft the pope, who had infilled on the homage to
which his predeceffbr King John had agreed. This de¬
fence was the caufe of Wickiiff’s introdu£lion at court,
and of his being fent one of the ambaffadors in 1374 t°
Bruges, where they met the pope’s nuncios, in order to
fettle feveral ecclefiaftical matters relative to the pope’s
authority. In the mean time Wickiiff was prefented by
the king to the re£tory of Lutterworth in Leicelterlhire,
and in 1375 he obtained a prebend in the church of
Wellbury in Gloucellerlhire. Wickiiff continued hither¬
to, without moleltation, to oppofe the papal authority *,
but in 1377 a bull was fent over to the archbilhop of
Canterbury, and to Courtney bilhop of London, order¬
ing them to fecure this arch-heretic, and lay him in
irons; at the fame time the pope wrote to the king, re¬
quelling him to favour the bilhops in the profecution j
he alfo fent a bull to Oxford, commanding the univer¬
fity to give him up. Before thefe bulls reached Eng¬
land Edward III. was dead ; and Wickiiff, protefted by
John duke of Lancafter, uncle to Richard II. favoured
by the queen-mother, and fupported by the citizens of
London, eluded the perfecution of Pope Gregory IX.
who died in 1378. In the following year this intrepid
reformer prefented to parliament a fevere paper againlt
^ the tyranny of Rome, wrote againlt the papal fupremacy
end infallibility, and publilhed a book On the Truth of
the Scriptures, intended to prepare the way for an Eng-
lilh tranflation of them, in which he had made confider-
able progrefs. In 1381 he publilhed Sixteen Conclufions
in the firlt of which he ventured to expofe the grand ar¬
ticle of tranfubllantiation. Thefe conclufions being con¬
demned by the chancellor of Oxford, Wickiiff appealed
to the king and parliament; but being deferted by his
unlteady patron the duke of Lancafter, he was obliged
to make a confeflion at Oxford ; and by an order from
the king was expelled the univerfity. He now retired
to his living of Lutterworth, where he finilhed his tranf¬
lation of the bible. This verfion, of which there are
feveral manufcript copies in the libraries of the univer-
fities, Britilh Mufeum, &c, is a very literal tranjjation
from the Latin vulgate. In 1383 he was fuddenly
Itruck with the palfy ; a repetition of which put an end
to his life in December 1384. He was buried in his 
own church, w'here his bones wrere luffered to reft in
peace till the year 1428, when, by an order from the
pope, they were taken up and burnt.—Befides a num¬
ber of works that have been printed, he left a prodigi¬
ous number of manuferipts •, an accurate lift of which
may be feen in Bilhop Tanner’s Bib. Brit. Hib. Some
of them are in the Bodleian Library, others in the Bri-
tiih Mufeum, &c.
Wickiiff was doubtlefs a very extraordinary man, con-
fidering the times in which he lived. His natural faga-
city difeovered the abfurdities and impofitions of the
church of Rome, and he had the honelly and refolution
to promulgate his opinions, which a little more fup-
port would probably have enabled him to eftablilh :
they were evidently the foundation of the fubfequent re¬
formation.
WICKLOW, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Leinfter } bounded on the north by the county of
Dublin ; on the eaft by the Irilh fea ; on the fouth by
Wexford ; and on the weft by Kildare and Cather-
lough. It is 33 miles in length, 20 in breadth, and in¬
differently fruitful. It contains 54 parilhes, and former¬
ly fent 10 members to the Irilh parliament.
Wicklow, the capital of a county of the fame name,
in Ireland j feated on the fea-fide, with a narrow har¬
bour, at the mouth of the river Leitrim, over which
Hands a rock, inftead of a caftle, furrounded by a flrong
wall, 24 miles fouth of Dublin. W. Long. 6. 7. N. Lat,
52. 55.
WIDGEON. See Anas, Ornithology Index.
WIDOW, a woman who has loft her hulband.
WIFE, a married woman, or one joined with, and
under the proteftion of, an hulband. See Husband.
Isle of WIGHT, an illand lying on the fouth coaft
of Hamplhire, from which it is feparated by a narrow
channel. It is about 21 miles in length and 13 in
breadth. It is nearly divided into equal parts by the
river Mede or Cowes, which riling in the fouthern
angle, enters at the northern, into the channel, oppofite
the mouth of Southampton bay. The fouth-coaft is
edged with very fteep cliffs of chalk and freeftone, hol¬
lowed into caverns in various parts. The weft fide is
fenced with ridges of rocks, of which the moft remark¬
able are thofe called, from their lharp extremities, the
Need/es. Between the illand and the main are various
fand-banks, efpecially off the eaftern part, where is the
fafe road of St Helen’s. Acrofs the illand, from eaft to
wreft, runs a ridge of hills, forming a traft of fine downs,
with a chalky or marly foil, which feed a great number
of fine-fleeced Iheep. Rabbits are alfo very plentiful
here. To the north of this ridge the land is chiefly
pafture : to the fouth of it is a rich arable country, pro¬
ducing great crops of corn. The variety of prolpefts
which this illand affords, its mild air, and the neat man¬
ner in which the fields are laid out, render it a very de¬
lightful fpot. It is devoted almoft folely to hufban-
dry, and has no manufa&ory. It is one of the princi¬
pal refources of the London market for unmalted barley..
Among its produffs are to be reckoned a pure white
pipe-clay, and a fine white cryftalline fand ; of the lat¬
ter of which great quantities are exported for the ufe of
the glafs work in various parts. Its principal town xS'
tha
Wickliff-
.11
Wight.
, - W I L [ 7
WigtoH the borough of Newport; it likewife contains the two
Wikler boroughs of Newton and Yarmouth,
nefs. " WIGTON, a royal borough, and capital of that
diltrift of Galloway to which it gives name. It is of
confiderable antiquity, and few of its houfes have been
lately erefted. It is fuppofed to have been a place of
fome confequence in, the ninth century, and that it
was made a royal borough in the reign of Robert
Bruce. It is governed by a provoff, two bailies, and
12 counfellors •, is extremely healthy, and furnilhes
many inflances of longevity. In 1755, the population
amounted to 1032, and the whole paiilh in 1793 w^as
'di0-
WIGTONSHIRE, fometimes denominated Uftfier or
IVe/t Gal/oway, is about 30 miles long, and 12 broad.
It is bounded on the fouth-eaft by the bay of Wigton,
by which it is feparated from Kirkcudbright j on the
fouth and weft by the ocean ; on the north by Ayr-
fhire ; and on the eaft by Kirkcudbright. The coaft is
tolerably fertile, but improvements in agriculture are
ftill in their infancy. The interior and northern parts
are hilly and barren, fit only for fheep and black cattle.
It contains three royal boroughs, viz. Wigton, Stran¬
raer, and Whithorn, with a number of feats belonging
to noblemen and gentlemen. It is divided into 17
parilhes 5 and, according to a cenfus taken fince the
pafting of the population aft in i8or, the population
amounted to 22,918, being an increafe of 6452 fince
the return to Dr Webfter in 1755. The valued rent
is 67,6461. Scots, while the real rent is computed at
53j89o1- fterling..
1 he following is the population according to the pa¬
rilhes at twm different periods * :
nets.
* Statijl.
1 lift. vol.
XX.
10
*5
17
PariJIjt
Glafferton
Inch
Kirkcolm
Kirkinner
Kirkmaiden
Kirkowan
Lefwalt
Luce, New
Luce, Old
Mochrum
Penninghame
Port Patrick
Sorbie
Stranraer
Stoneykirk
Whithorn
Wigton
Population Population in
in l7SS- 179c—179s-
809
15*3
7^
792
1051
795
6c2
* 459
1509
828
1509
611
968
. 610
1151
1412
1032
Total, 16,466
900
I45°
945
II ?2
1380
690
1194
400
1200
1400
2000
996
1069
1602
j365
1890
I35°
20,983
16,466
Increafe, 4,517
WILD-fire. See Wi/d-FlRE.
WILDERNESS, in Gardening, a kind of grove of
large trees, in a fpacious garden, in which the walks are
commonly made either?to interfeft each other in angles,
or have the appearance'of meanders and labyrinths.
10 ] W I L
Wilderneffes (fays Mr Miller) fhould always be pro- Wilder-
portioned to the extent of the gardens in which they are
made 3 for it is very ridiculous to lee a large wildernefs
planted with tall trees in a 1'mall fpot of ground ; and,
on the other hand, nothing can be more abfurd than to
fee little paltry fquares, or quarters of wildernefs-work,
in a magnificent large garden. As to the fttuation of
wilderneffes, they fhould never be placed too near the
habitation, nor fo as to obftruft any diftant profpeft of
the country, there being nothing fo agreeable as an un¬
confined profpeft : but where, from the fituation of the
place, the^ light is confined within the limits of the gar¬
den, nothing can fo agreeably terminate the profpeft as
a beautiful icene of the various kinds of trees judicioufly
planted 3 and if it is fo contrived that the termination is
planted circularly, with the concave towards the light,
it will have a much better effeft than if it end in
ftraight lines or angles. The plants fhould always be
adapted to the fize of the plantation 3 for it is very ab¬
furd for tall trees to be planted in the fmall fquares of a
little garden 3 and in large defigns fmall flirubs will have
a mean appearance. It fliould alfo be obferved never to
plant evergreens amongft deciduous trees 3 but always to
place the evergreens in . wildernefs inafeparate part by
themfelves, and that chietly in fight.
As to the walks, thofe that have the appearance of
meanders, where the eye cannot difcover more than
twenty 01 thirty yards in length, are generally prefer¬
able to all others, and thefe fhould now and then lead
into an open circular piece of grafs 3 in the centre of
which may be placed either an obelifk, ftatue, or foun¬
tain 3 and if in the middle of the wildernefs there be
contrived a large opening, in the centre of which may
be erefted a dome or banqueting houfe, furrounded with
a green plot of grafs, it will be a confiderable addition
to the beauty of the whole. From the fides of the
walks and openings, the trees fhould rife gradually one
above another to the middle of the quarters 3 where
fhould always be planted the largeft growing trees, fo
that the heads of all the trees may appear to view, while
their ftems will be hid from the fight. Thus, in thofe
parts which are planted with deciduous trees, rofes,
honeyfuckles, fpirsa frutex, and other kinds of low
flowering flirubs, may be planted next the walks and
openings ; and at their feet, near the fides of the walks,
may be planted primrofes, violets, daffodils, &c. not in a
ftraight line, but fo as to appear accidental, as in a na¬
tural wood.. Behind the firft row of fhrubs fhould be
planted fyringas, althaea frutex, mezereons, and other
flowering .fhrubs of a middle growth 3 and thefe may be
backed with many other forts of trees rifing gradually
to the middle of the quarters.
I he part planted with evergreens maybe difpofed
in the following manner, viz. in the firft line next the
great walks may be placed the lauruftinus, boxes,
fpurge laurel, juniper, favin, and other dwarf ever¬
greens. Behind thefe may be placed laurels, hollies
arbutufes, and other evergreens of a larger growth.
Next to thefe may be planted alaternufes, phyllireas
yews, cypreffes, Virginian cedars, and other trees of
the fame growth 3 behind thefe may be planted Nor¬
way and filver firs, the true pine, and other forts of the
fir growth; and in the middle fhould be planted Scotch
pines, pinafter, and other forts of the larger growing
evergreens 3
2
W I L [7
Wilder- evergreens; which will afford a mod delightful profpedt
Wilkie ^ the different (hades of the greens are curioufly inter-
  ' , mixed.
But bcfije the grand w’alks and openings (which
{liould always be laid with turf, and kept well mowed),
there fhould be fome fmaller ferpentine walks through
the middle of the quarters, where perfons may re¬
tire for privacy ; and by the fides of thefe private
walks may alfo be (battered fome wood-flowers and
plants 5 which, if artfully planted, will have a very
gocd effebl.
In the general defign thefe wildernefies, there (hould
fiot be a ftudied and ftitf correfpondency between the
feveral parts j lor the greater diverfity there is in the
diftribution of them, the more pleafure they will af¬
ford.
WILKIE, William, D. D. author of a heroic
poem called the Epigoniad, was born in the pariih of
Daimeny in Weft Lothian in Scotland, in Oftober
1721. His father was a (mail farmer, and was not
very fortunate in his worldly affairs. He gave his fon,
however, a liberal education, the early part of which
he received at the parish fchool of Daimeny, and at the
age of 13 he was fent to the univerflty of Edinburgh,
where he was foon diftingulihed as a young man of ge¬
nius. Among his fellow-ftudents were Dr Robertfon
the hiftorian, Mr Home the poet, and fome other emi¬
nent literary characters. He became acquainted alfo,
in the courfe of his education, with David Hume and
Dr Adam Fergufon.
O ,
Before he completed his ftudies at the univerfity, his
father died, leaving him only the (lock and unexpired
leafe of his farm, wnth the care of three lifters, one of
whom being afterwards married to an experienced farm¬
er, Wilkie availed himlelf of his praflical knowledge.
He formed a fyflem of farming which fully anfweied his
own expeclalions, and fecured to him the approbation of
all his neighbours. After becoming a preacher in the
church o( Scotland, he dill continued his former mode
of living, cultivating his farm, reading the claffics, and
occaflonally preaching for the minifters in the neigh¬
bourhood. In 1753, he was prefented to the church
of Ratho by the eavl of Lauderdale, who w’as fenfible of
his worth, and admired his genius. The duties of his
new office he difcharged with fidelity, and was celebrated
for his imprcfiive mode of preaching, while he did not ne-
glebl the amufements of hulbandry, and the ftudy of the
belles lettres. He publiflied his Epigoniad in the year
J757> of fourteen years ftudy, and a fecond
edition of it was called for in 1759, in which year he
was chofen profeffor of natural philofophy in the univer-
lity of St Andrews. His whole fortune, when he re¬
moved to this place, did not exceed 200I. which he laid
out in the purchafe of a few acres of land in the vicinity
of the city. He lived in the univerfity in the fame
ftudious and retired manner as he had done at Ratho.
In the year 1768 he publilhed a volume of fables of no
great celebrity, prior to which the univerfity conferred
on him the degree of D. D. He died, after a lingering
illnefs, on the 10th of Oftober 1772.
The manners of Dr Wilkie-were in many refpebls
very lingular, and in fome quite difgufting. For the
purpofe of promorting perfpiration, and thus removing
an aguilh complaint, with which he had been feized du¬
ring his refidence at Ratho, he generally dept in winter
11] wit
under no fewer than 24 blankets. His averfion to clean Yvilklt-
linen is altogether unaccountable. It is faid that when J!
he flept from home, he not only ftipulated for the pro-1 '’ lj’~
per quantity of blankets, but requefted to be indulged
with (lieets which had been previoufly ufed by fome
other perfon. It is fcarcely necelfary to add, that his
drefs was flovenly in the extreme. It is fomewhat re-
markable, that Dr Wilkie never could read aloud the
fmootheft verfe in fuch a manner as to prelerve either
the meafure or the fenfe, although his own compofilions
in vei(e are greatly diftinguithed by their fmoothnefs
and elegance.
It is faid that Dr Wilkie, from having ftudied Hp-
mer with great attention, was led to projeft an epic
poem on the model of that ancient poet. The (ubjeft
of it is drawn from the fourth book of the Iliad, where
Sthenelus gives Agamemnon a (hort account of the
facking of Thebes; and as that city was taken by the
fons of thofe who had fallen before it, our author gave
to his poem the title of Epigoniad, from the Greek
word sOTysvsi, lignifying defendants. This title, it is
fuppofed, is not very appropriate, and is not altogether
free from quaintnefs. The fubjeft of the poem has not
been feledfed with much judgement; for the learned
reader will prefer ftudying the manners and a&ions of
ancient heroes in the fublime defcriptions of Homer and
Virgil, and others will be little interefted in fcenes and
characters fo different from thofe with which they are
familiar, and fo far removed from their own times.
Accordingly, the Epigoniad, with all its merit as an
epic poem (and it is not deftitute of many of the effen-
tial requifites of that fpecies of poetical compodlion), is-
now little known.
WILKINS, Dr John, a moft ingenious and learned
Englilh bilhop, was the fon of a goldfmith of Oxford,
and was born in 1614. He adhered to the parliament
during the civil wars, by whom he was made warden of
Wadham college in 1648 : he married afterwards the
fifter of Oliver Cromwell, and procured a difpenfation
to retain his vvardenflftp notwithftanding. Richard Crom-
ivell made him matter of Trinity college, Cambridge,
from which he was eje&ed on the Rettoration. Pie
then became preacher to Gray’s-Inn, redtor of St Lau¬
rence Jewry, London, dean of Rippon, and in 1688
was promoted to the biftiopric of Chefter. He died in
1672. Biftiop Wilkins thought it prudent to fubmit to
the powers in being , he therefore fubfcribed to the fo-
lemn league and covenant while it w^as enforced, and
was equally ready to fwear allegiance to King Charles
when he w'as reftored : this, with his moderate fpirit
toward diffenters, rendered him not very agreeable to
churchmen. His mathematical and philofophical works,
which contain many ingenious and curious pieces, con-
fidering the time when they were writttsn, have been
colle&ed in one vol. 8vo. He publiflied alfo fome theo¬
logical Uadts. He was the firft prefident of the Royal
Society.
WILL, that faculty of the mind by which it em¬
braces or rejedls any thing offered to it. See Meta¬
physics.
Will, or Eqfl IE ILL, in Law, (ignifies the decla¬
ration of a man’s mind and intent relating to the difpo-
fition of his lands, goods, or other eftate, or of what he
would have done alter his death. In the common law
there is a diftindtion made between a will and a tefta-
ment
Will,
William.
W I L [ 712 ] W I L
ment: that is called a will where lands or tenements
are given \ "nd when the difpofition concerns goods
and chattels alone, it is termed a tejlament. See Tes¬
tament.
VPlLL-with-a-wifp, or Jack-with-a-lanthorti, two po¬
pular names for the meteor called ignis fatuus. See
Light, N° 46.
WILLIAM ©/"Malmsbury, an hiftorian of confi-
derable merit in the reign of King Stephen $ but of
whofe life few particulars are known. According to
Bale and Pits, he was furnamed Somerfetusy from the
county in which he was born. From his own preface
to his fecond book De Regibus Anglorum, it appears
that he was addicted to learning from his youth ;
that he applied himfelf to the lludy of logic, phyfic,
ethics, and particularly to hiftory. He retired to the
Benediftine convent at Malmlbury, became a monk,
and was made precentor and librarian ; a fituation which
much favoured his intention of writing the hiftory of
this kingdom. In this monaftery he fpent the remain¬
der of his life, and died in the year 1142. He is one
of our moft ancient and moft faithful hiftorians. His
capital work is that intitled De Regibus Anglorum, in
five books 5 with an Appendix, which he ftyles Hi/le-
rics Novel/ce, in two more. It is a judicious colleftion
of whatever he found on record relative to England,
from the invafion of the Saxons to his own times.
William of Newbury, fo called from a monaftery
in York (hire, of which he was a member, wrote a hi¬
ftory which begins at the Conqueft and ends at the year
1197. His Latin ftyle is preferred to that of Matthew
Paris 5 and he is intitled to particular praife, for his ho¬
ned regard to truth, in treating the fables of Jeffery of
Monmouth with the contempt they deferve ; as well as
for exprefling his approbation of Henry II.’s defign of
reforming the clergy, by bringing them under the regu¬
lation of the fecular power.
William of Wykeham, bifhop of Winchefter, was
born in the village of Wykeham, in the county of
Southampton, in 1324. He was educated at Winchef¬
ter and Oxford j and having continued near fix years
in the univerfity, his patron Nicholas Wedal, governor
of the province of Southampton, took him into his fa¬
mily, and appointed him his counfellor and fecretary.
He could not have made choice of a fitter perfon for
that employment, no man in that age writing or fpeak-
ing more politely than Wykeham. For this reafon
Edington, bifhop of Winchefter, lord high-treafurer of
the kingdom, appointed him his fecretary three years
after, and alfo recommended him to King Edward III.
who took him into his fervice. Being (killed in geo¬
metry and architecture, he was appointed furveyor of
the royal buildings, and alfo chief juftice in eyre : he
fuperintended the building of Windfor-caftle. He was
afterward chief fecretary of ftate, a keeper of the
privy feal; and in 1367 fucceeded Edington in the
fee of Winchefter. A little after he wras appointed lord
high-chancellor and prefidentof the privy-council. That
he might well difcharge the feveral funftions of his em¬
ployments, both ecclefiaftical and civil, he endeavoured,
on one hand, to regulate his own life according to the
ftrifteft maxims, and to promote fuch parifh-priefts only
as were able to give due inftruftions to their parifhion-
ers, and at the fame time led exemplary lives : on the
other hand, he did all in his power to caufe juftice to
I
be impartially adminiftered. In 1371 he refigned his
chancellorfhip, and fome time after the great feal. Ed¬
ward returning to England, after having carried on a ^
very fuccefsful war in France, found his exchequer in
great diforder. The duke of Lancafter, one of his fons,
at the head of feveral lords, having brought complaints
againft the clergy, who then enjoyed the chief places in the
kingdom, the king removed them from their employments.
But the laymen, who were raifed to them, behaved io
ill, that the king was forced to reftore the ecclefiaftics.
The duke of Lancafter (bowed ftrong animofity to the
clergy, and fet every engine at wrork to ruin Wykeham.
He impeached him of extortion, and of difguifing things,
and obliged him to appear at the King’s-bench. He
got fuch judges appointed as condemned him ; and not
fatisfied with depriving him of all the temporalities of
his bifhopric, he advifed Edward to banifti him: but
this prince rejected the propofal, and afterward reftored
to Wykeham all that he had been diverted of. Rich¬
ard II. was but eleven years old wdren Edward died:
fo that the duke of Lancafter had an eafy opportunity
of reviving the accufations againft the bilhop of Win¬
chefter : neverthelefs Wykeham cleared himfelf. Then
he founded two noble colleges, the one in Oxford, the
other in Winchefter. Whilft he was exerting his ut-
moft endeavours to improve thefe two fine foundations,
he was recalled to court, and in a manner forced to ac¬
cept of the office of lord high-chancellor in 1389—
Having excellently difchargcd the duties of that em¬
ployment for three years, he obtained leave to refign it,
forefeeing the difturbances that were going to break
out. Being returned to his church, he finiffied his col¬
lege, and built there fo magnificent a cathedral, that it
almoft equals that of St Paul’s in London. He laid
out feveral fums in things advantageous to the public
and to the poor ; nbtwithftanding which, in 1397 he
was in great danger ; for he and fome others were im¬
peached of high-treafon in open parliament: however,
he was again fully cleared. From that time till his
death he kept quiet in his diocefe, and there employed
himfelf in all the duties of a good prelate. He died in
1404, in the 81ft year of his age.
William, the name of feveral kings of England.
See England, N° 87—92, and Britain, N° 302.
Fort-WlLLIAM, a fortrefs in the Highlands of Scot¬
land, ere&ed in King William’s reign, as was alfo a
fmall town adjoining, called Manjburgh, in honour of
his queen. It is fituated in Invernefs-lhire, on a nar¬
row’ arm of the fea called Loch Eil, which by the com¬
pletion of the Caledonian canal, will be united to the
Weftern fea. Fort-William is of a triangular form*
having twm baftions, and is capable of admitting a gar-
rifon of 800 men $ but could not be defended againft
an attack, as it is commanded by feveral hills in the
neighbourhood.
William's Fort, is a fadlory of Afia belonging to
the Eaft-India Company, feated on one of the branches
of the river Ganges, in the kingdom of Bengal. The
fort was firft built in the (liape of an irregular tetragon
of brick and mortar 5 and the town has nothing regular
in it, becaufe every one built a houfe as he liked beft,
and for his own conveniency. The governor’s houfe is
within the fort, and is the beft piece of archite£lure in
thefe parts. Here there are alfo convenient lodgings
for the factors and writers, with ftoxe-houfes for the
company’s
William,
William’s
Fort.
W I L
William company’s goods, and magazines for ammunition.
.11. bout 50 yards from the fort is the church, which was
^ . originally built by the merchants. "1 he town of Cal¬
cutta is contiguous, containing 500,000 inhabitants.
It is governed by a mayor and aldermen, as moll of
the company’s factories in the Eaft Indies now are.
In 1757 it was furprifed by the nabob of Bengal, wrho
took it, and put moft of thofe that had made re-
fiftance into a place called the Black-Hole, where the
greater number was fuffocated. This nabob was after¬
wards killed, and another fet up in his room, more
friendly to the Englilh ; and the faftory was re-efta-
blifhed. E. Long. 86. o. N. Lat. 22. 27. See Cal¬
cutta.
Sweet-WiLLTAM. See Dianthus, Botany Index.
WILLIAMSBURG, a town of North America, in
Virginia, and formerly capital of that flate. It is fitu-
ated between two creeks $ one falling into James and
the other into York River. The diflance of each land¬
ing place is about a mile from the town, which, with
the difadvantage of not being able to bring up large
veflels, and the want of enterprife in the inhabitants,
has occafioned its decay. Here is a college, defigned
for the education of the Indians, but which, on account
of their averfion to learning, never anfwered the pur-
pofe. It is 60 miles eaft of Richmond. W. Long. 76.
30. N. Lat. 37. 10.
WILLIAMSTADT, a fea-port town of Holland.
It is a handfome ftrong place, and the harbour is well
frequented. It was built by William prince of Orange
in 1585 ; and in 1732 belonged to the ftadtholder of
Friefland. The river near which it is built is called
Butterjliet or Holland Diep ; and is one of the bulwarks
of the Dutch on the fide of Brabant, where they always
keep a garrifon. This place made a gallant defence
in 1793 againft the French, who were obliged to raife
the fiege. It is 15 miles noxth-eaft of Bergen-op-Zoom,
and 12 fouth-weft of Dort. E. Long. 4. 30. N. Lat.
51- 39-
WILLIS, Dr Thomas, a celebrated Englilh phy-
fician, was born at Great Bodwin, in Wiltfhire, in
1621, and ftudied at Chrift-church college, Oxford.
When that city was garrifoned for the king, he, among
other fcholars, bore arms for his majefty, and devoted
his leifure hours to the ftudy of phyfic. The garrifon
of Oxford at length furrendering to the parliament, he
applied himfelf to the practice of his profeflion ; and
foon rendered himfelf famous by his care and fkill. He
appropriated a room as an oratory for divine fervice ac¬
cording to the church of England, whither moft of the
loyalifts in Oxford daily reforted. In 1660, he became
Sedleian profelfor of natural philofophy, and the fame
year took the degree of do&or of phyfic. In 1664, he
difcovered the famous medicinal fpring at Alftropp,
near Brackley. He was one of the firft members of the
Royal Society, and foon made his name illuftrious by
his excellent writings. In 1666, after the fire of Lon¬
don, he removed to Weftminfter ; and his practice be¬
came greater than that of any of the phyficians his con¬
temporaries. Soon after his fettlcment in London, his
only fon Thomas falling into a confumption, he fent
him to Montpelier in France for the recovery of his
health j and it proved fuccefsful. His wife alfo labour¬
ing under the fame diforder, he offered to leave the
town j but flie, not fuffering him to neglect the means
Vol. XX. Part II.
W I L
of providing for his family, died in 1670. He died at Wilfts
his houfe in St Martin’s in 1675, and was buried near .11
her in Weftminfter-abbey. Dr Willis was extremely ^ dmot.
modeft and unambitious, and refufed the honour of ' V~"""
knighthood. He was remarkably pious: As he rofe
early in the morning, that he might be prefent at di¬
vine fervice, which he conftantly frequented before he
vifited his patients, he procured prayers to be read be¬
yond the accuftomed times while he lived ; and at his-
death fettled a ftipend of 20I. per annum to continue
them. He wras a liberal benefactor to the poor wdiere-
ever he came, having from his early pra&ice allotted
part of his profits to charitable ufes. He was exaCl and
regular in all his hours: and though his table was the
refort of moft of the great men of London, yet he was
remarkable for his plainnefs, and his being a man of
little difcourfe, complaifance, or fociety ; but he w^as
juftly admired for his deep infight into natural and ex¬
perimental philofophy, anatomy, and chemillry j for his
fuccefsful praftice j and for the elegance and purity of
his Latin ftyle. He wrote, 1. A treatife in Englifh,
intitled si plain and eafy Method for preferving thofe
that are well from the Irfeclion of the Plague, and for
curing fuch as are iufeBed. 2. Several Latin woiks,
which were colleCfed and printed at Amfterdam, in
1682, in 2 vols 410.
WILLUGHBY, Francis, a celebrated natural hi-
ftorian, was the only fbn of Sir Francis Willughby,
knight. He was fond of ftudy from his childhood, and
held idlenefs in abhorrence ; he being fo great an eco-
nomift with regard to his time, as not willingly to lofe
or mifapply the leaft part of it, by wdiich means he at¬
tained great fkill in all branches of learning, and parti¬
cularly in the mathematics. But to the hiftory of ani¬
mals, which was in a great meafure negleCted by his
countrymen, he particularly applied himfelf j and for
this purpofe carefully read over w-hat had been written
on that fubjeCt by others. He then travelled feveral
times over his native country; and afterwards into
France, Spain, Italy, Germany, and the Low Coun¬
tries, attended by his ingenious friend Mr John Ray.
It is remarkable, that, notwithftanding the advantages
of birth, fortune, and parts, he was as humble as any
man of the meaneft fortune ; was fober, temperate, ajid
chafte ; fcrupuloufly juft ; fo true to his word and pro-
mife, that a man might venture his eftate and life upon
it; fo faithful and conftant to his friend, as never to de-
fert him when fortune frowned upon him ; and remark¬
ably pious, patient, and fubmiflive to the divine will.
This is the character given of him by Mr Ray, whofe
veracity none will doubt. This ingenious and learned
gentleman died in 1672, at 37 years of age; having
impaired his health by his application. He wrote,
I. Ornithologice libri tres, folio, which was afterwards
tranflated into Englifh, with an Appendix, by Mr Ray,
in folio. 2. Hiforiee Pifcium libri quatuor, folio. 3.
Letters of Francis Willughby, Efq. added to Philofophi-
cal Letters between the learned Mr Ray and feveral of
his correfpondents, publiftred, in 8vo, by William Der-
ham. 4. Several ingenious papers in the Philofophical
TranfaCtions.
WILMOT, John, earl of Rochefter, a great wit in
the reign of Charles II. the fon of Henry earl of Ro¬
chefter, was born in 1648. He was taught grammar
and claffxcal learning at the free-fchool at Burford ;
4 X where
[ 7r3 ]
A-
W I L [7:
\\ ilniet. wliere he obtained a quick reliih of the beauties of the
Latin tongue, and afterwards became well verled in the
authors of the Auguftan age. In 1659, vvas
mitted a nobleman ot Wadham college, where he ob¬
tained the degree of mafter of arts. He afterwards tra¬
velled through France and Italy •, and at his return was
made one of the gentlemen of the bedchamber to the
king, and comptroller of Woodftock Park. In 1665,
he went to fea, and w^as in the Revenge, commanded
by Sir Thomas Tiddiman, when an attack was made
on the port of Bergen in Norway : during the whole
affion he fhowed the greateft refoluticn, and gained a
high reputation for courage ; wdiich he fupperted in a
fecond expedition, but afterwards loft it in a private ad¬
venture with Lord Mulgrave.
Before the earl of Rochefter travelled, he had indul¬
ged in the moft diforderly and intemperate way of liv¬
ing 5 at his return, however, he feemed to have got the
better of it entirely. But falling into the company of
the courtiers, who continually pradfifed thefe exceffes,
he became fo funk in debauchery, that he wras for five
years together fo given up to drinking, that during all
that time he w-as never cool enough to be mafter of him-
felf. His violent love of pleafure, and his difpofition
to extravagant mirth, carried him to great excefles.
The firft involved him in fer.fuality, and the other led
him into many adventures and ridiculous frolics. Once
difguiiing himfelf fo that he could not be knowm by his
neareft friends, he fet up in Tower-ftreet for an Italian
mountebank, and there difperfed his noftrums for forne
w’eeks. He often difguifed hirnfelf as a porter, or as a
beggar, fometimes to follow a mean amour ; at other
times, he would go about merely for diverfion, in odd
fhapes 5 and acled his part fo naturally, that he could
not be known even by his friends. In (hort, by his
conftant indulgence in wine, wTomen, and irregular fro¬
lics, he entirely wTore out an excellent conftitution be¬
fore be was 30 years of age. In Oflober 1679, when
recovering from a violent difeafe, which ended in a con-
fumption, he was vifited by Dr Burnet, upon an inti¬
mation that fuch a vifit would be agreeable to him. Dr
Burnet publiflied an account of his conferences with
Lord Rochefter ; in which it appears, that though he
had lived the life of a libertine and atheift, yet he died
the death of a penitent Chriftian. His death happened
in 1680 •, fince which time his poems have been various
times printed, both feparately and together : but when
once he obtained the chara&er of a lewd and obfcene
writer, every thing in that ftrain w’as afcribed to him 5
and thus many pieces not of his writing have crept into
the later editions of his works. The author of the Ca¬
talogue of Royal and Noble Authors fays, he was “ a
man whom the Mufes were fond to infpiie, and afhamed
to avow, and who praflifed without the leaft referve
that feciet which can make verfes more read for their
defeats than their merits. Lord Rochefter’s Poems have
much more obfcenity than wit, more wit than poetry,
and more poetry than politenefs.” His writings, be¬
sides thofe already mentioned, are, A Satire againft
Mankind *, Nothing, a poem ; Valentmian, a tragedy j
Fifty-four Letters to Henry Saville, and others; Seven
more to his Wife and Son : a Letter on his deathbed to
Dr Burnet. He alfo left behind him feveral other pa¬
pers, and a Xliftory of the Intrigues of the Court of
4 ] W I L
Charles II. j but his mother, a veiy devout lady, ordered Wilfon.
all his papers to be burned. v—y—.
WILSON, Florence, knowm in the republic of
letters by the name f Florentius Volujinus, was born at
Elgin in the fhire of Murray in Scotland, and educated
in the univerfity cf Aberdeen. Travelling to England
with an intention to improve his fortune, he had the fe¬
licity to be introduced to Cardinal Wolfey, who ap¬
pointed him tutor to one of his nephews. In that capa¬
city he went to Paris, and continued there till the car¬
dinal’s death. During his reiidence in that city he be¬
came acquainted with the learned Cardinal Beliai, arch-
bifhop of Paris, who allowed him a penfisn, and meant
to have appointed him royal profeffor of the Greek and
Latin languages in the univerfity of Paris: but Beliai
being difgraced, Wilfon’s profpe&s faded with the for¬
tunes of his patron, whom neverthelefs he attended on
his journey to Rome. Wilfon was taken ill at Avig¬
non, and the cardinal proceeded without him. After
his recovery, he paid a vifit to the celebrated Cardinal
Sabolet, the Mecaenas of his time, who was alio bilhop
of Carpentras, where he then refided. The cardinal
was fo charmed with his erudition, that he appointed
him proftffor of the learned languages, with a ftipend of
IOO piftoles per annum.
During his refidence at Carpentras, he wnote his ce¬
lebrated treatife De Animi Tranquillitate. Mackenzie
fays that he afterwards taught philofophy in Italy j and
that, being at length defirous of returning to Scotland,
he began his journey homeward, was taken ill at Vienne
in Dauphiny, and died there in the year 1547. He
was generally efteemed an accompliftred linguift, an ad¬
mirable philofopher, and an excellent Latin poet. He
wrote, befide the above treatife, 1. Poemala, London
1619, 4to. 2. Commentatio quardam theologica in apho~
rifrnos diJfeBa, per SehaJI. Gryph. 3. Phi/ofophice An-
Jiot. Synopjis, lib. iv.
Wilson, Thomas, lord biftrop of Sodor and Man,
was born in 1663, at Burton, in the county of Chefter.
He received the rudiments of his education at the coun¬
ty town, and from thence was removed to the univerfity
of Dublin. His allowance at the univerfity was 20I. a-
yearj a firm, fmall as it may now appear, which was in
thofe days fufhcient for a fober youth in fo cheap a
country as Ireland.
Flis firft intention was to have applied to the ftudy of
phyfic ; but from this he was diverted by Archdeacon
Hewetfon, by vvhofe advice he dedicated himfelf to the
church. He continued at college till the year 1686,
when, on the 29th of June, he was ordained deacon.
The exaft time of Air Wilfon’s leaving Dublin is not
knowm : but on account of the political and religious
difputes of thofe days, it was fooner than he intend<V.
On the 10th of December, in the fame year, he was li-
cenfed to the curacy of New Church in Winwick, of
which Dr Sherlock, his maternal uncle, was re&or.
His ftipend was no more than 30!. a-year ; but being
an excellent economift, and having the advantage of liv¬
ing with his uncle, this fmall income was not only fuffi-
cient to fupply his own wants, but it enabled him to
fupply the wants of others ; and for this purpofe he fet
apart one-tenth of his income. In 1692 he was ap¬
pointed domeftic chaplain to William earl of Derby,
and tutor to his fon James Lord Strange, with a falary
W I L [ 715 ] WIN
Wilfon. of 30I. a-year. He was foon afler elecled matter of the
“   ' alms-houfe at Latham, which brought him in 20I. a-
year more. Having now an income far beyond his ex¬
pectations, or his willies, except as it increafed his abi¬
lity to do good, he fet apart one-fifth of his income for
pious ufes, and particularly for the poor. In Ihort, as
his income increafed, he increafed tire portion of it
which was allotted to the purpofes of charity. At firft
he fet apart a tenth, then a fifth, afterwards a third,
and lattly, when he became a billiop, he dedicated the
full half of his revenues to pious and charitable ufes.
He had not been long in the fervice of Lord Derby,
before he was offered the valuable living of Buddef-
worth in Yoikfhire ; which he refufed to accept, as be¬
ing inconfiftent with the refolves of his confcience a-
gainft non-refidence, Lord Derby choofing ftill to re¬
tain him as chaplain and tutor to his fon. In 1697 he
was promoted, not without fome degree of compulfion
on the part of his patron, to the bithopric of the Ifie of
Man ; a preferment which he held 58 years. In 1698
he married Mary, daughter of Thomas Patten, Efq. of
Warrington. By this lady, who furvived her marriage
about fix years, he had four children ; none of whom
furvived him except the late Dr Wilfon, prebendary of
Weftminfter.
“ The annual receipts of the bithopric (fays the au¬
thor of his memoirs) did not exceed 300I. in money.
Some neceffaries in his houfe, as fpices, fugar, wine,
books, &c. mutt be paid for with money ; dittreiTed or
ftiipwrecked mariners, and fome other poor objects, re¬
quired to be relieved with money 5 but the poor of the
ifland rvere fed and clothed, and the houfe in general
fupplied from his demefnes, by exchange, without mo¬
ney. The poor, who could weave or fpin, found the
beft market at Bifliop’s-court, where they bartered the
produce of their labour for corn. Taylors and fihoe-
inakers were kept in the houfe conttantly employed, to
make into garments or Ihces that cloth or leather which
his corn had purchafed ; and the aged and infirm were
fupplied according to their feveral wants. Mr Moore
of Douglas informed the editor, that he was once wit-
nefs to a pleafing and fingular inttance of the Biihop’s
attention to fome aged poor of the ifiand. As he was
dittributing fpeftacles to fome whofe eyefight failed
them, Mr Moore expreffed his furprife, as he well
knew not one of them could read a letter. ‘ No matter
(laid tne Bifhop with a Imile), they will find ufeenough
for them ; thefe fpedtacles will help them to thread a
needle, to mend their clothes, or, if need be, to keep
themfelves free from vermin.’
So great was the bifiiop’s attachment to his flock,
that no temptation could feduce him from their fervice.
He more than once refufed the offer of an Engliih bi-
fhoorie. There is an anecdote of his lordfliip and Car¬
dinal Fleury, which does great credit to them both.
The cardinal wanted much to fee him, and fent over on
purpofe to inquire after bis health, his age, and the
date of his confecration, as they were the two oldett bi-
fhops, and he believed the pooreft, in Europe ; at the
fame, time inviting him to France. The bilhop fent the
cardinal an anfwer, which gave him fo high an opinion
o: him, that the cardinal obtained an order that no
French privateer fliould ravage Mie ifle of Man.
i his good prelate lived till the year 1755, dying at
the advanced age of 93. His works have lately been
publiihed in 2 vols qto.
WILTON, a market town in Wiltfliire, three miles
weft of Salifbury. It was once fo confiderable as to >
give title to the county. It formerly had 12 churches;
and Odo, brother-in-law to William I. was biihop of
Wilton. Only one now remains. It fends members to
parliament, and is the place where the knights of the
{hire are chofen. It has a great manufactory of carpets,
which are brought to high perfection. Wilton is fa¬
mous for Lord Pembroke’s feat, fo well known through
Europe for its containing a grand affemblage of the pro¬
ductions of the greateft and molt ancient matters in
painting and fculpture.—Two fairs are held here an¬
nually.
Wi'ton
WILTSHIRE, a county of England, bounded on
the welt by Somerfetlhire, on the ealt by Berklhire and
Hamplhire, on the north by Gloucefterttiire, and on the
fouth by Dorfetihire and part of Hamplhire. The
length amounts to 39 miles ; its breadth to 30 ; and its
circumference to 140. It contains 29 hundreds, 23
market-towns, 304 parilhes, and about 185,107 fouls.
Befides two members for the Ihire, and two for the city
of Salifbury, each of the following towns fends two
members to parliament, viz. Wilton, Downton, Hin-
don, Heytelbury, Wettbury, Caine, Devizes, Chip-
panham, Malmfbury, Crickiade, Great Bedwin, Lud-
gerlhail, Old Sarum, Wooton-Baffet, Marlborough.
The air of this county is very healthy, not only in
the more low and level parts, but alfo on the hills.
The foil of the vales is very rich, and produces corn
and grafs in great plenty. The beautiful downs in the
fouth yield the fineft pafture for llieep, with which they
are overfpread. The greateft difadvantage the county-
labours under is want of fuel, as there are no coal-pits,
and but little wood. This county is noted for great
quantities of very fine cheefe, and for its manufacture of
broad cloth, to which it rvas invited by the great plenty
and finenefs of its wool. Befides a number of letter
ftreams, it is watered by the rivers Ills, Kennet, Upper
and Lower Avon, Willy, Burne, and Nadder, which
are well ftored with filh.
WINCHELSEA, a town in Suffex, which has no
market, but has one fair on May 14th for cattle and
pedlars ware. It was an ancient place, at leaft the old
town, which was fwallowed up by the ocean in 1230.
It is now dwindled to a mean place, though it retains
its privileges, and fends two members to parliament.
It is feated on a rocky cliff, on an inlet of the fea j and
had a haven, now choked up. It had 18 parifti-church-
es, now reduced to one. The market-houfe is in the
midft of the town, from whence run four paved ftreets,
at the end of which are four ways, which had formerly
buildings on each fide for a confiderable diftance. It
is two miles fouth-weft of Rye, and 71 fouth-eaft of Lon¬
don. It is governed by a mayor and jurats, though it has
but about 70 houfes. Three of the gates are ftill {landing,
but much decayed. E. Long. o. 44. N. Lat. jo. 58.
Winchelsea, Anne Cou?Uefs of, a lady of excellent
genius, efpecially in poetry, was maid of honour to the
duchefs of York, fecond wife to King James II. and
was afterwards married to Heneage, fecend fon of the
earl of Winchelfea. One of the moft confiderable of
the countefs of Winchelfea’s poems was that on the
4X2 Spleen.
Winehefter,
VVinckle-
WIN _ [ 71
Spleen, A collection of her poems was printed at Lon¬
don in 1713, containing a tragedy never afted, intitled
Arijlomcnes. The countefs died in 17 20 without ilfue,
as her hufband did in 1726.
WINCHESTER, the capital of the county of
Hampihire in England. It is a very ancient city, fup-
pofed to have been built feveral centuries before Chrift.
The Romans called it Venta Be/garum, the Britons Caer
Ghent, and the Saxons Wittanceq/ier; whence came
the prefent name. It Hands upon the river Itchin, in a
bottom furrounded with chalky hills *, and is generally
allowed to have been a confiderable place in the time of
the Romans. Some of the firft converts to Chriftianity
are fuppofed to have lived here. In the caftle, near the
weft gate, many of the Saxon kings anciently kept their
court. The cathedral was founded by Kenegulfe, a
king of the Mercians ; but there were many Chriftians,
and places for their worlhip here, long before that period.
It is a large pile, and has a venerable look, but is not
very elegant. Befides the tombs, there are many curi¬
ous pieces of workmanlhip in it j the chief of which are,
I. The font, erefted in the time of the Saxons. 2. Cop¬
per ftatues of James I. and Charles I. 3. The biftiop’s
throne. 4. The ftalls of the dean and prebendaries. 5.
The afcent to the choir and altar. 6. The pavement,
inlaid with marble of diverfe colours, in various figures.
7. The altar-piece, reckoned the nobleft in England.
8. The paintings in the windows, efpecially the great
eaft window. At the hofpital of the Holy Crofs, every
traveller that knocks at the doer may claim a manchet
of white bread and a cup of beer } of w’hich a great
quantity is provided every day for that purpofe. This
hofpital was intended for the maintenance of a mafter
and 30 penfioners, but only 14 are now maintained in
it j and the mafter enjoys a revenue of Bool, a-year.
This city is about a mile and a half in compafs, and
almoft furrounded with a wall of flint} has fix gates,
large fuburbs, broad clean ftreets \ but the private
houfes are in general but ordinary, many of them being
very old. The city is interfperled with a great many
gardens, which contribute to its beauty and healthinefs.
The corporation confifts of a mayor, high-ftewrard, re¬
corder, aldermen, twro coroners, two bailiffs, 24 com¬
mon-council men, a town clerk, four conftables, and
four ferjeants at mace *, and the city gives title of mar¬
quis to the duke of Bolton. A Roman highway leads
from hence to Alton j and went formerly, as it is
thought, from thence to London. The charming downs
in the neighbourhood contribute greatly to the health
and pleafure of the inhabitants. The river Itchin is na¬
vigable for barges from hence to Southampton. W.
Long. 1. 21. N. Lat. 51.5.
WINCKLEMAN, Abbe John, w^as born at Sten-
dall, in the old Marche of Brandenburg, in 1718.
His father was a fhoemaker. This wonderful man, to
all appearance deftined by his birth to fuperintend a
little fchool in an obfeure town of Germany, railed
himfelf to the office of prefident of antiquities in the
Vatican. After having been feven years profeffor in
the college of Seehaufen near Salfwredel, he went into
Saxony, where he refided feven years more, and was
librarian to Count Bunau at Nothenitz. When he left
this place, 1754, he went to Drefden, where he formed
an acquaintance with the ableft artifts, and particularly
with M. Oefer, an excellent painter, and one of the
6 ] WIN
beft draughtfmen of the age. In that year he abjured
Lutheranifm, and embraced the Roman Catholic reli¬
gion. In September 1755, he fet out for Italy, and
arrived at Rome in December following. His princi¬
pal objeft was to fee the Vatican library, and to exa¬
mine the ruins of Herculaneum.
Mr Winckleman carried with him into Italy a fenfe
of beauty and art, which led him inftantly to admire the
mafterpieces of the Vatican, and with which he began
to ftudy them. He foon increafed his knowledge ; and
it was not till after he had thus purified his tafte and
conceived an idea of ideal beauty, which led him into
the greateft fecrets of art, that he began to think of
the explanation of other monuments, in which his great
learning could not fail to diftinguilh him. His erudition
enabled him to fill up his principal plan of writing the
“ Hiftary of Art.” In 1756 he planned his “ Reftora-
tion of Ancient Statues,” and a larger work on the
Tafte of the Greek Artifts } and defigned an account of
the galleries of Rome and Italy, beginning with a vo¬
lume on the Belvidere ftatues, in the manner of Richard-
fon, who, he fays, only ran over Rome. He alfo in¬
tended a hiftory of the corruption of tafte in art, the
reft®ration of ftatues, and an illuftration of the obfeure
points of mythology. All thefe different effays led him
to his “ Hiftory of Art,” and his “ Monumenti Inediti.”
It muft, however, be confeffed, that the firft of thefe
works has not all the clearnefs and precifion that might
be expefted in its general plan and divifion of its parts
and obje&s j but it has enlarged and extended the ideas
both of antiquaries and colleftors. The defeription of
the gems and fulphurs of the Stofch cabinet contributed
not a little to extend Mr Winckleman’s knowledge.
Few perfons have opportunities of contemplating fuch
vaft collections. The engravings of Lippet and Count
Caylus are all that many can arrive at. Mr Winckle¬
man’s Monumenti Inediti, of which he had begun the
third volume 1767, feem to have fecuredhim the eiteem
of antiquaries. Had he lived, we fliould have had a
work long wifhed for j a complete collection of the bas-
reliefs difeovered from the time of Bartoli to the prefent,
the greater part of which are in the poffeffion of Cardinal
Albani.
When Cardinal Albani fucceeded to the place of li¬
brarian of the Vatican, he endeavoured to get a place
for the Hebrew language for Winckleman, who refufed
a canonry, becaufe he would not take the tonfure. The
eleCtor of Saxony gave him, 1761, unfolicited, the place
of Counfellor Richter, the diredion of the royal cabinet
of medals and antiquities at Drefden. Upon the death
of the abbe Venuti, 1762, he was appointed prefident
of the antiquities of the apoftolic-chamber, with power
over all difeoveries and exportations of antiquities and
pictures. This is a poft of honour, with an income of
160 feudi per annum. He had a profpeCt of the place
of prefident of antiquities in the Vatican, going to be
created at 16 feudi per month, and was named corre-
fponding member of the Academy of Infcriptions. The
king of Pruffia offered him, by Col. Quintus Icilius, the
place of librarian and direCtor of his cabinet of medals
and antiquities, void by the death of M. Gautier de la
Croze, with a handfome appointment. He made no
fcruple of accepting the-offer j but when it came to the
pope’s ears, he added an appointment out of his own
purfe, and kept him at Roms.
In
Winckle-
man.
Wind.
WIN [7
In April 1768, he left Rome to go with M. Cava-
ceppi over Germany and Switzerland. When he came
to Vienna, he was fo pleafed with the reception he met
with, that he made a longer ftay there than he had in¬
tended. But, being fuddenly feized with a fecret un-
eaixnefs and extraordinary defire to return to Rome, he
fet out for Italy, putting off his vifits to his friends in
Germany to a future opportunity. As he paffed through
Triefte, he was affaflinated, June 8. 1768, by a wretch
named Arcangeli, a native of Campiglio, a town in the
territory of Piftoia, with whom he had made an ac¬
quaintance on the road. This mifcreant had been con¬
demned for a robbery to rvork in fetters four years, and
then to be baniffied the Auftrian territories, on an oath
never to return. He had obtained a mitigation of one
of his fentences, and retired to Venice •, but, chan¬
ging his quarters backwards and forwards, he was fo re¬
duced in circumftances that he at length took up his
lodgings at the inn to which the Abbe happened to
come. Arcangeli paid fuch affiduous court to him, that
he entirely gained his confidence 5 and having been fa¬
voured with a fight of the valuable prefents which he
had received at Vienna, formed a defign to murder and
rob him. He bought a new fharp knife on purpofe j
and as the Abbe (who had in the moft friendly manner
invited him to Rome) was fitting down in his chair, ear¬
ly in the morning, he threw a rope over his head, and
before he could difengage himfelf, ftabbed him in five
different places. The Abbe had ftill ftrength to get
down to the ground floor, and call for help j and being
laid on a bed in the midft of the moft violent pain, he
had compofure fufficient to receive the laft facraments,
and to make his will, in which he appointed Cardinal
Alexander Albani his refiduary legatee, and expired in
the afternoon. The murderer was foon after appre¬
hended ; and executed on the wheel oppofite the inn,
June 26.
Abbe Winckleman was a middle-fized man j he had
a very low forehead, (harp nofe, and little black hollow
eyes, which gave him an afpect rather gloomy than
othervvife. If he had any thing graceful in his phyfiog-
nomy, it was his mouth. A fiery and impetuous difpofi-
tion often threw him into extremes. Naturally enthu-
fiaftic, he often indulged an extravagant imagination j
but as he poffeffed a ftrong and folid judgement, he knew
how to give things a juft and intrinfic value. In confe-
quence of this turn of mind, as well as a neglected educa¬
tion, a cautious referve was a quality he little knew. If
he was bold in his decifions as an author, he was ftill
more fo in his converfation, and has often made his
friends tremble for his temerity. If ever man knew
what friendftiip was, that man was Mr Winckleman,
who regularly pra&ifed all his duties •, and for this rea-
fon he could boaft of having friends among perfons of
every rank and condition.
WIND is a fenfible agitation of the atmofphere, oc-
cafioned by a quantity of air flowing from one place to
another. See Meteorology.
Hot Winds. See Samiel.
WiND-F/ower. See Anemony, Botany Index.
WIND-Mill, a kind of mill, the internal parts of
which are much the fame with thofe of a water mill:
from which, however, it differs, in being moved by
the impulfe of the wind upon its fails or vanes, which
73 WIN
are to be confidered as a wheel in axis. See Mecha¬
nics Index.
WlND-Gage. See Wmd-GAGE.
WlND-Ga//s. See Farriery Index.
WlND-Gan. See Air-Gun, under SCIENCE, Amufe-
ments of.
Injlruments for meafuring the frength, velocity, &c. of
the Wind. See Wind-GAGE, Anemometer and Ane¬
moscope.
WlND-IIatch, in mining, a term ufed to exprefs the
place at which the ore is taken out of the mines.
WlND-Shoch, a name given by our farmers to a dif-
temper to which fruit trees, and fometimes timber trees,
are fubjedt. It is a fort of bruife and ftiiver throughout
the whole fubftance of the tree •, but the bark being of¬
ten not affedted by it, it is not feen on the outfide, while
the infide is twifted round, and greatly injured. It is
by fome luppofed to be occafioned by high winds; but
othes attribute it to lightning. Thofe trees are molt
ufually affected by it whofe boughs grow more out on one
fide than on the other. The belt way of preventing this
in valuable trees, is to take care in the plantation that
they are ftieltered well, and to cut them frequently in a
regular manner while young.
WlND-Faught, in fea language, denotes the fame as
ftiff in the wind. Too much rigging, high mafts, or
any thing catching or holding wind aloft, is faid to hold
a (hip wind-taught j by which they mean, that fhe
ftoops too much in her failing in a ftiff gale of wind.
Again, when a ftiip rides in a main ftrefs of w7ind and
weather, they ftrike down her top-mafts, and bring her
yards down, which elfe would hold too much wind, or
be too much diftended and wind-taught.
WlND-Sai/s, a fort of wide tube or funnel of canvas,
employed to convey a ftream of frelh air downward into
the lower apartments of a ftiip.
This machine is ufually extended by large hoops fitu-
ated in different parts of its height. It is let dowm per¬
pendicularly through the hatches, being expanded at the
lower end like the bafe of a cone j and having its upper
fide open on the fide which is placed to w'indward, fo as
to receive the full current of wind $ which entering the
cavity, fills the tube, and nifties downwards into the
lower regions of the fhip. There are generally three or
four of thefe in our capital (hips of war, which, together
with the ventiktors, contribute greatly to preferve the
health of the crew.
WINDAGE of a GuN, is the difference between the
diameter of the bore and the diameter of the ball.
WINDLASS, a machineufed for raifinghugeweights,
as guns, ftones, anchors, &c.
It is very Ample, confifting only of an axis or roller,
fupported horizontally at the two ends by two pieces of
wood and a pulley; the two pieces of wood meet at
top, being paced diagonally fo as to prop each other j
the axis or roller goes through the two pieces, and turns
in them. The pulley is faftened at top where the pieces
join. Laftly, there are two ftaves or handfpikes which
go through the roller, whereby it is turned, and the
rope which comes over the pulley is wound off and on
the fame.
Windlass, in a (hip, is an inftrument in fmall ftiips,
placed upon the deck, juft abaft the fore-maft. It is
made of a piece of timber fix or eight feet fquare, in
form
Wind7
. II
Windlafs.
WIN [ 71S I WIN
Wmdlafs form of an axletree, wliofa length is placed horizontal-
ly upon two pieces of wood at the ends thereof, and
1 ‘ . upon which it is turned about by the help of hand-
fpik.es put into holes made for that purpofe. This inlfru-
ment ferves for weighing anchors, or hoifting of any
weight in or out of the ihip, and will purchafe much
more than any capitan, and that without any danger to
thofe that heave j for if in heaving the windlafs about,
any of the handlpikes ftiould happen to break, the wind¬
lafs would pall of itfelf.
WINDOW, an aperture or open place in the wall
of a houfe to let in the light. See Architecture,
N° 78.
The word is Welch, ui/nt dor, lignifying the paflage
for the wind. Window is yet provincially denomina¬
ted ivindor in Lancaihire ; i. e. wind-door, or the paf-
fage for air, as that for people was peculiarly called
the door.
Before the ufe of glafs became general, which was not
till towards the end of the 12th century, the window’s
in Britain feem generally to have been compofed of pa¬
per. Properly prepared with oil, this forms no contemp¬
tible defence againft the intruftons of the weather, and
makes no incompetent opening for the admiffion of the
light. It is ftill ufed by our archite&s for the tempora¬
ry w’indows of unfinifhed houfes, and not unfrequently
for the regular ones of our work {hops. But lome of
the principal buildings we may reafonably fuppofe to
have been windowed in a fuperior manner. They could,
however, be furnilhed merely with lattices of wood or
fheets of linen, as thefe two remained the only furniture
of our cathedrals nearly to the eighth century 5 and the
lattices continued in feme of the meaner towns of Lan-
cafhire to the x8th ; and in many diftri&s of Wales, and
many of the adjoining parts of England, are in ufe even
to the prefent moment. Thefe feem all to have been
fixed in frames that were called captfamenta, and now
therefore cafements in Wales and Lancalhire.
WINDSOR, a borough town of Berklhire, 22 miles
weft of London, moft remarkable for the magnificent roy¬
al palace or caftle fituated there on an eminence, which
commands the adjacent country for many miles, the ri¬
ver Thames running at the foot of the hill. The
knights of the garter are inftalled in the royal chapel
here. It fends two members to parliament. WT. Long.
G. 36. N. Lat. 51. 30.
WINDWARD, in the fea language, denotes any
thing towards that point from whence the wind blows,
in refpeft of a (hip : thus windward-tide, is the tide which
runs againft the wind.
WINE, an agreeable fpirituous liquor, produced by
fermentation from thofe vegetable fubftances that con¬
tain faccharine matter. A very great number of vege¬
table fubftances may be made to afford wine, as grapes,
currants, mulberries, elders, cherries, apples, pulfe, beans,
peas, turnips, radiflies, and even grafs itfelf. Hence, un-
|ier the clafs of wines or vinous liquors, come not only
wines, abfolutely fo called, but alfo ale, cyder, &c.
Chaptafs Wine, however, is irt a more particular manner appro-
Chemijlry, priated to the liquor drawn from the fruit of the vine,
part iv. The procefs of making wine is as follows: When the
*7^' grapes are ripe, and the faccharine principle is develo-
\ ' ped, they are then preffed, and the juice which flows out
Method of is received in veffels of a proper capacity, in which the
making fermentation appears, and proceeds in the following
wine. «
manner : At the end of feveral days, and frequently af- Wine."
ter a few hours, according to the heat of the atmofphere,—v—
the nature of the grapes, the quantity of the liquid, and
temperature of the place in which the operation is per¬
formed, a movement is produced in the liquor, which
continually increafes j the volume of the fluid increafes;
it becomes turbid and oily } carbonic acid is diiengaged,
which fills all the unoccupied part of the veffel, and the
temperature rifes to the 72.5th degree. At the end of
feveral days thefe tumultuous motions fubfide, the mafs
falls, the liquid becomes clearer, and is found to be let's
faccharine, more odorant, and of a red colour, from the
reaction of the ardent fpirit upon the colouring matter of
pellicle of the grape.
The wine is ufually taken out of the fermenting vef¬
fels at the period when all the phenomena of fermenta¬
tion have fubfided. When the mafs is fettled, the co¬
lour of the liquor is well developed, when it has become
deal’, and its heat has difappeared j it is put into calks,
where, by a fecond infenfible fermentation, the wine is
clarified, its principles combine more perfectly together,
and its tafte and fmell become more and more developed.
If this fermentation be flopped or fuffocated, the gafeous
principles are retained, and the wine is brilker, and more
of the nature of muft.
It appears, from the interefting experiments of the
Marquis de Bullion, that the vinous fermentation does
not take place unlefs tartar be prefent. r
The caufes of an imperfeft lermentation are the fol- Caufes of
lovving: 1. If the heat be too little, the fermentation
languifhes, the faccharine and oily matters are not luffi- ^“euta"
ciently elaborated, and the wine is un&uous and fvveet.
2. If the faccharine body be not fufticiently abundant,
as happens in rainy feafons, the wine is weak, and the
mucilage, which predominates, caufes it to become four
by its decompofiticn. 3. If the juice be too w’atery,
concentrated and boiling muft is added. 4. If the fac¬
charine principle be not fufficiently abundant, the de¬
feat may be remedied by the addition of fugar. Mac-
quer has proved that excellent wine may be made of
verjuice and fugar ; and M. de Bullion has made
wine at Bellejames, with the verjuice of his vine rows
and mcift fugar.
There have been many difputes to determine whether
grapes Ihould be preffed with the ftalks or without.
This depends on the nature of the fruit. When they
are highly charged with faccharine and mucilaginous
matter, the ftalk corredls the infipidity of the wine by
its bitter principle: but when, on the contrary, the
juice is not too fweet, the ftalk renders it drier, and very
rough.
The colouring principle of wine is of a refinous na'c0iinf,.;ng.
ture, and is contained in the pellicle of the grape; and matter of
the fluid is not coloured until the wine is formed ; for wine,
until then there is nothing which can dnTolve it: and
hence it is that white w’ine may be made of red grapes,
when the juice of the grape is expreffed, and the hulk
thrown away. If wine be evaporated, the colouring
principle remains in the refidue, and may be extrafled
by fpirit of wane. Old wines lofe their colour ; a pelli¬
cle being precipitated, which is either depofited on the
fides of the bottles, or falls to the bottom. If wine be
expofed to the heat of the fun during the fummer, the
colouring matter is detached in a pellicle, which falls to
the bottom : when the vtffcl is opened, the difcolouring
i?
WIN
[ 7l9 3
W I N
Wine. more fpeedv, and it is effe&ed in two or three days the red woods, elder berries, bilberries, &c.
In France
during the fammer. The wine thus deprived of its co-
4 lour is not perceptibly weakened,
vinons fer- The vinous fermentation has been examined with great
menmbn accu by M. Lavoifier. According to him, the ve-
expiainecl. getable juice 0£ wbicb wine is to be made confifts of
oxygen, hydrogen, and carbone, combined with one an¬
no fecret is made of thefe pra&ices, the colouring mat- ,,r v
ters being publicly thrown out after they have been
ufed. _ 6
It is well known to be a common praftice among Adultera-
wine-coopers, innkeepers, and other dealers in wines, totion of
ox tn n uiu cii a*ju       adulterate bad wine in order to conceal its defefts: if,wine‘
otherTn dTiSrent "proportions, fo as to form chiefly wa- for inftance, the wine be four, they throw into it a
ter and fugar. The fermentation produces a reparation quantity of fugar of lead, which entirely takes away the
of the elements, and a new combination of them j a four tafte. For fimilar purpofes alum is often mixed
quantity of the oxygen and carbone combine and fly off with wine. Such fubftances, however, are well known
in the Hate of carbonic acid •, part of the carbone, oxy- to be extremely pernicious to the human conftitution *,
gen, and hydrogen, combine firft with each other, and then it becomes of importance therefore to be able to deleft
ail together, to form alcohol 5 another part forms ace- them whenever they happen to be contained in wine,
tous acid ; the water dill remains, and a refiduum falls Several chemifts who have turned their attention to this
to the bottom compofed of the three elements combined fubjeft, have furnifhed us with lefts for this purpofe. ?
in other proportions. To difcover lead diffolved in wine, boil together in a To detect
Ingredients The different kinds of wines produced in Europe and pint of water an ounce of quicklime and half an ounce lead m
in different otber parts Qf tbe world are many ; the principal of them of flour of brimftone ; and when the liquor, which willwine*
WJIles• and their qualities are well knovvn : a catalogue of them be of a yellow colour, is cold, pour it into a bottle, w&Watfon't
would ferve no purpofe here. We fhall, however, fub- cork it up for ufe. A few drops of this^ liquor a'
join a table of the quantities of the ingredients of the dropt into a glafs of wine or cyder containing lead% will
principal kinds from Neumann’s Chemiftry. change the whole into a colour more or lefs brown, ac-p. 371.
A quart of
Highly
rectified
Spirit.
Aland
Alicant
Burgundy
Carcaffone
Champagne
French
Frontignac
Vin Grave
Hermitage
Madeira
Malmfey
Vino de T
Monte >
Pulciano J
Mofelle
Mufcadine
Neufschatel
Palm Sec
Pontac
Old Rhenifh
Rhenifh
Salamanca
Sherry
Spanifh
Vino Tinto
Tokay
Tyrol red 1
wine J
Red wine
White
Thick,
oily,unc¬
tuous, re-
lino us
matter.
:. ir. gr.
6 00
6 o<
2 OO
2 6 OO
2 5 20
O OO
0 00
2 0 OO
2 7 00
2 3 OO
4 O OO
2 6 00
. oz. dr. gr
2 OO
6 O 20
O 4 CO
o 4 10
6 4c
6 4c
. 4
o 6 00
1 2 oc
2 oc
4 3 00
Gummy
and tar-
tarous
matter.
C 3 OC
2 OO
3 0 00
3 2 004 o 00
o 4 20
2 4 oc
oz. dr. gr.
1 5 OO
40
0 i 4<
O I 2C
0 1 00
O I 00
3 5
O 2 00
O I 40
2 O CO
2 3 00
O 2 40
0 I 30
3
2 O OO
2 O 00
2 OO
3
3
1 2 00
3 o 00
2 2 00
1 4 00
1 6 00
2 4 00
° 5
1 o 00
3 3
3 4 00
6 o 00
2 4 oc<
6 4 00
4 3 00
I 2 oc
044;
2 O COjO 7 OO
7 00:
4 4 00
2 00
2 20
1 34
2 o 00
2 00
9 4 00
6 00
5 o 00
4 00
2 00
3 00
tb. oz. dr. gr
5 3°°
2 6 00
9 o.
8 4 30
8 3
8 o
4 6 3c
9 o 00
7 5
4 3 00
1 2 00
2 8 o 20
2 9 o io
2 5 4 00
227
2 2 5 00
2 9 o 40
2 8 5 4c
2 9 1 06
2 3 4 00
2 o 6 oc
1 10 6 00
2 o 6 oc
203
2 8 6 00
9 3 2<
7 o 00
, The colour of wine is frequently artificial 5 a deep red  (
is almoft always the effeft of artificial additions, as of which there is a greater temptation to fvveeten
change tne wnoie into a colour more or reis vrvwn, ac-p.
cording to the quantity of lead which it contains. If
the wine be wholly free from lead, it will be rendered
turbid by the liquor, but the colour will be rather a
dirty white than a black brown.
By this left, however, iron is alfo precipitated when
diffolved in wine, and is apt to be taken for lead j a
miftake which has ruined feveral honeft merchants. The
following left is therefore preferable, as not liable to the
fame inconvenience. s
Take equal parts of calcined oyfter-ftiells and crude Another
fulphur in fine powder, and put them in a crucible,meth°di.
which put into a fire, and raife the heat fuddenly till it
has been expofed to a white heat for 15 minutes. Then
take it out, let it cool, beat the ingredients to powder,
*and put them into a well corked bottle. To prepare
the left liquor, put 20 grains of this powder together
with 120 grains of cream of tartar, and put them into
a ftrong bottle, fill it up with water, boil it for an hour,
and let it cool. Cork the bottle immediately, and (hake
it from time to time. After fome hours repofe, decant
off the clear liquor into an ounce vial, having firft put
22 drops of muriatic acid into each vial. Cork thefe
vials accurately with a little wax mixed up with a little
turpentine. One part of this liquor, mixed with three
parts of fufpefted wine, will difcover the prefence of the
fmalleft quantity of lead or copper, by a very fenfible
black precipitate, and of arfenic by an orange precipi¬
tate : but will have no effeft on iron, if there be any ; dg°ph™
the prefence of which, however, may be afeertained byy^,.,f.
adding a little potafh, which will turn the liquor black October
if there be any iron. Pure wine remains limpid after
the addition of this liquor J. 9
As this fubjeft is of importance, we {hall add M. State of
Fourcroy’s obfervations on the ftate in which lead exitts^ac*in
in wine, and on the methods of difeovering its prefence :
“ Of the different principles which compofe wine, there
was no doubt (fays he) but that acids were the only
ones which were capable of diffolving oxide (calx) of
lead. But was it the tartareous acid always contained
in larger or fmaller quantity in wine, or the acetous
acid developed in tbofe which have become (harp, and
Expe-.
WIN [ 720 ] WIN
ricnce had proved to me that the acidulous tartrate of the decompofitions of the aceto-tartrite of lead. Fixed
potafti, or the cream of tartar, takes oxide of lead from alkalies and ammoniac (volatile alkali) precipitate from
the acetous acid, and a precipitate of tartrate of lead is this fait an oxide of lead, which is of a grayifli white
formed; the pure tartareous acid prepared in Scheele’s colour ; but as they occafion a precipitate in pure wine,
10
it forms
an aceto-
tartrite
of lead.
Other me¬
thods of
detecting
this fait.
method produces the fame effeft. In order to under-
fland how the (harp wine which contain* thefe two acids
can hold the oxide of lead in folution, I made the expe¬
riments which gave me the following refults: 1. The
acidulous tartrite (erem. tartl) has no fenfible aft ion up¬
on the oxides of lead. 2. The pure tartareous acid has
a flight aftion upon the oxides, and forms on their fur-
face a little tartrite of lead (tartarifed lead), in a white
powder. 3. Wine which only contains the tartareous
acidule, would not have any aftion upon the femi-vi-
trous oxide of lead or litharge. 4. Sharp wine which we
attempt to fweeten by this oxide of lead, afts firft upon
it by the acetous acid it contains. 5. When this acetite
of lead is formed, the tartareous acid precipitates it in
the form of tartrite of lead : this is proved by the preci¬
pitate which the folution of the acetite of lead or fugar
of lead forms in the wine. 6. But the acetous acid, if
it be in large enough quantity, rediffolves the tartrite of
lead in the wine juft as diftilled water would. Bergman
has pointed out this folution of tartrite of lead in acetous
acid for diftinguiftiing the tartareous fait from the ful-
fat of lead {vitriol of lead'). 7. As this folution of tar¬
trite of lead in the acetous acid is much quicker, and
more eafy in (harp wines than in diftilled water and vi¬
negar, it is probable that the caufe of this difference de¬
pends upon the citric and malic acids which I have
found in wine, and which I fhall take notice of again
on another occafion. 8. Litharged wine then, or wine
fweeteRed with lead, contains tartrite diffolved in the a-
cetous acid, and perhaps at the fame time in the malic
and citric acids.
“ It was neceffary afterwards to know the properties of
this combination. What experience has taught me is as
follows : I particularly examined the tartrite of lead
and its folution in acetous acid. The tartrite of lead is
fcarcely at all foluble in water 5 it is in the form of
powder, or of fmall white grains w^hich have no fenfible
tafte *, when it is diffolved in vinegar, the vinegar is
foftened, its ftiarpnefs is diminifhed remarkably, and the
folution takes a flight fweetifh tafte, much lefs ftrong
than that of the pure acetite of lead. This tafte proves
that the union of the tartrite of lead with vinegar is not
only a folution like that of fait in water, by which the
properties of the fait are not changed, but a combina¬
tion wdiich gives occafion to new properties. It is a
kind of a triple fait, different from thofe we have hither¬
to known, formed of two acids and of one bafe $ where¬
as the other triple falls defcribed hitherto are compofed
of one acid and two bafes. I name this new triple fait
aceto-tartrite of lead. The acetous acid adheres to it
more than water in a common folution : what is remark¬
able in this combination is, that the two acids appear
to adhere to the bafe with an equal force, although they
have a different attraftion for it: nothing is neceflary to
produce this equilibrium, but to unite firft the oxide
of lead with the acid to which it adheres the moft
ftrongly, and afterwards to put this firft compound in
contaft with the weaker acid.
“ It was neceffary, in order to difcover eafy and cer¬
tain methods of afcertaining the prefence of lead in wine,
to examine with care the properties and phenomena of
they cannot be of any ufe. The fulphuric (vitriolic)
acid decompofes the aceto-tartrite of lead, and forms
with it inftantly fulphate of lead j which being very
little foluble, and very heavy, is precipitated. The
oxalic, or pure faccharine acid, and the acidulous oxa¬
late, or the fait of forrel of the fliops, likewife decom-
pofe this fait, and take from it the lead. The oxalate
of. lead is precipitated in great abundance : thefe two
acids, the fulphuric and oxalic acids, not producing any
precipitate in pure wine, are very proper to fhow the
prefence of lead in wine. The fulphate and oxalate of
lead, when they are precipitated from wine, are colour¬
ed, whereas they are very white when they are formed
in diftilled water $ but their red or browm colour does
not prevent us from difcovering them by a very fimple
method. If the precipitates be collefted with care, and
are cautioufly heated upon a coal with a blow-pipe,
they fmoke, become white, exhale vapours, pafs fuccef-
fively through the ftates of the red and yellow oxides of
lead, and at length are reduced into metallic globules
at the inftant they are perceived to be agitated by a
very evident effervefcence : if we ceafe to blow at this
inftant, we obtain globules upon the charcoal. In order
to this, it is neceffary, however, that the charcoal be
folid, and be not cracked, and that we Ihould not have
blowed too ftrongly ; otherwife the globules would be
abforbed, and would difappear. The fulphate of lead
requires a longer time to be reduced than the oxalate of
the fame metal, and there is a greater hazard of lofing
the metallic particles, which, befide, are in fmall quan¬
tity.
“To thefe two firft proceffes, already fufficiently cer¬
tain of themfelves, I wiftied to be able to add one which
might be capable of pointing out inftantly the prefence
of lead, by an appearance belonging exclufively to this
metal, and which might unite to this advantage that of
manifefting very fmall quantities of it. Diftilled water
impregnated with fulphurated hydrogenous gas, or he¬
patic gas, extricated from folid alkaline fulphurets (li¬
vers of fulphur) by acids, prefented me with thefe pro¬
perties. This folution blackens very deeply that of the
aceto-tartrite of lead, and renders -j^-^th of this fait in
water or in wine very fenfible. The fenfibility of this
reaftive is fuch, that we may dilute litharged wine with
a fufficient quantity of water to take away almoft en¬
tirely the colour of the wine, and this reaftive will ftill
produce a very manifeft alteration. The fulphurated
water has, befides the advantage not to occafion any
change in the wines which do not contain a metallic
fubftance, and it is not precipitated by the acids of wine,
like the folutions of alkaline fulphurets. In order to
procure this reaftive pure, it is neceffary to prepare it
at the inftant of the experiment, by receiving in a vial
full of diftilled water, and inverted upon a ftielf of a
fmall hydro-pneumatic apparatus, filled with diftilled
water, the fulphurated hydrogenous gas, feparated from
the folid fulphuret of potafh by the fulphuric or muriatic
acid, and firft filtered through water in another vial $
when the fecond vial contains the third of its volume of
the fulphurated hydrogenous gas, the gas is ftiakcn
ftrongly with the water, which fills the two-thirds of
the
WIN r 721 ] WIN
Wine, the vial} and when the abforption is over, the teft li-
'■“""v 1 quor is prepared. This re-aaive changes very quickly
in the air: it is neceflary to make it the moment it is to
be employed, and to keep it in a veffel quite full and
well corked. If there were any fear that the black co¬
lour and the precipitation by the gafeous fulphurated
water Ihould not be fufficient to prove the prefence of
lead in fpirituous liquors, I would obferve, that this fear
would be diminiihed by employing the three re-aftives
mentioned in this memoir, and by depending only on the
correfpondent effects of thefe three re-a&ives : but all
fufpicion would be removed, by reducing the three pre¬
cipitates by the blow-pipe, and obtaining globules of
n lead from each of them.”
Method of Some years ago, the Academy of Lyons propofed the
^nTdrf' prize-queftion : What is the bell: method of
(blved in afcertaining the prefence and the quantity of alum dif-
wine. folved in wane, efpecially in very deep coloured red
wine ? The prize was gained by M. J. S. Beraud. From
his experiments, it appears that a mixture of lime-W'ater
and wine in any proportion whatever, will at the end of
12 or 15 hours furnilh a quantity of cryftals, which
may be leparated by filtration, and that thefe cryftals
will be eafieft difcovered when the quantities @f wine
and lime-water are equal j but that wine containing
alum diffolved in it, will not form cryftals when mixed
with lime-water, but merely depofits a muddy fediment.
To know therefore whether any wine contains alum or
not, we have only to mix a fmall quantity of it with
lime-water : if cryftals are formed, it contains no alum ;
if not, it does. Again, if wine contains alum, the re-
fiduum that remains after filtration will, as it dries,
fplit into quadrilateral fegments, which will detach
themfelves from the paper which contains them; but if
the wine contains no alum, the refiduum, after it is dry,
will remain united and attached to the paper. If one
meafure of wine and two-thirds of a meafure of lime-wa¬
ter depofit cryftals, we are certain that if the wine con¬
tains alum, the proportion of that alum to the wine will
be lefs than 1 to 1152 $ if, when equal parts of wine and
lime-water are mixed, no cryftals be depofited, we may
be fure that more than ^g-th part of the mafs of wine
confifts of alum.
A great proportion of the wine confumed in this
country is brought from Spain and Portugal 5 govern¬
ment has always difcoufaged the importation of French
wines by heavy taxes. We are not fure how far fuch
conduft is founded on good policy, as the French
wines are confefledly the beft, and might be the cheap-
eft ; but fuch is the jealoufy and enmity that has al¬
ways fubfifted between Britain and France, that both
nations have been contented to injure themfelves, pro¬
vided they could do a greater injury to their neigh¬
bours. Befides, the advantages which Britain derives
from the Portugal trade are very great, and it would
not be eafy perhaps to fecure them on any other
13 terms.
foiTthe0”5 ^ may he worth while to infert here a few direftions
treatment -about the treatment of wines after they have been im-
®■ import- ported into this country.—On landing, the lefs they are
ed wines, exoofed the better *, for they are affe&ed by the feafons,
and more or lefs by climate. March and April are the
proper times for {hipping wines from France, and they
will be landed in England and Ireland in the fame de¬
gree of temperature. The great art in keeping wines b
Vol. XX. Part II.
to prevent their fretting, which is done by keeping
them in the fame degree of heat. In fpring and fall,,
the wines in Bourdeaux are fubjett to changes that
may be dangerous, if not prevented by neceffary rack-
ings : thefe changes are folely the effeds of the feafons.
If wines are chilled, and of courfe turn foul, from be¬
ing (hipped and landed in cold weather, they will foon
recover by putting them in a warm vault, well co¬
vered with faw-duft. As foon as they are in the vault,
they ought to be covered up. But if {hipped and land¬
ed in fummer, if the fmalleft degree of fermentation be
found on them, it will- be requifite to dip the bung
cloths in brandy, and leave the bungs loofe for fome
days, to give it tinae to cool j and if in a fortnight or
three weeks the fermentation do not ceafe, and the wine
become bright, it will be proper to rack it (matching
the hogftieads well with brimftone), and force it with
the whites of eight eggs. If it then becomes fine, bung
it tight, and let it remain fo until it is bottled. If
wines new landed are wanted foon for the bottle, it will
be neceffary to force them immediatelyj and let them
remain bunged clofe for at leaft a month, to recover
from the forcing, or if two months the better j for
wines bottled in high order come much fooner into
drinking than if bottled when flat, which all wines are
after forcing. Wine muft never be bottled the leaft
foul, which produces a tendency to fret; and if bottled
in this ftate, wrill never come in order, but may poflibly
be loft : for this there is no remedy but repeated rack-
ings j and care muft be taken (after rinfing the hogs¬
heads well and drawing them) to burn a good piece of
match in them. This cools the wine, and there is no
danger of hurting the colour, for it recovers it in a
little time : but if it did, it is abfolutely neceffary ; for
if ’.wine is fuffered to continue on the fret, it will wear
itfelf to nothing. Wines bottled in good order may be
fit to drink in fix months ; but they are not in perfec¬
tion before twelve : from that to two years they may
continue fo j but it would be improper to keep them
longer, for wines in general have not the body they
had formerly, from the vines being too much forced.
