££ 1
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Suicide.
i
Suicide
among the
Jews.
Among the
Greeks.
3
The 13 ra-
mins and
Oentoos.
S U I
SUICIDE, the crime of felf-murder, or the petfon
who commits it.
We have often wiflied to fee a hiftory of crimes drawn
up by a man of ability and refeaxch. In this hiftory we
would propofe that the author ftiould delcribe the crimes
peculiar to different nations in the different ifages of lo-
ciety, and the changes which they undergo in the pro-
grefs of civilization. After having arranged the hifto-
rical faffs, he might, by comparing them with the re¬
ligion and the knowledge of the people, deduce fome im¬
portant general conclulions, which would lead to a
difcovery of the caufe of crimes, ana of the remedy
molt proper to be applied. Some crimes are peculiar to
certain ftages of fociety, fome to certain nations, &tc.
Suicide is one of thofe crimes which we are led to be¬
lieve not common among favage nations. 1 he firft in-
ftances of it recorded in the Jewilh hiftory are thofe of
Saul and Ahitophel j for we do not think the death of
Samfon a proper example. We have no reafon to fup-
pofe that it became common among the Jews till their
wars with the Romans, when multitudes flaughtered
themfelves that they might not fall alive into the hands
of their enemies. But at this period the Jews were a
moft defperate and abandoned race of men, had corrupt¬
ed the religion of |their fathers, and rejected that pure
fyftem which their promifed Mefliah came to Jerufalem
to announce.
When it became remafkable among the Greeks, we
have not been able to difcover j but it was forbidden by
Pythagoras, as we learn from Athenaeus, by Socrates
and Ariftotle, and by the Theban and Athenian laws.
In the eavlieft ages of the Roman republic it was feldom
committed -, but when luxury and the Epicurean and
Stoical philofophy had corrupted the fimplicity and vir¬
tue of the Roman charafler •, then they began to feek
Ihelter in fuicide from their misfortunes or the effefts of
their own vices.
The religious principles of the bramins of India led
them to admire fuicide on particular occafions as honour¬
able. Accuftomed to abftinence, mortification, and
the contempt of death, they confidered it as a mark of
•weaknefs of mind to fubmit to the infirmities of old age.
We are informed that the modern Gentoos, who ftill in
moft things conform to the cuftoms of their anceftors,
when old and infirm, are frequently brought to the
banks of rivers, particularly to thofe of the Ganges, that
they may die in its facred ftreams, which they believe
Vol. XX. P.r. I.
S U I
can wafh away the guilt of their fins. But the maxims Suicule.
of the bramins, which have encouraged this praftice, we
are allured by Mr Holwell, are a corruption of the ^TTbap.
doftrines of the Shaftah, which pofitively forbid fuicide vol. ii.
under the fevereft puniihment. The pradlice which HUwelVs
religion or affedion has eftablilhed among the Gentoos,
for women at the death of their hufbafids to burn them- ^
felves alive on the funeral pile, we do not think ought
to be confidered as filicide, as we are not anxious to ex¬
tend the meaning of the word ; for were we to extend
it thus far, it would be as proper to apply it to thofe
who choofe rather to die in battle than make their e-
fcape at the expefice of their honour. Thus we fhould
condemn as filicides the brave Spartans who died at
Thermopylae in defence of their country ; we fhould al-
fo be obliged to apply the fame difgraceful epithet to all
thofe well-meaning but weak-minded Chriftians in this
ifland, who in the laft century chofe rather to die as mar¬
tyrs than comply with commands which were not mo¬
rally wrong. According to the Gentoo laws, “ it is
proper for a woman after her hulband’s death to burn
herfelf in the fire with his corpfe. Every woman who
thus burns ftrall remain in paradife with her hufband
three crore and fifty lacks of years. If ftre cannot, flic
muft in that cafe preferve an inviolable chaftity. If ftie
remain chafte, (he goes to paradife *, and if Ihe do not
preferve her chaftity, ftie goes to hell.”
A cuftom fimilar to this prevailed among many na-Am(*g ^
tions on the continent of America. Whefi a chief died, Americans,
a certain number of his wives, of his favourites, and of riobertfon's
his Haves, were put to death, and interred together with America-
him, that he might appe:* with the fame digaity in his
future ftation, and be waited upon by the fame atten¬
dants. This perfuafion is fo deeply rooted, that many
of their retainers offer themfelves as vidlims ; and the
fame cuftom prevails in many of the negro nations in
Africa. 5
If we can believe the hiftorians of Japan, voluntary the Japai
death is common in that empire. The devotees of thetltle> and
idol Amida drown themfelves in his prefence, attended
by their relations and friends, and feveral of the priefls,
who all confider the devoted perfon as a faint who is ftay1iaps
gone to everlafting happinefs. Such being the fuppofed nyi, 0fthe
honours appropriated to a voluntary death, it is not fur- Buijt and
prifing that the Japanefe anxioully cheriflr a contempt oi^eji In- ^
life. Accordingly it is a part of the education of their voi’ '*
children “ to repeat poems in which the virtues of their
A anceftors
Suicide.
J /?
and Scan¬
dinavians,
It prevail¬
ed much in
the decline
of the Ro¬
man em-
pixe.-
■Too com-
mon in mo
dern times,
but not
more fo in
England
than in o-
ther coun¬
tries,
S U I [2
anceflors are celebrated, an utter contempt of life is
inculcated, and filicide is fet up as the molt heroic of
actions.”
A notion feems alfo to have prevailed among the an¬
cient Scythian tribes, that it was pufillanimous and ig¬
noble for a man whofe ftrength was wafted with difeafe
or infirmity, fo as to be ulelefs to the community, to
continue to live. It was reckoned an heroic aftion vo-
'luntaiily to feek that death which he had not the good
fortune to meet in the Held cf battle. Perverfion of
moral, feeling does not fpring up, we hope, fpontane-
oully in any nation, but is produced by fome peculiari¬
ties of fituation. A w’andering people like the Scythi¬
ans, who roamed about from place to place, might of¬
ten find it impoflible to attend the fick, or to fupply from
their precarious ftore the wants of the aged and infirm.
The aged and infirm themfelves, no longer able to fup-
port the chara&er of warriors, would find themfelves
unhappy. In this way the praftice of putting to death
fuch perfons as were ufelefs to the community might
originate, and afterwards be inculcated as honourable ;
but he who put an end to his infirmities by his own
hand, obtained a chara&er ftill more illuflrious.
The tribes of Scandinavia, which vvorlhipped Odin
the “ father of {laughter,” were taught, that dying in
the field of battle was the moft glorious event that could
befal them. This was a maxim fuited to a warlike na¬
tion. In order to eftablilh it more firmly in the mind,
all were excluded from Odin’s feaft of heroes who died
a natural death. In Afgardia flood the hall of Odin ;
where, feated on a throne, he received the fouls of his
departed heroes. This place was called Valhalla, fig-
nifying “ the hall of thofe who died by violence.” Na¬
tural death being thus deemed inglorious, and puniihed
with exclufion from Valhalla the paradife of Odin, he
who could not enjoy death in the field of battle was led
to feek it by his own hands when ficknefs or old age be¬
gan to affail him. In fuch a nation fuicide muft have
been very common.
As fuicide prevailed much in the decline of the Ro¬
man empire, when luxury, licentioufnefs, profligacy,
and falfe philofophy, pervaded the world, fo it conti¬
nued to prevail even after Chriftianity was eftabliihed.
The Romans, when they became converts to Chriftiani¬
ty,. did not renounce their ancient prejudices and falfe
opinions, but blended them with the new religion which
they embraced. The Gothic nations alfo, who fubvert-
ed the Roman empire, while they received the Chrif-
tian religion, adhered to many of their former opinions
and manners. Among other criminal practices which
were retained by the Romans and their conquerors, that
of fuicide was one 5 but the principles from which it
proceeded w*ere explained, fo as to appear more agree¬
able to the new fyftem which they had efpoufed. If was
committed, either to fecure from the danger of apoftacy,
to procure the. honour of martyrdom, or to preferve the
crown of virginity.
When we defeend to modern times, we lament to
find fo. many inftances of fuicide among the moft polifti-
td nations, who have the beft opportunities of knoivino-
the atrocity of that unnatural crime. The Englifh have
long been reproached by foreigners for the frequent
commiffion of it; and the “ gloomy month of Novem¬
ber” has been ftigmatized as the feafon when it is moft
eornmon. But this difgraceful imputation, we think,
1
S U I
may be juftly attributed, not to the greater frequency Sulcidei
of the crime in England than in other places, but to the u-—v——^
cuftom of publilhing in the neivfpapcrs every inftance
or fuicide which is known. Mr Moore, who lately
publilhed a full inquiry into this fubject, was at great
pains to obtain accurate information concerning the per¬
petration of this crime in different countries. Mercier, 'r
who wrote in .1782, fays, that the annual number
filicides in Paris was then about 150. He does not tell 10
us how he came by the information ; but we have the The num-
authority of the Abbe Fontana for afferting, that more b.er fui-
perfons put an end to their lives in Paris than in Lon-Pa"
don. I he Abbe had this information from the lieute-don, Ge-
nant of the .ponce. Mr Moore was informed by oneneva) &c.
of the principal magiftrates of Geneva, that in that ci- accorchng
ty, which contains about 25,000 inhabitants, the ave-!° the beft
rage number of fuicides is about eight. The average accounts‘
number of fuicides, from what caufe foever, for the laft
28 years, has been 32 each year for London, South¬
wark, and Weftminfterr In Edinburgh, which con¬
tains 80,000 inhabitants, we are convinced the average
number of fuicides does not exceed four. Mr Moore
found, from the accounts with which he was favoured
by the feveral coroners of the county of Kent, that for
the laft 18 years the number has been upwards of 32
each year. Kent is fuppofed to contain 200,000 inha¬
bitants, and London 800,000. It is eafy therefore to
fee, that in the metropolis many inftances of fuicide
muft occur which are never the fubjeft of legal inquiry,
and confequently never made known to the world.
Whereas-in the country towns and villages of Kent it h
fcarcely poflible to conceal fuch an adlion as felf-murder
from the knowledge of the whole neighbourhood. The
calculation therefore refpeefting Kent we may receive as
true, while we muft increafe the average number in
London very confiderably. Mr Moore computes the
average number of fuicides in England every year at a
thoufand ; but the principles on which he founds this
opinion are fo imperfeft and vague, that we do not
tnink it can be depended on as coming near the truth.
It might lead to fome interefting conclufions to com-jn wj*t
pare together, not only the number of fuicides in differ-rank and
ent countries, but alfo the rank and principles, the fex fituation
and age, of thofe unhappy perfons by whom it has been fukkL i*
committed. Mercier fays, that at Paris it was the lower moftcoflv*
ranks who were moft commonly guilty of it; that it was*" ^
moftly committed in garrets or hired lodgings ; and that
it proceeded from poverty and oppreflion. A great ma-
ny, he fays, wrote letters to the magiftrates before their Moore'?
death. Mr Moore’s correfpondent from Geneva inform- ^ul1 Ing
ed him, that from the year 1777 to 1787 more than \ooq7!incvltf
fuicides were committed in Geneva 5 that two-thirds of ofSuUidt.
thefe unfortunate perfons were men •, that few of the cle¬
rical order have been known to commit it \ and that it
is not fo much the end of an immoral, irreligious, diffi-
pated life, as the effedl of melancholy and poverty. By
the information obtained from the coroners of Kent, it
appears, that of the 32, three-fourths have deflroyed
themfelves by hanging ; that the proportion of males to
females has been about two-thirds of the former; that
no. one feafon of the year is more d’ftinguifhed for this
crime than another ; and that fuicide is upon the in-
creafe. Our accounts refpefling the city of London are
very imperfeft; but we think ourfelves intitled to con¬
clude, that fuicide is more common among the great and
wealthy
UniciJs.
Phyfical
cauusto
whi^h it
has been
afcribed in
Britain.
13 ,
And moral
itaufes.
14 .
Not owing
always to
' kdariity;
S U I [
wealthy than among the lower ranks, and that It is ufu-
ally the effedl of gaming and diffipation.
Thofe who have inquired into the caufes of fuicide In
Britain have enumerated many phylical as well as moral
caufes. They have afcribed it to the variablenefs of our
climate, to the great ufe of animal food, to ifrong fpiri-
tuous liquors, to tea, and to the fulphureous exhalations
of the pit coal ufed as fuel, which are faid to produce a
depreiTion of fpirits and nervous affections. Ol our cli-
mrte, we have no caufe to complain, nor have we any
reafon to impute any of our vices to its influence. There
are many climates much more unfavourable where fui¬
cide is fcarcely known. That an exceffive quantity of
gr>. is animal food, or of ftrong liquors, or of tea, will
powerfully affect the human conititution, we will not
deuv ; but betore we coniider theie as caules, it muii fiirt
be determined, whether thofe who are guilty of {'elf-mur¬
der be much addicted to them ; and if they are, whether
there be not other caufes much more violent in their na¬
ture which have operated on their mind j for we ought
not raflily to attribute vicious effeCts to any of thofe
things which feem to have been created on purpofe for
the comfort or convenience of man. We are rather lur-
prifed to find that coal is mentioned even as a diilant
caufe of fuicide ; for it is one of the bleflmgs of our
iiland ) and a good coal fire w-e have always found ra¬
ther conducive to good ipirits than injurious to them.
Among the moral caufes which are fuppoied to co
operate in producing fuicide in Britain, the freedom of
our conftitui ion and laws is reckoned one. 1 hat rational
liberty ihould have any tendency to encourage crimes of
any kind, a Chriftian philofopher can never allow ; for
fuch an opinion is totally difcountenanced by enlighten¬
ed views of nature. Mercier has afcribed the frequency
of fuicide in Paris to the oppreflion of the late govern¬
ment. Now it appears fomewhat extraordinary, that
fuicide in one country fhould be occafioned by liberty,
and in another by the want of it. One of thefe opi¬
nions muff be falie, and it is furely not difficult todiftin-
guiih which.
Humanity would in moft cafes difpofe us to conclude,
that fuicide is the effett of infanity, were there not fo
many infiances of cool deliberate felf murder. I hat fui¬
cide is an unnatural crime, which none but a madman
3 3 S tJ i
would commit, compaffion indeed may fuppofe *, but the _ Suicide. ^
murder of a wife, a father, or a child, are alfo unnatti- '‘"•“’V—^
ral •, yet compaffion does not teach us in all cafes to a-
feribe fuch a crime to madnefs. Paffion may often arife
to fuch a height of outrage as to be fcarcely diftinguilh-
able from madnefs in its fymptoms and its effefts; yet
we always make a diliin&ion between that madnefs
which arifes from difeaie and that which is owing to a
violent peturballon of mind. If a perfon be capable of
managing his wordly affairs, of making a will, and of
dhpofing of his property, immediately before his death,
or after he formed the refolution of dying by his owm
hands, fuch a man is not to be confidered as infane. . I5
But though a regard for truth prevents us from aferib-tut ofteft
ing fuicide in all cafes to infanity, we mufi: aferibe it ei- alfo to
ther to infanity or to vicious paffion. Thefe two divi-^ous Pa*"
fions, we imagine, will comprehend every fpecies of it, ‘
whether arifing from melancholy, teedium vitce or ennm\
difappointment in fchemes of ambition or love, pride,
gaming, or a defire to avoid the ihame of a public exe¬
cution ; paffions which are often increafed by falfe views
of God, of man, and of a future Hate, arifing from deifm
and infidelity. If tbefe be the caufes of fuicide in mo¬
dern time, what a difgraceful contrail do they form to
thofe principles which adluated many of the ancient phi-
lofophers, the Gentoos, the Japanefe, and the worihip-
pers of Odin ? When they committed fuicide, they com¬
mitted it from principle, from a belief of its lawfulnefs,
and the hope of being rewarded for what they judged
an honourable facrifice. But in modern times, we are
forry to fay, when it is not the eff.dl of madnefs, it is
the effedl of vice : and when it is the effedl of vice, it
proves that the vicious paffions are then indulged to the
bigheft degree •, for there is no crime which a man can
commit that is fo ftrong a fymptom of the violence of
particular paffions. It is from not attending to this cir-
cumftance, that it has been found fo difficult to refute
the arguments in favour of fuicide. If the criminality of
fuicide be confined merely to the violent action, many
apologies may be made for it; but if it be confidered
folely as the effedl of vice, as the ftrongeft fymptom of
ungoverned paffien, he who undertakes its defence muft
undertake the defence of what all men will loudly con¬
demn (a).
A 2 It
(a) Several of the heathens entertained a very juft fenfe of the atrocity of fuicide. Quintus Curtius introduces
Darius with the following fpeech, when he had loft hi;, empire : “ I wait (fays the unfortunate monarch) the iffue
of my fate : you wonder, perhaps, that I do not terminate my own life ; but I choofe rather to die by the crime
of another than by my orvn.
We cannot refufe ourfelves the pleafure of prefenting to our readers the following beautiful paffage upon this
fubjedl from Titzoiborne’s letters * : I am perfuaded (fays this elegant wuiter) this difguft of life is frequently in- * Letter
dulged out of a principle of mere vanity. It is efteemed as a mark of uncommon refinement, and as placing a man is*
above the ordinary level of his fpecies, to feem fuperior to the vulgar feelings of happinefs. I rue good fenfe, how¬
ever, moft certainly confiils not in defpifing, but in managing our ftock of life to the beft advantage, as a cheerful
acquiefcence in the meafures of Providence is one of the ftrongeft fymptoms of a wTell conftituted mind. Self-sveari-
nefs is a circumiiance that ever attends folly ; and to condemn our being is the greateft, and indeed the peculiar in¬
firmity, of human nature. It is a noble fentiment which Tully puts into the mouth of Cato, in his '1 reatife upon
old Age \ 'Non lubet mihi (fays that venerable Roman) dcplorare vitam, quod multi, et 11 doSh,fcepe fecerunt ; tie-
q te me vixijfe pcenitet : quoviam ita vixi, ut non frujlra me natum ex'Jhmcm.