It fometimes happens that wines fcuddy and ftubborn
will not fall with one or even two forcings. It will
then be proper to give them five or fix gallons of good
ftrong wnne, and force them with the whites of a dozen
eggs, with a tea-fpoonful of fand produced from fawing-
marble, or a fmall fpoonful of fine fait. Bottled wine
in winter (hould be well covered with faw-duft, and if
the vaults are cold and damp, drew it deep on the floor;
if faw'-duft is throwm upon the hoglheads, and their fides
are bedded fome inches thick, it will keep them from
the fret.
The fame treatment is to be regarded with white
wines, except that they require to be higher matched,
particularly Mufcat wines; fuch as Frontignac, Beziers,
&c. which being often fweetened with honey, are very
fubjeft to fret; and thefe only frequent rackings, with
a great deal of brimftone, can cool. Hermitage, from
not being fufficiently dried, and poffefling more richnefs
than claret, is alfo very liable to come on the fret, and
will require much the fame treatment as the Mufcat
wines. Attention ftiould be had to bottle in fine wea¬
ther, when the wind is north ; but to avoid cold or
frofty weather. The months of April and O&ober are
favourable. The beft time to bottle port wine is four
4 Y years
WIN [7
Wine, years after the vintage, and to keep them two years in
"■Y"-"'*' bottle before you begin to ufe them. When wines are
racked, and the lees immediately paffed through flannel
bags into clole-necked jars, and dtre&ly bottled, there
will be very little loll by rackings, as the wine when
fine may ferve for filling up.
When wines are deftined for warm climates, it may
be proper to rinfe the hoglheads with brandy ; and in
bottling many rinfe the bottles and corks with it. Wines
that have remained a certain time (three or four months)
in a vault, and made lefs or more lee, ought never to be
fent into the country^without firft: racking them, other-
wife they may be liable to fret j and if bottled in that
Hate, may ii£k being loft.
Wines which may be ordered for immediate drinking
will be forced on the fliipping, and in a few weeks after
they are landed will be fit for the bottle. The forcings
proper for claret are the whites of a dozen eggs, beat up
with a tea-fpoonful of fine fait, and well worked with a
forcing rod. Take care to ufe no bad egg. This is
for one hoglhead.
The forcing for white wine is ifinglafs diffolved in
wane. One ounce is fufficient for two hoglheads. No
fait is to be ufed in forcing the white wines. See Croft
on Wines, 8vo, iy88.
Receipt for We fhall infert here the following receipt for making
making raijin wine.—To a 20 gallon veffel take 100 pounds of
1 at fin-wine. raifins j pick 0ff the ftalks, chop them grofsly, and put
them into an open tub more wide than deep. Add two
parts in three of the water to them, and let them ftand
15 days, ftirring them well every day. Then ftrain
and prefs them, putting alide the liquor that runs from
them. Add the remainder of the wTater to the raifins
that have thus been preffed, and let it ftand upon them
one week, frequently ftirring them as before. Then
prefs off the liquor, and add it to what you firft colleft-
ed ; putting both runnings together into your veffel, to¬
gether with one quart of brandy. To colour it, burn
three-fourths of a pound of fugar into a fmall quantity
of the liquor, and add this to the wine. When the li¬
quor in the barrel has done finging, flop the veffel clofe,
and let it ftand till fit to be bottled. The greater the
quantity which the veffel holds, and the longer it is kept
in the wmod, the better will it be.
As fome of the hints for making wines in Champagne
may be ufeful in the manufaflure of the wines of this coun¬
try, we infert the following abridged account of the dif¬
ferent proceffes that are followed in making white and
red champagne.
Great care is neceffary for making white wine. The
ripeft bunches muft be carefully gathered, freed from
rotten, dry, and bruifed grapes, put into large balkets
covered with a cloth to keep them from the fun, car¬
ried to the {hade, and kept there till the evening, when
they are to be fpeedily preffed. The grapes being laid
on the bed of the prefs, they are covered with three or
four layers of fiat ftones, and the prefs turned. The juice
having run for four or five minutes, the prefs is turned
backward, the ftones removed, the grapes which have
protruded thruft into the heap, the ftones replaced, and
the prefs turned again. The juice from three of fuch
preffures, which will not require an hour, is put by it-
felf for the beft wine into a vat, where it is left all night
to fettle.
The next morning this juice i$ poured off from the
22 ] WIN
fediment, and put into new well rinfed calks. In thefe it Wine
ferments violently at firft, but afterwards imperceptibly, .11
till about the end of December it becomes fine, having,
gone through all the ftages of depuration. It is then
racked off in dry weather, on a clear frofty day, and
fined with ifinglafs. About a pound is fufficient for 40
puncheons. The ifinglafs being diffolved is well beaten,
diluted with wine taken from the calk, then poured into
it, and the whole well ftirred by an inftrument introdu¬
ced at the bung-hole. The wine thus left to fettle fer¬
ments flightly again, till it be flopped by the cold wea¬
ther, or by time. In a month or fix weeks it is racked
off again, and has another fining with half the quantity
of ifinglafs.
For making red wine, the grapes are gathered with
the fame precautions as for making white, taking only
the black grapes. Thefe are bruifed in particular vef-
fels, by men treading on them with ftrong wooden
Ihoes: part of the ftalks are thrown away, and the mufl
is left in covered veffels to ferment fufficiently to extract
the colouring matter from the pellicles. In fome years,
three or four days are fufticient j in others it requires
10, 15, or even 20. When the fermentation begins,
the hulks and ftalks are forced down fo as to be covered
with the muft, either by means of ftrong poles furnilhed
with crofs pegs, or, which is better, by a couple of
ftrong men going into the vat, and well treading and
mixing its contents. When the air above the vat eic-
tinguifties a candle, the ftalks and hulks rife forcibly,
whatever pains be taken frequently to fink them, that
the muft may not acquire a difagreeable tafte j the con¬
tents of the vat experience a degree of ebullition, and the
colouring matter is decompofed. The fermentation muft
be made to flop here, that the wine may not acquire a
hard tafte, which even time cannot deftroy.
About the end of December, when the fermentation
has ceafed, the wine is racked off from the lees j about
the middle of May it is racked off again j the barrels
are frelh hooped, and the wine is put into the cellar.
When it is to be fent to the confuraer, it is racked a
third time ; the whites of five or fix frefti eggs are well
beaten up in a pint of water, for every puncheon hold¬
ing 240 bottles. Good red champagne will keep in
bottles from fix to twelve years.
WlNE-Prfs, a machine contrived to fqueeze the
juice out of grapes, and confifling of feveral pieces of
timber, varioully difpofed, which compofe three bodies
of timber-work, clofely united to the axis, which ferves
as a fwing whereby it may be moved by the vice. Of
thefe there are different fizes as well as different con-
ftru&ions ; for an account of which, illuftrated by fi-
gures, fee Miller’s Gardener’s Diftionary, article WlNE-
Prefs.
Spirit of Wine, or Alcohol, a name given by chemifts
to every ardent fpirit produced by diftillation. See
Chemists r Index.
WING, that part of a bird, infe£l, &c. whereby it is
enabled to fly. See Bird and ORNITHOLOGY.
Wings, in military affairs, are the two flanks or ex¬
tremes of an army, ranged in form of a battle j being
the right and left fides thereof.
WINTER, one of the four feafons or quarters of the
year. See Season, &c.
Winter commences on the day when the fun’s diflance
from the zenith of the plage is greateft, and ends on the
day
W I Pv t 723 ] WIT
day when its diftance is at a mean between the greatefl
and lead. , r r
Under the equator, the winter as well as other lealons
returns twice every year j but all other places have only
one winter in the year : which in the northern hemi-
fphere begins when the fun is in the tropic of Capricorn,
and in the fouthern hemifphere when in the tropic of
Cancer 5 fo that all places in the fame hemifphere have
their winter at the fame time.
WlNTER-Berry. See Physalis, Botany Index.
WINTERA, a genus of plants of the clafs of poly-
andria, and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
12th order, Holoracece. See Botany and Materia
Me dic a Index.
WINTON, Andrew, a ScottHh poet and hiftorian
of the 14th century, but very little is known of his
life. He was a canon regular of St Andrews, and was
prior of the monaftery of St Serf in the ifland of Loch
Leven in Kinrofs-fhire 5 for in the chartulary of the
priory of St Andrews there are feveral public inftru-
ments of Andrew Winton, as prior of Loch Leven.
They are dated between the years 1395 and 1413, fo
that Winton muft have been cotemporary with Bar¬
bour, whofe merits are on feveral occafions celebrated
by him. Winton is beft known as the author of the
Orygymle Cronykill of Scotland. This work was under¬
taken at the requelt of Sir John Wemyfs, the anceftor
of the noble family of that name. It remained neglect¬
ed for feveral centuries, but in 1795 a fplendid edition
of that part of it relative to Scottiih affairs, was publifh-
ed by Mr Macpherfon. The time of Winton’s death
is unknown ; but, as he mentions the death of Robert
duke of Albany, which happened in 1420, the hiflorian
muff have been alive at that time.
WIRE, a piece of metal drawn through the hole of
an iron into a thread of a finenefs anfwerable to the hole
it paHed through.
Wires are frequently drawn fo fine as to be wrought
along with other threads of filk, wool, flax, &c.
The metals moft commonly drawn into wire are gold,
filver, copper, and iron. Gold-wire is made of cylindri¬
cal ingots of filver, covered over with a fkin of gold,
and thus drawn fucceflively through a vaft number of
holes, each fmaller and fmaller, till at laft it is brought
to a finenefs exceeding that of a hair. That admirable
duCtility which makes one of the diftinguifhing charac¬
ters of gold, is nowhere more confpicuous than in this
gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces of filver, covered
with a coat of gold, only weighing one ounce, as Dr
Halley informs us, is ufually drawn into a wire, two
yards of which weigh no more than one grain ; wdience
98 yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and
one Angle grain of gold covers the 98 yards; fo that the
ten-thoufandth part of a grain is above one-eighth of an
inch long.
In 1784, Mr Rofwag of Stralbourg prefented to the
board of trade fome gauze made of iron wire, for which
he received a reward; and the loom he invented for
making it was lodged in the colledion of machines at
Vaucanfon. In 1799 Mr Rochon made others, and
coated them with a tranfparent glue, to be fubftituted
inftead of horn for Ihip lanterns, to be ufed between
decks, and in engagements by night. He has fince
conceived, that with a thin coating of plafter they
might be employed to preferve fhips from fire, and Wire
buildings on (hore ftill more eafily ; or at kail that
they might render the ravages of fire lefs frequent, and , 1 '
lefs terrible. Thefe gauzes might be very ufeful too
for theatrical decorations, which would not be liable to
take fire. Their only inconvenience is their being fo
little flexible ; but Mr Rochon does not defpair of
means being found by chemiftry to remedy this imper¬
fection, and it was with a view of calling attention to
this fubjeCt, that he read a paper on it to the clafs.
Wire of Lapland. The inhabitants of Lapland
have a fort of Ihining flender fubftance in ufe among
them on feveral occafions, which is much of the thick-
nefs and appearance of our filver wire, and is therefore
called, by thofe who do not examine its ftruCture or
fubftance, Lapland wire. It is made of the finews of
the rein deer, wdrich being carefully feparated in the
eating, are, by the wmmen, after foaking in water and
beating, fpun into a fort of thread, of admirable fine¬
nefs and ftrength, when wrought to the fmalleft fila¬
ments ; but when larger, is very ftrong, and fit for the
purpofes of ftrength and force. Their wire, as it is
called, is made of the fineft of thefe threads covered
with tin. The women do this bufinefs j and the way
they take is to melt a piece of tin, and placing at the
edge of it a horn, with a hole through it, they draw
thefe finewy threads, covered with the tin, through the
hole, which prevents their coming out too thick cover¬
ed. This drawing is performed with their teeth ; and
there is a fmall piece of bone placed at the top of the
hole, where the wire is made flat j fo that we always
find it rounded on all fides but one, where it is flat.
This wire they ufe in embroidering their clothes, as
we do gold and filver ; they often fell it to ftrangers,
under the notion of its having certain magical virtues.
WISDOM, ufually denotes a higher and more re¬
fined notion of things immediately prefented to the mind,
as it were, by intuition, without the afliftance of ratio¬
cination.
Sometimes the word is more immediately ufed, in a
moral fenfe, for what we call prudence, or diferetion,
which confifts in the foundnefs of the judgement, and a
conduct anfwerable thereto.
WISDOM of Solomon, one of the books of the Apo¬
crypha. It abounds with Platonic language, and wras
probably written after the Cabaliftic philofophy was in¬
troduced among the Jews.
WIT, is a quality of certain thoughts and expreflions,
much eafier perceived than defined. According to Mr
Locke, wit lies in the aflemblage of ideas, and putting
thofe together with quicknefs and variety, wherein can
be found any refemblance or congruity, thereby to
make up pleafant pictures and agreeable vifions to the
fancy. Mr Addifon limited this definition confider-
ably, by obferving, that every refemblance of ideas
does not conftitute wit, but thofe only which produce
delight and furprife. Mr Pope defined wit to be a
quick conception and an eafy delivery : w-hile, accord¬
ing to a late writer, it confifts in an aflimilation of di-
ftant ideas.
The word wit originally fignified wifdom. A witte
was anciently a wife man: the wittenagemot, or Saxon
parliament, an afiemblage of wife men. So late as the
reign of Elizabeth, a man of pregnant wit, of great
4 Y 2 wit,
W I T
Wit- wit, was a man of vafl judgement. We ftill fay, in his
f-mmj w;ts^ out of fcs Wl'ts, for in cr out 0f found mind. The
word, however, is now applied in a more limited fenfe.
Without attempting to expofe the inaccuracy of the
definitions above mentioned, or hazarding a definition
of our own where fo many eminent men have failed,
we ftiall endeavour to fhow' in what true wit confifts.
It is evident that wit excites in the mind an agree¬
able furprife, and that this is owing entirely to the
ftrange affemblage of related ideas prefented to the
mind. This end is effefted, i. By debafing things pom¬
pous or feemingly grave ; 2. By aggrandizing things
little or frivolous ; 3. By fetting ordinary objefts in a
C i>b IV Par^cu^ar an(l uncommon point of view, by means not
PhUofophy onty remote but apparently contrary. Of fo much
of Rhetoric, confequence are furprife and novelty, that, nothing is
vol. i. more taftelefs, and fometimes difgufting, than a joke
that has become ftale by frequent repetition. For the
fame reafon, even a pun or happy allufion will appear
excellent when thrown out extempore in converfr-.tion,
which would be deemed execrable in print. In like
manner, a witty repartee is infinitely more pleafing
than a witty attack : for though, in both cafes, the
thing may be equally new to the reader or hearer, the
effedt on him is greatly injured, when there is accefs to
fuppofe that it may be the flow produ&ion of ftudy and
premeditation. This, however, holds molt with regard
to the inferior tribes of witticifms, of which their readi-
nefs is the befl: recommendation.
We fhall illuftrate thefe obfervations by fubjoining a
fpecimen or two of each of thefe forts of wit:
Of the firft fort, which confifts in the debafement of
things great and eminent, Butler, amongft a thoufand
other inftances, hath given us thofe which follow :
And now had Phoebus in the lap
Of Thetis taken out his nap :
And, like a lobfter boil’d, the morn
From black to red began to turn.
Hudibras, part ii. canto 2.
Here the low allegorical ftyle of the firft couplet, and
the fimile ufed in the fecond, afford us a juft notion of
this loweft fpecies, which is diftinguifhed by the name
of the ludicrous. Another fpecimen from the fame au¬
thor you have in thefe lines:
Great on the bench, great in the faddle,
That could as well bind o’er as fwaddle,
Mighty he was at both of thefe,
And ftyl’d of war, as well as peace :
So fome rats of amphibious nature,
Are either for the land or water.
Ibid, part i. canto 1.
In this coarfe kind of drollery, thofe laughable tranfla-
tions or paraphrafes of heroic and other ferious poems,
wherein the authors are faid to be traveftied, chiefly
abound.
The fecond kind, confifting in the aggrandifement of
little things, which is by far the moft fplendid, and dif-
plays a foaring imagination, thefe lines of Pope will
fgrve to illuftrate :
As Berecynthia, while her offspring vie
In homage to the mother of the fky,
W I T
Surveys around her in the bleft abode,
An hundred fons, and every fon a god :
Not with lefs glory mighty Dulnefs crown’d,
Shall take thro’ Grubftreet her triumphant round ;
And her Parnaffus glancing o’er at once,
Behold a hundred fons, and each a dunce.
This whole fimilitude is fpirited. The parent of the ce-
leftials is contrafted by the daughter of night and chaos j
heaven by Grubftreet; gods by dunces. Befides, the
parody it contains on a beautiful paffage in Virgil adds
a particular luftre to it. This fpecies we may term the
thrafonical, or the mock-majejlic. It affefts the moft
pompous language, and fonorous phrafeology, as much
as the other affedts the reverfe, the vileft and moft gro¬
velling dialed!.
To this clafs alfo we muft refer the application of
grave reflections to mere trifles. For that great and fe¬
rious are naturally affociated by the mind, and likewife
little and trifling, is fufficiently evinced by the common
modes of expreflion on thefe fubjedts ufed in every
tongue. An appofite inftance of fuch an application we
have from Philips:
My galligafkins, that have long withftood
The winter’s fury and encroaching frofts,
By time fubdued, {What will not timefubdue /)
An horrid chafm difclofe. Splendid Shilling.
Of the third fpecies of wit, which is by far the moft
multifarious, and which refults from what may be called
the queernefs or Angularity of the imagery, we lhall
give a few fpecimens that will ferve to mark fome of its
principal varieties. To illuftrate all would be impoffible.
The firft (hall be where there is an apparent contrariety
in the things {he exhibits as connedted. This kind of
contrail we have in thefe lines of Garth :
Then Hydrops next appears amongft the throng j
Bloated and big Are flowly fails along :
But like a mifer in excefs (he’s poor,
And pines for thirft amidft her watery ftore.
Difpenfary.
A fecond fort is, where the things compared are what
with dialedticians would come under the denomination
of difparates, being fuch as can be ranked under no
common genus. Of this we {hall fubjoin an example
from Young :
Health chiefly keeps an Atheift in the dark $
A fever argues better than a Clarke :
Let but the logic in his pulfe decay,
The Grecian he’ll renounce, and learn to pray.
Univerfal PaJJion.
A third variety in this fpecies fprings from confound¬
ing artfully the proper and the metaphorical fenfe of an
expreflion. In this way, one will aflign as a motive
wkat is difcovered to be perfedtly abfurd, when but
ever fo little attended to j and yet from the ordinary
meaning of the words, hath a fpecious appearance on a
fingle glance. Of this kind we have an inftance in the
fubfequent lines:
While thus the lady talk’d, the knight
Turn’d th’ outfide of his eyes to white.
[ 724 1
As
WIT [ 725 ] WIT
Wit As men of inward light are wont
'! . To turn their optics in upon’t.
ichcraft. Htmibras, part iii. canto i.
For whither can they turn their eyes more properly than
to the light ?
A fourth variety, much refembling the former, is
when the argument or comparifon (for all argument is
a kind of ccmparifon) is founded on the fuppofal of cor¬
poreal or perfonal attributes in what is ftri&ly not fuf-
ceptible of them 5 as in this,
But Hudibras gave him a twitch
As quick as lightning in the breech,
Juft in the place where honour’s lodg’d,
As wife philofophers have judg’d :
Becaufe a kick in that place more
Hurts honour than deep wounds before.
Ibid, part ii. canto 3.
The fifth, and only other variety which we fhall
mention, is that which arifes from a relation, not in the
things fignified, but in the figns of all relations, no
doubt the flighted. Identity here gives rife to puns
and clinches j refemblance to quibbles, cranks, and
rhimes : Of thefe it is quite unneceflary to exhibit fpeci-
mens.
Wit, John de, a celebrated penfioner of Holland,
and one of the greateft politicians of his time, was the
fon of Jacob de Wit, burgomafter of Dort, and was
born in 1625. He became well Ikilled in civil law, po¬
litics, mathematics, and other fciences ; and wrote a
treatife on the Elements of Curved lines, publifhed by
Francis Schooten. Having taken his degree of doftor
of law, he travelled into foreign courts, where he be¬
came efteemed for his genius and prudence. At his re¬
turn to his native country in 1650, he became penfion-
ary of Dort, then counfellor-penfionary of Holland and
Weft Friefland, intendant and regifter of the fiefs, and
keeper of the great feal. He was thus at the head
of affairs in Holland ; but his oppofition to the re-
eftablifhment of the office of ftadtholder, which he
thought a violation of the freedom and independence of
the republic, coft him his life, when the prince of
Orange’s party prevailed. He and his brother Corne¬
lius were affaffinated by the populace at the Hague in
1674, aged 47.
WITCH, a perfon guilty of witchcraft.
WITCHCRAFT, a fupernatural power which per-
fons were formerly fuppofed to obtain the poffeffion of
by entering into a compaft with the devil. They gave
themfelves up to him body and foul j and he engaged,
that they ftiould want for nothing, and that he would
avenge them upon all their enemies. As foon as the
bargain was concluded, the devil delivered to the wdtch
an imp, or familiar fpirit, to be ready at a call, and do
whatever it was direfted. By the affiftance of this imp
and the devil together, the witch, who was almoft al¬
ways an old wmman, w'as enabled to tranfport herfelf in
the air on a broomftick or a fpit to diftant places to at¬
tend the meetings of the witches. At thefe meetings
the devil always prefided. They were enabled alfo to
transform themfelves into various fhapes, particularly to
affume the forms of cats and hares, in which they moft
delighted; to inflift difeafes on whomfoever they
thought proper; and to puniftr their enemies m a variety Witchcraft,
of ways. 1 *
The belief that certain rerfons were endowed with
fupernatural power, and that they were affifted by in-
vifibie fpirits, is very ancient. The fagce of the Ro¬
mans feem rather to have been forcerers than witches ;
indeed the idea of a witch, as above defcribed, could
not have been prevalent till after the propagation of
Chriftianity, as the heathens had no knowledge of the
Chriflian devil.
Witchcraft was univerfally believed in Europe till the
16th century, and even maintained its ground with to¬
lerable firmnefs till the middle of the 17th. Vaft num¬
bers of reputed witches were convi&ed and condemned
to be burnt every year. The methods of difcovering
them were various. One was, to weigh the fuppofed Provincial
criminal againft the church bible, which, if Are was GloJJary.
guilty, would preponderate: another, by making her
attempt to fay the Lord’s Prayer $ this no witch was
able to repeat entirely, but would omit fome part or
fentence thereof. It is remarkable, that all witches did
not helitatc at the fame place j fome leaving out one
part, and fome another. Teats, through which the
imps fucked, were indubitable marks of a witch : thefe
were always raw, and alfo infenfible ; and, if fqueezed,
fometimes yielded a drop of blood. A witch could not
weep more than three tears, and that only out of the
left eye. This want of tears was, by the witch-finders,
and even by fome judges, confidered as a very fubftan-
tial proof of guilt. Swimming a witch was another
kind of popular ordeal generally pradtifed : for this fhe
w7as ftripped naked, and crofs-bound, the right thumb
to the left toe, and the left thumb to the right toe.
Thus prepared, fhe was thrown into a pond or river, in
which, if guilty, fhe could not fink ; for having, by
her compadt with the devil, renounced the benefit of the
water of baptifm, that element, in its turn, renounced
her, and refufed to receive her into its bofom. Sir Ro¬
bert Filmer mentions two others by fire : the firft, by
burning the thatch of the houfe of the fufpedted witch y
the other, burning any animal fuppofed to be bewitched
by her, as a hog or ox. Thefe, it was held, would
force a witch to confefs.
The trial by the ftool was another method ufed for
the difcovery of witches. It was thus managed : Hav¬
ing taken the fufpedted witch, fhe was placed in the
middle of a room upon a ftool or table, crofs-legged, or
in fome other uneafy pofture ; to which if fire fubmitted
not, the was then bound with cords: there fire was
watched, and kept without meat or fleep for the fpace
of 24 hours (for, they faid, within that time they fhould
fee her imp come and fuck). A little hole was like-
wife made in the door for imps to come in at ; and left
it fhould come in fome lefs difcernible drape, they that
watched were taught to be ever and anon fweeping the
room, and, if they faw any fpiders or flies, to kill them :
if they could not kill them, then they might be fure
they were imps. If witches, under examination 01 tor¬
ture, would not confefs, all their apparel was changed,
and every hair of their body fhaven off with a fharp
razor, left they fhould fe^rete magical charms to pre¬
vent their confeffing. Witches were moft apt to con¬
fefs on Fridays.
By fuch trials as thefe, and by the accufation of chil¬
dren,.
W I T
[ 7^ J
W I T
Witchcraft, dren, old women, and fools, were thoufands of unhappy
women condemned for witchcraft, and burnt at the
flake. In the i8tb volume of the Statiftical Account
of Scotland there is the trial of two witches, William
Coke and Alifon Dick, in Kirkaldy, in 1636. The
evidence on which they were condemned is abfolutely
ridiculous: they were, however, burnt for witchcraft.
The expences which the town and kirk-feflion were put
to on this occafion were as follows :
In primis.—To Mr James Miller, when
he went to Preftowne for a man to
try them, 47s.
Item.—To the man of Culrofs, (the
executioner), when he went away the
firfl; time, 12s.
Item—For coals for the witches, 24s.
Item.-—In purchafing the commiflion,
Item.—For one to go to Finmouth for
the laird to fit upon their aflize as
judge, - *
Item.—For harden to be jumps to them,
Item.—For making of them,
L.2, 7
12
4
3
6
10
8
Summa for the kirk’s part L. 17 10 Scots.
The Town’s part of expences deburfed extraordinarily
upon William Coke and Alifon Dick.
In primis.—For 10 loads of coals to
burn them, 5 merks, - L. 3
Item.—For a tar barrel, 14s. - o
Item.—Yox towes, - o
Item.—To him that brought the
executioner, - - 218
Item.—To the executioner for his
6 8
14 o
6 o
pains, - - -
Item.—For his expences here,
Item.—For one to go to Finmouth
for the laird
8
14
16
Scots.
Summa town part, L. 17 1 o
Both, L. 34 11 o
Or L. 2 17 7 Ster.
DrFertiar,
Tranf.
vol. iii.
For a confiderable time after the inquifition wTas
^Manchejte'r erefted, the trials of witches (as heretics) were confined
to that tribunal j but the goods of thofe who were con¬
demned being confifcated to the holy office, its minifters
were fo active in difeovering forcerers, that the differ¬
ent governments found it neceffary to deprive them of
the cognifance of this crime. On the continent, ccm-
miffioners were then appointed for the difeovery and
conviftion of witches, who, though lefs a cl ive than the
inquifitors, were but too zealous in profecuting their
funftion. In 1494, Sprenger and Inflitor, two perfons
employed in this commiffion, publifhed a colleftion of
trials, tnoft of which had come before themfelves, under
the title of Malleus Maleficarum : this ferved as a kind
of inffitute for their fuccetTors.
The firft writers againft witchcraft were ftigmatized
as Atheifts, though they only endeavoured to prove the
imbecility of the perfons accufed, and the infatuation or
the knavery of their accufers. Such were the epithets
beftowed by Dr Henry More, and even by Cudworth
Mmfelf. Wierus, the difciple of the celebrated Agrip-
2
pa, gave rife to the firft great controverfy on this fub- Witchcraft*
jed. His mafter had taught him humanity j and he
endeavoured, but with too feeble a hand, to flop the
bloody proceedings of the judges. Wierus appears to
have been a well-difpofed, weak man, with extenfive
reading om his fubjed, but too narrow-minded to com¬
prehend it thoroughly. He involved himfelf in un-
fpeakable difficulties, by admitting the adion of fuper-
natural powers in certain difeafes, and in poffeflions,
while he denied that witches had any concurrence in
them. Thefe appearances (faid he) are illufions of the
devil, who perluades fimple and melancholy perfons that
the mifehief he himfelf performs, is done by them, and
at their pleafure. He was weak enough to attempt the
explanation of every ftory alleged by his antagonifts,
without queftioning the tiuth of the fads.
Bodinus, a French lawyer of eminence, who had af-
fifted at feveral trials of witches, wrote againft Wierus,
in his Demonomania. He urged the concurrent teftimo-
nies of fufficient witneffes, and the confeflions of the
witches themfelves, to eftabliffi the exiftence of forcery.
Wieius owned that the unhappy perfons believed them¬
felves to be guilty of the crimes alleged againft them,
but that they were deceived by the devil. But what do
you make of the witches meetings, cried Bodinus ? The
watches (replied his antagonift) are atrabilious. This
explanation was fo unfatisfadory that Wierus palled for
a magician, whom the devil had furniffied with fpecious
arguments to fave others from puniffiment. Lerchemer,
Godelmann, Ewichius, Ewaldus, and fome others, fol¬
lowed him, notwithftanding this ftigma $ but they were
oppofed by men of more acutenefs and confiftency than
themfelves j by Remigius, who had condemned feveral
hundreds of forcerers to the flames ; Deltio, whofe book
is a complete Corpus Magise j Cujas, Eraftus, Scribo-
nius, Camerarius, and a crowd of others.
In this country, while the belief in withcraft was
fupported by royal authority (for James I. is univerfally
known to have written on demonology) countenanced
by Bacon, and generally adopted among the people,
only one writer was hardy enough to oppofe it. This was
Reginald Scott, who publiffied a colledion of impef-
tures deteded, under the title of Difcoveries of Witch¬
craft. James ordered the book to be burnt by the com¬
mon executioner, and the judges continued to burn
witches as ufual. During the civil wars, upwards of
eighty were hanged in Suffolk, on the accufations of
Hopkins the witch-finder. Webfter was the next writer
againft witchcraft 5 but he had a different fate from that
of Scott, for moft of his arguments were refuted by
Glanville. This very acute writer was induced to pub-
liflr his Philofcphical Confiderations about Witchcraft,
by the apprehenfion, that the increafmg difbelief of
witches and apparitions tended to affed the evidences of
religion, and even of a Deity. In refped of argument,
he was certainly fuperior to his adverfaries ; his reafon-
ing is perfpicuous, though fometimes fub tie, refted on
the moft fpecious foundations of evidence, and arranged
with great {kill.
On the continent, this controverfy feemed almoft for¬
gotten, till Bekker publifhed his Monde Enchantee, in
w hich he denied the exiftence of witches on the Carte-
fian principle, that the Deity is the fource of all adton,
confequently adions fo oppofite to his nature and attri¬
butes cannot be fuppofed to exift. He was anfwered by
Frederick
Witnefs.
WIT [ 727 ]
Witchcraft Frederick Hoffman, the father of the modern theory and others :
pradHce of medicine, in his differtation De Diaboli Poten-
tia in Corpora.
The lateft witchcraft frenzy was in New England,
about 1692, when the execution of witches became a
calamity more dreadful than the fword or the peftilence.
The accufers became fo daring, that neither civil nor
religious authority would have proved a fecurity againft
their attacks, if all the prolecutions had not been fud-
denly dropped, and the prifoners let at liberty. So far
did thofe wretches proceed in abfurdity, that a dog was
accufed of throwing perlbns into fits by looking at them.
As fbon as the profecutions were flopped, all reports of
witchcraft ceafed.
It would be ridiculous to attempt a ferious refutation
of the exillence of witches ; and at prelent, luckily, the
talk is unneceffary. In this country, at lealt, the dif*
couragement long given to all fuipicion oi witchcraft,
and the repeal of the llatutes agaimt that crime, have
very much weakened, though perhaps they have not
entirely eradicated, the perfuafion. On the continent,
too, it is evidently on the decline; and notwithilanding
the exertions of Dr De Haen, and of the celebrated La-
vater, we have little doubt but that in a Ibort time pof-
terity will wonder at the credulity of their anceitors.
That there ever were witches, is an opinion that cannot
for a moment be believed by a thinking man. The
a£lions imputed to them were either abfurd or impofli-
ble; the witneffes by whofe evidence they were condem¬
ned, either weak enthufialfs or downright villains : and
the confeffions aferibed to the witches themfelves, effefts
of a difordered imagination produced by cruel treatment
and exceffive watchings. As to the nightly meetings,
demonologilfs themfelves have been obliged to confefs,
that they were nothing elfe but uneafy dreams, often
produced by foporific compofitions. The fads which
have been brought forward by the advocates for witch¬
craft bear in their front the moll evident marks of trick
and impolfure ; and this has conllantly been found out
whenever thefe fads have been properly examined. See
Sorcery.
WITENA mot, or Witena Gemot, among the
Anglo-Saxons, was term which literally fignified the
affembly of the wife men 5 and was applied to the
great council of the nation, of latter days called the
parliament.
WI l HERS of a Horse, the jundure of the flioul-
der-bones at the bottom of the neck and mane, towards
the upper part of the (boulder.
WI l NESS, in Law, a perfon who gives evidence
in any caufe, and is fworn to fpeak the truth, the whole
truth, and nothing but the truth.
Trial by WITNESSES, a fpecies of trial without the
intervention of a jury. This is the only method of trial
known to the civil law, in which the judge is left to
form in his own breaft his fentence upon the credit of
the witneffes examined : but it is very rarely ufed in the
Englifh law, which prefers the trial by jury before it in
almoft every inftance. Save only that when a widow
brings a writ of dower, and the tenant pleads that the
hulband is. not dead •, this being looked upon as a dila¬
tory plea, is in favour of the widow, and for greater ex¬
pedition allowed to be tried by witneffes examined be¬
fore the judges : and fo, faith Finch, (ball no other cafe
sn our law. But Sir Edward Coke mentions fome
W O A
as. to try whether the tenant in a real a£Hon Wittenberg
was duly fummoned, or the validity of a challenge to a
juror: fo that Finch’s obfervation mult be confined to
the trial of direft and not collateral iffues. And in every
cafe Sir Edward Coke lays it down, that the affirmative
mult be proved by two witneffes at the leaft.
WII i ENEERG, a city of Germany, capital of the
circle of Upper Saxony, 50 miles north of Drefden. It
is under immediate vaffalage, and the feat of an aulic
judicatory, a general fuperintendency, an infpeflion and
conliltory. The town is not large $ but is well forti¬
fied, and contains a famous univerfity, in which Me-
lanfthon was a profeffor. In this place Martin Luther
fir ft began to preach againft the pope’s indulgences ;
and in the cathedral of All Saints he is faid to hare
been buried. In the old citadel of this town the an¬
cient Saxon eleidors ufed to refide. Befides the unxver-
fity, there is a Latin fchool in the town, with fix mailers.
The library belonging to the univerfity is faid to be very-
valuable. In 175b the Pruffians being matters of the
town, deftroyed a part of its fortifications. E. Long.
12. 47. N. Lat. 51. 49.
WO AD. See Isatis, Botany Index ; fee alfo Dye¬
ing.
The preparation of woad for dyeing, ag praftifed in
France, is minutely deferibed by Altaic, in his Me¬
moirs for a Natural Hiftory of Languedoc. The plant
puts torth at firft five or fix upright leaves, about a foot
long and fix inches broad : when thefe hang down¬
wards, and turn yellow, they are fit for gathering : five
crops are gathered in one year. The leaves are carried
dire&iy to a mill, much refembling the oil or tan mills,
and ground into a finooth pafte. If this procefs was de¬
ferred for fome time, they would putrefy, and fend forth
an infupportable ftench. The pafte is laid in heaps,
preffed clofe and fmooth, and the blackifti cruft, which
forms on the outfide, reunited if it happens to crack : if
this was neglected, little worms would be produced in
the cracks, and the woad would lofe a part of its
ftrength. After lying for fifteen days, the heaps are
opened, the cruft rubbed and mixed with the infide, and
the matter formed into oval balls, which are preffed
clofe and folid in wooden moulds. Thefe are dried up¬
on hurdles : in the fun, they turn black on the outfide ;
in a clofe place, yellowilh, efpecially if the weather be
rainy. The dealers in this commodity prefer the firft,
though it is faid the workmen find no confiderable dif¬
ference betwixt the two. The good balls are diftinguilh-
ed by their being weighty, of an agreeable fmell, and
when rubbed, of a violet colour within. For the ufe of
the dyer, thefe balls require a farther preparation ; they
are beat with wooden mallets, on a brick or ftone floor,
into a grofs powder j which is heaped up in the middle
of the room to the height of four feet, a fpace being left
for paffing round the fides. The powder, moiftened with
water, ferments, grows hot, and throws out a thick ft lid
fume. It is (hovelled backwards and forward , ai d
moiftened every day for twelve days; after which it is
ftirred lefs frequently, without watering, and at length
made into a heap for the dyer.
WOAHOO, one of the Sandwich illands, lying to
the north-weft of Morotoi, at the diftance of ieven
leagues. From the appearance of the north-eaft and
north-weft parts, it is the fined ifland of the group.
Nothing can exceed the verdure of the hills, the variety;
of
kWoahoo.
 V  
Woatioo
tl
AVodrow.
WOT) [728] WOD
of wood and lawn, and rich cultivated valleys, which
the whole face of the country difplays._ A bay is form¬
ed by the north and weft extremities, into which a fine
river empties itfelf, through a deep valley ; but as the
water is brackilh for 200 yards from the entrance, wa¬
tering in it is not convenient. It contains about 60,000
inhabitants. Lieutenant Hergcft, commander of the
Daedalus ftore-lhip, who had been fent from England,
in 1791, to New South Wales, and thence to the
Southern Pacific ocean, wnth a fupply of provifions for
the Difcovery floop, Captain Vancouver, then on a voy¬
age of difcovevy, was here furprifed and murdered by
the natives, together with Mr Gooch, the aftronomer.
W. Long. 157. 51. N. Lat. 21. 43.
WODEN. See Odin, and Mythology, N° 40.
WODEVILLE, Anthony, earl of Rivers, brother
to the queen of Edward IV. was born in the end of
1442, or in the beginning ot 1443* Though one of
the moft accomplifhed men of his age, very little is
known of his private hiftory. He was early and con-
flantly employed either in the tumults of thofe turbulent
times, or in difcharging the duties of fome of the
higheft offices of the ftate, with which he was inverted.
Yet he found leifure to cultivate letters, and to be the
author of works which, though of little value now,
made fome noife in that age, when learning was at a
low ebb in England. Thefe confifted chietly of tranf-
lations from the French j and his lordftrip and his
printer Caxton, were the firft Englifh writers who had
the pleafure to fee their works publiffied from the prefs.
This accompliftred, brave, and amiable nobleman was
treacheroufly imprifoned by Richard III. in Pomfret
caftle, where, during his confinement, he compofed a
ffiort poem, which has been preferved by John Rous of
Warwick, and breathes, fays Dr Henry, a noble fpirit
of pious refignation to his approaching fate. He was
beheaded on the 23d of June 1483, in the 41ft year of
his age.
WODROW, Robert, a clergyman of the w^eft of
Scotland who lived in the beginning of the 18th century ;
well known as the author of an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of
that kingdom during the latter part of the preceding cen¬
tury. His father, Mr James Wodrow, was a man of
learning and piety. He preached occafionally to the per-
fecuted Prefbyterians, and taught a little academy of theiy
ftudents of philofophy and theology at Glafgow, before
the Revolution. About that time he wTas ordained one
of the minifters of that city, continuing his connexion
with the academy till he was elefted profeffor of theo¬
logy by the univerfity in the year 1692. He taught
with reputation and fuccefs till his death in 1708.
His fon Robert was born in the year 1679his mo¬
ther being then in the 51ft year of her age. Her death
(though it did not happen till feveral years after), was
then fully expe&ed ; and his father, obnoxious to a ty¬
rannical government, narrowly efcaped imprifonment, or
fomething worfe, by attempting to obtain a laft fhort in¬
terview with her. As he paffed the town guard-houfe, he
was marked, and foon followed by thefoldiers into his own
houfe, and even into his wfife’s bed-chamber, where he was
concealed. Their officer checked this violence *, fent them
out of the room, and left the houfe himfelf; placing, how¬
ever, centinels both within and without, till the birth
fhould be over. In half an hour after, Mr Wodrow at
his wife’s fuggeftion, affumed the bonnet and great-coat
1
of the fervant of the phyfician then in attendance ; and Wodrow.
carrying the lantern before him, made an eafy efcape —v—~
through the mid ft of the guards. They foon renewed
their fearch with marks of irritation, thrufting their
fwords into the very bed where the lady lay ; who
pleafantly defired them to defift, “ for the bird (laid ffie)
is now flowm.”
His fon Robert went through the ufual courfe of lite¬
rary education at Glafgow, entered the univerfity in
1691 j and profecuted the ftudy of the languages and
the different branches of philolophy, till he became a
ftudent of theology under the tuition of his father. He
washholen librarian to the univerfity in the year 1698,
and continued in that office four years. There he be¬
gan his refearcbes into every thing conne&ed with the
ecclefiaftical hiftory of his country, which he continued
to purfue to the end of his life •, and alfo imbibed his
tafte for medals, inferiptions, and whatever feemed curi¬
ous or illuftrative of Roman, Celtic, and Britifh anti¬
quities.
He was among the firft in Scotland who attended to
the ftudy of natural hiftory. From a great number of
letters in his own hand writing, begun about this time,
it appears that he was in habits of the utmoft intimacy
with a feleft number of literary gentlemen, animated
with the fame ardour of refearch *, that they correfponded
regularly wdth one another, made colleftions of fingular
ftones, of foffils, petrified plants, fifties, &c. and ex¬
changed wdaat they could fpare from their refpeftive
ftores. Among his correfpondents were Mr William
Nicolfon, archdeacon, afterwards bifhop of Carlifle, and
at laft of Derry, author of the Hiftorical Libraries ;
Mr Edward Lhw^yd keeper of the Afhmolean clofet at
Oxford 5 Sir Robert Sibbald, phyfician in Edinburgh,
author of a natural hiftory of Scotland, and another of
Fife $ Lord Pitmedan 5 Meffrs James Sutherland,
Laughlan Campbell minifter of Campbelton, and others.
In a letter to Mr Lhwyd dated Auguft 1709, Mr
Wcdrow tells him his manfe was but at a little diftance
from a place where they had been lithofeoping together,
during a vifit of Mr Lhwyd to Scotland. “ My paro¬
chial charge (he continues) does not allow me the fame
time I had then for thofe fubterranean ftudies j but my
inclination is equally ftrong, perhaps ftronger. I take
it to be one of the beft diverfions from ferious ftudy, and
in itfelf a great duty, to admire my Maker’s works. I
have gotten fome ftore of foffils here from our marie,
limeftone, &c. and heartily wiffi I had the knowing
Mr Lhwyd here to pick out wdiat he wants, and help
me to clafs a great many fpecies which I know not what
to make of.” He informs him, in the end of the letter,
that he had 500 or 600 fpecies of one thing or another
relative to natural hiftory.
Mr Wodrowq when he left Glafgowq refided a Ihort
time in the neighbourhood, in the houfe of a very diftant
relation, Sir Maxwell of Nether Pollock, then
one of the Scots judges. It being within the bounds of
the preffiytery of Paifley, he offered himfelf to them
for probationary trials, and obtained their licence to
preach the gofpel in March 1703. In the fummel fol¬
lowing, the parifh of Eaftwood, where Lord Pollock
lived, becoming vacant, by the death of Mr Matthew
Crawford (another Scots hiftorian), a petition, with an
unanimous call or invitation from the parifh to Mr
Wodrow to be their minifter, was prefented to the
preffiytery ■,
W O D
Wodrow. prefbytery j and they, waving part of the ufual fecond
'"'v ' ' trials, in order to expedite the bufinefs, ordained Mr
Wodrow to be minifter of Eaftvvood on the 28th of Oc¬
tober 1703. In this charge he continued to the end of
his life. Notwithftanding his miniiterial duty, he Hill
found fome time to gratify the early bent of his mind
towards natural hiltory, and his curiofity to learn every
thing in his power, not only at home* but concerning
the natural produ£tions of other countries, and the opi¬
nions, cuftoms, manners, and way of living of their in¬
habitants. In his farewell letters to his friends, about
to fail to the Scottiih fettlement of Darien or to the
coafl: of Africa, &c. he directed their attention and en¬
quiries to thefe fubjefts •, and fomething iimilar he fug-
gefted to other friends going to relide in remote places
of the Highlands, or even on the continent of Europe.
The colledtion of his MS. letters bound up in five or
fix thick 8vo volumes, though reaching nearly to the
end of his life, feems to confift only of the firlt draught
of his own letters to his friends, not a fingle fcrap is now
to be found of their anfwers to him.
After his ordination, however, this worthy man, con-
fidering the duties of bis office as his principal and only
proper bufinefs, rofe into diftinguiffied reputation and
ufefulnefs as a preacher, and was looked upon as one of
the firft clergymen in the weft of Scotland. Humble and
unambitious of public notice, he was well entitled to it,
by his confcientious and exemplary piety, his learning, not
only in profeffional, but in other branches of knowledge,
his natural good fenfe and folid judgement, his benevo¬
lent obliging fpirit to all, his warm attachment to his
friends, who formed a wide circle around him, and
efpecially his deep concern for the beft interefts of his
people, and active exertions for their inftruftion and im¬
provement. His weekly fermons were all diftin&ly
written out in long hand, and even his le&ures in ffiort-
hand. Accuftomed to regular compofition, he had ac¬
quired an uncommon facility in it. His countenance
and appearance in the pulpit was manly and dignified ;
his voice clear and commanding, his manner ferious and
animated : thefe things, joined with the general preju¬
dice in his favour, added to the impreffion of the plain
edifying difcourfcs he delivered, without papers, to his
hearers ; and living in the near neighbourhood of Glaf-
gow his little church was often crowded, efpecially when
he difpenfed the Lord’s Supper, confidered in Scotland
as the principal rfeligious folemnity.
Yet thefe talents, and this merited popularity which
followed them, made little irapreffion on his own modeft
confcientious mind •, for he chofe to continue in the
obfcure country pariffi with which he was firft con-
nefted, refilling all the attempts made by his friends or
by ftrangers to get him tranfiated into feveral other
more honourable and opulent parifties, who wrere de-
firous of the benefit of his miniftry, however convenient
the change might have proved for the education of his
family. In the year 1712, the magiftrates of Glafgow
invited him to be one of the minifters of that city 5
and in January 1717, a deputation from the town of
Stirling did the fame. On the other hand, the patron,
heritors, and elders of his own pariih, ftrenuoufly oppofed
the tranflation. The prclbytery, who had it. in their
power to have appointed it, found great difficulties in
both cafes on the plea of the majus bonum ccde/ue ; re¬
ferred the decifion in the firft cale to the lynod. and in
Vol. XX. Part II.
W O I>
the laft to the commiffion of the General AlTembly, and
thefe courts thought proper to put no reftraint on the
minifter’s judgement or inclination, as he himfelf was
certainly the beft judge of his comparative ufefulnefs in
two different fituations.
Mr Wodrow was equally confcientious and affiduous
in the bufinefs of the ecclefiaftical courts, as in his paro¬
chial duty. Notwithftanding. his ftudious turn, he punc¬
tually attended the meetings of Prefbytery, Synod, and
General Aflembly, when eledled, as he often was, a
member of that court j and alfo the commiffions in No¬
vember and March, which regularly met during that
period of the church. His connexion with Lord Pol¬
lock made his journeys to Edinburgh eafy : and after he
began to colled materials for his voluminous hiftory, his
perfonal infpedion of the public records and of the vari¬
ous MSS. accumulated in the Edinburgh libraries, made
his vifits to that capital frequent and neceffary.
In common with the great body of the Prefhyterians,
he had ftrongly imbibed what are called Whig princi¬
ples } in other words, he was tvarmly attached to the
conftitutional liberties of the people, as eitabliffied by
the revolution fettlement. No wonder ! The dreadful
perfecution and oppreffion they had fuffered during the
two preceding reigns were ftill freffi and galling to their
minds : they confidered the elevation of King William
to the throne and the Hanover fucceffion, as the two
chief bulwarks raifed up by Providence, for the fecurity
both of their religion and liberty. They trembled at
every dark appearance threatening to this fecurity, fuch
as the death of King William. That cloud, however,
was foon diffipated by the perfeverance of the queen’s
minifters in his views and meafures, and the fplendid
vi&ories of Marlborough and his allies over the armies
of Louis XIV. But the elevation of the Tory miniftry
in the latter part of the queen’s reign was a fevere trial
to the Scottifh Prefbyterians, and involved the confcien¬
tious part of their clergy in very ferious difficulties and
dangers. The oath of abjuration required at that time
from clergymen, and enforced by civil penalties, and
even the royal proclamation for a national thankfgiving,
after the peace of Utrecht, preffed hard upon the fcru-
pulous confciences of many of the clergy. The very
language of the oath feemed to them dubious and jefui-
tical, hoftile to the elector of Hanover’s newly acquired
right to the crown, conferred on him by the parliament
and the people ; and as to the other point, they had not
freedom to lead their people, in a folemn thankfgiving
to Heaven for a peace, termed fafe and honourable,
which they and the generality of their hearers confider¬
ed as dangerous and difgraceful. Mr Wodrow, as
might be expe&ed, was one of the recufants of the
oath : for nothing could move him to ffiuffle with his
confcience. At the fame time the liberality and equity
of his mind led him to judge candidly of the confciences
of others. Accordingly, he made every effort in his
power to reconcile his clerical brethren, and his own
people, to fuch of tire clergy as had the freedom to take
it, and by fo doing, had rendered themfelves obnoxious
to popular prejudice and odium. With fuch, this good
man ftill continued to live, not only in Chriftian, but
minifterial communion ; endeavouring to foften and re¬
move the prejudices againft them, and, in as far as his
influence reached, to revive and cheriffi a fpirit of mu¬
tual forbearance. Many propofals he made, and private
4 2 meetings
[ 729 1
Wodrow.
W O D [ 73° ] WO®
Wodrow meetings and conferences he held with his brethren, to
‘ prevent their differences from riling, as they threatened
to do, into a fchifm to prevent them efpecially from en¬
tering at all into the church courts } juftly afraid of the
fparks of animolity too apt to be kindled there. His
endeavours and thole of his friends were feconded by the
prudence of the fuperior courts, efpecially the commiflion
of the General Aflfembly. Whatever paffed there in
the way of admonition to the reft of the church, breathed
the fpirit of mutual forbearance and love. How he
managed the other difficult and delicate point, the
Thankfgiving, in a confiftency with his duty, does not
appear in his letters j nor is it now wTorth while to in-
velligate this as a trait of his charadter, which might be
done, perhaps, from his MS. fermons preached at the
time. Only it is plealing to remark from the letters,
that the fame fpirit of wildom and mild forbearance
which animated the majority of the clergy in the weft,
feems alfo to have pervaded the officers of the crown,
juftices of the peace, and other civil magiftrates in Scot¬
land at the time. The oath was not prefled on the
recufants, and the execution of the legal penalties in¬
curred by the neglect of it avoided j for their general
loyalty w'as undoubted.
A more fevere ftroke was inflidted on their adver-
faries by the Tory miniftry in the year 1710 by an adt
of the Britiffi parliament which reftored patronage to its
former full force. An adt of the Scotch parliament
palTed after the Revolution had extradied the chief fling
of that grievance, by placing the eledtion of the minifter
of every parilh in the hands of the landed proprietors,
called heritors, in conjundtion with the elders, or mem¬
bers of the kirk-feffion. A majority of that joint body,
at a meeting appointed for the purpefe, drew up a call
or written invitation, which they fubferibed to a parti¬
cular candidate to be their roinifter. This was prefented
to the prefbytery of the bounds, the proper judges of his
learning and moral charadler ; and if thefe w?ere found
unexceptionable, he was ordained, or folemnly confe-
crated and inftalled into the office. This Scotch adl
having continued in force for twenty years, and being
conceived to have become perpetual by the articles of
the Union, was now repealed •, and the choice of a mi¬
nifter to every parilh was in effedl placed in the power
of a fingle perfon, a patron, becaufe he had in fadl the
foie power of nominating the only candidate who could
enjoy the benefice.
Mr Wodrow was exceedingly averfe from the revi¬
val of the power of patronage ; and in this he was in¬
fluenced both by his political and religious principles.
In his letters, he feems to have looked upon a patron of
a pariih, as a kind of hereditary defpot j or at leaft
like a prince, who had no reftraints laid on his prero¬
gative, to prevent or check the abufe of it. The para¬
mount power or truft committed to a patron, this con-
feientious minifter could not reconcile with the apoftoli-
cal counfels, to commit the keeping of religious truth to
» faithful men, able alfo to infruSi others. He thought it
very improper to leave the choice of a religious inftruc-
tor, in the firft inftance, to any fingle perfon whatever,
efpecially to one generally a ftranger to the circum-
ftances of the pariftrioners j one who had little knowr-
ledge, and therefore little fympathy with them in their
religious fentiments and feelings. He was perfuaded
that the purpofes of edification, and the peace of the
country, circumftanced as Scotland then was, were Wodrow.
much better fecured by the reftraints laid on a patron in
the aft 1690, that is, by admitting the two principal
bodies of the parilh to a participation with him in his
choice, than by trufting it wholly to himfelf \ and he
threw out many judicious hints in his letters, and even
fchemes or propofals to his brethren, on this difficult and
important fubjeft.
On the other hand, he wfiffied nothing to be attempt¬
ed but in a conftitutional way, in harmony with the ci¬
vil power. Few men were fo fenfible as he was of the
abufes incident to popular government, either in church
or ftate, and of the danger of refilling, even unjuft and
oppreffive laws, in a tumultuous or diforderly manner.
The Prelbyterian church, in the outward order or form
of it, he viewed as a well regulated republic. He did
not confider the people in their individual capacity, as
qualified to vote even on the choice of their own mini¬
fter. The elders of the parilh he looked upon as the
reprefentatives of the p'tople in the ecclefiaftical courts \
and their number, in his own congregation, he reftrifted
to a very fewT, four or five at moft, fit to affift him in
the exercife of church difeipline within the parilh. The
reft of his feffion were deacons, whofe jurildiftion w as
confined to the care of the poor, vifiting the fick, and
diftributing the bread and wine at the communion, but
could not, like the former, be chofen to reprefent the
pariflr in the preffiytery and fuperior courts. In this
fenfe of the neceffity of order and fubordination, he per-
fevered to the end of his life. When, contrary to his
judgement or vote, an unpopular brother w as to be or¬
dained in a parilh within twelve or fifteen miles diftant
from Eaftwood, in confequence of a fentence of the Ge¬
neral Aflembly, to be executed, perhaps with military
affiftance 5 this aged minifter thought it his duty, re-
gardlefs of perfonal danger or odium, to countenance
the young brother, by joining with the reft of the
clergy in laying their hands on him, inviting him aftcr-
wrards to his pulpit, and exerting any influence he had
to conciliate the irritated minds of that pariffi.
The only publication for which the world is indebted
to Mr Wodrowq is The Hiftory of the Singular Suf¬
ferings of the Church of Scotland during the twenty,
eight years immediately preceding the Revolution. It
was written at a proper diftance of time from the events
it records j and printed at Edinburgh in the year 1721, in
two large folio volumes, with two appendixes confifting
of copies of the public records, and of many private, fa*
mily, and perfonal papers, letters, &c. inferted as
vouchers of the hiftorical fafts. In collefting this great
body of information, the author w’as affifted by his
friends, who chearfplly feconded his own almoft incre¬
dible induftry and patience of refearch. In confequence
of this, the book has more the appearance of a biogra¬
phical, than of a hiftorical work. It has, how'ever, the
form, and all the effentials of a regular hiftory, divided
into books, chapters, and feftions, with proper margins
and indexes ; written in a plain, rather too familiar
ftile, unavoidably interfperfed with Scoticifms, yet thefe
fufficiently intelligible to an Englilh reader. It exhi¬
bits a diftinft fketch of the charafters both of the prin¬
cipal fufferers, and of their perfecutors •, of the fprings of
the perfecution, in the unjuftifiable plans and meafures
of an arbitrary government 5 with the motives of the
advifers and executors of them. The unfortunate and
innocent
W O D C 731 ] w O D
Wodroir. innocent fufferers, our author viewed in the light, not of
'—v''' ' a fet of wild fanatics, as they were called by their con¬
temporaries, and frequently too by later hiftorians j
many of them were molt refpedtable for their rank in
their country, as well as for their talents and virtues j but
even thofe in the lower ranks of fociety, our author
thought worthy of fome public notice, as confeflbrs and
martyrs in the noble caufe which they had efpoufed, the
fupport of the rights of confcience, and of national li¬
berty.
The fubjeil of the hiftory is the moft melancholy
that could be chofen $ a long and fevere perfecution of
a people, who had been guilty of nothing undutiful to
their civil or ecclefiaftical rulers a feries of open a£ta of
injuftice and tyranny, perpetrated under the colour of
law, and this with fuch an increafing and mercilefs vio¬
lence, as to fink the ufual fpirit of a free people, and
eafily quafh one or two feeble ill-timed attempts to refill
their oppreffors. No wonder that the continued view
of fuch a wretched and melancholy fcene, without any
thing joyful to interrupt it, fhould give a melancholy
tinge to the mind of the writer, eafily communicated to
his readers. On the other hand fome things have hap¬
pily an oppofite tendency. The mafs of biographical
intelligence, though it mufl be confefled it is much too
voluminous, and too minute for the management of any
hiftorian whatfoever, yet furnifhes a variety of anecdotes,
which give fome needful relaxation or relief to the fym-
pathy of the reader. Thefe indeed are in part the Jim¬
p/e annals of the poor, without the varnifh or eafy ele¬
gance of polifhed life \ but even in this fhape they are
net deflitute, both of entertainment and inflruftion 5
and then the minutenefs in the detail of names, of per-
fons, places, and other particular circumftances, adds to
the impreflion of the fadls, by placing their certainty be¬
yond all reafonable doubt.
If faithfully to record pad facts, and tranfmit the
knowledge of them to pofterity, be the principal duty of
a hiltorian, this Wodrow has certainly aimed at 5 and
alfo to reprefs any feelings holtile to his fidelity and im¬
partiality } in fhort, to come as near as he was able to
the motto prefixed to his volumes, NeeJindio, nec odlo.
Doubtlefs, like all other men, he had fome political,
and many theological prejudices, the lafl chiefly imbib¬
ed from education, and confirmed by too high a venera¬
tion for the charadters of our firfl reformers j—prejudices
which warped his perfonal opinions and feelings on
both fubjefts. But he feems to have made a confider-
able effort to prevent his party prejudices from warping
or perverting his judgement of the truth or falfehood
of llubborn hiftorical facts. Nothing almoft oratorial
enters into his narratives, though there is room for admi¬
ration, and much fcope for juft indignation ; no exagger¬
ated encomiums on his friends, or ffrong opprobrious
language in fpeaking of his and their enemies, the un¬
provoked perfecutors of his church. He allows the
fails which he has recorded to fpeak for both, and
tranfmit to pofterity a memorial to their honour or
their infamy.
The chief fault of this hiftorical colleition already
hinted at, is its minutenefs, and exceflive copioufnefs.
The prodigious multitude of fads it embraces, though
different from one another in their circumltances, are in
other refpeds fomewhat fimilar. This mud neceffarily
occafion fome repetition and fatiety, efpecially to a fafti-
dious reader, who has it, however, in his power to gra- Wodrow.
tify his tafte by feleding what is moft agreeable to it. * " ~
.Neverthelefs a candid and patient reader can be at no
lofs to form a proper judgement of the principal tranf-
adions of the peiiod, trom the authentic accounts of
them before him, to appreciate the true charaders of
the adors, or of the motives and views from which they
aded. And an inquifitive and penetrating reader will
be gratified by feeing not a little of the peculiar prin¬
ciples, opinions, fentiments, habits, and manners of that
age, as diftinguilhed from the piefent; and may thus
eftimate the gradual progrefs towards much noble and
ufeful improvement} and on the other hand, the pro¬
grefs towards a very hurtful corruption and degeneracy
of manners, which have both taken place during the lait
hundred and twenty years.
At the time of its firft publication, the book met
with lefs general attention than might have been ex-
peded in Scotland, and fcaicely any attention in Eng¬
land, except from profeffed readers. As it came to be
more ftudied, it was the more valued, except w*ere
there was an evident bias on the oppofite fide. Few can
be at a lofs to fee why fuch hiftorians as Hume, Mac-
pherfon, and Dalrymple fhould negled or undervalue
fuch a book. Our later Scotch hiftorians, Somerville
and Laing, have done it more juftice. In truth, there
is a very near coincidence in their eftimates of the cha¬
raders they draw, and their accounts of the fads they
relate, in common with Wodrowr. But eipecially our
late illuftrious patriot Charles Fox, whofe high abilities,
uncommon candour, and fweetnefs of difpofltion, almoft
remove the fufpeded bias of his party fpirit—Mr Fox
has, in the hiftorical fragment published fince his
death, given a very honourable teftimony to the fidelity
and accuracy of our hiftorian. After mentioning the exe¬
cution of three females, he adds, page 131. “ To relate
all the inftances of cruelty which occurred would be
endlefs. But it may be neceffary to remark, that no
hiftorical fads arc better afeertained, than the accounts
of them which are to be found in Wodrowr. In every
inftance, where there has been an opportunity of com¬
paring thefe accounts with the records, and other au¬
thentic monuments, they appear to be quite corred.1’
The colledion of the materials for writing the church
hiftory from the public records, and many other authen¬
tic fources, muft have coft the author a prodigious la¬
bour and time. The pecuniary expence incurred was
confiderable, and fcarcely refunded from the fale of the
book. The only neat profit, he has been heard to fay,
which accrued from it, was one or two hundred pounds
that he received from the king, to whom it was dedi¬
cated.
lire laft twelve years of Mr Wodrow’s life were
chiefly occupied in drawing up a biography of the prin¬
cipal perfons concerned in introducing the reformation
of religion into Scotland, and fettling the different
forms or modes of ecclefiaftical government attempted to
be eftablifhed there from the beginning to the end of that
period, namely from about the year 1560 to 1660, when
the printed hiftory of the fufferings commences. Had
it pleafed God to continue his ufeful life till this larger
work was finifhed, public curiofity would have been
much gratified 5 for it contains the lives, not only of
John Knox, George Buchanan, and others already well
known, but the lives of a great number more, very
4 Z 2 learned
W O D [ 732 ] W O L
Wodrow. learned, ingenious, refpeftable, and ivorthy men, (carce-
——Y——/ Yy aj. t0 the literary world j befides a variety
of anecdotes naturally entering into fuch a work, illu-
ihrative of the hiftory and the living manners of that
age. Happily thefe tnanufcript lives are ftill preferved,
all written with his own pen, and fome of the longeft of
them copied, probably during his laft long illnefs, in a
more legible hand. Whatever important or curious in¬
formation they may contain, they are not fit for the
prefs in their prefent ftate. They are now depofited in
the library of the univerfity of Glafgow.
Befides writing the hiftory and the biography, both
extended by himfelf for publication, and two days every
week regularly appropriated to his preparation for the
pulpit, much of his time muft have been occafional-
ly fpent in writing letters, fome of them like diflerta-
tions, on theological and other literary fubjefts j for he
correfponded with a very wide circle of acquaintances
and friends in Scotland, England, and Ireland, and
with a few on the continent and in North America.
His conftitution in the firft: part of life was robuft and
ftrong, his health in general good •, but his ftudious ha¬
bits or conftant reading, and efpecially inceffant writing,
it is fuppofed, may have brought on the bodily com¬
plaint which occafioned his death. In the latter end of
the year 1731, a fwelling about the fize of a fmall
chefnut appeared on his breaft, near the collar bone.
It was on the fame place where a fpark of fire had fallen
when he was a child, and had then left a little lump
and hardnefs like a large pea. About a month after the
fwelling began, it had increafed to the fize of a plumb,
and in April 1732 was a large as a man’s fift. It was
attempted to be removed by cauftic } the attempt failed.
His body became greatly emaciated, and he gradually
declined till his death, which happened on the 21 ft of
March 1734. Supported by the teftimony of a good
confcience, joined with the ftrong confolatien and well-
founded hope of the gofpel, he bore this long-continued
fevere diftrefs with admirable fortitude, unabated piety
and refignation; never uttering a murmur, but behaving
to his friends wdio came to fee him, and to all about him,
with much eafe and affe&ion *, thus leaving, both in the
adtive exertions of a ufeful life, and in his patient fuf-
ferings at the clofe of it, a very edifying example to his
family and his flock. The day before his death, he
gathered his children around his bed, gave each of them
his dying blefiing, with counfels fuitable to their ages
•and circumftances •, laft of all two boys, neither of them
four years old, too young to underftand and feel thefe
marks of his affeftion, yet, after the example of the ve¬
nerable patriarch, Gen. xlviii. 15. even them he drew
to him, laid his hands upon their heads, and devoutly
•prayed, that the God of his fathers, the angel who had
redeemed him from all evil, would blefs the lads.
Mr Wodrow -was married in the end of 1708, to
Margaret Warner, grand daughter of the reverend Mr
William Guthrie of Fenwick, well known in Scotland
by his writings, and daughter of the reverend Patrick
Warner, then living on his eftate of Ardeer in Ayrfhire.
Mr W arner, in the early part of his life, had been chap¬
lain to the Eaft India Company at Madras. After his
return home, he was driven from his miniftry and from
the kingdom, by the perfecution of the privy council j
but returned in cpnfequence of King James’s indulgence,
and became minifter of Irvine. He had a perfonal in¬
terview' on his lafl: return writh the prince of Orange at Wodrow
the Hague, a fhert time before the Revolution, an ac- 11
count ©f which appears in the hiftory, vol. ii. p. 604.,
Mr Wcdrow had a family of 16 children, nine of whom,
with his widow, furvived him in decent circumftances,
without any breach among them for above 25 years.
The only remaining furvivor is the reverend Dr James
Wodrow of Stevenfton in Ayrlhire.
Befides his colle&ion of foflils, and a few’ Roman and
Britilh medals, Mr Wodrow left a valuable library of
books, many volumes of pamphlets and alfo of manuferipts
w’ritten by others, fent to him in prefents, or copied by
his orders. The moft valuable part of them is now in
the advocates library, and in the repolitories of the
church at Edinburgh. His own manufeript biography,
as has been already faid, is in the library of the univer¬
fity of Glafgow.
WO LAW, a town in Germany, in Silefia, and capi¬
tal of a duchy of the fame name. It is furrounded
with ftrong walls and a morafs, and one part of the
houfes are built with ftone. The caftle is alfo encom-
paffed with deep ditches, and the greateft part of the in¬
habitants are employed in a woollen manufadtory. In
1709 a Proteftant church was allowed to be built here.
It is feated on the river Oder, 20 miles north-w’eft: of
Breflau, and 3 2 fouth-eaft; of Glogau. E. Long. 16.
54. N. Lat. 51. 18.
WOLD, Weld, Di~ERs Weed. See Reseda, Bo¬
tany Index, and Dyeing.
WOLF. See Canis, Mammalia Index.
WoLF-FiJh, or Sea-Wolf. See Anarrhicas, Ich¬
thyology Index.
Wolf or Woolf Poifon. See Poison.
WOLFE, Major-general James, was born at
Weflerbam in the county of Kent, about the beginning
of the year 1726. His father was Lieutenant-general
Edward Wolfe. He went into the army wdicn very
young; and applying himfelf w’ith unwearied afliduity
to the ftudy of his profeflion, foon became remarkable
for his knowledge and his genius. He diftinguifhed
himfelf at the battle of Lafelt when little more than
20, and received the higheft encomiums from the com¬
mander in chief. After the peace he ftill continued to
cultivate the ait of war. He contrived to introduce
the greateft: regularity and the exadteft: difeipline into hi>
corps, and at the fame time to preferve the affedtion of
every foldier. In 1758 he was prefent as a brigadier-
general at the fiege of Louifbourg. He landed firft on
the ifiand at the head of divifion ; and in fpite of the
violence of the furf, and the force and well diredted fire
of the enemy, drove them from their poft with great
precipitation. The furrender of the town, which hap¬
pened foon after, was in a great meafure owing to his
adlivity, bravery, and Ikill. The fame which he ac¬
quired during this fiege pointed him out to Mr Pitt,
who was then minifter, as the propereft perfon to com¬
mand the army deftined to attack Quebec. This was
the moft difficult and the moft arduous undertaking of
the whole war. Quebec was the capital of the French
dominions in North America ; it was well fortified,
fituated in the midft of a hoftile country, and defended
by an army of 20,000 men, regulars and militia, befides
a confiderable number of Indian allies. The troops
deftined for this expedition confifted of ten battalions,
making up altogether about 7000 men. Such was the
army
W O L [7
Wolfe, army deftined to oppofe three times their own number,
defended by fortifications, in a country altogether^ un¬
known, and in a late feafon in that climate for military
operations. But this little army, fays an officer who
was prefent at that expedition, and who has been fo
obliging as to communicate all the information we de-
fired, was always fanguine of luccefs } for they were
commanded by General Wolfe, who, by a very uncom¬
mon magnanimity and noblenefs of behaviour, had at¬
tached the troops fo much to his perfon, and infpired
them with fuch refolution and fteadinefs in the execu¬
tion of their duty, that nothing feemed too difficult for
them to accomplilh. The admirable fkill with which
his meafures were planned, and the prudence and vigour
with which they w'ere executed, are well known. He
landed his army on the northern fiiore of the river St
Lawrence in fpite of the enemy, and forced them to a
battle, in which they were completely defeated. The
confequence of this battle was the reduction of Quebec,
and the conqueft of Canada. In the beginning of the
battle General Wolfe was wounded in the wriit by a
mulket-ball: he wrapt his handkerchief round it, con¬
tinued to give his orders with his ufual calmnefs and
perfpicuity, and informed the foldiers that the advanced
parties on the front had his Orders to retire, and that
they needed not be furprifed when it happened. To¬
wards the end of the battle he received a new wound in
the bread: •, he immediately retired behind the rear-
rank fupported by a grenadier, and laid himfelf down on
the ground. Soon after a ffiout was heard y and one of
the officers who flood by him exclaimed, “ See how
they run !” The dying hero alked with forne emotion,
“ Who run ?” “ The enemy (replied the officer) 5 they
give way every where.” The general then faid, “ Pray,
do one of you run to Colonel Burton, and tell him to
march Webb’s regiment with all fpeed down to Charles
river, to cut off the retreat of the fugitives from the
bridge. Now, God be praifed, I fhall die happy !”
He then turned on his fide, clofed his eyes, and expired.
The death of General Wolfe was a national lofs uni-
verfally lamented. He inherited from nature an ani¬
mating fervour of fentiment, an intuitive perception, an
extenfive capacity, and a paffion for glory, which fli-
mulated him to acquire every fpecies of military know¬
ledge that ftudy could comprehend, that afLml fervice
could illuftrate and confirm. This noble warmth of
difpofition feldom fails to call forth and unfold ail the
liberal virtues of the foul. Brave above all eflimation
of danger j generous, gentle, complacent, and humane j
the pattern of the officer, the darling of the foldier.
There was a fublitnity in his genius which foared above
the pitch of ordinary minds 5 and had his faculties been
exercifed to their full extent by opportunity and aftion,
had his judgement been fully matured by age and ex¬
perience, he would, without doubt, have rivalled in re¬
putation the moft celebrated captains of antiquity. His
body was brought to England, and buried with military
honours in Weftmirrfter abbey, where a magnificent
monument is erected to his memory.
Wolfe, ChrifHan, a celebrated German philofopher,
was born at Breflau in 1679. After having been well
infirufted in the rudiments of learning and fcience in his
Enfields own country, Wolfe profecuted his ftudies fucceffively
^hUofoplv ^ t^ie un^vei'hties of Jena, Hamburgh, and Leipfic.
voLin At the age of 26 he had acquired fo much diftin&ion,
13 ] wo L
that he w’as appointed profeffor of mathematics, and foon Wolfe,
afterwards of philofophy in general, in the univerfity of V
Hall. After Leibnitz had publiffied his Thcodicea,. 1
Wolfe, ftruck with the novelty of the edifice which
that philofopher had raifed, affiduoufly laboured in the
inveftigation of new metapbyfical truths. He alfo di-
gefted the Elements of Mathematics in a new method,
'and attempted an improvement of the art of reafoning,
in a treatife On the Powers of the Human Underftand-
ing. Upon the foundation of Leibnitz’s doctrine of
Monads, he formed a new fyftem of Cofmology and
Pneumatology, digefted and demonftrated in a mathe¬
matical method. This work, entitled Thoughts on
God, the World, and the Human Soul, was publifhed
in the year 1719 J to which were added, in a fubfe-
quent edition, Heads of Ethics and Policy.
Wolfe was now rifing towards the fummit of philo-
fophical reputation, when the opinion which he enter¬
tained on the doftrine of neceffity being deemed by his
colleagues inimical to religion, and an oration which he
delivered in praife of the morality of the Chinefe having
given much offence, an accufation of herefy was public¬
ly brought againft him 5 and, though he attempted to
juftify himfelf in a treatife which he wrote on the fub-
je£t of fatality, a royal mandate was iffued in November
1723, requiring him to leave the Pruffian dominions.
Having been formerly invited by the landgrave of
Heffe-Caffel to fill a.profeffor’s chair in the univerfity
of Caffel, Wolfe now put himfelf under the patronage
of that prince, who had the liberality to afford him a
fecure afylum, and appointed him profeffor of mathema¬
tics and philofophy. The queftion concerning the
grounds of the cenfure which had been paffed upon
Wolfe was now every where freely canvaffed ; almoft
every German univerfity was inflamed with diiputes on
the fubjeft of liberty and neceflity \ and the names of
Wolfians and Anti-Wolfkms were every where heard.
After an interval of nine years, the king of Pruflia re-
verfed his fentence of exile, and appointed him vice-
chancellor of the univerfity of Hall y where his return
wTas welcomed with every expreffion of triumph. From
this time he was employed in completing his Inftitutes
of Philofophy, which he lived to accompliffi in every
branch except policy. In 1745 he was created a baron
by the eleftor of Bavaria, and fucceeded Ludowig in
the office of chancellor of the univerfity. He conti¬
nued to enjoy thefe honours till the year 1754, when he
expired. He poffeffed a clear and methodical under-
ftanding ; which, by long exercife in mathematical in-
veffigations, was particularly fitted for the employment
of digefting the feveral branches of knowledge into re¬
gular fyftems; and his fertile powers of invention en¬
abled him to enrich almofl: every field of fcience in
which he laboured, with fome valuable additions. The
lucid order which appears in all his writings enables
his reader to follow his conceptions with eafe and cer¬
tainty, through the longeft trains of reafoning.
WOLFENBUTTLE, a confiderable town of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of
Brunfwick, with a caftle where the duke of Brunfwick
Wolfenbuttle refides. It is one of the ftrongefi: places
in Germany, though the fortifications want repairing in
feveral places. There is an excellent library, kept in a
building lately eretffed for that purpofe, confifting of
116,000 printed books, and 2000 uncommon books,
with
/
W O L [ 734 ] WOO
Wolfram with a cabinet of curiofities, relating to natural hiftory.
II It is feated on the river Ocker, five miles fouth of
u‘'c-y' , Brunfwick, and 30 weft of Halberftadt. E. Long. 10.
42. N. Lat. 52. 18.
WOLFRAM, or Tungsten. See Tungsten,
Chemistry and Mineralogy Index.
WOLFSPERG, a town ol Germany, in Lower Ca-
rinthia, with a cattle, on which the diftrift about it de¬
pends, which is 20 miles in length, and 10 in breadth.
It is feated on the river Lavand, at the foot of a moun¬
tain covered with wood, and full of wolves, from xvhence
the town took its name. It is 36 miles eaft of Clagen-
furt. E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 46. 56.
WOLGAST, a confiderable town of Germany, in
the circle of Upper Saxony, and in Pomerania, capital
of a territory of the fame name, with a caftle, and one of
the bell and largeft harbours on the Baltic fea. It is a
well-built place, fubjeft to Sweden, and feeted on the
river Pfin. E. Long. 14. 4. N. Lat. 54. 1.
WOLLASTON, William, defcended of an ancient
family in Stafford (hire, was born in 1659. He was in
1674 admitted a penfioner in Sidney college, Cam¬
bridge, where, notwithftanding feveral difadvantages, he
acquired a great degree of reputation. In 1682, feeing
no profpedl of preferment, he became afhftant to the
head mafter of Birmingham fchool. Some time after,
he got a fmall ledture about two miles diftant, but did
the duty the whole Sunday 5 which, together with the
bufinefs of a great free-fchool for about four years, be¬
gan to break his conftitution. During this fpace he
likewife underwent a great deal of trouble and uneafi-
nefs, in order to extricate two of his brothers from fome
inconveniences, to which their own imprudence had fub-
jedted them. In 1688 affairs took a new turn. He
found himfelf by a coufin’s will entitled to a very ample
eftate : and came to London that fame year, where he
fettled ; choofing a private, retired, and ftudious life.
Not long before his death, he publithed his treatife, en¬
titled The Religion of Nature Delineated j a work for
which fo great a demand was made, that more than
10,000 were fold in a very few years. He had fcarcely
completed the publication of it, when he unfortunately
broke an arm ; and this adding ftrength to diftempers
that had been growing upon him for fome time, accele¬
rated his death; which happened upon the 29th of
Odtober 1724. He was a tender, humane, and in all
refpefts worthy man *, but is reprefented to have had
fomething of the irafcible in his conftitution and tem¬
perament. His Religion of Nature Delineated expofed
him to fome cenftire, as if he had put a flight upon
Chriftianity, by laying fo much flrefs, as he does in this
work, upon the obligations of truth, reafon, and virtue 5
and by making no mention of revealed religion. But
this cenfure muft have been the offspring of ignorance
or envy, fince it appears from the introduflion to his
work, that he intended to treat of revealed religion in a
fecond part, which be lived not to finifh.
WOLSEY, Thomas, a famous cardinal and arch-
bifhop of York, is faid to have been the fon of a butcher
at Ipfwich. He ftudied at Magdalen college, Oxford,
wdiere he became acquainted with the learned Erafmus;
and in the year 1500 became reftor of Lymington in
Somerfetfhire: he was afterwards made chaplain to
King Henry VIII. and obtained feveral preferments.
Having gradually acquired an entire afcendency over
4
the mind of Henry VIII. he fucceffively obtained fe- Wolfey
veral bifhoprics, and at length was made archbilhop of .11
York, lord high-chancellor of England, and prime mi- L ^ ut G'
nifter ; and was for feveral years the arbiter of Europe.
Pope Leo. X. created him cardinal in 1515, and made
him legate a latere; and the emperor Charles V. and
the French king Francis I. loaded him with favours, in
order to gain him over to their intereft ; but after ha¬
ving firft fided with the emperor, he deftrted him to
efpoufe the intereft of France. As his revenues were
immenfe, his pride and oftentation were carried to the
greateft height. He had 500 fervants \ among whom
were 9 or 10 lords, 15 knights, and 40 efquires. His
ambition to be pope, his pride, his exaftions, and his
political delay of Henry’s divorce, occafioned his dif-
grace. In the earlier part of his life he feems to have
been licentious in his mannersit was reported, that
foon after his preferment to the living of Lymington in
Somerfetftiire, he was put into the flocks by Sir Amias
Paulet, a neighbouring juftice of the peace, forgetting
drunk and making a riot at a fair. This treatment
Wolfey did not forget when he arrived at the high fta-
tion of lord-chancellor of England ; but fummoned his
correftor up to London, and, after a fevere reprimand,
enjoined him fix years clofe confinement in the Temple.
Whatever may have been his faults, there can be no
doubt of their having been aggravated both by the zea¬
lous reformers and by the creatures of Henry VIII. who
wras himfelf neither Papift nor Proteftant for there is
every reafon to believe that the cardinal was fincere in
his religion j and finceriiy, or at leaf! confiftency, was
then a crime. Wolfey was the patron of learned men j
a judge and munificent encourager of the polite arts j
and ought to be confidered as the founder of Chrift-
church college, Oxford} where, as well as in other
places, many remains of his magnificent ideas in archi-
tefture ftill exift. He died in 1530.
WOLVERENE. See Ursus, Mammalia Index,
WOLVES teeth, of a horfe. See Farriery.
WOMAN, the female of the human fpecies. See
Homo.
WOMB, cr Uterus. See Anatomy, N° 108.
WOMBAT, an animal lately difeovered in New
South Wales. See Dasyurus, Mammalia Index.