“ It is in the oow’er, indeed, of but a very fmall portion of mankind to aft the fame glorious part that afforded
fuch high fatisfaflion to this diftinguiihed patriot; but the number is yet far more inconfiderable of thofe who cannot,
in any ftation, fecure themfelves a fufficient fund of complacency to render life juftly valuable. Who is it that is
.glaced out of the reach of the higheft of all gratifications, thofe of the generous affe&ions, and that cannot provide
J for
Suicide,
e* cafuifts
^pon this
lubjedt.
S U I [
. It is unnecefTary then to enter particularly into the
arguments of thofe cafuifts who have undertaken the de-
Unnecef- ipicable office of advocates for the crime of filicide,
fary to en- rheir talents might furely have been employed more
ter mto the ufefully to the world, and more honourably to them-
•^ves’. t^an 'n pleading for a crime, which, if it were
committed by every man to whom their principles would
make it lawful, would totally deftroy fomc of the nobleff:
virtues, fortitude, patience, and refignation ; nay, would
deffroy fociety itfelf, and teach us to defpife the opinion
that this world is a ftate of preparation for another. “ I
came into life without my own confent, and may I not
quit it at pleafure ?” (fay the advocates for fuicide). If,
becaufe we came into life without our own confent, we
might quit it at pleafure, why may we not fpend our life
alfo as we pleafe ? Why may we not rob and murder,
and commit every kind of crime, if mere inclination is to
be the rule of aftion ! Thus upon the principles of
fuicide the highwayman and murderer may reafon, and
every man may find a fufficient apology for any crime
which he is tempted to commit. Or this abfurdity may
be otherwife anfwered: As we came into life without
our own confent, we muff: have come with the confent
of fome other being ; and logic fays, that with the con¬
fent of that Being only can we lawfully quit it.
s  It is fufficient fhortly to fay, that fuicide is contrary
criminality to the ftrongeft principle of the human conftitution, felf-
and impru- prefervation j that it is rebellion againft God ; that it is
denm cruelty to the feelings and reputation, and often takes
away the fubfiffence of a wife, a child, or a father ; that
it proves a want of fortitude to brave misfortunes ; that
it delivers only from imagined to plunge into real evils.
We may add, that almoft every inftance of fuicide of
which we have heard was ralh, imprudent, and prema¬
ture, interrupted a ufeful life, or prevented a more ho¬
nourable death. Had Cato’s pride permitted him to
yield himfelf to the generofity of Caefar, his chara&er
and his influence might have contributed to retard the
flavery of his country, which his death tended to haften.
Had Brutus and Caffius not executed the fatal refolu-
tion which they had formed, of dying by their own
hands in cafe of misfortune, the battle of Philippi might
have had a very different iffue. Had Hannibal furren-
dered himfelf to the Romans, inffead of fwallowing poi-
fon, he would have gained more glory in braving their
tortures than he won in the battle of Cannae ; for to die
innocently and heroically is the greateft exertion of hu¬
man fortitude.
As fuicide was deemed a crime by the moft illuftri-
r *7
Its great
4 1 S U r
ous and virtuous of the Greek and Roman ph!lofopW§, Smcide.
it was confidered as a crime by the laws, and treated L"“—v^"-/
with ignominy. By the law of Thebes filicides were t0p0,vlS<>u
have no honours paid to their memory The Athe-nlfhltfby
nian law ordained the hand which committed the deed the Greeks*
to be cut off, and burned apart from the reff of the Ceans, &tc.
body. The body was not buried with the ufual folem-!! i>etlte
nities, but was ignominioufly thrown into fome pit. In in^Lc^es
Cea and Maffilia (the ancient Marfeilles), it was confi- At tic ast
dered as a crime againft the ftate 5 and it was therefore P> 5W
neceffary for thole who wilhed to deftroy themfelves to
obtain permiffion from the magiftrates. f Plutarch ac- f Plutarch
quaints us, that an unaccountable paflion for fuicide feiz- on the Fir¬
ed the Milefian virgins; from indulging which they couldtues °f
not be prevented by the tears and entreaties of parents'^'
and friends : but what perfuafion and entreaty could not
effedl was accomplilhed by very different means. A de¬
cree was iffued, “ that the body of every young woman
who hanged herfelf ftiould be dragged naked through
the ftreets by the fame rope with which (he had commit¬
ted the deed.” This wife edi<ft put a complete flop to
the extraordinary frenzy, and fuicide was no longer com¬
mitted by the virgins of Miletus. (
In the early part of the Roman hiftory there feems to By the Ro-
have been feldom occafion for framing any laws againft mans,
fuicide. The only inftance recorded occurs in the reign
of Tarquinius Prifcus. The foldiers who were appoint¬
ed to make drains and common fewers, thinking them¬
felves difgraced by fuch fervile offices, put themfelves to
death in great numbers. The king ordered the bodies
of all the felf-murderers to be expofed on croffes, and
this put an effedtual flop to the pradtice. It is doubtful
whether there was any Handing law againft filicide dur¬
ing the exiftence of the republic ; but during the reign
of the emperors it was thought proper to lay it under
Certain regulations, though not abfolutely to condemn it
as a crime. In Juftinian’s JOigefts there is a law, by UR xlviu,'
which it was cnadted, “ that if perfons accufed, or who Tit. xxi.
had been found guilty, of any crime ftiould make away Par-
with themfelves, their effedls (hould be confifcated.” But
this punlftiment only took place when confifcation of
goods happened to be the penalty appointed by the law
for the crime of which the felf-murderer was accufed or
found guilty, and was not inffidled for filicide commit¬
ted in any other circumftances. 2o
_ When the Chriftian church had extended its jurif- And by
didtion in the Roman empire, it was decreed in the fixth Chriftians.
century, that no commemoration {hould be made in the
eucharift for fuch as deftroyed themfelves: neither {hould
their
for his own happinefs, by contributing fomething to the -welfare of others ? As this difeafe of the mind generally
breaks out with the moft violence in thofe who are fuppofed to be endowed with a greater delicacy of tafte and rea¬
fon than is the ufual allotment of their fellow creatures, one may alk them, whether there is any Yatiety in the pur-
fuits of ufeful knowledge ? or, if one can ever be weary of benefiting mankind ? Will not the fine arts fupply a
laftmg feaft to the mind ? or, can there be wanting a pleafurable enjoyment, fo long as there remains even one ad¬
vantageous truth to be difcovered or confirmed ? To complain that life has no joys, while there is a {ingle creature
whom we can telieve by our bounty, affift by our counfels, or enliven by our prefence, is to lament the lofs of that
whicn we poffefs, and is juft as rational as to die for thirft with the cup in our hands. But the misfortune is, when
a man is fettled into a habit of receiving all his pleafures from the mere felfiffi indulgences, he wears out of his mind
the refilh every nobler enjoyment, at the fame time that his powers of the fenfual kind are growing more lan¬
guid by each repetition. It is no wonder, therefore, he {hould fill up the meafure cf his gratifications long before
he nas completed the circle of his duration j and either wretchedly fit down the remainder of his days in difcontent,
or rafhly throw them up in defparr.”
Suicide
Suit.
Lib. iii.
Trail, ii.
Difficult to
s u i x
their bodies be carried out to burial with pfalms, nor
have the ufual feivice faid over them. This ecclefiafti-
  cal law continued till the reformation, when it was
admitted into the ftatute code of England by the au¬
thority of parliament. As an additional puniihment,
however, confifcation of land and goods feems to have
^ ^ . been adopted from the Danes, as we learn from Brac-
lus Cet Cm- ton t* At prefent the puniihment confifts in confifca-
fuetudin - ting all the perfonal property of a felo de fe for the ufe
bus Anglix, of the crown, and in excluding his body from interment
in confecrated ground. The warrant of the coroner
requires that the body Ihould be buried in fome public
highway, and a flake driven through it to increafe the
ignominy.
To inquire into the prevalence and caufes of crimes,
devife a pu-m orcJer to difeover the molt judicious methods of pre-
thaMvould vent;ing them, is the duty of the Patriot and the Chrif-
be an effec- ti30* Suicide, we find, is a common and an increafing
tual pre- evil : but it is a difficult matter to find an effectual re-
ventive. medy; for what motives can be held out fufficient to
influence that man’s mind who is deaf to the voice of
nature fpeaking within him, and to the voice of nature’s
God declaring that he is Rationed at a poll which it is
his duty to maintain ? Hi.s reputation and property are
indeed within the reach of the laws, his body may be
treated with ignominy, and his property confifcated ;
but this punifhment will not be a preventive, even if it
could be always inflifted} and that it is feldom inflicted,
though the laws have decreed it, is well known. The
humanity of the prefent age difpofes us to fympathife
with the relations of the deceafed, inftead of demanding
that the fentence of the law fhould be executed. It is a
generally received opinion, and a juft one, that punifli-
ments decreed by human laws fliould be directed only
againft fuch crimes as are injurious to focietyj but when
it is hence inferred, that fuicide ought not to be fubjetit
to the cognizance of human laws, every rule of logic is
violated. There is no man, however mean in ftation
and in talents, wffiofe life may not, on fome occafions,
be ufeful to the community at large ; and to conclude,
that a perfon who fancies himfelf ufelefs may therefore
lawfully put a period to his life, is as falfe reafoning as
it would be to conclude, that by killing a poor man,
who lives on the public, we ffiould perform an action
not only innocent but meritorious, as we fhould thereby
free fociety from one of its burdens.
SUIDAS, a Greek writer, according to fome, flour-
ifhed in the I ith century, under the reign of the em¬
peror Alexius Comnenus ; according to others, before
the 10th century. He wrote in Greek an Hiftorical
and Geographical Dlftionary or Lexicon ; a work
wdiich, though not always ftriftly accurate, is never-
thelefs of great importance, as it contains many things
taken from the ancients that are nowhere elfe to be
found. The belt edition of Suidas is that of Kuifter,
in Greek and Latin, with notes, printed in 3 vols. fol.
which has been much improved by Toup.
Lapis SUILLUS. See Swine-STONE, Mineralo¬
gy Index.
SUIT, is ufed in different fenfes; as, 1. Suit of court,
or fuit-fervice, which is an attendance the tenant owes
to his lord’s court. 2. Suit-covenant, where a perfon
has covenanted to do fervice in the court of the lord.
3. Suit-cuftom, which is where one and his anceftors-
haye owed fuit time out of mind. 4. It is ufed for a
5 ] S U I
petition to the king or any perfon of dignity, where a Suit,
lord diftrains his tenant for fuit, and none is due. In
this cafe, the party may have an attachment againft him
to appear in the king’s court.
Suit, in Law, the fame With aftion. The Romans
introduced pretty early fet forms for actions and fuits
into their law, after the example of the Greeks j and
made it a rule, that each injury ffiould be redreffed by
its proper remedy only. “ ASiiones, (fay the Pande£ts)
compojitce funt quihus inter fe homines difeeptarent, quas
aBiones ne populus prout veliet infitueret, certas folem-
nefque ejfe voluerunt.” The forms of thefe adtions were
originally preferved in the books of the pontifical col¬
lege as choice and ineftimable fecrets, till one Cneius
Flavius, the fecretary of Appius Claudius, ftole a copy-
and publiffied them to the people. 'The concealment
wras ridiculous : but the eftabliftiment of fome ftandard
was undoubtedly neceflary to fix the true ftate of a que- Btackjl.
ftion of right ; left, in a long and arbitrary procefs, \\.Comrnent-
might be fluffed continually, and be at length no lon¬
ger difcernible. Or, as Cicero expreffes it, <,i funt jura,
funt formulce, de omnibus rebus conjlitutce, ne quis aut
in genere injurice, aut in ratione aciionis, errare pofit.
Kxpreffce emm funt ex uniufcujufque damno, dolore, in¬
commode, calamitate, injuria, publico; a pretore formu¬
la, ad quas pnvata Us accommadatur.'1'1 And in the
fame manner Bradton, fpeaking of the original writs
upon which all our adtions are founded, declares them
to be fixed and immutable, unlefs by authority of parlia¬
ment. And all the modern legiflators of Europe have
found it expedient, from the fame reafons, to fall into
the fame or a fimilar method. In England, the feveral
fuits, or remedial inftruments of juftice, are, from the
fubjedt of them, diftinguifhed into three kinds , adtions.
perfonal, real, and mixed.
Perfonal adtions are fuch whereby a man claims a
debt, or perfonal duty or damages, in lieu thereof; and
likewife whereby a man claims a fatisfadtion in damages
for fome injury done to his perfon or property. The
former are faid to be founded upon contradts, the latter
upon torts or wrongs : and they are the fame which the
civil law calls “ aBiones in perfonam, quee adverfus eum
intenduntur qui ex contraBu vel deliBo obligatus efl a/i-
quid dare vel concederel1' Of the former nature are all
adtions upon debt or promifes ; of the latter are all ac¬
tions of trefpaffes, nuifances, affaults, defamatory words.,
and the like.
Real adtions (or, as they are called in the Mirror,
feodal aBions'), which concern real property only, are
fuch whereby the plaintiff, here called tne demandant,
claims title to have any lands or tenements, rents, com¬
mons, or other hereditaments, in fee-fimple, fee-tail, or
for term ol life. By thefe adtions formerly all difputes
concerning real eftates were decided ; but they are now
pretty generally laid afide in practice, upon account of
the great nicety required in their management, and the
inconvenient length of their procefs ; a much more ex¬
peditious method of trying titles being fince introduced,
by other adtions perfonal and mixed.
Mixed adtions are fuits partaking of the mixture of
the other two, wherein fome real property is demanded,
and. aifo perfonal damages for a wrong fuftained. As
for inftance, an adtion of wafte : which is brought by •
him who hath the inheritance, in remainder or reverfion,
againft the tenant for life, who hath committed wafte
therein j
SUL [6
'Sully therein, to recover not only the land wafted, which
s would make it merely a real a£Vion j but alfo treble da-
' , mages, in puiTuance of the ftatute of Gloucefter, which
is a perlbnal recompence j and fo both, being joined to¬
gether, denominate it a mixed aBion.
The orderly parts of a fuit are thefe : I. The origi¬
nal writ. i. The procefs. 3. The pleadings. 4. The
ifjue or demurrer. 5. The trial. 6. The judgement
and its incidents. 7. The proceedings in nature of ap¬
peals. 8. The execution. See thefe articles.
SULLY. See Bethune.
SULPHATE, in Chemijiry, denotes a compound of
fulphuric acid with home bale.
SULPHUR, a well known inflammable fubftance.
See Chemistry and Mineralogy Index.
SuLPHUR-Wort. See Peucedanum, Botany In¬
dex.
SULPHURIC acid, the name now adopted for the
vitriolic acid. See Chemistry Index.
SULPICIA, an ancient Roman poetefs, who lived
under the reign of Domitian, and has been fo much ad¬
mired as to be termed the Roman Sappho. We have no¬
thing, however, left of her writings but a fatire, or ra¬
ther the fragment of one, againft Domitian, who pu-
blifhed a decree for the banifhment of philofophers from
Rome ; which fatire is to be found in Scaliger’s Appen¬
dix Virgiliana. She is mentioned by Martial and Sido-
nius Apollinaris; and is faid to have addreffed a poem
on conjugal love to her hufband Calenus, a Roman
knight.
SULPICIUS Severus, an ecclefiaftical writer who
flourifhed about the beginning of the 5th century, and
was contemporary with Rufinus and St Jerome. He
was the dilciple of St Martin of Tours, whefe life he
has written 5 and the friend of Paulinus biftiop of Nola,
with whom he held an intimate correfpondence. The
principal of his w'orks is his Hi/loria Sacra, from the cre¬
ation of the world to the confulate of Stilicho and Aure-
lian, about the year 400 ; in which his ftyle is elegant
beyond the age he lived in.
SULTAN, or Sold an, a title of appellation given
to the emperor of the Turks.
Vattier will have the word Tuikifh, and to fignify
king of kings; adding, that it w?as firft given to the
Turkifh princes Angrolipex and Mafgud, about the year
1055 • others will have it originally Perflan,, alleging,
in proof hereof, an ancient medal of Cofroe ; others de¬
rive it from foldanus, quaji folus dominus ,* others from
the Hebrew vhw.fchalat or Jhe/eth, “ to rule, reign.”
It had its rife under Mahmoud, fon of Sebe&eghin,
the firft emperor of the dynafty of the Gaznevides, to¬
wards the clofe of the fourth century of the era of the
Hegira : when that prince going to Segeftan to reduce
Kalaf governor of that province, who affe&ed the fove-
reignty, Kalaf was no fooner advertifed of his coming
than he went out to meet him, delivered the keys of his
fortrefs, and owned him his Julian, that is, his lord or
commander. The title pleafed Mahmoud fo well, that
he affumed it ever afterwards •, and from him it paffed to
his defeendants, and to other Mahometan princes. It is
chiefly confined to the Turkifh and Perfian monarchs.
SULZER, M. a celebrated philofopher, wras born at
Winterthur, in the canton of Zurich, October 16.
1720. He was the youngeft of 25 children. His early
Sjiucation did not promife much, though it was by no
3
1 s u L.
means negle&ed. He had little inclination for what is Sulzer,
called in the fchools the fiudy of humanity, and made
but a fmall progrefs in the learned languages, which
were to prepare him for the ftudy of theology, for which
profeflion his parents defigned him. At the age of 16,
when he wvnt to the academical fchool of Zurich, he
had not the fmalleft notion of the fciences, or of elegant
literature, and conlequentiy no tahe for ftudy. The firft:
incident that developed a hidden germ oi. philcfopbical
genius, vTas his meeting with Wolfe’s Metaphylics :
this was the birth of his tafte for fcience •, but he wanted
a guide. The clergyman with whom he lodged was an
ignorant man j and the academical prelections were, as
yet, above the reach of his comprehenfion. On the other
hand, a fedentary life -was not the thing he liked, nor
to which he had been accuftomed ; and, moreover, a
fociable turn of mind led him often into company, where
he loft much time in frivolous amufements, yet without
corrupting his morals. Who, that obferved him at this
period, fays Mr Formey in his Eulogium, would have
thought that Sulzer would one day be numbered among
the moft knowing and wife men of his time ? The learn¬
ed Gefner was the inftrument of Providence that render¬
ed Sulzer’s inclination to ftudy triumphant over his paf-
fion for amufement and company. Animated by the
counfels and example of this wrorthy and learned man,
he applied himfelf to philefophy and mathematics with
great ardour, and refumed the purfuit of Grecian litera¬
ture and the Oriental languages. The contemplation of
nature became his noble and favourite pafiion. An ec-
clefiaftical fettlement in a rural feene, that exhibited
happy objefts and occafions for this delightful fludy,
began to render his days happy and ufeful j and he pu-
blifhed, in 1741, Moral Contemplations of the Works
of Nature j and the year following an Account of a
Journey he had made through the Alps 5 which fhowed,
at the fame time, his knowledge of natural hiftory and
the tafte and fenfibility with which hefurveyed the beau¬
ties of nature, and the grandeur and goodnefs of its
Author. He afterwards became private tutor to a young
gentleman at Magdeburg. This procured him the ac¬
quaintance of Mtflrs Maupertuis, Euler, and Sack,
which opened to his merit the path of preferment, and
advanced him fucceffively to the place of mathematical
profeflbr in the King’s College at Berlin, in 1747, and
to that of member of the Royal Academy in 1750.
In this laft quality he diftinguiflred himfelf in a very
eminent manner, enriched the clafs of fpeculative philo-
fophy with a great number of excellent memoirs, and
wras juftly confidered as one of the firft-rate metaphyfi-
cians in Germany. But his genius was not confined to
this branch of fcience. His Univerfal Theory of the
Fine Arts is a valuable produCIion. A profound know¬
ledge of the arts and fciences, and a perfeft acquaint¬
ance with true tafte, are eminently difplayed in this
wTork, and will fecure to its author a permanent and di¬
ftinguiflred rank in the republic of letters. The firft vo¬
lume of this excellent work wras publiftied in 177G and
the fecond in 1774. We (hall not here give a catalogue
of the writings of M. Sulzer ; but we cannot help men¬
tioning his Remarks on the Philofophical Effays of the
late Mr Hume as a work of real merit, which does ju-
ftice to the acutenefs, while it often de'edfts the fophiftry,
of the Britiflr Bayle. The moral charafter of M. Sul¬
zer was amiable and virtuous: fociability and benefi¬
cence
SUM
S'ulzer cence were its charafteriftical lines ; and his virtues
^ xvere animated by that facred philofophy that forms the
. , ChrifHan, ennobles man, and is the only fource of that
heart-felt ferenity and fedate fortitude which fupport hu¬
manity, when every other object of confidence fails. His
dying moments were calm, humble, and fublime j and
when he expired, the placid and compofed air of his
countenance made his mourning friends' doubt, for fome
time, whether it was death or fieep that had fufpended
his converfation. He had no enemy j and his friends
were numerous, affectionate, and worthy of the tender
returns he made them.
The king of Pruffia diftinguilhed him by repeated
marks of munificence and favour. But his royal protec¬
tor had never feen him before the end of the year 1777,
though he had been member of the academy from the
year 1 750. The audience, indeed, though late vouch¬
safed, was honourable to M. Suizer, with whom the
monarch converfedfor a long time with great condefcen-
fion.
SUM, fignifies the quantity that arifes from the addi¬
tion of two or more magnitudes, numbers, or quantities
together.
SUMACH. See Rhus, Botany Index.
SUMATRA, an ifland of Afia, the moft weftern of
the Sunda iflands, and conftituting on that fide the boun¬
dary of the Eaftern Archipelago. Its general direction
is nearly north weft and fouth eaft. The equator divides
it into almoft equal parts, the one extremity being in 5.
53. N. and the other in 5. 56. S. Lat. Acheen Head, at
the north extremity of the. illand, is in longitude 05. 34.
eaft. It lies expofed on the fouth-weft fide to the In¬
dian ocean ; the north point ftretches into the bay of
Bengal •, to the north eaft it is divided from the penin-
fula of Malacca by the ftraits of that name 5 to the eaft
by the ftraits of Banca, from the illand of that name 5
to the foulh-eaft by the commencement of what are call¬
ed the Cliinefe fees ; and on the fouth by the ftraits of
Sunda, which feparate it from the ifland of Java. It is
about 900 miles in length, but from ioo to 150 only in
Brooke's breadth. No account had been given of this ifland by
Gazetteer. any Englilhman till the year 1778, when Mr Charles
Miller (fon of the late botanical gardener) publiflied an
account of the manners of a particular diftrift, in the
68;h volume of the Philofophical Tranfations. Thefe
were the Battas, a people who live in the interior parts,
called the Cajfta Country. They differ from all the other
inhabitants in language, manners, and cufloms. They
eat the prifoners whom they take in war, and hang up
their Ikuils as trophies in their houfes. He obferves,
however, that human flefli is eaten by them in terrorem,
and not as common food, though they prefer it to all
others, and fpeak with peculiar raptures of the foies of
the feet and palms of the hands. They expreffed much
furprlfe that the white people did not kill, much lefseat,
their prifoners. From this country the greateft part of
the caffia that is fent to Europe is procured. It abounds
al o with the camphire trees, which conftitute the com¬
mon timber in ufe ; and in thefe trees the camphire is
found native, in a concrete form. It is remarkable that,
in this ftate it is fold to the Chinefe at the price of 250L
or per cent, but thefe dexterous artifts contrive to
furnifh the Europeans with it at about a quarter of that
price. In 1783, Mr Marfden, who had been fecretaryto the
prefident ajad council of Fort Marlborough, publiftred a
r 7 ] sum
Hiftory of Sumatra, with very copious particulars of the Sumatra,
ifland. He reprefented it as furpaffed by few in the beau- —v——
tiful indulgences of nature. A chain of high mountains
runs through its whole extent the ranges in many parts
being double and treble; their altitude, though great,
is not fufficient to occafion their being covered with fnow
during any part of the year. Between thefe ridges are
extenfive plains, confiderably elevated above the furface
of the maritime lands. In thefe the air is cool; and
from this advantage they are efteemed the moft eligible
portion of the country, are the beft inhabited, and the
moft cleared from woods, which elfevvhere, in general,
throughout Sumatra, cover both hills and valleys with
an eternal fhade. Here too are found many large and
beautiful Jakes, that facilitate much the communication
between the different parts. The heat of the air is far
from being fo intenfe as might be expefted from a coun¬
try occupying the middle of the torrid zone 5 and it is
more temperate than many regions within the tropics •,
the thermometer at the moft iultry hour, about two in
the afternoon, generally fludluating between 82 and 85 ,
degrees. Mr Marfden divides the inhabitants into Ma¬
lays, Achenefe, Battas, Lampoons, and Rtjangs 5 and
he takes the latter as his ftandard of defeription, with
refpedl to the perfons, manners, and cuftoms, of the in¬
habitants. They are rather below the middle ftature j
their bulk in proportion ; their limbs for the moft part
flight, but well fnaped, and particularly fmall at the
wrifts and ancles; and, upon the whole, they are grace¬
fully formed. Their hair is ftrong, and of a ftiining
black. The men are beardlefs, great pains being taken
to render them fo when boys, by rubbing their chins ,
with a kind of quicklime. Their complexion is pro¬
perly yellow, wanting the red tinge that conftitutes a
copper or tawny colour. They are in general lighter
than the Meftees, or half-breed, of the reft of India ;
thofe of the fuperior clafs, vyho are not expofed to the
rays of the fun, and particularly their w'omen of rank,
approaching to a degree of fairnefs. If beauty confifted
in this one quality, fome of them would furpafs our bru¬
nettes in Europe. The major part of the females are
ugty, many of them even to difguft ; yet among them
are lame whofe appearance is ftrikingly beautiful, what¬
ever compofition of perfon, features, and complexion,
that fentiment may be the refult of. Some of the inha¬
bitants of the hilly parts are obferved to have the fwell-
ed neck or goitre ; but they attempt no remedy for it,
as thefe wens are confiftent with the higheft health. The
rites of marriage among the Sumatrans confift Amply in
joining the hands of the parties, and pronouncing them
man and wife rvithout much ceremony, excepting the
entertainment which is given upon the occafion by the
father of the girl. The cuftoms of the Sumatrans per¬
mit their having as many wives as they can purchafe, or
afford to maintain ; but it is extremely tare that an in-
ftance occurs of their having more than one, and that
only among a few of the chiefs. This continence they
owe, in fome meafure, to their poverty. The dilates
of frugality are more powerful with them than the ine-
gular calls of appetite, and make them decline an incul-.
gence from which their law does not reftvain them.”
Mothers carry their children, not on the arm as cur
nurfes do, but ftraddling on the hip, and ufually lup-
ported by a cloth which ties in a knot on the eppofite
firoulder. The children are nurfed but little j are not
confined
Sumatra.
SUM C ^ 3
S U M
confined by any fwathlng or bandages j and being fuller¬
ed to roll about the floor, foon learn to walk and IhiFt
for themfelves. When cradles are ufed, they fwing
fufpended from the ceilings of the rooms.
The Sumatrans are fo fond of cock-fighting, that a
father on his death-bed has been known to defire his fon
to take the firft opportunity of matching a cock for a
fum equal to his whole property, under a blind convic¬
tion of its being invulnerable. When a cock is killed
or runs, the other mull have fufficient fpirit and vigour
left to peck at him three times on his being held up to
him for that purpofe, or it becomes a drawn battle •, and
fometimes an experienced cocker will place the head of
his vanquilhed bird in fuch an uncouth fituation as to
terrify the other, and render him unable to give this
proof of viftory. .
The wild beafts of Sumatra are tigers, elephants, rhi-
nocerofes, bears, and monkeys. The tigers prove to the
inhabitants both in their journeys and even their domef-
tic occupations moft deftru£!ive enemies, dhe number
of people annually flain by thefe rapacious tyrants of the
woods is almoft incredible. Whole villages have been
depopulated by them ; yet from a fuperftitious preju*
dice, it is with difficulty they are prevailed upon, by a
large reward which the India Company offers, to ufe
methods of deftroying them, till they have fuftained
1'ome particular injury in their own family or kindred.
The fize and ftrength of the fpecies which prevails on
this ifland is prodigious. They are find to break with a
ftroke of their fore paw the leg of a horfe or a buffalo ;
and the largeft prey they kill is without difficulty drag¬
ged by them into the woods. This they ufually per¬
form on the fecond night, being fuppofed on the fhffi to
gratify themfelves with fucking the blood only. Time
is by this delay afforded to prepare for their deftru&ion,
either by (hooting them, or placing a veffel of water
ftrongly impregnated with arfenic near the carcafe,
which is faftened to a tree to prevent its. being carried
off. The tiger having fatiated himfelf with the fleffi, is
prompted to affuage his third with the tempting liquor
at hand, and- periflres in the indulgence. Their chief
fubfiflence is mod probably the unfortunate monkeys
with which the woods abound. They are defcribed as
alluring them to their fate by a fafcinating power, fimi-
lar to what has been fuppofed of the fnake ; and, fays
Mr Marfden, “ I am not incredulous enough to treat
the idea with contempt, having myfelf obferved, that
when an alligator or a crocodile, in a river, comes under
an overhanging branch of a tree, the monkeys, in a date
of alarm and didraftion, crowd to the extremity, and,
chattering and trembling, approach nearer and nearer to
the amphibious monder that waits to devout them as
they drop, which their fright and number render almod
unavoidable.” Thefe alligators likewife occafion the
lofs of many inhabitants, frequently dedroying the peo¬
ple as they batlm in the river, according to their regu¬
lar cudom, and which the perpetual evidence of the n(k
attending it cannot deter them from. A fuperflitious
idea of their fanflity alfo preferves them from molefla-
tion, although, with a hook of fufficient ftrength, they
may be taken without much difficulty. The other ani¬
mals of Sumatra are buffaloes, a fmall kind of horfes,
goats, hogs, deer, bullocks, and hog-deer. This lad is
an animal fomewhat larger than a rabbit, the head re-
fembi^g that ef a hog, and its (hanks and feet like thofe
of the deer. The bezoar-ftone found on this animal has Sumatra,
.been valued at 10 times its weight in gold j it is of a i'""—"v
dark brown colour, fmooth on the outfide j and the
coat being taken off, it appears dill darker, with firings
running underneath the coat; it will fwim on the top of
the water. If it be infufed in any liquid, it makes it
extremely bitter : the virtues ufually attributed to this
ftone are cleanfing the ftomach, creating an appetite,
and fvveetening the blood.
Of birds they have a greater variety than of beafts.
The coo-ow, or Sumatran pheafant, is a bird of uncom¬
mon beauty. They have dorks of prodigious fize, par¬
rots, dung-hill fowls, ducks, the largeft cocks in the
world, wood-pigeons, doves, and a great variety of fmall
birds, different from ours, and diflinguifhed by the beau¬
ty of their colours. Of the reptiles, they have lizards,
flying-lizards, and cameleons. The illand fwarms with
infedls, and their varieties are no lefs extraordinary than
their numbers. Rice is the only grain that growls in the
country j they have fugar-canes, beans, peafe, radiffies,
yams, potatoes, pumkins, and feveral kinds of pot-herbs
unknown to Europe ; and here are to be found moft of
the fruits to be met with in other parts of the Eaft In¬
dies, in the greateft perfedtion. Indigo, Brafil-wmod,
two fpecies of the bread-fruit tree, pepper, benjamin,
coffee, and cotton, are likewife the produce of this ifland,
as well as caffia and camphire mentioned above. Here
alfo is the cabbage-tree and filk cotton tree ; and the
forefts contain a great variety of valuable fpecies of
wood, as ebony, pine, fandal, eagle or aloes, teek, man-
chineel, and iron-wood, and alfo the banyan tree. Gold,
tin, iron, copper, and lead, are found in the country j
and the former is fuppofed to be as plentiful here as in
Peru or Mexico. The fined gold and gold-dud are
found in the country of Lijrtong, immediately contiguous
to the prefidency of Fort Marlborough, to which the
merchants repair annually for the purchafe of opium,
and fuch other articles as they may be in wTant of, and
give for them gold of fo pure a nature as to contain
little or no alloy. The native indolence of the Malay^MtlcRe‘
difpofttion prevents them from collecting more than is-^T
fufficient to fupply the few’ and fimple wants of a race of
men as yet unenlightened by civilization and fcience,
and ignorant of the full extent of the advantages of the
country inhabited by them. The roads leading to this,
golden country are almoft impervious; affording only a
(canty path to a (ingle traveller, ivhere whole nights
mud be fTaffed in the open air, expofed to the malignant
influence of a hoftile climate, in a country infefted by
the moft ferocious wild beafts. Thefe are circumftances
that have hitherto checked curiofity 5 but perfeverance
and ftudied precaution will furmount the obftacles they
furniffi, and fuch difcoveries might be made as wmuld
amply compenfate for the difficulties leading to them.
The gold merchants who come from the neighbouring
and lefs rich countries, give us fuch accounts of the fa¬
cility of procuring gold as border nearly on the marvel¬
lous, and would be altogether incredible, if great quan¬
tities of that metal produced by them did not in fome
degree evince the certainty of their accounts.
This great abundance of gold in Sumatra induces Ml*
Marfden to fuppofe that ifland to be the Ophir of Solo¬
mon ; a conjefture which, in his opinion, derives no
fmall force from the word Ophir's being really a Malay
fubftantive, of a compound fenfe, fignifying a mountain
containing
SUM [ 9 ] SUN
•Sumatra containing gold. The natives, he confeffes, have no
I! oral tradition on the fubjeft} and we have elfewhere
Sump‘ . made it probable, that Ophir was fituated in a different
quarter of the world (fee Ophir). Belides the metals
and different fpecies of wood which we have mentioned,
Sumatra produces fulphur, arfenic, faltpetre, and bees¬
wax, with edible birds-nefts, which are there commodi¬
ties of great importance (fee BlRDS-Ne/ls').
The Englith and Dutch have factories on this ifland j
the principal one of the former being Fort Marlborough,
on the fouth-weft coaft. The original natives of Suma¬
tra are Pagans) but it is to be obferved, that when the
Sumatrans, or any of the natives of the eaftern iflands,
learn to read the Arabic character, and fubmit to cir-
cumcifion, they are faid to become Malays ; the term
Malay being underflood to mean MuJJiilman. See
Acheen.
SUMMARY, in matters of literature. See Abridge¬
ment.