WOOD, Anthony, an eminent biographer and an¬
tiquarian, was the fon of Thomas Wood, bachelor of
arts and of the civil law, and was born at Oxford in
1632. He ftudied at Merton college, and in 1655
took the degree of mafter of arts. He wrote, 1, The
Hiftory and Antiquities of the Univerfity of Oxford }
which was afterwards tranflated into Latin by Mr Wafe
and Mr Peers, under the title of Hiflorta et Antiquitates
XJniverJitatis Oxonienjis, 1 vols folio. 2. Atherus Oxcm-
enfes ; or an exa<ft Account of all the Writers and Bi-
fhops who have had their Education in the Univerfity
of Oxford, from the Year 1500 to 1600, 2 vols folio }
which was greatly enlarged in a fecond edition publifli-
ed in 1721 by Bifhop Tanner. Upon the firft publica¬
tion of this work the author was attacked by the uni¬
verfity, in defence of Edward earl of Clarendon, lord
high chancellor of England, and chancellor of the uni¬
verfity, and was likewife animadverted upon by Bifhop
Burnet} upon which he publifhed a Vindication of the
Hiftoriographer of the Univerfity of Oxford. He died
at Oxford in 1695.
Wood,
Wood.
1 
\
w o o
WOOD, a lubitance whereof the trunks and branches
J of trees conlifls. It is compofed of a number of con¬
centric circles or zones, one of which is formed every
year ■, confequently their number correfponds to the age
of the tree. Thefe zones vary in thicknefs according
to the degree of vegetation that took place the year of
their formation. They are alio of different degrees of
thicknefs in different parts, that part of the tree which
is moff expofed to the fun and beft fheltered growing
fafteff 5 hence in this country that part of the zone
which looked towards the fouth while the tree w^as grow¬
ing is generally thickeft. The innermoft circle or zone
is the one which was firft formed, the outermoft was
formed the year before the tree w’as cut down. Thefe
zones are at, firft very foft and tender, and harden by de¬
grees as the tree becomes older : this is the reafon that
the middle of a tree is fo often much better wood than
the outfide of it.
The proper ligneous part of the wood confifts of
longitudinal fibres, difpofed in fafciculi, and poffefled of
confiderable hardnefs. It is this longitudinal direction
of the fibres that renders it fo much eafier to cleave wood
lengthwife, than acrofs the tree, or in any other direction.
See Plant and Vegetable Physiology.
For an account of the ingredients which enter into
the compofition of wood, fee Chemistry Index.
For the Method of Staining or Dyeing Wood fee
Turning.
For more complete information concerning wood, fee
alfo Tree, and Strength of Materials.
Foffil Wood. Foflil wood, or whole trees, or parts of
them, are very frequently found buried in the earth, and
that in different ftrata j fometimes in ftone, but more
ufuaily in earth ; and fometimes in fmall pieces loofe
among the gravel. Thefe, according to the time they
have lain in the earth, or the matter they have lain a-
mong, are found differently altered from their original
Hate ; fome of them having fuffered very little change j
and others being fo highly impregnated with cry-
ffalline, fparry, pyritical, or other extraneous matter,
as to appear mere maffes of ftone, or lumps of the
common matter of the pyrites, &c. of the dimenfions,
and, more or lefs, of the internal figure, of the ve¬
getable bodies into the pores of which they have made
their w'ay.
The foffil woods have been arranged by Dr Hill into
three kinds: i. The lefs altered j 2. The pyritical •, and,
3. The petrified.
Of the trees, or parts of them, left altered from their
original ftate, the greateff (lore is found in digging to
fmall depths in bogs, and among what is called />eat or
turf earth, a fuftance ufed in many parts of the kingdom
for fuel. In digging among this, ufually very near the
furface, imraenfe quantities of vegetable matter of various
kinds are found buried j in fome places there are whole
trees fcarce altered, except in colour; the oaks in parti¬
cular being ufually turned to a jetty black j the pines
and firs, which are alfo very frequent, are left altered,
and are as inflammable as ever, and often contain be¬
tween the bark and wood a black refin. Large parts
of trees have alfo been not unfrequently met with unal¬
tered in beds of another kind, and at much greater
depths, as in ftrata of clay and loam, among gravel, and
ibmetimes even in folid ftone.
Bcfides thefe harder parts of trees, there are frequently
woo
found alfo in the peat earth vaft quantities of the leaves
and fruit and catkins of the hazel and fimilar trees;
thefe are ufually mixed with fedge and roots of graft,
and are fcarce at all altered from their ufual texture.
The xnoft common of thefe are hazel-nuts j but there are
frequently found alfo the twigs and leaves of the white
poplar j and a little deeper ufually there lies a cracked
and fhattered wood, the crevices of which are full of a
bituminous black matter : and among this the ftones of
plums and other {lone-fruits are fometimes found, but
more rarely.
In this ilate the fruits and larger parts of trees are ufu¬
ally found : what we find of them more altered, are
fometimes large and long, fometimes fmaller and Ihorter
branches of trees j fometimes fmall fragments of branches,
and more frequently fmall ftiapelefs pieces of wood. The
larger and longer branches are ufualiy found bedded in
the ftrata of ftone, and are more or left altered into the
nature of the ftratum they lie in. The fhorter and fmaller
branches are found in vail variety in the ftrata of blue
clay ufed for making tiles in the neighbourhood of Lon¬
don. Thefe are prodigioufly plentiful in all the clay-
pits of this kind, and ufually carry the whole external
refemblance of what they once were, but nothing of the
inner ftrudlure ^ their pores being wholly filled, and un-
diftinguiftiably clofed, by the matter of the common py¬
rites, fo as to appear mere fimple maffes of that matter.
Thefe fall to pieces on being long expofed to moifture j
and are fo impregnated with vitriol that they are what
is principally ufed for making the green vitriol or cop¬
peras at Deptford and other places.
The irregular maffes or fragments of petrified wood
are principally of oak, and are moft ufually found among
gravel 5 though fometimes in other ftrata. Thefe are
varioufly altered by the infinualion of cryftalline and
ftony particles •, and make a very beautiful figure when
cut and polilhed, as they ufually keep the regular grain
of the wood, and {how exadlly the feveral circles which
mark the different yeats growth. Thefe, according to
the different matter which has filled their pores, aflame
various colours, and the appearance of the various foffils
that have impregnated them *, fome are perfectly white,
and but moderately hard 5 others of a brownifli black,
or perfedlly black, and much harder j others of a red-
difl\ black, others yellowifti, and others grayifti, and fome
of a ferruginous colour. They are of different weights
alfo and hardneffes, according to the nature and quanti¬
ty of the Honey particles they contain : of thefe fome
pieces have been found with every pore filled with pure
pellucid cryftal; and others in large maffes, part of
winch is wholly petrified and feems mere ftone, while
the reft is crumbly and is unaltered wood. That this
alteration is made in wood, even at this time, is alfo
abundantly proved by the inftances of wood being put in¬
to the hollows of mines, as props and fupports to the roofs,
which is found after a number of years as truly petrified
as that which is dug up from the natural ftrata of the
earth. In the pieces of petrified wood found in Germa¬
ny, there are frequently veins of fpar or of pure cryftal,
fometimes of earthy fubftances, and often of the matter of
the common pebbles: thefe fragments of wood fometimes
have the appearance of parts of the branches of trees in
their natural ftate, but more frequently they refemble
pieces of broken boards j thefe are ufually capable of a
high and elegant polifli.
Many
r 735 1
Wootf.
WOO l y
Many fubftances, it is certain, have been preferved in
the cabinets of collectors, under the title ofpetrified wood
which have very little right to that name. But where
the whole outer figure of the wood, the exaCt lineaments
of the bark, or the fibrous and fiftular texture of the
ftrife, and the vefliges of the utriculi and trachea or air-
veffels, are yet remaining, and the feveral circles yet vi¬
able which denoted the feveral yeays growth of the tree,
none can deny thefe fubilances to be real foffil wood.’
See PETRIFACTION.
Dr Parry of Bath has recently inveftigated the caufes
Oi the decay of wood, and the means of preventing it.
For this purpofe he recommends the application of a pre¬
paration of the refinous kind, mixed with a certain por¬
tion of bees-wax. The proportion of the ingredients
and t}ie mode of mixing them are as follows : Take 12
ounces of rofin and 8 ounces of roll brimftone, each
coarfely powdered, and 3 gallons of train oil 5 heat them
flowly, gradually adding 4 ounces of bees-wax, cut into
fmall bits. Frequently ftir the liquor, which, as
foon as the folid ingredients are diflblved, will be fit for
ufe. It is recommended to drefs every part of the wood¬
work with this compofition twice over before the parts
are put together, and once afterwards; and a higher
Bate of prelervation is promifed from its ufe than^has
yet been attained. It (hould be obferved, that in pre¬
paring this varnilh, it is advifable, in order to prevent
accidents, to ufe an earthen veffel, and to make the fire
in the open air.
Wood (fy/va), in Ancient Geography, a multitude of
trees extended over a large continued tra& of land, and
propagated without culture. The generality of woods
only confitl of trees of one kind.—The ancient Saxons
had fuch a veneration for woods, that they made them
ian£luaries.—It is ordained, that none {hall deftroy any
Wood, by turning it into tillage or pafture, &c. where
there are two acres or more in quantity, on pain of for¬
feiting 40s. an acre, by 35 Henry VIII. c. 17. All
woods that are felled at 14 years growth, are to be
preferved from deftruttion for eight years; and no cat¬
tle put into the ground till five years after the felling
thereof, &c. 13 Eliz. c. 23. The burning of w’oods
or underwood is declared to be felony ; alfo thofe
perfons that malicioufly cut or fpoil timber-trees or
any fruit-trees, &c. {hall be fent to the houfe of cor-
reftion, there to be kept three months, and whipt once
a month.
Wood, Engraving on, is commonly executed on box ;
and in many cafes, engravings of this kind are ufed with
advantage inftead of copperplates. The art of cutting
or engraving on wood is of very high antiquity; for
Chinefe printing is a fpecimen of it. Even in Europe,
if credit be due to Papillon, this art was pra&ifed at a
very remote period ; for he mentions eight engravings
on wood, entitled, “ A reprefentation of the warlike
Editions of the great and magnanimous Macedonian king,
the bold and valiant Alexander ; dedicated, prefented’
and humbly offered, to the moft holy father, Pope Ho-
norius IV. by us Alexander Alberic Cunio Chevalier,
and Ifahella Cunio, &c.” This anecdote, if true, car¬
ries the art of cutting in wood back to 1284 or I285 J
for Honorius occupied the papal throne only during
thefe two years. But this is not the remoteft period to
which fome have carried the art in Europe ; for the ufe
-of feals or fignets being of very high antiquity, they
4
6 ] WOO
imagine that the invention of wood-cuts muft be coeval
with them. The fuppofition is certainly plaufible, but1"
it is not fupported by proof. The earlieft impreflion of
a wooden-cut, of which there is any-certain account, is.
that of St Chritlopher carrying an infant Jeliis through
the fea, in which a hermit is feen holding up a lanthorn
to {hew him the way ; and a peafant, with a fack on
his back, climbing a hill, is exhibited in the back
ground. The date of this impreffion is 1423. In the
year 1430 was printed at Haerlem, “ The hiftory of St
John the evangelift and his revelation, reprefented in 48
figures in wood, by Lowrent Janfon Golfer;” and, in
1438, Jorg Schappf of Augfburg cut in wood the hi-
ftory of the Apocalypfe, and what was called The poor
man's hihle.
A folio chronicle, publilhed 1493 by Schedal, was
adorned with a great number of wooden-cuts by Wil¬
liam Plydenwurff and Michael Wolgemut, whofe en¬
gravings were greatly fuperior to any thing of the kind
which had appeared before them. The latter was the
preceptor of Albert Durer, whofe admirable perform¬
ances in this department of art are juftly held in the
higheft efteem even at the prefent day.
About this period it became the praftice of almoft
all the German engravers on copper to engrave likewife
on wood ; and many of their wood cuts furpafs in beauty
the impreflions of their copperplates. Such are the
wood-cuts of Albert Aldtorfer, Hilbel Pen, Virgil
Soles, Lucas Van Cranach, and Lucas Van Leyden,
the friend and imitator of Albeit Durer, with feveral
others.
The Germans carried this art to a great degree of
perfeffion. Hans or John Holbein, who flourilhed in
1500, engraved the Dance of Death, in a feries of
wrooden-cuts, which, for the freedom and delicacy of
execution, have fcarcely been equalled, and never fur-
pafied. Italy, France, and Holland, have produced
capital artifts of this kind. Joan. Tornaefium printed a
bible at Leyden, in 1554, with wooden-cuts of excel¬
lent workmanftiip. Chrifiopher Jegher of Antwerp,
from his eminence in the art, was employed by Bubens
to work under his infpeftion, and be executed feveral
pieces which are held in much eftimation ; they are par¬
ticularly diftinguilhed for boldnefs and fpirit.
The next attempt at improvement in this art wras by
Hugo da Carpi, to whom is attributed the invention of
the chiaro feuro. Carpi w?as an Italian, and of the 16th
century ; but the Germans claim the invention alfo, and
produce in evidence feveral engravings by Mair, a dif-
ciple of Martin Schoen, of date 1499. His mode of
performing this w7as very fiinple. He firft engraved the
fubjefl upon copper, and finiflied it as much as the ai-
tifts af his time ufually did. He then prepared a block
of wood, upon which he cut out the extreme lights, and
then impreffed it upon the print; by wBich means a
faint tint was added to all the reft of the piece, except¬
ing only in thofe parts where the lights were meant to
predominate, which appear on the fpecimens extant to
be coloured with white paint. The drawings for this
fpecies of engraving were made on tinted paper with a
pen, and the lights v7ere drawn upon the paper with
white paint.
But there is a material d'fference between the chiaro
feuro of the old German mafters and that of the Ita¬
lians. Mair and Cranach engraved the outlines and
deep
Wood.
WOO [ 737 ] WOO
Wood, deep (liadows upon copper. The impreflion taken in
this ftate was tinted over by means of a fingie block of
wood, with thofe parts hollowed out which were de-
hgned to be left white upon the print. On the con¬
trary, the mode of engraving by Hugo da Carpi was,
to cut the outline on one block of wTood, the dark (ha-
dows upon a fecond, and the light lhadows, or half¬
tint, upon a third. The firft being impreffed upon the
paper, the outlines only appeared: this block being
taken away, the fecond was put in its place, and being
alfo impreffed on the paper, the dark fhadow'S were
added to the outlines j and the third block being put
in the fame place upon the removal of the fecond, and
alfo impreffed upon the paper, made the dim tints,
W'hen the print was completed. In fome inftances, the
number of blocks was increafed, but the operation was
itill the fame, the print receiving an impreflion from
every block.
In 1698, John Baptift Michel Papillon praftifed en¬
graving on wood with much fuccefs, particularly in or¬
namental foliage and flowers, ftiells, &c. In the opi¬
nion, however, of fome of the molt eminent artifts, his
performances are ftiff and cramped. From that period
the art of engraving on wood gradually degenerated,
and may be faid to have been wholly loft, w’hen it was
lately re-invented by Mr Bewick of Newcaftle. This
eminent artift was apprentice to Mr Bielby, a refpec-
table engraver on metal. Mr Bielby, who was accuf-
tomed to employ his apprentices in engraving on wood,
was much gratified with the performance of Thomas
Bewick, and therefore advifed him to profecute engra¬
ving in that line. The advice was followed $ and young
Bewick inventing tools, even making them with his
own hands, and fawing the wood on which he was to
work into the requifite thicknefs, proceeded to improve
upon his own difeoveries, without afliftance or inftruc-
tion of any kind. When his apprenticelhip expired, he
went to London, where the obfeure wood-engravers of
the time wilhed to avail themfelves of his abilities, while
they were determined to give him no infight into their
art. During his apprenticelhip, he received from the
Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. a premium
of confiderable value for the bell engraving in wood.
The cut which obtained the premium was one of a feries
for an edition of Gay’s Fables. Having remained fome
years in London, he returned to Newcaftle, and entered
into copartnerlhip with his old mailer j and eftablilhed
his reputation as an artift by the publication of his ad¬
mirable Hiftory of Quadrupeds. This was followed by
his Hiftory of Birds, in 2 vols. The greater part of the
volume on Quadrupeds, and the whole of the firft volume
of the work on Birds, was compofed by Mr Bielby.
John Bewick, brother to Thomas, learned the art
of him, and praflifed it for feveral years in London with
great applaufe. His abilities, however, though refpeft-
able, were not, by the bell judges, deemed fo brilliant
as his brother’s; and owing to bad health, and the na¬
ture of his conneftion with the bookfellers and others,
he feems not to have advanced the art beyond the ftage
at which he received it. He died, fome years ago, at
Newcaftle.
Mr Neibit, who executed the admirable cuts from
defigns by Thornton, for an edition of Hudibras, as
well as the cuts for editions of Shakefpeare and Thom-
fon’s Seafons, and Mr Anderfon, whofe beautiful cuts
Vql. XX. Part II.
adorn the poem entitled Grove Hi//, have been the moll Wood,
fuccefsful of Thomas Bewick’s pupils, who have appear-v**“
ed before the public as artifts. It appears, that the me¬
thod pra&ifed by the ancient engravers on wood, whofe
works are ftill admired, mull have been difl'erent from
that of Bewick and his pupils. What that method was
feems to be altogether unknown. Papillon, who writes
the beft hiftory extant of the art, gueffes indeed in what
manner the old engravers proceeded lo as to give to
their works the fpirit and freedom for which they are
famed; but that his gueffes are erroneous feems evident
from the ftiffnefs of his own works. The principal cha-
ra&eriftic in the mechanical department of the produc¬
tions of the ancient matters is the crofting of the black
lines, which Papillon has attempted with the greateft
awkwardnefs, though it feems to have been accomplifti-
ed by them with fo much eafe, that they introduced it
at random, even where it could add nothing to the
beauty of the piece. In Bewick’s method of working,
this crofs hatching is fo difficult and unnatural, that it
may be confidered as imprafticable. Mr Neibit has in¬
deed introduced fomething of it into two or three of his
pieces $ but fo great was the labour, and fo little the
advantage of this improvement, if fuch it can be called,
that probably it wfill not be attempted again.
The engravers of Bewick’s fchool woik on the end
of the wood, which is cut acrofs the trunk of the tree,
in pieces of the proper thicknefs. As wood-cuts are
generally employed in the printer’s prefs amidft a form
of types, this thicknefs muft be regulated by the height
of the types wfith which they are to be ufed. The tools
employed are nearly the fame with thofe ufed in copper¬
plate engraving, being only a little more deep, or lo¬
zenge, as engravers call it. They muft have points of
various degrees of finenefs for the different purpofes to
which they are applied, fome of them being fo much
rounded off at the bottom as to approach to the nature
of a goodge, whilft others are in fa£l little chiffels of
various fizes. Thcfe chiffels and goodges, to which
every artift gives the ftiape which he deems moft con¬
venient, are held in the hand in a manner fomewhat
different from the tool of the engraver on copper, it be¬
ing neceffary to have the power of lifting the chips up¬
wards with eafe. To attempt a defeription of this in
writing would be in vain ; but it is eafily acquired, we
are told, by practice.
The pupils of the fchool of Bewick confider it as
quite improper to fpeak of his invention as a revival of
the ancient art. Some old prints, it is true, have the
appearance of being executed in the fame way with his;
but others have certainly been done by a method very
different. It is therefore not fair to appreciate the pre-
fent art by what has been done, but by what may be
done j and that remains yet to be fliewn. The art is
in its infancy ; and thofe who are difpofed to com¬
pare it with the art of engraving on copper, ought to
look back to the period when copperplate engraving
was of as recent invention as Bewick’s method of en¬
graving on wood. Marc Antonio, who engraved un¬
der the direftion of the great painter Raphael, thought
it no mean proof of his proficiency in his art, that he
was able to imitate on copperplates the wood-cuts of
Albert Durer; and Papillon is highly indignant that
there ftiould have been perfons fo very blind as to mif-
take the copies for the originals. If copper has its ad-
5 A vantages
woo
Wooil.
vantages over wood in point of delicacy and minute-
nels, wood has, in its turn, advantages not inferior in
regard to ftrength and richnefs. Thofe prints which
were executed under the aufpices of Titian and Ru¬
bens, will always remain a monument of the fpirit and
vigour natural to wood-engraving ; and if there be not
found in them all the attention to chiaro fcuro, which
the prefent age demands, it muft not be attributed ei¬
ther to defedt in the art, or to want of abilities in the
artiils, but to the tafte of the times when chiaro fcuro
was utile underftood. It remains lor lome enterpnfing
artiil to (hew that the vigour of the ancient art may be
attained by the prefent one, and at the fame time to
add to that vigour thofe gradations of (hade which are
fo much admired in good copperplates. As there feems
to be a more perfeft, or at leaf! a more pleafant black
produced by wood than by copperplate printing, and
certainly a more perf'edt white (a), who will fay that
any intermediate fliade whatever may not be produced
by w’ood-cuts ? To attempt this on a fmall fcale would
indeed be vain, becaufe the flighted variation, produced
by a little more or lefs ink, or a harder preffure in
piinting, bears fuch a proportion to a very ftiort line, as
muft neceffarily render the attempt abortive.
Wood-engraving, therefore, mud always appear to
difadvantage while it is confined to fmall fubjedds, and
will never reach its dation as a fine art, till thofe who
are engaged in its cultivation improve upon the difco-
reries of one another, and apply to fufejedts to which it
is properly adapted. As an economical art for illudrat-
ing mechanics, various branches of natural hidory, and
other fubjedts of fcience, it is too little employed even
in its prefent date.
_ The works of Bewick and his pupils, which have
hitherto been pubiiihed, are not numerous. Befides his
quadrupeds and birds, the Hudibras, and the cuts for
fome editions of Shakefpeare and Thomfon’s Seafons,
by Nefbit, and the Grove Hill by Anderfon, al¬
ready noticed, there are alfo fome others of lefs note. 
Goldfmith’s Traveller and Deferted Village with elegant
plates, are all executed by Thomas Bewick, except one
or trvo which were executed by John •, Somerville’s
Chace by the fame artids, executed in a dyle of ele¬
gance which perhaps has never been furpafled ; a View
of St Nicholas’s Church, Newcadle, 15 inches long, by
Mr Nefbit, who received for it a fllver medal from the
Society for the Encouragement of Arts.
Wood, Rotten, Illumination of. This is a fubjedl
which has often been difcuffed by naturalids. Spallan¬
zani maintained, that there is a perfedl analogy between
the illumination of rotten wood, and artificial phof-
phorus; and he imagines, that in the putrid fermenta¬
tion, the hydrogen and the carbone of the wood come
more eafily in contaft with the oxygen of the atmo-
fphere, by which combination a flow combuftion, and
the illumination of the wood, is produced; and he
thinks that this procefs cannot proceed in the irrefpira-
ble kinds of gafes. Rotten wood alfo, in which the ne-
ceffary quantity of hydrogen and carbone is not at the
fame time difengaged, does not obtain the property of
^llummating. Mr Corradori, however, objefts to this
t 738 ]
woo
theory, that the flow combuflion does not take place ac¬
cording to the above theory, as the wood, at the time
when it begins to illuminate, is moftly deprived ot Ks
refinous panicles, and confequently contains but veiy 1
little hydrogen and carbone ; and it appears to him
more probable, that the more it lofes of combuftible
matter, the more it obtains the property of illuminatino-.
Inere is, he thinks, a very gteat difference between
this natural and the artificial phofphorus. Mr Hum¬
boldt concludes, from his experiments, that the illumi¬
nation of rotten wTood takes place only when it gets into
contaft with oxygen j and when it has loti the property
of emitting light in irrtfpirable gafes, it recovers it
again by expofmg it to oxygen gas. Dr Gartner, how¬
ever, is of opinion, that, according to his experiments,
a certain degree of humidity is always requifite, and he
thinks that oxygen gas is not quite neceffary though the
illumination be increafed by it. This phenomenon,
however, being fo very different from all known pro-
ceffes of combuftion, where light is difengaged, Dc
Gartner afks, whether it be not more agreeing with the
animal procefs of refpuation, than with a true combuftion,
or whether the illumination of the wood be produced
by phofphorus and carbone in a proportion hitherto un¬
known. Dr Gartner is, on the whole, inclined to
think, that it is at prefent impoftible to give a fatisfac-
toiy explanation of all the phenomena that occur in thisr
procefs. Beckmann has made numerous experiments on
the illumination of rotten wood, in different gafes and
fluids, in order to throw fome light on the ideas of the
above naturalifls. The refults of thefe experiments dif¬
fer in fome points from what the experiments of thofe
gentlemen have fhewn, which, however, Beckmann
a.cnbes to the nature of rotten wood, as a fubftance
that is not always of the fame kind, and has not always
an equal degree of putrefaftion and humidity. It feems
alfo to differ materially from the artificial phofphorus in
the following particulars, x. It (bines in oxygen gas at
a very low temperature. 2. It emits light in all irre-
fpirable gafes, at lead for a ftiort time. 3. In muriatic
acid gas its light is fuddenly extinguifhed. 4. It fliines
in a lefs degree in air rarefied by the air-pump. 9. Ac¬
cording to Mr Corradori, it even (bines in the torricel-
lian vacuum. 6. Its illumination is extinguifhed in oxy¬
gen gas, as well as in other kinds of gafes, when they
are heated. 7. By its illumination in oxygen gas, car¬
bonic acid gas is produced. 8. One may fuffer the rotten
wood to be extingurfhed feveral times, one after an¬
other, in irrefpirable gafes, without depriving them of
the property of making new pieces of rotten wood ftiine
again. 9. Humidity greatly promotes the illumination^
and even feems to be neceflary in producing it. 10. The
rotten wood continues to ftiine under water, oil, and
other fluids, and in fome of them its light is even in¬
creafed. All this feems to fhew, that the extinftion of
rotten wrood, in different media, does not immediately
depend on a want of oxygen, but rather on a particular
change, to which the wood itfelf has been expofed.
WooD-Cock. See Scolopax, Ornithology Index.
WoOD-Goat. See Capra, Mammalia Index.
WooD-Loufe. See Oniscus, Entomology Index,
Wood-
Woe4
\\
Woud-
loufe.
(a) The parts of the print intended to be white are not even touched by the wood block*
WOO [ 739 ] W O O
Woad- IVoOD-Pecher. See Picus, ORNITHOLOGY Index.
pecker WOODMOi'E. See FOREST Courts.
Wool WOODSTOCK, a town of Oxfordihire, in England,
St- - < pleafantly feated on a riling ground, and on a rivulet j a
well compared borough-to^vn, and fends two members
to parliament } but is chiefly noted for Blenheim-houle,
a fine palace, built in memory of the viftory obtained
by the duke of Marlborough over the French and Bava¬
rians in Auguft 1704. It was erefted at the public
expence, and is one of the nobleft feats in Europe. One
of the paflages to it is over a bridge with one arch, 190
feet in diameter, refembling the Rialto at Venice. The
gardens take up 100 acres of ground ; and the offices,
which are very grand, have room enough to accommo¬
date 300 people. The apartments of the palace are
magnificently furniffied ; and the ftaircafes, llatues, paint¬
ings, and tapeftry, furprifingly fine. The town is about
half a mile from the palace, having feveral good inns;
and a manufafture of fleel chains for watches, and ex¬
cellent gloves. A Heel chain has been made at this
place which fold for 170I.—The population is eftimated
at 1 3oo perfons. It is eight miles north of Oxford,
and 60 welt-north-weft of London. W. Long. x. 15.
N. Lat. 51. 52.
WOODWARD, Dr John, was born in 1665, and
educated at a country fchool, where he learned the La¬
tin and Greek languages, and was afterwards fent to
London, where he is faid to have been put apprentice to
a linen-draper. He was not long in that ftation, till he
became acquainted with Dr Peter Barwick, an eminent
phyfician, who took him under his tuition and into his
family. Here he profecuted with great vigour and fuc-
cefs the ftudy of philofophy, anatomy, and phyfic. In
J692, Dr Stillingfteet quitting the place of profeflbr of
phyfic in Greffiam college, our author was chofen to
fucceed him, and the year following was defied F. R. S.
In 1695 he obtained the degree'of M. D. by patent
from Archbiffiop Tennifon ; and the fame year he pu-
bliffied his Eflay towards a Natural Hiftory of the Earth.
He afterwards wrote many other pieces, which have
been wHl received by the learned world. He founded
a le&ure in the univerfity of Cambridge, to be read
there upon his Effay, &.c. and handfomely endowed it.
He died in 1728.
WOOF, among manufa&urers, the threads which the
rveavers ffioot acrofs with an inllrument called the Jhub-
tie. See Cloth.
WOOKEY or OKET Hole, a remarkable cavern
two miles from the city of Wells in Somerfetlhire} for
an account of which, fee the article Grotto.
WOOL, the covering of flreep. See Ovis and
Sheep.
Wool refembles hair in a great many particulars-, but
befides its finenefs, which conftitutes an obvious differ¬
ence, there are other particulars which may ferve alfo to
Bee, vol. diftinguilh them from one another. Wool, like the hair
xviil. p. 57. of horfes, cattle, and moft other animals, completes its
growth in a year, and then falls off as hair does, and is
fucceeded by a freffi crop. It differs from hair, however,
in the uniformity of its growth, and the regularity of its
Ihedding. Every filament of wool feems to keep exaft
pace with another in the fame part of the body of the
animal ; the whole crop fprings up at once the whole
advances uniformly together } the wdrole loofens from the
(kin nearly at the fame period, and thus falls off, if not
previoufly ftrorn, leaving the animal covered with a ffiort T/oa!
coat of young wool, which in its turn undergoes the fame -'v”—
regular mutations.
Hairs are commonly of the fame thicknefs in every
partj but wool conftantly varies in thicknefs in differ¬
ent parts, being generally thicker at the points than at
the roots. T hat part of the fleece of ffieep which grow'S
during the wdnter is finer than what grows in fummer.
This was firft obferved by Dr Anderfon, the editor of
the Bee, and publiffied in his Obfervations on the Means
of exciting a Spirit of National Indujlry,
While the wool remains in the Hate it was firft ffiorn
off the flieep’s back, and not forted into its different
kinds, it is called fleece. Each fleece confifts of wool
of divers qualities and degrees of finenefs, which the
dealers therein take care to feparate. The French and
Englifli ufually feparate each fleece into three forts, viz.
1. Mother-wool, wdiicb is that of the back and neck.
2. The wool of the tails and legs. 3. That of the
breaft and under the belly. The Spaniards make the
like divifion into three forts, which they call prime, fe-
cond and third; and for the greater eafe, mark each
bale or pack with a capital letter, denoting the fort.
If the triage or feparation be w-ell made, in 15 baits
there will be 1 2 marked R, that is, refine, or prime ;
two marked F, for fine, or fecond j and one S, for
thirds.
The wools moft efieemed are the Engliffi, ch'efly
fhofe about Leominfter, Cotfwold, and the ifle of Wight;
the Spanilh, principally thofe about Segovia ; and the
French, about Berry : which laft are faid to have this
peculiar property, that they will knot or bind with any
other fort ; whereas the reft will only knot with then-
own kind.
Among the ancients, the wools of Attica, Megara*
Laodicea, Apulia, and efpecially thofe of Tarentum,
Parma, and Altino, were the moft valued. Varro
allures us, that the people there ufed to clothe their
ffieep with Ikins, to fecure the wool from being damaged.
Of late a great deal of attention has been paid to wool
in this country, as well as feveral others. Several very
fpirited attempts have been made to improve it, bv in¬
troducing fuperior breeds of Iheep, and better methods
of managing them. For this purpofe has been formed
the
Britifh WOOL Society, an affociation formed for the
purpofe of obtaining the beft breeds of fine-woolled
ffieep, with a view of afeertaining, by aftual experi¬
ments, how far each fpecies or variety is calculated for
the climate of Great Britain ; the qualities of their wool
refpe£tively ; the ufes to which each kind of wool could
be moft profitably employed indifferent manufactures;
and the comparative value of each fpecies of ffieep, fo
far as the fame can be determined.
Attention had for fome time been paid by the High¬
land Society to a famous breed of fine woolled ffieep in
STietland ; but it occurred to Sir John Sinclair of Ulb-
fter, baronet, and to Dr James Anderfon, well known
as the author of many ufeful publications, that the im¬
provement of Brilifti wool was a matter of too much
importance to be entrufted to a fociety which is obliged
to devote its attention to fuch a variety of objefls as
the general improvement of the Highlands of Scotland.
The latter of thefe gentlemen, therefore, in an Appen¬
dix to the Report of the Committee of the Highland
£ A 2 Society
WOO [ 740 ] woo
Society of Scotland, for the year 1790, propofed the
plan of a patriotic ajjbciation for the improvement of Bri-
tifh wool; and the former, who was convener of the
committee to whom the fubjeft of Shetland wool had
been referred, w'rote circular letters, recommending the
plan. The confequence of which w'as, that on the 31ft
of January 1791, feveral noblemen and gentlemen of
the higheft refpectability met in Edinburgh, and con-
ftituted themfelves into a Society for the Improvement of
Britijh Wool. Of this fociety Sir John Sinclair was
elefted prefident j after which, in an excellent fpeech,
he pointed out to the members the objefts of the inlli-
tution, the means by which thofe objects could be at¬
tained, and the advantages w'hich would refult from
their united labours. This addrefs was afterwards print¬
ed by order of the fociety.
The particular breeds of fheep to which the fociety
propofed to direft its attention, were Iheep for the hilly
parts of Scotland ; fheep for the plains, or the Lowdand
breed ; and fheep for the iflands. They w^ere to try
experiments alfo wuth fheep from foreign countries, di-
flinguifhed by any particular property.
The principal objefts which the members had in
viewr, during the firft year of their affociation, wrere, 1.
To collect fpecimens of the beft breeds which Great
Britain at that period afforded, in order to afeertain the
degree of perfedtion to which flieep had already been
brought in this kingdom. 2. To procure from every
country, diflinguifhed for the quality of its fheep and
wool, fpecimens of the different breeds it poffeffed, in
order to afeertain how far the original breed, or a mixed
breed from it and the native fheep of the country,
could thrive in Scotland. 3. To difperfe as much as
poffible all theft breeds, both foreign and domeflic, over
the whole kingdom, wherever proper perfons could be
found to take charge of them, in order to try experi¬
ments on a more extenfive fcale than the fociety itfelf
could do ; to fpread information, and to excite a fpirit
for the improvement of fheep and wool in eve^ry part of
the country.
Sir John Sinclair had previoufly colledled a flock,
confifling of fheep of the Spanifh, Herefordlhire, South-
down, Cheviot, Lomond hills, and Shetland breeds, and
of a mixed breed from theft different fheep. This flock
amounted to no rams, ewes, and lambs. M. d'Auben-
ton, in confequence of a correfpondence with Sir John
Sinclair, fent over to the fociety ten rams and five
ewes, of real Spanifh breed, which had been originally
entrufted to his care by the late king of France : theft,
after encountering a number of obflacles, and after be¬
ing flopped and threatened to be flaughtered at the cu-
flomhoufe of Brighthelmflone for the ufe of the poor,
arrived fafe at Leith. Lord Sheffield, at the fame time,
fent to the fociety four rams and fix ewes of the South-
down and Spanifh breeds. Mr Bifhton of Kilfall, in
Shropfhire, prefented them wdth three Hereford rams,
reckoned by many the beft breed in England ; the fo-
ciety at the fame time ordered 150 ewes of the fame
breed, and two ewres of the Long Mountain breed, rec¬
koned the beft in Wales, to be fent along with them.
They purchafed 57 rams and 173 ewes of the Cheviot
bjeed, reckoned the beft in Scotland, for the hilly parts
of the country. J^ord Daer fent them 20 ewes of an
excellent breed, which exifted at Mochrum in Gallo-
xay. The late earl of Oxford ftnt them in a prefent
three rams of the Norfolk crofted by the Cape of Good Wool.
Hope breed. Mr Ifaac Grant junior of Leghorn, in
conjunftion with ?>Ir Sibbaid, merchant at Leith, pre¬
fented them an Apulian ram and ewe; the ram arrived
in fafety, but the ewe unfortunately died on the paflage.
Mr Baron Seton of Prefton, in Linlithgowfhire, fent
them a ram and two ewes of a Spanifti breed, which
had been for fome time kept in Sweden unmixed with any
other. They purchafed 100 ewes of a fmall breed
exifting in the parifh of Leuchars in Fife, much refem-
bling the Shetland. The Right Honourable William
Conynghame of Ireland fent them n Spanifti rams,
ftven Spanifti ewes, 15 three-fourth breed and 16 one-
half breed Spanifti and Irifti ewtes. Lord Sheffield ftnt
them eight rams and 18 ewes 5 and his Majefty made
them a prefent of two rams.
Thus, in the courft of one year, the fociety acquired
by donation or purchafe about 800 ftieep of different
forts and ages, and many of them from foreign coun¬
tries : about 500 of theft were diftributed over different
parts of Scotland, the greater number of which were
fold to gentlemen anxious to promote the views of the
fociety, and well qualified to make experiments on the
different breeds which they had obtained. The greateft
part of the remainder were taken by different gentle¬
men who kept them for the fociety, and according to
their directions, without any expence.
It is impoffible to produce an inftance of fo much
having been accompliftied by a fociety of private indi¬
viduals in fo ftiort a time. Nor was this all $ the fame
year Mr Andrew Kerr, a very intelligent ffieep-farmer
on the borders of England, was ftnt, at the cxpence of
the fociety, to examine the ftate of ftieep-farming along
the eaft coaft of Scotland and the interior parts of the
Highlands. His tour was printed by order of the fo¬
ciety, and contains the firft intimation of the poffibi-
lity of the Cheviot breed thriving in the north of Scot¬
land.
In the year 1792, Meffrs Redhead, Laing, and Mar-
fliall, were ftnt by the fociety, to make a furvey of the
ftate of ftieep-farming through fome of the principal
counties of England ; the refult of which was alfo pub-
liffied by the fcciety, and contains more information ou
the fubjeft of the different breeds of England than any
work hitherto publiftied; and in 1794, Mr John Naif-
myth was fent on a tour through the fouthern diftriCls
of Scotland, which completed the circuit of almoft the
whole kingdom.
Thus a few private individuals, unaided by the public
purfe, had boldnefs enough to undertake afeertaining
the comparative value of the different kinds of ftieep in
their own country, and to introduce fome of the moft
celebrated breeds of other countries, and fucceeded in
the fpirited attempt. It is impoffible in this place to
ftate more minutely the various other tranfaflions of
the fociety 5 to enter into any detail of the premiums
given by this refpeclable inftitution for the improve¬
ment of the celebrated Shetland breed j or to explain
how, as if it were by magic, in a country where the
manufacture of wool was little known, articles manu-
faftured of that material were made, rivalling, and in
fome cafes furpaffing, the moft celebrated fabrics of
other countries. A war having unfortunately ariftn,
it became impoffible to pay the fame attention, or to
carry on with the fame fuccefs* novel enterprifts j even
old
Wool.
csmbing.
Plate
DLXxvin.
Fig. i.
Fig. ?.
FlS- 3-
WOO [ 741 ] WOE
old eftablifhments often fall a facrifice aTnid{l the hor¬
rors of war. The utmoft that the Britifh Wool Socie¬
ty could expe£t to do, was to preferve the inftitution in
fiich a date, that when peace fliall be happily reftored
it may revive with double energy and fpirit.
It is a curious fact that the Romans, during their re-
fidence in Britain, eftablifhed a manufa&ory of woollen
cloth at Winchefter, which was fo extenfire as to fup-
ply their army ; and there is reafon to believe that the
trade which they introduced into Britain, was not ne-
glefted by the native inhabitants, for the hrft 900
years of the Chriftian era. The long Spaniih wool was
imported into this country fo early as the 12th century,
and we find that fince the days of Edward III. Britifh
fleeces were admirably adapted to the kind of cloth
which was in greateft requeft, though now they are ge¬
nerally unequal to the produftion of that which is
fought after.
WOOL-Combing, a w'ell known operation, which,
when performed by the hand, is laborious, tedious, and
expenfive. The expence of it through all England has
been calculated at no lefs a fum than 8co,oool.; and
to leffen this expence, the Rev. Edmund Cartwright of
Doncafter in Yorkfhire bethought himfelf, fome years
ago, of carding wrool by machinery. After repeated
attempts and improvements, for which he took out
three patents, he found that wool can be combed in per-
feftion by machinery, of which he gives the following
defcription.
Fig. 1. is the crank lafher. A is a tube through
which the material, being formed into a fliver, and
flightly twitted, is drawn forward by the delivering
rollers j B, a wheel faft upon the crofs bar of the
crank ; C, a wheel, on the oppofite end of whofe axis
is a pinion working in a wrheel upon the axis of one of
the delivering rollers.
Note. When two or more flivers are required, the
cans or bafkets, in which they are contained, are placed
upon a table under the lafher (as reprefented at D),
which, by having a flow motion, twifts them together
as they go up.
Fig. 2. is the circular clearing comb, for giving work
in the head, carried in a frame by two cranks. Fig. 3.
the comb-table, having the teeth pointing towards the
centre, moved by cogs upon the rim, and carried round
upon trucks like the head of a windmill, a, b, The
drawing rollers, c, d, Callendar, or conducing rollers.
Note. Underneath the table is another pair of rollers,
for drawing out the backings.
In the above fpecification, we have omitted the frame
in which the machine ftands, the wheels, fliafts, &.c.
Had thefe been introduced, the drawing would have
been crowded and confufed •, befides, as matters of in¬
formation, they would have been unneceffary, every me¬
chanic, when he knows the principles of a machine, be¬
ing competent to apply the movements to it.
The wool, if for particularly nice work, goes through
three operations, otherwife two are fufficient : the firft
operation opens the wool, and makes it connect to¬
gether into a rough fliver, but does not clear it. The
clearing is performed by the fecond, and, if neceflary, a
third operation. A fet of machinery, confifting of three
machines, will require the attendance of an overlooker
and ten children, and will comb a pack, or 2401b. in
twelve hours. As neither fire nor oil is neceflary for
machine-combing, the faving of thofe articles, even the Wool-
fire alone, will, in general, pay the wages of the over- comj»nJf
looker and children j fo that the actual faving to the Worcefter.
manufacturer is the voliole of what the combing cofts, > -■y—.
by the old imperfeft mode of hand-combing. Machine-
combed wool is better, efpecially for machine-fpinning,
by at leaft 12 per cent, being all equally mixed, and the
flivers uniform, and of any required length.
WO OUST ON, Thomas, an Englifh divine, was
born at Northampton in 1669, and educated at Cam¬
bridge. His firft appearance in the learned world was
in 1705, in a work entitled, The Old Apology for the
Truth of the Chriftian Religion, againft the Jews and
Gentiles, revived. He afterwards wrote many pieces :
but what made the moft noife, were his fix Difcourfes
on the Miracles of Chrift ; which occafioned a great
number of books and pamphlets upon the fubjeft, and
raifed a profecution againft him. At his trial in Guild¬
hall, before the lord chief-juftice Raymond, he fpoke
feveral times himfelf \ and urged, that “ he thought it
very hard that he fhould be tried by a fet of men who,
though otherwife very learned and worthy perfons, wTere
no more judges of the fubjeCls on which he wrote, than
himfelf was a judge of the moft crabbed points of the
law.” He was fentenced to a year’s imprifonment, and
to pay a fine of 1 ool. He purchafed the liberty of the
rules of the King’s bench, where he continued after the
expiration of the year, being unable to pay the fine.
The greateft obftruCHon to his deliverance from con¬
finement wyas, the obligation of giving fecurity not to
offend by any future writings, he being refolved to
write again as freely as before. Whilft fome fuppofed
that this author wrote wfith the fettled intention of fub-
verting Chriftianity under the pretence of defending it,
others believed him difordered in his mind j and many
circumftances concurred which gave countenance to
this opinion. He died, January 27. 1732-3, after an
illmefs of four days; and, a few minutes before his
death, uttered thefe words : “ This is a ftruggle which,
all men muft go through, and which I bear not only
patiently, but wfith willingnefs.” His body was interred
in St George’s church-yard, Southwark.
WOOLWICH, a town in Kent, with a market on
Fridays, but no fair. It is featcd on the river Thames,
and of great note for its fine docks and yards, where men
of war are built} as alfo for its vaft magazines of great
guns, mortars, bombs, cannon-balls, powder, and other
warlike ftores. It has likewife an academy, where the
mathematics are taught, and young officers inftru£led in
the military art. It is nine miles eaft: of London. E.
Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 51. 30.
WORCESTER, in Latin Wigornia, the capital of a
county of England of the fame name, ftands on the
river Severn, but fo low that it can hardly be feen till
one is clofe upon it. It is fuppofed to be the Brano-
nium of Antoninus, the Branogenium of Ptolemy, and
to have been built by the Romans to awe the Britons
on the other fide of the Severn. It was made an epif-
copal fee about the year 680 by Sexulphus bifliop of
the Mercians ; but the prefent cathedral was begun by
Wulfton in the year 1084. The town hath been feve¬
ral times burnt down ; firft, in 1041, by Hardicanute,.
who alfo maffacred the citizens j fecondly, not long af¬
ter William Rufus’s time ; and a third time, when King
Stephen btfieged an4 took it. Here, in latter times,.
W O R [y
Worcefler. xvas fouglit that battle, in which Charles II. with his
' ,T" v~ Scots army, was defeated by Cromwell. In a garden,
near the fouth gate of the city, where the action was
hotteft, the bones of the flain are often dug up. It
had formerly ftrong walls and a caftle ; but thefe have
been demolilhed long ago. It is now a large city, the
directs broad and well paved, and fome of them
very regular and well built, particularly Foregate-
ftreet j fo that, in general it is a very agreeable place.
I he cathedral is a flately edifice, and among other mo¬
numents in it are thofe of King John, of Arthur, elder
brother to Henry VIll and of the countefs of Salis¬
bury, who gave occafion to the inflitution of the order
of the Garter. I here are feven or eight hofpitals in
and about the city 5 of which that built and endowed
by Rooert Berkley of Spetchley, Efq. is a very noble
one. Fhere is a fchool founded by Henry VIII. three
other fchools, and fix charity-fchools. The guildhall
and the workhoufe are (lately ftruaures. The churches,
St Nicholas and All-Saints, have been lately rebuilt,
and are very handfome edifices. The city carries on a
great trade ; for which it is chiefly indebted to its fitua-
tion upon the Severn. A prodigious number of people
are employed in and about it in the manufa&ure of
broad-cloth and gloves. The Welch inhabit a part of
it, and fpeak their own language. Its market is well
lupplied with provifions, corn, and cattle, and its quay
is much frequented by fhips. By a charter from James
I. it is governed by a mayor, fix aldermen, who are
judices of the peace, and chofen out of 24 capital citi¬
zens ; a fheriff, the city being a county of itfelf; a com¬
mon council, confiding of 48 other citizens, out of
which two chamberlains are yearly chofen ; a recorder,
town-clerk, two coroners, a fword-bearer, 13 conflables,’
and four ferjeants. at mace. Of the bifhops of this fee,
there have been, it is faid, one pope, four faints, feven
lord high-chancellors, 11 archbifhops, two lord treafu-
rers, one chancellor to the queen, one lord prefident of
Wales, and one vice-prefident. The city at prefent
gives title of earl and marquis to the duke of Beaufort.
W. Long. 1. 55. N. Lat. 52. 10.
WORCESTER, Edward Somerfet, Marquis of, was a
didinguifhed political chara&er in the time of Charles I.
by whom he was created earl of Glamorgan, while heir-
apparent to the marquis of Worceder. This nobleman
flouriihed chiefly in the reign of Charles I. and feems to
have been a mod zealous adherent to the caufe of that
unfortunate monarch, on whofe account it is faid that
he and his father waded an immenfe fum. Of this the
king was fo fenfible, that he granted to the earl a mod
extraordinary patent, the chief powers of which were,
to make him generaliflimo of three armies, and admiral
wdth nomination of his officers j to enable him to raife
money by felling his majedy’s woods, warddiips, cuf-
toms, and prerogatives; and to create by blank patents,
to be filled up at Glamorgan’s pleafure, from the rank
of marquis to baronet. If any thing, fays Lord Orfcrd,
could judify the delegation of fuch authority, befides his
majedy having lod all authority, when he conferred it,
it was the promife with which the king- concluded
of bedowing the princefs Elizabeth on Glamorgan’s
fon. This patent was gwen up by the marquis to the
houfe of peers after the redoration. He died not long
after that era, in 1667, after he had publiffied what
Lord Orford calls the following amazing piece of follv.
2
42 ] W o ft
“.A century of the names and fcantlings of fuch in- Wcircef6fr.
ventions, as at prefent I can call to mind to have tried ' _v  
and perfected, which (my former notes being lod) I
have, at the indance of a powerful friend, endeavoured
now in the year 1655, to thefe down in fuch a way
as may fufficiently indruft me to put any of them in
pradlice.”
Some of the inventions referred to in this work are
the following. A (hip-dedroying engine, a coach-dop-
pmg engine, a balance water-work, a bucket fountain,
an eboing and flowing cadle clock, a tinder-box pidol
a pocket ladder, a mod admirable way to raile weights’
a (lupendous water-work. For the lad contrivance the
marquis procured an a£t of parliament in 1662 for
the (ole benefit arifing from it, one-tenth of it being an-
propnated to Charles II. and his fucceffors.
In a manufcript addition to a copy of the Centurv 0f
Inventions, the duptndous or water-commanding engine
is de fen bed as bour.dlefs for height or quantiiy, requir¬
ing no external, or even additional help or force to be
f j rjC<rntinU^d inot’on> f5111 what intrinfically is af¬
forded from its own operation, nor yet the twentieth
part, thereof, and the engine confideth of the followino-
particulars. 1. A perfect counterpeife for what quanta
ty.foever of water. 2. A perteft countervail for what
height foever it is to be brought unto. 3. A primum
in°one, commanding both height and quantity, regula¬
tor-wife. 4. A vicegerent or countervail, fupplving the
place, and performing the full force of man wind
bead, or mill. 5. A helm or dern, with bit and reins
wherewith any child may guide, order, and controul
the whole operation. 6. A particular magazine for
water, according to the intended quantity or height of
water. 7. A place for the original fountain, or even
river to run into, and naturally of its own accord in¬
corporate itfelf with the rifing water, and at the very
bottom of the fame aqueduct, though never fo bio- or
high. 0
.Various and very oppofite opinions have been held
with regard to the title of this nobleman to be confider-
ed as a mechanical genius. Lord Orford has pronoun¬
ced his work an amazing piece of folly; and Mr Hume
(peaking of his political conduct, fays, “ that the kin^
judged, aright of this nobleman’s charaaer, appears
from his Century of Arts, or Scantling of Inventions,
. ,c‘L’s.,.a. ndlculous compound of lies, chimeras, and
impoffibihties, and (hows what might be expeaed from
fuch a man.” Hi/?, of England. It may be fairly
prefumed from the quotations now made, that neither
Lord Orford nor Mr Hume was qualified to judge of
the marquis’s work, otherwife a more temperate or a
more modified opinion would have been given. By
others, the author of the inventions has been regard¬
ed as one of the greateft mechanical geniufes, and is
to be confidered as the inventor of the (team-engine
w uch he denominates a (tupendous water-work. There
feems to be no reafon to fuppofe that any (team-engine
was ereaed by the marquis Mmfelf; but it is faid that
Captain Savary,. after reading the marq«is’s books
tm-d many experiments upon the power and force of
(team, and at lafl fell upon a method of anplying it to
rane water ; and havi.g bought up and deftroyed all
toe marquis’s books that could be got, claimed the
honour of the invention to himfelf, and obtained a pa¬
tent for it. v
The
WOR [ 743 ] W O R
Worcefter The marquis ot Wovcefter is fometimes confounded
W^ld John Tiptoft, earl of Worceder, a very accomplidi-
^ ' i ed literary charafter, who lived in the times of Henry
VI. and Edward IV. Being attached to Edward, he
abfconded during the fhort reftoration of Henry, and
being taken concealed in a tree in Waybridge forelt in
Huntitigdonfliire, he was brought to London, accufed
of cruelty in his adminiftration of Ireland, and con¬
demned and beheaded at the Tower in the year 1470.
This nobleman tranllated Cicero de Amicitia, fome
parts of Caefar’s Commentaries, and was the author of
feveral other works.
WORCESTERSHIRE, a county of England,
bounded by Warwickfhire on the eaft, by Gloucefter-
fhire on the fouth, by the counties of Hereford and Sa¬
lop on the weft, and on the north by Staffordfh.'re. Ac¬
cording to Templeman, it is 36 miles in length, 28 in
breadth, and about 130 in circumference, within which
it contains feven hundreds, and a part of two others, 11
market towns, of which three are boroughs, one city,
namely Worcejler, 152 parilhes, about 540,000 acres,
and 139,518 inhabitants.
This being an inland county, well cultivated, and
free from lakes, marfhes, er ftagnant waters, the air is
very fweet and wholefome all over it. The foil in ge¬
neral is very rich, producing corn, fruit, efpecially pears,
of which they make a great deal of perry ; hops and
pafture. The hills are covered with fheep, and the
meadows with cattle. Hence they have wool, cloth,
fluffs, butter, and cheefe in abundance. They are alfo
well fupplied with fuel, either wood or coal, and fait
from their brine pits and fait fprings. Of the laft they
have not only enough for themfelves, but export large
quantities by the Severn ; which noble river, to the
great convenience and emolument of the inhabitants,
runs from north to fouth through the very middle of the
country, enriching the foil, and yielding it plenty of fifti,
and an eafy expeditious conveyance of goods to and
from it. The other rivers by which it is watered are
the Stour, Avon, Teme, &c. It fends nine members
to parliament, viz. two for the county, two for the city
of Worcefter, two for Droitwich, two for Evelham, and
one for Bewdley ; and lies in the diocefe of Worcefter,
and Oxford circuit.
WORD, in language, an articulate found defigr.ed to
reprefent fome idea or notion. See Grammar and
Language. See alfo Logic, Part I. chap. i.
Word, or Watch-word, in military affairs, is fome
peculiar word or fentence, by which the foldiers know
and diftinguilh one another in the night, &c. and by
which fpies and defigning perfons are difeovered. It is
ufed alfo to prevent furprifes. The word is given out
in an army every night to the lieutenant or major-ge¬
neral of the day, who gives it to the majors of the
brigades, and they to the adjutants j who give it firft
to the field-officers, and afterwards to a ferjeant of
each company, who carry it to the fubalterns. In
garrifons it is given after the gate is ftmt to the town-
major, xvho gives it to the adjutants, and they to the
ferjeants.
Words of Command. See Exercise and Ma¬
nual.
Signals bij the Drum, made ufe of in ex ere [fing of the
, Army, injlead of the Word of Command, viz.
Signals ly the drum.
AJhort roll,
A flam,
To arms.
The march.
The quick march,
The point of war,
The retreat,
Drum ceajing,
Two Jhort rolls.
The dragoon march,
The grenadier march,
The troop,
The long roll,
The grenadier march,
The preparative.
The general,
Two long rolls,
Operations.
To caution.
To perform any diftin£l thing.
To form the line or battalion.
To advance, except when intend¬
ed for a falute.
To advance quick.
To march and charge.
To retreat.
To halt.
To perform the flank firing.
To open the battalion.
To form the column.
To double divifions.
To form the fquare.
To reduce the fquare to the co ¬
lumn.
To make ready and fire.
To ceafe firing.
To bring or lodge the colours.
Word
WORK, in the manege. To work a horfe, is to
exercife him at pace, trot, or gallop, and ride him at
the manege. To work a horfe upon volts, or head and
haunches in or between two heels, is to paffage him, or
make him go fidew ife upon parallel lines.
To Work, in fea language, is to direct the move¬
ments of a (hip, by adapting the fails to the force and
diredlion of the wind. See Seamanship.
WORK, Carpenters, Clock, Crown, Field, Fire, Fret,
Grotefque, Horn, Mofaic. See the feveral articles, to¬
gether with Fortification and Pyrotechny.
WoRK-Houfe, a place where indigent, vagrant, and
idle people, are fet to work, and fupplied with food and
clothing.
Work-houfes are of two kinds, or at leaft are em¬
ployed for two different purpofes. Some are ufed as pri-
fons for vagrants or ffurdy beggars, who are there con¬
fined and compelled to labour for the benefit of the fo-
ciety which maintains them ; whilft others, fometimes
called poor-houfes, are charitable afylums for fuch indi¬
gent perfons as through age or infirmity are unable to
fupport themfelves by their own labour. The former-
kind of vvork-houfe, when under proper management,
may be made to ferve the beft of purpofes •, of the latter
we are acquainted with none which entirely commands
our approbation.
To make confinement in a work-houfe operate to the
correction of vagrants and diforderly perfons (and if it
produce not this efftCl it can hardly be confidered as a
beneficial inftitution), the prifoners ffiould be (hut up in
feparate cells, and compelled to labour for their own
fubfiftence. A crew of thieves and vagabonds affociat-
ing with each other is a hell upon earth, in which every
individual is hardened in his crimes by the countenance
and converfation of his companions-, and wretches who,
when at liberty, choofe to beg or fteal rather than to
earn a comfortable livelihood by honeft induftry, will
fubmit to any punilhment which a humane ovetfrer can
infliCt rather than work for the benefit of others. No
punifliment indeed will compel a vagrant to labour. He
may affume the appearance of it, but he will make no
progrefs 5 and the pretext of ficknefs or weaknefs is ever
at hand for an excufe. Hence it is that thieves and
{trumpets
W O R
IVork-
lioufe.
ftrumpets arc too often difmifled from work-houfes and
bridewells ten times more the children of the devil than
when they entered them.
To remedy thefe evils, we can think of no better me¬
thod than to confine each prifoner in a cell by himfelf,
and to furnifh him daily with fuch an allowance of
bread and water as may prelerve him from immediate
death ; for the only compuliion to make fuch men work
ferioufly is the fear of want, and the only way to reform
them is to leave them to their own meditations on the
confequences of their pall conduft. There are furely
very few perfons, if any, whofe aveifion from labour
would not be conquered by the pinchings of hunger and
the certain profpeft of perithing by famine j and it is to
be hoped that there are not many fo totally divefted of
every latent principle of virtue as not to be brought by
fuch folitude to a due fenfe of their former wickednefs.
Should one or two, however, be occafionally found fo
very obdurate as to fuffer themfelves to perilh rather
than work, their deaths would prove a falutary beaeon
to others, and their blood would be on their own
heads; for we have the exprefs command of St Paul him¬
felf, that “ if any will not work, neither (hould he eat.”
No doubt it would be proper that the meditations of
vagabonds confined in a work-houfe fhould be directed
by the private admonitions of a pious and intelligent
clergyman ; but it is not every clergyman who is quali¬
fied to difcharge fuch a duty. If he be aftuated by a
zeal not according to knowledge, or if he have not with
equal care ftudied human nature and the word of God,
his admonitions will be more likely to provoke the pro¬
fane ridicule of his auditor, and harden him in his wic¬
kednefs, than to excite in his breaft fuch forrow for his
fins as {hall “ bring forth fruits meet for repentance.”
To render the inftruftion of thieves and vagrants of any
ufe, it muft be accurately adapted to the cafe of each
individual 5 and however excellent it may be in itfelf,
it will not be liftened to unlefs offered at feafons of un¬
common ferioufnefs, which the inftru&or ftiould there¬
fore carefully obferve.
That fuch wholefome feverity as this would often re¬
form the inhabitants of work-houfes, appears extremely
probable from the effefts of a fimilar treatment of com¬
mon proftitutes mentioned by Lord Kames in his
Sketches of the Hiftory of Man : “ A number of thofe
wretches were in Edinburgh confined in a houfe of cor-
reftion, on a daily allowance of threepence, of which
part was embezzled by the fervants of the houfe. Pinch¬
ing hunger did not reform their manners; for being ab-
folutely idle, they encouraged each other in vice, wait¬
ing impatiently for the hour of deliverance. Mr Stir¬
ling the fuperintendant, with the confent of the magi-
itrates, removed them to a clean houfe ; and, inftead of
money, appointed for each a pound of oatmeal daily,
with fait, water, and fire for cooking. Relieved now
from diftrefs, they longed for comfort. What would
they not give for milk or ale ? Work (fays he) will pro¬
cure you plenty. To fome who offered to fpin, he gave
flax and wheels, engaging to pay them half the price
pf their yarn, retaining the other half for the materials
furniffied. The fpinners earned about ninepence week¬
ly ; a comfortable addition to what they had before.
T he reft undertook to fpin, one after another $ and be¬
fore the end of the firft quarter they were all of them in¬
tent upon work. It was a branch of his plan to fet free
I
[ 744 1
W O R
Work-
houfe.
fuch as merited that favour $ and fome of them appeared
to be fo thoroughly reformed as to be in no danger of a
relapfe.” —y—«
Work-houfes ere&ed as charitable afylums appear to
us, in every view that we can take of them, as inliitu-
tions which can ferve no good purpofe. Economy is
the great motive w-hich inclines people to this mode of
providing for the poor. 'I here is comparatively but a
veryfmall number of mankind in any country fo aged
and infirm as not to be able to contribute, in fome de¬
gree, to their fubfiftence by their own labour; and in
iuch houles it is thought that proper w’ork may be pro¬
vided for them, fo that the public ftiall have nothing to
give in chanty but what the poor are abfolutely unable
t<5 procure for themfelves. It is imagined likewife, that
numbers collefted at a common table, can be maintain¬
ed at lefs expence than in feparate houfes j and foot fol-
diers are given for an example, wEo could not live on
their pay if they did not mefs together. But the cafes
are not parallel. “ Soldiers having the management of
their pay, can club for a bit of meat; but as the inha¬
bitants of a poor-houfe are maintained by the public,
the fame quantity of provifions muft be allotted to each.
The confequence is what might be expefted : the bulk
of them referve part of their vi&uals for purchafing ale
or fpirits. It is vain to expert work from them : poor
■wretches void of fhame will never work ferioufly, where
the profit accrues to the public, not to themfelves.
Hunger is the only effeftual means for compelling fuch
perfons to work *.” ^ Karnes'
The poor, therefore, {hould be fupported in their Sketches,"
own houfes ; and to fupport them properly, the firft
thing to be done is, to eftimate wdiat each can earn by
his own labour j for as far only as that falls ftiort of
maintenance, is there room for charity. In repairing
thofe evils which fociety did not or could not prevent*,
it ought to be careful not to counteraft the wife pur-
pofes of nature, nor to do more than to give the poor
a fair chance to work for themfelves. The prefent di¬
ftrefs muft be relieved, the fick and the aged provided
for; but the children muft be inftrufted; and labour,
not alms, offered to thofe who have fome ability to
work, however fmall that ability may be. They will
be as induflrious as poflible, becaufe they work for
themfelves •, and a weekly fum of charity under their
own management will turn to better account than in a
poor-houfe under the dire&ion of mercenaries. Not a
penny of it will be laid out on fermented liquors, unlefs
perhaps as a medicine in ficknefs. Nor does fuch low
fair call for pity to thofe who can afford no better. Ale
makes no part of the maintenance of thofe who, in many
parts of Scotland, live by the fweat of their brows 5 and
yet the perfon who {hould banifh ale from a charity
work-houfe, would be exclaimed againft as hard-heart¬
ed, and even void of humanity.
That fuch a mode of fupporting the poor in their
own houfes is prafticable, will hardly admit of a dif-
pute j for it has been aftually put in pradice in the city
of Hamburgh ever fince the year 1788. At that pe¬
riod fuch revenues as had till then been expended in
alms by the feveral church-wardens, and thofe of which
the adminiftration had been conneded with the work-
houfe, were united under one adminiftration with fuch
fums as were colleded from private benevolence. The
city was divided into fixty diftrids, containing each an
equal
W O R
t 745 ]
W O R
Work-
houfe.
equal number of poor j and over tbefe 180 overfeers
were appointed. Actual relief was the firft objefl j but
J at the very moment that this provifion was fecured,
meafures were taken to prevent any man from receiving
a (hilling which he could have been able to earn for him-
felf. By thefe methods, which our limits will not permit
ns to (late, the overfeers were able to make a calcula¬
tion tolerably exaft of what each pauper wanted for
bare fubfiftence, in addition to the fiuits of his own la¬
bour. A flax-yarn-fpinning manufafturc was eftablilh-
ed, in which the yarn is paid for, not by its weight,
but by its meafuie. The clean flax is fold to the poor at
a low price, and a certain meafure of yarn again bought
from them at 30 per cent, above the ufual price; fo
that the overfeers are fure that all the yarn fpun by the
poor will be brought into their office. Every pauper
brings with him a book in which the quantity delivered
is carefully noted down, which furniffies the overfeers
with a continual average of the ftate of indaftry among
their poor.
As foen as this inftitution was eftabliffied, the over¬
feers went through their diftridls, and alked, in all fuch
manfions as could be fuppofed to harbour want, if the
inhabitants flood in need of fupport 1 The queftion to
all fuch poor as wiflied for relief, and were able to fpin,
w'as, Whether they did earn by their work is. 6d. a-
w>eek ? for experience had taught the inhabitants of
Hamburgh, that many poor live upon that fum ; and
they knew enough of their poor to fuppofe, that is. 6d.
avowed earning was equal to fomething more. If the
anfwer was affirmative, the pauper flood not in need of
weekly afliflance. If it was negative, work was given
him, which, by being paid 30 per cent, above its value,
afforded him is. 6d. a-week eafily, if he was even an
indifferent hand. The far more frequent cafes were
partial inability by age, or weaknefs, or want of fkill.
For poor of the latter defcription a fchool was opened,
and in three months time the bufinefs was eaflly learnt.
During that time, the pauper got firff 2S. a-week, and
every week afterwards 2d. lefs, till in the tvrelfth week
he got nothing at all but his earnings, and was difmif-
fed, with a wheel and a pound of flax gratis.
The quantity of work which difabled poor were ca¬
pable of doing in a week w-as eafily and accurately af-
certained by a week’s trial in the fpinning-fchool. The
refult was produced weekly before appointed members
of the committee, and the fum which the poor could
earn was noted down in their fmall books. The over-
feer was directed to pay them weekly what their earn¬
ings fell fhort of is. 6d. in every fuch week, when it
appeared from their books that they had earned to the
known extent of their abilities. From that moment ap¬
plications became lefs frequent *, and the committee had
an infallible ftandard for diftinguiffiing real want: for
whenever the pauper, if in health (if not, he wTas pecu¬
liarly provided for), had not earned what he could,
then he had either been lazy, or had found more lucra¬
tive wTork ; in either cafe, he was not entitled to a re¬
lief for that wreek, whatever he might be for the fol¬
lowing.
This mode of providing for the poor, which attrafted
the notice and obtained the eulogium of the minifter
and the Britifh houfe of commons, has for fix years
been in Hamburgh attended writh the happieft confe-
quences. In the ftreets of that city a beggar is rarely
Vol. XX. Part II.
Work-
houfe
to be leen, whilft thofe who ftand in need of the chari
table contributions of the rich, are much more comfort
ably, as well as at much lefs expence, maintained at Wormin
home, with their children about them, than they could < ■—y—
be in work-houfes, under the management of mercenary
overfeers. For a fuller account of this judicious inftitu¬
tion, we muft refer the readers to Voght’s Account oi
the Management of the Poor in Hamburgh, fince the
year 1788, in a Letter to fome Friends of the Poor in
Great Britain.
WORLD, the affemblage of parts which compofe
the globe of the earth. See Geography and Astro¬
nomy.
WORM, in Gunnery, a fcrew of iron, to be fixed on
the end of a rammer, to pull out the wad of a firelock,
carabine, or piftol, being the fame with the wad-hook,
only the one is more proper for fmall arms, and the
other for cannon.
Worm, in Chemijlry, is a long winding pipe, pla¬
ced in a tub of water, to cool and condenfe the vapours
in the diftillation of fpirits.
BUnd-WoRM, or SIow-JVorm. See Anguis, Er-
PETOLOGY Index.
Earth-WoRM. See Lumbricus, Helminthology
Index.
GIow-Worm. See Lampyris, Entomology Index.
Silk-WORM. See Silk, N° 5.
WORMS, Vermes. See Helminthology and
CONCHOLOGY.
Worms, in the human body. See Medicine, N°
4°7-
Worms, in hoires.7 See Farriery.
Worms, in dogs. 3
Worms for bait. See Fishing.
Worms, an ancient, large, and famous city of Ger¬
many, in the palatinate of the Rhine, with a biffiop’s
fee, whofe biffiop is a fovereign and prince of the em¬
pire. It is a free and imperial city, and the inhabitants
are Proteftants. In the war of 1689 it was taken by
the French, who almoft reduced it to allies.—The bi¬
ffiop afterwards built a new palace in it ■, and it is fa¬
mous for a diet held here in 1521, at which Luther af- *■
fifted in perfon. The Proteftants have lately built a
handfome church, where Luther is reprefented as ap¬
pearing at the diet. It is noted for the excellent wine
that grows in the neighbourhood, ■which they call our
Lady's milk. In the campaign of I743> Xing Geo. II.
took up his quarters in this city, and lodged at the bi-
fliop’s palace after the battle of Dettingen. It is feated
on the weftem bank of the Rhine, 14 miles north-weft
of Heidelberg, 20 fouth-eaft of Mentz, and 32 fouth-
weft of Franckfort. E. Long. 8. 29. N. Lat. 49. 32.
WORMING of DOGS. All dogs have certain
firings under their tongues, by molt called a ’worm;
this muft be taken out when they are about two months
old, with the help of a ftiarp knife to flit it, and a ffioe-
maker’s awl to raife it up} you muft be careful to take
all out, or elfe your pains is to little purpofe ; for till
then he will be hardly ever fat and right, in regard the
worm or firing will grow foul and troublefome, and
hinder his reft and eating. This cruel operation is ge¬
nerally recommended as a preventive of madnefs in
dogs, or at leaf! as difabling them, if mad, from biting
in that condition.
In this operation, of which the vulgar account is gi-
5 B ven,
W O JR [746] WOR
ven above, which we have juftly denominated a cruel one,
it is not a firing that is removed, but the du& by which
the faliva is conveyed from the gland in which it is fe¬
rreted to the mouth for the purpofe of mixing with the
food and promoting its deglutition and digeftion. Now
this operation by no means prevents the animal from
biting, nor can it, in our opinion, obflrudl the flow of
the faliva by which the dreadful difeafe hydrophobia is
communicated.
WORMIUS, Glaus, a learned Danifh phyfician,
born in 1588 at Arhufen in Jutland. After beginning
his ftudies at home, he ftudied at feveral foreign univer-
fities, and travelled to various parts of Europe for im¬
provement. He returned to his native country in 1613,
and was made profeffor of the belles lettres in the uni-
verfity of Copenhagen. In 1615, he was tranflated to
the chair of the Greek profeffor ; and in 1624 to the
profefforfhip of phyfic, which he held to his death.
Thefe occupations did not hinder him from pra&ifing in
his profeflion, and from being the falhionable phyfician:
the king and court of Denmark always employed him ;
hnd Chriftian IV. as a recompenfe for his fervices, con¬
ferred on him a canonry of Lunden. He publifhed
fome pieces on fubje&s relating to his profeflion, feveral
works in defence of Ariftotle’s philofophy, and feveral
concerning the antiquities of Denmark and Norway j
for which latter he is principally regarded, as they are
very learned, and contain many curious particulars. He
died in 1654.
WORMWOOD. See Artemisia, Botany /«-
dex.
WORSHIP of God (cultus Dei), amounts to the
fame with what we otherwife call religion. This wor¬
ship confifls in paying a due refpedl, veneration, and
homage to the Deity, under a certain expectation of re¬
ward. And this internal refpeft, &c. is to be fhown
and teflified by external adts; as prayers, facrifices,
thankfgivings, &c.
The Quietifls, and fome other myflic divines, fet
afide not only all ufe of external worfhip, but even the
confideration of rewards and punifhments. Yet even
the heathens had a notion that God did not require us
to ferve him for nought : “ Dii quamobrem colendi lint
(fays Cicero), non intelligo, nullo nee accepto ab illis
nec fperato bono.”
The fchool-divines divide worfhip into divers kinds,
viz. /atria, that rendyed to God; and idololatria,
that rendered to idols or images. To which the Roma-
nifts add, dulia, that rendered to faints ; and hyperdulia,
that to the Virgin. Some theological writers have ob-
ferved, that the Greek word, Tr^rxvnu, to worjbip, is
not defcriptive only of the honour which is appropriated
to God, but is indifferently ufed to fignify the honour
and refpeft which are paid to fuperiors of all kinds in
heaven, or on earth. Accordingly, they have diflin-
guifhed between civil and religious worfhip.
That it is the duty of man to worfhip his Maker, has
been fufficiently proved under other articles (fee Pray¬
er ; and Theology, N° 40—45-)* It is n°t indeed
eafily to be conceived how any one who has tolerably
juft notions of the attributes and providence of God, can
poffibly negleft the duty of private worfhip; and
though we have admitted in the laft of the two articles
referred to, that public worfhip does not feem to be en¬
joined in that fyfiem which is called the religion of na¬
ture, yet it is moft exprefsly commanded by the religion Worfeip.
of Christ, and will be regularly performed by every 4——y——
one who reflefts on its great utility.
As the illiterate vulgar cannot form to themfelves
correft notions of the divine providence and attributes,
it is obvious, that without the inftitution of public wor¬
fhip, they would never think of worfliipping God at all,
unlefs perhaps occafionally, when under the preffure of
fome fevere calamity ; but occafional worfhip, the off-
fpring of compulfion, could have little of the refigned
fpirit of true devotion. Ignorant, however, as the low-
eft of the vulgar are, and neceffarily muft be, it cannot
be denied, that in moft Chriftian countries, perhaps in
all, they are more accurately acquainted with the firft
principles of religion, and the laws of morality, than
even the leaders of barbarous nations. This fuperiority
is doubtlefs owing in fome meafure to their accefs to the
Sacred Scriptures, but much more, we are perfuaded, to
the inftru6lion which they receive in the aflemblies
which they frequent for public worfhip. If this be ad¬
mitted, public worfhip may be eafily proved to be the
duty of every individual of the community : For were
thofe, who may be fuppofed to Hand in no need either
of the contagion of fociety to kindle their own devotion,
or of the preaching of a clergyman to inftruft them in
the doftrines and precepts of the gofpel, to “ forfake,
on thefe accounts, the affembling themfelves together,
as the manner of fome is,” religious affemblies and pub¬
lic worfhip wTould very quickly fall into univerfal difufe-
Man is an animal prone to imitation ; and every order
in fociety is ambitious of treading in the footfleps of the
order immediately above it. Were the wife and the
good, therefore, permitted to abfent themfelves from the
affemblies inftituted for the public worfhip of the Crea¬
tor and Redeemer of the world, others would quickly
follow their example} impelled to it not only by this
univerfal propenfity, but by the additional motive of
wifhing to appear both to the world and to themfelves
as wife and as good as their privileged neighbours. The
confequence is obvious: one man would flay from
church with the ferious intention perhaps of employing
the Lord’s day in private devotion and religious ftudy.^
another, following his example, would abfent himfelf
upon the fame pretence, but would in reality wafte the
day in dozing indolence or in fecret fenfuality. For
thefe and other reafons which might be eafily afligned,
no fincere Chriftian will think himfelf at liberty to dif-
pute a praflice enjoined by the infpired preachers of
his religion, coeval with the inftitution, and retained
by every feft into which it has fince been unhappily di¬
vided.
As Chriftian worfhip confifts of prayers and praifes,.
it has been a matter of fome debate whether it is moll
properly performed by preconcerted forms or liturgies,
or by extemporaneous addreffes to the Almighty. Both
thefe modes have their advantages and diladvantages ‘r
and by the facred writers neither of them is prefcribed
in oppofition to the other.
The advantages of a liturgy are, that it prevents ab-
furd, extravagant, or impious addreffes to God, which
the folly or enthufiafm of individuals muft always be in
danger of producing \ it gives the congregation an op¬
portunity of joining in the prayers which are put up for
them, which they cannot poflibly do in a feries of ex*
temporaneous petitions, fince before they can affent to
any.
W O R
[ 747 1
W O T
Worfliip,
Wort.
any one of tliefe and make it their own, their attention
is neceffarily called away to that which fucceeds it; and
it relieves the clergyman from the labour of compofi-
tion, which feems incompatible with that fervour which
conftitutes the fpirit of devotion.
The difadvantages of a fixed liturgy, which are the
recommendations of extemporary prayer, are principally
two. The forms compofed in one age mult, by the un¬
avoidable change of language, circumftances, and opi¬
nions, become in fome degree unfit for another ; and
the perpetual repetition of the fame form of words is
very apt to produce inattentive laflitude in the congrega¬
tion. Would the clergy of the church of England take
that liberty which is allowed them in the bidding prayer
before fermon, perhaps the fervice of that church would
unite in itfelf all the advantages both of liturgic and ex¬
temporary worlhip. We have only to add on this fub-
]eSt, that public prayers, whether precompofed or not,
ought to be compendious; that they ought to exprefs
juft conceptions of the Divine attributes; recite fuch
wants as the congregation are likely to feel, and no
other ; that they ought to contain as few controverted
propofitions as poflible ; and that, if it can be done
without offence, the pompous ftyle of t/ie Jiate ftiould
be laid afide in our prayers for the king and all that
are in authority ; becaufe in every aft which carries the
mind to God, human greatnefs muft be annihilated.
WORT, the infufion of malt, of which beer is made.
See Brewing. The ufes of this infufion in common af¬
fairs are well known. By Dr M‘Bride it has lately
been found to have a ftrong antifeptic virtue, and to be
ufeful in preventinc; the fcurvy and other difeafes to
which failors are liable; this was confirmed by Cap¬
tain Cook in his voyages. See Means of Preferving the
Health of Seamen.
It is of great importance to the manufafturer to be
able to afcertain with facility and precifion the real
ftrength of worts, or the quantity of faccharine matter
contained in the infufion. I his is accomplilhed by de¬
termining the fpecific gravity by means of inftruments,
which, from the purpofe to which they are applied, have
obtained the namd of faccharometers. But as thefe in¬
ftruments, from the very nature of the material of which
they are conftrufted, are liable to confiderable change,
the refults which they afford cannot always be depended
on. With the view of obviating thefe inconveniencies,
the patent areometrical beads have been invented by
Mrs Lovi of Edinburgh. We have already noticed
thefe beads, on account of their accuracy, fimplicity,
and facility of application for afcertaining the fpecific
gravity, or the real ftrength and value, of fpirituous li¬
quors. See vol. xix. p. 599. ; and we now recommend
them with greater confidence, from having had oppor¬
tunities of knowing that they are capable of a more ex¬
tended application, as in the manufafture of acids, and
falls of different kinds; to afcertain the ftrength of
acids, or that of faline folutions in bleaching ; to deter¬
mine the ftrength of liquids employed in the different
proceffes of calico printing and dyeing, and not only for
the purpofe of examining the ftrength of the acids em¬
ployed, but alfo particularly to afcertain the denfity or
fpecific gravity of the colouring matters which are ufed
in thefe arts, fo that the fame degree of lhade required
may be always obtained. It has been fuggefted, that thefe
beads might be conveniently employed in determining
the ftrength of mineral waters, which, it is well known,
vary confiderably at different feafons of the year. .
As the patent beads are conftrufted on the lame prin¬
ciple from Boo, the fpecific gravity of alcohol, to 2000,
which is double the fpecific gravity of water ; and as
they are divided into different feries, each of which in¬
cludes a range of fpecific gravities applicable to the par¬
ticular fluids, the denfity or ftrength of which is re¬
quired, we have no hefitation in afferting that they will
be found extremely convenient and ufeful to all manu-
fafturers and dealers, who wifh to afcertain with accu¬
racy the real ftrength and value of liquids.
It has been objefted to the ufe of thefe beads, that
they require a longer time than other inftruments in ufing
them. The fame objeftion has been made to the intro-
duftion of other new inftruments, the application o!
w’hich frequent ufe has afterwards rendered familiar and
eafy. We have had opportunities of knowing that this
objeftion is completely obviated, by thofe who have
been accuftomed to ufe the beads. 1 hey find that they
can determine the fpecific gravity of a liquid by means
of the beads with the fame facility, and in as fhort a
time, as with any other inftrument.
WOTTON, Sir Henry, an eminent writer, was
the fon of Thomas Wotton, Efq. and was born in 1568.
He ftudied for fome time at New-college, Oxford,
whence he removed to Queen*s-college, where he made
a great progrefs in logic and philofophy ; wrote a tra¬
gedy for the ufe of that college, called Tancredo; and
afterwards received the degree of mafter of arts. After
this, leaving the univerfity, he travelled into France,
Germany, and Italy ; and having fpent about nine years
abroad, he returned to England, and became fecretary
to Robert earl of Effex, with wdiom he continued till
that earl was apprehended for high-treafon. He then
retired to Florence, w7here he became knowrn to the
the grand duke of Tufcany, wTho fent him privately with
letters to James VI. king of Scotland, under the name
of Ottavio Baldly to inform that king of a defign againft
his life. Some months after he went back to Florence;
but King James coming to the poffeffion of the crown of
England, Mr Wotton returned home, was knighted by
his majefty, and fent ambaffador to the republic of \ e-
nice ; and afterwards was employed in many other em-
baffies to that and other courts ; but the only reward he
obtained for thefe fervices was his having the provofHhip
of Eton conferred upon him about the year 1623, which
he kept till his death, which happened in 1639. After
his deceafe fome of his manufcripts and. printed trafts
Were publifhed together in a volume, intitled, Reliquitc
Wottoniance.