SUMMER, the name of one of the feafons of the
year, being one of the quarters when the year is divided
into four quarters, or one half when the year is divided
only into two, fummer and winter. In the former cafe,
fummer is the quarter during which, in northern cli¬
mates, the fun is palling through the three figns Cancer,
Leo, Virgo, or from the time of the greateft declination,
till the fun come to the equinoftial again, or have no
declination j which is from about the 21ft of June till
about the 22d of September. In the latter cafe, fum¬
mer contains the fix warmer months, while the fun is on
one fide of the equino&ial $ pnd winter the other fix
months, when the fun is on the other fide of it. It is
faid that a frofty winter produces a dry fummer, and a
mild winter a wet fummer.
SUMMER-IJlands. See BERMUDAS.
Summer Red-Bird. .See Muscicapa, Ornitho-
eogy Index.
SUMMIT, the top or vertex of any body or figure,
as of a triangle, cone, pyramid, &c.
SUMMONS, in Law, a citing or calling a perfon
to any court, to anfwer a complaint or to give his evi¬
dence.
Summons, in War. To fummon a place, is to fend
a drum or trumpet to command the governor to furren-
uer, and to declare that if the place be taken by ftorm,
all muft fubmit to the mercy of the conqueror. See
Capitulation and Chamade.
SUMMUM bonum, in Ethics, the chief good.
SUMP, in Metallurgy, a. round pit of ftone, lined
with clay within, for receiving the metal on its firfl:
fufion from the ore.
Sump, in the Britilh falt-works, where fea-water is
boiled into fait, is the name of a fort of pond, which is
made at fome diftance from the faltern on the fea-lhore,
between full fea and low water mark. From this pond
a pipe is laid, through which, when it is full fea, the wa¬
ter runs into a well adjoining to the faltern ; and from
this well it is pumped into troughs, through which it is
carried to the cifterns, in order to be ready to fupply the
pans. See Salt.
Sump, in Mining, denotes a pit funk down in the bot¬
tom of the mine, to cut or prove the lode ftill deeper
than before ; and in order to flope and dig it away if
neceffary, and alfo to drive on the lode in depth. The
fump principally ferves as a bafon or refervoir, to colleft
Vol. XX. Part I.
the water of a mine together, that it may be cleaned out
by an engine or machine.
SUMPTER-horse, is a horfe that carries provifions
and neceflaries for a journey.
SUMPTUARY laws QLeges Sumptuarice'), are
laws made to reflrain excefs in apparel, coitly furniture,
eating, &c.
Moft; ages and nations have had their fumptuary
laws 5 and fome retain them ftill, as the Venetians, &c.
But it is obferved, that no laws are worfe executed than
fumptuary laws. Political writers have been much di¬
vided in opinion with refpeft to the utility of thefe laws
to a ftate. Montefquieu obferves, that luxury is necef¬
fary in monarchies, as in France, but ruinous to demo¬
cracies, as in Holland. With regard to England, whole
government is compounded of both fpecies, it may ftill
be a dubious queftion, fays Judge Blackftone, how far
private luxury is a public evil j and as fuch cognizable
by public laws.
The fumptuary lawrs of the ancient Locrian legiflator
Zaleucus are famous : by thefe it was ordained, that no
woman Ihould go attended with more than one maid in
the ftreet except Ihe were drunk : that Ihe Ihould not
go out of the city hr the night, unlefs Ihe went to com¬
mit fornication : that Ihe Ihould not wear any gold or
embroidered apparel, unlefs Ihe propofed to be a com¬
mon ftrumpet $ and that men Ihould not wear rings or
tiffues except when they wrent a whoring. See.
Among the Romans, the fumptuary law's were very
numerous : By the Lex Orchia, the number of guefts at
feafts was limited, though without any limitation of the
charges : by the Fannian law, made 22 years after¬
wards, it was enafted, that more than io ajfes Ihould
not be fpent at any ordinary feaft : for the folemn feafts,
as the Saturnalia, &c. an hundred affes were allowed j
ten of which, Gellius informs us, u'as the price of a
fheep? and a hundred of an ox. By the Didian law,
which was preferred 18 years after, it was decreed, that
the former fumptuary laws fliould be in force, not only
in Rome, but throughout all Italy j and that for every
tranfgreftion, not only the matter of the feaft, but all
the guefts too, fhould be liable to the penalty.
The Englifti have had their fhare of fumptuary laws,
chiefly made in the reigns of Edward III. Edward IV.
and Henry VIII. againft (hoes wdth long points, fliort
doublets, and long coats j though all repealed by fta-
tute i Jac. I. c. 25. As to excefs in diet, there re¬
mains flill one law unrepealed. Under King Henry IV.
Camden tells us, pride had got fo much into the foot,
that it was proclaimed, that no man ftiould w'ear flioes
above fix inches broad at the toes. And their other
garments wrere fo fliort, that it was enafted, 25 Edward
IV. that no perfon, under the condition of a lord, fliould
from that time, wear any mantle or gown, unlefs of fuch
length, that, (landing upright, it might cover the lower
part of the trunk of his body.
SUN, Sol, ©, in AJlronotny, the great luminary
which enlightens the w'orld, and by its prefence confti-
tutes day. See Astronomy Index.
Mock-SuN. See Parhelion.
SuN-Fifh, a fpecies of lhark. See Squalus, Ichthy¬
ology Index.
SUN-Flower. See Helianthus, 1 T, r ,
SUN-Dew. See Drosera, j Botany Index.
SUNDA-islands, a general name for a duller, of
B iilands
Sumpter-
houfe
Sunday
Superero¬
gation.
SUP [I
iilands in the Indian ocean, between 93® and 120° of
eaft longitude, and between 8° north and 8° fouth lati¬
tude. The particular names of the iflands are Borneo,
Sumatra, Java, Bally, Banco, &c.
SUNDAY, or the Lord’s-day, a folemn feftival
obferved by Chriftians on the firft day of every week,
in memory of our Saviour’s refurredion. See Sab¬
bath.
In the breviary and other offices we meet with Sun¬
days of the firft and fecond clafs. Thofe of the firft
clafs are, Palm, Eafter, Advent, and Whitfunday, thofe
of ^uafimodo and ^uadragejlma. Thofe of the fecond
clals are the common Sundays. Anciently each Sun¬
day in the year had its particular name, which was taken
from the introit of the day ; which cuftom has only
been continued to fome few in lent; as Reminifcere,
Ocuh, hectare, Judica.
Some are of opinion that the Lord’s day, mentioned
in the Apocalypfe, is our Sunday ; which they believe
was fo early inftituted by the apoftles. Be this as it
will, it is certain a regard was had to this day even in
the earlieft ages of the church ; as appears from the
firft apology of Juftin Martyr, where he deferibes the
exercife of the day not much unlike to ours.
But it was Conftantine the Great who firft made a
law for the proper obfervation of Sunday j and wmo, ac¬
cording to Eufebius, appointed it (hould be regularly
celebrated throughout the Roman empire. Before him,
and even in his time, they obferved the Jewiffi Sabbath
as well as Sunday ; both to fatisfy the law of Mofes and
to imitate the apoftles, who ufed to meet together on
the firft day.
By Conftantine’s laws, made in 321, it was decreed,
that for the future the Sunday {hould be kept a day of
left in all citie-s and towns ; but he allowed the country
people to follow their work. In 538, the council of
Orleans prohibited country labour ; but becaufe there
were ftill many Jews in Gaul, and the people fell into
many fuperftitious ufes in the celebration of the new
Sabbath, like thofe of the Jews among that of the old,
the council declares, that to hold it unlawful to travel
with horfes, cattle, and carriages, to prepare food, or to
do any thing neceflary to the cleanlinefs and decency of
houfes or perfons, favours more of Judaifm than of Chri-
ftianity. See SABBATH-Breaking.
SuNDA T-Schools. See Sunday-SCHOOLS.
SUOVEIAURILIA, an ancient Roman facrifice,
fo cglled becaufe it confifted of a pig {fus), a flieep or
rather ram {ovis), and a bull {taurus). They w^ere all
males, to denote the mafeuline courage of the Roman
people. It was likewife called folitaurilia, becaufe the
animals offered up were always folida, whole or uncut.
SUPERCARGO, a perfon employed by merchants
to go a voyage, and overfee their cargo or lading, and
difpofe of it to the beft advantage.
SUPERCILIUM, in Anatomy, the eye-brow. See
Anatomy, N°. 142.
SUPEREROGATION, in Theology, what a man
does beyond his duty, or more than he is commanded to
do. L he Romanifts Hand up ftrenuoufly for works of
fupererogation, and maintain that the obfervance of
evangelical councils is fuch. By means hereof, a ftock
of merit is laid up, which the church has the difpofal of,
and which (he diftributes in indulgences to fuch as need.
This abfurd doflrine was firft invented towards the
Superior.
o ] SUP
clofe of the 12th century, and modified and embellifhed Superero-
by St 1 homas in the 13th : according to which, it was gat’on
pretended that there actually exiiied an immenfe trea-
lure of merit, compofed of the pious deeds and virtuous 1
aftions which the faints had performed beyond what was
neceifary for their own falvation, and which were there-
fote applicable to the benefit of others j that the guar¬
dian and difpenter of this .precious treafure w’as the
Roman pontiff j and that of confecjuence he wras em-
pow7ered to affign to fuch as he thought proper a por¬
tion of this inexhauftible fource of merit, fuitable to their
refpedtive guilt, and fufficient to deliver them from the
punifhment due to their crimes.
The reformed churches do not allow of any work of
fupererogation ; but hold with the apoftles, that when
we have done our beft, we are but unprofitable fervants,
SUPEliFEI Al ION, in Phyjio/ogy, a fecond or
after-conception, happening when the mother, already
pregnant, conceives of a latter coition ; fo that fhe bears
at once two foetufes of unequal age and bulk, and is de¬
livered of them at different times. We meet with in-
ftances of fuperfetations in Hippocrates, Ariftotle, Du
Laurens, &c.: but they are faid to be much more fre¬
quent in hares and fwine.
SUPERFICIES, or Surface, in Geometry, the out-
fide or exterior face of any body. This is confidered as
having the two dimenfions of length and breadth only,
but no thicknefs \ and therefore it makes no part of the
fubftance or folid content or matter of the body.
The terms, or bounds, or extremities, of a fuperficies,
are lines; and fuperficies may be confidered as generat¬
ed by the motions of lines. Superficies are either redli-
linear, curvilinear, plane, concave, or convex. A re&i-
linear fuperficies is that which is bounded by right lines.
Curvilinear fuperficies is bounded by curve lines. Plans
fupeificies is that w'hich has no inequality in it, nor rifings,
nor finkings, but lies evenly and ftraight throughout, lo
that a right line may wholly coincide with it in all parts-
and directions. Convex fuperficies is that which is curv¬
ed and rifes outwards. Concave fuperfieies is curved
and finks inward. See Geometry.
SUPERFINE, in the manufactories, a term ufed to
exprefs the fuperlative finenefs of a fluff: thus a cloth,
a camblet, Sec. are faid to be fuperfine when made of
the fineft wmol, See. or when they are the fineft that can
be made.
SUPERFLUOUS interval, in Mujic, is one that
exceeds a true diatonic interval by a femitone minor.
See Interval.
SUPERIN PENDANT, denotes an ecclefiaftical
fuperior in feveral reformed churches where epifcopacy
is not admitted ; particularly among the Lutherans in
Germany, and the Calvinifts in fome other places.
The fuperintendant is fimilar to a biftiop ; only his
power is fomewhat more reftrained than that of our dio-
cefan biftiops. He is the chief paftor, and has the di¬
rection of all the inferior paftors within his diftriCt or
diocefe. In Germany they had formerly fuperintend-
ants general, who were fuperior to the ordinary fuper-
intendants. Thefe, in reality, were archbifhops j but
the dignity is funk into difufe; and at prefent none but
the fuperintendant of Wirtemberg affumes the quality
of fuperintendant general.
SUPERIOR, a perfon raifed above another in rank,
office, or talents.
Superior,
SUP [
Superior Superior, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxiv. 3.
II clxv. 2. and clxvi.
Superfti- SUPERLATIVE, in Grammar, one of the three
R)n~ . degrees of comparifon, being that inflexion of adjeftive
nouns that ferves to augment and heighten their figni-
fication, and (hows the quality of the thing denoted to
be in the higheft degree. See Grammar.
SUPERNUMERARY, fomething over and above
a fixed number. In feveral of the offices are fupernu-
merary clerks, to be ready on extraordinary occafions. .
SUPERPARTICULAR proportion, or Ratio, is
that in which the greater term exceeds the lefs by
unit or 1. As the ratio of 1 to 2, or 2 to 3, or 3 to 4,
&c.
SUPERPARTIENT PROPORTION, or IvWo, is when
the greater term contains the lefs term once, and leaves
fume number greater than 1 remaining. As the ratio
of 3 to 5, which is equal to that of 1 to i|;
of 7 to 10, which is equal to that of I to i^, &c.
SUPERSEDEAS, in Law, a writ iffued in divers
cafes, importing in general a command to flay or forbear
fome ordinary proceedings in law, which in appearance
ought to be done or purfued, were it not for the caufe
whereon this writ is granted.
Thus a man regularly is to have a furety of peace
againit him of whom he will fwear he is afraid 3 and
the juftice required hereunto cannot deny it him : yet,
if the party be formerly bound to the peace, either in
chancery or elfewhere, this writ lies to flay the juflice
from doing that which otherwife he ought not to deny.
SUPERSTITION, a word that has been ufed fo in¬
definitely, that it is difficult to determine its precife
meaning. From its refemblance in found to the Latin
word fuperjles, “ a furvivor,” it is evidently derived
from it, and different attempts have been made to trace
their connexion in fignification. Ealbus, in the dia¬
logue De Natura Deorum of Cicero, fays, that they who
prayed and facrificed whole days that their children
might furvive them, were called fuperftitious. Laftan-
tius cenfures this etymology, and fays they were not
called fuperfiitious who wilhed that their children might
furvive them (for this we all wiffi), but becaufe they
who furvived their parents worfhipped their images.
Others again fay, that fuperftition is derived from fu-
perjies, becaufe it confifled in confidering the dead as if
they were alive. But thefe etymologies are folely con-
ieftural j and we confider conjeftures as abfurd in phi¬
lology as we do in fcience •, they may mifiead, but are fel-
dom of any benefit. The ufual meaning affixed to the
word fuperJHtion, both in the Latin and Englilh lan¬
guages, is fo different from fuperjles, that its change oi
meaning muff be owing to fome accident which it is in
vain to inquire after. If we had not known that the
word paganus “ a pagan” was derived from pagus “ a
village,” becaufe the heathens in a certain period of the
Chriffian hiftory lived in villages, the whims and fancies
of etymologifts would not have throv/n much light on
the fubjeft.
Without labouring, from the aid of etymology, to de¬
fine fuperftition, which is a word of a very extenfive fig¬
nification, we will confider to wdiat objefls it is applied 5
and then, by obferving what is common to them all, we
fhall be enabled to fix with fome degree of precifion the
meaning the term. We apply it to the idolatry of the
11 ] sup
heathens ; we apply it alio to the Jews, who made the wilt Superfti-
of God of no effedl by their traditions, and fubltituted ce- , Uon‘
remonies in place of the religion of their lathers. We
fay alfo that Chriftians are guilty of fuperftition j the
Roman Catholics, who believe in tranfubftantiation and
in the efficacy of prayers to faints j and thofe Proteftants
who efteem baptilm and the Lord’s fupper, and the
pundlual performance of other ceremonies, without re¬
gard to morality, as fufficient to enfure falvation. Thole
perfbns are alfo reckoned fuperftitious who believe, with¬
out any evidence, that prophecies are Hill uttered by
the divine infpiration, and that miracles are ftill per¬
formed. The word is alfo extended to thofe who be¬
lieve in witchcraft, magic, and apparitions, or that the
divine will is declared by omens or augury $ that the
fortune of individuals can be affedled by things indif¬
ferent, by things deemed lucky or unlucky, or that dif-
eafes can be cured by words, charms, and incantations.
Through all the particulars which wre have enumera¬
ted, there runs one general idea, the belief of what is
falfe and contrary to reafon. From this, however, we
mull not fuppofe that whatever is falfe and contrary to
reafon may be denominated fu'perftition. We think
that it is falfe and irrational to fuppofe that there ever ,
lived on earth a race of men wrho walked on one leg,
and had their eyes in their breaft j or that there were
giants 90 feet high : yet we do not call the philofo-
pher who believes thefe chimeras fuperftitious, but ere*
dulous. Superftition has always a reference to God, to
religion, or to beings fuperior to man. We do not how¬
ever diftinguiffi all falfe and irrational opinions in reli¬
gion by the name of fuperftition. We do not, for in-
ftance, apply this name to the opinions which fome of
the ancients entertained, that God is the foul of the
world, and that men are only portions of him feparated
for a time, or that the foul after death lives fucceffively
in different bodies. If we examine the fubjedl with
more attention, we {hall difeover that the foundation of
fuperftition is ignorance of the moral attributes of God ;
for we never fay a man is fuperftitious for entertaining
erroneous opinions of the natural attributes of God.