Wotton, Dr William, a learned divine and writer,
was the fon of Mr Henry Wotton, B. D. reftor of
Wrentham, in Suffolk, where he was born in 1666.
He was educated by his father, a gentleman well Ikilled
in the learned languages ; under whom he made fuch
amazing proficiency, that at five years of age it is faid
he could render feveral chapters in the gofpels out of
Latin and Greek, and many pfalms in Hebrew, into his
mother tongue. When he was very young, he remem¬
bered the whole of almoft every difcourfe he bad heard,
and often furprifed a preacher by repeating his fermon
to him. He was admitted into Catharine-hall in Cam¬
bridge fome months before he was ten years old ; when
the progrefs he made in learning in that univerfity en-
5 B 2 gaged
Wmt,
Wotton.
Wot ton,
Wounds.
*
Wounds
which are
necefl’arily
mortal.
W O U [748
gaged Dr Duport, then mafter of Magdalen college,
and dean of Peterborough, to write an elegant copy of
Latin verfes in his praife. In 1679 he took the degree
of bachelor of arts when he was but twelve years and
five months old ; and the winter following he was in¬
vited to London by Dr Gilbert Burnet, then preacher
at the Rolls, who introduced him to moft of the learned
men in that city, and particularly to Dr William Lloyd,
bifhop of St Afaph j to whom he recommended himfelf
by repeating to him one of his fermons, as Dr Bumet
had engaged he fhould. In 1691 he commenced bache¬
lor of divinity. The fame year Bilhop Lloyd gave him
the finecure of Llandrillo, in Denbighlhire. He was
afterwards made chaplain to the earl of Nottingham,
1 rn/r-jCiretary ^^ate’ W^° Pre^entcd him to the reftory
of Middleton Keynes, in Bucks, and to whom he dedi¬
cated his Refleaions upon Ancient and Modem Learn-
I7°5> Bifhop Burnet gave him a prebend in
the church of Salifhury ; and in 1707, Archbifhop Te-
. on prefen ted him with the degree of doftor of divi-
inty: but in 1714, the difficulties he laboured under
with refpeft to his private fortune, obliged him to retire
into South Wales, where he was treated with great
-vindnefs and humanity by the gentlemen of that coun-
try • and wrote there the “ Memoirs of the Cathedral
Churches of St David’s and Landaff,” and his “ Mif-
cellaneous Difcourfes relating to the Traditions and
Uiages of the Scribes and Pharifees j” which were af¬
terwards printed. He died in 1726. This great man
was remarkable for his humanity and friendlinefs of tem¬
per ; the narrownefs of a party fpirit never broke in up¬
on any of his fnendfhips j and his time and abilities were
at the ervice of any perfon who was making advances
m real learning He wrote, befides the above works,
J.‘ ^ Hmory of Rome. 2. A Defence of his Reflec-
110ns upon Ancient and Modern Learning. 3. A Dif-
courfe concerning the Languages of Babel. 4. Advice
to a young Student, with a Method of Study for the
firlt four ^ ears 5 and other learned pieces.
WOUNDS, in Surgery, have been divided into
Jtmple, contufed or lacerated, and gun-Jhot.
. °f S/m/ler Wounds.—The firft thing to be confidered
m the infpeftion of a wound is, whether it be likely to
prove mortal or not. This knowledge can only be had
from, anatomy, by which the furgeon will be able to de-
termine what parts are injured j and, from the offices
which thefe parts are calculated to perform, whether the
human frame can fubfift under fuch injuries. It is not
however, eafy for the moft expert anatomift always to
prognofticate the event wdth certainty ; but this rule he
ought always to lay down to himfelf, to draw the moft
favourable prognofis the cafe will bear, or even more
than the rules of his art will allow. This is particular-
y incumbent on him in fea-engagements, where the
fen ten ce of death is executed as foon as pronounced, and
the miferable patient is thrown alive into the fea, upon
the lurgeon’s declaring his wound to be mortal. There
are, befides, many inftances on record, where wounds
have healed, which the moft Ikilful furgeons have deem¬
ed mortal. The following wounds may be reckoned
I. Thofe which penetrate the cavities of the heart,
and all thofe wounds of the vifcera where the large
b ood-veuels are opened j becaufe their fituation will
] w o u
not admit of proper applications to reftrain the flux of Wounds,
blood. t
2. Thofe which entirely cut off the paffage of the
nervous influence through the body. Such are wounds
of the brain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and fpinal
marrow. Wounds likewife of the fmall blood-veflels
within the brain are attended with great danger, from
the effufed fluids prefling upon the brain. Nor is there
lefs danger where the nerves which tend to the heart are
wounded, or entirely divided j for, after this, it is im-
poffible for the heart to continue its motion.
3. All wounds which entirely deprive the animal of
the faculty of breathing.
4. Thofe wounds which interrupt the courfe of the
chyle to the heart j fuch are wounds of the receptacle of
the chyle, thoracic du6t, and larger la&eals, &c.
5. There are other wounds which prove fatal if ne-
glefted and left to nature : fuch are wounds of the lar¬
ger external blood-veflels, which might be remedied by
ligature. Wounds of fuch parts generally prove fatal j
and though a few inftances may have occurred where
people have recovered after them, yet they are al¬
ways to be confidered as extremely dangerous. Por¬
tions of the brain have been deftroyed, and wounds have
been made into it, and the patients have lived. It is
poffible, too, that the thoracic dutt might be wounded
and the patient live j Mr A. Cooper having ftiown, in
a very ingenious paper in the Medical Records and Re-
fearches, that it may become obftrufled, and the chyle
conveyed into the fyftem by anaftomofing lympha¬
tics.
In examining wounds, the next confideration is, whe-Syniptoms
ther the parts injured are fuch as may be fuppofed to?f"’.0unds
induce dangerous fymptoms, either, immediately or at
fome period during the courfe of the cure. In order tob^dy.0 ^
proceed with any degree of certainty, it is neceflary to
be w'ell acquainted with thofe fymptoms which attend
injuries of the different parts of the body. If the fkin
and part of the cellular fubftance are only divided, the
firft effe&s are an effufion of blood $ the lips of the
wound retraft, become tumefied, red and inflamed,,
leaving a gap of confiderable widenefs according to the 3
length and deepnefs of the wound. If a very confider- Of wounds
able portion of fkin and cellular fubftance is divided, a0^tl,eflcin
flight fever feizes the patient •, the effufion of blood in and c[llu-
the mean time flops, and the wound is partly filled upftarnc^.~
with a cake of coagulated blood. Below this cake, the
fmall veil els pour forth a clear liquor, which in a fhort
time is converted into pus (fee the articles Pus and Mu-
cys). Below this pus granulations of newT flefh arife,
the cake of coagulated blood loofens, a newr fkin covers
the place where the wound was, and the whole is heal¬
ed up ; and there only remains a mark, called a cica¬
trix or /car, fhowing where the injury had been re¬
ceived.
All wounds are accompanied with a confiderable de- of the m\ic
gree of pain, efpecially when the inflammation comescles.
on, though the divifion reaches no farther than the fkin
and cellular fubftance. If the mufcular fibres are di¬
vided, the pain is much greater, becaufe the found part
of the mufcle is ftretched by the contra&ion of the
divided part and the adftion of the antagonift mufcle,
which it is now lefs fitted to bear. The wound alfo
gaps much more than where the cellular fubflance is
alone
Of the ar
teries.
\v o u
Wounds, alone divided, infomucb that, if left to itfelf,
 V will cover the mufcular fibres, without any intervention
of cellular fubftance ; and not only a very unfightly ci¬
catrix remains, but the ufe of the mufcle is in fome mea-
fure loft.—If the mufcle happens to be totally divided,
its fibres retraft to a very confiderable diftance j and un-
lefs proper methods be taken to bring them into contaft,
c the ufe of it is ever afterwards loft.
If by a wound any confiderable artery happens to be
divided, the blood flows out with great velocity, and
by ftartsj the patient foon becomes faint with lofs of
blood ; nor does the haemorrhagy flop until he faints
away altogether ; and if as much vis vitte ftill remains
as is fufficient to renew the operations of life, he reco¬
vers after fome time, and the wound heals up as ufual.
The part of the artery which is below' the wound in the
mean time becomes ufelefs, fo that all the inferior part
of the limb would be deprived of blood, W'ere it not
that the fmall branches fent off from the aitery above
the-wounded place become enlarged, and capable of
carrying on the circulation. Nature alfo, after a won¬
derful manner, often produces new veffels from the fu-
perior extremity of the divided artery, by which the cir¬
culation is carried on as formerly. The confequences of
fuch a profufe haemorrhagy may be, however, very dan¬
gerous to the patient, by inducing extreme debility, or
an univerfal dropfy. This great haemorrhagy happens
efpecially wdiere the artery is partially divided ; becaufe
then the veffel cannot contract in fuch a manner as to
clofe the orifice : however, if the wound is but fmall,
the blood gets into the cellular fubftance, fwelling up
the member to an extreme degree, forming what is cal¬
led a diffufed aneuriftn. Thus the haemorrhagy foon
flops externally, but great mifchief is apt to flow from
the confinement of the extravafated blood, from bring¬
ing on exterior fuppuration among the mufcles and
bones; and thus not only the ufe of the limb is entirely
loft, but the patient is brought into great danger of his
life.
Wounds of the ligaments, nerves, and tendons, are
likewdfe attended with bad confequences. When a nerve
is entirely divided, the pain is but trifling, though the
eonfequences are often dangerous. If the nerve is large,
all the parts to which it is diftributed below the wound
immediately lofe the power of motion and fenfation.
This, however, takes place only when all or the great-
eft part of the nerves belonging to a particular part are
divided. If the fpinal marrow, fqr inftance, be divided
near the head, the parts below foon lofe their fenfation
irrecoverably j or if the bundle of nerves pafling out of
the axilla be divided or tied, fenfation in the greateft
part of the arm below will be loft. But though a nerve
Ihould be divided, and a temporary palfy be produced,
it may reunite, and perform its former functions. If a
nerve be wounded only, inftead of being divided, the
worft fymptoms frequently enfue.
Wounds which penetrate the cavities of the thorax
aiK* ^are always exceedingly dangerous, becaufe there is
fcarce a poflibility of all the vifcera efcaping unhurt. A
wound is known to have penetrated the cavity of the
thorax principally by the difcharge of air from it at each
infpiration, by an extreme difficulty of breathing, and
by coughing up blood. Such wounds, however, are
not always mortal j the lungs have frequently been
wounded; and yet the patient has recovered.—Wounds
[ 749 ] w o u
the fkin of the diaphragm are almoft: always mortal, either by
Wounds.
6
Of the li¬
gaments,
nerves, and
tendons.
Of the tho-
vifeera
which it
contains.
inducing fatal convulfions immediately, or by the afeent
of the ftomach, which the preffure of the abdominal
mufcles forces up through the wound into the cavity of
the thorax j of this Van Swieten gives feveral inllances.
—Even though the wound do not penetrate into the
cavity of the thorax, the very worft fymptoms may fol¬
low. For if the wound defeends deeply among the ex¬
ternal mufcles, and its orifice lies higher, the extravafa¬
ted blood will be therein colleifled, llagnate, and form
various finufes j which after having eroded the pleura,
may at length pals into the cavity of the thorax. The
matter having once found a vent into this cavity, will
be continually augmenting from the difcharge of the li-
nuous ulcer, and the lungs will at laft fuffer by the fur¬
rounding matter. If, in cafes of wounds in the thorax,
the ribs or fternum happen to become carious, the cure
will be extremely tedious and difficult. Galen relates
the cafe of a lad who received a blow upon his fternum
in the field of exercife : it was firrt neglected, and af¬
terwards badly healed j but, four months afterwards,
matter appeared at the place w’hich had received the
blow. A phyfician made an incifion into the part, and
it was foon after cicatrized : but in a Ihort time a new
colle£tion made its appearance, and upon a fecond inci¬
fion the wound refufed to heal. Galen found the fter¬
num carious \ and having cut off the difeafed part, the
pericardium itlelf was obferved to be corroded, fo that
the heart could be feen quite naked ; notwithftanding
which, the wound wTas cured in no very long tirfie.
There is fometimes difficulty in determining whether
the wound has really penetrated into the thorax or into
the abdomen •, for the former defeends much farther to¬
wards the fides than at the middle. But as the lungs
are almoft always wounded when the cavity of the tho¬
rax is penetrated, the fymptoms arifing from thence can
fcarcely be miftaken.—Another fymptom which fre¬
quently, though not always, attends wounds of the tho¬
rax, is an emphyfcma. This is occafioned by the air
efcaping from the w’ounded lungs, and infinuating itfelt
into the cellular fubftance $ which being pervious to it
over the whole body, the tumor paffes from one part to
another, till at hft every part is inflated to a furprifing
degree. An inftance is given in the Memoirs of the
Royal Academy, of a tumour of this kind, which or*
the thorax was eleven inches thick, on the abdomen
nine, on the neck fix, and on the reft of the body four;
the eyes were in a great meafure thruft out of their or¬
bits by the inflation of the cellular fubftance j and the
patient died the fifth day. This was occafioned by a
flab with a fword- 3
Wounds of the abdomen are not lefs dangerous than-Of the ab-
thofe of the thorax, on account of the importance ofjl°mfn
the vifcera which it contains. When the wound does*ts v^ceni’
not penetrate the cavity, there is fome danger of a her¬
nia being formed by the protrufion of the peritonaeum
through the weakened integuments, and the danger is
greater the larger the wound is. Thofe wounds which
run obliquely betwixt the interftices of the mufcles often
produce finuous ulcers of a bad kind. For as there is a
large quantity of fat interpofed everywhere betwixt the
mufcles of the abdomen, if a wound happens to run be¬
tween them, the matter there colle£led, not meeting’
with free egrefs through the mouth of the wound, often
makes its way in a furprifing manner through the cellun-
lar.
W O U [ 750 ] WO
Wounds. iar fubftance, and forms deep finuofities bstween the will almoft always heal by ndhefion
l"r^_v mufcles; in which cafe the cure is always difficult, and ’  
Treatment
of wounds.
fometimes impoffible.
If a large wTound penetrate the cavity of the abdo¬
men, fome of the viicera will certainly be protruded
through it; or if the wound is but fmall, and clofed up
with fat fo that none of the inteftines can be protruded,
we may know that the cavity of the abdomen is pierced,
and probably fome of the vifeera wounded, by the acute
pain and fever, palenefs, anxiety, faintings, hiccough,
cold fweats, and weakened pulfe, all of which accom¬
pany injuries of the internal parts. The mifehiefs which
attend wounds of this kind proceed not only from the
injury done to the vifeera themfelves, but from the ex-
travafation of blood and the difeharge of the contents of
the inteftines into the cavity of the abdomen ; which,
being of a very putrefeent nature, foon bring on the
moft violent diforders. Hence wounds of the abdomi¬
nal vifeera are very often mortal. This, however, is
not always the cafe, for the fmall inteftines have been
totally divided, and yet the patient has recovered.
Wounds both of the fmall and large inteftines have
healed fpontaneoufly, even when they were of fuch mag¬
nitude that the contents of the inteftine were freely dif-
charged through the wound into the abdomen, and after
part of the inteftine itfelf has been protruded through
the wmund of the integuments.
When the mefentery is injured, the danger is ex¬
treme, on account of its numerous vefiels and nerves.
Wounds of the liver, fpleen, and pancreas, are alfo ex¬
ceedingly dangerous, although there are fome inftances
of the fpleen being cut out of living animals without
any confiderable injury.
From the preceding account of the fymptoms attend¬
ing ivounds in the different parts of the body, the fur-
geon may be enabled to judge in fome meafure of the
event; though it muft always be remembered, that
wounds, even thofe which feemed at firft to be of the
flighted: nature, have, contrary to all expeftation, proved
mortal, chiefly by inducing convulfions, or a locked jaw;
fo that no certain prognoftic can be drawn on fight of
recent wounds. We ffiall now, however, proceed to
confider their treatment.
For the cure of wounds, it has been already obferved,
that the ancients imagined balfams, the juice of herbs,
&c. to be fpecifics. In after-ages, and in countries
where balfams are not eafily to be procured, falves were
fubftituted in their place ; and even at this day there
are many who reckon a falve or ointment effentially ne-
ceffary for healing the flighted: cut. It is certain, howT-
ever, that the cure of wounds cannot be effected, nay,
not even forwarded in the leaft, by ointments, unlefs in
particular cafes. That power which the human frame
has of repairing the injuries done to itfelf, which by
phyficians is called vis medicatrix naturae, is the tfole
agent in curing external injuries ; and without this the
moft celebrated balfams would prove ineffeftual. When
a wound has been made with a ffiarp inftrument, and
is not extenfive, if it be immediately cleaned and all
the extravafated blood fucked (a) out or walked way, it
u
When a wound Wounds,
does not heal by this procefs, there are three ftages tov—-
be obferved in its cure ; the firft, called fuppuration,
which takes place xvhen the ends of the wounded veffels
contract themfelves, and pour out the liquor which is
converted into pus. As foon as this appears, the fecond,
or granulating ftage, in which the ileffi begins to gtow
up, takes place; and as this proceeds, the edges of
the wround acquire a fine bluiffi or pearl colour, which
is that of the new fkin beginning to cover the wound as
far as the granulations have filled it up. This procefs
continues, and the ffiin advances from all fides towards
the centre, which is called the cicatrizing of the wound.
For the promoting of each of thefe proceffes, feveral
ointments were formerly much in vogue. But it is
now found, that no ointment whatever is capable of
promoting them ; and that it is only neceflary to keep
the wound clean, and to prevent the air from having
accefs to it. This, indeed, nature takes care to do, by
covering the wound with a cake of coagulated blood ;
but if a wound of any confiderable magnitude ffiould be
left entirely to nature, the pus would form below the
cruft of coagulated blood in fuch quantity, that it would
moft probably corrupt, and the wound degenerate into
a corroding ulcer. It is neceffary, therefore, to cleanfe
the wound frequently ; for this purpofe it will be pro¬
per to apply a little ointment fpread on foft feraped lint.
And, in a healthy body, the wound will heal without
further trouble. As to the ointment employed, it is al¬
moft indifferent what it be, provided it has no acrid or
flimulating ingredient in its compofition ; hogs lard or
the fimple ointment of the Pharmacopeia will anfwer
perfeftly.
But though, in general, wounds thus eafily admit of
a cure, there are feveral circumftances wffiich require a
different treatment, even in fimple divifions of the flefliy
parts, when neither the membranous nor tendinous parts
are injured. Thefe are, I. Where the wound is large,
and gapes very much, fo that, if allowed to heal in the
natural way, the patient might be greatly disfigured by
the fear. It is proper to bring the lips of the wound
near to each other, and to join them either by adhefive
plafter or by future, according as the wound is fuper-
ficial, or deep. 2. When foreign bodies are lodged in
the w’ound, as when a cut is given by glafs, &c. it is
neceffary to extradl them, before the wound is dreffed ;
for it will never heal until they are difeharged. When
thefe bodies are fituated in fuch a manner as not to be
capable of being extrafted without lacerating the ad¬
jacent parts, which'Would occafion violent pain and
other bad fymptoms, it is neceffary to enlarge the
wound, fo that thefe offending bodies may be eafily re¬
moved. This treatment, however, is chiefly neceffary
in gunffiot wounds, of which we /hall afterwards
fpeak. 3. When the wound is made in fuch a man¬
ner that it runs for fome length below the fkin, and the
bottom is much lower than the orifice, the matter col-
lefled from all parts of the wound will be lodged in the
bottom of it, where, corrupting by the heat, it will de¬
generate into a fiftulous ulcer. To prevent this, we
muft
(a) See an account of the method of fucking wounds, in Mr John Bell’s Difcourfes on Wounds, Part i. dif-
courfe v. p. 215.
4
w o u
Wounds.
* See
Blood,
:n° i5.
to
Of the re¬
gimen of
patients in
ivounds.
niuft ufe compreffes, applied lb that the bottom of the
wound may fuffer a more confiderable preffure than the
upper part of it. Thus the matter formed at the bot¬
tom will be gradually forced upwards, and that formed
at the upper part will be incapable of defcending by its
weight ; the divided parts, in the mean time, eafily
uniting when brought clofe together. Indeed, the
power which nature has of uniting difterent parts of
the human body is very ftirprifing ; for, according to
authors of credit, even if a piece of tlelh be totally cut
out, and applied in a Ihort time afterwards to the place
from whence it was cut, it will unite. That a part cut
out of^a living body does not entirely lofe its vital
powder for fome time, is evident from the modern prac¬
tice of traniplanting teeth j and from an experiment of
Mr John Hunter’s, where he put the tefticle of a cock
into the belly of a living hen, and the tellicle adhered
to the liver, and became connebled to it by means of
blood-veflels *. We have therefore the greateft reafon
tp hope, that the divided parts of the human body,
when clofely applied to each other, will cohere without
leaving any finus or cavity between them. However,
if this method (hould fail, and matter be collefled in the
depending part of the wound, it will be neceflary to
make an opening in that part in order to let it out j
after vrhich the wound may be cured in the common
way. 4. During the courfe of the cure, it fometimes
happens that the wound, inftead of filling up with gra¬
nulations of a florid colour, (hoots up into a glafly-like
fubftance which rifes above the level of the furrounding
ikm, while, at the fame time, inftead of laudable pus, a
thin ill-coloured and fetid ichor is difcharged. In this
cafe the lips of the wound lofe their beautiful pearl co¬
lour, and become callous and white, nor does the cica¬
trizing of the wound at all advance. When this hap¬
pens in a healthy patient, it generally proceeds from
fome improper management, efpecially the making ufe
of too many emollient and relaxing medicines, an im¬
moderate ufe of balfams and ointments. Frequently
nothing more is requifite for taking down this fungus
than drefling with dry lint; at other times defiecative
powders, fuch as calamine, tutty, calcined alum, &c.
will be neceflary •, and fometimes red precipitate mer¬
cury muft be ufed. This laft, however, is apt to give
great pain, if fprinkled in its dry (late upon the w'ound;
it is therefore moft proper to grind it with fome yellovv
balilicon ointment, which makes a much more gentle,
though at the fame time an efficacious efcharotic.
Touching the overgrown parts with blue vitriol is alfo
found very effeftual.
Hitherto we have confidered the wounded patient as
otherwife in a ftate of perfect health ; but it mufl: be ob-
ferved, that a large wound is capable of difordering the
fyftem to a great degree. If the patient is (Irong and
vigorous, and the pain and inflammation of the wound
great, confiderable degree of fever may arife, which it
will be neceflfary to check by bleeding, low diet, and
other parts of the anliphlogiflic regimen, at the fame
time the inflamed lips of the wound and parts adjacent
are to be treated with emollient fomentations or cata-
plafms. till the pain and fwelling abate. On the other
hand, it may happen, when the patient is of a weak and
lax habit, that the vis vitce may not be fufficient to ex¬
cite fuch an inflammation in the wound as is abfolutely
ncceflhry for its cure. In this cafe, the edges of the
1 751 ]
w o u
wound look pale and foft; the wound itfelf ichorous Wounds,
and bloody, without any figns of granulations; or if'——v—‘
any granulations (hoot up, they are of the fungous
glafi'y kind above mentioned. To fuch wounds all ex¬
ternal applications are vain ; it is neceflary to ftrengthen
the patient by proper internal remedies, among which
the bark has a principal place, until the wound begins
to alter its appearance. In fuch perfons, too, there is
fome danger of a heftic fever by the abforption of mat¬
ter ; and this will take place during the courle of the
cure, even when the appearances have been at firft as
favourable as could be wiihed. J his happens generally
when the wound is large, and a great quantity of mat¬
ter formed : for by this difcharge the patient is weaken¬
ed ; fo that the pus is no fooner formed, than it is re¬
conveyed into the body by the abforbent veflels, and
immediately affe61s the patient evith feverifh heat.
When this takes place, the beft remedy is to exhibit
the bark copioully, at the fame time to fupport the pa¬
tient by proper cordials and nouriftiing diet. Indeed,
in general, it will be found, that, in the cafe of wounds’
of any confiderable magnitude, a more full and nourifh-
ing regimen is required than the patient, even in health,
has been accuflomed to ; for the difcharge of pus alone’
where the quantity is confiderable, proves very debili¬
tating. And it is conftantly found, that the cure of
fuch fores goes on mach more eafily when the patient
is kept in his ufual habit of body, than when his fyftem
is much emaciated by a very low allowance ; and, for
the fame reafon, purgatives, taken more freely than
what is neceffary to keep the bowels open, and whatever
elfe tends to weaken the conftitutien, are improper in
the cure of wounds.
Hasmorrhagies very frequently happen in woundst0f1ir
either from a divifion of a large artery, or of a number 22“
of (mall ones.. In this cafe, the firft ftep to be taken by from
the lurgeon is to eftedt a temporary ftoppage of thewoun^s*
blood by means of compreffion, and he is then to tie up
all the larger veffels according to the methods ufually
directed. 7
. When the principal arteries of a wound have been
tied, and a little blood continues to be difcharged
which appears to come from fundry fmall veffels only’
an experienced furgeon is induced to think, that the
compreflion of the bandages will in all probability
eftect a total ftoppage of the hcvmorrhagy. In a o-ene
ral oozing from the whole furface of a fore, and when
no particular veflel can be diftinguiihed, theie is a ne-
ceftity for trufling to the bandage or compreffion ; but
whenever an artery can be difeovered, of whatever fize
it may be, it ought to be fecured by a ligature. But it
frequently happens, that confiderable quantities of blood
are difcharged, not from any particular vefl'el, but from
all the fmall arteries over the furface of the wound • and
in wounds of great extent, particularly after the extir
pation of cancerous breads, and in other operations where
extenfive fores are left, this fpecies of hsemorrhagy often
to fupprefs7 tl0ubIefome by bein§ exceedingly difficult
In conftitutions perfeftly healthy, on the occurrence
w10ullds even.of the ™oft extenfive nature, as foon as
the larger arteries arc fecured, all the fmall veifels which
have been divided are diminiffied, not only in their dia¬
meters, but alfo m their length ; in coulequence of
which, they recede confiderably within the furface of
the
w O U [ 75
Wounds, furrounding parts. This caufe of itfelf would pro-
bably, in the greateft number of indances, prove fuf-
ficient for reftraining all lofs of blood from the fmaller
arteries. Another very powerful agent however is pro¬
vided by nature for producing the fame efFeft. From
the extremities of the divided veffels which at firft dif-
charged red blood, there now, in their contrafled date,
oozes out a more thin, though Vifcid fluid, containing a
great proportion of the coagulable parts of the blood j
and this being equally diftributed over the furface of
the wound, by its agglutinating powers has a very con-
fiderable influence in reftraining all fuch hsemorrhagies.
When a tedious oozing occurs in a patient young and
vigorous, and where the tone of the mufcular fibres is
evidently great, the mod e die (dual means of putting a
dop to the difcharge is to relax the vafcular fydem,
either by opening a vein in fome other part, or, what
gives dill more immediate relief, by untying the liga¬
ture on one of the principal arteries of the part, fo as to
allow it to bleed freely : thofe violent fpafmodic twitch-
ings too, fo frequent after operations on any of the ex¬
tremities, when they do not depend on a nerve being
included in the ligature with the artery, are in this
manner more effeftually relieved than by any other
mean«.
By the fame means the patient, from being in a fe¬
brile heat and much confufed, foon becomes very tran¬
quil : the violent pulfation of the heart aisd larger ar¬
teries abates, and the blood not-being propelled with
fuch impetuodty into the fmaller veffels of the part,
they are left at more liberty to relraft.
The patient ought to be kept exceedingly cool j wine
and other cordials fhould be rigidly avoided cold wa¬
ter, acidulated either with the mineral or vegetable
acids, ought to be the only drink; motion of every
kind, particularly of the part affefted, fhould be guard¬
ed againft •, and the lip of the wound being drawn to¬
gether by adhefive plafter, and gently covered with
loft charpie, it ought to be tied up with a bandage fo
applied as to produce a moderate degree of preffure on
the extremities of the divided parts.
As foon as a fufficient quantity of blood has been dif-
charged, the wound dreffed, and the patient laid to reft,
a dole of opium proportioned to the violence of the
fymptoms ought to be immediately exhibited. It ought
to be remarked, however, that in all fuch circumftances,
much larger dofes of this medicine are neceffary than in
ordinary cafes requiring the ufe of opiates. Small dofes,
inftead of anfwering any good purpofe, feem frequently
rather to aggravate the various fymptoms *, fo that
whenever they are had recourfe to in fuch cafes, they
ought always to be given in quantities fufficient for the
intended effeft.
But haemorrhagies of this nature happen much more
frequently in related enfeebled habits, where the fobds
have loft part of their natural firmnefs, and the fluids
have acquired a morbid tenuity. In this cafe a moder¬
ate ufe of generous wine ought to be immediately pre-
fcribed ; for nothing tends fo much, in fuch circum-
Itances, to reftrain haemorrhagies, as a well direfled ufe
of proper cordials. By tending to invigorate and brace
the folids, they enable the arterial fyftem to give a due
refrftance to the contained fluids •, and have alfo a con-
fiderable influence in reftoring to the fluids that vifcidi-
4
2 ] w o u
ty of texture, of which in all fuch inftances we fuppofe
them to be deprived.
A nourilbing diet alfo becomes proper j the patient
ought to be kept cool j and the mineral acids, from their
known utility in every fpecies of hsemorrhagy, ought
alfo to be prefcribed. Reft of body is here alio pro¬
per } and opiates, when indicated either by pain or
fpafmodic affeflions of the mufcles, ought never to be
omitted.
Together with thefe remedies adapted to the general
fyftem, particular dreffings, appropriated totheftateof the
parts to which they are to be applied, have been found
very beneficial. In healthy conftitutions, foon after the
difcharge of blood is over, the parts are covered with a
vifcid coagulable effufion from the mouths of the now
retrafted arteries ; but in conftitutions of an oppofite
nature, where the folids are much relaxed, the blood in
general is found in fuch an attenuated ftate as to afford
no fecretion of this nature.
To fupply as much as poffible the deficiency of this
natural balfam, different artificial applications have been
invented. Dufting the part with ftarch or wheat-flour
has fometimes been found of ufe, and gum arabic in
fine powder has been known to anfwerwhen thefe failed.
Applications of this kind, indeed, have been ufed
with luccefs in all fuch hsemorrhagies, with whatever
habit of body they happen to be conne&ed } but they
have always proved more particularly ferviceable in re¬
laxed conftitutions, attended with an attenuated ftate
of the blood and an enfeebled mufcular fyftem. Al¬
cohol, or any other ardent fpirits, impregnated with as
great a quantity as they can diffolve of myrrh, or any
other of the heating vifcid gums, may be here ufed with
freedom, though in conftitutions of an oppofite nature
they ought never to be employed. The ba/famum
traumaticum of the (hops, a remedy of this nature, has
long been famous for its influence in fuch cafes : but
that indifcriminate ufe of this and fimilar applications
which has long prevailed with fome pra&itioners, has
undoubtedly done much harm ; for as they are all pol-
feffed of very ftimulating powers, they of courfe tend to
aggravate every fymotom in 'wounds connetted with a
tenfe ftate of fibres, or much pain, efpecially when fpaf-
modic mufcular affeftions prevail.
By a due perfeverance in one or other of the plans
here pointed out, it will feldom happen that hsemorrha-
gies are not at laft put a flop to : but when the contrary
does occur, when, notwithftanding the ufe of the reme¬
dies recommended, a difcharge of blood ftill continues j
in addition to the means already advifed, an equal mode¬
rate preffure ought to be applied over the whole furface
of the fore, to be continued as long as the neceflity of
the cafe feems to indicate.
In finiffiing the dreffings of fuch wounds, after the
adhefive plafter and compreffes have been applied, a
bandage properly adapted to the part ought to be em¬
ployed, and in fuch a manner as to produce as equal a
degree of preffure over the furface of the wound as pof¬
fible. But it now and then happens that no bandage
can be applied fo as to produce the defired effeff •, and
in fuch cafes the hand of an afliftant is the only re-
fource ; which being firmly preffed over the dreffings,
will commonly fucceed when no other means is found
to have much influence.
Wounds
t
\V O U t 753 ] W O U
Wounds. Wounds of the nerves, tendons, and ligaments, are
* v " attended with much more violent fymptoms than thofe
S mptoms w^ere even confiderable arteries are divided, and they
which frequently refill: every method of cure propofed by the
(bmetimes moft fldlful practitioners. In the fimple procefs of
fucceed blood-letting, it frequently happens that the tendinous
blood-let- eXpanfion called the aponeurojis of the biceps mufcle is
Ung' wounded, or even the tendon of that mufcle itfelf is
punCtured, by the point of the lancet; or fometimes a
nerve which happens to lie in the neighbourhood is
partially divided. Any one of thefe wounds, though
they are the fmalleft we can well fuppofe to be given,
are frequently very dangerous and difficult of cure. It
fometimes immediately happens on the introduction of
the lancet, that the patient complains of a moft exqui-
£te degree of pain j and when this occurs, wre may reft
affured that either a tendon or a nerve has been wound¬
ed. On fome occafions, by proper management, fuch
as evacuating a confiderable quantity of blood at the
orifice newly made, by keeping the part at perfeCt reft,
and preferving the patient in as cool a ftate as poffible,
the pain at firft complained of ■will gradually abate, and
at laft go off entirely without any bad confequence. At
other times, however, this pain which occurs inftanta-
neoufly on the introduction of the lancet, inftead of
abating, begins foon to increafe j a fullnefs, or fmall
degree of fwclling, takes place in the parts contiguous
to the wound 5 the lips of the fore become fomewhat
hard and inflamed 5 and, in the courfe of about 24 hours
from the operation, a thin watery ferum begins to be
difcharged at the orifice.
If, by the means employed, relief is not foon obtain¬
ed, thefe fymptoms generally continue in nearly the
fame ftate for twro or perhaps three days longer. At
this time the violent pain which at firft took place be¬
comes ftill more diftreffing j but inftead of being fharp
and acute as before, it is now attended with the fenfa-
tion of a burning heat, which goes on to increafe, and
proves, during the whole courfe of the ailment, a fource
of conftant diftrefs to the patient. The fullnefs and
hardnefs in the lips of the wound begin to increafe, and
the fwelling in the neighbouring parts gradually ex¬
tends over the whole members. The parts at laft be¬
come exceedingly tenfe and hard j an eryfipelatous in¬
flammatory colour frequently appears ov«r the whole
member $ the pulfe by this time is generally very hard
and quick ; the pain is now intenfe, the patient ex¬
ceedingly reftlefs •, twitchings of the tendons occur to a
greater or lefs degree ; on fome occafions, a locked
jaw and other convulfive affeCHons fupervene ; and all
thefe fymptoms continuing to increafe, it moft frequent¬
ly happens that the torture under which the patient has
been groaning is at laft terminated by death. '
Opinions Different opinions have prevailed refpefting the caufe
about the Gf thefe fymptoms. By fome they have been imputed
thefefymp- to wounc^ °f th6 tendons. By others the tendons are
toms. fuppofed to be fo entirely deftitute of fenfibility, as to
be quite incapable of producing fo much diftrefs; fo
that wounds of the nerves they confider, on all fuch oc¬
cafions, as the true caufe of the various fymptoms we
have mentioned.
One or other of thefe ideas continued to be the only
fource for explaining the various phenomena found to
occur in this malady, till a different opinion was fug-
gefted by the late ingenious Mr John Hunter of Lon-
Vol. XX. Part ll. ,
don. Mr Hunter fuppofed, that all the dreadful iymp- Wounds,
toms found now and then to be induced by the opera- 1 v—*
tion of blood-letting, might be more readily accounted^
for from an inflamed ftate of the internal furface of the Hunter’s
vein, than from any other caufe. Such a ftate of the opinion
vein he has often traced in horfes that have died of fuch
fymptoms from venefe<5tioft, and the fame appearances
have fometimes occurred alfo in the human body. And
on other occafions, inflammation having in this manner
been once excited, has been known to terminate in fup-
puration j and the matter thus produced being in the
courfe of circulation carried to the heart, Mr Hunter
fuppofe* that in fuch cafes death may have been induced
by that caufe alone.
There can be no reafon to doubt the fafl held forth
by Mr Hunter, that in fuch inftances the vein in which
the orifice has been made, has frequently after death
been found greatly inflamed: but however ingenious
his arguments may be for concluding that the ftate of
the vein is the original caufe of all the bad fymptoms
enumerated, and although we muft allow that fuch an
inflammatory affeftion of a vein muft have a confider¬
able influence in aggravating the various fymptoms pre-
vioufly induced by other caufes •, yet we may very fair¬
ly conclude, that it could not probably in any one in-
ftance be able to account with fatisfaftion for their firft
production.
In many cafes the patient, at the very inftant of
the operation, feels a very unufual degree of pain. lit
fome cafes, the violence of the pain is almoft unfupport-
able. Now this we can never fuppofe to have been pro¬
duced by the mere punCture of a vein j for although
the coats of veins are not perhaps entirely deftitute of
feeling, yet we know well that they are not endowed
with fuch a degree of fenfibility as to render it probable
that fuch intenfe pain could ever be induced by their being T „
punCtured in any way whatever. This inflamed ftate of not juft,
the veins therefore, as deteCled by Mr Hunter after death,
muft be confidered rather as being produced by, than
as being productive of, fuch affeCtions j and that fuch
ailments ftiould frequently produce an inflammation of
the contiguous veins, is a very probable conjeCture. In
the courfe of 48 hours from the operation, when the
febrile fymptoms are juft commencing, fuch a degree of
hardnefs and evident inflammation is induced over all
the parts contiguous to the orifice, that it would be fur-
prifing indeed if the vein, which is thus perhaps en¬
tirely furrounded with parts highly inflamed, ftiould ef- ^
cape altogether. We ftiall therefore proceed upon theRea]iy0W,
fuppofition of this inflamed ftate of the veins being a ing to the
confequence rather than the caufe of fuch ailments ; and partial
of courfe we now revert to one or other of the opinions wounding
long ago adopted on this fubjeCI, that all the train of”'
bad fymptoms found on fome occafions to fucceed4vene-
feftion, proceeds either from the wound of a nerve or of
a tendon.
That a partial wound of a nerve will now and then
produce very diftreffing fymptoms, tao praditioner will
deny : but it has been attempted to be ftiown, that
tendons are almeft totally deftitute of fenfibility ; and it
has therefore been fuppofed, that their being wounded
can never account for the various fymptoms known to
occur in fuch cafes. There is great reafon however to
think, that in different inftances the fame train of fymp¬
toms have been induced by different caufes j that in one
5 C inftance
Wounds.
l7
Method of
obviating
thefe fymp-
toms, and
curing the
Found.
W O U f 754 ] W O U
inHance a wounded nerve, and in others pricks of the
tendons, have given rife to them, as we have already
fuppofed.
In order to prevent as much as poffible the confe-
quent inflammation and other fymptcms which ufually
enfue, a confiderable quantity of blood (hould be imme¬
diately difcharged at the orifice juft made : the limb,
for feveral days at leaft, ought to be kept in a ftate of
perfeif reft, care being at the fame time taken to keep
the mufcles of the part in as relaxed a ftate as poflible :
the patient flic j^ld be alfo kept cool, on a low diet j
and, if neceflury, gentle laxatives ought to be admini-
ftered.
When, notwithftanding thefe means, the fymptoms,
inftead of diminiftiing, rather become more violent 5 if
the lips of the orifice turn hard and’more inflamed, if
the pain become more confiderable, and efpecially if
the fwelling begin to fpread, other remedies come to
be indicated. In this ftate of the complaint, topical blood¬
letting, by means of leeches applied as near as poftible to
the lips of the we and, frequently affords much relief 5
and when the pulfe is full and quick, it even becomes
neceffary to evacuate large quantities of blood by open¬
ing a vein in fome other part.
The external applications ufually employed in this
ftate of the complaint are warm emollient fomentations
and poultices. In fimilar afftftions of other parts no
remedies with which we are acquainted would probably
be found more fuccefsful ; but in the complaint now
under confidcration, all fuch applications, inftead of be¬
ing produftive of any advantage, rather do harm. The
heat of the part is here one of the moft diftrefiing fymp¬
toms ; and warm emollient applications rather tend to
augment this fource of uneafinefs. The lips of the wound
alfo are rendered ftill mtfre hard, fwelled, and of courfe
more painful^ and the fwelling of the contiguous parts
is increafed. The beft external remedies are cooling
aftringents, efpecially the faturnine applications. The
parts chiefly affefted being alternately covered over
with cloths wet with a folution of faccharum faturni, and
pledgets fpread wdth Goulard’s cerate, are kept more
cool and eafy than by any other remedy hitherto ufed.
The febrile fymptoms which occur muft at the fame
time be attended to, by keeping the patient cool, on a
low diet, preferving a lax ftate of the bowels ; and, if
neceffary, farther qua:.‘'.Lies of blood ought to be eva¬
cuated.
On account of the violence of the pain, which is fome-
times fo exceflive as to deftroy entirely the patient’s
reft, opiates ought to be freely exhibited ; and when
twitchings of the tendons and other convulfive fymp-
toms fupervene, medicines of this kind become ftill
more neceffary. In order, however, to have a proper
i: fluence in this ftate of the complaint, opiates ought to
be given in very full dofes: otherwife, inftead of an-
fwering any good purpofe, they conftantly tend to ag¬
gravate the different fymptoms, not only by increafing
the heat and reftleffnefs, but by having an evident in¬
fluence in rendering the fyftem more fufceptihle than it
was before of the pain and other diftreffing effefts pro¬
duced upon it by the wound.
It often happens, however, either from neglecting the
wound or from improper treatment, that all thefe reme¬
dies are had recourfe to without any advantage what¬
ever : the fever, pain, and fwejling of the parts conti¬
nue, and convulfive affeClions of the mufcles at laft cc- Wounds.
cur, all tending to indicate the moft imminent danger. ^ v--—•J
In this fituation of matters, if w-e have not immediate
recourfe to fome effedual means, the patient will fooa
fall a vidlim to the diforder ; and the only remedy from
which much real advantage is to be expended, is a free
and extenfive divifton of the parts in which the orifice
producing all the mifchief was at firft made. We know
well, from the experience of ages, that much more pain
and diftrefs of every kind are commonly produced by the
partial divifion either of a nerve or of a tendon, than
from any of tbcfe parts being at once cut entirely acrofs.
Now the intention of the operation here recommended,
is to produce a complete divifion of the nerve or tendon
we fuppofe to have been wounded by the point of the
lancet, and which w^e confider as the foie caufe of all
the fubfequent diftrefs.
This operation being attended with a good deal of
pain, and being put in practice for the removal of fymp¬
toms from which it is perhaps difficult to perfuade the
patient that much danger can occur, all the remedies
we have mentioned ftiould be made trial of before it is
propofed : but at the fame time, care ought to be taken
that the diforder is not allowed to proceed too far before
we have recourfe to it ; for if the patient ffiould be pre-
vioufly much weakened by the feverifti fymptoms having
continued violent for any length of time, neither this
remedy nor any other with which we are acquainted
would probably have much influence. As foon, there¬
fore, as the courfe already prefciibed has been fairly
tried, and is found to be inadequate to the effefls expect¬
ed from it, we ought immediately to have recourfe to a
free divifion of the parts affedled. ^
Wherever a wmunded or ruptured tendon may be Treatment
fituated, the limb fnould be placed in fuch a manner as of wounded
will moft readily admit of the retraced ends of the ten-or ruptured
don being brought together ; and when in this fituation,tencions’
the mufcles of the whole limb in which the injury has
happened muft be tied down with a roller, fo as to pre¬
vent them from all kinds of exertion during the cure,
endeavouring at the fame time to keep the parts eafy and
relaxed. Thus, in a wound or rupture of the tendon of
the reflus mufcle of the thigh, the patient’s leg {hould
be kept as much as poffible ftretched out during the cure,
wffiile the thigh {hould be in fome degree bent, to relax
the mufcle itfelf as far as poffible.
In fimilar affeftions of the tendo Achillis, the knee
ffiould be kept conftantly bent to relax the mufcles of
the leg, and the foot {hould be ftretched out to admit of
the ends of the ruptured tendon being brought into con-
ta£I. A roller {hould be applied W'ith a fiimnefs quite
fufficient for fecuring the'mufcles and tendons in this
fituation but care muft be taken to prevent it from im¬
peding the circulation. With this view, foft fine flannel
{hould be preferred either to linen or cotton ; for being
more elaftic, it more readily yields to any fwelling with
which the limb may be attacked.
The late Dr Monro w^as the firft wffio gave any accu¬
rate dire&ions for the treatment of rupture in the large
tendons; and it is perhaps given with more precifion,
from his having himfelf experienced the effedls of this
misffirtune in the tendo achillis.
He ufed a foot-fock or flipper, made of double quilted
ticking, and left open at the toe j from the heel of
which a ftrap went up above the calf of the leg. A
ftrqng
W O U r 755 1 w o U
Wounds, ftrong piece of the fame materials went round the calf,
/ ancj was faflened with a lace. On the back part of this
was a buckle, through which the itrap of the foot-fock
was palfed, by which the calf could be brought down,
and the foot extended at pleafure. Belides there wras a
piece of tin applied to the fore part of the leg, to pre¬
vent the foot from getting into any improper pofture
during deep. After propoling to walk, he put on a Ihoe
with a heel two inches deep 5 and it was not till the ex¬
piration of five months that he ventured to lay afide the
tin plate ; and he continued the ufe of the high-heeled
fiioe for two years.
From this treatment a knowledge may be formed of
the treatment necellary to be followed in the laceration
of tendons of other parts of the body.
Wounds of woun^s the thorax, even though none of the
the thorax, vifcera thould be wounded, we may yet reafonably ex¬
pert that a conliderable quantity of blood will be extra-
vafated ; and this, if very large, mult be evacuated if
poffible. However, it ought to be particularly ob-
ferved, that this extravafated blood Ihould not be dif-
charged before we are affured that the wounded veffels
have done bleeding. When the pulfe appears fufficient-
ly ftrong and equal, the extremities warm, no hickup or
convulfion, and the patient’s ftrength continues, we may
then know that the internal haemorrhagy has ceafed, and
that the means for difcharging the blood may now be
fafely ufed. Matter, water, and blood have fometimes
vanifhed from the cavities of the thorax, and been after¬
wards difcharged by fweat, urine, &c. Yet this but
feldom happens; and if we were to truft to nature alone
in thefe cafes, it is certain that many would perilh from
a deftruction of the vital vifcera by the extravafated
blood, who by an artificial extra&ion of the fame blood
might have been faved.
Wounds of Wounds of the abdomen mufl: be clofed as foon as
the abdo- poffible, and then treated as fimple wounds ; only they
■men. ought to be dreffed as feldom and expeditioufly as pofli-
ble. Copious bleeding and a fpare diet, with other
parts of the antiphlogiftic regimen, are here abfolutely
neceffary.
It fometimes haopen*, that, through a large wound
of the abdominal integuments, the inteftine comes out
without being injured. The moft certain method, in
. all fuch cafes, is to return the protruded part as foon as
poflible ; for although writers in general formerly re¬
commended wTarm fomentations, &c. to be previoufly
p applied, the lateft authors upon this fubjefl confider the
moll natural and proper fomentation to be that which is
produced by the heat and moifture of the patient’s belly,
and that therefore the inteftines, if no mortification has
taken place, are to be cleared from extraneous matter,
and immediately returned.
When the wound of the abdomen is large, the in-
tellines eafily prolapfe, and they are as eafily returned.
But when part of an inteftine has been forced through a
narrow wound, it is muclf more dangerous. For the
prolapfed inteftine being diftended by ftatus, or the in-
gefted aliments driven thither by the periftaltic motion,
, it will become inflamed, tumefied, and incapable of
being returned through the ftri6ture of the wound j
whence gangrene will foon follow7. In this cafe the ut-
moft care is to he taken to reduce the inteftine to its na¬
tural fize. When this cannot be accomp’ifhed by other
means, fome praftitioners of great eminence have even
advifed the pun£uring of the inteftine in different places Wounds,
in order to dilcharge the flatus. This pfa&'ce has alfo
been recommended in an incarcerated hernia, but is ex¬
ceedingly difapproved of by Mr Pott and later wuiters ;
and it feems to be very dubious whether any good can
poflibly arife from it. To punflure any part that is al¬
ready inflamed, muft undoubtedly add to the inflamma¬
tion ; and it is very improbable that the dilcharge of
flatus procured by the pundlures would be at all a re-
compenfe for the bad confequences produced by the in-
creafed inflammation. The method of Celfus is much
more eligible : It is to dilate the wound fo as to reduce
the inteftine with eafe.
Sometimes part of the inteftine is loft either by fuppu-
ration or gangrene. In this cafe, all that can be done
is to put a Angle ftitch through the wounded bowel, and
to fix it to the external rvound by palling the future alfo
through the fides of the wound. The ends of the in-
tefline may perhaps adhere ; or at any rate the wound
will continue to perform the office of an anus, out of
which the faeces will continue to be difcharged during
life. The directions given by fome furgeons about in-
ferting the upper end of the gut into the lower, and
Hitching them together, are perfe£lly impracticable ; and
even if they were practicable,' would certainly produce
new mortification, which could not but be fatal.
When the omentum appears prolapfed, the fame ge¬
neral treatment is to be obferved j only that, when it is
-mortified, the dead part may be fafely extirpated.—We
fhall conclude the article of abdominal wounds with a
cafe from the memoirs of the academy of fciences for
the year 1705, which fliows that we ought not to de-
fpair, even though the moft defperate fymptoms fhouid
take place. A madman wounded himfeif in 18 different
places of the abdomen. Eight of thefe penetrated the
cavity, and injured the contained vifcera ; he had a
diarrhoea, naufea, and vomiting, tenfion of the abdomen,
with difficult refpiration and violent fever, fo that his
life was defpaired of. During the firft four days he was
blooded feven times; and during the greateft part of the
cure his diet confifted almoft entirely of flefh-broths,
with the addition of fome mild vegetables. By thefe
means he was not only cured of his wounds, but reftored
to his right fenfes. Seventeen months after, he went
mad again, and threw himfeif over a precipice, by which
he was inftantly killed.. On opening the body, the
wounds were found to have^euetrated the middle lobe
of the liver, the inteftinum jejunum, and the colon.
Such extraordinary cures are to be imputed, accord¬
ing to the fatisfaftory explanation of Mr J. Bell, to
the abdomen being perfedfly full, and conftantly fub-
jeffed to ftrong preffure between the diaphragm and
abdominal mufcles; which keeps the parts contiguous
to a wound clofely applied to it, alfo in fome meafure
prevents the difeharge of faeces or even of blood, and
gives an opportunity for a very fpeedy adheflon between
the parts. 21
In wounds of the head, where the cellular membrane Wounds of
only is affe&ed, and the aponeurofis and pericranium ^ ^ca^‘
are untouched, phlebotomy, lenient purges, and the ufe
of the common febrifuge medicines, particularly thefe of
the neutral kind, generally remove all the threatening
fymptoms. When the inflammation is gone off, it leaves
on the Ikin a yellowifh tint and a dry feurf, which con¬
tinue until perforation takes them away j and upon the
j C 2 removal
9
W 0 U [ 756 ] w o u
Wonnas. removal of the difeafe, the wound immediately recovers
a healthy afpeft, and f°on heals without further trouble.
But in the worft kind of thefe wounds, that is, where a
Imall wound paffes through the tela cellulofa and apo-
neuiofis to the pericranium, the patient will admit of
more free evacuations by phlebotomy than in the former.
In bcth, the ufe of warm fomentations is required 5 but
an emollient cataplafm, which is generally forbid in the
eryfipelatous fwellings, may in this latter cafe be ufed to
great advantage. Where the fymptoms are not very
preffing, nor the habit very inflammable, this method
will prove fuflicient 5 but it fometimes happens that the
fcalp is fo ten!e, the pain fo great, and the fymptomatic
fever fo high, that by waiting for the flow effect of fuch
means the patient runs a rifk from the continuance of
the fever j or elle the injured aponeurofis and pericra¬
nium become floughy, produce an abfcels, and render
the cafe both tedious and troublefome. A divifion of
the wounded part, by a Ample inciflon down to the bone,
about half an inch or an inch in length, will moft com¬
monly remove all the bad fymptoms 5 and if it be done
22 in time, will render every thing elfe unneceffary.
Wounds of The -wounds penetrating into the cavities of the joints
the joints, do not feem at Arft alarming •, yet, by expofure to the
air, the lining membrane of luch cavities acquires fuch a
degree of fenflbility as to endanger life when they are
large. As foon therefore as any extraneous body, pufh-
ed into the joint, is removed, the admiffion of the ex¬
ternal air is to be guarded againft as much as poflxble.
If the wound be not too large, this may be done by
pulling the fkin over the wound of the joint} and, to
prevent its retraftion, rather adhefive plafter, with pro¬
per bandaging, is to be ufed. But wrhen inflammation
has come on, repeated and copious blood-letting, together
with fomentations, becomes neceffary j and as the pain,
in thefe cafes, is apt to be violent, opiates mult be ad-
miniftered j but fliould matter be formed in the cavity
of the joint, free vent muft he given to it.
Of contufed and lacerated Wounds,—When the fmall
veffels are ruptured by a blow with any hard inftfument
without penetrating the Ikin, at the fame time that
the folid fibres of the part are crufhed^the injury is
termed a contujion: and when at the lame time the
fkin is broken, it is termed a contufed and lacerated
2 ^ wound.
Symptoms Every contufion therefore, whether the fkin is broken
and effects or not, may be properly reckoned a wound j wdiere the
of contu- injury is f0 flight that none of the contents of the fmall
veffels are extravafated, it fcarcely deferves to be men¬
tioned. The immediate confequence‘,of a contufion, there¬
fore, is a fwelling, by reafon of the extravafation juft
mentioned j and the fkin becomes difcoloured by the
blood ftag.nating under it : but as this fluid, even though
covered by the fkin, cannot long remain in the natural
ftate, it thence happens, that the contufed part foon
lofes its florid red colour, and becomes blue or black j
the thinner parts being in the mean time gradually taken
up by the abforbent vefiels. This at laft happens to the
blood itfelf; the blue difappears, and is fucceeded by a
, yellowilh colour, fhowing that the blood is now dif-
iblved ; after which, the part recovers its former ap-
peErrance, and the ruptured veffels appear to have united
as if no injury had happened.
Thefe are the fymptoms which attend the flighteft
kind of contufions ^ but it is evident, that where the
blow is fo violent as to rupture the blood-veffels or crufh Wounds,
fome of the large nerves, all the bad confequences which y—
attend Ample wounds of thofe parts will enfue, and they
will not be at all alleviated by the circumftance of the
Ikin remaining whole. Hence it is eafy to fee how a
contufion may produce ulcers of the worft kind, gan¬
grene, fphacelus, carious bones, &c. 5 and if it happen
to be on a glandular part, a fchirrus or cancer is very
frequently found to enfue. Even the vifeera themfelves,
efpecially of the abdomen, may be injured by contufions
to fuch a degree as to produce an inflammation, gan¬
grene, or fchirrus, nay inftant death, without rupturing
the fkin.
Of Gun-foot Wounds.—Gun-{hot wounds can be
confidered in no other light than contufed wounds. In
thofe made by a mufket or piftol ball, the firft things
to be done are, to extradl the ball, or any other ex¬
traneous body which may have lodged in the wound¬
ed part} and to flop the hemorrhagy, if there be an
eftufion of blood from the rupture of ibme confiderable
artery. # 24
It is frequently necefiary to enlarge the wound inExtradlion
order to extrabf the ball} and if it has gone quite°fbait
through (provided the fituation of the part wounded
will admit of its being done with fafety), the wound is*^n
to be laid freely open through its whole length} by
which means any extraneous body will be more readily
removed, and the cure facilitated.
In order to get at the ball, or any foreign matter, the
probe is to be ufed as fparingly as poflible : and this
muft appear evident to any one who will only confider
the nature of the fymptoms attendant on penetrating
wounds of the breaft or belly, either from a bullet or
fharp inftrument } the thrufting in a probe to parts un¬
der fuch circumftances being unavoidably a frefh ftab on
every repetition. Wherever probing is neceffary, the
finger is to be preferred as the heft and trueft probe,
where it can be ufed.
If a ball, or any other foreign body, happen to be
lodged near the orifice, or can be perceived by the fin¬
ger to lie under the fkin, though at fome diftance from
the mouth of the wound, we fhould cut upon it and take
it out: but when it is funk deep, and lies abfolutely be¬
yond the reach of the finger, it muft appear evident, up¬
on the lead refleftion, that thrufting, firft a long probe
in queft of the bullet, and then, as has been likewife
praftifed a long pair of forceps, either with or without
teeth, into a wound of that kind, though with fome
certainty to extraft it, muft either contufe, or irritate
and inflame the parts to a great degree } and confequent-
ly do as much, or more, mifehief as the ball did at
firft in forcing its pafiage to fuch a length. And fhould
they at the fame time lay hold of any confiderable ar¬
tery or nerve along with the ball (which can fcarce ever
fail of being the cafe), what fhocking confequence^
would attend fuch a proceeding ! Nor would attempts
of this fort be lefs injurious, if a bullet fhould happen to
be lodged in the cavity of the belly or breaft. Such at¬
tempts are the lefs neceffary, becaufe a great number of
inftances have occurred, where balls have been quietly
lodged in feveral parts of the body, till after many years
they have worked themfelves a paffage towards the fur-
face, and were very eafily extra&ed } and many cafes alfo
where balls have been entirely left behind.
In cafe the wound be occafioned by a mufket or pi¬
ftol
w o u
Dilatation
of the
wound.
26
„ -1
Regimen.
Wounds, flol iltot, and of courfe be fmall, it will be r.eceflary to
dilate the wound without delay, provided the nature ot
the part will permit of this with 1'afety : for in wounds
near a joint, or in very membranous or tendinous
parts, the knife, as well as forceps, ihould be put under
fome rellfaint nor Ihould any more opening be made
than what is abfolutely requilite for the free difcharge
of the matter lodged within.
Where the wounded perfon has not fullered any great
lofs of blood, and this is generally the cafe, it will be ad-
vifable to open a vein immediately, and take from the
arm a large quantity j and to repeat bleeding as circum-
llances may require, the fecond, and even the third day.
Advantage Repeated bleedings in the beginning are followed by
of bleeding, many advantages. They prevent pain and a good deal
of inflammation, leffen any feverifh aflaults, and feldom
fail to obviate impolfhumations, and a long train of com¬
plicated fymptoms wThich are wront otherwife to interrupt
the cure, miferably harats the poor patient, and too often
endanger his life. Even where the feverifh fyuaptoms
run high, and there is almoft a certainty that matter is
forming, bleeding, in fuch a ftate, is very frequently of
great advantage.
For the firfl: twelve days after the wound has been re¬
ceived, it will be proper to obferve a cooling regimen,
both in refpeft of the medicines that may be prefcribed,
and the diet requilite for the fupport of the patient. It
is likewife abfolutely neceflary that the body be con-
ftantly kept open. Unlefs, therefore, nature does this
office of herfelf, a flool Ihould be every day procured,
either by emollient clyfters, or fome gentle laxative ta¬
ken at the mouth 5 and whenever there is much pain in
the wounded parts, immediate recourfe mult be had to
opium.
As to external applications, whatever is of a hot fpi-
rituous nature is remarkably injurious on thefe oocalions,
and what no wounded part can in any degree bear. The
application, wound may be dreffed with pledgits of any emollient
ointment 5 the whole being covered tvith a common
poultice, or, in fome cafes, the preparations of lead may
be ufed. An opiate Ihould now be adminiftered j and
the part affefted being placed in the eafteft and molt
convenient polture, the patient (hould be laid to reft.
The formation of matter, in every contufed wound, is an
object of the firft importance j for, till this takes place,
there is often reafon to fufpeft that' gangrene may hap¬
pen. With a view to haften fuppuration, the warm
poultices Ihould be frequently renewed, and they Ihould
be continued till the tenfion and fwelling, with which
wounds of this kind are ufiially attended, be removed,
and till the fore has acquired a red, healthy, granula¬
ting appearance, and then it is to be treated like a com¬
mon ulcer.
Gun-lhot wounds are commonly covered from the
beginning with deep floughs, and various remedies are
recommended for removing thefe. Every appearance,
however, of this kind with which they are attended pro¬
ceeds entirely from contufion ; and, excepting the injury
be extenfive, the Hough is not often perceptible, or it is
fo thin as to come away along with the matter at the
firft or fecond drefling. Although emollient poultices
be extremely ufeful,they ought to be no longer continued
than till the effedts already mentioned are produced ;
otherwife they will not only relax the parts, but alfo
produce too copious a dilcharge of matter, which is
f 757 1
w o u
28
External
fometimes attended with great danger. A too copious Wounds,
flow of matter may proceed from different caufes 5 but
in whatever way it may have been produced, the prac¬
tice to be adopted muft be nearly the fame. Every
coiledlion which appears muft have a free outlet, and the
limb laid in that poilure which will moft readily admit
of its running off. In fuch circumftances, nourifhing
diet and Peruvian bark in conliderable quantities are
highly ufeful. When the difcharge continues copious,
in fpite of every effort to check it, detached pieces of
bone or fome extraneous matter are probably the caufe.
In fuch a fituation nothing will leffen the quantity of
matter till fuch fubftanccs be removed. The wound
ought therefore again to be examined, and any loofe
bodies taken away. * Pieces of cloth have been known
to be removed by fetons, when that method was pradfi-
cable, after every other method had failed. Opium is
frequently ufed in checking an exceflive difcharge, when
it happens to be kept up by irritation.
Although no conliderable hemorrhagy may happen
on firft receiving a gwn-lhot wound j yet after the floughs
commonly produced upon fuch occafions have come off,
fome confiderable arteries may be expofed, and then a
dangerous hemorrhagy may enfue. The hemorrhagy
is often preceded by a great heat in the injured parts,
and with a throbbing pulfatory pain. At this period it
may frequently be prevented by plentiful blood-letting,
particularly local. But if the hemorrhagy has fairly
taken place, and from arteries of confiderable fize, no¬
thing will reftrain it but the proper application of liga¬
tures. As the difcharge in thefe cafes would often
prove dangerous before the furgeon could be procured,
the attendants ftrould be furnilhed with a tourniquet,
with diredlions to apply it, upon the firft appearance
of blood.
Till of late years the fcarifying of gun-lhot wounds Scarifying
was a praftice which prevailed very univerl’ally among improper,
furgeons; and it was expected by this, that the- floughs
with which wounds are foretimes covered would fooner
feparate, and that the cure would thereby be more rea¬
dily performed. It is now, however, known, that this
pra&ice, inftead of being ufeful, very generally does harm
by increaling the inflammation. It Ihould therefore be
laid entirely afide.
When a gun-lhot wound cannot eafily or fafely be laid
ppen from one end to the other, perhaps it may be
proper to introduce a cord through the finus. This,
however, ftrould not be attempted till the firft or inflam¬
matory ftate of the wound is over ; but when a cord
cannot be properly introduced, on account of the lituation
or diredlion of the wound, compreflion may prove equal¬
ly ufeful here as in cafes of punftured wounds.
Mortification happening after gun-lhot wounds, is to
be treated in the fame manner as if it had aiilen fromMonifica-
any other caufe, only bark is not to be promifcuoufly tion.
ufed ; as, in plethoric habits, it may prove hurtful, though
in debilitated relaxed habits it will be extremely ufeful;
but even in fuch it Ihould never be given while much
pain and tenlion contmue.
Of Wounds and Injuries of the Head producing Frac¬
tures and Deprejions.—When the brain is compreffed, Symptoms
a fet of fymptoms enfue, extremely dangerous, though of compref-
fometimes they do not make their appearance tillfionofthe
after a confiderable interval. But at whatever time.brain*
they appear, they are uniformly of the fame kind, and
are
Wounds.
32
Caufes of
thefe.
33
Method of
difcovering
the fitua-
tion of frac¬
tures of the
W O U [7
are in general as follows : drowfinefs, glddinefs, and flu-
pefadion, diranefs of fight, dilatation of the pupil; and,
where the injury done to the head is great, there is com-
tnonly a difcharge of blood from the eyes, nofe, or
ears. Sometimes the fra&ured bone can be difcovered
through the integuments, at other times it cannot. There
is an irregular and oppreffed pulfe, and fnoring or apo-
pleftic flertor in breathing. There is Ijkewife naufea
and vomiting, with an involuntary difcharge of faeces
and urine. Among the mufcles of the extremities and
other parts, there is lofs of voluntary motion, convulfive
tremors in fome parts of the body, and pally in others,
elpecially in that fide of the body which is oppofite to
the inj ured part of the head.
Some of the miMer of thefe fymptoms, as vertigo, ftu-
pefaclion, arid a temporary lofe of fenfibility, are fre¬
quently induced by flight blows upon the head, but com¬
monly foon difappear, either by reft alone, or by the
means to be aferwards pointed out. But when any
other fymptoms enfue, fuch as dilatation of the pupils,
and efpecially when much blood is difcharged from the
eyes, nofe, and ears, and that there is an involuntary dif¬
charge of faeces and urine, it may be reafonably conclu¬
ded that compreflion of the brain is induced.
The cavity of the cranium, in the healthy and natu¬
ral ftate, is everywhere completely filled by the brain $
whatever therefore diminifties that cavity, will produce
a compreflion of the brain.
The caufes producing fuch a diminution may be of
various kinds, as frafture and depreflion of the bones of
the cranium ; the forcible introduction of any extrane¬
ous body into the cavity of the cranium *, effufion of
blood, ferum, pus, or any other fluid ; the thicknefs and
irregularity of the bones of the cranium in certain dif-
eafes, as in lues venerea, rickets, or fpina ventofa ; or
water colle&ed in hydrocephalous cafes. The firft
fet of caufes lhall be confidered in their order. The
four laft mentioned belong to the province of the phy-
fician, and have been confidefed in'» former part of this
work.
FraClures of the cranium have been differently diflin-
guilhed by different authors; but it feems fuflicient to
diviie them into thofe attended with depreflion, and
thofe which are not.
In fraClure and depreflion of the cranium, the treat¬
ment ought to be,—to difcover the fituation and extent
-oflhe frafture; and to obviate the effeCls of the injury
done to the brain, by raifing or removing all the de-
preffed parts of the bone.
When the teguments correfponding to the injury done
to the bone are cut or lacerated, and, as is fometimes
the cafe, entirely removed, the ftate of the fradure is
immediately difcovercd; but when the integuments of
the fkull remain entire, even though the general fymp¬
toms of fraClure be prefent, there is fometimes much dif¬
ficulty in afcertaining it. When, however, any exter¬
nal injury appears, particularly a tumor from a recent
contufion, attended by the fvmptoms already defcribed,
there can be no doubt of the exifteuce of a frafture.
But it fometimes happens that compreflion exifts without
the fmalleft appearance of tumor. In fuch cafes, the
whole head ought to be fhaved, when an inflammatory
fpot may frequently be obferved. Sometimes the place
of the fraClure has been difcovered by the patient apply-
2
58 ] W O U
ing the hand frequently on or near fome particular part Wound-
of the head. —v—“
When the fymptoms of a compreffed brain are evi¬
dently marked, no time ought to be loft in fetting
about an examination of the ftate of the cranium, where-
ever appearances point out, or even lead us to conjec¬
ture, in what part a fracture may be fituated. For
this purpofe an incifion is to be made upon the fpot
through the integuments to the furface of the bone,
which muft be fufficiently expofed to admit of a free
examination.
Some authors have recommended a crucial incifion j
others one in form of the letter T \ while many advife
a confiderable part of the integuments to be entirely re¬
moved. But as it is more agreeable to the prefent
mode of practice to fave as much of the fkin as poflible,
a fimple incifion is generally p:eferred, unlefs the frac¬
ture run in different diredtions, and then the incifion
muft vary accordingly. It will frequently happen, that
a confiderable part of the integuments muft be feparated
from the (kull, in order to obtain a diftindt view of the
full extent of the fradture ; but no part of the integu¬
ments is to be entirely removed.
When blood-veffels of any confiderable fize are di¬
vided, either before or in time of the examination, they
ought to be allowed to bleed freely, as in no cafe what¬
ever is the lofs of blood attended with more advantage
than the prefent. When, however, it appears that the
patient has loft a fufficient quantity, the veffels ought
to be fecured.
After the integuments have been divided, if the Ikull
be found to be fradtured and depreffed, the nature of
the cafe is rendered evident ; but even where there is
no external appearance of fradture, tumor, difcoloration,
or other injury, if the patient continue to labour under
fymptoms of a compreffe.d brain, if the pericranium has
been feparated from the bone, and efpecially if the bone
has loft its natural appearance, and has acquired a pale
white or dulky yellow hue, the trepan ought to be ap¬
plied without hefitation at the place where thefe appear¬
ances mark the principal feat of the injury.
1 Again, although no mark either of fradture or of any
difeafes underneath ftiould appear on the ou*er table of
the bone, yet there is a poffibility that the inner table
may be fradtured and depreffed. This indeed is not a
common occurrence, but it happens probably more fre¬
quently than furgeons have been aware of j and where
it does happen, the injury done to the brain is as great,
and attended with as much danger, as where the whole
thicknefs of the bone is beat in. The application of the
trepan is therefore neceffary.
But if, after the application of the trepan, it happens
that no mark of injury appears either in the opfer or in¬
ner table in that part, or in the dura mater below it,
and that the fymptonw of a compreffed br-nn full conti¬
nue, a fradture in fome other part is to be fufpedted ; or
that kind of fradture termed by pradtitioners counter J[f~
fure, where the fkull is fradtured and fometimes depref-
led on the oppofite fide to, or at a diftance from, the
part where the injury was received. This is fortunately
not a very frequent occurrence, and has even been
doubted by forr.e ; but different inftances of it have, be¬
yond all queftion, been found. If therefore the opera¬
tion of the trepan has been performed, and.no fradture
\V O U [ 759 3 W O U
Wounds, is difcorered, no extravafation appears on the furface of
'   ' the brain; and if blood-letting and other means ufually
employed do not remove the (ymptoms of comprefliun,
the operator is to fearch for a fraflure on fome other
part. The whole head Ihould again be examined with
niuch accuracy } and, by prefling deliberately but firm¬
ly over every part of it, if the fmalleft degree of fenfi-
bility remains, the patient will Ihow figns of pain, ei¬
ther by moans or by railing his hands, when preflitre is
made over the fractured part. In this way fradtures
have been frequently dete&ed, which might otherwife
have been concealed.
Method ef Having now confidered every thing preparatory to
removing the operation of the trepan, we ftiall next point out the
and eleva- means beft adapted for the removal or elevation of a de-
fei^portions Pre^ed Por^on °f the bone.
of the era- The firft thing to be done is, after {having the head,
nium. to make an incifion as deep as the bone, and diredtly
upon the courfe of the fradlure.
The patient ought to be laid on* a table, with a mat-
trefs under him, wrhile his head is placed upon a pillow,
and fecured by an afliflant. When the extent of the
fradlure has been determined, and the bleeding from the
incifion flopped, the deprefled bone is now to be eleva¬
ted j but previous to this it is neceffary to fearch for
detached pieces. Should any be found, they ought to
be removed by a pair of forceps adapted to this purpofe.
By the fame inftrument any fplinters of bone which may
have been beaten in may be removed ; but when a part
of the bone is beaten in beyond the level of the reft of
the cranium, as much of the pericranium is then to be
removed by a rafpatory, as will allow the trephine to
be applied •, or, if the operator incline, for the fake of
difpatch, he may ufe the trepan ; or the operation may
„ be begun and finiftted with the trephine, while the tre¬
pan may perform the middle and principal part of the
• work. This part of the work is begun by making a
hole with the perforator, deep enough to fix the central
pin of the trephine, in order to prevent the faw from
flipping out of its central courfe, till it has formed a
groove fufficiently deep to be worked fteadily in ; and
then the pin is to be removed. If the bone be thick,
the teeth of the faw muft be cleaned now and then by
the brufti during the perforation, and dipped in oil as
often as it is cleaned, which will confiderably facilitate
the motion, and render it 'more expeditious 5 making it
at the fame time much lefs difagreeable to the patient,
if he pofiefs his fenfes. That no time may be loft, the
operator ought to be provided with two inftruments of
the fame fize, or at leaf! to have two heads which can
be readily fitted to the fame handle.
After having made fome progrefs in the operation,
the groove ought to be frequently examined with a pick-
tooth, or fome fucb inftrument, in order to difeover its
depth; and if one fide happen to be deeper than the
other, the operator ought to prefs more on that fide
which is {halloweft. Precautions are more particularly
neceflary when the operation is performed upon a part
of the ikull which is of an unequal thicknefs, efpecially
after the inftrument has paflfed the diploe. And though Woun^.
it be faid by writers in general that the inftrument may ——v—
be worked boldly till it comes at the diploe (which is
generally known by the appearance of blood), yet the
operator ftiould be upon his guard in this point, exami¬
ning from time to time if the piece be loofe, left through
inadvertence the dura mater be wounded j for in fome
parts of the fkull there is naturally very little diploe,
and in old fubje&s fcarcely any. It ought likewife to
be remembered, that the Ikulls of children are very thin.
When the piece begins to vacillate, it ought to be fnap-
ped off with the forceps or levator j for the fawing
ought by no means to be continued till the bone be cut
quite through, otherwife the inftrument may plunge in
upon the brain, or at leaft injure the dura mater (b)..
If the inner edge of the perforation be left ragged, it is
to be fmoothed with the lenticular, to prevent it from
irritating the dura mater. Particular care is to be taken
in ufing the inftrument, left it fhould prefs too much
upon the brain.
The next ftep is to raife the depreffed part of the
bone with the levator, or to extraft the fragments of
the bone, grumous blood, or any extraneous body. Af¬
ter this, if there appear reafon to apprehend that blood,
lymph, or matter, is contained under the dura mater, it
ought to be cautioufly opened with a lancet, endeavour¬
ing to avoid the blood-veffels running upon it, or lying
immediately under it.
When the trepan is to be ufed on account of a fiffure
in which the bone will not yield, the inftrument flrould
be applied fo as to include part of it, if not diredlly over
it, as it is moft probable that the extravafated fluid will
be found direftly under it. And when the fiffure is of
great extent, it may be proper to make a perforation at
each end, if the whole can be conveniently brought in¬
to view ; and in fome cafes feveral perforations may be¬
come neceffary.
When it is propofed to make feveral perforations to
remove depreffed fragments of the bone which are firm¬
ly fixed, and having the internal furface larger than the-
external, or to raife them fufficiently, it is neceffary to
apply the trepan as near the fradtured parts as poflible j
making the perforations join each other, to prevent the
trouble of cutting the intermediate fpaces.
When the fkull is injured over a future, and it is no
thought advifable to ufe the trepan, a perforation ought
to be made on each fide of the future, efpecially in
young fubjefls, in which the dura mater adheres more
ftrongly than in adults j becaufe there cannot be a free
communication between the one fide and the other, on
account of the attachment of that membrane to the fu-
ture- . 13
After the elevation of the depreffed pieces, or the re- Treatment
moval of thofe which are quite loofe, the extraction of of the pa-
extraneous bodies, and the evacuation of extravafatedtlent a!ter
fluids, &c. the fore is to be dreffed in the lighteft and^0en°pera~
eafieft manner: all that is neceffary being to apply a
pledget of fine feraped lint, covered with fimple oint¬
ment, to that part of the dura mater which is laid bare
by
(b) A trepanning inftrument has been invented by Mr Rodman, furgeon, Paifley, which has no central pinr
and it is fo contrived that any given thicknefs of bone may be cut, fo that the danger from other inftruments is by
the ufe of this entirely avoided. See a more detailed account of this inftrument under Abaptiston*
W O U ' [ ] W R E
Wounds, by the trepan, or otherwifc j after which the edges of
the i'calp are to be brought together or nearly fo, and
another pledget laid along the whole courfe of the
wound j a piece of fine loft linen is to be laid over all,
and the dreffings may be retained in their place by a
common night-cap applied clofe to the head, and pro¬
perly fixed.
The patient is to be placed in as eafy a pofition in
bed as polfible, with his head and Ihoulders elevated a
little more than ordinary. If the operation be attend¬
ed with fuccefs, the patient will-faon begin to Ihow fa¬
vourable fymptoms j he wfill foon fliow figns of increaf-
ing fenfibility, and the original bad fymptoms will gra¬
dually difappear. After this he ought to be kept as
quiet as poflible j proper laxatives are to be adminifter-
ed, and fuch as may be lead of a naufeating nature.
His food ought to be fimple and eafy of digellion, and
his drink of the molt diluent kind. If he complain of
the wound being uneafy, an emollient poultice Ihould
be immediately applied, and renewed three or four times
in the twenty-four hours. By thefe means there will
commonly be a free fuppuration from the whole furface
of the fore.
Every time the wound is dreffed, the purulent mat¬
ter ought to be wiped oft* from it with a fine warm
fponge ; and if any degree of floughinefs take place on
the dura mater or parts adjacent, it will then be com¬
pletely feparated. Granulations will begin to form,
which will continue to increafe till the whole arife to a
level with the furface of the cranium. The edges of
the fore are now to be dreffed with cerate ftraps, and
the reft of it covered with fine foft lint, kept gently
preffed on by the night-cap properly tied. In this way
the cure will go on favourably ; luxuriance of granula¬
tions will commonly be prevented j the parts will cica¬
trize kindly; and as all the fkin has been preferved in
making the firft incifion, the cicatrix will be but little
obferved.
But things do not always proceed in this favourable
manner. Sometimes in a few hours after the operation
the patient is feized with a kind of reftleffnefs, tofling
his arms, and endeavouring to move himfelf in bed,
while the fymptoms of a compreffed brain remain nearly
the fame as formerly. In this cafe, efpecially if the
pulfe be quick and ftrong, the patient ought to be bled
freely, as there will be reafon to fufpeft fome tendency
to inflammation in the brain. Sometimes, though the
trepan has been properly applied, the fymptoms are not
relieved, on account of extravafated fluids collefted in¬
ternally under the dura mater, or between the pia mater
and brain, or in the cavity of the ventricles. The
danger in thefe cafes will be in proportion to the depth
of the colleftion. Particular attention therefore ought
always to be paid to the ftate of the dura mater after
the perforation has been made. If blood be colledled'
below the dura mater, this membrane will be found
tenfe, dark coloured, elaftic, and even livid 5 in which
cafe, an opening becomes abfolutely neceffary to dif-
charge the extravafated flu'd. Gentle fcratches are to
be made with a fcalpel, till a probe or direftory can
be introduced; upon which the membrane is to be
fufficiently divided in a longitudinal, and fometimes
even in a crucial diredtiou, till an outlet to the fluid be
given.
After the dura mater has been cut is this manner,
1
there is fome danger of the brain protruding at the Wounds
opening *, but the danger from this is not equal to the II
bad effefts arifing from* effufed fluids comprefling the , ^
brain.
A troublefome and an alarming appearance now and
then follows the operation of the trepan j namely, the
excrefcences called fungi^ formerly fuppofed to growoffUI)gj,
immediately from the furface of the brain, but which, in
general, originate from the furface of the dura mater or
cut edge of the bone granulating too luxuriantly.
It often happens that they poffefs little fenfibility j
and then the beft method to prevent their rifing to any
great height is to touch them frequently with lunar
cauftic : but fome cafes occur where their fenfibility is
fo great that they cannot be touched, unlefs they hang
by a fmall neck ; and then a ligature may be put round
them, and tightened from time to time till they drop
off, which will commonly be in the courfe of a few
days. It feldom happens, however, that there is any
oceafiofi for applying fuch means for the removal of
thefe tumors, for they generally fall off as the perfora¬
tions of the bone fill up.
If they do not, as the connefHon between them and
the brain will be then in a great meafure intercepted,
they may be with more fafety removed, either by ex-
cifion, by cauftic, or by ligature.
The cure being thus far completed, Only a fmall ci¬
catrix will remain, and in general the parts will be <
nearly as firm as at firft : but when much of the integu¬
ments have been feparated or deftroyed, as they are
never regenerated, the bone will be left covered only *
by a thin cuticle, with fome fmall quantity of cellular
fubftance. When this is the cafe, the perfon ought to
wear a piece of lead or tin, properly fitted and lined
with flannel, to protect it from the cold and other ex¬
ternal injuries.