Some of the Socinians have denied the prefcience of
God *, and a French philofopher has not only rejefted
the belief that He is a fpirit, but has prefumed to fay
that he is compofed of a fpecies of cryftals. The firlt
of thefe opinions difeovers very imperfect ideas of God,
and the fecond is the height of impiety and abfirrdity
yet the Socinians have not been accufed of fuperftition,
nor can this French philofopher be fufpecled of it. We
do not call every falfe opinion concerning the unity or
moral attributes of God by the name of fuperftition, as,
for inftance, the opinion which fome fceptics have fup-
ported, that God is not good •, for, as was mentioned
before, fuperftition always involves the idea of creduli¬
ty. It does not confift in falfely denying that God pof-
feffes any particular moral attributes, but in believing
more than what is true concerning them; in forming
mean, unworthy ideas of them ; in fuppofing that he is
guided by blind paffion like mankind, and enioins upon
his creatures commandments which are irrational and
abfurd.
As fuperftition arifes from ignorance and credulity in
the underftanding, fo it has alfo a feat in the paffions.
Fear has been commonly confidered as the paffion of the
human mind from which it chiefly derives its origin ;
B 2 and
SUP [12
Super ft I- and there is no doubt that more fupevftition has arifen
bon- ^ from fear united with ignorance and credulity than from
v any other paffion. Yet it would certainly be impro¬
per to exclude all other paffions. We cannot account
for the fuperftition of the Egyptians, without fuppofing
that much of it arole from gratitude. Ihey wordripped
the Nile, becaufe it diftributed fertility and abundance
over the land of Egypt 5 and they worihipped fome ani¬
mals, merely becauie they prevented the iricreale of
other animals which were noxious. Thus they adored
the ibis, becaufe it deftroyed the eggs of the crocodile.
Having thus endeavoured to analyze the ideas com¬
prehended under the word fuperftition, w?e may fum
them up in a few words. It relpefts God and beings
fuperior to man, and extends to our religious opinions,
worfhip, and prafHces ; and may be defined abfurd opi¬
nions and aBions arifurg from mean and defeBive ideas
of the moral attributes of God. Let us apply this defi¬
nition to the different fpecies of fuperftition already men¬
tioned.
But before entering upon this application, it may be
proper to obferve, that fuperftition involves the idea of
a blameable inattention to reafon, or a credulity arifing
from an indolence of underftanding. We generally
make a diftin&ion between the imperfeft opinions which
a favage, from the necelfary effeffs of his fttuation, forms
of the attributes of God, and thofe which civilized na¬
tions entertain. We fay the favage is ignorant, and we
afcribe his ignorance to his fituation } but w'e call the
Roman Catholic fuperftitious, and we blame him for not
having thofe juft ideas of God which he might have ob¬
tained by opening his Bible, or by the exercife of his
underftanding in the favourable fituation in wdiich he is
placed. Superftition then does not originate fo much
from the natural weaknefs of the human underftanding,
as from a mifapplication or a negleft of it (a).
We cannot therefore with any propriety apply the
name fuperjlition to polytheifm in general; for what all
the ancient philofophers, after much ftudy and reflec¬
tion, concluded to be true, could never proceed from
credulity and inattention, but from their fituation. We
fpeak very properly, however, when w’e call idolatry by
the name of fuperftition \ becaufe thej-e is no man fo de¬
void of underftanding as not to be capable of difcover-
ing, that a piece of metal, or wood, or ftone, can nei¬
ther hear nor anfwer petitions. Super/lition was a name
which the ancient philofophers gave to thofe who en¬
tertained mean opinions of the gods, or did foolifh things
Theophraf- to obtain their favour. According to Theophraftus,
tus's Cha- the fuperftitious man is one who, having waftied his
rasters, hands, and fprinkled himfelf all round, leaves the temple
with a laurel leaf in his mouth, with which he wralks
about the wdiole day. Or, if a wTeafel ftiould crofs the
road, he wdll not advance a ftep till he has thrown three
ftones over the road. If he find a ferpent in his houfe,
he rears a place of devotion on the fpot. He purifies
his houfe often, will not fit upon a grave, or touch a
dead perfon. He is anxious about the interpretation of
his dreams, will not offer a facrifice unlefs his wife go
along with him, or, if ftie is engaged, he takes the mirfe
] SUP
and the little children. He purifies himfelf with onions; Sr.perfti-
and when he fees a mad or an epileptic perfon, he fpits i
in their bofom. Such w'as the character of fuperftition 'v
in the days of Theophraftus. All thefe whimfical ce¬
remonies were done to prevent milchief, and to avert the
wrath of the gods ; and therefore perfeftly correfpond
with the definition given above.
It is only neccflavy to confider a little the fuperflitious
opinions and practices among Jews and Chriftians, to be
fenfible that they have all arifen from mean and abfurd ✓
ideas of the moral attributes of God 5 for they have ge¬
nerally entertained noble opinions of his natural attri¬
butes. 'The Jews confidered God as a partial Being,
who had a predile&ion for their nation in preference to
all others, and preferred external homage and ceremony
to moral purity. If the Roman Catholics think con-
fiftently, they muft efteem God as a Being who can be
prevailed upon by the importunity of one dead man to
aflift another, or as a Being whofe patience would be
fatigued with hearing prayers conftantly. Hence their
praftice of praying to faints. They in effefl; believe,
however they may deceive themfelves, that God is un¬
juft, or they could not believe tranfubftantiation ; for it
fuppofes that God can give commands directly contrary
to ihofe principles of belief with wdiich he has endued
the human mind. They confider a ftridt adherence to
a variety of ceremonies, to forms, to pomp, and (how,
as eflential to the worfhip of God : this is treating God
as a vainglorious Being. They thought it their duty
to extirpate heretics : this wras fuppoling God a cruel
and revengeful Being. Even among Proteftants, wo
are forry to fay, a great deal of fuperftition remains :
we have not yet learned to confider God as a fpirit, who
is to be wTorfhipped in fpirit and in truth, as a pure moral
benevolent Being *, and hence arife all the fuperftitious
praftices which prevail among us.
Befides thofe fuperftitious opinions and praftices which
entirely refpedl our duty to God, there are others which
may be termed vulgar fuperjiitions. Thefe alfo arife
from imperfeft and mean ideas of the moral attributes
of God. To believe vulgar prophecies, which are al¬
ways the effufions of madnefs or knavery, is to fuppofe
that God, who has drawn a veil over futurity, and only
delivers prophecies to accomplifh fome great moral pur-
pofe, femetimes gives them for no purpofe at all, or to
gratify idle curiofity, or to difclofe fuch a knowledge of
what is to happen as is inconfiftent with the free agency
of man and the moral adminiftration of the world. Nor
is it lefs fuperftitious to believe in vulgar miracles. To
believe in them, is to believe that God fufpends the laws
of nature for the moft trivial purpofes, or to countenance
fraud and worldly ambition : it is to receive the moft
extraordinary fads upon the moft unfatisfaftory evi¬
dence. The belief of witchcraft, of apparitions, and the
fecond fight, may be refolved into the fame principle.
To fuppofe that God would communicate the power of
doing mifchief, and of controuling his laws, to any be¬
ing merely for gratifying their own paflions, is unworthy
of God. The belief of apparitions is equally inconfift¬
ent with the goodnefs of God (fee Spectre). The
fame
/
(a) We do not pretend to fay that this is the fenfe in which fuperftition is always ufed, becaufe it is often ufed
improperly.
SUP [i
Supsrftt- fame objection rifes againft the fecond-fight as againft
•tlon- the belief of vulgar prophecies, and may alfo be extend*
v ed to omens, to aftrology, to things lucky and unlucky,
to fortune-telling, &c. As to the different devices and
charms for preventing and curing diforders, they re¬
ferable in every refpedt falfe miracles.
A judicious hiftory of fuperftition would be a curious
&ndv entertaining work, and would exhibit the human
charafter^in a remarkable point of view. Superftition
is moft prevalent among men of weak and uncultivated
minds; it is more frequent irv the female fex than among
men ; and abounds more in the rude than in the refined
llages of fociety. The general features of it have been
the fame in all ages ; but it affumes certain peculiarities
according to the diverfity of charafter of different na¬
tions. It gained admiffion into the fcience of medicine
at an early period. He who was endowed with fupe-
rior genius and knowledge was reckoned a magician.
Dr Bartolo was feized by the inquifition at Rome in the
laft century, becaufe he unexpe&edly cured a noble-
Manchejter man of the gout. Difeafes were imputed to fafcination,
Tranfac- and hundreds of poor wretches were dragged to the
voL di ftak-e for being acceffary to them. Mercatus, phyfician
to Philip II. of Spain, a writer of uncommon accuracy
and information, appears ftrongly inclined to deny the
exiftence of fafcinatory difeafes : but he is conftrained
to acknowledge them for two reafons; iff, Becaufe the
inquifition had decided in favour of their reality *, 2dly,
Becaufe he had feen a very beautiful woman break a
Reel-mirror to pieces, and blaft fame trees by a fingle
glance of her eyes.
As the opinions concerning the caufe of difeafes were
fuperftitious, thofe concerning the method of curing
them were mot lefs fo. In the Odyffey wre read of a
/ cure performed by a fong. Jofephus relates, that he
faw a certain Jew, named Eleaxar, draw the devil out
of an old woman’s noftrils by the application of Solo¬
mon’s feal to her nofe in prafence of the emperor Vef-
pafian. Many different kinds of applications were ufed
for expelling the devil. Flagellation fometimes fuc-
ceeded admirably ; purgatives and antifpafmodics were
other modes of difcharging him. Dr Mynfight cured
ftveral bewitched perfons with a plafter of affafoetida.
How the affafoetida was fo efficacious, was much dif-
puted. Some thought the devil might confider fo vile
an application as an infult, and run off in a paffion; but
others very fagely obferved, that as devils are fuppofed
to have eyes and ears, it is probable they may have nofes
too.
Nor was it only in medicine thefe fuperftitious opi¬
nions were entertained •, they prevailed alfo in natural
philofophy. The pernicious effects in mines, which we
now know are occafioned by noxious air, were confi¬
dently imputed to the demons of the mine. Even Van
Helmont, Bodinus, Strozza, and Luther, attributed
thunder and meteors to the devil. Chemifts were em¬
ployed for centuries in fearch of the philofopher’s ffonej
with which they were to do miracles. It was a com¬
mon queftion among philofophers in the 17th century,
whether the imagination could move external objefts ?•
A queftion generally decided in the affirmative.
Though fuperftition be generally the mark of a weak
mind, fuch is the infirmity of human nature, that we
find many inftances of it among men of the moft fublime
genjus and moft enlightened minds. Socrates believed
Superfti¬
tion
Supine.
3 1 SUP
that he was guided by a demon. Lord Bacon believed
in witchcraft; and relates that he was cured of warts by
rubbing them with a piece of lard with the ikin on, and
then nailing it with the fat towards the fun on the poft l
of a chamber window facing the fun. Henry IV. one
of the moft illuftrious of monarchs, was very uneafy be¬
fore his affaffination on account of fome prophecies *. * Memoirs
Sully declares, that one of the confiderations that kept °f
him faithful to his mafter in the moft unpromifing ftate
of his affairs, was a prediction of La Broffe, that Jlenry
would make his fortune f. The aftrologer Morin di- f Ibid.
reCled Cardinal Richelieu’s motions in fome of his jour¬
neys The enlightened Cudworth defended prophe- f Bayle,
cies in general, and called thofe who oppofed the beliefart' Morin.
of witchcraft by the name of atheifts ; and the predic¬
tions of Rice Evans have been fupported in the prefent
century by the celebrated names of IVarburton and Jor-
tin. Dr Hoffman, the father of the Modern Theory
and Praftice of Medicine, in a differtation publiftied in
the large editioA of his works in 1747, fays, that the
devil can raife ftorms, produce infeCts, and aCt upon the
animal fpirits and imagination •, and, in fine, that he is
an excellent optician and natural philofopher on account
of his long experience. Dr Johnfon, the leviathan of
literature, is fuppofed to have believed the fecond fight.
With refpeCt to the effeCts of fuperftition on the hu¬
man mind, they are indeed deplorable. It chains down
the underftanding, and finks it into the moft abjeCt and
fordid ftate, and keeps it under the dominion of fear,
and fometimes of cruelty. Where once it takes poffef-
fion, it has a tendency to become extreme, and gener¬
ally becomes fo intolerable, that men of reflection and
learning confpire its deftruCtion. The Chriftian reli¬
gion gave a violent (hock to the heathen fuperflition y
the reformation in a great meafure demolilhed the fu¬
perftition of the church of Rome ; and the fuperftition
which remained among Proteftants after their feparation
from that church has been gradually yielding to the in¬
fluence of enlightened reafon, or to the bold and daring
attacks of infidelity and deifm. We behold the prof-
peCI of its ruins with pleafure, and thank the deifts for
their zeal; but it is from the firm hope that the religion
of Jefus will arife in all its beauty and Ample majefty,.
and be admired and refpefted as it deferves : for mean
and contemptible as fuperftition certainly is, we would
rather fee men do what they reckon their duty from fu¬
perftitious principles, than fee anarchy and vice prevail,
even though attended with all the knowledge and li¬
berality of fentiment which deilin and infidelity can in-
fpire.
SUPERVISOR, a furveyor or overfeer.
SUPINATION, in Anatomj/, the aCtion of a fupina-
tor mufcle, or the motion whereby it turns the hand fo
as that the palm is lifted up towards heaven.
SUPINE, in Latin grammar, part of the conjugation
of a verb, being a verbal fubftantive of the Angular num¬
ber and the fourth declenfion.
There are two kinds of fupines : one, called the yfry?
fupine, ending in um of the accufative cafe, which is al¬
ways of an aClive fignification, and follows a verb of
motion •, as abut deambulatum. The other, called th&
lajl fupine, and ending in u of the ablative cafe, is of a
paffive fignification, and is governed by fubftantives or
adjeClives ; facile di&u, &c.
They have their name, fays Probus, and after him
' Vofliusv
SUP
r u 3
SUP
Supper.
Definition.
'Controver
fies about
the out¬
ward and
vifible fign
* Exod.
xii. 15, 19
f In MiJIj
nam.
f Hotn. x 2
in Hiere-
miam.
VoiTius, quod ad injlar rupinorum et otioforum heminutn
omnia habcnt confufa : or, according to Prifcian, quod
nafcantur a participiis pajjivis, quce iupina appcllata funt,
quia in injimo loco Jit ft, totam conjugationis tnolem fufa-
piant.
SUPPER, the evening repaft.—Suppers that are hea¬
vy ihould be avoided, becaufe the ftomach is more ep-
preffed with the fame quantity of food in an horizontal
pofture than in an eredt one, and becaufe digeftion goes
on more flowly when we fleep than when we are awake.
They flxould be eaten long enough before bed-time, that
they may be nearly digefled before going to fleep j and
then a draught of pure water will dilute that which re¬
mains in the ftomach.
SUPPEN of the Lord, otherwife called the Kucharift,
is a facrament ordained by Chrift in his church, of which
the outward part is bread and wine, and the imvard part
or thing ligRified the body and blood of Chrift, which
the majority of Chriftians believe to be in fome fenfe or
other taken and received by the faithful communicants.
See Sacrament.
There is no ordinance of the gofpel which has been
the fubjeft of more violent controverfies between dif¬
ferent churches, and even between different divines of
the fame church, than this facrament; and though all
confefs that one purpofe of its inftitution was to be a
bond of love and union among Chriftians, it has, by the
perverfenefs of mankind, been too often converted into
an occafion of hatred. The outward and vifible fign,
.and the inward and fpiritual grace, have equally afford¬
ed matter of deputation to angry controvertifts. Many
members of the church of Rome condemn the Greek
church and the Proteftants for ufing leavened bread in
the Lord’s Supper, contrary to the example fet them by
our Saviour 5 whilft the Greek church in general,
and fome Proteftant focieties in particular, unite with
the church of Rome in cenfuring all churches which mix
not the wine with water, as deviating improperly from
primitive praftice. See Eucharist.
That it was unleavened bread which our Lord blef*
fed and brake and gave to his difciples as his body, can¬
not be queftioned ; for at the time of the paffover, when
this ordinance was inftituted, there was no leavened
bread to be found in Jerufalem*. For the mixed cup,
the evidence is not fo decifive. It is indeed true, as we
have obferved under the article Eucharist, that the
primitive Chriftians ufed wine diluted with water ; and
' if we may believe Maimonides f, it w-as the general
cuftom of the Jews, as well at the paffover as at their
ordinary meals, to add a little w-ater to their wine on
account of its great ftrength ; but that this was always
done, or that it was done by our Saviour in particular,
there is po clear evidence. Origen indeed affirms j:,
that our Lord adminiftered in wine unmixed ; and he
wras not a man to hazard fuch an affirmation, had there
been in his days any certain tradition, or fo much as a
general opinion, to the contrary. On this account we
have often heard with wonder the neceffity of the mix¬
ed cup infifted on by thofe who without hefitation make
ufe of leavened bread j for if it be effential to the fa¬
crament that the very fame elements be employed by
us that were employed by our Saviour, the neceffity of Supper,
unleavened bread is certainly equal to that of wine di- ~\r~—'
luted by water.
But the mixed cup is faid to be emblematical of the
blood and water which flowed from the fide of our Lord
when pierced by the Ipear of the Roman feldier, while
the abfence of leaven is emblematical of no particular
circumftance in His paffion. This argument for the
mixture is as eld as the era of St Cyprian, and has fince
been frequently urged with triumph by thofe who furely
perceived not its weaknefs. The flowing of the blood
and w’ater from our Saviour’s fide was the confequence
either of the fpear’s having pierced the pericardium, or
more probably of an afcites or hydrothorax, occafioned
by his cruel and lingering death (lee Medicine, N°
342, 343)- But whatevei was the caufe of it, how can
the mixing of wine with water in the facrament be em¬
blematical of the flowing of blood and wTater feparately ?