This is the method nowT commonly praftifed in cafes
of compreflion $ but it frequently happens, that inftead
of compreflion, fuch a degree of concuflion takes place
that no afliftance from the trepan can be attended with
any advantage ; for the effefts of concuflion are totally
different from thofe of compreflion, and therefore to be
removed in a different manner.
Wounds, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
WRASSE, or Old Wife. See Labrus, Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
WREATH, in Heraldry, a roll of fine linen or filk
(like that of a Turkilh turban), confifting of the colours
borne in the efcutcheon, placed in an achievement be¬
tween the helmet and the creft, and immediately fup-
porting the creft.
WRECK, or Shipwreck, the deftruftion of a {hip
by rocks or {hallows at fea.
By the ancient common law, where any {hip was loft
at fea, and the goods or cargo were thrown upon the
land, thefe goods, fo wrecked, were judged to belong
to the king : for it was held, that, by the lofs of the
{hip, all property was gone out of the original owner.
But this was undoubtedly adding forrow to forrow, and
was confonant neither to reafon nor humanity. Where¬
fore it was firft ordained by King Henry I. that if any
perfon efcaped alive out of the {hip, it fliould be no
wreck ; and afterwards King Henry II. by his charter,
declared, that if on the coafts of either England, Poic-
tou, Oleron, or Gafcony, any {hip ftiould be diftreffed.
W R E r 761 ] W R E
Wreck, and either man or beaft (hould efcape or be found there-
—v in alive, the goods (hould remain to the owners, if they
claimed them within three months ; but otherwile (hould
be elteemed a wreck, and (hould belong to the king, or
other lord of the franchife. This was again confirmed
with improvements by King Richard I.; who, in the
ffecond year of his reign, not only e(tabli(hed thefe con-
ceflions, by ordaining that the owner, if he was (hip-
wrecked and efcaped, omnes res funs liberas et quietas
kaberet, but alfo, that if he perilhed, his children, or in
default of them, his brethren and fifters, (hould retain
the property ; and in default of brother or filter, then
the goods (hould remain to the king (a). And the
law, as laid down by Bra£ton in the reign of Henry III.
feems (till to have improved in its equity. For then, if
not only a dog (for inftance) efcaped, by which the
owner might be difcovered, but if any certain mark
were fet on the goods, by which they might be known
again, it was held to be no wreck. And this is cer¬
tainly mod agreeable to reafon ; the rational claim of
the king being only founded upon this, that the true
owner cannot be afcertained. Afterwards, in the firft
ftatute of Weftminfter, the time of limitation of claims,
given by the charter of Henry II. is extended to a year
and a day, according to the ufage of Normandy : and
It enafts, that if any man, a dog, or a cat, efcape alive,
the veffel (hall not be adjudged a wreck. Thefe ani¬
mals, as in Bradton, are only put for examples; for it
is now held, that not only if any live thing efcape, but
if proof can be made of the property of any of the goods
or lading which come to (hore, they (hall not be for¬
feited as wreck. The ftatute further ordains, that the
ftieriff of the county (hall be bound to keep the goods a
year and a day (as in France for one year, agreeable to
the maritime laws of Oleron, and in Holland for a year
and a half), that if any man can prove a property in
them, either in his own right or by right of reprefenta-
tion, they (hall be reftored to him without delay; but
if no fuch property be proved within that time, they
then (hall be the king’s. If lire goods are of a perifti-
able nature, the (heriff may fell them, and the money
(hall be liable in their (lead. This revenue of wrecks
is frequently granted out to lords of manors as a royal
franchife j and if any one be thus intitled to wrecks in
his own land, and the king’s goods are wrecked there¬
on, the king may claim them at any time, even after
the year and day.
It is to be obferved, that, in order to conftitute a le¬
gal wreck, the goods muft come to land. If they con¬
tinue at fea, the law diftinguifhes them by the barbarous
and uncouth appellations of jetfam, jlotfam, and ligan.
Jetfam is where goods are caft into the fea, and there
fink and remain under water: flotfam is where they
continue fwimming on the furface of the wTaves : ligan
is where they are funk in the fea, but tied to a cork or
buoy, in order to be found again. Thefe are alfo the
king’s, if no owner appears to claim them 5 but if any
owner appears, he is intitled to recover the poffeflion.
Voe. XX. Part II.
For even if they be caft overboard, without any mark
or buoy, in order to lighten the (hip, the owner is not
by this a£t of neceftity conftrued to have renounced his
property : much lefs can things ligan be (uppoled to be
abandoned, fince the owner has done all in his power to
aflfert and retain his property. Thele three are there¬
fore accounted fo far a diftimft thing from the former,
that by the king’s grant to a man of wrecks, things jet¬
fam, flotfam, and ligan, will not pafs.
Wrecks, in their legal acceptation, are at prefent not
very frequent : for if any goods come to land, it rarely
happens, fince the improvement of commerce, naviga¬
tion, and Correfpondence, that the owner is not able to
affert his property within the year and day limited by
law. And in order to preferve this property entire for
him, and if polfible to prevent wrecks at all, our laws
have made many very humane regulations ; in a fpirifc
quite oppofite to thofe favage laws which formerly pre¬
vailed in all the northern regions of Europe, and a few
years ago were (till faid to fubfift on the coafts of the
Baltic fea, permitting the inhabitants to feize on what¬
ever they could get as lawful prize ; or, as an author
of their own expreffes it, “ in nanfragorum nrifcria et
colamitate tanqunm vultures adprcedam currere.'1'1 For
by the ftatute 27 Edw. III. c. 13. if any (hip be loft on
the (hore, and the goods come to land (which cannot/
fays the ftatute, be called wreck), they (hall be pre-
fently delivered to the merchan's, paying only a reaion-
able reward to thofe that faved and preferved them,
which is intitled falvage. Alfo by the common law, if
any perfons (other than the (heriff) take any goods fo
caft on (hore, which are not legal wreck, the owners
might have a commiflion to inquire and find them out,
and compel them to make reftitution. And by 1 2 Ann.
ftat. 2. c. 18. confirmed by 4 Geo. I. c. 12. in order to
affift the diftreffed, and prevent the fcandalous illegal
praftices on fome of our fea-coafts (too fimilar to thofe
on the Baltic), it is enabled, that all head-officers and
others of towns near the fea, (hall, upon application
made to them, fummon as many hands as are neceffary,
and fend them to the relief of any (hip in diftrefs, on
forfeiture of look ; and in cafe of afliftance given, fal¬
vage (hall be paid by the owners, to be affeffed by three
neighbouring juftices. All perfons that fecrete any
goods (hall forfeit their treble value ; and if they wil¬
fully do any aft whereby the (hip is loft or deftroyed,
by making holes in her, dealing her pumps, or other-
wife, they are guilty of felony without benefit of clergy.
Laftly, by the ftatute 26 Geo. II. c. 19. plundering
any veffel, either in diftrefs or wrecked, and whether
any living creature be on board or not (for whether
wreck or otherwife, it is clearly ncff the property of the
populace), fuch plundering or preventing the efcape of
any perfon that endeavours to fave his life, or wounding
him with intent to deftroy him, or putting out fafte
lights in order to bring any veffel into danger, are all
declared to be capital felonies j in like manner as the
deftroying of trees, fteeples, or other dated fea-marks,
Wreck.
(a) In like manner Conftantine the Great, finding that by the imperial law the revenue of wrecks was given to
the prince’s treafury or fifcus, reftrained it by an edift (Cod. .11. 5. 1.) and ordered them to remain to the owners j
adding this humane expoftulation : Quod enim jus habet fifcus in altena calamitate, ut de re tam luftuofa com¬
pendium feftetur.”
/
w R E ' [ 762 ] W R I
Wreck is puniftied by tbe ftaLute 8 Eliz. c. 13. with a forfei-
Wi-ellin tU1'e 100^ or ou^awry* Moreover, by the ftatute of
. Geo. II. pilfering any goods caft afhore is declared to
be petty larceny 5 and many other falutary regulations
are made, for the more effedtually preferving Ihips of
any nation in diftrefs.
By the civil law, to deftroy perfons fhipwrecked, or
prevent their faving the fhip, is capital. And to deal
even a plank from a veffel in didrefs or wrecked, makes
the party liable to anfwer for the whole fhip and cargo.
The laws alfo of the Wiligoths, and the molt errly Nea¬
politan conftitulions, puniihed wuth the utmoft feverity
all thofe who neglected to afTift any fhip in diftrefs, or
plundered any goods caft on ftiore.
WREN. See Motacilla, Orvithology Index.
Wren, Sir Chri/lopher, a great philofopher, and one
of the moft learned and moft eminent architedls of his
age, was the fon of Chriiiopher Wren dean of Windfor,
and was born in 1632. He ftudied at Wadham college
in Oxford j where he took the degree of mafter of arts
in 1653, an^ was chofen fellow of All Souls college.
When very young he difcovered a furprifing genius for
the mathematics ; in which fcience he made great ad¬
vances before he was ftxteen years old. In 1657, he
was made profeffor of aftronomy at Greflram college,
London 5 which he refigned in 1660, on his being
chofen to the Saviiian profefTorftnp of aftronomy in Ox¬
ford : he was next year created doftor of laws, and in
1663 was eledled fellow of the Royal Society. He was
one of the commiflioners for the reparation of St Paul’s •
and in 1665 travelled into France, to examine the moft
beautiful edifices there, when he made many curious ob-
fervations. At his return to England, he drew a noble
plan for rebuilding the city of London after the fire,
which he prefented to parliament; and upon the deccafe
of S-'r John Denham in 1668, was made furveyor-gene-
ral of his majefty’s works } and from that time had the
diredlion of a great number of public edifices, by which
he acquired the higheft reputation. He built the mag¬
nificent theatre at Oxford, St Paul’s cathedral, the
churches of St Stephen Walbrook, and St Mary-le-Bow,
the Monument, the modern part of the palace of Hamp¬
ton Court, Chelfea college, one of the wrings of Green¬
wich hofpital, and many other beautiful edifices. He
was prefident of the Royal Society, one of the com¬
miflioners of Chelfea college, and twice member of par¬
liament ; firft for Plymouth in Devonfliire, and then
for Melcomb Regis in the fame county •, but in 1718
was removed from his place of furveyor-general. He
died in 1723, and was interred in the vault under
St Paul’s.
This great man alfo diftinguiflied himfelf by many
curious inventions and difeoveries in natural philofophy 5
and, among many others, contrived an inftrument for
meafuring the quantity of rain that falls on any fpace of
land for a year ; he invented many ways of making
aftronomical obfervations more accurate and eafy ; and
wras the firft author cf the anatomical experiment of in-
je6ling liquors into the veins of animals, &c. He
tranflated into Latin Mr Oughtred’s Horologiogrophlca
Geomctnca ; and wrrote a Survey of the cathedral
church of Salilbury, and other pieces. After his death
bis pofthumous w'orks and draughts were publiftred by
his fon.
WRESTLING, a kind of combat or engagement
between two perfons unarmed, body to body, to prove Wrtfftirg
their ftrength and dexterity, and try which can throw yJL.
his opponent to the ground. , ‘
Wreftling is an excercife of very great antiquity and
fame. It was in ufe in the heroic age j witnefs Her¬
cules, who wreftled with Antaeus.
It continued a long time in the higheft repute, and
had confiderable rew-ards and honours aftigned to it at
the Olympic games. It was the^cuftom for the athletic
to anoint their bodies with oil, to give the lets hold to
their antagonifts.
Lycurgus ordered the Spartan maids to wreftle in pub¬
lic quite naked, in order, as it is obftrved, to break them
of their too much delicacy and mcenels, to make them
appear moie robuft, and to familiarize the people, &.c.
to fuch nudities.
WRIST, in Anatomy. See there, N° 53.
WRIT, in Law, fignifies, in general, the king’s pre¬
cept in writing under leal, iffuing out of feme court, di¬
rected to the ftierifi: or other officer, and commanding
fomething to be done in relation to a luit or aCtion, or
giving commiffion to have the fame done. And, accord¬
ing to Fitzherbert, a writ is faid to be a formal letter of
the king in parchment, fealed with his teal, and direCted
to fome judge, officer, or minifter, &c. at the fuit of a
fubjeCt, tor the caufe briefly expreffed, which is to be
determined in the proper court according to law.
Writs, in civil actions, are either original or judi¬
cial : original, are fuch as are iffued out of the court of
chancery for the fummoning cf a defendant to appear,
and are granted before the luit is commenced, in order
to begin the fame} and judicial writs iffue out of the
court where the original is returned, after the fuit is be¬
gun. See Process.
The original writ is the foundation of the fuit. See
Suit.
When a perfon hath received an injury, and th’nks it
worth his while to demand a falisfaftion for it, he is to
confider with himfelf, or take advice, what redrefs the
law’ has given for that injury ) and thereupon is to make
application or fuit to the crown, the fountain of all juf-
tice, for that particular fpecific remedy which he is de¬
termined or advifed to purfue. As for money due on
bond, an action of debt •, for goods detained without
force, an a<3ion of detemie or trover ; of, if taken with
force, an adlion of trefpafs vi et armis ; or, to try the
title of lands, a writ of entry or aftion of trefpafs in
ejeftment; or for any confequential injury received, a
fpecial adlion on the cafe. To this end he is to fue out,
or purchafe by paying the flated fees, an original or ori¬
ginal writ, from the court of chancery, which is the qffi-
cina jujlitice, the Ihop or mint of juftice, wherein all the
king’s writs are framed. It is a mandatory letter from
the king in parchment, fealed with his great feal, and
direfted to the ffieriff of the county wherein the injury
is committed, or fuppofed fo to be, requiring him to
command the wrong-doer or party accufed, either to do
juftice to the complainant, or elle to appear in court,
and anfv t- the accufation againft him. Whatever the
ffieriff does in purfuance of this w’rit, he mull return or
certify to the court of common-pleas, together with the
w rit itfelf: which is the foundation of the jurifdhftion of
that court, being the king’s warrant for the judges to
proceed to the determination of the caufe. For it wras
a maxim introduced by the Nprmans, that there fhculd
be
Writs.
W R I [ *
be no proceedings in common-pleas before the king’s
juftices without his original writ ; becaufe they held it
unfit that thofe juftices, being only the fubftitutes of the
crown, fhould take cognizance of any thing but what
was thus exprefsly referred to their judgement. How¬
ever, in fmall adlions, below the value of forty (hillings,
which are brought in the court-baron or county-court,
no royal writ is necefl'ary but the foundation of fuch
fuits continue to be (as in the times of the Saxons), not
by original writ, but by plaint 5 that is, by a private
memorial tendered in open court to the judge, wherein
the party injured fets forth his caufe of -aftion : and the
judge is bound of common right to adminifter juliice
therein, without any fpecial mandate from the king.
Now indeed even the royal writs are held to be demand-
able of common right, on paying the ufual fees: for any
delay in the granting them, or fetting an unufual or ex¬
orbitant price upon them, would be a breach of magna
charta, c. 29. “ nulli vend^mus, nulli negabimus, aut
dilferemus juftitiam vel reflum.”
Original writs Are either optional or peremptory ; or,
in the language of our law, they are either a preecipe or
w jite fecerit fecurum. The preecipe is in the alterna¬
tive, commanding the defendant to do the thing re¬
quired, or fhow the reafon wherefore he hath not done
it. The ufe of this writ is where fomething certain is
demanded by the plaintiff, which is in the power of the
defendant himfelf to perform ; as, to reft ore the poffefiion
of land, to pay a certain liquidated debt, to perform a
fpecific covenant, to render an account, and the like ;
in all which cafes the writ is drawn up in the form of a
preecipe or command, to do thus, or fhow caufe to the
contrary ; giving the defendant his choice to redrefs the
injury or (land the fuit. The other fpecies of original
writs is called a Jifecerit te fecurum, from the words of
the writ which direfts the flrcriff to caufe the defend¬
ant to appear in court, without any option given him,
provided the plaintiff gives the fheriff fecurity effedhrally
to profecute his claim. This writ is in ufe where no¬
thing is fpecifically demanded, but only a fatisfa&ion in
general; to obtain which, and minifter complete redrefs,
the intervention of fome judicature is neceffary. Such
are writs of trefpafs, or on the cafe, wherein no debt or
other fpecific thing is fued for in certain, but only
damages to be affeffed by a jury. For this end the de¬
fendant is immediately called upon to appear in court,
provided the plaintiff gives good fecurity of profecuting
his claim. Both fpecies of writs are tefted, or witneffed,
in the king’s own name ; “ witnefs ourfelf at Weftmin-
fter,” or wherever the chancery may be held.
The fecurity here fpoken of, to be given by the
plaintiff for profecuting his claim, is common to both
writs, though it gives denomination only to the latter.
The whole of it is at prefent become a mere matter of
form ; and John Doe and Richard Roe ere always re¬
turned as the {landing pledges for this purpofe.—.The
ancient ufe of them was to anfwer for the plaintiff, who
in cafe he brought an aftion wuthout caufe, or failed in
the profecution of it when brought, was liable to an
amercement from the crown for railing a falfe accufa-
tion ; and fo the form of the judgement ftill is. In like
manner, as by the Gothic conftitutions no perfon was
permitted to lay a complaint againfl another nif fub
jeriptura aut fpecifcatione trium tefium, quod aEliQiiem
63 J w R I
ve/let perfequi: and, as by the laws of Sancho I. king Writs,
of Portugal, damages were given againtl a plaintiff who Writinf-
profecuted a groundlefs aflion. u—
. day on which the defendant is ordered to appear
in court, and on which the fheriff is to bring in the
writ, and report how far he has obeyed it, is called the
return of the writ; it being then returned by him to
the king’s juftices at Weftminfter. And it is alwavs
made returnable at the diftance of at leaf! ic days from
the date or teft, that the defendant may have time to
come up to Weftminfter, even from the moft remote
parts of the kingdom ; and upon fome day in one of the
four terms, in which the court fits for the difpatch of
bufinefs.
. WRITING, the art or aft of fignifying and convev-
mg our ideas to others, by letters or charaders vifible
to the eye. See Composition, Grammar, and Lan¬
guage.
The moft ancient remains of writing, which have
been tranfmitted to us, are upon hard fubftances, fuch
as Hones and metals, which were ufed by the ancients
for edi&s and matters of public notoriety ; the deca¬
logue was written on two tables of ftone j but this prac¬
tice was not peculiar to the Jews, for it was ufed by
moft of the eaftern nations, as well as by the Greeks
and Romans j and therefore the ridicule which Voltaire
attempts to call upon that part of the book of Genefis,
vrhere the people are commanded to write the law on
ftones, is abfurd ; for what is there faid by no means
implies, that other materials might not be ufed on com¬
mon oceafions. The laws penal, civil, and ceremonial,
among the Greeks, were engraven on tables of brafs
which were called eyries.
V e find that wood was alfo ufed for writing on in
different countries. In the Sloanian library (^4852.)
are fix fpecimens of Kufic writing, on boards about tivo
feet in length, and fix inches in'depth. The Chinefe,
befoie the invention of paper, w7rote or engraved with
an iron tool upon thin boards or on bamboo. Pliny’
fays, that table books of w:ood were in ufe before the
time of Homer. Ihefe table books were called by the
Romans pugil/ares. The wood W'as cut into thin dices,
and finely plained and polifhed. The writing was at
firft upon the bare wood, with an iron inftrument called
a.y?y/<r. In later times thefe tables were ufually waxed
over, and written upon with that inftrument. The mat¬
ter written upon the tables which were thus waxed over
was cafily effaced, and by fmoothing the wax new mat¬
ter mignt be fubftituted in the place of what had been
written before. T he Greeks and Romans continued the
u’e of waxed table-books long after the ufe of papy¬
rus, leaves, and fkins, became common, becaufe they
were fo convenient for corre&ing extemporary compo-
fitions. J r
Table books of ivory are ftill ufed for memorandums
but they are, commonly written upon with black lead’
pencils. The praftice of writing on table-books covered
with wax was not entirely laid afide till the commence¬
ment of the 14th century.
1 he baik of trees was ai(o ufed for writing by the
ancients, and is fo ftill in feveral parts of Afia. The
fame thing may be faid of the leaves of trees.* It is
needlefs to obferve the ufe of parchment and vellum, pa¬
pyrus and paper, for writing 5 it is too well known.
5 2 The
W It 1 [ 764 ] W U R
Writing. The method of fabricating thefe fubflances has been
' " v already defcribed as they occurred in the order of the
alphabet.
It is obvious, that when men wrote, or rather en¬
graved, on hard fubftances, inftruments of metal w?ere
neceffary, fuch as the chifel and the flylus j but the lat¬
ter was chiefly ufed for writing upon boards, waxed
tablets, or on bark.
When the ancients wrote on fofter materials than
wood or metal, other inftruments were ufed for writing
with, of which reeds and canes feem to have been the
firft. Reeds and canes are ftill ufed as inftruments for
writing with by the Tartars, the Indians, the Perfians,
the Turks, and the Greeks. Pencils made of hair are
ufed by the Chinefe for their writing: they firft liquefy
their ink, and dip their pencils into it. Hair-pencils
have likewife been ufed for writing in Europe. Large
capital letters were made with them from the time of
the Roman emperors till the 16th century. After the
invention of printing they were drawn by the illumi¬
nators. Quills of geefe, fwans, peacocks, crows, and
other birds, have been ufed in thefe weftern parts for
writing with, but how long is not eafy to afcertain. St
Ifidore of Seville, who lived about the middle of the 7th
century, defcribes a pen made of a quill as ufed in his
time.
Method of rejloring decayed WRITINGS. In the 77th
volume of the Phil. Tranf. there is a paper on this fub-
je£t by Sir Charles Blagden. One of the beft methods
he found upon experiment to be, covering the letters
with phlogifticated or pruflic alkali, with the addition, of
a diluted mineral acid ; upon the application of which,
the letters changed very fpeedily to a deep blue colour,
of great beauty and intenfity. To prevent the fpread-
ing of the colour, which, by blotting the parchment,
detra&s greatly from the legibility, the alkali ftrould be
put on firft, and the diluted acid added upon it. The
method found to anfwer beft has been, to fpread the al¬
kali thin with a feather over the traces of the letters,
and then to touch it gently, as nearly upon or over the
letters as can be done with the diluted acid, by means
of a feather or a bit of ftick cut to a blunt point.
Though the alkali ftiould occafion no fenfible change of
colour, yet the moment the acid comes upon it, every
trace of a letter turns at once to a fine blue, which foon
acquires its full intenfity, and is beyond comparifon
flronger than the colour of the original trace had been.
If, then, the corner of a bit of blotting paper be care¬
fully and dexteroufly applied near the letters, fo as to
imbibe the fuperfluous liquor, the ftaining of the parch¬
ment may be in a great meafure avoided j for it is this
fuperfluous liquor which, abforbing part of the colour¬
ing matter from the letters, becomes a dye to whatever
it touches. Care muft be taken not to bring the blot¬
ting paper in contaft with the letters, becaufe the co¬
louring matter is foft whilft wet, and may eafily be
rubbed off. The acid chiefly employed was the ma¬
rine } but both the vitriolic and nitrous fucceed very
■weU. They ftiould be fo far diluted as not to be in
danger of corroding the parchment, after which the de¬
gree of ftrength does not feem to be a matter of much
nicety.
Method of Copying WRITINGS. The ingenious Mr
Watt, fome years ago, invented a method of copy¬
ing writings very fpeedily, and without the poflibility
committing miftakes. A piece of thin unfized paper is Writing
to be taken exaftly of the fize of the paper to be co- II
pied } it is to be moiftened with water, or, what is bet-N urt^ urS;
ter, with the following liquid : Take of diftilled vine¬
gar two pounds weight, diffolve it in one ounce of bo-
racic acid j then take four ounces of oyrter-fhells cal¬
cined to whitenefs, and carefully freed from their brown
cruft j put them into the vinegar, (hake the mixture
frequently for 24 hours, then let it ftand until it depo-
fits its fediment; filter the clear part through unfized
paper into a glafs veffel} then add two ounces of the
beft blue Aleppo galls bruifed, and place the liquor in
a warm place, fliaking it frequently for 24 hours; then
filter the liquor again through unfized paper, and add
to it after filtration one quart, ale meafure, of pure wa¬
ter. It muft then ftand 24 hours, and be filtered again
if it (hows a difpofition to depofit any fediment, which
it generally does. When the paper has been wet with
this liquid, put it between two thick unfized papers to
abforb the fuperfluous moifture j then lay it over the
writing to be copied, and put a piece of clean writing
paper above it. Put the whole on the board of a rol-
ling-piefs, and prefs them through the rolls, as is done
in printing copperplates, and a copy of the writing
fihall appear on both fides of the thin moiftened paper j,
on one fide in a reverfed order and direftion, but on
the other fide in the natural order and diredlion of the
lines.
WRITTEN mountains. See Mountains.
WRY-neck. See Jynx, Ornithology Index.
WURTEMBURG, or Wirtenberg, a fovereign
duchy of Germany, in Suabia j bounded on the north
by Franconia, the archbiftiopric of Mentz, and the pa¬
latinate of the Rhine ; on the eaft by the county of
Oeting, the marquifate of Burgau, and the territory of
Ulm 5 on the fouth by the principality of Hoen-Zol-
lern, Furftcnburg, and the marquifate of Hohenburg $
and on the weft by the palatinate of the Rhine, the
marquifate of Baden, and the Black Foreft. It is 65
miles in length, and as much in breadth, and the river
Neckar runs almoft through the middle of it from fouth
to north. Though there are many mountains and
woods, yet it is one of the moft populous and fertile
countries in Germany, producing plenty of grafs, corn,
fruits, and a great deal of wine towards the confines of
the palatinate. There are alfo mines, and fait fprings,
with plenty of game and fifli. It contains 645 villages,
88 towns, and 26 cities, of which Stutgard is the capi¬
tal.
WURTSBURG, a large biftiopric in Germany, com¬
prehending the principal part of Franconia. It is
bounded by the county of Henneburg, the duchy of Co¬
burg, the abbey of Fuld, the archbiftiopric of Mentz,
the marquifate of Anfpach, the biftiopric of Bamberg,
and the county of Wcrtheim •, being about 65 miles in
length, and 50 in breadth, and divided into 50 baili¬
wicks. The foil is very fertile, and produces more
corn and wine than the inhabitants confume. The ter¬
ritories of the biftiop comprehend above 400 towns and
villages, of which he is fovereign, being one of the
greatert ecclefiaftical princes of the empire.
WURTZBURG, a large and handfome city of Ger¬
many, and one of the principal in the circle of Franco¬
nia. It is defended with good fortifications, and has a
magnificent palace. There is a handfome hofpital, in
which.
W Y C
Wiutzburg, wliich are generally 400 poor men and women. The
\\ ydierley. ca(^ie Js a(. a foiall diflance from the city, and commands
v it, as it Hands upon an eminence. It communicates
with the city by a Hone bridge, on which are 12 fta-
tues, reprefenting as many faints. Ihe arfenal and the
cellars of the bilhop deferve the attention of the cu¬
rious. There is alfo an univerfity, founded in I4°3'
It is feated on the river Maine, in E. Long. 10. 2. N.
Lat. 49. 40.
WYCHERLEY, William, an eminent Englilh
c®mic poet, was born about 1640. A little before the
reftoration of King Charles II. he became a gentleman
commoner of Queen’s college Oxford, where he was re¬
conciled by Dr Barlow to the Proteftant religion, which
he had a little before abandoned in his travels. He af¬
terwards entered himfelf in the Middle-temple, but foon
quitted the ftudy of the law for purfuits more agreeable
to his own genius, as well as to the tafte of the age.
Upon writing his firft play, entitled, Love in a Wood,
or St James’s Park, which was adled in 1672, he be¬
came acquainted with feveral of the celebrated wits both
of the court and town, and likewife with the duchefs
of Cleveland. Some time after appeared his comedies,
called The Gentleman Dancing Matter, the Plain
Dealer, and the Country Wife •, all which were adtted
with applaufe. George duke of Buckingham had a
very high efteem for him, and beftowed on him feveral
advantageous polls. King Charles alfo Ihowed him
fignal marks of favour j and once gave him a proof of
his efteem, which perhaps never any fovereign prince be¬
fore had given to a private gentleman. Mr Wycherley
being ill of a fever, at his lodgings in Bow-ftreet, the king
did him the honour of a vifit. Finding him extremely
weakened, he corpmanded him to take a journey to the
fouth of France, and affured him, at the fame time, that
he would order him 500I. to defray the charges of the
journey. Mr Wycherley accordingly went into France ;
and having fpent the winter there, returned to England
entirely reftored to his former vigour. The king, (hort-
ly after his arrival, told him, that he had a fon, who he
was refolved ftiould be educated like the fon of a king,
and that he could not choofe a more proper man for his
governor than Mr Wycherly j for which fervice 1500I.
fier annum thould be fettled upon him.
Immediately after this offer he went to Tunbridge,
where walking one day upon the Well’s walk with his
friend Mr Fairbeard, of Gray’s Inn, juft as he came up
to the bookfeller’s drop, the countefs of Drogheda, a
young wudow, rich, noble, and beautiful, came there to
inquire for the Plain Dealer •, “ Madam,” fays Mr Fair-
beard, “ lince you are for the Plain Dealer, there he is
for you 5” pulhing Mr Wycherley towards her. “Yes,”
fays Mr Wycherly, “ this lady can bear plain dealing ;
for (he appears to be fo accomplifhed, that what would
be a compliment to others, would be plain dealing to
her.” “ No, truly, Sir,” faid the countefs, “ I am not
without my faults, any more than the reft of my fex ;
and yet notwithftanding, I love plain dealing, and am
never more fond of it than when it tells me of them.”
“ Then, madam,” fays Mr Fairbeard, “ you and the
Plain Dealer feem defigned by Heaven for each other.”
——In fhort, Mr Wycherley walked a turn or two with
the countefs, waited upon her home, vifited her daily
while Ore ftaid at Tunbridge, and married her foon after
without acquainting the king. By this ftep, which was
WYE
looked upon as a contempt of his majefty’s orders, he for- Wycherley
feited the royal favour. The countefs of Drogheda H
fettled her whole fortune upon him j but his title being < ^
difputed after her death, he was fo reduced by the ex-
pences of the law and other incumbrances, as to be un¬
able to fatisfy the impatience of his creditors, who threw
him into prifon ; and the bookfeller who printed his
Piain Dealer, by which he got almoft as much money
as the other gained reputation, was fo ungrateful as to re-
fufe to lend him 20I. in his extreme neceflity. In that
confinement he languiftred feven years j but at length
King James going to fee the above play, was fo charm¬
ed with it, that he gave immediate orders for the pay¬
ment of his debts, and even granted him a penfion of
200I. per annum. But the prince’s bountiful intentions
were a great meafure defeated merely through Mr Wy¬
cherley’s modefty ; he being alhamed to tell the earl of
Mulgrave, whom the king had fent to demand it, a true
ftate of his debts. He laboured under the rveight of
thefe difficulties till his father died, who left him 600I.
a-year. But this eftate was under limitations, he being
only a tenant for life, and not being allowed to raife
any money for the payment of his debts. However, he
took a method of doing it which few fufpefted to be
his choice; and this was making a jointure. He had
often declared, that he was refolved to die married,
though he could not bear the thoughts of living in that
ftate again : accordingly, juft at the eve of his death, he
married a young gentlewoman with 1500I. fortune, part
of which he applied to the ufes he wanted it for. Eleven
days after the celebration of thefe nuptials, in December
1715, he died, and wras interred in the vault of Covent-
garden church.
Befides his plays above mentioned, he publiffied a
volume of poems in folio. In 1728 his pofthumous
works in profe and verfe were publilhed by Mr Theo¬
bald.
WYNDHAM, Sir William, defeended of an an¬
cient family, was born about the year 1687, and fuc-
ceeded young to the title and eftate of his father. On
his return from his travels, he was chofen member for
the county of Somerfet} in which ftation he ferved in
the three laft parliaments of Queen Anne, and as long
as he lived : after the change of the miniftry in 1710,
he was appointed fecretary at war} and in 1713 was
raifed to be chancellor of the exchequer. Upon the
breach between the earl of Oxford and Lord Boling-
broke, he adhered to the interefts of the latter. He
was removed from his employment on the acceffion of
George I. and falling under fufpicion on the breaking
out of the rebellion in 1715, was apprehended. He.
made his efcape } a reward was publiffied for apprehend¬
ing him •, he furrendered, was committed to the Tower,
but never brought to a trial. After he regained his
liberty, he continued in oppofition to the feveral admi-
niftrations under which he lived } and died in 1740.
WYE, a river of South Wales, which iffuing out of
Plinlymmon Hill, very near the fource of the Severn,
croffes the north-eaft corner of Radnorffiire, giving name
to the town of Rhyadergowy (Fall of the Wye), where
it is precipitated in a cataraft : then flowing between
this county and Brecknockffiire, it croffes Herefordfhire,
and dividing the counties of Gloucefter and Monmouth, ,
falls into the mouth of the Severn, below Chepftow.
The romantic beauties of the Wye, which flows in a.
[ 765 1
WYE [ 766 ] WYE
deep bed, between lofty rocks clothed with hanging
woods, and here and there crowned by ruined caftles,
have employed the defcriptive powers of the pen and
pencil.
Wye is alfo the name of a river in Derbylhire, which
rifes in the north-weft part, above Buxton ; and, flow¬
ing fouth-eaft, falls into the Derwent, below Bake-
well.
Wye, the name of a town in Kent, with a market on
Thurfday, feated on the Stour, 10 miles fouth of Can¬
terbury, and 59. fouth-eaft of London, li. Long. 1. 4.
N. Lat. 51. 10.
Wye, a town of Switzerland, in a territory of the
abbey of St Gallen, with a palace. It is built on an
eminence 16 miles fouth fouth-weft of Conftance. E.
Long. 9. 4. N. Lat. 47. 34.
X.
Xanthium
H
Xebec.
'V' or x, is the 22d letter of our alphabet, and a dou-
-^•9 ble confonant. It wras not ufed by the Hebrews
or ancient Greeks; for, as it is a compound letter, the
ancients, who ufed great fimplicity in their writings, ex-
preffed this letter by its component letters c s. Neither
have the Italians this letter, but exprefs it by J/l X be¬
gins no word in our language but fiich as are of Greek
original j and is in few others but what are of Latin
derivation ; as perplex, reflexion, dcjluxion, &c. We of¬
ten exprefs, this found by Angle letters, as cks, in backs,
necks-, by ks, in books, breaks; by cc, in accefs, acci¬
dent ; by ct, in aBion, unBion, &c. The Engliftr and
French pronounce it like cs or ks ; the Spaniards like c
before a, viz. Alexandra, as it were Alecandro. In nu¬
merals it expreffeth 10, whence in old Roman manu-
fcripts it is ufed for denarius ; and as fuch feems to be
made of tw7o V’s placed one over the other. When a
dafh is added over it, thus x, it fignifies 10,000. .
XANTHIUM, a genus of plants of the clafs monce-
cia, and arranged in the natural claftification under the
49th order, cornpo/itce. See Botany Index.
XANTHOXYLUM. See Zanthoxylum.
XEBEC, or Zebec, a fmall three-mafted veflel, na¬
vigated in the Mediterranean fea, and on the coafts
of Spain, Portugal, and Barbary. See Plate
%; I0- .
The fails of the xebec are in general ftmilar to thofe
of the poleacre, but the hull is extremely different from
that and almoft every other veffel. It is furnifhed with
a ftrong prow : and the extremity of the ftern, which is
nothing more than a fort of railed platform or gallery,
projects farther behind the counter and buttock than
that of any European (hip.
Being generally equipped as a cprfair, the xebec is
conftnnfted with a narrow floor, to be more fwift in pur-
fuit of the enemy ; and @f a great breadth, to enable
her to carry a greater force of fail for this purpofe with¬
out danger of overturning. As thefe veffels are ufually
very lowr built, their decks are formed with a great con¬
vexity from the middle of their breadth toward* the
Tides, in order to carry off the wiater which falls aboard
more readily by their fcuppers. But as this extreme
convexity would render it very difficult to walk thereon
at fea, particularly when the veffel rocks by the agita¬
tion of the waves, there is a platform of grating extend¬
ing along the deck from the Tides of the veffel towards
the middle, whereon the crew may walk dry-footed
2
Xebec
whilft the water is conveyed through the grating to the
fcuppers.
The xebecs, which are generally armed as veffels of Xenocrates.
war by the Algerines, mount from 16 to 24 cannon,—v—
and carry from 300 to 450 men, two-thirds of whom
are generally foldiers.
By the very complicated and inconvenient method of
working thefe veffels, what one of their captains of Al¬
giers told Mr Falconer will be readily believed, viz.
that every xebec requires at leaf! the labour of three
fquare-rigged drips, wherein the Handing fails are cal¬
culated to anfwer every lituation of the wind.
XENOCRATES, a celebrated ancient Grecian phi-
lofopher, was born at Chalcedon in the 95th Olym¬
piad. At firft he attached himfelf to Ailchines, but
afterwards became a difciple of Plato, who took much
pains in cultivating his genius, w'hich was naturally
heavy. His temper was gloomy, his afpedt fevere, and
his manners little tindlured with urbanity. Thefe ma¬
terial defedts his mafter took great pains to corredt ;
frequently advifing him to facvifice to the Graces : and
the pupil was patient of inftrudtion, and knew how
to value the kindnefs of bis preceptor. As long as
Plato lived, Xenocrates rvas one of his moft efteemed
difciples; after his death he clofely adhered to his doc¬
trine ; and, in the fecond year of the noth Olympiad,
he took the chair in the academy, as the fucceffor of
Speufippus.
Xenocrates wt.s celebrated among the Athenians, not
only for his wifdom, but for his virtues. So eminent
was his reputation for integrity, that when he was called
upon to give evidence in a judicial tranfadtion, in which
an oath was ufually required, the judges unanimoufly a-
greed, that his fimple affervation (hould be taken, as a
public teftimony to his merit. Even Philip of Macedon
found it impoflible to corrupt him. So abftemious was
he with refpedt to food, that his proviilon was frequently
fpoiled before it was confumed. His chaftity was invin¬
cible. Phryne, a celebrated Athenian courtezan, at¬
tempted without fuccefs to feduce him. Of his humanity
the following pathetic incident is a fufficient proof: A
fparrow, which was purfued by a hawk, flew into his
bofom ; he afforded it protedlion till its enemy was out
of fight, and then let it go, faying, that he would never
betray a fuppliant. He was fqnd of retirement, and was
feldom feen in the city. He was difereet in the ufe o^.n/ield s
his time, and carefully allotted a certain portion of each
dayvoLii.
X E N [ 767 ] X I M
Xenccrates day lo its proper bufinefs. One of tbefe he employed in
II filent meditation. He was an admirer of the mathema-
.^cnop on. fcjences . anc| was f0 fuHy convinced of their utility,
"" v that wrhen a young man, who was unacquainted with
geometry and allronomy, delired admiflion into the aca¬
demy, he refufed his requeft, faying, that he was not
yet poffeffed of the handles of philofophy. In fine, Xe-
nocrates was eminent both for the purity of his morals
and for his acquaintance with fcience, and fupported the’
credit of the Platonic fchool, by his le&ures, his writ¬
ings, and his condudf. He lived to the firft year of the
116th Olympiad, or the 82 of his age, when he loft his
life by accidentally falling, in the dark, into a rclervoir
of water.
XENOPHANES, the founder of the Eleaic feft of
philofophy among the Greeks, was born at Colophon
probably about the 65th Olympiad. From fome caufe
or other he left his country early, and took refuge in Si¬
cily, where he fupported himfelf by reciting, in the court
of Hiero, elegiac and iambic verfes, which he had writ¬
ten in reprehe ■'•ion of the theogonies of Hefiod and Ho¬
mer. From Sicily he paffed over into Magna Graecia,
where he took up the profeflion of pnilofophy, and be¬
came a celebrated preceptor in the Pythagorean fchool.
Indulging, however, a greater freedom of thought than
was ufual among the difciples of Pythagoras, he ventured
to introduce new opinions of his own, and in many par¬
ticulars to oppofe the doftrines of Epimenides, Thales,
and Pythagoras. Xenophanes poffeffed the Pythagorean
chair of philofophy about feventy years, and lived to the
extreme age of an hundred years, that is, according to
Eufebius, till the 81 ft Olympiad. The doftrine of Xe¬
nophanes concerning nature is fo imperfe&ly preferved,
and obfcurely expreffed, that it is no wonder that it has
been differently reprefented by different writers. Perhaps
the truth is, that he held the univerfe to be one in na¬
ture and fubftance, but diftinguilhed in his conception
between the matter of which all things confift, and that
latent divine force which, though not a diftindft fubftance
but an attribute, is neceffarily inherent in the univerfe,
and is the caufe of all its perfeflion.
XENOPHON, an illuftrious philofopher, general,
and hiftorian, was born at Athens in the 3d year of the
82d Olympiad. When he was a youth, Socrates, ftruck
with his external appearance, determined to admit him
into the number of his pupils. Meeting him by accident
in a narrow paffage, the philofopher put his ftaff acrofs
the path, and flopping him, allied, where thofe things
were to be purchafed which are neceffary to human life ?
Xenophon appearing at a lofs for a reply to this unex-
pefted falutation, Socrates proceeded to alk him, where
honeft and good men were to be found ? Xenophon ftill
hefitating, Socrates faid to him, “ Follow me, and learn.”
From that time Xenophon became a difciple of Socrates,
and made a rapid progrefs in that moral wifdom for which
his mafter was fo eminent. Xenophon accompanied So¬
crates in the Peloponnefian war, and fought courageoully
in defence of his country. He afterwards entered into
the army of Cyrus as a private volunteer in his expedi¬
tion againft his brother. This enterprife proving un¬
fortunate, Xenophon, after the death of Cyrus, advifed
his fellow foldiers to attempt a retreat into their own
country. They liftened to his advice ; and having had
many proofs of his wifdom well as courage, they gave
him the command of the army? in the room of Proxenus.
who had fallen in battle. In this command he acquired XeRcphen
great glory by the prudence and firmnefs with which he ximgnes
conduced them back, through the midft of innumerable . ^
dangers, into their own country. The particulars of this
memorable adventure are related by Xenophon himfelf
in his Retreat of the Ten Thoufand. After his return
into Greece, he joined Agefilaus, king of Sparta, and
fought with him againft the Thebans in the celebrated
battle of Chaeronea. The Athenians, difpleafed at this
alliance, brought a public accufation againft him for his
former conduft in engaging in the fervice of Cyrus, and
condemned him to exile. The Spartans, upon this, took
Xenophon, as an injured man, under their proteftion,
and provided him a comfortable retreat at Sfcilluntes in
Elea. Here, with his wife and two children, he remain¬
ed feveral years, and paffed his time in the fociety of hU
friends, and in writing thofe hiftorical works which have
rendered his name immortal. A war at length arofe be¬
tween the Spartans and Eleans j and Xenophon was ob¬
liged to retire to Lepreus, where his eldeft fon bad fettled.
He afterwards removed, with his whole family, to Co¬
rinth, where, in the firft year of the hundred and fifth
Olympiad, he finilhed his days.
Xenophon the Younger, a Greek writer, fo called to
diftinguifti him from the celebrated Xenophon, was bom
at Ephefus, and lived, according to dome authors, before
Heliodorus, that is, about the beginning of the 4th cen¬
tury. He is only known by his Ephejiaca, a Greek ro¬
mance in five books, which is efteemed, and contains the
amours or adventures of Abracomes and Anthia. This
romance was printed at London, in Greek and Latin, in
1724. 410.
XERXES I. the fifth king of Perfia, memorable for
the vaft army he is faid to have carried into the field a-
gainft Leonidas king of Sparta ; confifting, according to
fome hiftorians, of 800,000 men, while others make it
amount to 3,000,000, exclufive of attendants. The fleet
that attended this prodigious land force is likewife made
to confift of 2000 fail ; and all the fuccefs they met with
was the taking and burning the city of Athens; for the
army was Ihamefully repulfed near the ftraits of Ther¬
mopylae by Leonidas, and the fleet was difperfed and
partly deftroyed by Themiflocles at the ftraits of Sala-
mis, who had only 380 fail under his command. Xerxes
was affaflinated by Artabanes, chief captain of his guards,
and his diftinguilhed favourite. See Sparta.
XIMENES, Francis, a juftly celebrated cardinal,
bilhop of Toledo, and prime minifter of Spain, was bom
at Torrelaguna, in Old Caftile, in 1437, and ftudied at
Alcala and Salamanca. He then went to Rome $ and
being robbed on the road, brought nothing back but a
bull for obtaining the firft vacant prebend : but the arch-
bilhopof Toledo refufed it him, and threw him into pri-
fon. Being at length reftored to liberty, he obtained a
benefice in the diocefe of Siguen^a, where Cardinal Gon¬
zales de Mendoza, who was the bilhop, made him his
grand vicar. Ximenes fome time after entered among
the Francifcans of Toledo; but being there troubled
with vifits, he retired to a folitude named Cajlanel, and
applied himfelf to the ftudy of divinity and the oriental
tongues. At his return to Toledo, Queen Ifabella of
Caftile chofe him for her confeffor, and afterwards nomi¬
nated him archhilhop of Toledo \ which, next to the pa¬
pacy, is the richeft dignity in the church of Rome.
“ This honour (fays Dr Robertfon) he declined .:th a
firmneE
X I M
[ 763 ]
X I M
^CCimenfs. ^ firmnefs which nothing but the authoritative injunction
v of the pope was able to overcome. Nor did this height
of promotion change his manners. Though obliged to
difplay in public that magnificence which became his fta-
tion, he himfelf retained his monadic feverity. Under
his pontifical robes he conftantiy wore the coarfe frock
of St Francis, the rents of which he ufed to patch with
his own hands. Fie at no time ufed linen, but was
commonly clad in hair-cloth. He llept always in his
habit; mod frequently on the floor or on boards, and
rarely in a bed. He did not tafle any of the delicacies
W’hich appeared at his table, but fatisfied himfelf with
that Ample diet which the rule of his order prefcribed.
Notwithdanding thefe peculiarities, fo oppofite to the
manners of the world, he poflefled a thorough know¬
ledge of its affairs, and difcovered talents for bufinefs
which rendered the fame of his wifdom equal to that of
his fanftity.” His firfl care was to provide for the ne*
ceflities of the poor ; to vifit the churches and hofpitals $
to purge his diocefe of ufurers and places of debauchery j
to degrade corrupt judges, and place in their^room per-
fons whom he knew to be diflinguifhed by their probity
and difintereflednefs. He erefted a famous univerfity at
Alcala j and in 1499 founded the college of St Ilde-
phonfo. Three years after he undertook the Polyglot
Bible ; and for that purpofe fent for many learned men
to come to him at Toledo, purchafed feven copies in
Hebrew for 4000 crowns, and gave a great price for
Latin and Greek manufcripts. At this Bible they la¬
boured above 12 years. It contains the Hebrew text of the
Bible 5 the verfion of the Septuagint, with a literal tranf-
lation ; that of St Jerom, and the Chaldee paraphrafes
of Onkelos; and Ximenes added to it a diftionary of
the Hebrew and Chaldee words contained in the Bible.
This work is called Ximenes's Polyglot. In 1507 Pope
Julius II. gave him the cardinal’s hat, and King Ferdi¬
nand the Catholic entrufted him with the adminiftration
of affairs. Cardinal Ximenes was from this moment the
foul of every thing that paffed in Spain. He diftinguifh-
ed himfelf at the beginning of his miniftry by difchar*
ging the people from the burdenfome tax called acavale,
which had been continued on account of the war againft
Granada ; and laboured with fuch zeal anti fuccefs in
the converfion of the Mahometans, that he made 3000
converts, among whom was a prince of the blood of the
kings of Granada. In 1509 Cardinal Ximenes extended
the dominions of Ferdinand, by taking the city of Oran
in the kingdom of Algiers. He undertook this conqueft
at his own expence, and marched in perfon at the head
of the Spanifh army clothed in his pontifical ornaments,
and accompanied by a great number of ecclefiaftics and
monks. Some time after, forefeeing an extraordinary
fcarcity, he erefted public granaries at Toledo, Alcala,
and Torrelaguna, and had them filled wflth corn at his
own expence •, which gained the people’s hearts to fuch
a degree, that to preferve the memory of this noble ac¬
tion they had an eulogium upon it cut on marble, in the
hall of the fenate-houfe at Toledo, and in the market¬
place. King Ferdinand dying in I5I6, left Cardinal
Ximenes regent of his dominions; and the archduke
Charles, who was afterwards the emperor Charles V.
confirmed that nomination. The cardinal immediately
made a reform of the officers of the fupreme council and
of the court, and put a flop to the oppreflion of the gran¬
dees. He vindicated the rights of the people againft the Ximenes.
nobility j and as by the feudal conftitution the military
power was lodged in the hands of the nobles, and men
of inferior condition were called into the field only as
their vaflals, a king with fcanty revenues depended on
them in all his operations. From this ftate Ximenes re-
folved to deliver the crown; and ilTued a proclamation,
commanding every city in Caftile to inrol a certain num¬
ber of its burgeffes, and teach them military difcipline 'T
he himfelf engaging to provide officers to command them
at the public expence. This was vigoroufly oppofed by
the nobles 5 but by his intrepidity and fuperior addrels-
he carried his point. He then endeavoured to diminifh
the pofleflions of the nobility, by reclaiming all the
crown-lands, and putting a flop to the penfions granted
by the late king Ferdinand. This addition made to the
revenues enabled him to difcharge all the debts of Fer¬
dinand, and to eftablifh magazines of warlike ftores.
The nobles, alarmed at thefe repeated attacks, uttered
loud complaints } but before they proceeded to extremi¬
ties, appointed fome grandees of the fint rank to exa¬
mine the powers in confequence of which he exercifed
afts of fuch high authority. Ximenes received them
with cold civility j produced the teftament of Ferdi¬
nand, by which he was appointed regent, together with
the ratification of that deed by Charles. To both thefe
they objefted } and he endeavoured to eftablifh their va¬
lidity. As the converfation grew warm, he led them in-
fenfibly to a balcony, from which they had a view of a
large body of troops under arms, and of a formidable
train of artillery. “ Behold (fays he, pointing to thefe,
and railing his voice) the powers which I have received
from his Catholic majefty ! With thefe I govern Caftile j
and with thefe I will govern it, till the king, your ma¬
iler and mine, takes pofleflion of his kingdom !” A de¬
claration fo bold and haughty filenced them, and afton-
ifhed their affociates. They faw that he was prepared
for his defence, and laid nfide all thoughts of a general
confederacy againft his adminiftration. At length, from
the repeated intreaties of Ximenes, and the impatient
murmurs of the Spanifh miniftry, Charles V. embarked,
and landed in Spain, accompanied by his favourites.
Ximenes was advancing to the coaft to meet him, but
at Bos Lquillos was feized with a violent diforder, which
his followers confidered as the effefts of poifon. This
accident obliging Ximenes to flop, he wrote to the king,
and wfith his ufual boldnefs advifed him to difmifs all the
ftrangets in his train, whofe number and credit already
gave offence to the Spaniards, and earneftly defiled to
have an interview with him, that he might inform him
of the ftate of the nation, and the temper of his fubjefts.
To prevent this, not only the Flemings, but the Spanifh
grandees, employed all their addrefs to keep Charles at
a diftance from Aranda, the place to which the cardinal
had removed. His advice was now flighted and defpifed.
Ximenes, confcious of his own integrity and merit, ex¬
pelled a more grateful return from a prince to whom he
delivered a kingdom more flourifhing than it had been
in any former age, and a more extenfive authority than
the moft illuftrious of his anceftors had ever poffeffed j
and lamented the fate of his country, about to be ruined
by the rapacioufnefs and infolence of foreign favourites^
While his mind was agitated by thefe paflions, he re¬
ceived a letter from the king : in which, after a few
bold
x
X Y L [
Ximenes cold and formal expreffions of regard, he was allowed to
Xylo aloes ret’r'“ diocefe j and he expired a few hours after
< ^ dreading it in 1517, in the 81ft year of his age.
This famous cardinal ought not to be confounded with
Roderic XlMENES, archbilhop of Toledo, in the 13th
century, who wrote a Hiftory of Spain in nine books j
nor with feveral other Spanifh writers of the name of
Ximenes.
XIPHIAS, the Sword-Fish ; a genus of fifties be-
longing to the order of apodes. See Ichthyology In¬
dex. This filh is common in the Mediterranean fea,
efpecially in that part which feparates Italy from Sicily*
and which has been long celebrated for it: the promon¬
tory Pelorus, now Capo di Faro, was a place noted for the
refort of the xiphias, and poflibly the ftation of the
fpeculatores, or the perfons who watched and gave notice
of the approach of the fifti.
I. he ancient method of taking them is particularly
defcribed by Strabo, and agrees exa&ly with that prac-
tiied by the moderns. A man afcends one of the cliffs
that overhangs the fea : as fson as he fpies the fifti, he
gives notice, either by his voice or by figns, of the courfe
it takes. Another that is ftationed in a boat, climbs
up the maft, and on feeing the fword-fifti, diredls the
rowers towards it. As foon as he thinks they are got
within reach, he defcends, and taking a fpear in his hand,
ffrikes it into the fifti j which, after wearying itfelf with
its agitation, is feized and drawn into the beat. It is
much efteemed by the Sicilians, who buy it up eagerly,
and at its firit coming into feafon give for it about fixpence
Englifti per pound. The feafon lafts from May till Au-
guft. The ancients ufed to cut this fifti into pieces and
fait it j whence it was called Tomas Thunauusy from
I hurii, a town in the bay of Tarentum, where it was
taken and cured.
The fword-fifti is faid to be very voracious, and that
it is a great enemy to the tunny, which (according to
Belon) are as much terrified at it as ftieep are at the
fight of a wolf. It is a great enemy to whales, and fre¬
quently deftroys them.
XYLO-ALOES, or Aloe wood, in the Materia
Medico, is the produft of a tree growing in China and
lome of the Indian iftands. See ExciECARlA.
This drug is diftinguiftied into three forts; the ca-
lambac or tambac, the common lignum aloes, and ca-
lambour.
The calambao, or fineft aloes wood, called by authors
tignum^a/oes prcejlantiffimum, and by the Chinefe fuk-
hiangy is the moft refinous of all the woods we are ac¬
quainted with : it is of a light fpongy texture, very po¬
rous, and its pores fo filled up with a foft and fragrant
refin, that the whole may be preffed and dented by the
fingers like wax, or moulded about by chewing in the
mouth, in the manner of maftich. This kind, laid on
the fire, melts in great parts like refin, and burns away
in a few moments wfith a bright flame and perfumed
fmell. Its feent, while in the mafs, is very fragrant
and agreeable 5 and its talle acrid and bitterifti, but very
aromatic and agreeable. It is fo variable in its colour,
t hat fome have divided it into three kinds j the one va¬
riegated with black and purple; the fecond, with the
lame black, but with yellowifti inftead of purple ; and
the third, yellow alone like the yolk of an egg : this laft
Xyfius.
Vol. XX, Part II.
769 ] X Y S
is the leaft feented of the three. The variation, how- Xylo-alces
ever, is owing to the trunk of the tree being itfelf of
three different colours; and the heart of it is the va- ,
luable fort firit delcribed. The two following are fup-
psied to be the other parts of the trunk ; though this
leems doubtful, efpecially in regard to the lalt fort, from
the circumftance mentioned ot its being found in large
logs entire, and fometimes only the heart, which, as
above noticed, conftitutes the calambac.
The lignum aloes vulgare is the lecond in value. This
is of a more denle and compadt texture, and coniequently
lels rtfinous than the other, there is fome of it, how¬
ever, that is ipongy, and has the holes filled up with the
right refinous matter; and all of it, when good, has veins
of the fame refin in it. We meet with it in Imall frag¬
ments, which have been cut and fplit from larger : thele
are of a tolerably denfe texture in the more foiid pieces,
and of a dufky brown colour, variegated with refinous
black veins. It is in this ftate very heavy, and lefs fra¬
grant than in thofe pieces wftiich fliow a multitude of
little holes, filled up with the fame blackifti matter that
forms the veins in others. The woody part of thefe lalt
pieces is fomewhat darker than the other, and is not un-
frequently purplilh, or even blackilh. The fmell of the
common aloe wmod is very agreeable, but not fo ftrongly
perfumed as the former. Its tafte is fomewhat bitter
and acrid, but very aromatic.
T he calambour, called alfo agallochum fylvejlre, and
lignum aloes mexicanum, is light and friable, of a dufky
and often mottled colour, between a dufky green black
and a deep brown. Its fmell is fragrant and agree¬
able, but much lefs fweet than that ©f eilher of the
others ; and its tafte bitterifh, but not fo much acrid or
aromatic as either of the two former. This is faid to be
met with very frequently, and in large logs ; and thefe
fometimes entire, fometimes only the heart of the tree.
This is the aloe wood ufed by the cabinet-makers and
inlayers.
I his drug is efteemed a cordial taken inwardly; and
is fometimes given in diforders of the ftomach and bowels,
and to deftroy the wwms. A very fragrant oil may
be procured from it by diftillation ; which is recom¬
mended in paralytic cafes from five to fifteen drops. It
is at prefent, however, but little ufed; and would fcarce
be met with anywhere in the fhops, but that it is an in¬
gredient in fome of the old compofitions.
XYNOECIA, in Grecian antiquity, an anniverfary
feaft obferved by the Athenians in honour of Minerva,
upon the fixteenth of Hecatombaeon, to commemorate
their leaving, bythe perfuafion of Thefeus, their country
feats, in which they lay difperfed here and there in At¬
tica, and uniting together in one body.
XYST ARCHA, in antiquity, the mafter or direflor
ofthexyftus. In the Greek gymnafium the xyftarcha
w^as the fecond officer, and the gymnafiarcha the firft ;
the former was his lieutenant, and prefided over the twro
xyfti, and all exercifes of the athletse therein.
X\STUS, among the Greeks, was a long portico,
open or covered at the top, where the athletee pra&Red
wreftling and running: the gladiators, who praftifed
therein, were called xystici. Among the Romans, the
xyftus was only an alley, or double row of trees, meeting
like an arbour, and forming a /hade to walk under.
S E
Y A R
[ 77° 1
Y A R
Y.
Yard.
'V7' or y, the 23d letter of our alphabet: its found is
9 formed by expreffing the breath with a fudden
expanfion of the lips from that configuration by which
we exprefs the vowel w. It is one of the ambigenial
letters, being a confonant in the beginning of words,
and placed before all vowels, as in yard, yield, young,
&c. but before no conionant. At the end of words it
is a vowel, and is fubftituted for the found of i, as in
try, defcry, &c. In the middle of words it is not ufed
fo frequently as i is, unlefs in words derived from the
Greek, as in chyle, empyreal, &c. though it is admitted
into the middle of fome pure Englilh words, as in dying,
flying, &.c. The Romans had no capital of this letter,
but ufed the fmall one in the middle and laft fyllables of
words, as in coryambus, onyx, martyr. Y is alfo a nu¬
meral, fignifying 150, or, according to Baronins, 159 J
and with a dafh a-top, as Y, it fignifitd 150,000.
YACHT, or YaTCH, a velfel of ftate, ufually em¬
ployed to convey princes, ambaffadors, or other great
-perfonages, from one kingdom to another.
As the principal defign of a yacht is to accommodate
the paffengers, it is ufually fitted with a variety of con¬
venient apartments, with fuitable furniture, according
to the quality or number of the perfons contained there¬
in.
The royal yachts are commonly rigged as ketches,
except the principal one referved for tire fovereign,
which is equipped wi h three malls like a fhip. They
are in general elegantly furnilhed, and richly ornament¬
ed with fculpture ; and always commanded by captains
in his majefty’s xravy.
Befides thefe, there are many other yachts of a fmall-
er kind, employed by the commiflioners of the excife,
navy, and cuftoms; or ufed as plcafure-boats by private
gentlemen.
YAMS. See Dioscorea, 1 t, T ,
YAMBOO. See Eugenia, |BoTANy I,lcIex-
YARD of a Ship, a long piece of timber fufpended
upon the malls of a Ihip, to extend the fails to the wind.
See Mast and Sail.
All yards are either fquare or lateen ; the former of
which are fufpended acrofs the malls at right angles,
and the latter obliquely.
The fquare yards are nearly of a cylindrical furface.
They taper from the middle, which is called the fling?,
towards the extremities, which are termed the yard¬
arms; and the dillance between the flings and the yard¬
arms on each fide is by the artificers divided into quar¬
ters, which are dillinguilhed into the firlt, fecond, third
quarters, and yard-arms. The middle quarters are form¬
ed into eight fquares, and each of the end parts is figur¬
ed like the fiuilum of a cone. All the yards of a Ihip
are fquare except that of the mizen.
The proportions for the length of yards, according to
the different claffes of Ihips in the Britilh navy, are as
follows:
1000 : gun-deck : : <
1000 : main-yard ::
f 560
559
57°
576
575
. 561
\ 880
iL874
Guns.
main-yard, fig. 1. f 100
PI. cccclxviii. 90 80
Note, the figure 70
reprefents the < 60
yard and fails of 50
a flrip of 74 guns. ^44
ifore-vard £ 100 9° 80
S yard. |all the reft>
Yard.
To apply this rule to pradlice, fuppofe the gun-deck
144 feet. The proportion for this length is, as loco is
to 575, fo is 144 to 83 } which will be the length of
the mam-yard in feet, and fo of all the reff.
1000 : main-yard : :
1000 : main yard : :
1000 : fore-yard ::
rS20
K 847 :
(.840 : J
reft.
70
all the reft
Guns.
{100 90 80 60 44
7°
{ 7*0 : \ main toPfad-yarcl ^
Cii9 •i . r 7°
< 726: J-fore topfail-yard < 24
:J (_ah the reft,
xcoo : main topfail-yard : : main top gallant-yard all the rates.
,000 fore toward :
1000 : fore-topfail yard^ mizentopfailyard ^
Crofs-jack and fprit-fail yards equal to the fore top¬
fail-yard.
Sprit-topfail-yard equal to the fore top-gallant-yard.
The diameters of yards are in the following propor¬
tions to their length.
The main and fore yards five-fevenths of an inch to
one yard. The topfail, crofs-jack, and fprit-fail yards,
nine-fourteenths of an inch to one yard. The top-gal¬
lant, mizen topfail, and fprit-fail toplail yards, eight-
thirteenths of an inch to one yard.
The mizen-yard five-ninths of an inch to one yard.
All ftudding-fail booms and yards half an inch to
one yard in length.
The lifts of the main-yard are exhibited in the above
figure by^-^-; the horles and their llirrups by hi; the
the reef-tackles and their pendents by h,l; and the
braces and brace-pcndents by m, n.
The lateen-yards evidently derive their names from
having been peculiar to the ancient Romans. They are
ufually compofed of feveral pieces faftened together by
wooldings, which alfo ferve as Heps whereby the Jailors
climb to the peek or upper extremity, in order to furl
or call loofe the fail.
The mizen-yard of a fhip, and the main-yard of a
bilander, are hung obliquely on the mail, almofl in the
fame manner as the lateen-yard of a xebec, fettee, or
polacre.
Yard, a rreafure of length ufed in Britain and Spain,
confiding of three feet, chietly to meafure cloth, duffs,
&.c.
Taed-
Yard arm
II.
Yawning.
YAW [ 7
Yard-Ann is that half of the yard that is on either
(ide of the maft, when it lies athwart the ihip.
, Yards alfo denotes places belonging to the navy,
where the (hips of war, &c. are laid up in harbour. 
There are belonging to his majefty’s navy fix great
yards, viz. Chatham, Deptford, Woolwich, Portfmouth,
Sheernefs, and Plymouth ; thefe yards are fitted with
feveral docks, wharfs, launches, and graving places, for
the building, repairing, and cleaning of his majefty’s
(flips j and therein are lodged great quantities of tim¬
ber, mails, planks, anchors, and other materials : there
are alfo convenient (lore-houfes in each yard, in which
are laid up vaft quantities of cables, rigging, fails, blocks,
and all other forts of (lores needful for the royal
navy.
YARE, among Tailors, implies ready or quick : as,
be yare at. the helm ; that is, be quick, ready, and expe¬
ditious at the helm. It is fometimes alfo ufed for bright
by feamen : as, to keep his arms yare ; that is, to keep
them clean and bright.
Yare, a river of Norfolk, which runs from well to
call through that county, palling by Norwich, and fall¬
ing into the German fea at Yarmouth.
YARMOUTH, a fea-port towm of Norfolk, with a
market on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and a* fair on
Friday and Saturday in Eafter-week for petty chapmen.
It is feated on the river Yare, where it falls into the
fea ; and is a place of great ftrength, both by art and
nature, being almoft furrounded with water ; and there
is a drawbridge over the river. It is elfeemed the key
of this coaft, and is a clean handfome place, whole
houfes are well built, it being a confiderable town for
trade. It has one large church, and a neat chapel, and
the lleeple of St Nicholas is fo high that it ferves for a
fea-mark. It is governed by a mayor. The harbour is
a very fine one, though it is very dangerous for ftrangers
in windy weather ; and it has for its fecurity a pretty
lirong fort. It is 27 miles eaft of Norwich, and 112
north-eaft of London. E. Long. 1. N. Lat C2
45'r
Yarmouth, a town of the ille of Wight, in Hamp-
flure, with a market on Fridays, and one fair on July
25th for toys. It is feated on the w'dtern part of the
iiland, on the fea-(horc, and is encompaffed with water •
for, not many years ago a channel wms cut through the
penmfula, over which there is a drawbridge, and it is
defended by a firong caftle on the quay. It h a hand¬
fome place, whofe houfes are chiefly built with (lone
and covered with (late ; and it fends two members to
parliament. The market is now difufed. W I nno-
I. 28. N. Lat. 50. 40. ' g*
YARN, wool or flax fpun into thread, of which they
weave cloth. See Cloth.
YARROW. See Achillea, Botany Iru/ex.
YAWNING, an involuntary opening of the mouth
generally produced by wearinefs or an inclination to’
fleep. Yawning, according to Boerhaave, is performed
by expanding at one and the fame time all the mufcles
capable of fpontaneous motion ; by greatly extending
the lungs j by drawing in gradually and (lowly a large
quantity of air 5 and gradually and (lowly breathing it
out, after it has been retained for fome time and rare¬
fied 5 and then reftoring the mufcles to their natural
Rate. Hence the effeft of yawning is to move, acce-
leiaie, and equady diltribute all the humours through
71 ]
YEA
all tne veiTels of the body, and confequently to qualify Y
the mufcles and organs of fenfation for their various
functions. i—
SancRorius obferves, that a great deal is infenfibly dif-
charged, when nature endeavours to get rid of the re¬
tained perfpirable matter, by yawning and (Retching of
tne limbs, i o thefe a perfon is mo(t inclined juft after
eep becaufe a greater quantity going off by the pores
o the 1km than at other times, whenfoever a perfon
wakes, the increafing contraftion that then happens
doles a great deal of the perfpirable matter in the cuta¬
neous pailages, which will continually give fuch irrita¬
tions as excite yawning and (Retching; and fuch mo¬
tions, by (baking the membranes of the whole body
and ftufting the contafts of their fibres, and the inclofed’
matter, by degrees throw it off. Hence we fee the
realon why healthful ftrong people are mod inclined to
iuch motions, becaufe they peifpire moft in time of
deep, and therefore have more of the perfpirable matter
to lodge in the pores, and greater irritations thereunto,
ihe advantages of fome little exercife juft after waking
in a morning are confiderable, as it throws off all the
perfpirable matter that is ready for its exit out of the
body. When yawning is troublefome, Hippocrates fays
Rat long deep refpiration or drawing in the air at long
intervals cures it. °
^ EAR, in AJlronomy and Chronology. See Astro¬
nomy and Kalendar.
I he ancient Roman year was the lunar year, which,
as fiift fettled by Romulus, confided of only 10 months;
viz. 1. March, containing 31 days. 2. April, 30. 3.
May, 31. 4. June, 30. 5. Quintilis, 31. C Sextilis*
30. 7. September, 30. 8. Odober, 31. 9. Novem¬
ber, 30. 10. December, 30.—-In all 304 days; which
came (hort of the true lunar year by 50 days, and of
the folar, by 61 days. Numa Pompilius corre<fted this
inegular conftitution of tjie year, and compofed two
new months, January and February, of the days that
were ufed to be added to the former year.
ancient Egyptian year, called alfo the year of
Aabonafar, on account of the epoch of Nabonaffar, is the
folar year of 365 days, divided into 12 months, of 30
days each, befides five intercalary days added at the
end. The names, &c. of the months are as follows :
1. I both. 2. Paophi. 3. Athyr. 4. Chojac. 5. Ty-
6. Mecheir. 7. Phamenoth. 8. Pharmuthi. o.
Pachen. 10. Pauni. n. Epiphi. 12. Mefori; befide
the iTTtlytiiJAIcu,
The ancient Greek year was lunar ; confiding of 12
months, which at firft had 30 days apiece, then alter-
nateiy 30 and 29 days, computed from the firft appear¬
ance of the new moon ; with the addition of an embolif-
nuc month of 30 days, every 3d, 5th, 8th, nth,
14th, ioih, and 19th year of a cycle of 19 years - in
order to keep the new and full moons to the fame terms
or feafons of the year. Their year commenced with
that new moon, the full moon of which comes next af
ter the fummer folftice. The order, &c. of their months
was thus : 1.containing 29 days. 2. Mq-
rttyurnm, 30. 3. 29. 4. Mxi^Tqptur,
3°* 5- nvixmp^yx, 29. 6. 30. 7. Tcip.q\i-.
29* 8. 30. 9. 30. 10.
30. II. Qx^yqXtuv, 29. 12.
The ancient Jewifh year is a lunar year, confiding
5 E 2 commonly
YEA [ 772 ] YEA
commonly of 11 months, which alternately contain 30
and 29 ilays. It was made to agree with the folar
year^either by the adding of II, and fometimes 12
days, at the end of the year, or by an embolifmic
month. The names and quantities of the months ftand
thus : 1. Nifan, or Abib, 30 days. 2. Jiar, or Zius,
29, 3. Siban, or Siwan, 30. 4. Thammuz, or Tam-
muz, 29. 5. Ab, 30. 6. Elul, 29. 7. Tifri, or E-
thanim, 30. 8. Marchefvam, or Bui, 29. 9. Cilleu,
30. 10. Tebeth, 29. 11. Sabat, or bchebeth, 30.
12. Adar, in the embolifmic year, 30. Adar, in the
common year, was but 29. Note, in the defective
year, Cifleu was only 29 days ) and in the redundant
year, Marchefvam was 30.
The Perlian year is a folar year of about 365 days j
confiding of 12 months of 30 days each, with five in¬
tercalary days add ad at the end.
The Arabic, Mahometan, and Tuikifh years, called
alfo the year of the Hegira, is a lunar year, equal to
354 days eight hours and 48 minutes, and confifts of
12 months, which contain alternately 30 and 29 days.
The Hindoo year differs from all thefe, and is indeed
different in different provinces of India. The belt ac¬
count that we have of it is by Mr Cavendilh, in the
Phil. Tranf. of the Royal Society of London for the
year 1792. “ Before I fpeak of the civil year of the
Hindoos (fays this eminent philofopher), it will be pro¬
per to fay a few words of the aftronomical year, by
which it is regulated.
“ The aftronomical year begins at the inftant when
the fun comes to the firft point of the Hindoo zodiac.
In the year 1792, it began on April 9th, at 22h. 14'
after midnight of their firft meridian, which is about 41'
of time weft of Calcutta j but, according to Mr Gen-
til’s account of the Indian aftronomy, it began 3b. 34'
earlier. As this year, however, is longer than ours,
its commencement falls continually later, in refpeft of
the Julian year, by 50' 26" in four years. This year
is divided into 12 months, each of which correfponds to
the time of the fun’s ftay in fome fign 5 fo that they are
of different lengths, and feldom begin at the beginning
of a day.
“ The civil day in all parts of India begins at funrife,
and is divided into 60 parts called dandas, which are
again divided into 60 palas. In thofe parts of India in
which the Benares almanac, or as it is there called pa~
tras, is ufed, the civil year is lunifolar, confifting of 12
lunar months, with an intercalary month inferted be¬
tween them occafionally. It begins at the day after
the new moon next before the beginning of the folar
year. The lunar month is divided into 30 parts called
texthees; thefe are not ftriftly of the fame length, but
are equal to the time in which the moon’s true motion
from the fun is 120. From the new moon till the moon
arrives at 12° diftance from the fun is called the firft
teethee ; from thence till it comes to 240, is called the
fecond teethee ; and fo on till the full moon, after which
the teethees return in the fame order as before.
“ The civil day is conftantly called by the number of
that teethee which expires during the courfe of the day)
and as the teethee is fometimes longer than one day, a
day fometimes occurs in which no teethee ends. When
this is the cafe, the day is called by the fame number
as the following day} fo that two fucceffive days go by
the fainc name. It oftener happens, however, that two
teethees end on the fame day 5 in which cafe the Year*?
number of the fill! of them gives name to the day, and Yeaft>
there is no day called by the number of the laft, fo that Y—’
a gap is made in the order of the days. In the latter
part of the month the days are counted from the full
moon, in the fame manner as in the former part they are
counted from the new moon ; only the laft day, or that
on which the new moon happens, is called the 30th, in-
ftead of the 1 5th. It appears, therefore, that each half
of the month conftantly begins on the day after thctt
on which the new or full moon falls ; only fometimes
the half month begins with the fecond day, the firft:
being wanting.
“ This manner of counting the days is fufficiently in¬
tricate ; but that of counting the months is Hill more
fo.
“ The civil year, as was before faid, begins at the
day after the new moon ; and, moreover, in the years
which have an intercalary month, this month begins at
the day after the new moon ) but notwithftanding this,
the ordinary civil month begins at the day after the full
moon. To make their method more intelligible, we
will call the time from new moon to new moon the na¬
tural month. The civil month Vifakha, the firft in the
Hindoo kalender, which extends from the 9th of our
April to the 10th of May, begins at the day after that
full moon which is neareft to the inftant at which the
fun enters Media, the firft in order of the Indian figns,
whether before or after j however, it is not always ac¬
curately the neareft.
“ A confequence of this way of counting the months
is, that the firft half of Chitra, the laft month in the
Indian kalender, extending from March the 10th to
April the 9th, falls in one year, and the latter half in
the following year *, and whenever the fun enters no
fign during a natural month, this month is intercalary.
The number of days in the month varies from 29 to 32.
Indeed the Hindoo months, both folar and lunar, con-
fift neither of a determinate number of days, nor are
regulated by any cycle, but depend folely on the mo¬
tions of the fun and moon j fo that a Hindoo has no
way of knowing what day of the month it is but by
confulting his almanac •, and what is more, the month
ought fometimes to begin on different days, in different
places, on account of the difference in latitude and lon¬
gitude, not to mention the difference which may arife
from errors in computation. This mode of computing
time muft be attended with many inconveniences; but
in the tranfaftions of civil life the Hindoos do not much
regard it. A difagreement, however, in the computa¬
tion of the teethee, which fometimes alfo happens, oc-
cafions no fmall perplexity *, becaufe by the teethees or
lunar days are regulated moft of their religious feftivals.
Every Brahmin in charge of a temple, or whofe duty it
is to announce the times for the obfervance of religious
ceremonies, is therefore furniftied with one of their al¬
manacs ; and if he be an aftronomer, he makes fuch cor-
re&ionf in it as the difference of latitude and longitude
renders neceffary.”
New Year's Gift. See Gift.
YEAST, or Yest, a head or feum rifing upon beer
or ale while working or fermenting in the vat. See
Brewing.
It is ufed for a leaven or fermemt in the baking of
lyead, as ferving to fwell or puff it up very confidcjably
t*r
YEA [ 773 3 YEW
Yeaft. in a little time, and to make it much lighter, fofter, and
—V" more delicate. See Baking, Barm, and Bread.
Mr Henry has publiftied a method of preparing arti¬
ficial yeqfl, by which good bread may be made without
the alTitlance of any other ferment. I he method is
this : Boil flour and water together to the confidence
of treacle, and when the mixture is cold faturate it with
fixed air. Pour the mixture thus faturated into one or
more large bottles or narrow-mouthed jars ; cover it
over loofely with paper, and upon that lay a flate or
board with a weight to keep it fteady. Place the vef-
fel in a fituation where the thermometer will ftand from
70° to 8o°, and ftir up the mixture two or three times
in 24 hours. In about two days fuch a degree of fer¬
mentation will have taken place, as to give the mixture
the appearance of yeaft. With the yeail in this Hate,
and before it has acquired a thoroughly vinous fmell,
mix the quantity of flour intended for bread, in the pro¬
portion of fix pounds of flour to a quart of the yeaft, and
a fufficient portion of warm water. Knead them well
together in a proper veflel, and covering it with a cloth,
let the dough ftand for 12 hours, or till it appears to be
fufficiently fermented in the fore-mentioned degree of
warmth. It is then to be formed into loaves and baked.
Mr Henry adds, that perhaps the yeaft would be more
perfeft, if a decoftion of malt were ufed inftead of Ample
water.
It has lately been difcovered, that a deco&ion of malt
alone, without any addition, wdll produce a yeaft pro¬
per enough for the purpofe of brewing. Ihis difcovery
was made by Jofeph Senyor, fervant of the reverend Mr
Mafon of Afton near Rotheram j and he received for it
a reward of 20I. from the Society for promoting Arts,
Manufa&ures, and Commerce. The procefs is as fol¬
lows : Procure three earthen or wooden veffels of dif¬
ferent fizes and apertures, one capable of holding two
quarts, the other three or four, and the third five or fix :
boil a quarter of a peck of malt for about eight or ten
minutes in three pints of wrater j and when a quart is
poured off from the grains, let it ftand in the firft or
fmaller veffel in a eool place till not quite cold, but re¬
taining that degree of heat which the brewers ufually
find to be proper when they begin to work their liquor.
Then remove the veffel into fome warm fituation near a
fire, where the thermometer *ftands betwTeen 70 and 80
degrees Fahrenheit, and there let it remain till the fer¬
mentation begins, which will be plainly perceived
within 30 hours : add then twTo quarts more of a like
deco&ion of malt, w'hen cool, as the firft was ; and
mix the whole in the fecond or larger veffel, and ftir
it well in, which muft be repeated in the ufual way, as
it rifes in a common vat: then add a ftill greater quan¬
tity of the fame decoftion, to be worked in the largeft
veffel, which wull produce yeaft enough for a brewing of
40 gallons.
Common ale yeaft may be kept frefh and fit for ufe
feveral months by the following method : Put a quan¬
tity of it into a clofe canvas bag, and gently fqueeze
out the moifture in a fcrew-prefs till the remaining mat¬
ter be as firm and ftiff as clay. In this fate it may be
clofe packed up in a tight calk for fecuring it from the
air } and will keep frefti, found, and fit for ufe, for a
long time. This is a fecret that might be of great ufe
to the brewers and diftillers, who, though they employ
very large quantities of yeaft, fegm to l^now no method
of preferving it, or raifing nurferies of it; for want of Yell
which they fufain a very confiderable lofs 3 whereas Y<Ny
the brew’ers in Flanders make a very great advantage of 1 ^ ■*
fupplying the malt diftillers of Holland with yeaft,
which is rendered lafting and fit for carriage by this
eafy expedient.
YELL, one of the iflands of Shetland, lying north-
eaft from the Mainland, and divided from it by an
arm of the lea, called Yell-Sound. By fome it is
thought to have been the Thule of the ancients. In
the old defcriptions it is faid to be 20 miles long and
8 broad. It is very mountainous and full of mofs 3 but
there are pretty confiderable paftures in which they
feed a great many Iheep ; and it alfo affords plenty of
peat. It has eight large harbours, which would not be
though defpicable in other countries. Anciently it
feems to have been pretty populous, fince there are in it
three churches, twenty chapels, and many brughs or
Piftilh forts.
YELLOW, one of the original colours of light.
YELLOTV-Colour for Houfe-painting. See COLOUR-
Making.
Naples Yellow, a beautiful colour much ufed by
painters, formerly thought to be prepared from arfenic,
but now difcovered to have lead for its bafis.
YELLOW-Hammer. See Fringilla, Ornitholo¬
gy Index.
YelloW-Fever. See Medicine, N° 168.
YEMEN, a province of Arabia, ftretching along
the Red fea and Indian ocean, and forming a part of
the country once known by the name of Arabia Felix.
YEOMAN, the firft or higheft degree among the
plebeians of England, next in order to the gentry.
The yeomen are properly freeholders, who having
land of their own, live on good hufbandry.
Yeoman is alfo a title of office in the king’s houfe-
hold, of a middle place or rank between an uffier and a
groom.
Yeomen of the Guard were anciently 250 men of
the beft rank under gentry, and of larger ftature than
ordinary, each being required to be fix feet high* At
prefent there are but 100 yeomen in conftant duty, and
70 more not in duty 3 and as any of the 100 dies, his
place is fupplied out of the 70. They go dreffed after
the manner of King Henry VIII.’s time. They form¬
erly had diet as well as wages when in waiting 3 but
this was taken off in the reign of Queen Anne.
YEST, or Yeast. See Yeast.
YEW. See Taxus, Botany Index.
Yew trees are remarkable for their duration. There
are now growing within 3'^ yards ot the old Gothic
ruins of Fountain’s abbey, near Rippon, in Yorkffiire,
feven very large yew trees, commonly called the Seven
Sifters, whofe exaft ages cannot be accurately afcertain-
ed, though tradition fays that they were ftanding in the
year 1088. It is faid alfo, that when the great Foun¬
tain’s abbey was building, which is 700 feet long, and
was finiftied in 1283, the mafons ufed to work their
ftones, during the hot fummers, under the (hade of thefe
trees. The circumference of the Seven Sifters, when
meafured by a curious traveller, were of the following
fizes :—4he fmalleft tree, round its body, 5 yards 1 foot 3
four others are from 5I- to 7^ yards 3 the fixth is 9^
yards 3 and the feventh is 11 yards I foot 7 inches in
circumference, being 2 yards 10 inches larger than the*
greats:
Ynca
n
York.
f 77
Y ° R
great yew tree now growing in the churchyard at Cref-
ford, in North Wales, which is 9 yards 9 inches.
Thefe trees are the larged; and oldelt in the Uritilh do¬
minions.
YNCA, an appellation anciently given to the kings
of Peru, and the princes of their blood ; the word li¬
terally fignifying, lord, king, emperor, and royal blood.
YOAK, or Yoke, in Agriculture, a frame of wood
fitted over the necks of oxen, whereby they are coupled
together, and harneffed to the plough.
TOAK of Land, in our ancient cuftoms, was the fpace
which a yoke of oxen, that is, two oxen, may plough in
one day.
YOLK, the yellow part in the middle of an egg (fee
Egg). It contains a lymphatic fubdance mixed with a
certain quantity of mdd oil, which, on account of this
mixture, is foluble in water. When expofed to heat, it
aflumes a confidence not fo hard as the white of the
egg ; and when bruifed gives out the oil which it con¬
tains. Phis oil has been ufed externally as a liniment.
YONNE, a river in France, which rifing in Bur¬
gundy, and running north through Nivernois and
Champagne, falls into the Seine at Monterau fur Yonne.
YORK, in Latin Eboracum, the capital of York-
dtire in England. This city is fo ancient that the origin
of it is uncertain. In the time of the Romans a legion
was Rationed here, it being then the capital of the Bri-
gantes; and here died the emperor Severus, and Flavius
Valerius Condantius Chlorus, father of Condantine the
Great. There was then alfo a temple of Bellona here,
and no lefs than three military ways went from hence!
In the time of the Saxons it was erefled into an arch-
bilhopric by Pope Honorius, to which are now fubjeft
the bilhoprics of Cheder, Durham, Carlifle, and the ille
of Man 5 though anciently 12 bilhoprics in England,
and all Scotland, were. A horn is dill kept in the
minder, uy which Ulphius, one of the Saxon princes,
bedowed all his lands and revenues upon the church. *
This city differed very much during the ravages of
the Danes; but, after the Conqued, it began to flourilh
again. The cathedral, which cod a long time and a
great deal of money in building, is a mod dately Go¬
thic pile. Its chapter-houfe is particularly admired for
its painted glafs, its fine marble dalls, its pillars of ala-
bader, and curious contrivance. In it is the following
line in g®ld letters : 6
bt Eofa,fos forum, fc ef Domus if a Dotnorum.
The choir is remarkable for its fine carvings, particular¬
ly the datues of all the Englifh monarchs ; and the win-
dows are exquifitely painted with the hidory of the
Bible. The lanthorn deeple is 70 feet fquare, and 188
high, and the windows are 45. At the fouth end is a
circular light, called the marigold window from the co¬
lour of its glafs; and at the north end is a very large
.one, whofe painting reprefents embroidery.
This city is generally reckoned the Vecond city in
England ; but though it dands upon more ground, it is
inferior in trade, wealth, and number of people, to
Bridol. The inhabitants are reckoned at 16,145. 5 It
is fituated in a fine plain, in the middle of the dure, on
both fioes the Oule, walled and divided into four wards,
containing 28 paridies. It enjoys large privileges and
immunities, conferred upon it by a fucceflion of kings
from Henry II. and its chief magidrate has the title of
2
4 ] YOU
lord mayor, which is an honour peculiar to it and Lon-
don. Richard II. made it a county of itfelf. The con-'
fervancy ofmod of the rivers of the county, within cer¬
tain limits, belongs to the lord mayor and aldermen.
The middle arch of the bridge here over the Oufe is
thought to equal the Rialto at Venice in archite61ure,
height, and breadth, the diameter being 81 feet, and
the height 51. Though this city is 60 miles didar.t
Lom the lea, yet diips of 70 tons burden come up the
river to it. The town-houfe or guild-hall dands upon
the budge, and is fuperior in all refpedls to that of
mndon. In the Popidi times there were nine abbeys
here, and a vad number of churches ; but of the latter
there are only 17 now. The deeple of that of All¬
hallows is reckoned the fined in England. The arch-
bidiop has a fine palace ; and the affei^bly-room, defign!
ed by the earl of Burlington, is very noble. Here are
plays, affemblies, concerts, and the like entertainments,
at fome houfe or other, almod'every night in the week.
In the old cadle, built originally by William the Con-’
queror, and repaired in 1701, the affizes are kept. It
lerves alfo for the county-gaol, which is the neated and
pleafanted in England, with an area larger than that
of the King’s-bench, and it has a handfome chapel in it,
with a good allowance for a preacher. This city has loner
given the title of duke to fome branch of the royal family!
The plenty and cheapnefs of provifions induces many
perfons of imall fortune, or that would live frugally, to
take up their abode here ; and the venerable remains of
Roman antiquities, and thofe of a later date, as abbeys,
churches, and cadles, procure this city a vifit from every
curious traveller. Many Roman altars, urns, coins, in-
fcnptions, &.c. have been found ; and Saxon coins are
dill extant that have been druck here. The members,
being twm in number, for this city, have precedence of
all others, except thofe of London, in the houfe of com¬
mons. An infirmary, after the manner of thofe o^Bath,
Bndol, &c. hath been ere&ed in it ; and a cotton ma-
nufafture edabliflied and brought to great perfeftion.
Befides four weekly markets, it has a great many fairs :
one, in particular, every other Thurfday for cattle and
dieep. W. Long. j. 1. N. Lat. C3. cq.
YORKSHIRE, the larged county of England
bounded on the fouth by Derbylhire, Nottinghamfhire’,
and Lincolnfhire ; on the north by Durham and Wed!
moreland ; on the ead by the German ocean ; and on
the wed by Lancafhire and a part of Cheftiire—It is
upwards of 80 miles in length from ead to w^ed, nearly
as much in bieadtb, and about 360 in circumference,
containing, in the whole, 26 hundreds or wapentakes,’
49 market-towns, 563 parifhes, 242 vicarages, with
many chapels of eafe, and 2330 villages. Its area is
computed by fome at 4684 fquare miles, by others at
3f 7°,OOO acres, and its inhabitants at 858,892. It is
divided into three parts or ridings, viz. the Wed, Ead
and North ; fo denominated from their fituation, in re-
fpeft of the city of York. Each of thefe is as large, if
not larger, than any ordinary county. There are other
divifions, as Richmonddiire, Allerlondiire, Howdenfhire,
Halianfhire, Craven, Cleveland, Maifhland, Holdernefs’
&c.
As the foil and face of the country vary greatly, fo
does the air. In the hilly parts the air is good, but’the
foil very indifferent; of the lower fome are marfhy, o-
thers drier, and the foil of both rich ; but the air of the
former
York.
Y O R
York
former is more foggy and unhealthy than that of the
““ latter. The manufactures of this county are cutlery
and hard-wares j particularly knives, bits, and fpurs 5
but the principal are dockings and woollen cloth, with
which it fupplies in a great mealure Germany and the
North. As to the produce, it abounds in corn, cattle,
horfes, lead, and iron, coal, wood, lime, liquorice, alum,
jet, &c. It lies wholly in the northern circuit, and
much the greater part of it in thediocefe of York j that
only which is called Kichmondjhire belonging to the
diocefe of Chetfer. The members it fends to parliament
are 30 \ of which two are for the (hire and 28 for the
towns.
New-YORK, one of the United States of America, is
bounded towards the fouth-eaft by the Atlantic ocean;
ead by Conne&icut, Maffachufets, and Vermont j north
by the 45th degree of latitude, which divides it from
Canada ^ northwedwardly by the river Iroquois or St
Lawrence, and the lakes Ontario and Erie ; ibuthwed
and fouth by Pennfylvania and New Jerfey. The
whole date contains about 44,000 fquare miles, equal to
28,160,000 acres.
The fettlements already made in this date are chiefly
upon two narrow oblongs, extending from the city of
New York ead and north. The one ead is Longifland,
which is 140 miles long, and narrow, and furrounded
by the fea. The one extending north is about 40 miles
in breadth, and bifefted by Hudfon’s river. And fuch
is the interfeftion of the whole date by the branches of
the Hudfon, the Delaware, the Sufquehannah, and other
large rivers, that there are few places throughout its
whole extent which are more than 15 or 20 miles from
lome navigable dream. There are few filh in the rivers,
but in the brooks are plenty of trout ; and in the lakes
yellow perch, fun-fifh, lalmon-trout, cat-fifli, and a va¬
riety of others.
The State, to fpeak generally, abounds with lakes,
fome of fait and others of fredt water. It is interfered
by ridges of mountains running in a north-ead and
fouth-wed direidion. Beyond the Allegany mountains,
however, the country is a dead level, of a fine rich foil,
covered, in its natural date, with maple, beach, birch,
cherry, black-walnut, locud, hickory, and fome mul¬
berry trees. On the banks of lake Erie are a few chef-
nut and oak ridges. Hemlock fwamps are interfperfed
thinly through the country. All the creeks that empty
into lake Erie have falls, which afford many excellent
mill feats. Ead of the Allegany mountains, the coun¬
try is oroken into hills with rich intervening valleys.
J. he hills are clothed thick with timber, and when
cleated afford fine padure ; the valleys, when cultivated,
produce wheat, hemp, flax, peafe, grafs, oats, Indian
corn. . Of the commodities produced from culture,
wheat is the daple ; of which immenfe quantities are
raifed and exported Indian corn and peafe are likewife
raifed for exportation ; and rye, oats, buley, &c. for
home confumption. In fome parts of the State excel¬
lent dairies are kept, w'hich furniflx for the market but¬
ter and eheefe.
The fituation of New-York, with refpedl ’to foreign
markets, has decidedly the preference to any other of
the Unbed States. It has at all feafons of the year a
fhort and eafy accefs to the ocean. Its exports to the
Ved Indies are, bifeuit, peafe, Indian corn apples,
onions, boards, daves, horfes, dteep, butter, cheefe, pick-
I 775 1
Y O R
led oyders, beef, and pork. But wheat is the daple
commodity ot the State, of which no lefs than 677,700
budiels were exported in the year 1775, befides 2553
tons of bread and 2828 tons of dour. Irffpeftors of
dour are appointed to prevent impofition, and to fee
that none is exported but that which is deemed by them
merchantable. Befides the above-mentioned articles,
are exported dax-feed, cotton, wool, farfaparilla, coffee,
indigo, rice, pig-iron, bar-iron, pot-adi, pearl-alh, furs,
deer-fkins, logwood, fudick, mahogany, bees wax, oil,
Madeira wine, rum, tar, pitch, turpentine, whale-fins,
fidi, fugars, molaffes, fait, tobacco, lard, &.c. but mod
of thefe articles are imported for re-exportation. In
the year 1774, there were employed, in the trade of
this State, 1075 veffels, whofe tonnage amounted to
40,812.
Since the revolution, the literature of the State has en¬
gaged the attention of the legidature. In one of their
earlied ledions an aft paffed, condituting 21 gentlemen
(of whom the governor and lieutenant-governor for the
time being are members ex offtciis') a body coporate and
politic, by the name and dyle of “ The regents of the
univerdty of the State of New-York.” They are in¬
truded with the care of literature in general in the
State, and have power to grant charters of incorpora¬
tion for erefting colleges ard academies throughout the
date—are to v;dl thefe inditutions as often as they
diall think proper, and report their date to the legifla-
ture once a-year. All degrees above that of mader of
arts are to be conferred by the regents. A univerfal
toleration is granted in religion.
The iupreme legidative powers of the State are veded
in two branches, a fenaie and affembly. The members
of the fenate are elefted by the freeholders of the State,
who poffefs freehold edates to the value of look clear
of debts. For the purpofe of elefting fenators, the
State is divided into four great didrifts, each of which
choofes a certain number.
The affembly of the State is compofed of reprefenta-
tives from the feveral counties, chofen annually in May..
Every male inhabitant of full age, who has refided in
the date fix months preceding the day of eleftion, and
poffeding a freehold to the value of 20I. in the county
where he is to give his vote ; or has rented a tenement
therein of the yearly value of forty drillings, and has been
rated and aftually paid taxes—is entitled to vote for re-
prefentatives in affembly. The number of reprefenta-
tives is limited to 300.
The fupreme executive power of the date is veded in
a governor chofen once in three years by the freemen of
the date. The lieutenant-governor is, by his office,
prefident of the fenate ; and, upon an equal divifion of
voices, has a cading vote j but has no voice on other
occafions. The governor has not a feat in the legifla-
ture ; but as a member of the council of revifion and
council of appointment, he has a vad influence in the
date. The council of revifion is compofed of the chan¬
cellor, the judges of the fupreme court, or any of them,
and the governor. In the year 1790 the number of in-
habitants in this date was 340,120, of whom 21,324
were negroes; but in 1795 the whole population ol the
date amounted to 530,177, making an increafe of
190.0 if 7 in five years.
Ncw-YcjRK, a city of North America, capital of the
date of the fame name. It is fituated at the fouth-wed: .
point t
York.
~-v—
Y O R [ 77'
York, point of an ifland, at the confluence of Hudfon and Eaft
“■"V—rivers, and is about four miles in circumference. The
fituation is both healthy and pleafant. Surrounded on
all fides by water, it is refreflied by cool breezes in fum-
mer, and the air in winter is more temperate than in
other places under the fame parallel. York ifland is
15 miles in length, and hardly one in breadth. It is
joined to the main by a bridge called King’s bridge.
The channels between Long and Staten iflands, and be¬
tween Long and York iflands, are fo narrow as to occa-
fron an unufual rapidity of the tides, which is increafed
by the confluence of the waters of Hudfon and Eaft
rivers. This rapidity, in general, prevents the obftruc-
tion of the channel by ice. There is no bafon or bay
for the reception of {hips j but the road where they lie
in Eaft river is defended from the violence of the fea
by the iflands which interlock with each other •, fo that,
except that of Rhode ifland, the harbour of New-York,
which admits {hips of any burden, is the beft of the U-
nited States. The number of the inhabitants in 1786
was 23,614.
The moft magnificent edifice in this city is Federal
Hall, at the head of Broad-ftreet; in a gallery in front
of which General Wafliington, attended by the fenate
and houfe of reprefentatives, took his oath of office at
the commencement of the operation of the federal con-
ftitution, 30th April, 1789. The other public buildings
in the city are, three houfes for public worfhip for the
Dutch Reformed church, four for Prelbyterians, three
for Epifcopalians, two for German Lutherans and Cal-
vinifts, two for Quakers, two for Baptifts, two for Me-
thodifts, one for Moravians, one for Catholics, one for
French Proteftants, and a Jewiffi fynagogue.
King’s college was chiefly founded by the voluntary
contributions of the inhabitants of the province, affifted
by the general aflfembly, and the corporation of Trinity
Church j in the year 1754, a royal charter (and grant
of money) being then obtained, incorporating a number
of gentlemen therein mentioned, by the name of “ The
Governors of the College of the Province of Nerv-York,
in the city of New-York, in America granting to
them the power of conferring all fuch degrees as are
ufually conferred by either of the Englilh univerfities.
The building confifts of an elegant ftone edifice, three
ftories high, with four flair cafes, 12 apartments in each,
a chapel, hall, library, mufeum, anatomical theatre, and
a fchool for experimental philofophy. It is fituated on
a dry gravelly foil, about 150 yards from the bank of
Hudfon’s river, commanding a beautiful and extenfive
profpefl. Since the revolution, the legiflature paffed
an a£l conftituting 21 gentlemen (of whom the govern¬
or and lieutenant-governor for the time being, are mem¬
bers ex qfficiis) a body corporate and politic by the
name of “ The Regents of the Univerfity of the State
of New-York.” They are entrufted with the care of
literature in general, and have power to grant charters
for eredling colleges and academies through the ftate.
It is now denominated Columbia college. The annual
revenue arifing from the eftate belonging to the college
amounts to 1535I. currency, exclufive of fome bonds
which are not as yet produftive. It confifts of a facul¬
ty of arts, and one of phyfic, the firft having a prefident
and feven profeffors, and the fecond a dean, and the
lame number of profeffors. The library and mufeum
5 ] YOU
wrere deftroyfed during the war, after which upwards of York,
800I. were expended on books to enlarge the library. _ Young.
The government of this city is at preient in the handsv—Y“““
of a mayor, aldermen, and common council, and the
city is divided into feven wards, in each of which an
alderman and affiftant are annually chofen by the
people. A court of feffion is held for the trial of cri¬
minal caufts. It is efteemed the moft eligible fituation
for commerce in the United States j but the want of
good water is a great inconveniency, there being few
wells in the city, and moft of the people are fupplied
with frefh water conveyed to their doors in calks from
the head of Queen ftreet. The number of inhabitants
in 1796 is ftated at more than 33,000-, and according
to fome it is fuppofed that they amount at this time to
nearly the double. The entries from foreign ports in
1795, were 178 {hips, 309 brigs, 9 barques, 7 fnows,
268 fchooners, and 170 {loops. Works of defence
have been ere£ted to a confiderable extent, and when
completed on the original plan, will afford great fecuri-
ty to the city. New-York is 95 miles N. E. of Phi¬
ladelphia, 197 N. E. of Baltimore, and 913 from
Charlefton. W. Long. 74° ^ 45'/' N. Lat. 40° 42^
8".
YOUNG, Dr Edward, was the fon of a clergyman
of the fame name, and was born about the year 1679.
When fufficiently qualified, he was matriculated into
All-Souls college, Oxford 5 and defigning to follow the
civil law, he took a degree in that profeffion. In this
fituation he wrote his poem called The Laft Day,
publiftied in 17045 which coming from a layman gave
univerfal fatisfaclion : this was foon after followed by
another, entitled The Force of Religion, or Vanquiffied
Love. Thefe productions gained him a refpeCtable ac¬
quaintance 5 he was intimate with Addifon, and thus
became one of the writers of the Spectator : but the
turn of his mind leading him to the church, he took
orders, was made one of the king’s chaplains, and ob¬
tained the living of Welwyn in Hartfordftiire, worth
about 500I. per annum, but he never rofe to higher
preferment. F®r fome years before the death of the
late prince of Wales, Dr Young attended his court
pretty conftantly 5 but upon his deceafe all his hopes of
church preferment vaniftred 5 however, upon the death
of Dr Hales, he was taken into the fervice of the prin-
cefs-dowager of Wales, and fucceeded him as her privy-
chaplain. When pretty far advanced in life, he married
the lady Elizabeth Lee, daughter of the late earl of
Litchfield. This lady was a widow, and had an ami¬
able fon and daughter, who both died young. What
he felt for their lofs, as well as for that of his wife, is
finely expreffed in his Night Thoughts, in which the
young lady *s charafterifed under the name of Narciffa 5
her brother by that of Philander 5 and his wife, though
namelefs, is frequently mentioned 5 and he thus, in an
apoftrophe to death, deplores the lois of all the three.
Infatiate archer, could not once fuffice !
Thy {haft flew thrice, and thrice my peace was (lain,
And thrice ere thrice yon moon renew’d her horn.
He wrote three tragedies, The Revenge, Bufiris, and
The Brothers. His fatires, called Love of Fame the
univerfal Paffion, are by many efteemed his principal
performance 5 though Swift faid the pcet ftiould have
been
1
Y *0 U [ 777 ] Y U N
Young, been either more angry or more merry : they have been
—v ' J charafterifed as a firing of epigrams written on one fub-
jeft, that tire the reader before he gets through them.
His Complaint, or Night Thoughts, exhibit him as a
moral and melancholy poet, and are efteemed his mafter-
piece. They form a fpecies of poetry peculiarly his
own, and in which he has been unrivalled by all thofe
who attempted to write in this manner. They were
written under the recent preffure of his forrow for the
lofs of his wife, daughter, and fon-in-law j they are ad-
drefTed to Lorenzo, a man of pleafure and the world,
and who, as it is infinuated by fome, is his own fon,
but then labouring under his father’s difpleafure. As
a profe-writer, he arraigned the prevailing manners of
his time, in a work called The Centaur not Fabulous j
and when he was above 80 years of age, publifhed Con-
je£lures on Original Compofition. He publifhed fome
other pieces 5 and the whole of his works are collected
in 4 and 5 vols l2mo. Dr Young’s turn of mind was
naturally folemn j and he ufually, when at home in the
country, fpent many hours of the day walking in his
own church-yard among the tombs. His converfation,
his writings, had all a reference to the life after this j
and this turn of difpofition mixed itfelf even with his
improvements in gardening. He had, for inftance, an
alcove with a bench, fo painted, near his houfe, that at
a diftance it looked as a real one which the fpe£lator
was then approaching. Upon coming up near it, how¬
ever, the deception was perceived, and this motto ap¬
peared, Invijibilia non decipiunt, “ The things unfeen
do not deceive us.” Yet, notwithflanding this gloomi-
nefs of temper, he was fond of innocent fports and
amufement: he inftituted an affembly and a bowling-
green in the parifh of which he was reftor, and often
promoted the gaiety of the company in perfon. His
wit was generally poignant, and ever levelled at thofe
who teflified any contempt for decency and religion.
His epigram, fpoken extempore on Voltaire, is well
known •, who happening in his company to ridicule Mil-
ton, and the allegorical perfonages of Death and Sin,
Young thus addreffed him :
Thou art fo witty, profligate, and thin, Young
You feem a Milton with his Death and Sin. ^ ^
One Sunday, preaching in office at St James’s, he, nx'
found, that though he ftrove to make his audience at¬
tentive, he could not prevail. Upon which his pity for
their folly got the better of all decorums, and he fat
back in the pulpit and buril into a flood of tears. To¬
wards the latter part of life he knew his own infirmities,
and fuffered himfelf to be in pupilage to his houfe-keep-
er *, for he confidered that, at a certain time of life, the
fecond childhood of age demanded its wonted protection.
His fon, whofe boyifh follies were long obnoxious to pa¬
ternal feverity, was at laft forgiven in his will; and our
poet died regretted by all, having performed all that
man could do to fill his poll with dignity. His dea&
happened in 1765.
YOUTH, that flate of man in which he approaches
towards his greatefl perfection of body.
YPRES, a handfome, large, and populous town of
the Auftrian Netherlands, with a bifhop’s fee. It has
a confiderable manufactory in cloth and ferges, and
every year in Lent there is a confiderable fair. It is
one of the barrier towns, but was befieged and taken by
the French in 1744, and alfo in 1794. It is feated in
a fertile plain on the river Ypre, in E. Long. 2. 48.
N. Lat. 50. 51.
YTTRIA, one of the lately difeovered earths. For
an account of its properties and combinations fee Che¬
mistry, N° 1457.
TCTTRIO-Tantalite, a mineral fubftance containing
the new earth yttria, and the new metal tantalium,
which latter is found by Dr Wollafton to be identical
with columbium.
YUCCA, Adam’s Needle, a genus of plants of the
clafs hexandria. The fpecies of this plant are all ex¬
ceedingly curious in their growth, and are therefore
much cultivated in gardens. The Indians make a kind
of bread from the roots of this plant.
YULE, Yool, or lul. See Iul.
YUNX, a genus of birds of the order piece. See
Ornithology Index.
Z.
Z. *1 or z, the 24th and laft letter, and the 19th confo-
-y—' 1 ^-<9 nant of our alphabet j the found of which is
formed by a motion of the tongue from the palate dovm-
wards and upwards to it again, with a (hutting and open¬
ing of the teeth at the fame time. This letter has been
reputed a double confonant, having the found ds ; but
fome think with very little reafon : and, as if we thought
otherwife, we often double it, as in pwzzle, mux’zle, &c.
Among the ancients, Z was a numeral letter, fignifying
2000 •, and with a dafh added a-top, z fignified 2000
times 2000, or 4,000,000.
In abbreviations this letter formerly flood as a mark
for feveral forts of weights; fometimes it fignified an
ounce and a half j and very frequently it flood for half
Vol. XX. Part II.
an ounce j fometimes for the eighth part of an ounce, z
or a dram troy weight j and it has in earlier times been Zaara.
ufed to exprefs the third part of an ounce or eight feru- —y~-
pies. ZZ were ufed by fome of the ancient phyficians
to exprefs myrrh, and at prefent they are often ufed to
fignify zinziber or ginger.
ZAARA, Zapara, Sahara, or the Defert, a vaft
country of Africa, bounded on the north by Barbary,
on the eaft by Fezzan and Caftma, on the fouth by
Tombu&oo, and on the w’eft by the Atlantic ocean.
Zaara contains a variety of wandering nations, all pro¬
ceeding from Arabs, Moors, and fugitive Portuguefe,
who took refuge there when the family of the Sherifs
made themfelves mafters of the three kingdoms of Bar-
5 F bary.
M
Z A F [ 778 ] Z A M
bary. All thefe people bear indifcriminately the names
of Nars, Moors, or drabs. They are fubdivided into
various nations, of which the moft confiderable are the
Mongearts, Trafars, and Bracnars. The Mongearts
lead a wandering life, and live chiefly on the milk of
their flocks, with a little barley-meal, and fame dates.
The poorer fort go naked, except the females, who
commonly wrap a clout about their middle, and wear a
kind of bonnet on their head ; but the wealthier fort
have a kind of loofe gown, made of blue calico, wTith
large fleeves, that is brought them from Negroland.
When they move from one place to another for frefh
pafture, water, or prey, mofl: of them ride on camels,
which have generally a fort of faddle between the bunch
r^d the neck, with a firing or ftrap run through their
noftrils, which ferves for a bridle} and inflead of fpurs
they ufe a fharp bodkin. Their tents or huts are cover¬
ed with a coarfe fluff, made of camel’s hair, and a kind
of wool or mofs that grows on the palm trees. Thefe
Arabs live here under the government of their fheiks or
cheyks; as in Arabia, Egypt, and other places. The
other two tribes are rather more civilized. They are
all Mahometans.
ZABULON, in Ancient Geography, one of the
twelve tribes ; bounded on the north by the tribes of
Aflier and Naphthali ; on the eafl by the fea of Gali¬
lee 5 on the fouth by the tribe of Iffachar or the brook
Cifon, wThich ran between both j on the weft by the
Mediterranean; fo that it touched two feas, or was bi-
marous.
Zabulon, in Ancient Geography, a very ftrong town
in the tribe of that name, on the Mediterranean, fir-
named of men, near Ptolemais : its vicinity to which
makes it probable that it was alfo Chabulon, unlefs ei¬
ther name is a faulty reading in Jofephus j diftant about
60 ftadia from Ptolemais.
ZACYNTHUS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland to
the fouth of Cephalenia 60 ftadia, but nearer to Pelo-
ponnefus, in the Ionian fea, formerly fubjeft to Ulyffes,
in compafs above 160 ftadia, woody and fruitful, with
a confiderable cognominal town and a port. The ifland
lies over againft Elis, having a colony of Achaeans from
Peloponnefus, over againft the Corinthian gulf. Both
ifland and town are now called Zante.
ZAFFRE, is the oxide of cobalt, employed for
• painting pottery ware and porcelain of a blue colour.
The method of preparing it is as follows: The cobalt
taken out of the mine is broken with hammers into
pieces about the fize of a hen’s egg ; and the ftony in-
volucrum, with fuch other heterogeneous matters as are
diftinguifhable by the eye, are feparated as much as
poflible. The chofen mineral is then pounded in ftamp-
ing mills, and fifted through brafs wire fieves. The
lighter parts are waflied off by water, and it is after¬
wards put into a large flat-bottomed arched furnace, re-
fembling a baking oven, where the flame of the wood
reverberates upon the ore 5 which is occafionally ftirred
and turned with long handled iron hooks or rakes ; and
the procefs is continued till it ceafes to emit any fumes.
The oven or furnace is terminated by a long horizontal
gallery, which ferves for a chimney; in whidi the
arfenic, naturally mixed with the ore, fublimes. If the
ore contains a little bifmuth, as this femimetal is very
fufible, it is collefted at the bottom of the furnace.
The cobalt remains in the ftate of a dark gray oxide,
and is called ‘Zaffre. One hundred pounds of the cobalt Zaffre
ore lofe 20 and even 30 per cent, during this operation, II
which is continued 4 or even 9 hours, according to the , Zama‘
quality of the ore. The roafted ore being taken out
from the furnace, fuch parts as are concreted into lumps
are pounded and fifted afrefh. Zaffre, in commerce, is
never pure, being mixed with two or rather three parts
of powdered flints. A proper quantity of the beft fort
of thefe, after being ignited in a furnace, is thrown
into water to render it friable, and more eafily re¬
duced to powder 5 which, being fifted, is mixed with
the zaffre, according to the before-mentioner dofe ; and
the mixture is put intocafks, after being m iftened with
water. This oxide, fufed with three parts of fand and
one of potaflr, forms a blue glafs 5 which, when pound¬
ed, fifted, and afterwards ground in mills, included in
large calks, forms fmalt.
The blue of zaffre is the moft folid and fixed of all
the colours that can be employed in vitrification. It
fuffers no change from the moft violent fire. It is fuc-
cefsfully employed to give fhades of blue to enamels,
and to the cryflal-glaffes made in imitation of fome
opaque and tranfparent precious ftones, as the lapis
lazuli, the turquois, the fapphire, and others of this
kind.
ZALEUCUS, a famous legiflator of the Locrians,
and the difciple of Pythagoras, flouriflred 500 years
B. C. He made a law, by which he punifhed adulter¬
ers with the lofs of both their eyes j and his fon offend¬
ing, was not abfolved from this punifhment: yet, to
fhow the father as wTell as the juft lawgiver, he put out
his own right, and his fon’s left eye. This example of
juftice and feverity made fo ftrong an impreflion on the
minds of his fubjefls, that no inftance was found of the
commiflion of that vice during the reign of that legilla-
tor. It is added, that Zaleucus forbade any wine being
given to the fick on pain of death, unlefs it was pre-
fcribed by the phyficians 5 and that he was fo jealous of
his laws, that he ordered, that whoever was defirous of
changing them, fhould be obliged, when he made the
propofal, to have a cord about his neck, in order that
he might be immediately ftrangled, if thofe alterations
were efteemed no better than the laws already eftablifh-
ed. Diodorus Siculus attributes the fame thing to Cha-
rondas legiflator of the Sybarites.
ZAMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Chamane,
a diftridl of Cappadocia, of unknown fituation.—An¬
other Zama, of Mefopotamia, on the Saocoras, to the
fouth of Nifibis.—A third, of Numidia, dillant five
days journey to the weft of Carthage : it was the other
royal refidence of the kings of Numidia, hence called
Zama Regia. It flood in a plain ; was ftronger by art
than nature ; richly fupplied with every neceffary ; and
abounding in men, and every weapon both of defence
and annoyance.
The laft of thefe is remarkable for the decifive battle
fought between the two greateft commanders in the
world, Hannibal the Carthaginian and Scipio Africa-
nus. Of this engagement, the moft important perhaps
that ever was fought, Mr Hooke gives the following
account.
“ Scipio drew up his army after the Roman manner,
except that he placed the cohorts of the Principes di-
redlly behind thofe of the Haftati, fo as to leave fuffi-
cient fpace for the enemy’s elephants to pafs through
from
Z A M [ 779 ] Z A M
Zama. from front to rear. C. Lselius was polled on the left
wing with the Italian horle, and Mafinifia with his Nu-
midians on the right. The intervals of the firft line
Scipio filled up with his Velites, or light-armed troops,
ordering them, upon a fignal given, to begin the bat¬
tle j and in cafe they were rcpulfed, or broke by the
elephants, to run back through the lanes before men¬
tioned, and continue on their flight till they were got
behind the Triarii. Thofe that were wounded, or in
danger of being overtaken, were to turn off to the right
and left through the fpaces between the lines, and that
way efcape to the rear.
“ The army thus drawn up, Scipio went from rank
to rank, urging his foldiers to confider the confequences
of a defeat and the rewards of victory : on the one hand,
certain death or flavery (for they had no town in Africa
ftrong enough to protect them) ; on the other, not only
a lafting fuperiority over Carthage, but the empire of
the reft of the world.
“ Hannibal ranged all his elephants, to the number
of above 80, in one front. Behind thefe he placed his
mercenaries, confining of 12,000 men, Ligurians, Gauls,
Baleares, and Mauritanians.
“ The new levies of Carthaginians and other Afri¬
cans, together with 4000 Macedonians, under a gene¬
ral named Sopater, compofed the fecond line. And in
the rear of all, at the diftance of about a furlong, he
polled his Italian troops, in whom he chiefly confided.
The Carthaginian horfe formed his right wing, the Nu-
midians his left.
“ He ordered their feveral leaders to exhort their
troops not to be difcouraged by their own weaknefs, but
to place the hope of viftory in him and his Italian ar¬
my •, and particularly directed the captains of the Car¬
thaginians to reprefent to them what would be the fate
of their wives and children if the event of this battle
Ihould not prove fuccefsful. The general himfelf, walk¬
ing through the ranks of his Italian troops, called upon
them to be mindful of the 17 campaigns in which they
had-been felknv-foldiers with him ; and of that conftant
feries of victories by which they had extinguilhed in the
Romans all hope of ever being conquerors. He urged
them to remember, above all, the battles of Trebia,
Thrafymenus, and Cannae •, with any of which the ap¬
proaching battle was in no wife to be compared, either
with refpeft to the bravery or the number of the enemy.
1 The Romans were yet unfoiled, and in the height of
their ftrength, when you firft met them in the field $
neverthelefs you vanquifhed them. The foldiers now-
before us are either the children of the vanquifhed, or
the remains of thofe whom you have often put to flight
in Italy. Maintain therefore your general’s glory and
your own, and eftablilh to yourfelves the name of invin¬
cible, by which you are become famous throughout the
world.’
“ When the Numidians of the two armies had fkir-
miflied a while, Hannibal ordered the managers of the
elephants to drive them upon the enemy. Some of the
beafts, frightened at the noife of the trumpets and other
inftruments of war which founded on all fides, immedi¬
ately ran back amongft the Numidians of the Carthagi¬
nian left wing, and put them into confufion ; which
Mafiniffa taking advantage of, entirely routed them.
Great deftruftion was made of the Velites by the reft of
the elephants, till thefe alfo being terrified, fome of
them ran through the void fpaces of the Roman army
which Scipio had left for that purpofe j others falling
in among the cavalry of the enemy’s right wing, gave
Laelius the fame opportunity againft the Carthaginian
horfe as had been given to Mafiniffa againft the Numi-
dian, and of which the Roman did not fail to make the
fame ufe. After this the infantry of the foremoit lines
joined battle. Hannibal’s mercenaries had the advan¬
tage in the beginning of the conflift $ but the Roman
Haftati, followed and encouraged by the Principes, who
exhorted them to fight manfully, and ftiowed themfelves
ready to aflift them, bravely fuftained the attack, and
at length gained ground upon the enemy. The merce¬
naries not being feafonably fupported by their fecond
line, and thereto.e thinking themfelves betrayed, they
in their retreat fell furioufly upon the Africans j fo
that thefe, the Haftati coming up, were obliged to fight
for fome time both againft their own mercenaries and
the enemy. When the two Carthaginian lines had
ceafed their mutual rage, they joined their ftrength ;
and though now but a mere throng of men, broke the
Haftati: but then the Principes advancing to the aftiil-
ance of the latter, reftored the battle ; and moft ot the
Africans and mercenaries were here cut off. Hannibal
did not advance to their relief, the Roman Triarii not
having yet engaged, and the Principes being ftill in
good order ; and left the routed Africans and mercena¬
ries Ihould break the ranks of his Italian foldiers, he
commanded thefe to prefent their fpears at thofe who
fled to them for protection, which obliged the runaways
to move off to the right and left.
“ The ground over which the Romans mull march
before they could attack Hannibal being ftrewed with
heaps of dead bodies and weapons, and being flippery
with blood, Scipio feared that the order of his battalions
would be broke, flrould he pafs it haftily. To avoid
this mifchief, he commanded the Haftati to give over
the purfuit, and halt where they were, oppofite to the
enemy’s centre : after which, having fent all his wound¬
ed to the rear, he advanced leifurely with the Principes
and Triarii, and placed them on the wings of the Ha¬
ftati. Then followed a ftiarp engagement, in which
viClory waS long and eagerly difputed. It would feem
that the Romans, though fuperior in number, rvere once
upon the point of lofing the day j for Polybius tells us,
that Mafiniffa and Laelius came very feafonably, and as
if fent from heaven, to their afliftance. Thefe generals
being returned from the purfuit of the cavalry, fell fud-
denly upon the rear of Hannibal’s men, moft of whom
rvere cut off in their ranks j and of thofe that fled, very
few efcaped the horfe, the country all around being a
plain.
“ There died of the Carthaginians in the fight above
20,000, and almoft the like number were taken prifon-
ers. The lofs on the fide of the Romans amounted to
about 2000 men. Hannibal efcaped with a few horfe
to Adrumetum, having performed every thing in the
engagement which could be expeCted from a great ge¬
neral. His army (fays Polybius) could not have been
more Ikilfully drawn up. For as the order of the Ro¬
man battalions makes it extremely difficult to break
them, the Carthaginian wifely placed his elephants in
the front, that they might put the enemy in confufion
before the armies fhould engage. In his firft line he
placed the mercenaries j men bold and aClive, but not
5 F 2 well
ZAP
[ 780 ]
Z E A
well difclplined, that by their xmpetuofity he might give
a check to the ardour of the Romans. The Africans
and Carthaginians, whofe courage he doubted, he poll¬
ed in the middle between the mercenaries and his Ita¬
lian foldiers, that they might be forced to fight, or at
lead that the Romans, by llaughtering them, might fa¬
tigue themfelves and blunt their weapons. Laft of all,
he drew up the troops he had difciplined himfelf, and
in whom he chiefly confided, at a good ditlance from
the fecond line, that they might not be broken by the
route of the Africans and mercenaries, and kept them
in referve for a vigorous attack upon a tired and weak¬
ened enemy.”
ZANGUEBAR, a country in Africa, lying on the
eaflern coall, between three degrees of north latitude,
and 18 fouth. It includes feveral petty kingdoms, in
which the Portuguefe have various fettlements. The
inhabitants, except thofe converted by the Portuguefe,
are all Mahometans or idolaters •, and the latter much
the more numerous. The names of the principal terri¬
tories are Mombasa, Lamon, Melinda, ^uiola, and Mo-
fambique. The Portuguefe have built feveral forts in
Mombaza and Mofambique, and have fettled feveral
colonies there. They trade with the negroes for Haves,
ivory, gold, ollrich-featheis, wax, and drugs. The
produdlions are much the fame as in other parts of Afri¬
ca between the tropics.
ZANONIA, a genus of plants of the clafs pentan-
dria. See Botany Index.
ZANTE, an ifland of the Mediterranean, near the
coaft of the Morea, 19 miles fouth-eaft of the ifland of
Cephalonia, belonging to the Venetians. It is about
24 miles in length and 12 in breadth, and very pleafant
and fertile •, but its principal riches confift in currants,
with which it greatly abounds. They are cultivated in
a very large plain, under the fhelter of mountains on
the fhore of this ifland ; for which reafon the fun has
greater power to bring them to perfe£l maturity. The
town called Xante may contain near 20,000 inhabitants j
the whole ifland contains about 40,000. The houfes
are low, on account of the frequent earthquakes, for
i'carce a year paffes without one ; however, they do no
great damage. The natives fpeak both Greek and Ita¬
lian. There are very few Roman Catholics among
them \ but they have a bifhop as well as the Greeks.
This place has no fortifications, but there is a fortrefs
upon an eminence planted with cannon. In one part of
this ifland is a place which fhakes when trod upon like
a quagmire ; and a fpring which throws out a great
deal of bitumen, efpecially at the time of an earthquake.
It ferves inftead of pitch to pay the bottoms of the fhips,
and about 100 barrels in a year are ufed for this pur-
pofe. There are about 50 villages in the ifland 5 but
no other large town befide Zante. It is feated on the
eaftern fide of the ifland, and has a good harbour. The
Englifh and Dutch have each a fa&ory and conful here.
E. Long. 21. 4. N. Lat. 37. 53.
ZANTHOXYLUM, the Toothache-tree, a ge¬
nus of plants of the clafs of dioecia •, and in the natural
fyftem arranged under the 46th order, Hederacece. See
Botany Index.
ZAPATA, a kind of feaft or ceremony held in
Italy in the courts of certain princes, on St Nicholas’s
day wherein people hide prefents in the fhoes or flip¬
pers of thofe they would do honour to, in fuch a manner
as may furprife them on the morrow when they come
to drefs j being done in imitation of the pra&ice of
St Nicholas, who ufed in the night-time to throw purfes
of money in at the windows to marry poor maids
withal.
ZEA, Indian Corn 5 a genus of plants of the clafs
monoecia. See Botany Index.—There is only one Ipe-
cies, the Mays, maize. The Indians in New England,
and many other parts of America, had no other vege¬
table but maize or Indian corn for making their bread.
They call it weac/iin ; and in the United States of A-
merica there is much of the bread of the country made
of this grain, not of the European corn. In Italy and
Germany alfo there is a fpecies of maize which is the
food of the poor inhabitants.
The ear of the maize yields a much greater quan*
tity of grain than any of our corn ears. There are com-
monly about eight rows of grain in the ear, often more,
if the ground be good. Each of thefe rows contains at
leaft 30 grains, and each of thefe gives much more
flour than a grain of any of our corn. The grains are
ufually either white or yellowifli; but fometimes they
are red, bluilh, greenifh, or olive-coloured, and fome¬
times ftriped and variegated. This fort of grain, though
fo effentially neceffary to the natives of the place, is yet
liable to many accidents. It does not ripen till the end
of September j fo that the rains often fall heavy upon it
while on the ftalk, and the birds in general peck it
when it is foft and unripe. Nature has, to defend it
from thefe accidents, covered it with a thick hulk,
which keeps off flight rains very well: but the birds, if
not frighted away, often eat through it, and devour
a great quantity of the grain.
There are three or four varieties of maize in different
parts of America. That of Virginia is very tall and
robuft, growing to feven or eight feet high \ that of
New England is ftiorter and lower. And the Indians
farther up in the country have a yet fmaller kind in
common ufe. The ftalk of the maize is jointed like the
fugar-cane •, it is very foft and juicy, and the juice is fo
fweet and faccharine, that a fyrup, as fweet as that of
fugar, has been often made of it j and things fweetened
with it have been found not diftinguilhable from thofe
done with fugar. It has not been tried yet whether it
will cryftallize into fugar ; but in all probability it will.
The Americans plant this corn any time from the be¬
ginning of March to the beginning of June j but the
bell feafon is the middle of April. The favage Indians,,
who knew nothing of our account of months, ufed to
guide themfelves in the feed-time of this ufeful plant by
the budding of fome particular trees of that country,
and by the coming up of a fort of fifti into their rivers
which they call the aloofe. Thefe things were both fo
regular, that they were in no danger of miftaking the
time.
The manner of planting maize is in rows, at equal di-
ftances, every way about five or fix feet. They open
the earth with a hoe, taking away the furface to three
or four inches deep, and of the breadth of the hoe j
they then throw in a little of the finer earth, fo as to
leave the hoe four inches deep or thereabouts, and in
each of thefe holes they place four or five grains at a
little diftance from one another. If two or three of
thefe grow up, it is very well •, fome of them are ufual¬
ly deftroyed either by the birds or other animals.
When
Zapata,
Zea.
Z E A i 781 ] Z E M
Zea When the young plants appear, they hoe up the
11 weeds from time to time ; and when the ftalk gathers
Zcalanc. ^ fome raife the earth a little about it, and
continue this at every hoeing till it begins to put forth
the ears j then they enlarge the hill of earth, round the
root, to the fize of a hop-hill, and after this they leave
it till the time of harveft, without any farther care.
When they gather the ears, they either immediately
ftrip off the corn, or elfe hang up the ears, tied in traces
at diftances from one another ; for if they are laid near
together, they will heat and rot or elfe fprout and
grow; but kept cool and feparate, they will remain
good all the winter. The beft method is to thrafh out
the corn as foon as the harveft is over, to dry it well on
mats in the fun, and then lay it up in holes of the
ground, well lined with mats, grafs, or the like, and
afterwards covered at top with more earth. The moft
careful among the Indians ufe this method, and this fort
of fubterranean granary always proves good.
The ufes of this plant among the Indians are very
many. The great article is the making their bread of
it ; but befides this, the ftalks, when cut up before they
are too much dried, are an excellent winter food for
cattle j but they ufually • leave them on the ground
for the cattle to feed on. The hulks about the ear are
ufually feparated from the reft, and make a particular
fort of fodder, not inferior to our hay. The Indian
women have a way of flitting them into narrow parts,-
and they then weave them artificially into balkets and
many other toys. The original way of eating the grain
among the Indians was this : they boiled it whole in
water till it fwelled and became tender, and then they
fed on it either alone or ate it with thair filh and veni-
fon inftead of bread. After this, they found the way of
boiling it into a fort of pudding, after bruifing it in a
mortar j but the way of reducing it to flour is the beft
of all. They do this by parching it carefully in the
lire, without burning, and then beating it in mortars
and lifting it. This flour they lay up in bags as their
conftant provilion, and take it out with them when they
go to war, eating it either dry or with water. The
Englilh have contrived, by mixing it into a ftiff pafte,
either by itfelf or with rye or wheat-meal, fermenting
it with leaven or yeaft, and baking it in a hot oven, to
make good bread of it. They have likewife found out
a method of making good beer, either of the bread or
by malting the grain.
ZEAL, paflionate ardour for any perfon or caufe.
It is moft frequently ufed to denote a iftrong and warm
attachment to the diftinguilhing doftrines or worlhip of
fome particular fe<ft of Chriftians. Thus we fay, a zea¬
lous Cahinijt, Arminiarr, or Papijl; though we may
likewife with the greateft propriety fay of an upright
and benevolent man, that he is zealous of good works.
ZEALAND, the chief of the Danilh iflands, is li-
tuated at the entrance of the Baltic fea, bounded by the
Schaggerrac fea on the north ; by the Sound, which fe-
parates it from Schonen, on the eaft $ by the Baltic fea
on the fouth ; and by the ftrait called the Great Be/ty
which feparates it from the ifland of Funen, on the weft}
being of a round figure, near 200 miles in circumfe¬
rence : the chief town is Copenhagen.
Zealand, is alfo a province of the United Nether¬
lands, confifting of eight iflands, which lie in the mouth
of the river Scheldt, bounded by the province of Hol¬
land, from which they are feparated by a narrow chan- Zealand
nel on the north } by Brabant on the eaft ; by Flanders, il
from which they are feparated by one of the branches of, Zetllbla-
the Scheldt, on the fouth} and by the German ocean
on the weft.
New ZEALAND, a country of Alia, in the South Pa¬
cific ocean, firft dilcovered by Tafman, the Dutch na¬
vigator, in the year 1642, who gave it the name of
Staten Land, though it has been generally diftinguifhed
in our maps and charts by the name of New Zealand,
and was fuppofed to be part of a fouthern continent :
but it is now known, from the late difcoveries of Captain
Cook who failed round it, to confift of two large iflands,
divided from each other by a ftrait four or five leagues
broad. They are fituated between the latitudes of 34
and 48 degrees fouth, and between the longitudes of
166 and 180 degrees eaft from Greenwich. One of
thefe iflands is for the moft part mountainous, rather
barren, and but thinly inhabited } but the other is much
more fertile, and of a better appearance. In the opi¬
nion of Sir Jofeph Banks and Dr Solander, every kind
of European fruits, grain, and plants, would flourilh
here in the utmoft luxuriance. From the vegetables
found here, it is fuppofed that the winters are milder
than thofe in England, and the fummers not hotter,
though more equally warm } fo that it is imagined, that
if this country were fettled by people from Europe, they
would, ivith moderate induftry, be foon fupplied, not
only with the neceffaries, but the luxuries of life, in
great abundance. Here are forefts of vaft extent, filled
with very large timber trees} and near 400 plants were
found here that had not been defcribed by the natura--
lifts. The inhabitants of New Zealand are flout and
robuft, and equal in ftature to the largeft Europeans.
Their colour in general is brown, but in few deeper
than that of the Spaniard who has been expofed to the
fun, and in many not fo deep} and both fexes have good
features. Their drefs is very uncouth, and they mark
their bodies in a manner fimilarto the inhabitants of O-
taheite, and which is called iattowirtg. Their principal
weapons are lances, darts, and a kind of battle-axes j
and they have generally fhown themfelves very hoftile
to the Europeans who have vifited them.
ZE ALOTS, an ancient fe<ft of the Jews, fo called
from their pretended zeal for God’s law and the honour
of religion.
ZEBRA. See Equus, Mammalfa Index. '
ZEBU, a name given by M. de Buffon to the bos
indicus of Linnseus. See Mammalia Index.
ZECHARIAH, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment. See Scripture, N® 80.
ZECHIN, or Zecchino. See Sequin.
ZEDOARY, in the Materia Medica. See Kjemp-
feria.
ZELL, a city of Germany in the circle of Lower
Saxony, capital of the duchies of Zell and Lunenburg,
fituated at the confluence of the rivers After and Fubfe*
30 miles north of Hanover, and 40 fouth of Lunen¬
burg. E. Long. 10. 12. N. Lat. 52. 49.
ZEMBLA, Nova, a very large ifland, lying in the
Northern ocean, to the north of Ruflia, from which it
is feparated by the ftrait of Waigate. It has no inhabi¬
tants except wild hearts, particularly white foxes and
bears. In IJ95 a Dutch veffel was call away on the
coaft, and the ihip’s company were obliged to winte?
here -
Z £ M f ^82
Zemindar, here $ but they did not fee the fun from the fourth of
'vrT" November to the beginning of February, and had great
difficulty to keep themfelves from being frozen to
death.
ZEMINDAR, in its original meaning, fignifies a
great landholder of Bengal 5 but it is now more ftri&ly
applicable to thofe who have their title conlfituted or
confirmed by a patent or charier from government, by
which they hold their lands or zemindaries upon cer¬
tain conditions. It appears from hiftory, that, in times
prior to the irruption of the Mahomedans, the rajahs
who held their refidence at Delhy, and poffefTed the fo-
vereignty of Hindoftan, deputed officers to collea their
revenues. The word •zemindar is Perfian, and that
language can have had no currency in the countries of
India, until it was introduced by the people of Perfia.
When the emperor Shehab-ul-Dien Ghory conquered
the empire of Hindoftan at the end of the 12th century,
he left Sultan Cutub-uI-Dien to be his viceroy at Delhy,
and adminifter the government of Hindoftan. From
that time the cuftoms and practices of the Mahomedans
began gradually to be eftablifhed in India : their ar¬
mies were fent into the countries of the reduced rajahs,
under the command of omrahs, in order to preferve the
conqueft j and lands were allotted to them to defray the
expence. From hence arofe the fyftem of Jaghiredarry
in Hindoftan. But when thefe Omrah Jaghiredars had
eftabliflied their own ftrength, feveral of them rebelled
againft the imperial authority, and afpired at the crown.
Thus circumftanced, the emperors, in order to obviate
thefe mifchiefs, thought it would be more politic to
commit the management of the country to the native
Hindoos, who had moft diftinguiffied themfelves by the
readinefs and conftancy of their obedience to the fove-
reign powTer.
In purfuance of this plan, diftrifts were allotted to
numbers of them under a reafonable revenue (Jummah
Monafib), which they were required to pay in money
to the governors of the provinces, deputed from the
emperor. And in cafe any one of the omrahs or pro¬
vincial governors fliould fwerve from his allegiance, the
zemindars of that country were to exert themfelves in
fuch a manner as ffiould check rebellion, and reftore
good government. For this purpofe, grants of ze-
mindary were feverally conferred upon fuch of the Hin¬
doos as were obedient; defcribing their apportionment
of the country ; and every perfon who had received a
grant under the authority of the crown was thereby
fully invefted with the functions of zemindar.
The funftions of a zemindar are, ift, The preferva-
tion and defence of their refpeftive boundaries from
traitors and infurgents. 2dly, The tranquillity of the
fubjefts, the abundance of cultivators, and increafe of
his revenue. 3dly, The punifhment of thieves and rob¬
bers, the prevention of crimes, and the deftnnftion of
highwaymen. The accomplilhment of thefe objeds is
confidered in the royal grant as the difcharge of office
to the fovereign; and on that account the word office
(khidmut) is employed in theDewanny Sunnud for a
zemindary.
It was a rule in the times of the ancient emperors,
that when any of the zemindars died, their effeds and
property were fequeftrated by the government. After
which, in confideration of the rights of long fervice,
which is incumbent on fovereigns, and elevates the dig-
4
]
ZEN
ty of the employer, funnuds for the office of zemin- 2emm<W,
dary were granted to the children of the deceai’ed ze- Zend-
mindar j and no other perfon was accepted, becaufe the
inhabitants could never feel for any ftranger the attach¬
ment and aftedion which they naturally entertain for
the family of their zemindar, and would have been af-
flided if any other had been put over them. For this
reafon, the emperors, conlidering it as a means of con¬
ciliating the minds of the people, gracioufty fixed and
confirmed the children of the decealed zemindar in the
office of their fathers and grandfathers, by ifluing new
funnuds to transfer the poffeffion to them. By degrees
zemindaries became truly heritable property, which,
however, could be transferred by gift or fale from one
family to another. They could likewife be forfeited to
the. fovereign, by the zemindar’s deviating from his al¬
legiance, negleding to pay his tribute, or to difcharge
the duties of his ftation.
It is univerfally known, fays Sir Charles Roufe
Boughton, that, when the three provinces of Bengal,
Bahar, and Oriffa, were ceded to the Eritilh Ealt India
Company, the country was diftributed among the ze¬
mindars and talookdars or holders of land, who paid a
ftipulated revenue, by twelve inftalments, to the fove¬
reign power or its delegates. They affembled at the
capital in the beginning of every Bengal year (com¬
mencing in April), in order to complete their final pay¬
ments, and make up their annual accounts *, to fettle the
difcount to be charged upon their feveral remittances in
various coins for the purpofe of reducing them to one
ftandard, or adjuft their concerns with their bankers j
to petition for remiffions on account of ftorms, drought,
inundation, difturbances, and fuch like j to make their
reprefentations of the ftate and occurrences of their
diftridts : after all which they entered upon the collec¬
tions of the new year 5 of which, however, they were
not permitted to begin receiving the rents from their
own farmers, till they had completely clofed the ac¬
counts of the preceding year, fo that they might not en¬
croach upon the new rents, to make up the deficiency
of the pall. Our author proves, we think completely,
the right of the zemindars to transfer their poffeffions,
either by inheritance to their children, or, with the con-
fent of the fovereign, to other families j and he argues
ftrenuoufly and fuccefsfully againft the bad policy, as
well as injuftice, of interfering with thofe rights, as
long as the zemindars difcharge the duties of their feve¬
ral ftations.
ZEND, or Zendavesta, a book afcribed to Zoro-
aftcr, and containing his pretended revelations; which
the ancient Magicians and modern Perfees, called alfo
Gaurs, obferve and reverence in the fame manner as the
Chriftians do the Bible, and the Mahometans the Ko¬
ran, making it the foie rule both of their faith and man¬
ners. The word, it is faid, originally fignifies any in-
ftrument for kindling fire, and is applied to this book to
denote its aptitude for kindling the flame of religion in
the hearts of thofe who read it.
The Zend contains a reformed fyftem of Magianifm^
teaching that there is a Supreme Being, eternal, felf-exift-
ent, and independent, who created both light and dark-
nefs, out of which he made all other things; that thefe
are in a ftate of conflift, which will continue till the
end of the world ; that then there ffiall be a general re-
furre&ion and judgement j and that juft retribution
ftiall
Zend
H
Zeno.
^ E N [ 783 ] ZEN
fliail be rendered unto men according to their works; fented reproach, by fayimr “ If I
that the angel of darknefs with his followers lhall be r n U ir ,•«-
configned to a place of everlalling darknefs and punilh-
ment, and the angel of light with his difciples introdu¬
ced into a ftate ol everlafting light and happinefs; after
which light and darknefs lhall no more interfere with
each other. The Zend alfo enjoins the conftant main¬
tenance of facred fires and fire temples for religious
—  r— r
worlhip; the diltinaion of clean and unclean beads;
the payment of tithes to piiefts, which are to be of one
family or tribe; a multitude of walkings and purifica¬
tions, refembling thofe of the Jewilh law ; and a variety
of rules and exhortations for the exercife of benevolence
and charity.
In this book there are many paflages evidently taken
cut ot the Scriptures of the Old Teftament, particularly
out of the Pfalms of David: The author reprefents
Adam and Eve as the firft parents of all mankind, gives
m lubftance the fame account of the creation and de¬
luge with Mofes, differing indeed with regard to the for¬
mer, by converting the fix days of the Mofaic account
into fix times, comprehending in the whole 36 c days
and fpeaks alfo of Abraham, Jofeph, Mofes, and Solo¬
mon. _ Moreover, Dr Baumgarten afferts, that this work
contains do&rmes, opinions, and faffs, adlually borrowed
rom the Jews, Chriftians, and Mahometans; whence,
and from other circumflances, he concludes that both the
hiitory and writings of this prophet were probably in-
Vi!nt!vr I” the ^ater a£eS’ w^cn lhe fire-worfhippers under
the Mahometan government thought fit to vindicate their
religion from the fufpicion of idolatry.
At whatever period the Zend may have been written
we are affured by Dr Hyde, that it is in the pure old
Perfian language, and in the chara&er called PeA/aw]
Some parts of it contain the original next, and others
Zoioafter s fecond thoughts fubjoined, for explaining
more fully his dodrine. Thefe were occafioned by the
oppofition of adverfaries, and unforefeen circumftances
which occurred during the fabrication of the impofture
About 300 years ago, when the old Perfian language
had become antiquated and little underftood, one of the
deftours or high-priefts among the Perfees compofed the
Sarttar, which is a compendium in the vulgar or modern
1 erfic tongue, of thole parts of the Zend that relate to
religion, or a kind of cede of canons and precepts, drawn
from the theological writings of Zoroafter, ferving as an
authoritative rule of faith and pra&ice for his followers.
1 his Sadda is written m a low kind of Perfic verfe, and
«s Dr Hyde informs us, it is bonorum et malorum far-
r^, having many good and pious things, and others
very fuperftitious and trifling. See Persees and Zoro¬
aster.
. ZENITH, in Aftronomy, the vertical point, or a point
in the heavens diredly over our heads.
ZENO Eeeates, an eminent Grecian philofopher
Enfield's was born at Elea about 504 years before Chrifl He
"fS,f £as,^«!°»sMendof dvil liberty, and i, celebrated
^ '°r h's c°urage°us and fuccefsful oppofition to tyrants •
but the mconfiftency of the ftories related by different
writers concerning him in a great meafure deftroys their
credit. Pie chofe to refide in his fmall native city of
Elea rather than at Athens, becaufe it afforded freer
icope to his independent and generous fpirit, which could
not eafily fubmit to the reft rain ts of authority. It is re¬
nted, taat he vindicated the warmth with which he re-
- , j —0,  were indifferent to
cenfure, I fliould alfo be indifferent to praife.” The
invention of the dialectic art has been improperly aferi-
bed to Zeno ; but there can be no doubt that this phi¬
lofopher, and other metaphyfical difputants in the Elea-
tic feft, employed much ingenuity and fubtlety in exhi¬
biting examples of moft of the logical arts, which were
afterwards reduced to rule by Ariftotle and others.
According to Ariftotle, he taught, that nothing can
be produced either from that which is fimilar or diftimi-
lar ; that there is only one being, God ; who is eternal,
homogeneous, and fpherical, neither finite nor infinite,
neither quiefeent nor moveable; that there are many
worlds; that there is in nature no vacuum; that all
bodies are compofed of four elements, heat and moifture
cold and drynefs ; and that the body of man is from the
earth, and his foul an equal mixture of thefe four ele-v
ments. He argued with great fubtlety againft the pof/
fibility of motion. If Seneca’s account of this philofo¬
pher deferves credit, he reached the higheft point of
fcepticifm, and denied the real exiftence of external ob-
jeas. The truth is, that after all that has been advanced
by different writers, it is impoftible to determine whe¬
ther Zeno underftood the term one, metaphyfically, lo¬
gically, or phyfically ; or whether he admitted or denied
a nature properly divine.
Zeno, the founder of the fea of the Stoics, was born
about 300 years before Chrift at Citium, in the iiland of
Cyprus. This place having been originally peopled by
a colony of Phoenicians, Zeno is fometimes called a Phoe¬
nician. . His. father was by profeffion a merchant, but
difeoyering in the youth a ftrong propenfity towards
learning, he early devoted him to philofophy. In his
mercantile capacity he had frequent occafion to vifit A-
thens, where he purchafed for his fon fevcral of the wri¬
tings of the moft eminent Socratic philofophers. Thefe
he read with great avidity; and when he was about 30-
years of age, he determined to take a voyage to a city
which was fo celebrated both as a mart of trade and of
fcience. If it be true, as fome writers relate, that he
brought with him a valuable cargo of Phoenician purple
which was loft by ibipwreck upon the coaft of Piraeus’
this circumftance will account for the facility with which
he at firft attached himfelf to a fe61: whofe leading prin¬
ciple was the contempt of riches. Upon his firft arrival
in Athens, going accidentally into the ftiop of a book-
iellers, he took up a volume of the Commentaries of Xe¬
nophon ; and after reading a few paffages, was fo much
delighted with the work, and formed fo high an idea of'
t le author, that he alked the bookfeller where he might
meet with fuch men. Crates the Cynic philofopher hap¬
pening at that inftant to be palling by, the bookfeller
pointed to him, and faid, “ Follow that man.” Zeno
attended upon the ftiftruftions of Crates, and was fo well
plealed with his doftrine that he became one of his dif-
C,pPf1f * ^ EVt th,ou£h ,he admired the general principles
oi the Cynic fchool, he could not eafily reconcile him-
lelt to their peculiar manners. Befides, his inquifitive
turn ol mind would not allow him to adopt that indiffer-
ence to every fcientific inquiry which was one of the
charactenftic diftmaions of the feft. Fie therefore at
tended upon other mafters, who profeffed to iuftruft their
dilciples m the nature and caufes of things. When Crates,
dilpleafed at his following other philofophers, attempted
ia drag him by force out of the fchool of Stilpo, Zeno
Zeno.
ZEN
[ 1H 1
Z E U
Zeno,
Zen obi a.
faid to him, “ You may rt!ze my body, but Stilpo has
laid hold of my mind.” After continuing to attend
upon the lectures of Stilpo feveral years, he pafied over
to other fchools, particularly to thofe of Xenocrates and
Diodorus Cronus. By the latter he was inftrufted in
dialectics. He was fo much delighted with this branch
of ftudy, that he prefented to his mafter a large pecuni¬
ary gratuity, in return for his free communication of
fome of his ingenious fubtleties. At laft, after attending
aknofl: every other mafter, he offered himfelf as a difci-
pie of Polemo. This philofopher appears to have been
aware, that Zeno’s intention in thus removing from one
fchool to another, was to colleCt materials from various
quarters for a new fyftem of his own •, for, when he came
into Polemo’s fchool, he faid to him, “ I am no ftran-
ger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts; I perceive that your
deftgn is to creep flyly into my garden, and fteal away
my fruit.” Polemo was not miftaken in his opinion.
Having made himfelf mafter of the tenets of others, Zeno
determined to become the founder of a new fed. The
place which he made choice of for his fchool was a pu¬
blic portico, adorned with the pictures of Polygnotus, and
other eminent painters. It W'as the moft famous portico
in Athens, and called, by way of eminence, Erout, “ the
Porch.” It was from this circumftance that the fol¬
lowers of Zeno were called Stoicr.
In his perfon Zeno was tall and flender ; his afpeCt was
fevere, and his brow contracted. His conftitution was
feeble, but he preferved his health by great abftemiouf-
nefs. The fupplies of his table confifted of figs, bread,
and honey ; notwithftanding which, he was frequently
honoured with the company of great men. In public
company, to avoid every appearance of an affuming tem¬
per, he commonly took the loweft place. Indeed fo
great was his modefty, that he feldom chofe to mingle
with a crowd, or wiftied for the company of more than
two or three friends at once. He paid more attention to
neatnefs and decorum in external appearance than the
Cynic philofophers. In his drefs indeed he was plain,
and in all his expences frugal j but this is not to be im¬
puted to avarice, but a contempt of external magnifi¬
cence. He ftiowed as much refpeCl: to the poor as to
the rich ; and converfed freely w'ith perfons of the mean-
eft occupations. He had only one fervant, or, according
to Seneca, none.
Zeno lived to the extreme age of 98 \ and at laft, in
confequence of an accident, voluntarily put an end to
his life. As he was walking out of his fchool he fell
down, and in the fall broke one of his fingers •, upon
which he was fo affefted with a confcioufnefs of infirmi¬
ty, that, ftriking the earth, he faid, “ Why am I thus
importuned ? I obey thy fummons and immediately
went home and ftrangled himfelf. He died in the firft
year of the 129th Olympiad. The Athenians, at the
requeft of Antigonus, erefted a monument to his me¬
mory in the Ceramicum.
We ought not to confound the two Zenos already
mentioned with
Zeno, a celebrated Epicurean philofopher, born at
Sidon, who had Cicero and Pomponius Atticus for
his difciples, and who wrote a book againft the mathe¬
matics, which, as well as that of Poflidonius’s refuta¬
tion of it, is loft j nor with feveral other Zenos mention¬
ed in hiftory.
ZENOBIA, queen of Palmyra, See Palmyra.
4
Zeuxis.
ZEOLITE, a mineral fubftance. See MINERALOGY Zeolite
Index.
ZEPHANIAH, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment. See Scripture, n° 79.
ZEPHYR, the WEST-Wind, or that which blows
from the cardinal point of the horizon oppofite to
the eaft.
ZEPHYRUS, one of the Pagan deities, w^as repre-
fented as the fon of Aurora, and the lover of the nymph
Chloris, according to the Greeks, or of Flora according
to the Romans j and as prefiding over the growth of
fruits and flow’ers. He is defcribed as giving a refrefh-
ing coolnefs to the air by his foft and agreeable breath,
and as moderating the heat of fummer by fanning the
air with his filken wings. He is depiftured under the
form of a youth, with a very tender air, with wings re-
fembling thofe of the butterfly, and with his head crown¬
ed with a variety of flowers. As the poets of Greece
and Rome lived in a warm climate, they are lavilh in
in their praife of this beneficent deity, and under his
name defcribe the pleafure and advantage they received
from the weftern breezes.
ZERDA. See Canis, Mammalia Index.
ZERTA, the Zerte, a fiih caught in the rivers of
Italy and fome other places, of the figure of the chub,
and called by authors capita anodromus, and the hide.
It feldom grows to more than two pounds weight, and
at times lives in rivers, at times in the fea \ and is efteem-
ed a very w^ell tafted fifli, efpecially a little before the
feafon of its fpawning. The zerte is that fpecies of cy-
prinus defcribed by Gefner and others under the name of
capita anodrotnus.
ZEST, the woody thick fkin quartering the kernel
of a walnut •, prefcribed by fome phyficians, when
dried and taken with white wine, as a remedy againft
the gravel.
Zest is alfo ufed for a chip of orange or lemon peel j
fuch as is ufually fqueezed into ale, wine, &c. to give
it a flavour j or the fine oil wdiich fpurts out of that peel
on fqueezing it.
ZEUGMA, a figure in Grammar, whereby an ad-
jeftive or verb which agrees with a nearer word, is
alfo, by way of fupplement, referred to another more
remote.
ZEUS, a genus of fifties of the order of thoracici.
See Ichthyology Index.
ZEUXIS, a celebrated painter of antiquity, flourifh-
ed about 400 years before Chrift. He was bom at He-
raclea j but as there have be^n many cities of that name,
it cannot be certainly determined which of them had
the honour of his birth. Some learned men, however,
conje&ure, that it was the Heraclea near Crotona in
Italy. He carried painting to a much higher degree of
perfeftion than Apollodorus had left it; difcovered the
art of properly difpofing of lights and (hades, and par¬
ticularly excelled in colouring. He amafled immenfe
riches ; * and then refolved to fell no more of his pi&ures,
but gave them away $ faying very frankly, “ That he
could not fet a price on them equal to their value.”
Before this time he made people pay for feeing them ;
and nobody was admitted to fee his Helena without rea¬
dy money, which occafioned the wags calling his pifture
Helen the Courtesan. It is not known whether this
Helen of Zeuxis was the fame with that which was at
Rome in Pliny’s time, or that which he painted for the
inhabitants
Z I M
[ 785 ]
Z I N
Zeuxis inhabitants of Crotona to be hung up in the temple of
Juno : this laft he painted from five beautiful girls of
that city, copying from each her greateft excellencies.
Pliny obferves, that this admirable painter, difputing for'
the prize of painting with Parrhafius, painted fome
grapes fo naturally, that the birds flew down to peck
them. Parrhafius, on the other hand, painted a curtain
fo very artfully, that Zeuxis, miftaking it for a real one
that hid his rival’s work, ordered the curtain to be
drawn afide, to flrow what Parrhafius had done; but
having found his miftake, he ingenioufly confefled him-
felf vanquifhed, fince he had only impofed upon birds,
while Parrhafius had deceived even a mafter of the art.
Another time he painted a boy loaded with grapes ;
when the birds alfo flew to this pi&ure, at which he was
vexed 5 and confefled, that this work was not fufficiently
finifhed, fince had he painted the boy as perfeftly as the
grapes, the birds would have been afraid of him. Ar-
chelaus, king of Macedon, made ufe of Zeuxis’s pencil
for the embellilhment of his palace. One of this pain¬
ter’s fineft pieces was a Hercules ftrangling fome fer-
pents in his cradle, in the prefence of his affrighted mo-
but he himfelf chiefly efteemed his Athleta, or
Zmicnf-
water
th
Champion, under which he placed a Greek verfe that
afterwards became very famous, and in which he fays,
“ That it was eafier to criticife than to imitate the pic¬
ture.” He made a prefent of his Alcmena to the A-
gngentines. Zeuxis did not value himfelf on fpeedily
finifhing his pi&ures j but knowing that Agatharchus
gloried in his being able to paint with eafe and in a lit¬
tle time, he faid, “ That for his part he, on the con¬
trary, gloried in his flownefs ; and, if he was long in
painting, it was becaufe he painted for eternity.” Ver-
rius Flaccus fays, that Zeuxis having painted an old wo¬
man, he laughed fo very heartily at the fight of this pic¬
ture, that he died : but as no other of the ancients has
mentioned this particular, there is the greateft reafon to
believe it fabulous. Carlo Dati has compofed in Ita¬
lian the Life of Zeuxis, with thofe of Parrhafius, Apel¬
les, and Protogenes. This work was printed at Florence
in 1667.
ZICLAG, or Ziklag, in Ancient Geography, a
town of the tribe of Simeon, on the borders of the
Philiftines (Joftrua xv. and xix.), but in the hands
of the Philiftines till David’s time (1 Sam. xxvii. and
xxx.)
ZIMENT-water, Copper-water, the name by
which fome have called water found in places where
there are copper-mines, which is impregnated with par¬
ticles of that metal.
The moft famous fpring of this kind is about a mile
diftant from Newfohl in Hungary, in the great copner-
mine called by the Germans herrngrundt. The water
in this mine is found at different depths, and is received
into bafons, for the nurpofe of feparating the copper
from it : in fome of thefe it is much more fated with
this metal than in others, and will make the fuppofed
change of iron into that metal much fooner. The moft
common meces of iron ufed in the experiments are horfe-
ftioes, nails, and the like ; and they are found very lit¬
tle altered in fliape, after the operation, except that
then- furfaees are more raifed. The water appears
greenifli in the bafon, where it (lands ; but if a glafs of
it be taken up, it looks clear as cryftal : it has no fmell,
but a ftrong vitriolic aftringent tafte, infomuch that
Vol. XX. Par-t II.
Zinc.
Pint.
r Ma~. xxiii.
the lips and tongue are bliftered and fcorched upon
tailing it.
ZIN, in Ancient Geography, a wildernefs encompaf-
fing Idumea, at leal! on the fouth and weft, as far as
Paleftine or Canaan j but according to Wells, on the
eart of Edom, to the north of Ezion-gaber.
ZINC, a metallic fubftance, formerly confidered as
one of the brittle metals; or, according to the ditlindtion
of the older chemifts, a femi-metal or an imperfedt me¬
tal, becaufe it was found to be deflitute of fouie of the'
properties of other metals which were confidered as per-
fedl. For an account of the properties and combina¬
tions of zinc, as they were then known, fee Chemi¬
stry Index ; and for the hiftory of its ores, fee Mine¬
ralogy Index.
But in the progrefs of chemical difcovery it has been
found that zinc is not a lefs perfedt metal than others j
for in the yearT805, it was announced that a patent
was granted to Meffrs Hobfon and Sylvefter of Shef¬
field for a method of manufadfuring zinc. From their
difcovery it appears, that zinc railed to a temperature of
between 2io° and 300° of Fahrenheit, is not only very
malleable, but may be paffed through rollers, or drawn
into wire. After the metal has been treated in this
manner, it does not return to its former brittlenefs, but
continues foft, flexible, and extenfible, and may be ap¬
plied to many ufes for which this metal was before
thought unfit *. • *
We muft, however, notice, that a prior claim to the dif-
covery of rendering zinc dudlile and malleable, has been9'
made by Mr Lowry, in favour of a Mr SheffieldofSomerf-
town. Twenty years before the time of Meffrs Hobfon
and Sylvefter’s patent being announced, Mr Sheffield, in
making an affay of fome blende, was impatient to exa¬
mine the metal, flruck an ingot for the purpofe of break¬
ing it while it was yet hot, but was much furprifed to
find that inftead of being brittle, and breaking with the
ufual fradture of zinc, it was extremely tough, and
when he fucceeded in breaking it, after many bendings
backward and forward, it exhibited a fteel-grained
fibrous texture. At firft he doubted of the metal be¬
ing zinc, but he repeated the experiment on what he
knew to be pure metal, and obtained the fame refult j
and from this he concluded that zinc at a certain tem¬
perature is equally malleable and dudtile with other
metals. This he found to be the cafe by drawing it
into wire, and laminating it between rollers, by which
he produced plates not exceeding the of an inch,
and poffefling the ftrength and tenacity of filver f. j Phil*
Sincevthe time that our article Chemistry was print- Mag. xxiii.
ed, the decompofition of potafh, foda, the alkaline earths, 283*
and fome other bodies which were formerly confidered
as fimple, or were only conjectured from analogy to
be compound, has been effedfted by Mr Davy ; and as
we were difpofed to entertain hopes that fomething
new might be added to the unexpefled and brilliant
difcoveries of that celebrated chemift, we have deferred,
till near the clofe of our work, giving any account of
them. This is the reafon that the faft was merely an¬
nounced under the words Potash and Soda, and a re¬
ference made to Galvanic TROUGH, under which it was
intended to give a fliort defcriplion of the apparatus
employed in the experiments which led to the difcoveries
alluded to. For the fame reafon we were induced to
make a farther reference to this place, beeaufe zinc is
5 G one
Zinc.
Z I N [ 786
one of the metallic fubftances ufually employed in the
conftruftion of galvanic apparatus. We ftiall therefore
here employ a few pages, ill, In a defcription of the
improvements which have been made in the conftru&ion
of galvanic apparatus } and, 2d, We (hall lay before our
readers a view of the difcoveries in galvanic eleftricity
fince the treatifes on Chemistry and Galvanism in
this work were printed.
Galvanic Apparatus.—A very confiderable improve¬
ment has been made on the conllru£tion of galvanic
batteries, by which they are rendered, not only more
convenient and manageable, but far more powerful.
Under the article Galvanism, we have defcribed par¬
ticularly the conftru&ion of the galvanic trough, and
we have noticed that the foldering of the plates of zinc
and copper employed for this purpofe was attended with
confideiable difficulty. In the new method of con-
ilruftion the plates are not foldered together, but are
merely connefled by means of a metallic arc. In this
Way each pair of plates can be removed from the trough
at pleafure, for the purpofe of examining and cleaning
them. The new apparatus is conftru&ed precilely on
the fame principle as the couronne de Tqffes, propofed
by Volta, and defcribed at p. 333 of Galvanism.
The trough employed in this apparatus is prepared in
the fame way as when the plates of zino and copper
foldered together were fixed in it by means of cement j
but in place of the metallic plates, plates of glafs, or
fome other non-condu61ing fubftance, are introduced
and f*cured by cement, fo that there ffiall be no com¬
munication between the different cells into which the
liquid is introduced. The plates of zinc and copper
connefted by means of the metallic arc, at the dillance
of about half an inch, are placed in different cells, ha¬
ving a plate of glafs between each pair of plates. Each
cell then contains a plate of each of the metals, -which
are unconne&ed, excepting through the medium of the
liquid which is to be the conductor of the eleftricity.
It is fcarcely neceffary to mention, that the proper
order of arrangement {hall be obferved, fo that through¬
out the whole trough or battery there fliall be a feries
of zinc, copper, and liquid.
Befide the conveniency and fimplicity of this mode of
conftrudHng galvanic troughs, it poffeffes this farther
advantage of being more powerful, becaufe inftead of
one furface of the plates, as in the former conftrudfion
of this apparatus, both furfaces are expofed to the a6Hon
of ele&ricity, and therefore the powrer is greatly in-
creafed. A farther improvement, it is faid, has been
made in conftrufting batteries of this kind, which con-
Ms in employing troughs of Wedgwood’s ware, with
partitions of the fame material, inflead of wooden troughs
with partitions of glafs. This improvement was firft
fuggefted by Dr Babington.
The following is the account of the conftruftion of
galvanic apparatus, with the view of afcertaining in
what way the greateft effedf might be produced, wdth
the leaf! wTafte of power and expence. The experi¬
ments which we are now to mention w-ere made by Mr
Children *. For this purpofe a battery was conflrudl-
jgo^p. 33. ed on the new method, with plates of copper and zinc,
connefted by leaden (traps, foldered on the top of each
pair of plates. Twenty pairs of plates wrere employed,
and each plate was four feet high by twm feet wide.
The whole extent of furface eetpofed amounted to 92,160
]
z 1 N
* Phil.
Trcinf
fquare inches; the trough was made of wood, with
tvooden partitions, covered with cement, to refift the 1
action of the acid employed. The battery was charged
with a mixture of three parts of fuming nitrous, and
one of fulphuric acid, diluted with thirty of water j the
quantity employed was 120 gallons. With this appa¬
ratus the following experiments were made.
Exper. 1. Eighteen inches of platina wire, of one-
thirtieth of an inch diameter wrere completely fufed in
about twenty feconds. Exper. 2. Three feet of the
fame ware were heated to a bright red, vifible by ftrong
day-light. Exper. 3. Four ieet of the fame wire were
rendered very hot, but not perceptibly red by day-light.
Exper. 4. Charcoal burnt with intenfe brilliancy.
Exper. 5. Ten inches of iron-wire of ^th of an inch
diameter, were barely fufed j three feet of the fame
wire were not ignited. Exper. 6. No effedl was pro¬
duced on imperfedf conductors.. Exper. 7. The gold-
leaves of the electrometer w-ere not affedted. Exper. 8.
When the cuticle was dry, no fhcck wTas given by the
battery, and it was fcarcely perceptible when the fkin
wras wret.
To contraft the effeCts of this apparatus with another
differing in the fize and number of plates, the author
employed 200 pairs of plates, each about two inches
fquare, placed in half pint pots of common queen’s w are.
The fame liquid was employed, with the addition of a
freffi portion of fulphuric acid, in the proportion of
about a quarter of a pint to a gallon. The experiments
with this apparatus gave the following relults.