Such a mixture furely bears a more ftriking refemblance
to the reunion of the ferum and crajfamentum, after they
had been feparated by whatever caufe. See Blood.
We urge not thefe obje&ions to the mixed cup from
any diflike that we have to the pradtice. It is unquef-
tionably harmlefs and primitive } and wre wiffi that
greater regard were paid to primitive pradlices than the ^
generality of Chriftians feem to think they can claim : Frivolous,
but let the advocates for antiquity be confiftent j let
them either reftore, together with the mixed cup, the
ufe of unleavened bread, or acknowledge that neither
the one nor the other is effential to the facrament. This
laft acknowledgement muft indeed be made, if they
wmuld not involve themfelves in difficulties from which
they cannot be extricated. If either the mixed cup or
unleavened bread be abfolutely neceflary to the validity
of the facrament, why not wane made from the grapes
of Judaea ? why not that particular kind of wine which
w^as ufed by our Saviour ? and where is that wine to be
found ? 4
But the controverfies refpedling the outward part or About the
fign of the Lord’s Supper are of little importance when thing fig-
compared with thofe which have been agitated refpeft-nl^icc*•
ing the inward part or thing fignified •, and of thefe we
haften to give as comprehenfive a view as the limits pre-
fcribed to fuch articles will admit.
Our Blefled Lord, in the fame night that he was be¬
trayed, “ took bread, and bleffed it, and brake it, and
gave it to the difciples, and faid, Take, eat ; this is my
body. And he took the cup, and gave thanks, and gave
it to them, faying, Drink ye all of it; for this is my
blood of the new teftament, which is ftied for many for
the remiffion of fins.” Such was the inftitution of the
Lord’s Supper as it is recorded in the gofpel by St Mat¬
thew ; and wre have the fame account of it, in almoft
the very fame words, by three other infpired writers, St
Paul, St Mark, and St Luke. That it was the bread
which Chrift bleffed and brake that is here called his
body, and the wine over which he gave thanks that he
ftyles his blood of the new teftament, will admit of no
reafonable doubt (a) 5 but in what fenfe they became
fo, has been the fubjeft of many controverfies. 5
The church of Rome, which holds, that after confe- Dodlnne of
cration
the church
♦ of Rome.
TaJ Some over-zealous Proteftants have indeed affirmed, that it was not the coniecrated bread and wine, but
^ ' o thofe
SUP [ i
Supper, cration, Jefus Chrift, God and man, is really, truly,
V"' and fubftandaily, contained under the outward appear¬
ances of the bread and wine, informs us, that about the
middle of the mafs, when the prieft, taking into his
hand, firft the bread and then the wine, pronounces over
each feparately the facred words of confecration, the
fubftance of thefe elements is immediately changed by
the almighty power of God into the body and blood of
Chrift; but that all the outward appearances of the
bread and wine, and all their fenfible qualities remain.
This more than miraculous change is called transub-
ST ANTI AT JON} and is founded on the philofophy of
Ariftotle, which refolves all bodies into matter and form
(fee Metaphysics, N° 142—150.) $ for it is only the
matter or imperceptible fubftance which fupports the
forms or fenfible qualities of bread and wine, that is
changed into the fubfance or matter of the body and
blood of Chrift, fo that this divine matter, coming into
the place of the former earthly matter, fupports the fame
identical forms which it fupported. Hence we are told,
“ that Jefus Chrift, now prefent inftead of the bread
and wine, exhibits himfelf to us under thofe very fame
outward forms or appearances which the bread and wine
had before the change.”
Could this do&rine be true, it would be abundantly
myfterious ; but to add to the myftery, we are farther
informed, that under each kind is contained Jefus Chrift
whole and entire, his body and blood, his foul and di¬
vinity ; fo that when a man eats what has the appearance
of a wafer, he really and truly eats the body and blood,
the foul and divinity, of Jefus Chrift ; and wdien he af¬
terwards drinks what has the appearance of wine, he
drinks the very fame body and blood, foul and divinity,
which not a minute perhaps before he had wholly and
entirely eaten ! The ingenious author from whofe work
we have taken this account of the Romifti do&rine con-
c* rning the real prefence, may perhaps rejeft our infe¬
rence that the orthodox members of his church muft
believe the foul and divinity of Chrift to be eaten and
drunk in the Lord’s Supper ; but he cannot deny that,
according to his ftatement of the Catholic faith, the foul
and divinity are both received whole and entire into the
ftomach of each communicant. He fays indeed, that
“ communion confifts in receiving Jefus Chrift whole and
entire, his facred body, his precious blood, his bleffed
foul, and his adorable divinity, into our fouls but that
which was formerly bread and wine unqueftionably goes
into the Jlomachs of the communicants; and fince, ac¬
cording to him, it is now the body and blood of Chrift,
5 J s u. p .
the foul and divinity muft go thither with it, for thefe Supper,
four cannot be feparated. This our author himfelf
grants. “ The Scripture (fays he) pofitively declares,
that Cfiri/l rifing again from the dead, dieth no more;
death Jhall no more have dominion over him (Rom. vi.
9.) Conlequently his body, his blood, and his foul,
lhall never more be feparated from one another ; and
as the union of his divine and human natures can never
more be broken, fo neither can thefe, his two natures,
united in his divine perfon, be ever feparated. From
this it neceffarily follows, that wherever the body of
Chrift is, there alfo his blood, his foul, and his divinity,
muft of neceflity be in like manner.”
Now, whether we fuppofe, with our author, that the
foul and divinity of Chrift dire&ly carry his body and
blood with them into the human foul, or, trufting, in
fome degree to the evidence of fenfe, believe that the
body and blood carry the foul and divinity with them
dire&ly into the ftomach of each communicant—is it
credible, is it poflible, that the high and lofty One, w ho
inhabiteth eternity, and wrhom the oracles of truth af-
fure us that even the heaven of heavens cannot contain,
ftiould be fubflantially received whole and entire into a
finite fpirit like the human foul, or into a body lb limi¬
ted as the human ftomach ? Our author fays it is ; de¬
claring that, “ by the bleffed prefence of Jems Chrift,.
whole and entire within us, are communicated to our
fouls all the heavenly graces which are the effedls of the
holy communion : fuch as the fan&ification of the foul
by an increafe of juftifying grace; the rendering of it
more pure, more holy, more beautiful, more agreeable,
in the eyes of God ; the cleanfing of the foul from all
thofe venial fins and imperfeftions of which we repent,
and preferving us from falling into mortal fins; the
uniting of us in a moft intimate manner with Jefus
Chrift, who comes to us in this holy facrament on pur-
pofe to dwell in our fouls and abide with us; and the
giving us a pledge and earneft of a glorious immortality,
to the enjoyment of which it brings us at laft, if we per-
fevere to the end in the grace of God.”
The confequence of the doftrine of tranfubftantiation
is the facrifice of the mafs, by which, it is faid, God’s
acceptance of Chrift’s facrifice on the crofs is obtained
for the adtual benefit of thofe perfons in particular for
whom the mafs is offered. In the work fo often quoted,
wre are told, that “ Jefus Chrift our redeemer, who is
both our high-prieft and our vi&im, who, in order to
perfeft the work of our redemption, and reconcile man
with his offended Creator, offered himfelf once in a
bloody
thofe elements, together with the whole afiion ot taking them into his hands, blefling them, breaking the bread,
and diftributing the bread and wine to the dilciples, that Chrift calls his body and blood. This novel anch Angu¬
lar opinion refts upon no better foundation than a very childilh criticifm, Our Saviour, after blefling and breaking
the bread, gave it to the difciples, faying, in the original, A*S»]g gietyili TOYTO id]i ra ruux, feev. Now, fay our
critics, TO'Sjo, in the neuter gender, can never agree with the antecedent agraj in the malculine, but muft refer to
all the circumftances of the adlion taken together, and confidered as one complex neuter noun. But this noun,
whether complex or Ample, certainly denotes vrhat could be eaten ; and to fuppofe that our bleffed Lord defired*
his apoftles to eat aBions, is as repugnant to human reafon as any doftrine of the church of Rome. The truth is,
that the word retfia, vdiich is more properly a definite article than a demonftrative pronoun (fee Grammar, Chap.
II.), refers dire&ly to the thing, whatever it was, which our Saviour held in his hand and gave to the difciples ;
and the claufe, when completed, is rcvjo ev e/ii re cr^/unt pov ; this being, this fubjlance, is my body. There v/as no
neceflity f®r chara&erifing that fubftance by any analogy to fex, in order that it might be diftinguilhed from
every other fabftance: for the apoftles could not but fee it in the hand of their Mafter.
SUP [i
Supper, bloody manner upon the crofs, in order to communicate
and apply to the fouls of individuals thofe graces, which,
by his death, he merited for mankind in general, con¬
tinues to offer himfelf daily upon the altar in an unbloo¬
dy manner, by the miniftry of his priefts, in the tnafs.
The facrifice of the crofs and that of the mafs are both
one and the fame facrifice, becaufe in both the viftim is
the fame and the high prieft the fame, viz. Jefus Chrift.
The only difference is in the manner of offering. On
the crofs he offered himfelf in a bloody manner and ac¬
tually died 3 whereas on the altar he is offered up to
God in an unbloody manner, not aBually dead, but un¬
der the appearance of death 3” fo that the communicants
not only eat the man Jefus Chrift, but even eat him a-
live (b) !
It is known to all our readers that this doftrine of
tranfubftantiation was one caufe of the breach between
the church of Rome and thofe various focieties which
call themfelves reformed churches. The real and fub-
ftantial change of the bread and wine into the body and
blood of our Lord is rejected by every reformer as a
change contradiftory and impofiible, and fraught with
the moft impious confequences; and volumes have been
6 written to expofe the weaknefs of thofe arguments which
Implies have fo often been vainly urged in its fupport. It has
numberlefs j;)een fl10wn to imply numberlefs abfurdities, fuch as,
tion's1 a C" ^ame thing can be in a million of different pla¬
ces, whole and entire, at the fame inftant of time 3 that
it is above 1800 years old, and yet may be not more than
one minute 3 that forms or fenfible qualities are real
things independent of their fubjeft and the fentient be¬
ings who perceive them 3 that the infinite and eternal
God, who created and fuftains the univerfe, is himfelf
6 ] SUP
wholly and fubftantially comprehended by the human Supper,
foul; and that the half, or fourth, or tenth part of the
body of Chrift, is equal to the whole of that body.
That thefe are neceffary confequences of tranfubftantia¬
tion has been fo completely proved in various works (c)
to rvhich every reader may have accefs, that it is need-
lefs for us to repeat arguments fo hackneyed 3 but there
are twro obje£fions to that doftrine, which, as we do not
remember to have met with them elfewhere, and as they
appear to us abfolutely conclufive, it may be worth while
to ftate in this place.
The advocates for the real prefence in the Lord’s Sup¬
per contend, that every word relating to that ordinance
is to be taken in the ftrifteft and moft literal fenfe, and
they affe£l to triumph over the Proteftants, becaufe their
notions of the facrament cannot be fupported without ha¬
ving recourfe to figure and metaphor. This however is
a very vain triumph 3 for we hefitate not to affirm, that
fuppofing tranfubftantiation poflible, and even capable
of proof, there is not in the whole New Teftament a
fingle wwd or a fingle phrafe wdrich, if interpreted lite-
rally, gives the flighteft countenance to that wonderful
dodlrine. The reader will remember, that tranfubftan¬
tiation, as we have ftated it from a dignitary of the Ro-
mifti church, and as it is in faft ftated by the council of
Trent (d), confifts in a change of the matter, imper¬
ceptible fubjlance, or fubjlratum of the bread and wine
into the matter, imperceptible fubjlance, or fubjlratum
of Chrift’s body and blood 3 for all parties agree that
the fenfible qualities of the bread and wine remain, and,
according to the Romanift, are after confecration either
fupported by the matter of Chrift’s body and blood, or 7
hung upon nothing. But the phrafe revle urh to is contrary
toScrip-
r 7 ture.
(b) This whole account of the Romifti doftrine refpe&ing the facrament of the Lord’s Supper is taken from ft
work in two fmall volumes, called The Sincere Chriftian inJlruBed in the Faith of Chrijl, from the Written Word.
Its author is a man of learning, and great perfonal worth : and as he fills a high ftation in the church of Rome,
we cannot doubt but that he has given a fair view of the doftrine of that church refpe&ing this and every other
article of which he treats. We are forry howrever that his zeal fhould have impelled him, in a popular work,
to write in the manner that he has done of the falvation of thofe who are not members of his church, or who
cannot embrace all his opinions 3 for if his dodftrine on this fubjeft be implicitly received by thofe “ over whom
he has the rule, and for whofe fouls he is appointed to watch,” they muft neceffarily look upon the majority of
their fellow-citizens as reprobates doomed to eternal perdition. Let this be our apology for treating fome of thofe
opinions, which he thinks fo abfolutely neceffary to falvation, with lefs ceremony than perhaps we fhould have
done, had he lefs pofitively pronounced our damnation for not having it in our power to embrace them. He is not
indeed much lefs fevere on the moft virtuous heathens, though they never faw the New J eftament, or heard the
dodlrines of his church preached. But perhaps this feverity may be occafioned by the following queftion of
Cicero : “ Cum fruges, Cererem; vinum, Liberum dicimus, genere nos quidem fermonis utimur ufitato : fed
ECQUEM TAM AMENTEM effe putas, qui illud, quo vefcatur, deum credat efie ?” De Natura Deorum, lib. iii.
cap. 16.
(c) Among other works on this fubjefl, we may confidently recommend to the reader a fmall tra£! publifhed
by Dr Abernethy Drummond, about thirty years ago, in the form of A Dialogue between Philalethes and Bene-
volus. In that treatife, together with a defence of it, which wTere both printed for Balfour and Drummond,
Edinburgh, the abfurd confequences which w7e have mentioned are, by arguments unanfwerable, proved to flow
from the doftrine of tranfubftantiation 3 and the artful fophiftry, by which a very acute genius endeavoured
to keep thefe confequences out of fight, is detedled and expofed on acknowledged principles ol the foundeft
metaphyfics.
(d) The canon of that council which eftablifhes tranfubftantiation is thus tranflated by the author of The Sin-^
cere Chri/lian InJlruBed: “ If any man (hall fay, that in the blefled facrament of the Eucharift the fubftance of
the bread and wine remains along with the body and blood of our Lord Jefus Chrift, and (hall deny that wonder¬
ful and Angular converfion of the whole fubftance of the bread into the body, and of the whole fubftance of the
wine into the blood, the appearances of the bread and wine only remaining, which converfion the Catholic Church
jcalls tranfubfantiation, let him be anathema.”
I
Supper,
SUP [ i
fiov, if taken in the literal fenfe, cannot poflibly denote
v the confequence of fuch a change as this j for every per-
fon at all acquainted with the Greek language, efpecial-
ly the language of the Peripatetic fchool, knows that
to o-ufuo pov lignifies, not the matter or fubjlratum of my
body diveited of its fenfible qualities; but the body of
me in its natural ftate, confiding of matter and qualities,
or matter and form united. Unlefs therefore the fenfible
qualities, as well as the matter of the bread and w-ine,
give place to the fenfible qualities as well as the matter
of our Saviour’s body and blood, and unlefs he appear
glorified on the altar as he appeared on the mount at his
transfiguration, the words to roipix pov mult be interpret¬
ed figuratively. Had the apoiiies underftood their Maf-
ter’s words in the fenfe in which they are underftood by
the church of Rome, they wmuld have rendered them
into Greek, not tov]o nrji to o-oipx /xov, “ this is my body,”
but tov]o ar\i « vAjj tov /ru/xctlos pov, “ this is the matter
• Chap. vi. of my body.” In like manner, when St John relates *
Terfe 54. that Jefus faid, “ Whofo eateth my flelh and drinketh
my blood, hath eternal life, and I will raife him up at
the laft day,” had he underftood his adorable Mafter to
fpeak of his flelh and blood in the Eucharift in the fenfe
in which they are taught to be there by the church of
Rome, he would have reprefented him as faying, not
O T^uyart fiov Ttit crxgKx, xxi Tuvav pov to atfxx, but 'O rgw-
yoD) T>JV VA1JV fiOV TVS (TX^XOf, KXl TTlVm Til)) vAjJV flOV TOV UlflX-
roi, “ whofo eateth the matter of my flelh, and drink¬
eth the matter of my blood, hath eternal life, and I will
raife him up at the laft day.”
But further, fuppofing this lingular converfion pofli-
ble in itfelf, it cannot be rendered credible, how'ever
* ftated in any language that ever was or ever will be fpo-
ken by man. At firft fight it may appear paradoxical
to affirm, that a poffible fa£l cannot be fo related as to
obtain credit ; but that tranfubftantiation, if poffible, is
fuch a fadl, will be apparent on the llighteft confidera-
tion.
The relation that fubfifts between things and words is
arbitrary j fo that what is termed body in Engliffi, is
<ruux in Greek, and corpus in Latin ; and the fame
thing might wdth equal propriety (had the authors of
thefe languages fo pleafed) have been expreffed in the
lirft by foul, in the fecond by iovg, and in the third by
anima. (See Language, N° 3, &c.) The confe-
quences of this are, that there is no univerfal language
fpoken ; that the natives of one country underftand not
the fpeech of thofe of another; and that different men
fpeaking the fame language are perpetually liable to
miftake each other’s meaning. Between the fubfrata
of bodies and their fenfble qualities there is a relation
founded in nature, fo that the fenfible qualities which
indicate the fubftance to which they belong, to 'be. gold,
for inftance, in one country, indicate the fame thing in
every other country, and have done fo from the begin¬
ning of time. The fenfible appearances of bodies there¬
fore are an univerfal language, the language of the Au¬
thor of Nature, by which he declares to his creature
man, that though the lM or primary matter of
all bodies, may be the fame kind of fubftance ; yet the
yA;j Ts^os-i^m of one body, or the internal combination of
its primary parts, differs from that of another ; that
gold, for inftance, has a different fubflratum or bafs
from iron, lead, or filver ; that the internal organiza¬
tion or ftrufture of the body of an ox is different from
Vol. XX. Part I.
and inca¬
pable of
proof.
7 ] SUP
that of a horfe ; and that the internal fubftance or fub- Supper,
fratum which exhibits the appearances of bread and
wine is different from that which fupports the lenfible
qualities of flefti and blood (fee Metaphysics, Part L
Chap. I. and Part II. Chap. I. and II.). Suppofing
therefore the do&rine of tranfubftantiation to be poffible
and even true, it would ftill be impoflible, by any ftate*
ment of it in human language, or by any argument
urged in its fupport, to render that doftrine an obieft of
rational belief j for if it be faid that the words reVlo i<f\t
TO <rapx pov were fpoken by a divine perfon, who could
neither be deceived himfelf nor intend to deceive us, it
may be replied, that the fenfible appearances of bread
and wine, which are confeffed to remain, are likewile
the language of a divine perlbn, even of the Creator and
Governor of heaven and earth; that this language ad-
dreffed to the fight, the tafte, the touch, and the fmell,
is equally intelligible to all nations j that fince the crea¬
tion of the world its meaning has never been miftakett
by the fcholar or the clown, the fage or the favage, ex¬
cept in this fingle inftance of our Lord’s fleffi and blood
exhibiting the fenfible appearances of bread and wine j
and that it is therefore infinitely more probable that the
members of the church of Rome ffiould miftake the
meaning of the words tov\o icHi to <ru/xx fs.ov, which,
though fpoken by Chrift, are part of the language of
men, and liable to all its ambiguities, than that all man¬
kind ftiould miftake the language of God himfelf, which
is liable to no ambiguities, and which was never in any
other inftance milunderftood by a fingle individual.
Should tranfubftantiation therefore be really true, its
truth can never be proved or rendered probable, but by
an immediate operation of the fpirit of God on the mind
of man ; and he who is confcious of no fuch operation
on his own mind, may reft affured that the Father of
mercies, who knows whereof he is made, will never
bring upon him, for his incredulity in this inftance, any
of the anathemas denounced by the church of Rome
upon thofe who place implicit confidence in the univer¬
fal language of Him who created them, in oppofition to
her figurative and contradictory interpretations of the
written word. Of the tranfubftantiation of the elements
a vifible miracle would afford no proof. Had the water
been changed into wine at the marriage in Cana of Ga¬
lilee, for the exprefs purpofe of bearing teftimony to this
Angular converfion, what muft have been the confe¬
quence on the minds of thofe who witneffed that mira¬
cle? Nothing, we think, but fcepticifm or diftruft of
their own faculties } for they would have had the very
fame evidence that no fubftantial change was wrought
on the elements, as that the water was aElually turned
into wine.
1 hough the reformed churches unanimoufly rejeCl the
doftrine of tranfubftantiation, and of courfe the facrifice
of the mafs, its infeparable confequence, they are far
from being agreed among themfelves refpeCting the na¬
ture of the Lord’s Supper ; and the notions of this ordi¬
nance entertained by fome of them appear to us as unte-Do<ftnne
liable as any part of the doarine of the church of Rome. of the Lu-
The Lutherans believe, that the body and blood oftherans in”
Chrift are really and fubftantially prefent with the bread .
and wine ; that the body is really and truly eaten, and Cogit. Mf.
the blood really and truly drunk, by the communi-400. Ger-
cants j and that whatever motion or aClion the bread ^Jar^Loc*
has, the body has the fame*. According to them, 7'heol\de
r 0 . r ’ SacraGcsna.
^ therefore,
SUP r IS ] SUP
Supper.
lo
Of the ear¬
ly Calvi-
nifts
therefore, the fame fenfible appearances are exhibited
by two fubftances united in fome inexplicable manner,
which is neither a perfonal union, nor incorporation,
nor the inclofure of the body within the bread ; nor
does it laft longer than while the facrament is celebrat¬
ing. This union is generally called consubstantia-
TION; but they reje£t the term, contenting themfelves
with afferting the real prefence, without prefuming to
define the mode by which the body and blood of Chrift
are united to the facramental elements.
It Would be fuperfluous to w'afte time in replying to
this doddrine. Every reader fees that it implies the pof-
fibility of the fame thing’s being whole and entire in a
million of places at one and the fame inflant of time,
which has been fo often urged as an unanfwerable ob-
jeftion to the Romilh doctrine ; and it is fraught with
this additional abfurdity peculiar to itfelf, that two bo¬
dily fubllances may at once occupy the fame place,
which is dire&ly contrary to our notions of folidity. It
may be obferved too, that whatever be the real fenfe of
our Saviour’s words, he fays exprefsly, “ This is my
body”—this thing which I give you, and which you
fee and feel; whereas, had he meant what Luther and
his followers teach, he would furely have laid, “ With this
bread receive my body, with this cup receive my blood.”
The notions of fome of the early Calvinifts refpeft-
ing the Lord’s Supper are very mytlerious, and expref-
fed in language of which wTe are not fure that rve un-
derfland the meaning. In the year 1561 an attempt
was made in France to bring the Catholics and Prote-
llants to an uniformity of dodlrine on this great topic
of controverfy ; and deputies were appointed by both
parties to meet at Poi/fy, and debate the queflion in a
friendly manner. The principal managers on the fide
of the Catholics were the cardinals of Lorraine and
Tournon; thofe on the fide of the Proteflants were
Bexa and Peter Martyr. After feveral meetings, dif-
putes, and violent feparations, the Protellant deputies
declared their faith in the following words : “ We con-
fefs, that Jefus Chrift, in the Supper, does truly give
and exhibit to us the fubftance of his body and blood
by the efficacy of his Holy Spirit j and that we do re¬
ceive and eat fpiritually, and by faith, that very body
which was offered and immolated for us, fo as to be
bone of his bone and fleffi of his flelh, to the end that
we may be enlivened thereby, and receive what is con¬
ducive to our falvatlon. And becaufe faith, fupported
by the word of God, makes thofe things prefent, which
it apprehends, and by'that faith we do in deed and rea¬
lity receive the true natural body and blood of Chrift,
by the power of the Holy Spirit j by this means, we
confefs and acknowledge the prefence of his body and
blood in the Supper.” One of the' Catholic delegates
exprefling his diffike of this laft claufe, the Proteftant
minifters gave the following explanation of their fenti-
ments: “ No diftance of place can hinder us from com¬
municating of the body and blood of Chrift, for the
Lord’s Supper is a heavenly thing •, and though on
earth we receive with our mouths bread and wine, which
are the true figns of his body and blood, yet by faith,
and the efficacy of the Ploly Ghoft, our minds, which
are fed with this food, are rapt up into heaven, and en¬
joy the prefence of the body and blood *, and that by
this means it may be faid that the body is truly joined to
the1 bread, and the blood to the wine j but after the
manner of a facrament, and not at all according to place Supper,
or natural pofition v
If the reader can difeover the precife meaning of * Thuanus,
thefe paffages, his fagacity exceeds ours. That the Pro- ^
teftant deputies believed, or profeffed to believe, that yff^fui's
the natural \oo<py and blood of Chrift are by the faithfu 1 Unbloody
received in the Lord’s Supper, is indeed evident; but Sacrifice,
their notions refpedling the manner of this reception are v0*- '•
very unintelligible, if not contradifrory. In the former n
quotation, they confefs that Chrift’s body and blood areu™nte^_
really prefent in the facrament 5 that they are made pre-sl'jle”
fent by faith (we fuppofe the faith of the communi¬
cants) ; and that the very body which was offered and
immolated for us is eaten fpiritually and by faith. In
the latter quotation, they feem to fay that Chrift’s body
and blood are in heaven, at a great diftance from the
true figns of them ; that on earth the communicants re¬
ceive only thefe figns, which are ■ bread and wine 5 but
that, by faith and the efficacy of the Holy Spirit, their
minds, during adlual communion, are rapt up into hea¬
ven, where they enjoy the prefence of the body and
blood ; and that by this means the body and blood are
truly joined to the bread and wane through the medium
of the mind of the communicant, which is at once pre¬
fent both to the fign and to the thing fignified. To this
myfterious doctrine it is needlefs to urge objections.
Every man who is accuftomed to think, and to ufe
words with feme determinate meaning, will at once
perceive that the authors of this declaration muff; have
had very confufed notions of the fubjedt, and have
pleafed themfelves with found inftead of fenfe, fatisfied
that they could not be wrong if they did not fymboh’ze
with the Lutherans or the Council of Trent.
The churches of England and Scotland, in their efta- of the
blifhed doflrines refpeCling the Lord’s Supper, appear churches ofr
to be Calviniftical; but the compilers of the Thirty-
nine Articles and of the Confeffion of Faith muft have
been much more rational divines than Eeza and Peter
Martyr. They agree in condemning the doftrine of
tranfubftantiation as contrary to common fenfe, and not
founded in the word of God ; they teach, that to fuch
as rightly, worthily, and with faith, receive thd facra¬
ment, the bread which we break is a partaking of the
body of Chrift, and the cup of bleffing a partaking of
the blood of Chrift ; and they add,1 that the body and
blood of Chrift are eaten and drunk, not corporally or
carnally, but only after a heavenly and fpiritual man¬
ner, by which the communicants are made partakers of
all the benefits of his death f. In one important cir- f, Articles
cumftance thefe two churches feem to differ. The Con-of tke
feffion of Faith, as we underftand it J, affirms, that in Church of
the Lord’s Supper there is no facrifice made at all. The
thirty-firft article of the church of England likewife con- aiKi Confef-
demns the Popifti facrifice of the mafs as a blafphemousfon of'
fable and dangerous deceit ; but in the order for the ad- Fatti^chu^.
minfration of the Lord's Supper or Holy Communion,
the celebrator “ befeeches God mod mercifully to ac-^
cept the alms and oblations of the congregation,” and
again “ to accept their Jacrifce of praife and thankfgiv-
ing from which,petitions many have inferred that, in .
the Lord’s Supper, that church offers a commemorative
and euchariftical faciince. This inference feems not to
be wholly without foundation. In the order for the ad-
miniftratioo of the Lord’s Supper, according to the form
of the Book of Common Prayer fet forth by afVof par¬
liament
SUP
[
Sapper.
13
Some Eng>-
Hfli divines
hold the
Lord’s Sup¬
per to be
a eucharif-
tical facri-
fice.
* St John
x. 7.
f Hcb. xiii.
10.
t 1 Cor. x.
^5, Sec.
liament in the fecond and third years of King Edward
the Sixth, the elements were folemnly offered to God as
a facrihce of praife and thankfgiving; and though the
the prayer containing that oblation was, at the review
of the liturgy fome years afterwards, removed from the
prayer of confecration, to which it was originally join¬
ed, and placed where it now Hands in the poll commu¬
nion fervice j yet the very a£t of parliament which au¬
thorized that alteration, calls King Edward’s “ a very
godly order, agreeable to the word of God and the pri¬
mitive church, and very comfortable to all good people
defiring to live in Chriitian converfation.”
The Englifh church, however, has not pofitively de¬
termined any thing refpefting this great queftion ‘y and
whilft (lie condemns the doftrine of the real prefence,
'with all its dangerous confequences, (lie allows her mem¬
bers to entertain very different notions of this holy or¬
dinance, and to publiih thefe notions to the world.
Accordingly, many of her moft eminent divines (e)
have maintained that, in the celebration of the Lord’s
Supper, the elements of bread and wine are offered to
God as a facrifice commemorative of Chritl’s one facri-
fice for the fins of the whole world ; that thefe elements,
though they undergo no fubllantial change, yet receive
fuch a divine virtue by the defcent of the Holy Ghoft,
as to convey to the worthy communicant all the bene¬
fits of Chrift’s paffion -y that they are therefore called his
body and blood, becaufe being, after their oblation,
eaten and drunk in remembrance of Him, they fupply
the place of his body and blood in the feaft upon his fa¬
crifice ; and that it is cuftomary with our Saviour to
give to any. thing the name of another of which it com¬
pletely fupplies the place, as when he calls himfelf the
door * of the (heep, becaufe there is no entrance into
the church or kingdom of God but by faith in him.
They obferve, that the Eucharift’s being commemora¬
tive, no more hinders it from being a proper facrifice,
than the typical and figurative facrifices of the old law
hindered them from being proper facrifices : for as to be
a type doth not deftroy the nature and notion of a le¬
gal facrifice, fo to be reprefentative and commemora¬
tive, doth not deftroy the nature of an evangelical fa¬
crifice. To prove that, in the celebration of the Lord’s
Supper, there is a real facrifice offered to God as well
as a facrament received by the communicants, they ap¬
peal to St Paul, who fays exprefsly f, that “ Chriftians
have an altar, whereof they have no right to eat who
ferve the tabernacle,” and who by contrafting the cup
of the Lord with the cup of devils, and the table of the
Lord with the table of devils J, teaches plainly, that
thofe cups and thofe tables had the fame fpecific nature.
That the table of devils fpoken of by the apoftle was
the Pagan altars, and the cup of devils the wine poured
out in libations to the Pagan divinities, will admit of
no difpute 5 and therefore, fay the advocates for the eii-
ehariftical facrifice, the table of the Lord muft be the
Chriftian altar, and the cup of the Lord the wine offer¬
ed to God as the reprefentative of the blood of Chrift: \
other wife there would not be that abfurdity which the
apoftle fuppofes, in the fame perfon drinking the cup of
the Lord and the cup of devils, and partaking of the
9 ] SUP
Lord’s table and the table of devils. They obferve Supper,
farther, that in all the ancient liturgies extant there is a —v~"-
folemn form of oblation of the facramental elements,
and that all the Chriftian writers from the fecond cen¬
tury downwards treat of the Lord’s Supper as a facrifice
as well as facrificial feaft, having indeed no value in it-
felf, but acceptable to God as reprelenting Chrift’s one
facrifice for the fins of the wmrld. Our limits will not
permit us to give even an abftraft of their arguments }
but the reader who (hall attentively penile Johnfon's un¬
bloody Sacrifice and Altar unveiled and fupported, will
diicover that their notions are better founded than pro¬
bably he fuppofes, and that they are totally irreconcile-
able with the dodirine of tranfubftantiation and the Po-
piflr facrifice of the mafs. ^
Other Engliftr divines of great learning, with the ce- Others, a
lebrated Hoadley biftrop of Winchefter at the head of merf ™e*
them, contend ftrenuoufly that the Lord’s Supper, fomoi“l ’
far from being a facrifice of any kind, is nothing more
than bread and wine reverently eaten and drunk, in re¬
membrance that Chrift’s body was broken and his blood
(lied in proof of his Father’s and his own love to man¬
kind ; that nothing is effential to the facrament but this
remembrance, and a ferious defire to honour and obey
our Saviour as our head ; that the facrament might'be
celebrated without uttering one prayer or thankfgiving,
merely by a fociety of Chriftians, whether fmall or great,
jointly eating bread and drinking wine with a ferious re¬
membrance of Chrift’s death 5 that St Paul enjoins a
man to examine himfelf before he eat of that bread and
drink of that cup, not to difeover what have been the
fins of his paft life in order to repent of them, but only
that he may be fure of his remembering Chrift’s body
broken and his blood (bed ; that, however, it is his du¬
ty in that as in every ether inftance of religious worftiip
to refolve to obey from the heart every precept of the
gofpel, whether moral or pofitive j and that to partake
worthily of the Lord’s Supper is acceptable to God, be¬
caufe it is paying obedience to one of thefe precepts j
but that no particular benefits or privileges are annexed
to it more than to any other inftance of duty. Bifhop
Hoadley acknowledges, that wftien St Paul fays *, * 1 ^°7'-x
“ The cup of blefting which wTe blefs, is it not the com-16‘
munion of the blood of Chrift; ? The bread which we
break, is it not the communion of the body of Chrift ?”
he has been fuppofed by many learned men to affirm,
that all the benefits of Chrift’s paffion are in the Lord’s
Supper conveyed to the wmrthy communicant; but this
(fays he) is an idea which the apoftle could not have in
his thoughts as at all proper for his argument. The
Greek word Konmm and the Engliffi communion lignify
only a partaking of fomething in common with others
of the fame fociety ; and the apoftle’s meaning (he fays)
can be nothing more, than that in the Lord’s Supper
we do not eat bread and drink wine as at an 'ordinary
meal, but as memorials of the body and blood of Chrift,
in honour to him as the head of that body of which w’e
are all members. That the word Hwanoe is not meant
to denote any inwrard or fpiritual part of the Lord’s Sup¬
per, he thinks evident, becaufe the fame word is ufed
with regard to the cup and the table of idols, where no
C 2 " fpiritual
^ (e) The archbiffiops Laud and Wake •, the biffiops Poynet, Andrews, Bull, and Patrick ; the doflors Hickes,
Grabe, and Brett 5 Mcffrs Bingham, Johnfon, Mede, Wheatly, Sgandaret, Bowyer, &c.
*5
fice,
SUP [20
StiPPer- fp!ritual part could be thought of, and in an argument
‘"I: 1 which fuppofes an idol to be nothing -f.