Exper. x. Potaffi and barytes w'eie readily decompof-
ed. Exper. 2. The metallization of ammonia w'as pro¬
duced with great facility. Exper. 3. Charcoal was
vividly ignited. Exper. 4. The gold leaves of the
eleCtrometer diverged conhderably. Exper. 5. After
the battery was in aCtion three hours, it gave a vivid
fpark; at the end of 24 hours it metallized ammonia j
at the end of 41 hours it w as nearly exhauited. From
the refults of thefe experiments, Mr Children con-
cludeSj that the theory of the mode of aCtion of the
voltaic battery propofed by Mr Davy is confirmed,
namely, that the intenfity increafes with the number,
and the quantity with the extent of the feiies. This
is proved by the effefts produced on the platina and
iron wires, in the iff and 5th experiments with the
large battery, as well as by the experiments on im-
perfeCl conductors in the fmall apparatus j for as the
platina wire is a perft Cl conduClor, and not liable to
oxidation, it allows the eleClricities to be freely^ tranf-
mitted, and from the immenfe quantity given out from
a furface of fuch extent, they evolve, on their mutual
annihilation, heat fufficient to raife the temperature of
the platina to the point of fufion. But a very fmall
portion of the eleClricity paffes through the iron wire,
in confequence of its eafy oxidation, and the thin coat of
oxide formed on its furface. This arifes from the
low- (late of the intenfity of the eledricity, as appears al-
fo from its want of power on the gold leaves of the e-
le&rometer. From the fame deficient intenfity, the decom-
pofition of barytes could not be effefted by the large
battery, and the fame battery exhibited a very weak
aCtion on imperfeC! conductors •, but the fmall battery
exerted great power on that clafs of bodies, and decom-
pofed them readily, although its furface wTas 30 times
lefs than the furface of the great battery j but the num¬
ber
Zinc.
Z I N [ 787 ] Z I N
Zinc. ber of plates was nearly ten times greater. Another
circumftance, of coniiderable importance in conducing
experiments by means of the galvanic battery, is here
noticed by the author j that the long continued a61ion
of the fmall battery was owing to the large capacity of
the cells containing a proportional quantity of liquor.
And befide this advantage he adds, that with very large
combinations, a certain diftance between each pair of
plates is abfolutely neceffary to prevent fpontaneous dif-
charges, which arc accompanied with vivid flalhes of
elefh'ic light. This happened to the author with a bat¬
tery of 1250 four-inch plates, conltrucfed according to
the new method.
From the experiments and obfervations, fome of
which we have detailed, and for others we refer to the
paper itfeif, the author concludes with the following
remarks: “ The abfolute effect of a voltaic apparatus
feems to be in the compound ratio of the number and
lize of the plates. The intenfity of the eledtricily being
as the former, the quantity given out as the latter, con-
fequently regard mult be had, in its conltruftion, to the
purpofes for which it is defigned. For experiments on
imperfeft condu6iors, very large plates are to be prefer¬
red, a fmall number of w’hich will probably be fufficient;
but where the refinance of imperfedt condudtors is to be
overcome, the combination mutt be great, but the fize
of the plates may be fmall : but if quantity and intenii-
ty be both required, then a large number of large plates
will be neceffary. For general purpofes, four inches
* Ibid. 37. Square will be found to be the molt convenient fize
Difcoveries in Gahanifm.—At the clofe of the article
Galvanism, we noticed fome experiments which were
made about the beginning of the year 1805, which
feemed to lead to the conclufion, that muriatic acid and
fbda were formed by means of galvanic electricity. In
experiments on the decompohtion of water, which was
fuppofed to be in a hate of the utmoff purity, the ap¬
pearance of muriatic acid and foda was adduced in fup-
port of this opinion. The accuracy of this conclulion,
which feemed to be at variance xvith known faffs, ex¬
cited doubt, and probably led to the inveftigation which
was undertaken by Mr Davy, and carried on with great
ingenuity and addrefs by the fame philofopher, till it
terminated in the brilliant difcoveries, an account of
which we are now to detail. Mr Davy’s refearches in
galvaniftn, an account of which he laid before the Roval
Society in a memoir entitled, On fome Chemical Agen¬
cies of EleBricily, may be confidcred as the firff ftep in
this train of inveifigation.
With the view of difproving the accuracy of the ex¬
periments in which the generation of acids and alkalies
m.xxviii WaS ^PP0^ t0 ^ave been effedled by means of galvan-
"pig. j. ‘ ifm, Mr Davy employed agate cups, (fig. 1.), of a cy¬
lindrical form, and containing about one-fourth of a
cubic inch each. The cups were boiled for fome hours
in dilfilled water, and a piece of white tranfparent ami¬
anthus, which had been treated in the fame way, was
made to conned them. They were then filled with
diftilled water, and expofed by means of two platina
wires, to a current of eleCfricity, from 150 pairs of
plates of copper and zinc, four inches fquare. The
liquid employed was a folution of alum. The aCtion
continued 48 hours, and the procefs was then examined.
Paper tinged with litmus introduced into the tube con¬
taining the pofitive wire, was reddened ; paper coloured
by turmeric placed in the other tube, had its colour Zinc,
deepened ; the acid matter produced a flight turbidity
in a folution of nitrate of filver -r the fluid from the
negative tube retained the property of afteCting the tur¬
meric after being boiled, and indeed became more vi¬
vid as the quantity was diminifned by evaporation.
Carbonate of ammonia was added, and the whole being
dried, and expofed to a ftrong heat, a minute quantity
of white matter remained, which had all the properties
of carbonate of foda.
The fame experiment was repeated with glafs tubesr
and the refult was, that the quantity of alkali obtained
ivas 20 times greater, but no traces of muriatic acid
could be perceived. Mr Davy fufpefting that the agate
might contain a minute portion of faline matter, repeat¬
ed the experiment four times. The quantity of alka¬
line matter diminilhed in every operation, and in the
laid procefs, although the battery had been kept in
great aftivity for three days, the fluid poffeffed in a
flight degree only the power of afting on paper tinged
wdth turmeric ; but its alkaline property was very fen-
fible to litmus paper flightly reddened. The acid mat¬
ter in the other tube was abundant $ it had a four tafte,
and produced no efteft on folution of muriate of barytes,
but left a black ftain from a drop on a poliflied plate of
fllver. Thus it appeared to be extremely diluted ni¬
trous acid.
For the purpofe of making the experiment with
greater accuracy, two hollow cones of pure gold (fig. 2.) FiS- a'
were employed, each containing about 25 grains of
water. They were filled with diftilled water, connetl-
ed by moiftened amianthus, as before, and expofed to
the a£Hon of a battery of 100 pairs of plates of fix inches
fquare. The liquid ufed was a folution of alum, and
diluted fulphuric acid. In ten minutes the water in the
negative tube changed litmus paper to a flight blue,
and the water in the pofitive tube produced a red tint.
The procefs having continued for 14 hours, the acid
was found to increafe in quantity during the whole
time, but the alkaline fluid in the other tube did not
affedf the lefts more than in the firft trial. The acid
feemed to be the pure nitrous, with an excefs of nitrous
gas. The experiment was repeated, and the procefs
carried on for three days, and fimilar refults were ob¬
tained. From thefe experiments it was concluded, that
the diftilled water contained a minute portion of faline
matter, but fo minute indeed, that it was infenfible to
the moft delicate chemical lefts. This appeared to be
the cafe by evaporating a quantity of the diftilled water
that was ufed, very flowly, at a heat below 140° Fah¬
renheit, in a filver ftill. A quantity of folid matter
equal to feven-tenths of a grain, of a faline but metallic
tafte, was obtained. It feemed to be a mixture «f ni¬
trate of foda and nitrate of lead. Mr Davy then em¬
ployed fome of the water colkfted in the fecond pro¬
cefs of flow diftillation, in another experiment with the
gold tubes and connecting amianthus. At the end of
two hours the water in the negative tube had no effect
on turmeric paper; litmus, it could juft be perceived,
was changed •, but by heating the water ftrongly for
two or three minutes, it was deprived even of this power,
and from this he fuppofes that it was owing to a fmall
quantity of ammonia. A fimilar experiment was made
with a portion of the fame water in the agate tubes, and
precifely the fame refults were obtained. From thefe
5 G a experiments
Zinc.
z I N [ 788 ] 2 I N
experiments Mr Davy fairly concludes, that the fixed
alkali is not generated during the procefs, but merely
evolved, either from the folid materials employed, or
from faline matter in the water.
Many experiments were made in veflels compofed of
different fubftances, with the water procured by How
ditlillation ; and in almofl every inftance fome fixed al¬
kali appeared. When tubes of wax were employed,
the alkaline matter was a mixture of foda and potalh,
and the acid matter, a mixture of fulphuric, muriatic,
and nitric acids. A tube of refin afforded alkaline
matter, which was principally potafh. A cube of Car¬
rara marble of about an inch, having an aperture in its
centre, was placed in a platina crucible, which was
filled as high as the upper furface of the cube, with the
purified w7ater. The aperture was filled with the fame
liquid, and the crucible w7as pofitively eledlrified by a
powerful battery, and the negatively eledfrified wire in¬
troduced into the aperture. Fixed alkali and lime were
obtained in this experiment 5 the quantity of alkali di-
minifhing as the experiment was repeated, and after 11
procefles, each continued for two or three hours, difap-
peared altogether. The quantity of lime-water obtain¬
ed was uniform.
When 500 grains of this marble were analyzed, they
afforded about three-fourths of a grain of fixed faline
matter, having foda for its bafe. Sufpedting that
the Carrara marble might have been recently expofed
to fea water, Mr Davy fubjefted to a fimilar experi¬
ment, a piece of granular marble from the mountains of
Donnegal, and by means of negative electricity he ob¬
tained fixed alkali. Argillaceous fchiftus from Corn¬
wall gave the fame refult, and ferpentine and gray
wacken both afforded foda.
In other experiments Mr Davy fubjeCted other bo¬
dies to the adtion of the fame power, with the view of
effecting a decompofition. Thus, two cups of compaCt
fulphate of lime, each containing about 14 grain
meafures of water, w^ere connected by fibrous fulphate
of lime moiftened with pure water. The cups were
filled with the fame fluid, and they were introduced into
the circuit of a galvanic battery with 100 pairs of plates
of fix inches. In five minutes the •water in the pofitive
cup became acid, while that in the oppofite cup tinged
turmeric. An hour after, a faturated folution of lime
was formed in the negative cup, and the other contain¬
ed a folution of fulphuric acid of moderate ftrength.
Two cubical pieces of cryftallized fulphate of ftron-
tites, of about an inch, with a hole drilled in each, ca¬
pable of receiving eight grains of water, wyere plunged
in pure wyater, in a platina crucible, and the level of
the fluid was kept a few lines below the furface of the
cubes. The boles in the earthy mineral were filled
with pure water, and two platina wires were introdu¬
ced into them. At the end of thirty hours the fluid in
the cavity of the negative fide precipitated folution of
fulphate of potalh, and fulphuric acid appeared in the
other.
Two pieces of fluate of lime, having each a cavity,
and connefted by moift albeflus, were fubje&ed to a
fimilar experiment. The decompofition was flow ; but
in twro days a folution of lime appeared in the one tube,
and an acid in the other, which precipitated acetate of
lead, and left a fpot upon the glafs, from which it was
evaporated, fo that it muft have been fluoric acid.
Compaft zeolite being prepared in the fame way, and
electrified in the fame manner as the cube of Carrara
marble, afforded foda and lime. Lepidolite, by fimilar
treatment, gave potafti j and an alkaline matter, which
feemed to be a mixture of foda, potafh and lime, was
extracted from a piece of vitreous lava from Mount
Etna.
The decompofition of fa line bodies, which are foluble
in water, wyas more rapid. A diluted folution of ful¬
phate of potalh introduced into the agate cups connect¬
ed by amianthus moiltened with pure water, being elec¬
trified by a battery with 50 pairs of plates, produced in
four hours a weak folution of potalh in the negative
cup, and a folution of fulphuric acid in the pofitive
cup. Similar phenomena were obferved when fulphate
of foda, nitrate of potalh, nitrate of barytes, fulphate of
ammonia, phofphate of foda, fuccinate, oxalate, and
benzoate of ammonia and alum, were employed. The
acids in a certain time colleCled in the tube containing
the pofitive wire, and the alkalies and earths in the ne¬
gative tube. Solutions of the muriatic falts, fubjeCted
to decompofition by the fame procefles, uniformly af¬
forded oxymuriatic acid on the pofitive fide.
Saturated faline folutions were moft rapidly decom-
pofed, but the fmalleft proportion was alfo acled on.
Thus, if a piece of paper tinged with turmeric be
plunged into pure water, in a proper circuit, in contaCt
with the negative point, the minute quantity of faline
compound contained in the paper, produces inftantly a
brown tint near its point of contaft. Acid appears aifo
from litmus paper at the pofitive furface.
Experiments were made with the view of afcertain-
ing whether in thel'e procefles the reparation of the con-
ftituent parts was complete, from the laft portions of
the compound. The following experiment Ihows that
this is the cafe. “ A very weak folution of fulphate of
potalh, containing 20 parts of water, and one part of
faturated folution at 64°, wyas eleftrified in the two
agate cups, by the power of 50 pairs of plates for three
days; the connefting amianthus which had been moift¬
ened wTith pure water, was removed, walhed with pure
water, and again applied twice every day. By this
precaution the prefence of any neutral fait that might
adhere to it, and difturb the refults, was prevented.
The alkali obtained in this procefs in the folution had
the propeities of pure potafti, and when it had been fa¬
turated with nitric acid, it gave no turbidnefs by mix¬
ture with folution of muriate of barytes ; the acid mat¬
ter expofed to a ftrong heat, evaporated, without leaving
any refiduum.”
Mr Davy then made experiments on the transfer of
certain of the conftituent parts of bodies, and alfo on the
paffage of acids, alkalies, and other fubftances, through
various attra&ing chemical menftrua, by means of elec¬
tricity, and in thefe experiments he obtained many curi¬
ous and interefting refults; but for an account of them,
as well as of his obfervations on the different phenomena,
and on the mode of decompofition and tranfition, we
muft refer to the memoir itfelf.
After the inveftigations in which Mr Davy had been
occupied, and the fingular and unexpected refults which
he obtained, he ventured to conclude, from the general
principles on which the phenomena might be explained,
that the new methods of proceeding would lead to a
njore intimate knowledge concerning the true elements
Zinc.
—Y—
J
Z I N [ 789 1 Z I N
Zinc.- of bodies. Accordingly, in November 1807, he laid
“"v before the Royal Society a moft interelling detail of an
elaborate feries of experiments on the decompofition of
the alkalies.
Decompq/ition of the Alkalies.
In the firft attempts that were made on the decompo¬
fition of potafli, Mr Davy employed an aqueous folution,
faturated at a common temperature. It was expofed to
the adlion of a powerful galvanic battery, compofed of
24 plates of copper and zinc of 12 inches fquare, 100
plates of fix inches, and 150 plates of four inches fquare,
charged with folutions of alum and nitrous acid. The
a£Hon was very intenfe ; a great deal of heat and vio¬
lent effervefcence were produced, but the water only of
the folution was affefted, and its hydrogen and oxygen
were difengaged. Potalh in the flate of igneous fufion,
in a fpoon of platina, was next fubje&ed to the ablion of
a battery of 100 plates of fix inches, highly charged.
The fpoon was connedled with the pofitive fide. In
this experiment fome brilliant phenomena were produ¬
ced. The potalh appeared to be a good condu&or ;
and, while the communication was preferved, a moft in¬
tenfe light was emitted from the negative wire, and a
column of flame, feemingly owing to the developement
of combuftible matter, arofe from the point of contaft.
When the order was reverfed, and the platina fpoon w-as
conne&ed with the negative fide, a vivid and conftant
light appeared at the oppofite point. There was no in¬
flammation round it \ but aeriform globules, which in¬
flamed in the atmofphere, rofe through the potalh. The
platina was confiderably afted on.
Although potalh, when perfe&ly dry, be a non-con-
duftor, it acquires a conducing power by being llight-
ly moiflened. A fmall piece of pure potalh expofed for
a few feconds to the atmofphere, was placed on a difc
of platina conne&ed with the negative fide of a battery
of 250 plates of fix and four inches, in a Hate of intenfe
activity. A platina wire from the oppofite fide was
brought in contact with the upper furface of the alkali.
A vivid aftion foon took place. The potalh fufed at
both points of ele&rifation ; a violent effervefcence ap¬
peared at the upper furface ; but at the lower or nega¬
tive furface no elaltic fluid was emitted, but fmall glo¬
bules like quickfilver were produced, fome of which
burnt with explofion and bright flame as they were
formed, and others remained and were only tarnilhed,
and finally covered by a white film formed on their
furlaces. Thefe globules were the balls of potalh. The
fame refults were obtained, when gold and other metals,
plumbago, or charcoal, were employed •, and the eft'efts
were the fame when the procefs was conduced in an ex-
haufted receiver.
Mr Davy alfo obtained the fame fubftance from pot¬
alh, fufed by means of a lamp, and placed in glafs tubes
confined by mercury, and furnilhed with hermetically
inferted platina wires, to tranfmit the eleftricity ; but
the glafs was rapidly d'flblved by the aftion of the al¬
kali, fo that the procefs could not be long carried on.
In thefe experiments on potalh, the combuftible bafe
was produced from the negative furface, and oxygen
was evolved from the pofitive furface. The fame effefts
invariably followed, when the experiment was conduc¬
ed above mercury. The fame thing was proved fynthe-
tically. The combuftible fubftance obtained from the
potath had its metallic luftre deftroyed in the atmo- Zinc,
fphere, and a white cruft formed upon it. This cruft u—y~~
was found, upon examination, to be pure potalh } but
this was ftill farther confirmed by placing globules of
the combuftible matter in tubes containing common air,
or oxygen gas, confined by mercury. An abforption of
the oxygen took place, and a cruft of alkali was formed
upon the globule. When the combuftible matter con¬
fined in given portions of oxygen, was ftrongly heated,
a rapid combuftion, with a brilliant ryhite flame, was
produced, and the metallic globules were converted into
a white and folid mafs, which was found to be pure
potalh.
To the combuftible matter thus obtained from potalli,
Mr Davy gave the name of potaJJ'mm. From its
ftrong affinity for oxygen, it was extremely difficult to
preferve it unchanged, for the purpofe of examining its
properties. The fubftance which he found to be leall
affedled, is newly diftilled naphtha. In this fluid po-
taffium may be kept for many days nearly unaltered,
and its phylical properties may be examined in the at¬
mofphere, when covered by a thin film of it.
Potaffium, at 6o° Fahrenheit, is in the form of fmall
globules, which have the metallic luftre and general
appearance of mercury ; at 70° it becomes more fluid,
and at ioo°, different globules eafily run into one. At
50° of Fahrenheit it is foft and malleable, and exhibits
the luftre of polilhed filver. At 3 2° it becomes hard
and brittle, and, when broken, prefents a cryftallized
texture. To reduce it to vapour, it requires a red heat;
and in proper circumftances, it may be fubjedted to di-
ftillation, without change. It is a good condudlor of
heat, and a perfedl condudtor of eledlricity.
In the properties now mentioned, potaffium approach¬
es nearly to the metals j but it is very different in its
fpecific gravity. In naphtha of the fpecific gravity of
.861 it rofe to the furface; and it did not fink in double
diftilled naphtha, the fpecific gravity of which was
about .770. From thefe and other experiments, Mr Davy
eftimates the fpecific gravity of potaffium at .6, fo that
it is the lighteft fluid body known. In its fohd form it
is fomewhat heavier ; but, even in this ftate, when
cooled to 40° Fahrenheit, it fwims in double diftilled
naphtha.
With the view of afeertaining the proportions of the
conftituent parts of potaffi, Mr Davy made two experi¬
ments, by fubjedling the metallic bafe to combuftion in
oxygen gas. In the firft experiment, .12 of a grain of
potaffium were employed ; the combuftion was made
upon platina, and was rapid and complete, and the balls
appeared to be perfe£lly faturated. The refult of this
experiment indicates 86.7 of balls, and 13.3 of oxygen,
in the 100 parts of potalh. In another experiment, the
refult he obtained was 85.5 of balls, and 14.5 of oxy¬
gen. The mean of thefe trvo experiments is 86.1 of
bafis, and 13.9 of oxygen, in 100 parts of potafti.
The refults of the decompofition of water by the bafis
of the alkalies, which were more readily and perfe&ly
obtained than thofe of their combuftion, exhibited the
proportion of bafe to be 84, and that of oxygen 16;
but the mean of 86.1 of bafe, and 13.9 of oxygen, and
84 bafe and 16 oxygen, is 85 of potaffium and 15 of
oxygen, which may be taken as' the proportions of the
elements of potafh.
Mr Davy’s dif&overies have been confirmed by the
ingenious
z I N [ 790 ] Z I N
^nc' ingenious experiments of Thenard and Gay-Lufl*ac. Thefe
" v " diftinguifhed chemifts have decompofed potafli by a dif¬
ferent procefs. They introduced iron filings into a bent
gun barrel, which was placed acrofs a furnace. A tube
with a ftopcock, containing a quantity of folid potalh, is
connefted with one extremity of the gun barrel j to the
other extremity there is attached a tube of fafety, con¬
taining mercury, for the purpofe of excluding the at-
mofpheric air, and allowing any gafeous matter formed
during the procefs to efcape. The potalh in the tube is
to be kept cold by means of a freezing mixture, till
that part of the barrel containing the iron filings has
been raifed to a wdrite heat. The potafh is then fufed by
applying heat, by means of a portable furnace j and it is
allowed to pafs through a fmall opening, to come in
contact with the iron filings, where it is decompofed,
the oxygen of the potalh entering into combination with
the iron, and the bafe palling on to the other extremity
of the tube in a ftate of fublimation. At that extremity
the metallic bafe is condenfed by the application of ex-
ceflive cold, and in this way the potaflium may be ob¬
tained at lefs expence, and in greater quantity, than by
means of galvanifm. During tnis procefs, hydrogen gas
is evolved, which, it is fuppofed, is owing to the de-
compofition of the water contained in the alkali. The
potaflium thus obtained is in the form of brilliant lami-
nse, which adhere to the fides of the gun barrel. An
alloy of the fame metal with iron is alfo found in that
part of the barrel containing the filings. Mr Davy has
repeated this experiment, and he finds that the bafe ob¬
tained in this manner is heavier, and its melting point
higher, than w'hat is procured by means of galvanifm.
This, it is fuppofed, may arife from its being combined
with a fmall proportion of iron. The metallic bafe of
foda svas obtained by a limilar procefs.
But, according to the view which the French che-
mills have taken of thefe difcoveries, and the refults of
their own experiments, they conclude, that the metallic
lubftances derived from the alkalies are not fimple, but
are compounds of the feveral bafes with hydrogen.
Another method of decompoling potalh, and obtain¬
ing its bafe, which is flill Ampler, has been followed by
Curaudau. In this procefs the decompofition is effedled
By charcoal. A mixture of carbonate of potalh is made
with flour or charcoal and linfeed oil. This mixture is
introduced into an iron or earthen tube or retort, and
calcined, by gradually railing the heat, till a bluilh
light be feen in the infide of the veffel. Soon after an
abundant evolution of vapour takes place, which is the
bafe of the alkali, to be coliefted by introducing a clean
iron rod, on which it condenfes. Care ruuft be taken
to withdraw the rod before it is too hot, and to plunge
it in oil of turpentine, under the furface of which the
metallic cruft on the rod may be feparated. In this
way a quantity of potaflium may be procured. The
bafe of foda is obtained by a fimilar procefs.
FiS* 3* Fig. 3. is a reprefentation of the apparatus employed
by the French chemifts in decompofing potalh. ABCE
is the gun barrel laid acrofs the furnace, with its appa¬
ratus ; D is the furnace, and F is the pipe of the bel¬
lows.
'^1£' 4” Fig. 4. is a feflion of the tube containing the pot¬
alh.
But the chemical relations of pot/’flium are not lefs
extraordinary than its phyfical properties. It combines
2
flowly with oxygen, and without flame, at all tempera- Zinc,
tures below that of its vaporization. At this point com-—y~”
buftion takes place, with a brilliant white light, and in-
tenfe heat. When it is heated flowly in a quantity of
oxygen gas, which is not fufficient for its complete latu-
ration, and at a temperature below that of inflamma¬
tion, as for inftance 400° of Fahrenheit, it changes to
a red brown colour, and the folid form, confifting part¬
ly of potalh, and partly of its bafe, is of a grayifli co¬
lour. When expofed to water, or again healed in frefli
quantities of air, the whole is converted into potaflu
When dry potalh and potaflium are fufed together un¬
der proper circumftanc the bafe is deprived of its me¬
tallic fplendour, and the two fubftances unite into a
compound of a red brown colour when fluid, and of a
dark gray when folid. This compound, when expofed
to the air, foon abforbs its full proportion of oxygen,
and is wholly converted into potafli. The fubltance
thus formed feems to be in a lower ftate of oxidation,
fo that it is to be confidered as an oxide of potaflium
with a fmaller proportion of oxygen.
Wlren potaflium is introduced into oxymuriatic acid
gas, it burns fpontaneoufly with a bright red light, and
a white fait is formed, which is muriate of potalh.
When a globule of potaflium is heated in hydrogen gas,
at a degree below its point of vaporization, it leems to
diffolve in it, for the globule is diminilhed in volume,
and the gas explodes with alkaline fumes, and bright
light, when brought into the air ; but, by cooling, the
potaflium is wholly or principally depofited, for the gas
is deprived of its property of fpontaneous detonation.
When potaflium is thrown into water, it decompofes
it with great violence ; an inftantaneous explofion, with
brilliant flame, is produced, and a folution of pure pot-
alh is obtained. In thefe experiments, a white ring of
fmoke, gradually extending as it rifes in the air, is pro¬
duced, fimilar to the phenomenon of the combuflion of
phofphorated hydrogen. When a globule of the balls
of potalh is placed upon ice, it inftantly burns with a
bright flame ; part of the ice is melted, and in the ca¬
vity there is found a folution of potalh.
By placing a globule of potaflium upon moiftened
paper, tinged with turmeric, the moment that it comes
in cantafl with the water, it burns, and, moving ra¬
pidly upon the paper, leaves behind it a deep reddilh
brown trace, thus demonftrating, in a very fimple man¬
ner, the produflion of the alkali by the decompofition
of water.
Potaflium readily decompofes the fmall quantities of
water contained in alcohol and ether, even in their pu-
reft ftate. As potafli is infoluble in ether, when the
bafe is thrown into it, oxygen is furnilhed to it, and hy¬
drogen gas evolved, and, as the alkali is formed, the
ether becomes white and turbid. It is obferved, that
the energy of a£tion of potaflium in ether and alcohol,
is proportional to the nuantity of water which they con¬
tain, and hydrogen and potafli are always produced.
When potaflium is thrown into folutions of the mine¬
ral acids, it inflames and burns on the furface, and when
plunged, by proper means, beneath the furface enve¬
loped in potafli, furrounded by naphtha, it afts upon the
oxygen with great intenfity. In fulphuric acid, a white
faHne fubftance, covered with a yellow coating, which
is fuppofed to be fulphate of potafli farrounded with ful-
phur, and a gas, having the fmell of fulphurous acid-,
‘ and
L I KT
and which is probably a mixture of that fubftance with
hydrogen gas, are formed. When potaffium is thrown
into nitrous acid, nitrate of potalh is formed, and nitrous
gas is difengsged.
Potaffium readily combines with phofphorus and ful-
phur. When preffed upon a piece of phofphorus, they
both become fluid, enter into combuftion, and produce
phofphate of potalh. When the experiment is made
upon naphtha, no gafeous fubftance is given out; the
compound has the appearance of a metallic phofphuret,
is of the colour of lead, and has the luftre of polilhed
lead. Expofed to the air at common temperatures, it
combines flowly with oxygen, and is converted into
phofphate of potafh. When heated upon a plate of pla-
tina, it gives out fumes, but does not burn till it reach¬
es the temperature of the rapid combuftion of potaf-
fiuna.
When potaflium is brought into contaft with fulphur
in fufion, in tubes filled with the vapour of naphtha,
they combine rapidly, with the evolution of heat and
light. A gray fubftance is thus formed, which lias the
appearance of artificial fulphuret of iron *, if it be kept
in fufion, it rapidly diffolves the glafs. When this ex¬
periment is made in a glafs tube, hermetically fealed, no
gas is difengaged, if the tube be opened under mercury;
but when it is made in a tube connefted with a mercu¬
rial apparatus, a fmall quantity of fulphurated hydrogen
is evolved. When the combination is effected in the at-
mofphere, a great inflammation takes place, and fulphu¬
ret of potath is formed, and by farther expofure to the
air, it is at lafl converted into fulphate of potafti.
When one part of potaflium is added to eight or ten
of mercury, in bulk, at 6o° of Fahrenheit, they in-
ftantly unite, and form a fubftance like mercury in co¬
lour, but lefs coherent. When a globule is made to
touch a globule of mercury about twice as large, they
combine with confiderable heat. The compound is
fluid at the temperature of its formation, but, when
cool, it becomes folid, with the appearance of filver.
With the -j-^th of potaflium to the weight of mercury,
the amalgam is hard and brittle ; but with one part of
potaflium, and 70 of mercury, it is foft and malleable.
Expofed to the air, thefe compounds abforb oxygen,
and deliquefcent potafti is formed ; and in a few minutes
the mercury is revived. A globule of the amalgam,
thrown into water, decompofes it rapidly with a hifling
noife ; potafti is formed ; pure hydrogen is difengaged,
and the mercury remains free. This amalgam diiTolves
all the metals, and even a£ts on iron and platina.
When potaflium is heated with gold, lilver, or cop¬
per, in a clofe veflel of pure glafs, a rapid a£Hon is pro¬
duced, and the compounds thrown into water eft'eft its
decompofition ; potafti is formed, and the metals are
revived. Potaffium forms an alloy with fufible metal,
which has a higher point of fuflon than the fufible metal
itfelf.
Potaffium has little effect on colourlefs and recently
diftilled naphtha ; but, in naphtha, expofed to the air,
it is foon oxidated, and an alkali wffiich unites with the
naphtha into a brown foap that collefls round the glo¬
bule, is formed. Potaffium a£b flowly on the concrete
oils, as tallow, fpermaceti, and wax, even when heat¬
ed ; coaly matter is deoofited, a little gas is evolved,
and a foap is formed. On the fluid fixed oils the ef¬
fects are ftmilar, but take place more Howdy. With the
f 791 1
Z I N
affiftance of beat, volatile oils are rapidly decompofed
by potaffium ; gas is evolved, and charcoal depofited.
The metallic oxides, when heated in contaft with po¬
taffium, are readily reduced. When a fmall quantity
of oxide of iron was heated with it, to a temperature
appicaching its point of diftillation, a vivid aftion took
place. Alkali, in gray metallic particles, which effer-
vefced in muriatic acid, appeared. The oxides of lead
and tin were revived more rapidly, and with potaffium
in excels, an alloy was formed with the revived me¬
tal.
Potaffium readily decompofes flint glafs and green
glafs, by a gentle heat. The metallic oxides are redu¬
ced, and the alkali formed diffolves the glafs. At a
red heat, even the pureft glafs is afted on by potaffium;
the oxygen in the alkali of the glafs feems to be divided
between the potaffium employed, and the potaffium
which is the bafe of the alkali in the glafs, and thus
effects an oxidation in the firft degree.
Soda.—When pure foda was fubjefted in fimilar cir-
cumftances to the aflion of galvanifm, fimilar refults
were obtained as from potafh ; but the decompofition
required a more intenfe aftion in the battery, or it was
neceflary to have the alkali in thinner and fmaller pieces.
Potaffium remained fluid at the temperature of the at-
mofphere, at the time of its produdion ; but the bale
obtained from foda, which was fluid in the degree of
heat of the alkali during its formation, became folid on
cooling, and exhibited the luftre of filver. With a bat¬
tery of 100 pairs of plates of fix inches, in full adivity,
the decompofition of pieces of foda of about 15 or 20
grains in weight only could be effeded ; and it was ne-
ceffary alfo that the diftance between the wires fliould
not exceed one-eighth or one-tenth of an inch. Eut
when 250 pairs of plates were employed, highly char¬
ged for the decompofition of foda, the globules often
burnt at the moment of their formation, and fometimes
exploded and feparated into fmaller globules, which
darted rapidly through the air, in a ftate of vivid com¬
buftion, producing a beautiful effed of continued jets of
fire.
When the metallic bafe which is obtained from foda,
and which Mr Davy has denominated fodium, was ex¬
pofed to oxygen, it was converted into foda; and when
this procefs was conduded by ftrongly healing the bafe
in a given portion of oxygen, a rapid combuftion with a
brilliant white flame was produced, and the metallic
globule was converted into a white folid mafs, which
was found to be foda. The oxygen gas was abforbed .
during the operation, and nothing was given out which
affeded the purity of the refidual air.
The theory of the decompofition of the alkalies is
ftated by Mr Davy in the following words. “ As in
all decompofitions of compound fubftances which I had
previoufly examined, at the fame time that combufiible
bafes were developed at the negative furface in the elec-
trical circuit, oxygen was produced, and evolved or car¬
ried into combination at the pofitive furface, it .was rea-
fonable to conclude, that this fubflance was generated
in a fimilar manner by the eledrical adion of the al¬
kali ; and a number of experiments made above mercu¬
ry, with the apparatus for excluding external air,- pro¬
ved that this was the cafe. When folid potafli or foda, ,
in its conduding date, was included in glafs tubes, fur-
niflied with eledrified platina wires, the new fubftances
were-
z I N [ 792 ] Z I N
were generated at the negative furfaces j the gas given
out at the other furface proved, by the moft delicate exa¬
mination, to be pure oxygen j and, unlefs when ex-
cefs of water w'as prefent, no gas was evolved from the
negative furface.
For the purpofe of determining the proportions of the
elements of foda, Mr Davy made fimilar experiments to
thoie by which he afcertained the proportions of the
bafe and oxygen of potalh. By fubje&ing fodium to
combuftion in oxygen gas, it appeared that 100 parts of
foda are compofed of 80 of metallic bafe, and 20 of
oxygen ; but the relults of its oxidation by the decom-
pofition of water, indicated the proportions to be 23 of
oxygen, and 77 of bafe. By taking the mean propor¬
tions, obtained from the refults of the two fets of expe¬
riments, the elements of foda may be eftimated at 78.5
of metallic bafe, and 21.5 of oxygen.
Sodium, which remains folid at common temperatures,
is white and opaque j and examined under a film of
naphtha, has the luftre and appearance of filver. It is
very malleable, and fofter than common metallic fub-
ftances. With a flight preffure it fpreads into thin
leaves, and. a globule of one-tenth or one-twelfth of
an inch in diameter, is eafily fpread over a furface of
one-fourth of an inch •, and different globules are eafily
made to adhere, and form one mafs by ftrong preffure.
This property of welding which belongs to iron and
platina at a white heat only, is not diminifhed when fo¬
dium is cooled to 3 2° Fahrenheit.
Sodium, like potaflium, is a condu&or of ele&ricity
and heat, and fmall globules fubje&ed to galvanifm in¬
flame and burn with bright explofions. Sodium finks
in naphtha of fpecific gravity .861; but by mixing per-
feftly about 1 2 parts of naphtha, and five of oil of faffa-
fras, the fodium remains at reft in any part of the
fluid. This makes its fpecific gravity — about .9348,
water being taken as 1. The particles of fodium lofe
their cohefion at 120* Fahrenheit. It becomes quite
fluid at x8o°, fo that it readily fufes under boiling
naphtha. 'I he temperature at which it is volatilized is
not afcertained, but it remains fixed in a ftate of igni¬
tion at the point of fufion of plate glafs.
The chemical relations of fodium are analogous to
thofe of potaflium, but with fome charadleriftic differ¬
ences. Expofed to the atmofphere, it is immediately
tarnifhed, and is gradually covered with a white cruft,
which is pure foda. It combines flowly with oxygen,
and without any luminous appearance at common tem¬
peratures. When heated, the combination is more ra¬
pid, but no light is emitted till it acquire a temperature
near that of ignition. The flame in oxygen gas is
white, and it fends forth bright fparks, producing a
very beautiful effeft ; in common air, the colour of the
light is like that of the combuftion of charcoal, but
brighter. When fodium was heated in hydrogen gas,
it feemed to have no adtion on it.
Sodium bums vividly in oxymuriatic acid gas, giv¬
ing out numerous fparks of a bright red colour; a faline
matter is produced, which is muriate of foda. When
fodium is thrown into water, it produces a violent ef-
fervelcence with a loud hifling noife 5 it combines with
the oxygen of the water to form foda, which is diffolv-
ed, and its hydrogen is difengaged. During the pro-
pefs there is no luminous appearance j but when fodium
is thrown into hot water, a more violent decompofiticn
1
takes place. A few fcintillations are obferved at the Zinc.
furface of the w'ater, which is owing to fmall particles v—
of the bafis which are thrown out of the water, heated
to fuch a degree as to burn in palling through the at¬
mofphere. But when a globule of fodium is brought
into contadf with a fmali particle of water, or with
moiftened paper, the heat produced is ufually fufficient
for its combuftion, as in this cafe there is no medium to
carry off the heat rapidly.
Sodium produces fimilar effedls with potaflium when
brought into contact with alcohol and ether. It acts
with great energy on the ftrong acids; with nitrous
acid it produces a vivid inflammation, and with muria¬
tic and fulphuric acids, great heat, but no light, is ge¬
nerated. The effects of fodium and potaflium on the
fixed and volatile oils, and naphtha, are quite analo-
gousj but the appearances of the faponaceous compounds
are fomewhat different, the combinations with fodium
being of a darker colour, and apparently lefs foluble.
Sodium alfo exhibits twm degrees of combination with
oxygen j the firft is of a deep brown colour, wrhich is
fluid wdien produced, and becomes a dark gray folid on
cooling. By attradling oxygen from the air, or by the
decompofition of the water, it is converted into foda.
Sodium forms compounds with fulphur and phofpho-
rus. In clofe veffels filled with the vapour of naphtha,
it enters into combination with fulphur, giving out dur¬
ing the procefs a vivid light and heat, and often attend¬
ed with explofion, from the vaporization of a portion of
iulphur, and the difengagement of fulphurated hydro¬
gen gas. The fulphuret of fodium is of a deep gray
colour. In its combination with phofphorus, the com¬
pound obtained has the appearance of lead, and by ex-
pofure to the air, or by being fubjedled to combuftion,
the phofphuret of fodium is converted into pholphate of
foda.
Sodium forms compounds with the metals. In the
proportion of one-fortieth with mercury, a compound
is obtained, which is of the colour of filver, and remains '
folid ; the combination is accompanied with confider-
able heat. Sodium forms an alloy with tin, without
producing any change of colour, and it has fome a£Hon
upon lead and gold when heated ; but in its ftate of al¬
loy it is foon converted into foda, by expofure to the
air, or by the action -of Water, w’hich it decompofes
with difengagement of hydrogen. The amalgam of
mercury and fodium feems to be capable of forming
triple compounds with fome other metals ; and it would
appear that iron and platina remain in combinatiin
with the mercury, after they are deprived of the fodium
by expofure to the air. The fame amalgam of fodium
and mercury likewife forms combinations with fulphur j
the triple compound thus obtained is of a dark gray co¬
lour.
Ammonia.—The chemical compofition of ammonia
has been many years confidered as fully eftablifhed j
but in the courfe of Mr Davy’s experiments on the de¬
compofition of the fixed alkalies, it occurred to him
that oxygen might alfo form one of the conftituents of
ammonia, and this he alfo proved by experiment. Char¬
coal carefully burnt, and deprived of moifture, was ig¬
nited by a galvanic battery of 250 pairs of plates of fix
and four inches fquare, in a fmall quantity of pure am-
moniacal gas, confined over mercury. A great expan-
fion of the gafeous matter took place, and the white
fubftance
Z I N
Zinc.
fubftance formed in the procefs colle&ed on the fides of
the glafs tube. This matter effervefced in diluted mu¬
riatic acid, fo that the product was probably carbonate
of ammonia. A more decifive proof of ammonia con¬
taining oxygen as one of its elements, was obtained
from another procefs. Very pure ammoniacal gas was
paffed over iron wire ignited in a platina tube, and two
curved glafs tubes were fo arranged as to be inferted
into a freezing mixture, and through one of thefe tubes
the gas entered into the platina tube, to be conveyed
through it by the other glafs tube into an air-holder.
The temperature of the air was 550, and no fenfible
quantity of water was depofited in the cooled glafs
tube, which tranfmitted the unchanged ammonia. But
after being expofed to heat, moifture was very percep¬
tible, and the gas appeared in the air-holder denfely
clouded. This circumftance appeared to eftablilh the
formation of the water from the decompofition of am¬
monia during the procefs. But after the gas had been
palfed feveral times through the ignited tube, from one
air-holder to the other, the iron wire was found fuperfi-
cially converted into oxide, and had increafed in weight
t4<5%- of a grain. About four-tenths of a grain of water
were colleaed from the cooled glafs tubes by means of
filtrating paper, and 33.8 cubic inches of gas were ex¬
panded into 55.3 cubic inches, and by detonation with
oxygen it was found, that the hydrogen gas in thefe
was to the nitrogen or azote as 3.2 to 1 in bulk.
Ammonia was farther fubje&ed to experiment by
taking the eleftric fpark in it. In experiments of this
kind it was underftood that it is refolved into hydrogen
and azotic gafes; but Mr Davy found, after obfervmg
feveral variations in the refults, that the weight of the
two gafes obtained was lefs by about one-eleventh than
the weight of the ammonia employed. He afcribes this
lofs to the oxygen of the alkali, which had probably
combined with the wires of platina employed in the ex¬
periment, and had thus dilappeared. From thele ex¬
periments he eftimates the proportion of oxygen in am¬
monia at not lefs than 7 or 8 parts in 100 5 and as the
gafes evolved may contain more water than the gas de-
compofed, the proportion may even be larger. By thus
confidering ammonia as a triple compound of azote,
hydrogen, and oxygen, the phenomena of its produftien
and decompofition admit of an eafy explanation. In all
cafes m which ammonia is formed, oxygen exifts along
with its other elements, in the fubftances from the de-
compcfition of which it is obtained. In the decompofi¬
tion of ammonia, on the other hand, the oxygen, which
forms one of its elements, may be abftraaed by the
fubftance employed in its decompofition, or it may en¬
ter into combination with portions of its hydrogen or
azote.
But in the progrefs of inveftigating the nature of am¬
monia, to which the attention of chemical philofophers
has been particularly directed, it appears that this alkali
is analogous to the fixed alkalies in having a metal¬
lic bafe. The Swedifh chemifts Berzelius and Pontin,
placed mercury negatively ele&rified in the galvanic
cwcle, in contact with folution of ammonia. By this
aftion the mercury increafed in volume, and after an
expanfion of four or five times its former dimenfions, it
became a foft folid. From this amalgam expofed to
the air,, mercury and ammonia are reproduced, with the
abforption of oxygen j and when the amalgam is put
Vol. XX. Part II. 6 ^
t 793 ]
2 I N
into water it forms ammonia, with the evolution of hy¬
drogen, and the re-appearance of the mercury in its
metallic ftate. Mr Davy repeated this experiment, and
he found that to produce an amalgam, from 50 or 60
grains of mercury, in contaft with a faturated folution
of ammonia, required a confiderable time, and that this
amalgam changed confiderably, even in the fhort pe¬
riod that was neceffary for removing it from the folu¬
tion. Conceiving that the de-oxidation and combina¬
tion with mercury might be more eafily effeded in its
nafcent he placed fo grains of mercury in a cavi*
ty in muriate of ammonia. The muriate flightly moift-
ened was placed on a plate of platina, and conneded
with the pofitive fide of a large galvanic battery. The
mercury was made negative by means of a platina wire*
a ftrong effervefcence, with much heat, immediately
took place j the globule of mercury in a few minutes
enlarged to five times its former dimenfions. It had the
appearance of amalgam of zinc. Metallic cryftalliza-
tions (hot from it as a centre round the body of fait.
They had an arborefcent appearance, often became co¬
loured at their points of contad with the muriate, and
when the connedion was broken, rapidly difappeared,
while ammoniacal fumes were given out, and the mer¬
cury was reproduced. With a piece of carbonate of
ammonia, fimilar phenomena were exhibited. The
amalgam was formed very rapidly j but when the gal¬
vanic adion was powerful in this laft cafe, a black mat¬
ter appeared in the cavity, which was probably car-
bone, from the decompofition of the carbonic acid.
Mr Davy confidering the ftrong attradion of potaf-
fium and fodium for oxygen, was led to examine whe¬
ther they produced any effect in the amalgamation of
ammonia, independent of eledricity. With this view
he united fmall portions of potaflium and fodium with
mercury, and brought them into contad with moiften-
ed .muriate of ammonia. An amalgam was formed,
which rapidly increafed to fix or feven times its volume,
and the compound feemed to contain a larger propor¬
tion of ammoniacal bafe than that obtained by eledrici¬
ty. It appears, too, that a portion of the metallic bafe
employed, to effed the de-oxidation always remained in
combination with the compound, fo that it was not a
pure amalgam. The following are the properties of
the amalgam from ammonia, obtained by means of gal-
vanifm. 6
When this amalgam is formed at the temperature of
70° or 8o°, it is in the ftate of a foft folid, of the con¬
fidence of butter; at 3 20 it becomes firmer, and af-
fumes a cryftallized form, in which fmall facets appear,
which feem to be cubical. The amalgam of potafiiura
cryftallizes in cubes, as beautiful, and in fome cafes as
large, as tnole of bifmuth. The fpecific gravity of the
amalgam is l.efs than three, water being one. When
the amalgam is thrown into water, a quantity of hydro¬
gen equal to half its bulk, is evolved, and the water be¬
comes a weak folution of ammonia. The amalgam be¬
ing confined in a given portion of air, the air increafes
in bulk, and the mercury is revived. Ammoniacal
gas equal to 14 or ij-ths of the volume of the amal¬
gam,, is produced, and oxygen equal to one-feventh or
one-eighth of the ammonia, difappears. When the
amalgam is thrown into muriatic acid gas, it becomes
infta.ntly coated with muriate of ammonia, and a fmall
portion of hydrogen is evolved. In fulphuric acid it
J H becomes
Zinc.
Z I N [
, Zinc' becomes coated with fulphate of ammonia and
^ phur.
Mr Davy attempted, by various methods, to preferve
the amalgam, in the hope of fubmitting it to diftilla-
tion, for the purpofe of obtaining the metallic bafe of
the ammonia, which was united i.o the mercury, in a
feparate form. But as it is extremely difficult to free
mercury, after being once moiftened entirely from wa¬
ter, he did not fucceed in this attempt. In wiping the
amalgam carefully with bibulous paper, part of the am¬
monia was regenerated, and in paffing it through fine
linen, with the view of feparating the moifture, a com¬
plete decompofition was effiefted, and the mercury was
revived.
The quantity of the bafe of ammonia combined with
6o grains of quickfilver, appears not to exceed -j— of a
grain, and the quantity of oxygen required for this is not
more than -T^0 0 of a grain of water, which might be fup-
piied by merely breathing upon the amalgam. Mr Davy
made various other experiments, with the view of afcer-
taining the nature and properties of the amalgam of
ammonia ; but for an account of thefe we muft refer to
the paper itfelf. And he obferves, that the more thefe
properties are confidered, the more extraordinary will
they appear. Mercury, by combination with about
rmioo °f its weight of new matter, becomes folid, and
yet has its fpecific gravity reduced from 13.5 to lefs than
3, retaining at the fame time its metallic charaflers, its
colour, luftre, opacity, and conducing powers, undimi-
niffied. Gan it then be conceived, Mr Davy alks, that
a fubftance which forms with mercury fo perfeft an
amalgam, fhould not be metallic in its own nature ?
This fubilance he denominates ammonium. On what
then, it is farther aiked, do the metallic properties of
ammonium depend ? Are hydrogen and nitrogen both
metals in the gafeous ftate, at the ufual temperature of
the atmofphere •, bodies of the fame charadler, as zinc
and mercury in the ftate of ignition ? Or are thefe gafes
in their common form oxides which become metallized
by de-oxidation ? Or are they to be confidered as fimple
bodies, not metallic in their own nature, but capable of
compofing a metal when deprived of oxygen, and be¬
coming an alkali with the addition of oxygen ?
In the farther profecution of the experiments relative
to the nature of ammonia, Mr Davy employed potaf-
fium. . He brought ammonia into contact with about
twice its weight of potaffium at common temperatures j
but excepting a flight diminution in the volume of the
gas, and the metal lofing its luftre and becoming white,
no other effects were produced. The white cruft when
examined, proved to be potaffi, and a fmall portion of
hydrogen was found in the ammonia, but not more than
equal in volume to the metal. When the potaffium was
heated in the gas, by means of a fpirit lamp applied to
Fig. £j, the bottom of the retort, (fig. 5.) the colour of the cruft
changed from white to bright azure, and gradually to
bright blue, green, and dark olive. The cruft and the
metal then fufed together. This procefs is attended with
effervefcence *, and the cruft paffing oflf to the Tides, exhi¬
bits the Aiming furface of the potaffium. When heated
a fecond time, it fwells confiderably, becomes porous,!
cryftalhzed, and of a beautiful azure tint. A,gas is
evolved during this operation, which gives the fame di¬
minution by detonation with oxygen, as hydrogen, and
ammonia difappears.
794' ] Z 1 N .
ful- It has been obferved that the proportion of ammonia Zinc,
which lofes its elaftic form, varies according as the gas
employed contains more or lefs moifture. Thus, in am¬
monia faturated with water at 63° Fahrenheit, pota(-
fium caufed the difappearance of twelve and a half cu¬
bical inches of ammonia j but in ammonia deprived of
moifture, by expofure for two days to potafh that had been
ignited, the fame quantity of potaffium occafioned the
difappearance of 16 cubical inches; but whatever were
the degrees of moifture 6f the gas, the quantity of hy¬
drogen generated always appeared equal for equal quan¬
tities of metal j and according to the French chemifts,
the portions are ftated to have been the fame as would
have refulted from the aftion of water upon potaffium.
But in Mr Davy’s experiments, the proportions were
rather lefs. In one, conduced vrith great care, eight
grains of potaffium generated, by their a&ion upon wa¬
ter, eight and a half cubical inches of hydrogen gas j
and eight grains of potaffium from the fame mafs, by
their operation upon ammonia, produced 8g- cubical
inches of hydrogen gas. This difference, although
inconfiderable, Mr Davy found always to take place.
In Mr Davy’s experiments on the adftion of potaffium
on ammonia, he employed retorts of plate glafs. The
potaffium was faftened upon trays of platina or iron,
which were introduced into the glafs retorts furnithed
with ftop-cocks. The retorts were exhaufted by an air-
pump, then filled with hydrogen, exhaufted a fecond
time, and afterwards filled with ammonia. (See fig. 5. f;„ , ancj
and 6.). ° <5. ’
The following are the properties of the fubftance ob¬
tained from the achon of ammonia on potaffium. 1. It is
cryftalhzed, and prefents irregular facets, which are
extremely dark, and in colour and luftre not unlike the
green oxide of iron; it is opaque when examined in large
maffes, but is femitranfparent in thin films, and appears
of a bright browm colour by tranfmitted light. 2. It is
fufible at a heat a little above that of boiling water,
and if heated much higher, emits globules of gas. 3.
It appears to be confiderably heavier than water, for it
finks rapidly in oil of faffafras. 4. It is a non-conduftor
of ele&ricity. 5. When it is melted in oxygen gas, it
burns with great vividnefs, emitting bright fparks.
Oxygen is abforbed, nitrogen is emitted, and potalh,
which from its great fufibility feems to contain water,
is formed. 6. When brought into contaft with water,
it a<fts unon it with much energy, produces heat, and
often inflammation, and evolves ammonia. When
thrown upon water, it difappears with a biffing noife,
and globules from it often move in a ftate of ignition •
upon the furface of the water. It rapidly effervefces
and deliquefces in air, but can be preferved under
naphtha, in wffiich, however, it foftens flowly, and feems
partially to diffolve. When it is plunged under water
filling an inverted jar, by means of a proper tube, it
inftantly difappears with effervefcence, and the non-ab-
forbable elaftic fluid liberated is found to be hydrogen
gas.
It is found that the weight of this fubftanre is greater
than that of the potaffium from which it is formed ; and
from this it is concluded, that part of the ammonia, or
of its elements, enters into its compofition. When this
fubftance is decompofed by heat, nitrogen and hydrogen
gafes, with a portion of ammonia, are given out. It
appears, however, that the produftion ox the ammonia
Z I M [7
is in proportion to the moiilure admitted, and when the
u inoiiture is coniiderable, the whole product is ammonia.
When this fubftance is expofed to heat, a matter re¬
mains, which even by increafing the heat, is no farther
changed. On this reliduum wrater adts violently, and
with etFervefcence, from the evolution of hydrogen gas.
Ammonia and potaih are at the fame time reproduced.
Mr Davy’s concluhon from thefe experiments is, that
the fubttance formed by the adfioa of ammonia on pot-
ailium is a compound of the latter with a fmall propor¬
tion of oxygen and nitrogen j and as it is found that
the quantity of hydrogen given out during its formation
is nearly equal to the hydrogen contained in the am¬
monia, it follows that neither hydrogen nor the am¬
monia itfelf can be fuppoicd to enter into its compoii-
tion.
In profecuting this inveftigation, Mr Davy made va¬
rious experiments, and whether the fubftance was added
on by water, expofed to the adtion of oxygen, or decom-
pofed by heat, it was found, contrary to expedfation,
that the quantity of nitrogen evolved during its decom-
pofition was much lefs than in proportion to the quan¬
tity of ammonia which had difappeared in its formation.
In one experiment, in which the decompofition was ef-
fedted by heat, the gafeous produdt was examined, and
was found to be partly potafti, and partly potalfium ;
but it afforded no traces of ammonia, when acted on by
water, which is a proof that it retained no nitrogen. In
another experiment, 11 cubic inches of ammonia, or
2.05 grains, were decompofed by potaflium. The pro-
dudf was 3.6 cubic inches of nitrogen, equal to 1.06
grain j 16 cubic inches of hydrogen, equal to >382
grain ; and there wras added to the potaftium a quantity
of oxygen equal to .6 grain. Tftefe produdts taken to¬
gether amount to 2.04 grains, which is nearly equal to
the quantity of ammonia employed ; but this quantity of
ammonia, if the proportions of its elements be eftimated,
from its decompofition by eledlricity, would have yield¬
ed 5.5 cubic inches of nitrogen, equal to 1.6 grain, and
only 14 cubic inches equal to .33 5 and allowing the re¬
paration of oxygen in this procels in water, it cannot be
eftimated at more than .11 or .12; and hence, if the
analyfis of ammonia by eledhicity come near to accuracy,
there is in this procefs a confiderable lofs of nitrogen,
and the production of oxygen and hydrogen.
How, fays Mr Davy, can thefe extraordinary refults
be explained ? The decompofition and compofition of
nitrogen feem proved, and one of its elements appears to
be oxygen ; but wdiat is the other element ? Is the gas
that appears to poffefs the properties of hydrogen a new
fpecies of inflammable aeriform fubftance ? Or has nitro¬
gen a metallic bafis, which alloys with the iron or pla-
tina ? Or is water alike the ponderable matter of nitro¬
gen, hydrogen, and oxygen ? Or is nitrogen a com¬
pound of hydrogen, with a larger proportion of oxygen
than exifts in water I1 Of thefe important queftions, Mr
Davy adds, the two firft feem the leaft likely to be an-
fwered in the affirmative, from the correfpondence be¬
tween the weight of the ammonia decompofed, and the
produfls, fuppofing them to be known fubftances.
In concluding this fubjecl, we muft obferve, that it
ftfii remains in a confiderable degree of obfcurity. It
feems, however, to be afcertained, that the bafe of am¬
monia is of a metallic nature, which muft be derived,
95 1 Z I N
either from the nitrogen or the hydrogen, or from both,
or perhaps thefe fubftances are only different forms of
combination of the elementary bafe. Or if nitrogen be
fuppofed to be an oxide of hydrogen, then hydrogen in
its gafeous form is either a metallic fubftance, or has a
metallic bafe, which latter enters into combination with
the mercury employed in the decompofition of ammo¬
nia.
Decompojition of the Earths.
From the refults of the experiments on potafh and
foda, which Air Davy obtained, he was led to entertain
the ftrongeft hopes of being able to effeCI the decompo¬
fition both of the alkaline and common earths ; and the
phenomena which took place in the firft imperfedt trials
made upon thefe bodies countenanced the ideas, that
had obtained fince the earlieft periods of chemiftry, of
their being metallic in their nature.
Ike earths, like the fixed altcahes, are non-conduc¬
tors of eledlricity 5 but the fixed alkalies become con-
dudlors by fufion : the infufible nature of the earths
however, rendered it impoffible to operate upon them in
this ftate : the ftrong affinity of their bales for oxygen,
made it unavailing, to aft upon them in fblution in wa¬
ter 5 and the only methods that proved fuccefeful, were
thole of operating upon them by eleftricity in fome of
their combinations, or of combining them at the mo¬
ment of their decompofition by eleflricity in metallic al¬
loys, fo as to obtain evidences of their nature and pro¬
perties. To render the experiments upon the earths
iatistaflory, a more powerful battery will be required,
than Mr Davy has a profpeff of feeing very foon con-
ftrufled 5 he therefore prefers the imputation of having
publifhed unfinifhed labours, to that of having concealed
any new fafts.
Barytes, ftrontites, and lime, flightly moiftened, were
eleftrified by iron wfires under naphtha, by the fame me¬
thods, and with the fame powers, as thefe employed for
the decompofition of the fixed alkalies. In thefe cafes
gas was copioully evolved, which was inflammable ; and
the earths, where in contafl with the negative metallic
wires, became dark coloured and exhibited fmall points,
having a metallic luftre, which, when expofed to air,
gradually became white : they became white likewife’
when plunged under water j and when examined in this
experiment with a magnifier, a greenifh powder feemed
to feparate from them, and fmall globules of gas were
difengaged.
In thefe experiments there was great reafon to believe
that the earths had been decompofed ; and that their
bafes had combined with the iron, fo as to form alloys
decompofable by the oxygen of the air or water j but the
indiftin&nefs of the effeft, and the complicated circum-
ftances required for producing it, were fuch as to com¬
pel Air Davy to form other plans of operation.
Mr Davy bearing in mind the ftrong attra&ion of
potaffium for oxygen, was induced to try whether this
body might not detach the oxygen from the earths, in
the fame manner as charcoal decompofes the common
metallic oxides. He heated potaffium in contadl with dry
pure lime barytes, ftrontites, and magnefia, in tubes of
plate-glafs; but as he was obliged to uf'e very fmall quan¬
tities, and as he could not raife the Tieat to ignition with¬
out fufing the glafs, he obtained no good refults in this
5 H a manner.
Zinc.
Z I N [ 796
manner. The potaffium appeared to aft upon the earths
and on the glafs, and dark brown fubitances were obtain
ed, which evolved gas from water; but no diftinft metallic
globules could be procured : from thefe, and other like
circumitances, it feemed probable, that though potaffium
may partially deoxigenate the earths, yet its affinity for
oxygen, at leaft at the temperature employed, is not fuf-
ficient to effeft their decompolition. Mr Davy, having
made mixtuies of dry potaflr in excels and dry barytes,
lime, ilrontites, and magnefra, brought them into fufron|
and ailed upon them in the galvanic circuit in the fame
manner as he employed for obtaining the metals of the
alkalies. He expefted that the potaffium and the metals
of tiie earths might be deoxigenated at the fame time,
and enter into combination in alloy.
. this way of operating, the refults were more di-
ftinft tiian in the lalt: metallic Jubilances appeared lefs
fufible than potaffium, which burned the inlfant after
they had formed, and which by burning produced a
mixture of potaffi and the earth employed. An attempt
was made to form the metallic fubftances under naphtha,
but without much fuccefs. To produce the relult at
all, required a charge by the aftion of nitric acid, which
the date of the batteries would not often allow of; and
the metal was generated only in very minute films, which
could not be detached by fufion, and which were in-
ftantly deitroyed by expofure to air.
Mr Davy had found in his refearches upon potaffium,
that when a mixture of potaffi and the oxide of mer-
c-y, tin, or lead, was eleftiified in the galvanic circuit,
the decompofition was very rapid, and an amalgam, or
an alloy of potaffium, was obtained ; the attraftion be¬
tween the common merals and potaffium apparently ac¬
celerating the reparation of the oxygen. The idea that
a fimilar kind of aftion might affilt the decompofition of
the alkaline earths, induced him to eleftrify mixtures of
thete bodies and the oxide of tin, of iron, of lead, of fil-
ver, and of mercury ; and thefe operations were far more
fatisfaftory than any of the others.
A mix'ure of two-thirds of barytes, and one third of
oxide of filver very {lightly moiifened, was eleftrified by
iron wires ; an effcrvefcence took place at both points of
contaft, and a minute quantity of a fubftance, polfeffing
the whitenefs of filver, formed at the negative point.
When the iron wire to which this fubftance adhered,
was plunged into water containing a little alum in folu-
tion, gas was difengaged, which proved to be hydro¬
gen ; and white clouds, which were found to be fulphate
of barytes, defcended from the point of the wire.
mixture of barytes and red oxide of mercury, in
the fame proportions, was eleftrified in the fame man-
ner. A fmall mafs of folid amalgam adhered to the ne¬
gative wire, which evidently contained a fubftance, that
produced barytes by expofure to the air, with the ab-
Tu1''?11 ot oxv8en > and which occafioned the evolution
ot hydrogen from water, leaving pure mercury and pro¬
ducing a folution of barytes.
Mixtures of lime,, ftrontites, magnefia, and red oxide
or mercury, treated in the fame manner, gave fimilar a-
malgams, from, which the alkaline earths were regener¬
ated by the aftion of air or water, with like phenome¬
na ; but the quantities of metallic fubftances obtained
exceedingly minute .; they appeared as mere fuper-
ficial formations furrounding the point of the wire, nor
did they increafe after the firft few minutes of eleftriza-
1
z I N
tion, even when the procefs was carried on for fome
hours. i
Thefe experimer, s were at firft made when the bat¬
teries were in bad order ; but were afterwards refumed
with a new and much more powerful apparatus, con-
ftrufted in the laboratory of the Royal Inftitution, and
confifting of five hundred pairs of double plates of fix
inches fquare.
W hen Mr Davy attempted to obtain amalgams with
this apparatus, the tranfmitting wires being of platina,
of about 3% of an inch diameter, the heat generated
was fo great as to burn both the mercury and bafis of
the amalgam at the moment of its formation; and when,
by extending the furfaces of the conduftors, this power
of ignition was modified, yet ftill the amalgam was only
procured in thin films, and globules fufficiently large to
fubmit to diftillation could not be procured. When the
transmitting wires were of iron of the fame thicknefs,
the iron acquired the temperature of ignition, and com¬
bined with the bafes of the earths in preference to the
mercury; and metallic alloys of a dark grey colour were
obtained, which afted on water with the evolution of
hydrogen, and were converted into oxide of iron and
alkaline earths.
While Mr Davy was engaged in thefe experiments,
he received a letter from Profeflbr Berzelius of Stock¬
holm, who ftated that in conjunftion with Dr Pontin, he
had fucceeded in decompofing barytes and lime, by*ne-
gatively eleftrifying mercury in contaft with them, and
that in this way he had obtained amalgams of the metals
of thefe earths.
Mr Davy immediately repeated thefe operations with
perfeft fuccefs; a globule of mercury, eleftrified by the
power of the battery of 500, weakly charged, was made
to aft upon a furface of Ihghtly moiftened barytes, fixed
upon a plate of platina. The mercury gradually became
lefs fluid, and after a few minutes was found covered
with a white film of barytes, and when the amalgam
was thrown into water, hydrogen was difengaged, the
mercury remained free, and a folution of barytes was
formed.
The refult with lime, as thefe gentlemen had ftated,
was precifely analogous. Strontites and magnefia were
decompofed in the fame manner.
From ftrontites the txpefted refult foon took place ;
but from magnefia, in the firft trials, no amalgam could
be procured. By continuing the procefs, however, for
a longer time, and keeping the earth continually moift,
at laft a combination of the bafis with mercury was ob¬
tained, which llo\ly produced magnefia by abforbing
oxygen from the air, or by the aftion of water.
Mr Davy found that all thefe amalgams might be
preferved for a confiderable period under naphtha. In
length of time, however, they became covered with a
white cruft under this fluid. In water, the amalgam of
barytes was moft rapidly decompofed; that of ftromites
and that of lime next in order : but the amalgam from
magnefia, as might be expefted from the weak affinity
of the earth for water, very flowly changed. When a
little fulphuric acid was added to the water, however
the evolution of hydrogen, and the produftion and folu¬
tion of magnefia, were exceedingly rapid, and the mer¬
cury foon remained free.
Mr Davy believed, that one reafon why magnefia
was lefs eafy to metallize, than the other alkaline earths,
was
Zinc.
Z I N
Zinc. Was owing to its infolubility in water, which would pre-
^ vent it from being prefented in the nafcent ilate, detach¬
ed from its folution at the negative furface.
He then made the experiment, ufing moiftened ful-
phate of magnelia inltead of the pure earth $ and the a-
malgam was much fooner obtained. Here the magnefia
was attracted from the fulphuric acid, and probably de-
oxigenated and combined with the quicklilver at the fame
inllant.
The amalgams of the other bafes of the alkaline
earths could be obtained in the fame manner from their
faline compounds : muriate and fulphate of lime, the
muriate of ftrontites and barytes, and nitrate of barytes,
were decompofed by the fame means as the other earths.
The earths, feparated at the deoxigenating furface,
thefe feemed inlfantly to undergo decompofiiion, and,
feized upon by the mercury, were in fome meafure de¬
fended from the action of air, and from the contafl of
water, and preferved by their ftrong attradlion for this
metal.
In attempting to procure the metals of the alkaline
earths, the latter were flightly moiifened, and mixed
with one-third of red oxide of mercury j the mixture
was placed on a plate of platina *, a cavity was made
in the upper part of it to receive a globule of mercury,
of from 50 to 60 grains in weight $ the whole was cov¬
ered by a film of naphtha, and the plate was made poli-
tive, and the mercury negative, by a proper communi¬
cation with the battery of five hundred.
The amalgams obtained in this way were diftilled in
tubes of plate-glafs, or in fome cafes in tubes of common
glafs. Thefe tubes were bent in the middle, and the
extremities were enlarged and rendered globular by
blowing, fo as to ferve the purpofes of a retort and re¬
ceiver. The tube, after the amalgam had been intro-
dm ed, was filled with naphtha, which was afterwards
expelled, bv boiling, through a fmall orifice in the end
correfponding to the receiver, which was hermetically
fealed when the tube contained nothing but the vapour
of naphtha, and the amalgam. It was found immediate¬
ly that the mercury rofe pure by dilfillation from the a-
malgam, and it was very eafy to feparate a part of it j
but to produce a complete decompofition was very diffi¬
cult, as nearly a red heat was required for the purpofe,
and as at a red heat the bafes of the earths inlfantlv adl-
ed upon the glafs, and became oxigenated. When the
tube was large in proportion to the quantity of amal¬
gam ufed, the vapour of the naphtha furniffied oxvgen
fufficient to deftroy part of the bafes: and when a fmall
tube was employed, it was difficult to heat the part ufed
as a retort fufficient to drive off the whole of the mer¬
cury from the bafes, without raifing too highly the tem¬
perature of the part ferving for the receiver, fo as to
burft the tube.
In confequence of thefe difficulties, in a multitude of
trials, only a very few fuccef ful refults were obtained j
and in no cafe could our author be abfolutely certain^
that there was not a mirute portion of mercury ftill in
combination with the metals of the earths.
In the beft refult obtained from the dillillation of the
amalgam of barytes, the refiduum appeared as a white
metal, of the colour of filver. It was fixed at all com¬
mon temperatures, but became fluid at a heat below
rednefs, and did not rife in vapour when heated to
jednefs, in a tube of plate-glafs, but a&ed violently up-
Z I N
on the glafs, producing a black mafs, which feemed to Zinc,
contain barytes, and a fixed alkaline balls, in the firft u—“V"
degree of oxigenation. When expofed to air, it rapidly
tarnilhed, and fell into a white powder, which was
barytes. When this procefs was conduced in a fmall
portion of air, the oxygen was abforbed and the nitro¬
gen remained unaltered •, when a portion of it was intro¬
duced into water, it a£ted upon it with great violence
and funk to the bottom, producing in it barytes; and
hydrogen was generated. From the minutenefs of the
quantities obtained, neither its phylical nor chemical qua*
lilies could be examined correftly. It funk rapidly in
water, and even in fulphuric acid, though furrounded
by globules of hydrogen, equal to two or three times
its volume j from which it feems probable, that it can¬
not be lefs than four or five times as heavy as water. It
flattened by preffure, but required a confiderable force
to produce this effefl.
The metal from ftrontites funk in fulphuric acid, and
exhibited the fame chara&ers as that from barytes, ex¬
cept in producing ftrontites by oxidation.
The metal from lime, Mr Davy has never been able
to examine, either when expofed to air, or when under
naphtha. In the cafe in which he was able to diftil the
quickfilver from it to the greateft extent, the tube un¬
fortunately bioke, while warm, and at the moment that
the air entered, the metal, which had the colour and
luftre of filver, inftantly took fire, and burned with an
intenfe white light into quicklime.
The metal from magnefia feemed to aft upon the
glafs, even before the whole of the quickfilver was di¬
ftilled from it. In an experiment in which the procefs
was flopped before the mercury was entirely driven off,
it appeared as a folid ; having the fame whitenefs and
luftre as the metals of the other earths. It funk rapidly
in water, though furrounded by globules of gas produ¬
cing magntfia, and quickly changed in air, becoming
covered with a white cruft, and falling into a fine pow¬
der, which proved to be magnefia.
In feveral cafes in which amalgams of the metals
were obtained, containing only a fmall quantity of mer¬
cury, they were expofed to air on a delicate balance, and
it was always Fund, that, during the converfion of
metal into earth, there was a confiderable increafe of
weight.
Mr Davy endeavoured to afeertain the proportions of
oxygen and hafis in barytes and ftrontites, by heating a-
malgams of them in tubes filled with oxygen, but with¬
out fuccefs. He fatisfied himfelf, however, that when
the metals of the earths were burned in a fmall quantity
of air, they abforbed oxvgen, gained weight in the pro¬
cefs, and were in the highly cauftic or unflaked ftate}
for they produced ftrong heat by the contaft of water,
and did not effervefee during their folution in acids.
The evidence for the compofition of the alkaline
earths is then of the fame kind as that for the compofi¬
tion of the common metallic oxides; and the principles
of their decompofition are precifely fimilar, the inflam¬
mable matters in all cafes feparating at the negative fur¬
face in the galvanic circuit, and the oxygen at the pofi-
tive furface.
Mr Davy has denominated the metals obtained from
the alkaline earths, barium,Jlrontium, calcium, and mag-
nium.
In attempting the decompofition of the other earths,
Mr;
[ 797 ]
2 I N
Zinc. Mr Davy was lefs fortunate in obtaining diftinct re-
’"~v fults j and he obferves that the methods which have
ufually proved fuccefsful, as well as feme others, failed.
When alumina was fubje&ed to the aftion of electricity,
it was in a ftate of fufion with potafli. In this procel's
metallic globules were produced, but they confided chiefly
of the bafe cf the alkali. Some appearances, however,
fhewed, that the alumina itfelf was decompofedi; for when
foda was employed, the metallic produCt obtained was
lefs fufible than fodium itfelf, and when it was aCted on
by w’ater, it produced foda and a white powder. Wben
potafh wTas fufed with the alumma, and fubjeCted to gal¬
vanic aCtion, the metallic produCt decompofed w^ater
with great rapidity, and the folution obtained depofiied
alumina by the aCtion of an acid. When potaffium in
the ftate of amalgam, with one-third of mercury, in con¬
tact with alumina, was negatively eleCtrified under naph¬
tha, and after the procefs had been continued for fome
time, the amalgam was added to w’ater, a decompofition
took place, and a folution was obtained, which produ¬
ced a cloudinefs on the addition of an acid j but all thefe
refults are to be confldered as very imperfeCt evidence of
the decompofition of alumina.
Mr Davy wTas ftill lefs fuccefsful in attempting the
decompofition of filica, partly from its infolubility,
and partly from its being fcarcely, if at all, afteCted with
eleftricity, when diffufed in water, and placed in the
galvanic circuit •, but by following the fame proceffes as
in his experiments on alumina, fomc indications of de¬
compofition appeared. When filica was fufed wdth fix
parts of potafh, and was placed in fufion in the galvanic
circuit, metallic matter was obtained, from which, by
expofure to the air, or by dropping it into water, a mi¬
nute quantity of filica was reproduced. When potaflium,
amalgamated with one-third of mercury, and in contaCl
with filica, was negatively eleClrified, he obtained a fi-
•milar refult •, but in none of the experiments could the
produCl obtained be confldered as the pure bafe of the
earth.
The earths of zirconia and glucinawere alfo fubjeCled
to the aClion of galvanifm, by proceffes fimilar to thofe
which have now been deferibed, and in both there were
fome indications of decompofition •, but the refults were
not fo perfeCt as to lead to any certain conclufion refpeCt-
ingr their nature.
Decompojition of Sulphur and Phofphorus.
Sulphur.—Sulphur, which had formerly been confidered
as a fimple fubftance, appears, from the experiments of fome
of the French chemifts, and particularly thofe of Berthol-
iet junior, to be a compound of fulphur and hydrogen.
The latter chemifl, in his experiments to invefligate the
nature of this fubftance, caufed fulphur to pafs through a
coated glafs tube, which was heated to whitenefs ; fome
indications of fulphurated hydrogen were obtained. He
then formed metallic fulphurets, as of iron, copper, and
mercury, and in thefe proceffes, which were performed
in an earthen retort with great care, fulphurated hydro¬
gen gas was alfo obtained. Water in the ftate of vapour
being paffed over fulphur in fufion, caufed the evolution
of fulphurated hydrogen •, the water was not decompofed,
for no trace of acid could be obferved. It feemed onl^
to have effeCted the dilengagement of hydrogen from the
fulphur.
Mr Davy, in the courfe of his experiments in galvan-
2 I N
ifm, fubjefted fulphur to the aCfion of that power. The
fulphur which he employed was fublimed in a retort,
filled with azotic gas, and it was kept hot till the com¬
mencement of the experiment. The reafon of this pre¬
liminary procefs was, to avoid any uncertainty which
might arile from water abforbed by the fulphur. The
fulphur introduced into a curved tube, fig. 7. which was
furniftted with wires of platina A and B, the upper wiie
A being hermetically fealed into the end of the tube, was
then placed in the galvanic circuit of a battery of 500
pairs of plates of fix inches, in a ftate of great a&ivity.
A very intenfe action followed, accompanied by great
heat and a brilliant light. The fulphur loon entered'into
ebullition, and gave out a great quantity of elaftic fluid,
a good deal of which wras permanent. The fulphur it¬
felf affirmed a deep red browm colour. The gas obtained
was fulphurated hydrogen. Inanotherexperimentmadeon
2co grains of fulphur, the amount of fulphurated hydro¬
gen obtained was equal to more than five times the vo¬
lume of the fulphur. A confiderable aftion w^as obfeiv-
ed to have taken place on tire wires of platina 5 and the
fulphur, at its point of contaft with the wares, reddened
moift litmus paper. When fulphur and potaffium are
heated together, a very powerful action takes place.
Sulphurated hydrogen is difengaged with very intenfe
heat and light. From thefe experiments the conclufion
feems fair and obvious, that hydrogen exifts in fulpbur,
for a fubftance, as Mr Davy obierves, which can be
produced from it in fuch abundance, is not to be confid-
ered merely as an accidental ingredient.
But as it is admitted that fulphurated hydrogen con¬
tains oxygen, Mr Davy contends that oxygen is to be
regarded as one of the conftituents of fulphur. In this
opinion he is fupported by experiment. He heated pot¬
affium in fulpburated hydrogen gas, from which moifture
had been as much as poffible abftra&ed, by muriate of
lime. The potaffium took fire, and burnt with a bril¬
liant flame. When four grains of potafilum wrere heated
in 20 cubic inches of gas, the quantity of gas diminifhed
only about cubic inches ; but the properties of the
gas were totally changed. A fmall portion only of it
was abforbed by water, and the remainder was hydro¬
gen, holding in folulion a minute portion of fulphur.
Some fulphur was obferved on the fides of the retort,
and a folid matter was formed, which on the furface wras
of a red colour, like fulphuret of potafh, but internally
dark gray, like fulphuret of potaffium. By fubjeffing
this fubftance to the affion of muriatic acid, fulphurated
hydrogen gas was obtained, but the proportion was lefs
than would have been given out, had the potaffium been
in combination with pure combuftible matter. From
this Mr Davy concludes, that there is a principle in ful¬
phurated hydrogen which is capable of deftroying par¬
tially the inflammability of potaffium, and of producing
upon it all the effeffs of oxygen. As fulphurated hy¬
drogen is obtained by heating fulphur ftrongly in hydro¬
gen gas, Mr Davy introduced four grains of fulphur in
a glafs retort, containing about 20 cubical inches of hy¬
drogen, and by means of a fpirit lamp, he faifed the heat
nearly to rednefs. No perceptible change took place in
the volume of the gas after the procefs. The fublimed
fulphur was unchanged in its properties, and about three
cubical inches of unelaflic fluid, abforbable by w^ater,
reddening litmus, and having all the properties of ful¬
phurated hydrogen gas, wrere formed. Suppofing then
fulphurated
t 793 ]
Z I N t 799 ] Z I N
fulpliurated hydrogen to be conflituted by fulphur dif-
folved in its unchanged iiate in hydrogen, and admit
the exiftence of oxygen in this gas, its exigence nmft
likewil'e be allowed in fulphur. From thefe experiments
Mr Davy thinks it not unreaibnable to aiTume, that ful¬
phur in its common ftate is a compound of fmall quan¬
tities of oxygen and hydrogen, with a large quantity of
a bafe, which produces the acids of lulphur in combus¬
tion ; and as this bafis, it is added, pofleffes ftrong at¬
tractions for other bodies, it will probably be very diffi¬
cult to obtain it in its uncombined date.
Sulphur combines readily with potaffium, when
brought into contaCt in tubes filled with the vapour of
naphtha ; heat and light are rapidly evolved during the
combination, and a gray fubftance like artificial ful-
phuret of iron, is produced. The iulphurated hydrogen
in Imall quantity is formed at the moment of combina¬
tion, the hydrogen of which, it is fuppofed, is derived
from the lulphur. The lulphuret of potaffium readily
inflames, and when expo fed to the air, it is gradually
oxidated, and converted into fulphate of potafli.
Sulphur alfo enters into combination with (odium, ac¬
companied alfo with the evolution of heat and light. An
explofion fometimes takes place, which is owing to the
volatilization of a portion of fulphur, and the diiengage-
ment of fulphurated hydrogen gas. The fulphuret of fo-
dium is of a deep gray colour.
Phofphorus.—Mr Davy fubje&ed phofphorus tofimilar
experiments, and he found that the fame analogies are
applicable to this combullible. Common eleftrical fparks
tranfmitted through pholphorus produce no evolution of
permanent gas j but when adhed upen by the fame gal¬
vanic battery, and in the fame circumftances as the ful¬
phur, a confiderable evolution of gas was effedted, and
the phofphorus became of a deep red brown colour. The
gas was phofphorated hydrogen ; and in an experiment
continued for fame hours, the quantity evolved was four
times the vohime of the phofphorus. The light by the
galvanic fpark was at firft a brilliant yellow, and after¬
wards orange.
Three grains of potaffium were heated in 16 cubical
inches of phofphorated hydrogen. As the fufion was ef-
fedfed, the retort was filled with white fumes, and a
reddiffi fubftance was depofited upon the upper part and
fides ; the heat was applied for fome minutes, but no in¬
flammation took place. When the retort cooled, the
abforption was lefs than a cubical inch ; the potaffium
externally was of a deep brown, and internally of a lead
colour. The refidual gas feemed to contain in folution
a little phofphorus, but it had not the property of fpon-
taneous inflammation. While the phofphuret was adfed
upon over mercury by a folution of muriatic acid, it gave
out only cubical inch of phofphorated hydrogen.
One grain of potaffium, and one of phofphorus, were
fufed together. In combining, a very vivid light and
rntenfe ignition were produced ; Tg- of a cubical inch of
phofphorated hydrogen was evolved, and the phofphuret,
with diluted muriatic acid over mercury, gave out ^ of
a cubical inch of phofphorated hydrogen. In another
experiment with one grain of potaffium, and three of
phofphorus, nearly one-fourth of a cubical inch of phof¬
phorated hydrogen was obtained; but the compound
yielded by muriatic acid, only ~ of a cubical inch.
From thefe experiments it is concluded, that pbof-
phorated hydrogen contains a minute proportion of oxy¬
gen, and confequently that the fame element enters into
the compofition of phofphorus. The deficiency of phof¬
phorated hydrogen in the laft experiment can only be
referred to the lupply of oxygen to the potaffium from
the phoiphorus; and the. quantity of phofphorated hydro¬
gen produced in the experiment with equal parts of pot¬
affium and phofphorus, is much lefs than could be ex-
pefted, it the potaffium and phofphorus confifted merely
of pure combuftible matter.
Mr Davy alio imiituted a fet of interefling experi¬
ments on the ftates of the carbonaceous principle in
plumbago, charcoal, and the diamond, and the refults of
thefe are detailed in the fame memoir ; but for an ac¬
count of them we muft refer to the paper itfelf.
Dccompojltion of Boracic, Fluoric, and Muriatic acids.
The properties of boracic, fluoric, and muriatic acids,
many of which are quite analogous to thofe of other
acids whofe elements have been diicovered, have led
chemifts to conclude that oxygen is alfo the acidifying
principle in the former ; but the feparate exiflence or
nature of the bafe of thefe three acids was, till the late
refearches of galvanifm were inftituted, utterly unknown.
The inveftigation of the nature of thefe fubftances has
been profecuted by Mr Davy, and fome of the French
chemitts; and of their experiments we (hall now give a
very flrort account.
Boracic acid.—When boracic acid wTas moiflened
with water, and expofed between two furfaces of pla-
tma, and then fubjedted to the battery of 500 plates,
an olive brown matter formed on the negative furface,
and, increafing in thicknefs, appeared at lafl: almoft
black. This fubftance was permanent in water, but it
drffolved and effervefeed in warm nitrous acid. Heated
to rednefs on the platina, it burnt flowly, and gave off
white fumes, which reddened moiftened litmus paper.
A black mafs remained, which through a magnifier ap- -
peared vitreous, and feemed to contain a fixed acid. The
inference drawn from this experiment is, that the acid
was decompofed, and again by the latter procefs repro¬
duced.
When equal weights of potaffium and boracic acid
were heated together in a green glafs tube, which had
been exhaufted, after being twice filled with hydrogen
gas, an intenfe ignition, with vivid inflammation, where
the potaffium was in contaft with the boracic acid, took
place, even before the temperature approached near to a
red heat. When the acid had been heated to whitenefs,
before being introduced into the tube, and powdered and
ufed while yet warm, the quantity of gSs which was hy-
drogen, given out in the operation, did not exceed
twice the volume of the acid. In this mode of con¬
ducing the experiment, 12 or 14 grains of each of the
two fubftances only could be employed, on account of
the intenfe heat and confequent fufion of the glafs tube
with larger proportions. Mr Davy found in feveral
experiments, in which he employed equal parts of acid
and potaffium, that a great proportion of the former
remained undecompofed, and he afeertained that twenty
grains of potaffium had their inflammability deftroyed by
tight grains of boracic acid.
To colleC the fubftances formed in the procefs, me¬
tallic tubes with ftop-cocks, and exhaufted, after being
filled with hydrogen, were employed. With tubes of
brafs or copper, a dull red heal only, but with iron
tubes,.
Z I N [ Bco- ] Z I N
Zinc, tubes, a white heat was applied j and In all cafes the
acid was decompofed with the fame refults. The fub-
ftance obtained from the iron tube was in fome parts of
a dark olive colour, and in others almoft black. It did
not effervefce with warm water, but was rapidly a£ed
upon by it. The folutions obtained confifted of fubbo-
rate of potalh, and potalh.
The following are the properties of the iubftance ob¬
tained in the decompolition of boracic acid by means of
proceffes condufted in brafs tubes, which afforded it in
largeft proportion. To this fubftance Mr Davy has
given the name of boracium, which, as it is produced in
the manner now defcribed, is in the form of a pulveru¬
lent mafs of the darkeft (hades of olive 5 it is opaque,
very friable j the powder does not fcratch glafs, and is
a non-condudlor of ele£lricity. Dried at ioo° or 120°,
it gives off moifture, by decrealing the temperature j
and when heated in the atmofphere, takes fire at a tem¬
perature below the boiling point of olive oil, emitting
a red light, and fparks like charcoal. When excluded
from air, and fubjefted to a white heat in a platina
tube, exhaufted after being filled with hydrogen, it re¬
mains unchanged, excepting in becoming a little darker,
and acquiring a greater fpecific gravity.
Boracium introduced into a retort filled with oxygen
gas, and heated by a fpirit lamp, throws off vivid fcin-
tillations like thofe of the combuftion of the bark of
charcoal, and the mafs gives out a brilliant light. A
fublimate appears, which is boracic acid j it becomes
coated with a vitreous fubftance, which is alfo found to
be the fame acid. When this is walked off, the black
refiduum requires a greater heat, but it is alfo inflamed,
and converted into boracic acid. When boracium is
brought into contaft with oxymuriatic acid gas, at
common temperatures, it immediately takes fire, and
burns with a brilliant white light, coating the infide of
the veffel with a white fubftance, which is boracic acid.
Boracium heated to rednefs with hydrogen or nitrogen,
became of a darker colour, and gave out a little moif¬
ture, but remained otherwife unchanged. Thrown into
concentrated nitric acid, it rendered i-t bright red ; ni¬
trous gas was produced and abforbed, but no rapid fo-
lution took place till the acid was heated, when the
boracium difappeared with effervefcence, and the evo¬
lution of nitrous gas, and the fluid yielded boracic acid.
The aftion of boracium on fulphuric and muriatic acids
was not remarkable. It combined with the fixed alka¬
lies, both by fufion and aqueous folution, and formed
pale olive-coloured compounds, which by muriatic acid
were precipitated of a dark colour. When fufed with
fulphur, it diffolved flowly, and the fulphur became of
an olive colour. Its aftion with phofphorus in the fame
circumftances was ftill feebler, but it communicated a
fhade of pale green.
From the experiments now detailed, it appears that
boracium obtained by means of potaflium, is different
from any other known fpecies of matter, and feems to
be the fame as that obtained from boracic acid by elec¬
tricity. According to the refult of experiments made
by Mr Davy, boracic acid is compofed of one part of
boracium, and about 1.8 of oxygen ; and fuppofing the
dark refidual fubftance to be an oxide, it confifts of 4.7
of boracium, and 1.55 of oxygen.
For an account of the experiments of Gay Luffac and
Thenard, in inyeftigating the nature of boracic acid,
z
fee Jour, de Phyfique, tom. Ixvii. or Nichol. Jour, xxiii. zjnc
260. V—-y—
Fluoric acid.—According to the experiments of Mr
Davy, potaflium, when heated in fluoric acid gas, un¬
dergoes combuftion, and a great abforption of the gas
takes place. In other experiments he found, that when
fluoric acid gas, procured in contaft wuth glafs, is intro¬
duced into a plate glafs retort, exhaufted after being
filled with hydrogen gas, white fumes appear from the
aftion of the potaflium, wdrich lofes its fplendour, and
becomes coloured with a gray cruft. The fumes are
more copious w'hen the bottom of the retort is gently
heated. The volume of the gas examined at this time
appears to be a little increafed, with the addition of hy¬
drogen ; and when the temperature is raifed nearly to
the point of fublimation of the potaflium, the metal rifes
through the cruft, becomes firft of a copper colour, and
then inflames and burns with a brilliant red light. Af¬
ter this combuftion, the fluoric acid is either wholly or
partially deftroyed, according as the quantity of potaf-
fium is great or fmall j and a mafs of a chocolate colour
is found in the bottom of the retort; the fides and the
top are lined with a fublimate, which is partly choco¬
late, and partly of a yellow colour. When the refidual
gas is w'alhed with water, mixed with oxygen gas, and
expofed to the aftion of an eleftrical fpark, it detonates,
and affords a diminution in the fame way as hydrogen
gas.
In one experiment with 19 cubical inches of fluoric
acid gas, and ten grains and a half of potalfium, 14 cu¬
bical inches of the gas difappeared, and about two and
a quarter of hydrogen gas were produced. The gas
had not been artificially dried $ little fublimate was pro¬
duced, but the whole of the bottom of the retort was
covered with a brown cruft. When this mafs was exa¬
mined with a magnifier, it feemed to confift of different
kinds of matter. It did not conduft eleftricity j it ef-
fervefced violently in water, with the evolution of an
inflammable gas, which had fomewhat of the odour of
phofphorated hydrogen. Part of the mafs heated in
the air burnt flowly, and was converted into a white
faline matter. It alfo burnt with difficulty in heated
oxygen gas, but it abforbed a portion that required
nearly a red heat. The light emitted refembled that
from the combuftion of liver of fulphur. Chocolate co¬
loured particles were found floating in the water, afted
on by a portion of the mafs, and when the folid matter
was feparated by the filter, the fluid was found to con¬
tain fluate of potaffi and potaffi. The folid refiduum
was heated in a fmall glafs retort filled with oxygen
gas j it burnt before reaching a red heat, and became
white. Oxygen was abforbed, and acid matter pro¬
duced. The remainder had the properties of the fub¬
ftance formed from fluoric acid gas, holding filiceous
earth in folution by the aftion of water.
“ The decompofition of the fluoric acid, Mr Davy
obferves, by potaffium, feems analogous to that of the
acids of fulphur and phofphorus. In neither of thefe
cafes are the pure bafes, or even the bafes in their com¬
mon form, evolved ; but new compounds refult, and in
one cafe, fulphurets and fulphites, and in the other phof-
phurets and phofphites of potalh, are generated.”
In another experiment Mr Davy attempted the de¬
compofition of fluoric acid gas, which was perfeftly
dry, and free from filiceous earth, by mixing 100 grs.
of
Z X N f 801 1 Z I N
zi*^ of dry boracic acid, and 200 grains of fluor fpar. The
^ mixture was introduced into the bottom of an iron tube,
having a ftop-cock and tube of fafety attached. The
tube was inferted horizontally in a forge, and 20 grains
of potaflium in an iron tray were placed in that part of
it where the heat was only of a dull red. The bottom
of the tube was raifed to a white heat, and the acid, as
it was generated, was a£ted upon by the heated potaf-
fium. The refult obtained was a fubftance in fome parts
black, and in others of a dark brown colour. It did
not effervefce with water, and when lixiviated, afforded
a dark brown combuftible mafs which did not condudt
ele&ricity, and, when burnt in oxygen gas, afforded bo¬
racic and fluoric acids. This fubltance did not inflame
fpontaneoufly in oxymuriatic acid gas j but it effervefced
violently, and diffolved in nitric acid. Mr Davy thinks
that this fubftance is a compound of the olive-coloured
oxide of boracium, and an oxide of the bafe of fluoric
acid } but he had not examined its properties particu¬
larly.
Muriatic Many conje&ures have been offered
with regard to the nature and conftitution of muriatic
acid, and many attempts have been made to effeft its
decompofition. Mr Davy has extended his refearches
to this fubftance, and has profecuted the inveftigation
with his ufual ardour. It is ftill, however, to be re¬
gretted, that his fuccefs has not been commenfurate
with his ingenuity and induftry. Some have fuppofed,
that the bafe of muriatic acid is hydrogen, while others
contend that the bafe is a compound of hydrogen and
nitrogen.
The refult of Mr Davy’s firft experiments in this in¬
quiry {bowed, that the water alone in combination
with the muriatic acid is decompofed, and that this
elaftic fluid contains a larger proportion of water than
is ufually fufpeCled j and from various experiments he
concludes, that muriatic acid gas, in its common ftate,
is combined with at leaft: one-third of its weight of wa¬
ter. In the profecution of his refearches, therefore, his
objeCl was to obtain the muriatic acid free from water.
With this view he heated dry muriate of lime, mixed
both with phofphoric acid, and dry boracic acid, in
tubes of porcelain and of iron, and employed the blafl:
of an excellent forge •, but by none of thefe methods
was any gas obtained, till a little moifture was added
to the mixture, and then muriatic acid was given out
in fuch quantity as almoft to produce explofions. In
diftilling the liquor of Libavius, or the fuming muriate
of tin, which contains dry muriatic acid, with fulphur
and with phofphorus, no feparation of the acid took
place \ but with the addition of water, muriatic acid gas
was evolved with great heat and violence. By diftil¬
ling mixtures of corrofive fublimate and fulphur, and of
calomel and fulphur in their common ftates, muriatic
acid gas was evolved but when thefe fubftances were
dried by a gentle heat, the quantity of gas obtained
was greatly diminiftied. Mr Davy, and alfo the French
chemifts, endeavoured to procure dry muriatic acid by
the diftillation of a mixture of calomel and phofpho¬
rus. The refult obtained is confidered as a compound
of muriatic acid, phofphorus, and oxygen. In Mr
Davy’s experiments, the prodwEl was more copious when
corrofive fublimate was employed. With the fame view
of procuring dry muriatic acid gas, he expofed phofpho¬
rus to the a&ion of oxymuriatie acid gas, in the hope
Vol. XX. Part II.
that in the oxidation of the phofphorus, the whole of Zinc
the moifture would be abforbed j but the examination . II
of the refult {bowed, that no muriatic acid gas had
been evolved during the proceis, fo that the muriatic ——y—.
acid which had difappeared, xnuft exift, either in the
white fublimate which had collefted in the top of the
retort, or in a limpid fluid which had formed in its
neck. When the fublimate was expofed to the air, it
emitted fumes of muriatic acid, and when brought into
contact with water, muriatic acid gas was evolved, and
phofphoric and muriatic acids remained in folution in
the water. Mr Davy regards this white fublimate as a
combination of phofphoric and muriatic acids in their
dry ftates. The limpid fluid was of a pale greenilh
yellow colour j it rapidly difappeared on expofure to
the air, emitting denfe white fumes, which had a ftrong
fmell, differing a little from that of muriatic acid. Mr
Davy thinks that this is a compound of phofphoric and
muriatic acids, both free from water.
Mr Davy made other experiments, for the purpofe of
procuring muriatic acid in its uncombined ftate, but
with no better fuccefs. He then tried the effe&s of po¬
taflium introduced into the fluid generated by the ac¬
tion of phofphorus on corrofive fublimate *, but fuch was
the violent adlion of the fubftances operated upon, that
the apparatus was generally deftroyed, and he was thus
precluded from examining the refults. But for a parti¬
cular detail of the experiments, we muft refer to the
memoir itlelf ; and for the extended account of Mr
Davy’s inveftigations on this curious and interefting
fubjett, of which we have given as comprehenfive a
view as our limits would permit, fee Phil. Tranf.
1807, 1808, and 1809.
ZINNIA, a genus of plants of the clafs fyngenefta,
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 49th or¬
der, Compofitce. See Botany Index.
ZINZENDORFF, Nicholas Lewis, Count, was
the noted founder of the German religious fed called
Moravians, or Herrnhuters, or, as they pretend, the re-
ftorer of that fociety. From his own narrative it ap¬
pears, that when he came of age in 1721, his thoughts
were wholly bent on gathering together a little fociety
of believers, among whom he might live, and who ftiould
entirely employ themfelves in exercifes of devotion
under him. He accordingly purchafed an eftate at Ber-
tholfdorff in Upper Lufatia, where, being joined by fome
followers, he gave the curacy of the village to a perfon
of his own complexion ; and Bertholfdorff foon became
talked of for a new mode of piety. One Chriftian Da¬
vid, a carpenter, brought a few profelytes from Mo¬
ravia : they began a new town about half a league from
the village, where Count Zinzendorff fixed his refidence
among them, and whither great numbers of Moravians
flocked and eftablilhed themfelves under his protedion :
fo that in 1732 their number amounted to 600. An
adjacent hill, called the Huthberg, gave occafion to thefe
colonifts to call their new fettlement Huth des Herrn
and afterwards Herrnhutk; which may be interpreted
“ The guard or protedion of the Lord and from this
the whole fed have taken their name. The count
fpared neither pains nor art to propagate his opinions •
he went himfelf all over Europe, and at leaft twice to
America ; and fenfe miflionavies throughout the world.
Count Zinzendorff died in 1760. Thofe who wiflr to
know more of the Moravian tenets may confult Rimius’s
5 ^ account
t
Zion.
Z l O [ 80
account of them, tranflated in i ^753. See United
1 Brethren.
^ ZISCA, John, a famous general of the forces of the
Huihtes, in the 15th century, was a gentleman educated
at the court of Bohemia, in the reign of Wenceflaus.
He entered very young into the army, and after diftin-
guitiring himfelf on feveral occafions, loft an eye in a
battle, whence he was called Zifca, or One-eyed. At
length the Reformation, begun by John Hufs, fpreading
through almoft all Bohemia, Zifca placed himfelf at the
head of the Muthtes, and had foon under his command
a body of 40,000 men. With this army he gained fe¬
veral viaories over thofe of the Romith religion, who
carried on a kind of crufade agninft them, and built a
town in an advantageous fituation, to which he gave the
name of Tabor; whence the Huflites were afterwards
called laoontes. Zitca loft his other eye by an arrow
at the hege of the city of Rubi; but this did not pre¬
vent his continuing the war, his lighting battles, and
gaining feveral great victories, among which was that of
Aufig on the Elbe, in which 9000 of the enemy were
left dead on the field. The emperor Sigifmund, alarm¬
ed at his progi'efs, caufed very advantageous propofals to
be offered to him; which he readily accepted, and fet
out to meet Sigifmund, but died on the road. He or¬
dered that his body fhould be left a prey to the birds
and wild beafts; a.nd that a drum fliould be made of his
1km, being perfuaded that the enemy would fly as foon
as they heard the found. It is added, that the Huflites
executed his w ill ; and that the news of this order made
fuch an impreflion on the diftuibed imaginations of the
German Papifts, that in many battles they actually fled
at the beat of the drum with the utmoft precipitation,
leaving their baggage and artillery behind them.
ZINZIBER, or Zingiber. See Amomum, Bo¬
tany and Materia Medica Index.
ZION, or Sion, in Ancient Geography, a very fa¬
mous mountain, Handing on the north fide of the city ©f
Jerufalem, (Pfal. xlvii. 2.) ; containing the upper city,
built by King David ; and where flood the royal palace,
(Jofephus). A part of Zion, fituated at its extremity,
was called Millo, of or in the city of David, (2 Chran.
xxxii. 5.) Modern travellers, who have been upon the
fpot, fay, that Zion is the wdiole of the mountain, on
which Jerufalem Hands at this day, though not to the
extent in which it anciently Hood on the fame mountain,
as appears Pfal. ix. 12. 15. Ixv. 1. Ixxxv*. 2, 3. If.
Ixii. ik It is fwelled into feveral eminences or tops;
as Moriah, Acra Bezetha, and Zion a particular emi¬
nence or mount, and Zion Proper, &c. encompaffed on
three fides, call, w’eft, and fouth, with one continued
very deep and fteep valley ; by means of which it was
impregnable on thefe three fides, and always attacked
and taken, according to Jofephus, by the enemy on the
north fide, where Mount Zion became level, and the
vales of Gihon and Jehofophat gradually lofe tliem-
felves. This deep and fteep valley inconteftably con-
ftitutes the compafs of the old Jerufalem on thofe three
fides, as plainly appears to any perfon who has been
upon the fpot. On that particular top of the mount
called Zion flood the fortrefs of the Jebufites; which
being afterwards taken by David, came to be called the
City of David, where he had his royal refidence and
kept his court. That part of the valley which lay to
the eaft was called Jehofophat's, having Mount Olivet
2 ] Z O D
lying beyond it; that to the fouth Gehinnon ; and that
to the weft, Gihon, from cagnominal mountains lying be¬
yond them. At the weft end of Gihon, without the;
city, flood Golgotha or Calvary. The pretended Gol¬
gotha, fhown at this day within the walls, is the fpurious
brat of interefted and fraudulent monks, (Korte). There
is another Zion, the fame with Hermon.
Zion, or Zion College. See London, n° 76.
ZIPH, or Siph, in Ancient Geography, the name of
a wildernefs or defert in the tribe of Juoah, where Da¬
vid w’as fugitive ; lying to the fouth-eaft of Hebron ; fo
called from Ziph or Siph, a twofold town in this tribe ;
the one more to the fouth towards Idumea, on the confines
of Eieutheropolis, (Jerome) ; the other eight miles to
the ealt of Jlebron, towards the Dead fea, inclining
fouthwards, becaufe near Mount Carmel. Here was a
mountain, mentioned 1 Sam. xxiii. 14. in which David
abode, faid by Jerome to be rugged, difmal, and always
overcaft. Ziphim, Ziphcei, or Ziphenfes, the inhabitants
of Ziph, ver. 19.
ZIRCHNITZER-see, otherwife called the Lake of
C^irknitm, in Carniola, is about one German or four
Englifli miles in length, and half as much in breadth,
contains three beautiful iflands, and is encompaffed at
fome diitance with mountains and forells. But what is
moil remarkable is, that it difappears generally once a-
year, about St John’s or St James’s day, running off
through holes or pits in the bottom ; fometimes it dif¬
appears twice or thrice a-year, and fometimes even in
winter if the weather be dry. On the other hand, it
has been known to continue two or three years without
running oft. Of the holes or pits, there are five much
larger than the reft, each of which lucceflively, when
the w’ater runs off, ftands empty five days ; fo that the
whole lake becomes dry in 25. As foon as the begin¬
ning of the ebb is obfevved, the fifhing in the pits be¬
gins, which belongs to five feigniories. The fifti, which
are carp, tench, pike, eels, and twro other lorts called
fchleien and ruten, are caught by laying nets over the
holes. Mr Keyfler tells us, that upon the ringing of a bell
at Zirknitz, when the waters begin to fall, the peafants,
both men and women, run to the pools quite naked.
ZIRCON, a mineral fubftance containing a peculiar
earth. See Mineralogy Index.
Z1RCONIA, a peculiar earth. See Chemistry
Index.
ZIZ ANIA, a genus of plants of the clafs monoecia j
and in the natural fyfiem arranged under the 4th order,
Gramina. See Botany Index.
ZODIAC, a broad circle, whofe middle is the eclip¬
tic, and its extremes two circles parallel thereto, at fuch
a diftance from it as to bound or comprehend the excur-
fions of the fun and planets, (fee Astronomy). It is
a curious enough that the folar divifion of the In¬
dian zodiac is the fame in fubftance with that of the
Greeks, and yet that it has not been borrowed either
from the Greeks or the Arabians. The identity, or at
leaft ftriking fimilarity, of the divifion, is univerfally
known ; and M. Montucla has endeavoured to prove,
that the Bramins received it fr.,m the Arabs. His opi¬
nion, we believe, has been very generally admitted ;
but in the fecond volume of the Afiatic Refearches, the
accomplilhed prefident Sir William Jones has proved un-
anfwerably, that neither of thofe nations borrowed that
divihon from the other ; that it has been known among
the
Zion
11
Zodiac.
/
ZOO [ 803 ] zoo
Zodiac the Hindoos from time immemorial; and that it was
II probably invented by the firlt progenitors of that race,
tk~s' whom he conhders as the moft ancient of mankind, be-
,'””1 l""v fore their diiperfion. The quelfion is not of importance
fufficiently general, ftraitened as we are by the limits
prefcribed us, for our entering into the difpute} but we
think it our duty to mention it, that our aftronomical
readers, if they think it worth their while, may have re*
courfe to the original writers for further information.
ZOEGEA, a genus of plants of the clafs fyngenefia,
Botany Index.
ZONE, in Geography and Adronorny, a divifion of
the terraqueous globe with refpedf: to the difterent de¬
grees of heat found in the different parts thereof. The
zones are denominated torrid, frigid, and temperate. The
torrid zone is a band, furroanding the terraqueous globe,
and terminated by the two tropics. Its breadth is 46°
58'. The equator, running through the middle of it,
divides it into two equal parts, each containing 23° 29'.
The ancients imagined the torrid zone uninhabitable.
The temperate zones are contained between the tropics
and the polar circles. The breadth of each is 430 2'.
The frigid zones are fegments of the furface of the earth,
terminated, one by the antarctic, and the other by the
artic circle. The breadth of each is 46° 58'.
ZOOLOGY, is that part of natural hiftory which
relates to animals. See Natural History.
ZOOPHYTES. The name Zoophytes, Zoophyta
(i. e. animal plants, from animal, and <pv\ov, plant),
has been long appropriated to a numerous allemblage of
marine or aqueous productions, which have puzzled the
ingenuity of naturalifts to afcertain their place in the
chain of nature’s works, and which have been alternately
ranked among vegetable and animal, and fometimes
even among mineral fubftances. At length, however,
they feem, by general confent, to have been consigned
over to the animal kingdom, and, with the addition of
feveral tribes from the Linnaean orders of Intejlina, Mol-
Infca, and Infuforia, have, by Cuvier and his colleagues
of the French fchool, been elevated to the rank of a fe-
parate clafs. See Helminthology, N° ii.
In the Linnaean fyftem, the zoophytes of earlier mo¬
dern naturalifts conftitute the 4th order of the clafs Ver¬
mes, and as fuch have been enumerated under Helmin¬
thology-, but as the circumfcribed limits of that arti¬
cle did not admit of our defcribing or figuring many fpe-
cies, we {hall now as far as pofllble fupply that deficiency
by feleCting a few of the moft curious or interefling fpe-
cies of the Linnman zoophytes ; and we (hall take this
opportunity of making a few obfervations on feme of the
genera to which they belong.
Tubipora Figs. I. and 2. reprefent the Tubipora mujica,
Mujica. crimfon tubipore, or organ coral; one of the moft elegant
Plate of thefe lingular productions. This fpecies is diftinguifti-
DLXXIX. ec[ from its congeners by having the tubes conneBed into
Fig. x. &- 2. fafciculce or bundles, and feparated from each other by
tranfjcrfe membranous partitions. 1 he whole mais
confifts of upright parallel tubes, riling over each other
by ftages, fomething like the cells of a honeycomb.
Thefe tubes vary in height from half an inch to an inch
and are from one-tenth to one-eighth of an inch in dia¬
meter. Examined internally, they appear to contain a
1’maller tube divided at certain diftances by radiated par¬
titions (fee fig. 2.), by means of which the tranfverfe fepta
fometimes communicate with each other. Thefe tranf-
verfe fepta are of unequal heights. The colour of the mafs Zoophytes,
is a deep purple, or a rich crimfon. ’I he fize of the mais v
varies confiderably 5 but fptcimens have been obtained
of from a foot to three feet in diameter. It is found a-
bundantly in the Pacific ocean, and on the fhores of fome
of the iflands in the Indian lea.
In its recent ftate it is covered with a mucous or ge¬
latinous fubftance, which pervades the -whole mais and
enters within each tube. The inhabiting animal is not cer¬
tainly afeertained, but feems to be allied to the nereis tribe.
Figs. 3. and 4. exhibit two views of the MaDRE- Madrepora
PORA fungites, or mujhroom madrepore. This body ioJnnS‘tes-
exaCtly refembies a mufhroom, that it has vary common- Pig. 3. & 4.
ly been regarded as that vegetable in a ftate of petriiac-
tion j but recent obfervations leem to prove that it is
formed by fmall animals like medufee. I he convex fide
of this madrepore is conical, fometimes obtufely pointed,
and exhibits on its furface thofe ftellated pores which
form the diftinguiftiing charafter of the genus, while
the concave furface is divided into numerous radiated
furrow's fo as to reprefent the gills of a mulhroom.
When firfl: obtained, it is of a delicate white colour,
efpecially on the concave part, but it foon acquires a
brown or yellowifh tinge. It is found of various fizes,
from an inch to fix inches in diameter. It is met with
chiefly in the Indian ocean and Red fea.
At fig. 5. is reprefented that elegant coral called by Ifis bippu-
Linn&eus Isis hippuris, the black and white jointed coral rip
of Ellis. The Ipecific charafter of this coral is that it^S-S-^ 6.
is compofed of white f rioted joints united by black junc¬
tures ; but this ftru&ure is not vifible till after the coral
has been freed from a whitifli foft fpongy part, with
which the branches are covered in their natural ftate.
See fig. 6. It is found chiefly in the Indian feas, and
varies in height from a few inches to nearly two feet.
Fig. 7. reprefents the AntipathES myriophylla, yar- Antipathes
row antipathes, or fea-yarrow, of its natural fize ; while mynophyt-
fig. 8. Qiews one of the pinnae confiderably magnified. piate
This is one of thofe zoophytes which in their habit dlxxX.
and appearance almoft exa&ly refemble fome of the ve- p;g ^ ^ g,
getable tribes, and hence have received the names offea- a
heath, fea-cyprefs, fea-fennel, See. From their colour
they are ufually denominated black coral. This fpecies,
though one of the fmallekf, is not the leaft elegant of the
tribe. It confifts of numerous branches, compofed of
very {lender pinnae arranged in no certain order. The
whole coral is feldom. above a foot in height, and rough
on its outer furface. This alfo is a native of the Indian
ocean, being found more efpecially on the coafts of the
Molucca iflands, and is fometimes met with in the
Great South fea.
Fig. 9. exhibits a fpecimen of red coral, the Isis nobi- Gorgonm
/is of Linne, and Gorgonia nobilis of later naturalifts.
This fubftance, though now nearly exploded from the
materia medico, will ftill retain a place in our cabi¬
nets for its iritrinfic beauty and elegant appearance j
but w'hen examined on its native beds, or foon after be¬
ing filhed up, it (hew's a very different furface from that
under wfliich wre ufually fee it. Fig. 9. reprefents it as
prepared for fale by being deprived of its fleftiy animal
bark or coating, but retaining the ftriated appearance
which marks its fpecific chara£ter j but fig. 10. exhibits
a piece of it in its natural ftate, with polypes extruded
from the fleftiy coat, and (hewing ftill more diftin£Uy at
the extremities the ftreaks below.
5 I 2
Red
zoo r 804 ] zoo
Zoophytes.
Gorgonia
ceratophy-
ta.
Fig. it.
Alcyonium
gorgonoi-
des-
Fig. 11.
Red coral is found in large beds or reefs in feveral
parts of the Mediterranean fea, and coral filheries are
eftablilhed on the coafts and near the iflands. A fiftiery
of this kind in the llraits of Medina is minutely defend¬
ed by Spallanzani in his Travels in the two Sicilies,
voi. iv. To tear the coral from the rocks they make
ufe of a machine compofed of two beams tied acrofs each
other, and furnifhed with a leaden weight to fink them,
and a quantity of loofe hemp and feveral ftrong nets to
entangle the branches of the coral. To this machine is
attached a ftrong rope, which is held by the fifhers, and
ferves both to direfl the net and to draw it up when the
coral is entangled. Several boats go in company, each
containing eight men, and the fifhery lafts from April
to July. The quantity colle&ed every year amounts on
an average to twelve Sicilian quintals, each equal to 250
pounds Troy, and each pound ufually fells for about
four {hillings and fixpence. They do not filh on the
fame bank oftener than once in ten years, as this time
is deemed neceffary for the coral to acquire its full fize
and vigour.
Another beautiful fpecies of gorgonia, the GoRGO-
NIA ceratophyta, is figured at fig. II. Thisisdiftinguilh-
ed by its dichotomousfiattijh ftem, andafeending branches.
The outer flefh is of a purplifti colour, and the branches
are furniftied with two rows of fcattered pores from
which the polypi appear. It is found in the Mediterra¬
nean, and fometimes on the eaftern coafts of America.
Nearly allied to the gorgoniae is the fpecies of alcy¬
onium reprefented at fig. 12. This is the ALCYONIUM
gorgonoides of Gmelin. It is of a cinereous colour, of a
fandy fleftiy confiftence, having radiated warty cellules.
It is found on the northern coaft of South America, efpe-
daily near the iftand of Cura^oa.
The zoophytes which naturalifts diftinguifh by the
generic name alcyonium, fometimes form independent bo¬
dies of a rounded form, fuch as thofe called the fea~orange.
fea-jig, &c. *, or cover the furface of {hells and other ma¬
rine bodies like a kind of bark. Their internal part or
bafe is friable, and, when dried, appears to be compofed
of fine fibres, which are either longitudinal, as in the
prefent cafe, diverging, or circular. This bafe is cov¬
ered with a foft cruft, that in drying affumes a leathery
confiftence, and is pierced with numerous little cells in¬
habited by polypi. In fome fpecies thefe cells are di-
fperfed over the whole furface of the coral, while in
others they are confined to particular fpots or tubercles.
They are all inhabitants of the ocean, where they are
ufually fixed to rocks or other folid bodies.
tubufola *n l^e art^cle Helminthology we have fufficiently
U Plate* treated of the nature and properties of the fponges, and
DLXXXI. have there mentioned particularly the common or q/fici-
Fig. 13. »«/fponge. At fig. 13. is reprefented a more curious
fpecies, the Sp. tubulofa or Jiftularis, the tubular or
pipey fponge. This confifts of fimple upright, attenua¬
ted, rigid tubes, tuberculated on the outer furface,
which is of a black colour. It is found in the feas that
walh the coafts of America.
Tluftraare- The jlujlrue are a tribe of infignificant zoophytes,
nofa. which feem fcarcely entitled to the rank which they
Fig. 14. hold in the animal creation. They are formed of a con¬
geries of fuperficial cells, placed clofe together, like thofe
of a honeycomb, but generally occupying only a fingle
furface. Sometimes' thisfubftance forms a coating to fome
other marine body, at others it is unattached and
forms a floating foliaceous mafs or mat. The fpecies re- Zoophytes,
prefented at fig. 14. is one of the moft curious, and is y—^
deferibed by Ellis under the name of Englijh fca~mat,
called in the Linncean Tranfattions, vol. v. Flustra
arenofa. It is compofed of fandy particles aggluti¬
nated together with ilime, and in lhape refembles the
fore part of a horfe’s hoof. It is very friable, and fo
thin as to be eafily broken. Thefe flujirce are found
abundantly on the coaft of Kent, and about Holy-head
on the Wellh coaft.
Fig. 15. reprefents a fpecimen of SERTULARIA fetacea, Sertularia
the fmallfea-briftle coralline of Ellis, of its natural fize -,fi<acea.
and fig. 16. {hews the fame fpecimen confiderably mag- Fig. 15.
nified. This fpecies is diftinguiftied by bdir\g Jimply^ l6'
pinnated, with bent alternate pinnee, furnifbed with very
remote procejfes growing only on one Jide, and oblong
axillary ovaries. It is one of the fmalleft and moft
delicate of the tribe, feldom exceeding an inch and a
half in height. It is very common, and is found on the
Britifti coafts.
None of the zoophytes bear a nearer refemblance to
vegetables than the fertularice. Their creeping roots,
their branched ftem, and tufts of feeming flowers (the
poly pine proceffes) give them all the air of plants.
Hence they were long confidered as fea-mojfes, and de¬
feribed by botanifts under that name. See Ray’s Synop.
Jis, p. 38. and 39. When attentively examined, however,
their animal nature will fcarcely be difputed. Exter¬
nally they are compofed of a horny fubftance, perfeftly
tranfparent, and through this may be'diftinguiftied the
animal fubftance traverfing the centre of the ftem and
branches like the pith of a plant, and appearing exter¬
nally as little knots or protuberances in the form of
tentaculated polypes. Thefe extraneous polypes are
confidered by Cuvier, {Tableau Elementaire, p. 768.)
not as diftinft animals, but only as parts of the fame
animal which conftitutes the foie inhabitant of the
fertularia. Thefe zoophytes adhere to rocks, {hells, &c,
by creeping roots, and appear to propagate by means
of eggs. They are among the moft common of this
clafs of animated beings.
The Pennatulje or Sea pens conftitute a very curb penmtul*
ous tribe of zoophytes, which are completely \ocotao-phojphorett.
tive, and fwim in the manner of fifties. They confift of Fig. 17.
an internal bone or rather horny fubftance, covered with 2* 18.
a fenfible fleftiy coat. Their lower extremity is fimple
like the barrel of a quill, while the upper extremity is
expanded into a flattened part, that is generally compo¬
fed of pinnae like the barbs of a quill, though it is fome¬
times merely a fimple expanded mafs furniftied with
polypine procefies.
Fig. 17. reprefents one of the moft common fea-pens
properly fo called, the Pennatulaphofphorea,phofphoref-
cent pennatula, of its natural fize. It has ajlejhyjlem, a
rough middle part, and imbricated pinnules. The pinnae
are furniftied on one fide with leffer pinnulce, at the extre¬
mities of which appear the polypes. See fig. 18. which
{hews one of the feparate pinnae, a little magnified. This
fpecies is of a fine red or light fcarlet colour, and when
alive exhibits a ftong phofphorefcent light, fo as to render
diftin&ly vifible objefts that are near it. It js pretty com¬
mon on the coafts of Britain, and is fometimes taken in
the fiftiermen’s nets, or adhering to the baits.
For figures of two other Linnaean zoophytes, the
Tubularia magnified, and Hydra viridis, fee Plate
ZOOPHYTES
Fig. /.
Plate DLXXIX
Fig. 4- ■
Fig. 3.
;tr.. irekito'
J'zp. 8.
ZOOPHYTE S.
Fig. //.
FYff.g.
Plate DTJXXX.
Fig. /O.
W AiThibatd
Fig. / 3 .
ZOOPHYTES
Fig. (4.
Plate DhXXXi,
Fig. /y.
Fig. /<S.
Fig. /5
Fig. /6.
W.Atrjtrbttld
j*r .
Z U G [ 805 ] Z U R
Zoot»my CCLIII. Several of Cuvier’s zoophytes are reprefent-
H ed in Plates XXXIV. CCLI. and CCLII. and feme of
. the Infuforia in Plates XXXV. and XXXVI.
H ZOOTOMY, the art of differing animals or living
creatures, being the fame with anatomy. See Anato-
my.
ZORILLE, a fpecies of weefel which inhabits Peru,
and other parts oi South America j and is laid to be
remarkable for its fetid odour.
ZOROASTER, or Zerdusht, a celebrated ancient
philofopher, faid to have been the reformer or the
founder of the religion of the magi. It is wholly un¬
certain to how many eminent men the name of Zoro-
after belonged. Some have maintained that there was
but one Zoroalfer, and that he was a Perfian \ others
have faid that there were fix eminent founders of philo-
fophy of this name. Ham the fon of Noah, Mofes,
Ofiris, Mithras, and others, both gods and men, have
by different waiters been afferted to have been the fame
with Zoroafter. Many different opinions have alfo
been advanced concerning the time in which he flourilh-
ed. Ariftotle and Pliny fix his date at fo remote a
period as 6000 years before the death of Plato. Ac¬
cording to Laertius, he flourifhed 600 years before the
Trojan war j according to Suidas, 500. If, in the
midft of.fo much uncertainty, any thing can be advan¬
ced with the appearance of probability, it feems to be
this j that there was a Zoroafier, a Perfo-Median, who
flourifhed about the time of Darius Hyttafpes $ and that
befides him there was another Zoroafter, who lived in a
much more remote period among the Babylonians, and
taught them aftronomy. The Greek and Arabian
writers are agreed concerning the exiftence of the Per¬
fian Zoroafter •, and the ancients unanimoufty aferibe to
a philofopher, whom they call 'Loroafier, the origin of
the Chaldean aftronomy, which is certainly of much
earlier date than the time of Hyftafpes : it feems, there¬
fore, neceffary to fuppofe a Chaldean Zoroafter diftinft
from the Perfian. Concerning this Zoroafter, however,
nothing more is known, than that he flourifhed towards
the beginning of the Babylonifh empire, and was the
father of the Chaldean aftrology and magic. All the
writings that have been aferibed to Zoroafter are un-
queftionably fpurious.
ZOSTER A, a genus of plants of the clafs gynan-
dria, and in the natural fyftem arranged under the fe-
cond order, Piperitcc. See Botany Index.
ZOSIMUS, an ancient hiftorian who lived at the
end of the fourth and beginning of the fifth century.
There are fix books of his hiftory extant; in the firft of
which he runs over the Roman affairs in a very fuecindt
manner from Auguftus to Dioclefian ; the other five are
written more diffufely. Zofimus was a zealous Pagan j
whence we find him frequently inveighing with great
bitternefs againft the Chriftian princes, particularly
againft Conftantine the Great, and the elder Theodo-
fius. His hiftory has been publifhed with the Latin
verfion of Leunclavius at Frankfort, 1590, with the
other minor hiftorians of Rome, in folio j and at Ox¬
ford in 8vo, 1679.
ZUG, a canton of Switzerland, bounded on the eaft
and north by that of Zurich, on the fouth by Schweitz
and Lucern, and on the weft by the canton of Lucern
and the Freye-Amt or Free Provinces. It is not above
2 2 miles either way j but very populous and fruitful,
yielding wine, wheat, chefnuts, and other fruits, in its Zug
vales, and excellent pafture on its mountains. The in- ^1}.^
habitants of this canton are {launch Roman Catholics. <
It lies in the diocefe of Conftance, and its government
is democratical. There are two lakes in it abounding
in fi(h, particularly large carps, pikes, and a fpecies of
trouts called rotels; as wrell as feveral woods full of
game. Zug, which gives name to it, and is its capital,
Hands on the eaft fide of a lake of the fame name, about
feven miles long, and is a ftrong neat town, containing
a priory and two convents.
ZUIL A, a town in the territory of Fezzan, in Afri¬
ca, which Hands on a fpace of about a mile in circuit,
but was formerly of much greater extent. The envi¬
rons are level, well fupplied with water, and fertile,
planted with groves of date trees, and the inhabitants
pay much attention to agriculture. N. Lat. 27. 29.
E. Long. 16. 39.
ZUINGLIUS, Ulricus, an able and zealous re¬
former, who laid the foundation of a feparation from
Rome in Switzerland, at the fame time that Luther did
the like in Saxony, was born at Wildehaufen in 1487.
While he officiated as preacher at Zurich, a Francifcan
fent by Leo X. came to publiftr indulgences there $
againft which Zuinglius, after the example of Luther,
declaimed powerfully. In the courfe of this oppofition
he ftarted a new doeftrine, which he called Evangelical
Truth; and from the beginning of 1519 to 1523) he
preached not only againft indulgences, but againft other
articles of the Romilh church. But though Zuinglius
made no lefs progrefs than Luther, he condufted him-
felf with more moderation and prudence ; and wiftring
to have the concurrence of the civil powers, procured
two affemblies to be called at Zurich : by the firft, he
was authorifed to proceed as he had begun j and by the
fecond, the outward worftiip and ceremonies of the
church of Rome were aboliftied. During thefe tranfac-
tions, Zuinglius publiftred feveral books in defence of his
dodlrines j but treating of the eucharift, and preferibing
a form of celebrating the Lord’s Supper different from
Luther, he was involved in violent difputes with the reft
of his reforming brethren. Refpedting the divine DE¬
CREES, the opinion of Zuinglius and his followers dif¬
fered very little from that of the Pelagians : and in-
ftead of declaring with Calvin, that the church is a fe-
parate independent body, vefted with the right of legif-
lation for itfelf, Zuinglius aferibed to the civil magiftrate
an abfolute and unbounded power in religious matters,
allowing at the fame time a certain fubordination among
the minifters of the church. This was abundantly
agreeable to the magiftrates of Zurich ; but the reft of
the Swifs cantons difallowing of their proceedings, other
affemblies were called, and things tending to tumult,
both fides had recourfe to arms j when Zuinglius, who
began as a preacher, died in arms as a foldier, in 1531.
His works are in four volumes folio.
ZURICH, a canton of Switzerland, bounded to the
north by Swabia and the canton of Schaffhaufen ; to
the fouth by the town and territory of Rapperfchweil
and the cantons of Switz and Zug ; to the eaft by the
Thurgau, Toggenburg, and Utznach \ and to the weft
by the free bailiages and county of Baden. It is about
60 miles from north to fouth, and 48 from eaff to weft..
With refpeft to its face, air, and foil, it is faid to be an
epitome of all Switzerland, as containing in it hills,
valleys.
‘Zurich.
. Z U R [ 8o5
valleys, plains, corn-lands, vineyards, lakes, and rivers.
1 heir wines have a tartnefs at firft, but the longer they
are kept the more agreeable they are. The other pro-
dufts are excellent fruits, corn, pafture, fine clay, chalk
feveral coloured earths, pit-coal, turf, and fulphur!
Ihere are alfo feme mineral fprings in the canton, and
lome lakes j Zurich is the molt confiderahle, it is 24
miles long, and two broad. The reformation was intro¬
duced here by Zuinglius in the year 1517. This can¬
ton is the firft in rank, and inferior only to that of Bern
in extent, power, and wealth j in confcquence of which,
its reprefentatives prefide in the general diets, when held
in any place belonging in common to the cantons 5 and
the affairs relating to the whole confederacy are tranf-
a&ed in its offices. Its quota, for the defence of the
leveral members of the confederacy, is 1400 men. Of
one of the two armies raifed on thefe occafions, it nomi¬
nates one of the commanders in chief, as Lucern does
the other. Its revenue is faid to be about 150,000
crowns a-year; of which, one year with another, two
thirds are expended in the charges of government,
and the reft laid up in the treafury. It can bring
50,000 fighting men into the field at a very ffioit
warning.
Zurich, the capital of a canton of the fame name in
Switzerland, ftands in a pleafant country, near where
t ie river Aa iffues from the lake that takes its name
from the town, 23 miles from Schaffhaufen, andii4
tiom Geneva. After having been ruined by Attila the
Hun it is faid to have been reftored by Thuricus, fon of
1 heodoric king of the Goths, from whom it took the
name °f Thuricum, corrupted afterwards into that of
Zurich. It is fortified in the modern way, and has
♦wide ditches, faced with free-ftone. There are five
arfenals in it, well ftored with arms and artillery • an
academy or college, having 15 profeffors j a mufeum,
or chamber of rarities j a ftately town-houfe, the pillars
in the front of which are of black marble, ftreaked with
white j and a town library. The fovereignty and ad-
mmiftration of all affairs are lodged in the greater and
Jeffer council, out of which are chofen the city-officers,
us the councils are out of the 13 companies of burghers
rhere are feveral other councils or colleges, each of
which has its particular department. Here are a great
variety of filk, wpollen, linen, cotton, and other manu-
lactures j this being the place of the greateft trade in all
Switzerland.. The town is well fupplied with provifions
by and from its lake. The ftreets are neat, and houfes
weft built, but not magnificent. In the town-library
are feveral letters to Bullinger from Lady Jane Gray
daughter to the duke of Suffolk. In one of the arfenals
is the figure of William Tell, dreffed and armed in
the ancient Swifs manner, with the crofs-bow whence
2
] 2 Y M
he fiiot the arrow that ftruck the apple eff his child’s Zurich
head. ij
Both men and women arc fo fond of mufic, that there Zymofime‘
are few of them that cannot play on fome inftrument. ■ ^ _■
If a burgher goes out of town, or a peafant enters it,
without a fword, they are liable to be fined. No per-
fons, whatever their rank or office may be, are exempted
from the fumptuary laws. The burgomafters, who are
the fame as the adyoyers at Bern, have the title of ex¬
cellence. ihehofpitals here are neat and well endowed.
The environs are pleafant and fruitful ; for which it is
not a little indebted to the lake. That part of it which
is next Zurich is called the Lower Lahe, and the other
end the Upper. The cathedral, or great church here, is
collegiate. The prefent city is faid to ewe its origin’ to
a nunnery, founded by the emperor Lewis I. near where
the ancient Tigurum flood. E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat.
47. 20.
ZUTPHEN, a ftrong and confiderable town of the
United Provinces in Guelderland, and capital of a coun¬
ty of the fame name. It has a magnificent church, and
is furrounded with walls. It was taken by the French
in 1672, who in 1674 delivered it up to the States-
General. It is feated at the confluence of the rivers
Berkel and \ eflel, nine miles fouth-eaft of Deventer, and
55 eaft by fouth of Amfterdam. E. Long. 6. o. N. Lat.
52. 10.
DER-zee, a great gulf or bay of the German
ocean, which extends from fouth to north in the United
Provinces, between Friefland, Over-Yeffel, Guelderland,
and Holland. It is fo called from its fituation towards
the fouth. It is laid that the Zuyder-zee was formerly
a lake, and that the land is fvvallowed up which united
North-Holland with Friefland.
ZYGOMA, a bone of the head, or rather an unicn
or affemblage of two proceffes or eminences of bones.
See Rones of the Head, under Anatomy.
ZYGOMATICUS, a mufcle of the head, arifing
from the Os ZYGOMA, whence its name, and termina¬
ting at the angle of the lips.
ZYGOPH\ LLUM, Bean-caper, a genus of plants
of the clafs of decandria, and in the natural fyftem
arranged under the 14th order, Gruinales. See Bota¬
ny Index.
ZYMOSIMETER (formed from Zyy.o<ri<;, fermen¬
tation, and meafure), an inftrument propofed by
Swammerdam, in his book He Refpiratione, with which
to. meafure the degree of fermentation occafioned by the
mixture of different matters, and the degree of heat
which thofe matters acquire in fermenting ; the fame in¬
ftrument is employed to afeertain the heat of tempera¬
ment of the blood of animals.
F IN I S.
Printed by A. Bell,
Edinburgh.
Plate DXIII.—DXXIV.
DXXV.—DXXVII.
DXXVIII.
DXXIX.—DXXXI.
T\ W YIT
DXXXIII. & DXXXIV,
Part II.
DXXXV. - - . 410
DXXXVI. - - - 432
Plate DXXXVII. & DXXXVIII. to face page 48&
DXXXIX. - - - 496
DXL. - - - 512
DXLI—DXLIII. . - - . 542
DXLIV.—DLXX. - - 633
DLXXI. & DLXXII. - 646
DLXXIII. & DLXXIV* - 680
DLXXV. & DLXXVI. - 686
DLXXVII. - - 700
DLXXVIII. - - - 792
DLXXIX DJLXXXI. - 804
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of VOLUME XX,
Part I.
to face page 112
120
232
272
280
400
===
I.
II.
III.
IV.
ERRATA.
N. B £ added to the number of the line fignifies « from the bottom of the page.”
Vot. page. col. line.
7 1
10 1
42 I
790
59
9
8
15
320 margin,
374 margin,
44 margin,
48 2 20
290
613
639
44
477
680
V. 116
340
356
VI. 369
VII. 155
230
I b.
49
6
12
for retrenchment, read intrenchment.
for meal, read meat.
for gift, read gifts.
(For the errata in Algebra, fee the end of this volume.)
for , read 30
In Plate XXI. fig. 6. letter E omitted.
fig. 4. F omitted,
fig. 3. FF omitted.
In Plate XXII. fig. 15. G omitted.
XXIX. fig. \. dd and e omitted,
fig. $. hh omitted.
for N° I. read fig. 1.
In Plate XXXIV. fig. \. a omitted.
for Plate XXXII. read XXXVI.
for fig. 20. read fig. 18.
for emerfion, read immerfion.
Ayrshire j for correcting error in the boundaries of, fee Kyle.
Bills j for the duty on, fee Exchange, Bills of vol. viii. 369.
Black, Life of; fee error with regard to M. de Luc’s plagiarifm, corrected in
note at p. 706, of vol. xiii.
for micrometical, read micrometrical,
in fome copies, ./or 1783, read 1683.
in fome copies, for fecefs, fuccefs j andyor 1793, read 1794*
infert is.
for lochs, read locks.
in fome copies, for Delphinius, read Delphinus.
for extrrordinary, read extraordinary.
for 1002, read 912.
Demerary omitted. See Surinam.
for gules, read gulls.
VIII.
291
a°4
30 & 33/or ~ read
H X
fide note, for Trav. vol. iii, read vol. ii.
29 for larva, read iarvse.
29
ERRATA,
VOL.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
page.
332
col. line.
19
554
570 '
571 •
629 -
630 -
631 -
638
€40
<42 *
646
<552 -
«55
656 -
M
660
662
663
780
427
81
88
92
66
67
70
71
72
74
29
80
7J>76
520
242
265
226
89
737
599
25
33
45
47
56
3i
40
42
44
5<5
42
36 A
13 5.
8
3
sl
3*I4I595I*
iron wire, read zinc wire.
for iron wire, read zinc wire.
for fig. 2. read fig. 3.
for bodies, read body.
for fig. 3. read fig. 4.
for Barrand, read Barrow.
for gallium, read galium.
for gloflbptra, read gloffopetra.
for was, read is.
16 5. for of, read on.
6 b. for angle, read angles.
2 for Legandre, read Legendre.
8 b. for AH, read CH.
38 /or ABH+CBD, nWABC+ADC.
8 for then as tn A, read then m A.
18 for AH, read BH.
135. for i B, read i BC.
21 for DEE, read DEF.
between lines 21 and 22, infert 2048
for or half, read half.
for EEG=H, read EF=GH.
for here, read there.
for if fpace P and Q, read if P and Q.
2 lib. for ADE, read ABE.
1 GOODWIN Sands omitted j for defcription of, fee KlNT,
2 29 for Hebbelol, read Herbelot.
2 2 for Black, read Bloch.
2 20 for Macrocerus, read Macrourus.
I 11 fide notes, for amata, read aurata.
X J5 for Vigwlnciz, read
I 18, l$b. for Vlack, read Vlacq.
I laft line, for Xtyii read X«y«» iytftol
3 10 b. for r N read rN
1 10 5. for »J, read 21*.
2 25, 27 for Napierian, read Napierean.
I 1 for ny.1, readn^i.
1 the reference to the plate and figure is wanting.
under Explanation of Plates,/>r Plates CCC, CCCI, CCCII, CCCIII, and CCCIV.
read CCCXLVI, CCCXLVII, CCCXLVIII. CCCXLIX, and CCCL.
Errata in Midwifery, fee the end of the article.
1 5 for chryfolites, read chryfalids.
2 fide note, for Plate CCCCXXXVIII. read CCCCXXXIX.
3 24, 26 for M'EM', read M'EM".
Under Prussia, fide note,/or Plate CCCCXLIV. WCCCCXXXIV.
1 to b. for D, read K.
2 I for {/, read n.
2 12 b. for laft, read 17th in note on Russia. See end of vol. xviii.
STOVE. In the defcription of the ftove, fig. 5. it is not mentioned as a patent fiove,
the patent not having been announced till a few days after the defcription was
printed.
- 10note,/>r 30, read 100 beads.
2 43 for broken, read broke.
for ployment, read employment
for farunculus, read furunculus.
for labise, read labia.
for bladner, read bladder.
Q 7
48
27
9
8
i
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OR, A
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ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
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VI
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PREFACE,
In the present improved state of science, of literature, and of all those arts
which are connected with the progress and improvement of society, it is surely
unnecessary to dwell on the importance of a work, the chief object of which
is to exhibit a view of those great and interesting subjects. If science, while
its beneficial influence is felt in all the common pursuits of life, affords scope
at the same time to the greatest exertions of human genius; if literature is
both the delight and ornament of those by whom it is cultivated; and if
history, by bringing under our review the great course of human affairs,
enables us to draw lessons for our future conduct from the unerring expe¬
rience of the past, there can be no question as to the importance of a work
comprising so many objects of deep and general interest to mankind. It
deserves also to be remarked, that many of those great discoveries which
have effected a revolution in science, and which have gradually introduced
the most striking changes into the affairs of the world, have been the fruit
not of accident, but of the most painful and abstruse inquiries ; and that
the great powers of invention and genius necessary to explore those intri¬
cate paths, do not by any means imply the same capacity of plain and fa¬
miliar illustration ;—those who possess those rare endowments being, on the
contrary, rather averse to waste their precious talents on what appears to
them to be the natural employment of more ordinary minds. It is hardly
necessary, however, to point out to the reader how greatly the cause of
philosophy must be promoted, when its important truths, in place of being
confined to the speculative few, are expounded in popular works, and in
this manner diffused among all classes of the community, so as to be the
common topics ol men’s discourse,—thus adding to their innocent and lau¬
dable recreations, and setting to work at the same time, in the cause of li¬
terature and science, an additional stock of talent and exertion. Such being
the obvious advantages arising from a well-digested account of Science, of
Literature, and of General History, we shall not enlarge farther on the uti¬
lity of the present work. As in such an undertaking, however, the execu¬
tion is of as much importance as the plan, we shall endeavour, as shortly
as possible, to satisfy the reader that, in that particular, no pains nor ex¬
pence
PREFACE.
viii
pence have been spared to render the present edition as perfect as possible,
and to give it a fair claim to that share of popularity and reputation, so
amply enjoyed by the Encyclopedia Britannic a from the first moment
of its publication.
In so complicated a work, it is obviously of infinite importance to pre¬
serve a clear and accurate arrangement, so as to give unity and consistency
to its various parts ; for it is evident that, without constant attention to me¬
thod and order, such a work may be rendered in a great measure useless :
and though it may still be an immense and valuable register of knowledge,
the reader may search through its pages without any clue to guide him to
the object of his inquiries. It is in this particular that the first rude essays
towards a compilation of this kind are so extremely defective. The alpha¬
bet, in place of being employed in the humble function of an index to the
matter contained in the work, was made supreme arbiter of the whole ar¬
rangement ; and the different sciences, instead of following their natural
order, were cut down into detached parts, out of which no great whole
could possibly be formed. In this view the alphabet, far from conducing
to clearness, became an instrument of disorder; and its only use appeared
to be, to save the writers to whom we allude from the trouble of a more ac¬
curate or philosophical arrangement. Those obvious defects in all the most
popular dictionaries of arts and sciences were observed by Mr Chambers,
the compiler of a very valuable work of this kind himself; and, in speak¬
ing of the labours of his predecessors, he particularly censures the inatten¬
tion to method, so visible in every part of their performances. “ Former
lexicographers (he observes) scarce attempted any thing like structure in
their works; they seem not to have been aware that a dictionary is in some
measure capable of the advantages of a continued discourse ; and hence
it is, that we see nothing like a whole in what they have done.” For the
purpose of remedying this defect in his own work, he informs his read¬
ers, that “ his view was to consider the several matters, not only in
themselves, but relatively, or as they respect each other ; both to treat them
as so many wholes, and as so many parts of some greater whole ; and to point
out their connection with each other, and with that whole, by reference:
so that by a course of references from generals to particulars, from premises
to conclusions, from cause to effect, and vice versa, a communication might
be opened between the several parts of the work, and the detached articles
be in some measure replaced in the natural order of science, out of which
the alphabetical order had removed them.” With a view of exhibiting a
^ connected
KNOWLEDGE is either
PREFACE. IX
Gonnected view of the various articles scattered through his dictionary, Mr
Chambers has accordingly prefixed to it an analysis, from which may be
seen, at one view, the mutual connection and dependence of its various parts.
But although the arrangement of the Cyclopaedia of Mr Chambers is
much preferable to that of any former work of the kind, it is still liable to
many of those objections for which he censures his predecessors. Even if
his original plan had been carried into effect with complete success, and all
the articles in different parts of his work had been so managed, as, when
reunited, to have made so many complete systems, the number of references
was still so great that no reader could possibly have submitted to the trouble
of combining them (a).
(a) To be convinced of the truth of this assertion, one needs but to cast his eye over the author’s table of arrangement.
It is as follows.
f Meteorology.
Sensible ; consisting in the perception of phenomena or external ob- I Hydrology.
jects—called Physiology or Natural History; and which,< Mineralogy.
according to the different kinds of such objects, divides into — Phttology.
[ Zoology.
Powers, and Properties—called Physics, and Natural Philosophy.
jibstracts-czMed Metaphysics, which subdivides into ^ Pn^umAtolog y
Quantities—called Pure Ma-^ Arithmetic—whence j'^N^YT!CS*
thematics—which divides,N rS L BRA*
according to the subject oQ Geometry—whence \ RIGONOIVIETRY*
the quantity, into — C Statics — ^Spherics.
Relations to our happiness—called C Ethics, or Natural f Politics.
Religion, or the doctrine of-J Religion—whence (Law.
Offices, which subdivides into (^Theology, or Revelation.
Natural and
Scientifical;
which is ci-<
ther —
Or,
Rational; consisting in the
perception of the intrinsic
characters or habitudes of
sensible objects — either
their — — —
Or,
Artificial and
Technical,
(consisting
in the appli¬
cation of na¬
tural notices
to farther
purposes),
which is
either —
Internal; employed in discovering their agreement and disagreement; or their relations in respect of truth-
called Logic.
Latent powers znA. properties of bodies— f Alchemy.
called Chemistry—whence ( Natural Magic, &c.
Optics, Catoptrics, Dioptrics, C Perspective.
—whence (Painting.
Phonics—whenqe Music.
Hydrostatics, Hydraulics.
Pneumatics.
C Architecture.
Mechanics—whence^ Sculpture.
C Trades and MANUFACTUREt.
Or,
External;
which is
either
"Real, employed
in discover¬
ing and ap¬
plying the
Or,
Quantities of bo¬
dies — called
. Mixed Ma¬
thematics ;
which accord-^
ing to the"
different sub¬
jects, resolves
into —
Pyrotechnia—whence £ Jhe MlLITARY -Art.
Astronomy—whence
Fortification,
C Chronology.
( Dialling.
Geography, Hydro- (Navigation,
graphy—whence (Commerce.
Structure and economy of organical bodies, called Anatomy.
Relations thereof FAmmals caII,itl {pharmacv.
Un aK'd Vegetable,^ { A-crruee.
provement—
either of —
Brutes—called
Gardening.
(Parrying. f Hunting,
( ManegE~whence '
Symbolical, employed in_
framing and applying"
' Words, or articulate signs of ideas-
> Armories—called Heraldry.
| Tropes and Figures—called Rhetoric.
. Fables—called Poetry.
V
LFishing,&c.
■ailed Grammar.
Such
X
PREFACE.
Of this inconveniency, inseparable from, a mere dictionary ol arts and
sciences, the original compilers of the Encyclopaedia Britannica were fully
aware ; and they resolved, in the conduct of their work, to adopt such a
plan as should completely free it from this objection. They were as fully
convinced as their predecessors of the utility of a separate explanation of
every technical term, and of the necessity also of noticing, in detail, many
topics which it would be proper more fully to illustrate in the general ac¬
count of the respective sciences to which they belonged. They Were sen¬
sible, however, at the same time, how greatly the progress of useful know¬
ledge is facilitated by systematical arrangement, and how necessary it is for
those to think methodically who expect to benefit mankind by their labours.
They have accordingly endeavoured, in place of the awkward expedient of
a prefatory analysis, adopted by Mr Chambers, to exhibit a clear and satis¬
factory account of the several arts and sciences under their proper denomi¬
nations, and to explain at the same time the subordinate articles under their
technical terms. These articles may be divided into three kinds. The first
consists of such as, not depending very closely on particular systems, admit
of a complete explanation under their proper names ; the second of such as
require to be considered in the general account of the sciences with which
they are connected, and also under their own denominations; and the third,
of such as belong to a great whole, from which they cannot be separated,
so as to be explained in detail. Articles of the first kind admit, of course,
of no references; those of the second sort, being only partially explained
under their own denominations, the reader is referred for more complete
information to the article where the subject is more fully illustrated ; and
in articles of the third description, no attempt is made to explain them, ex¬
cept in connection with the subjects to which they severally belong, and to
which the reader is therefore always referred. 0 .
ouch
Such is that great and general analysis of knowledge, which has by some of our correspondents been recommended
to us in terms of the highest praise, and to which elegance and accuracy cannot perhaps be refused. Its utility, how¬
ever, as prefixed to a dictionary of arts and sciences, is not very apparent. From each word, \* hich in this table is
printed in capitals, many branches are made to spring, which in the dictionary are all treated as separate articles. Thus,
from Meteorology we are referred, in a subordinate analysis, to Air and the Atmosphere ; including, 1st, The
history of its contents, AEther, Fire, Vapour, Exhalation, &c. 2d, Meteors formed therein; as Cloud,
Rain, Shower, Drop, Snow, Hail, Dew, Damp, &c. Rainbow, Parhelion, Halo, Thunder, Waterspout,
&c. Winds, Monsoon, Hurricane, and the like. As every w'ord printed in capitals, as well in this subordinate
division as in the general table, is the title of an article treated separately in the Cyclopaedia, we must turn backwards
and forwards through more than 24 references before we come at the detached topics, which we are directed to unite
into a system of Meteorology. The number of articles which must be united in the same manner to constitute the
Compiler’s system of Metaphysics is upwards of 48 ; and those which are referred to Theology above 300!
PREFACE.
XI
Such is the arrangement adopted in every edition of the Encyclopedia
Britannjca ; and there appears to be no other, by which the great object
of such a work would be so easily and so completely attained. The neces¬
sary effect of such a plan must be, to give to readers of every description
the most easy access to the objects of their various pursuits ; lor, whilst the
philosopher or artist may procure whatever information he is in.search of
by turning to the general name of the science to which his attention is direct¬
ed, those who are desirous of information on particular topics will find them
explained with sufficient accuracy under their respective denominations.
Considered in this point of view, the Encyclopedia Britannica may vie in
the accuracy of its arrangement with the Encyclopedic Mctkodique; for though
that voluminous work undoubtedly has an imposing appearance* yet we,
who, in the course of our labours, have had to consult it frequently, have
never found our object the more readily, for having been obliged to travel
in quest of it through different alphabets.
A dictionary, in which the several arts and sciences are digested into dis¬
tinct treatises or systems, whilst the various detached parts of knowledge
are explained in the order of the alphabet, seems indeed to have received
the best form of which such a work is susceptible; and may certainly be
made to answer one end, which more philosophical arrangements never
can accomplish. Under the various letters of the alphabet, it is obvious
that the whole circle of the sciences may be completely exhausted; and
that every discovery, ancient or recent, may be referred to the particular
system which it tends to confute or to confirm, without having recourse to
the awkward expedient of employing several alphabets, or the still more in¬
convenient arrangement by which the systems themselves are broken into
fragments.
The truth of these observations is confirmed beyond the possibility of
doubt, by the favourable reception which every edition of the Encyclopedia
Britannica has hitherto met with; by the still greater encouragement which
has been given to the present; and by the circumstance of its plan having
been invariably adopted by the editors of all similar works. On this sub¬
ject, the proprietors of the present edition express themselves with the
greater ease and confidence* as they cannot be accused of flattering their
own vanity, or of being the publishers of their own* praise. The merit of
the arrangement, as well as of various other improvements suggested in the
course of the work, belongs not so much to them, as to the compilers of
the first edition.
To
XU
PREFACE.
To a work which proposes as its main object to exhibit a view of the Arts
and Sciences, the private history of those eminent persons by whose inge¬
nuity the progress of science has been promoted, seems to be a proper ac¬
companiment. Those who formed the plan of the Encyclopedia Beitan-
nica resolved accordingly to improve it, by the addition of one department,
not to be found in any former compilation of the kind, with the exception
of the French Encyclopedic.
Of all the various sorts of narrative-writing, it is acknowledged that
none is more worthy of cultivation than Biography, since none can be
more delightful or more useful; none can more certainlv enchain the
heait b^y hiesistible interest, or more widely diffuse instruction to every di-
AeisAy of condition. Its tendency to illustrate particular passages in gene-
lal history, and to diffuse new light through such arts and sciences as were
culthated by the persons whose lives are related, are facts too obvious to
lequire proof. It exhibits likewise the human character in every possible
form and situation. It not only attends the hero through all the bustle of
public life, but pursues him to his most sequestered retirements. It shows
how distinguished characters have been involved in misfortunes and diffi¬
culties ; by what means they were extricated ; or with what degree of for¬
titude and dignity they discharged the various functions, or sustained the
vicissitudes, sometimes prosperous and sometimes adverse, of a checquered
and a fluctuating life. In such narratives, men of all ranks must feel them¬
selves interested; for the high and the low, as they have the same faculties
and the same senses, have no less similitude in their pains and pleasures;
and, therefore, in the page of honest biography, those whom fortune or na¬
ture has placed at the greatest distance, may mutually afford instruction
to each other. For these reasons it is, that every man of learning and taste
has esteemed the biographical labours of Plutarch among the most valuable
and interesting remains of antiquity.
The lives and characters, therefore, of such persons as have excelled in the
arts either of war or of peace, of such as have distinguished themselves either
on the theatre of action, or in the recess of contemplation, will be found
in the Encyclopedia Britannica alphabetically disposed under their
proper names. In former editions of this work, many names are omitted
for which the reader tvill naturally look; some because the work had ad¬
vanced beyond the initial letters of their names before the editor received
intelligence of their deaths ; others through inadvertency, and from various
mistakes, against which it is difficult to provide in so extensive an under¬
taking.
PREFACE.
xiii
taking ; and several from the confusion occasioned by the death of the first
editor in the midst of his labours. In the present edition, all these defects
have been carefully rectified ; and the proprietor may safely venture to
assert, that it contains a more perfect biographical register than any which
has hitherto been offered to the public. Some, indeed, may be disposed to
remark, that this department of their work is executed with too great mi¬
nuteness, and that the names of many persons are dragged from obscurity,
who are not proper objects of public regard. To this we shall only reply,
with the greatest biographer of modern times, that, in our apprehension,
there has rarely passed a life of which a faithful narrative would not be use¬
ful ; and that, in the lives of the most obscure persons of whom we have
given any account, something will be found either connected with recent
discoveries and public affairs, or capable of affording a useful lesson to those
who may be placed in similar circumstances.
Between eminent achievements and the scenes where they Were perform¬
ed, there is a natural and necessary connexion. The character of the war¬
rior is connected with the fields of his battles ; that of the legislator, with
the countries which he civilized ; and that of the traveller and navigator,
with the regions which they explored. Even when we read of the persons
by whom, and the occasions on which, any particular branch of knowledge
has been improved, we naturally wish to know something of the places
where such improvements wrere made. rI his curiosity, so natural and so
laudable, has been frequently felt by ourselves during the compilation of
this work ; and to gratify it in others, we have subjoined to the name of
every considerable place an account of its situation, its climate, its soil, its
peculiarities, its inhabitants, with the manners, customs, and arts ; its revo¬
lutions, laws, and government, with whatever else appeared necessary for
the reader’s information, and at the same time admissible into a work of
such variety and extent. It is indeed probable, that by many of our readers
we shall be thought to have done too much rather tlian too little in this de¬
partment ; and to have filled our pages with accounts of towns and villages
not of sufficient importance to demand general attention. But wrere it
known how many of such places we have excluded from our work, though
recommended to us by some of our most obliging correspondents, those
w7ho reflect upon the different tastes of mankind, and consider that we wrote
for the public at large, would forgive us tor having occasionally employed a
few sentences in the description of others, which, whatever be their real
importance, could not have been omitted without disappointing a very nu¬
merous class of readers.
b
The
XIV
PREFACE.
The knowledge of history is so important, not only to the statesman and
the legislator, to whom indeed it is absolutely necessary, but likewise to
every man who moves in a sphere above that of the lowest vulgar, that a
work professing to be a general repository of arts, sciences, and literature,
would be exceedingly defective, if it did not contain some information of
the transactions of those who have been in possession of the world before
us; of the various revolutions of states and empires; and of all the other
means which have contributed to bring every thing into the state in which
we behold it. Fully aware of this, the compilers of the Encyclopedia
Britannica, besides giving a general view of universal history and chro¬
nology, have enriched this edition with a short, though they hope luminous,
detail of the progress of each particular nation, which from the remotest
period to the present time, has acted a conspicuous part on the theatre of
the world. The reader therefore will here find a very comprehensive view
of Civil History, ancient and modern, in all its branches. Nor have the
histories of Nature and Religion been neglected. Of the former, it is not
perhaps too much to say, that in all the subdivisions of its three great king¬
doms, it will be found more fully, more accurately, and more scientifically,
detailed in this work, than in any other dictionary which has yet been pub¬
lished. Of the latter, a brief view is given under the general article His¬
tory ; the unavoidable defects of which are in a great measure supplied by
the accounts that will be found, under their proper denominations, of all
the considerable sects and opinions which have prevailed in the religious
world, from the earliest periods to the present day.
From the original plan of the Encyclopedia Britannica, which hard¬
ly seems capable of any improvement, the compilers of the present edition
have, except in a very few instances, never deviated ; and they can honest¬
ly assure their readers, that notwithstanding their adherence to this resolu¬
tion, they have found ample scope for the exercise both of learning, and di-
pgence in every sort of laborious research. This must necessarily be the
case, indeed, in every succeeding edition of such a work as the present,
which professes to follow the sciences and the arts through all their changes
and refinements, and to present the most accurate view of the state of the
world and of all its concerns at the period of each successive publication.
This part of their duty, those concerned with the present edition have nei¬
ther spared labour nor expence faithfully to discharge. Literary journals ;
the memoirs and transactions of philosophic societies ; and all the most va¬
luable dictionaries of arts and sciences, both in our own and in other lan¬
guages.
PREFACE.
XV
guages, have been constantly consulted. The works of the most eminent
authors, as well ancient as modern, who have written on any particular
art or science, have been collected and compared. Such of them as treat
of topics, about which there is no room for controversy, and are at the
same time susceptible of abridgement, have been abridged with the greatest
care ; whilst others, more concise and tenacious of their subjects, have been
more closely pursued and more faithfully retained. Upon those branches
of science on which the works of other authors furnished nothing fit for the
purpose of the Editors, original essays and treatises are inserted, which
were composed either by themselves, or by such of their friends as they
knew to be intimately acquainted with the subject. On disputed points,
whether in the physical or moral sciences, arguments and objections have
been displayed in their full force; and of each of the various sects into
which the Christian church is divided, the account is generally given by
the most eminent clergymen of that sect to whom the Editors could find
access. ,
In executing this part of their task, there were various circumstances
connected with the history of the third edition, which greatly added to its
difficulties. In so extensive and multifarious a collection, a few mistakes,
repetitions, and omissions might naturally be looked for, although the
publication were, from the beginning to the end, in the hands of a single
individual. When it is known, however, that after the third and last edi¬
tion of this work was considerably advanced, it was committed to the care
of a new editor, ignorant of the contents of what had been already finished
and printed, and without any directions from his predecessor to guide him
accurately through the remaining part of his task ; it will not, perhaps, ap¬
pear very surprising that inaccuracies, omissions, and repetitions should
have occurred. For these defects, the want of an intelligible index to the
materials left by the first editor is the best apology, and it was owing to the
want of such a necessary guide that Dr Gleig, the second editor, was per¬
petually liable, notwithstanding the utmost circumspection, to give, under
one title, an explanation of subjects which had before been explained under
another ; and to omit articles altogether, from a persuasion, sufficiently
natural in the circumstance in which he was placed, that they had been dis¬
cussed in some preceding volume under the general system to which they
belong.
We are far from wondering at, or from censuring these imperfections in
the last edition. At the same time we may be permitted to observe, that
they
XVI PREFACE.
they contributed greatly to add to the difficulties of the present editor;
since it was absolutely necessary, in order to preserve the unity and consis¬
tency of the work, diligently to examine and to compare all those parts of
the former edition in which there was any thing unsuitable - to the general
plan, or in which any interesting information was omitted.
In executing this part of his task, the Editor has encountered many dif¬
ficulties ; but he can>truly say he has spared no pains, whether by addition
or arrangement, to overcome them, and to present to the public a finished
work. For this purpose, he has also availed himself of the valuable infor¬
mation contained in the two supplementary volumes to the third edition,
conducted under the inspection of Dr Gleig, which, joined to the more re¬
cent improvements of- science, he -has new-modelled and arranged for the
present work. ;•
As it may be satisfactory to the reader to learn by whose assistance the
ExcYCLOPiEDiA Britannic a has been brought to its present state of per¬
fection, the following list is subjoined, which the Editor flatters himself
will be found to contain the names of various writers eminent for their pro¬
ficiency in different departments of literature and science.
For whatever instruction may be contained under the articles Anatomy,
the public is indebted to the late Andrew Bell, F. S. S. A., the proprietor,
who had devoted a great portion of his time and attention to the study of
anatomy, and to the ingenious Mr Fife, who has practised for many years
under Dr Monro, as dissecter in the anatomical school of the University ;
and the whole article Surgery has been written anew by Mr James
Wardrope, surgeon in Fondon.
The articles Aerology, Aerostation, Chemistry, Electricity, Gunnery,
Hydrostatics, Mechanics, Meteorology, Mineralogy, with most of the se¬
parate articles in the various branches of Natural History, we have reason
to believe were originally compiled by the late Mr JameSi Tytier, chemist,
but many of them have been entirely re-written, and the others accom¬
modated to the present improved state of these sciences, by Dr James Mil¬
lar, who superintended the editing of the present work, Dr Kirby, and
Dr Brewster of Edinburgh, and Professor Muirhead of Glasgow.
The article Blind was furnished by the late Dr Blacklock and Dr Moyes,
both men of superior attainments, the former in elegant literature, and the
latter in the physical sciences.
Astronomy and Navigation were compiled, the one by Dr Thomas Thom¬
son, and the other by Dr Andrew Mackay ; and the articles Algebra, Conic
9 Sections,
PREFACE,
XVII
Sections, Trigonometry, and several others in the mathematical and phy¬
sical sciences were furnished by Mr William Wallace of the Royal Military
College, Great Marlow.
The lives of Johnson and Mary Queen of Scots, with the articles In¬
stinct, Love, Metaphysics, Miracle, the history of Ethics under Moral
Philosophy, Oath, Passion, Plastic Nature, Polytheism, Prayer, Slavery,
and Supper of the Lord, were contributed by the Right Reverend Bishop
Gleig of Stirling, editor of the last six volumes of the former edition ;
Grammar and Theology by Dr Gleig and the Reverend James Bruce, A. B.
late of Emanuel College, Cambridge ; and Motion by Dr Gleig. The sys¬
tem of Medicine, which was published in the former edition, was revised
and improved for the present by Andrew Duncan, M. D- Fellow of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, and Professor of the Institutes of Physic in
the University.
The article Music was furnished by Dr Blacklock for the third edition,
and has been considerably improved for the present by Mr George Sandy,
writer to the signet, and William Maxwell Morison, Esq. advocate, to the
latter of whom the Editor is also indebted for what we have published on
the science of Physiognomy. The articles Mysteries, Mythology, and
Philology, we owe to the erudition of the late Dr David Doig, master of
the grammar school of Stirling, and author of two very ingenious Letters
on the Savage State, addressed to the late Lord Karnes.
Navigation, Paralax, Pendulum, Projection of the Sphere, and Ship*
Building, were furnished by the late Andrew Mackay, L.L. D. long known
to the puhlic an able uiathcinatieicm ; and the article War, including
Naval Tactics, by Dr Kirby.
In the former edition, the valuable articles Physics, Pneumatics, Pre¬
cession of the Equinoxes, Projectiles, Pumps, Resistance of Fluids, River,
Rotation, Seamanship, Signals, Sound, Specific Gravity, Statics, Steam
and Steam Engine, Strength of Materials, Telescope, Tide, Articulating
Trumpet, Variation of the Compass, and Water-Works, were originally
written by Professor John Robison. These articles have not been mate¬
rially altered in the present edition ; and to those who are at all acquainted
with the various and original acquirements of that author, it is altogether
unnecessary to enter particularly into their merits.
Philosophy is the joint production of Professor Robison and Dr Gleig,
Physiology was furnished by John Barclay, M. D. of Edinburgh, and Mid¬
wifery by Dr James Hamilton, junior. For a continuation of the History
c of
XVlli
PREFACE.
of India, the editor is indebted to Dr William Tennant, who resided long
in that country. The articles Political Economy and Taxation are written
by Mr Hugh Murray ; Gardening by Mr James Williamson ; and an ac¬
count of Boscovich’s system of Natural Philosophy by Dr Poole. We
know that much useful information had been communicated by Dr Latham
of Hartford in Kent, the celebrated ornithologist; by Dr William Wright,
physician-general to the forces in the West Indies under the command of
Sir Ralph Abercromby ; by the Reverend J. Hawkins, vicar of Halsted
in Essex; by the late Mr Adams, mathematical instrument maker to his
Majesty ; and by Mr William Jones, optician in Holborn, London.
With every disposition to acknowledge the very able assistance with
which we have been favoured in the prosecution of this important under¬
taking, we are still sensible, that it is wholly out of our power to particu¬
larize every one to whom we are indebted. To enter into any detail of the
reasons which prevent us from making this particular acknowledgment is
wholly unnecessary. We may mention, however, one circumstance, which
would of itself have prevented us from being so minute in this particular as
we might have wished, namely, the death of Mr Bell, the late proprietor,
before the work was finished ; to whose great exertions in forwarding this
publication, as well as to his zeal in the general cause of science, all those
who had the pleasure of his acquaintance can bear witness. While delicacy,
however, prevents us from enlarging on this topic, we hope the reader will
excuse this tribute of respect to the memory of an estimable character; and
that tire apology we have made will, at the same time, be deemed satisfac¬
tory by those, whose assistance, in ttic eennoe uf die publication, we are in
this manner prevented from properly acknowledging.
Edinburgh, July 1810.
xv!
r