^ A Plain . • 1 . r ' . . , _
Account of lo this view ox the nature and end ox the Lord’s
the Nature Supper, it muft appear no fmall objeftion, that “ he
and End of who eateth and drinketh unworthily is faid to be gui/ty
i^utl',Jrd S t^e and blood of the Lord, and to eat and drink
*■“* u' a judgement to himfelf not difccrning the Lord's body.'1’*
No doubt it would be finful to eat and drink a mere me¬
morial of Chrilt’s death without ferious difpolitions j but
we cannot conceive how a little wandering of the
thoughts, which is all the unworthinefs which the au¬
thor thinks there can be on fuch an occafion, fhould be
a fin of fo deep a dye as to be properly compared with
the guilt of thofe who murdered the Lord of life. Other
divines, therefore, feeling the force of this and fimilar
objections, fleer a middle courfe between the mere me-
morialifl and the advocate for a real facrifice in the holy
Eucharifl, and infill that this rite, though no facrifice
rTfeaft upon^k^’ ’s yet a uPon the one facrifice offered by
our Savi- Chrift and flain upon the crofs. The moft eminent pa-
our’s facri- Irons of this opinion have been Dr Cudworth, Bifhop
Warburton, and the prefent bifhop of Chefler ; and they
fupport it by fuch arguments as the following : “ In
thole ages of the world when vi&ims made fo great a
part of the religion both of Jews and Gentiles, the fa¬
crifice was always followed by a religious feafting on the
thing offered ; which was called the feajl -upon, or after
the facrifce, and was fuppofed to convey to the parta¬
kers of it the benefits of the facrifice. Now Jefus (fay
they), about to offer himfelf a facrifice on the crofs for
our redemption, did, in conformity to general praClice,
inflitute the lafl flipper, under the idea of a feaf after
the facrifce ; and the circumftances attending its inflitu-
tioti were fuch, they think, that the apoflles could not
poffibly miflake his meaning. It was juft before his
paftion, and wdiile he was eating the pafchal fupper,
•which was a Jewifh feaf upon the faerfee, that our blef-
fed Lord inftituted this rite \ and as it w-as his general
euftem to allude, in his aftions and expreflions, to what
paffed before his eyes, or prefented itfelf to his obferva-
tion, w’ho can doubt, when, in the very form of cele¬
bration, we fee all the marks of a faerfeialfupper, but
that the divine inftitutor intended it fhould bear the fame
relation to his faerfee on the crofs wdiich the pafchal
fupper then celebrating bore to the oblation of the paf-
ehal lamb ? If this was not his purpofe, and if nothing
more was intended than a general memorial of a dead
benefaftor, why was this inftant of time preferred for
the inftitution to all others throughout the courfe of his
miniftry, any one of which would have been equally
commodious ? Indeed any other time would have been
more commodious for the inftitution of a mere memo¬
rial j for the pafchal lamb and unleavened bread were
certainly a facrifice; and the words ufed by our Savi¬
our, when he gave the bread and wine to the apoftles,
were fuch as muft neceffarily have led them to confider
that bread and wane as bearing the fame relation to his
facrifice that the pafchal fupper bore to the pafchal facri¬
fice. At that Jewifh feaft, it was the cuftom of every
father of a family to break the unleavened bread, and to
give to every gueft a portion, faying, “ This is the
bread of affii£lion, which our fathers did eat in the land
of Egypt a cuftom which, we may be fure, that
Chnft, as father of his family, would religioufly ob-
ferve.. The apoftles knew well that they were not eat-
] SUP
ing the identical bread which their fathers did eat in
Egypt* but the feaft upon the facrifice then offered in ^
commemoration of their redemption from Egyptian bon¬
dage j and therefore when they faw their Mafter after
fupper break the bread again and give it to each of
them, with thefe remarkable words, “ This is my body
which is given for you, do this in remembrance of me,’*
they muft have concluded, that his meaning was to in-
ftitute a rite which fhould to the end of the world bear
the fame relation to his facrifice that the pafchal fupper
bore to the facrifice of the paffover.
This inference, from the circumftances attending the
inftitution, Biftiop Warburton thinks confirmed by St
Paul’s mode of arguing with the Corinthians, on their
impiety and abfurdity in partaking both of the Lord’s
table and the table of devils j for “ what (fays he) had
the eaters of the facrifices to do with the partakers of
the bread and wine in the Lord’s Supper, if the Lord’s
Supper was not a feaft of the fame kind with their feafts?
If the three feafts, Jewifh, Pagan, and Chriftian, had
not one common nature, how could the apoftle have in¬
ferred that this intercommunity w'as inconfiftent ? ITe
cannot (fays he) drink the cup of the Lord and the cup
of devils ; ye cannot be partakers of the Lord's table
and the table of devils. For though there might be im¬
piety in the promifeuous ufe of Pagan and Chriftian rites
of any kind, yet the inconffency arifes from their hav¬
ing a common nature, and confequently, as they had
oppofite originals, from their deftroying one another’s
effe&s in the very celebration. Sacrifices, and feafts
upon facrifices, were univerfally confidered as federal
rites j and therefore the Lord’s table and the table of
devils being both federal rites, the fame man could no
more be partaker of both, than he could at once engage
to ferve both God and the devil. This is the apoflle’s
argument to the wife men, to whom he appeals; and w^e
fee that it turns altogether upon this poftulatum, that
the Chriftian and Pagan feafts had the fame fpecific na¬
ture, or wTere both feafts upon facrifices. If this be ad¬
mitted, it is eafy to fee why St Paul deemed thofe who
ate and drank unworthily guilty of the body and blood
of the Lord ; for if the Lord’s Supper be a feaft upon
his facrifice, it muft have been confidered as the means
of conveying to the communicants all the benefits of
his death and paflion ; and the profanation of fuch a rite,
by rendering his death ineffedlual, might be fitly com¬
pared and juftly equalled to the enormous guilt of thofe
by whom his blood was ftied.” In reply to Biftiop
Hoadley’s remarks upon the word zoivavict, his brother
biftiop obferves, that “ had the apoftle meant what the
learned writer makes him to mean, he wrould doubtlefs
have laid xoivanct tig re trupu, ‘ your communion in
the body—your eating it jointly.’ St Paul (continues
he) knew how to exprefs himfelf properly, as appears
from a paffage in his epiftle to the Philippians, where,
profefiedly fpeaking of the joint participation of a blef-
fing, he ufes thefe words, xeifunot vy,ui tig re tvxyytXior,
1 your communion in the gofpel.’ To the other remark,
that no fpiritual part could be thought of in the table of
idols, becaufe an idol is faid by the apoftle to be nothing,
Bifhop Waiburton replies, “ that by St Paul the Gen¬
tiles are faid to have facrificed to devils, and thofe who
ate of fuch facrifices to have had communion with de¬
vils : now the devil (continues his Lordfhip) w7as in St
Paul’s opinion fomething." But the inference which
the
Supper,
 » 
SUP [ 21 ] S U R
Supper the apoftle draws from the acknowledged truth, that
H . the cup of blefllng which we blefs is the communion of
Suppoiition. bi00ci of Chrift, and the bread which we break the
communion of the body of Chrift, puts his meaning, our
* i Cor x auth°r thinks, beyond all doubt. He fays *, that the
2j. partaking of one bread makes the receivers of many to
become one body. A juft inference, if this rite be of
the nature of a feajl upon the facrijice; for then the
communion of the body and blood of Chrift unites the re¬
ceivers into one body by an equal diftribution of one
common benefit. But if it be only a general comme¬
moration of a deceafed benefaftor, it leaves the receivers
as it found them, not one body, but many feparate pro-
fejfors of one common faith.
The ordi Thus have we given fuch a view as our limits w®uld
nance not permit us to give, of the principal opinions that have
generally been held refpefting the nature and end of the Lord’s
underftood. Supper. It is an ordinance which feems not to be ge¬
nerally underftood ; though, being intended to (how
forth the Lord’s death till he come, it is furely of fuf-
ficient importance to engage the attention of every fe-
rious Chriftian. The moft confiderable Proteftant di¬
vines who have exprefsly written upon it are, Johnfon in
his Unbloody Sacrifice ; Cudworth in his Difcourfe con¬
cerning the true Nature of the Lord's Supper ; Hoadley
in his Plain Account; and Warburton in his Rational
Account. The notions of Cudworth and Warburton are
the fame, and perhaps they differ not fo much from
thofe of Johnfon as many readers feem to imagine. At
any rate, the arguments by which Warbuiton fupports
his do&rine muft have fome force, fince it is faid that
Hoadley himfelf acknowledged they would be unan-
fwerable, if it could be proved that the death of Chrift
was a real facrifice.
SUPPLEMENT, in literature, an appendage to
fupply what is wanting in a book. Books of various
kinds require fuch an appendage j but none fo much as
a dictionary of arts and fciences, which, from the pro-
greflive courfe of phyfical fcience, cannot be completed
without it.
SUPPORTED, in Heraldry, a term applied to the
uppermoft quarters of a fhield when divided into feveral
quarters, thefe feeming as it were fupported or fuftained
by thofe below. The chief is faid to be fupported when
it is of two colours, and the upper colour takes up two-
thirds of it. In this cafe it is fupported by the colour
underneath.
SUPPORTERS, in Heraldry, figures in an atchieve-
ment placed by the fide of the fhield, and feeming to
fupport or hold up the fame. Supporters are chiefly
figures of beafts : figures of human creatures for the like
purpofe are called tenants.
SUPPOSITION, in Mu/ic, is when one of the parts
dwells on a note, while another part makes two or more
leffer notes equivalent to it, by conjoint degrees.
Suppofition is defined by a late author the ufing of
two fucceflive notes, of the fame value as to time ; the
one whereof, being a difcord, fuppofes the other a con¬
cord.
The harmony, Mr Malcolm obferves, is always to be
full on the accented parts of the bar or meafure \ but,
on the unaccented, difcords may tranfiently pafs, with¬
out any offence to the ear. This tranfient ufe of dif¬
cords, followed by concords, make what we,. after the
Trench, call fupjpojition.
Concords by fuppofition are thofe where the conti- Suppofition
nued bafs adds or fuppofes a new found below the fun- s
damental bafs j whence fuch concords always exceed the ■ v * '
extent of the oftave. Of thefe concords there are three
forts, all which are concords of the feventh : the firft,
when the added found is a third below the fundamental
found \ fuch is the concord of the ninth : and if the
concord of the ninth is formed by the mediant, added
below the fenfible concord in the minor mode, then the
concord is called the fuperfuous fifth. The fecond kind
is, when the fuppofed found is a fifth below the funda¬
mental found, as in the concord of the fourth or ele¬
venth ; and if the concord is fenfible, and the tonic be
fuppofed, this concord is called the fuperfiuous feventh.
The third kind is that where the fuppoled found is be¬
low a concord of the diminilhed feventh : if it is a fifth-
below, i. e. if the fuppofed found be the mediant, the
concord is called the concord of the fourth and fuper-
fluousfifth : if it is a feventh below, i. e. if the fuppofed
found be the tonic, the concord is called the leffer fixth
and fuperfiuous feventh.
SUPPOSITORY, a kind of medicated cone or ball,
which is introduced into the anus for opening the belly.
It is ufually compofed of common honey, mixed up
with either foap or oil, and formed into pieces of the
length and thicknefs of the little finger, only pyrami--
dal. To the compofition is fometimes alfo added pow¬
der of fcammony, euphorbium, colocynthis, fait, aloes,
&c. according to the cafe of the patient.
The fuppofitory was invented for the convenience of
fuch as have an averfion to the taking of clyfters $ or
to be ufed when the difeafe does not allow thereof.
SUPPRESSION, in Medicine, is generally ufed to
fignify a retention of urine or of the menfes.
SUPPURATION, the fecond way wherein an in¬
flammation terminates ; being a converfion of the infpif-
fated blood and the firft adjacent parts, as the veffels and
fat; into pus or matter ; which diforder, when it has not
yet found an opening, is generally called an abfcefs.
SUPRACOSTALES, in Anatomy. See Table of
the Mufcles in Anatomy.
SUPRALAPSARIANS, in Theology, perfons who
hold that God, without any regard to the good or evil
works of men, has refolved, by an eternal decree, fupra
Inpfum, antecedently to any knowledge of the fall of
Adam, and independently of it,, to fave fome and to
damn others ; or, in other words, that God intended to
glorify his juftice in the condemnation of fome, as well
as his mercy in the falvation of others; and for that pur¬
pofe decreed that Adam Ihould neceflarily fall, and by
that fall bring himfelf and all his offspring into a ftate of
everlafting. condemnation.
Thefe are alfo called antelapfariesi, and are oppofed to
fublapfaries and infralapfaries.
According to the fupralapfarians, the object of pre-
deftination is, homo creabilis et labilis; and, according
to the fublapfarians and infralapfarians, homo creatus et
lapfus.
SUPRASPINATUS, in Anatomy. See Table of
the Mufcles in Anatomy-.
SUPREMACY, the fuperiority or fovereignty of
the king. See Sovereignty.
SUR, or Shur, in Ancient Geography, a defert of
Arabia Petraea, extending between Paleftine and the
Arabian gulf; into which the Ifraeliies, after marching
SUE [22
Surat, through the Red Tea, firft came (Ji.xod. xv. 22.). A-
gain (Numb, xxxiii. 8.), it is faid, that from the fea
they went three days journey into the Wildernefs of
.Etham ; whence fome conclude that Etham and Shur
are the fame wildernefs ; or only difter as a part from
the whole, Shur being the general name, and Ethaim
that part of it lying neareft to the place of encampment _
of the fame name. We know fo little of the geography
of thefe places, that there is more room for dilputation
than for decifion. As to the route which the Ifraelites
followed in their paffage through the Red fea, Mr Bry¬
ant, we think, has given the moft fatisfadtory account in
his late work on the Plagues of Egypt.—Shur is now
called Corondel.
SURAT, a city of Indoftan, belonging to Britain,
on the weftern coaft of the peninfula, a little to the
northward of Bombay, and about 16 miles up the river
Tappee. It is but of modern date, and is a moft re¬
markable inftance of the power of trade to bring wealth
and population to any fpot where it can be brought to
fettle. Towards the middle of the 17th century, this
place was only the refort of a few merchants,. who, un¬
der the ftielter of an old inftgnificant caftle, laid the firft
foundations of a city now almoft as large and fully as
populous as London within the walls, and containing
many fine buildings of Indian architefture, which is
partly Gentoo and partly Morifque. Thofe ef the
greateft note are fo contrived, that the gateway is defen-
iible againft any hidden irruption of a few armed men.
The private apartments lie backwards for the conveni-
ency of the women, of whom the Moors are remark¬
ably jealous. They are fond of having one room, in
the mid ft of which a fountain keeps playing, and which,
by its noife, lulls them to fleep, and refrefhes the room
by its coolnefs; but thus a damp is produced, which
would be very dangerous to Europeans. They have
alfo generally a falcon with fountains playing in it,
which, with the variegated flower-beds, in which they
are very curious, makes a beautiful profpeft. During
the intenfe heats of fummer they have country retire¬
ments a little way out of town, where they refide, or go
in parties to amufe themfelves. The ftreets are irregu¬
larly laid out j but have one property which renders it
agreeable to walk in them, viz. that a competent width
being left at bottom, the upper flories of the houfes pro-
je£t over one another in fuch a manner, that people
"may with eafe converfe from them •, by which means
the'ftreet is agreeably ihaded, at the fame time that a
proper ventilation is not impeded, but rather promoted.
The (hops, notwithftanding the vaft trade carried on in
this great and populous city, have a very mean appear¬
ance, owing to the dealers keeping their goods in ware-
houfes, and felling by famples.
No place is better fupplied with provifions than the
city of Surat while its communication with the country
remains open. Befides the unbounded importation, by
which every article is brought here in great abundance,
the natural produftions of the foil are excellent, though
lefs cheap than in other parts of India, as at Bengal ef-
pecially ; yet in that place, though the cattle and poul¬
try are bought originally at a very low rate, they turn
out very dear by the time they are fed for the table.
Here, however, all kinds of eatables may be had at a
reafonable price, ready for immediate ufe, and as gond
as can be found anywhere. The wheat of Surat is fa-
2
] SUE
mous all over India for its Angular fubftance, whitenefs,
and tafte ; and its falads and roots are likewife ol an
excellent quality. There are alfo many kinds of wild¬
fowl and other game to be had at an eafy rate } but
for wines and fpiriluous liquors they depend moftly on
importation.
Surat was furrounded with a wall in a fliort time after
it had aflumed the form of a town. T he fortification,
however, was meant only to prevent the incurfions ot
the Mahrattas, who had twice pillaged it; fo that the
place was by no means capable of Handing any regular
fiege. Even the caftle appears but a poor defence, be¬
ing mounted with cannon here and there, without any
order, or without any thing like an attempt towards
military architedfture.
In this city, before the Eaft India company became
invefted with the poffeflion of Bombay, was the prtfi-
dency of their affairs on the weftern coaft. For this
purpofe they had a faftory eftabliftied there with great
privileges by the Mogul government j and even after
the prefidency was eftabliftied at Bombay, they conti¬
nued a faftory here at one of the beft houles in the city ;
which yet not being fpacious enough to contain their
effefts, they hired another at fome diftance from it, and
nearer the water-fide, which was called the new fadory.
In the mean time, the city flouriftied, and became the ,
centre of all the Indian trade, being much more fre¬
quented for the fake of foreign merchandife than for
either the natural produdions or manufadures of the
country, though they alfo made a confiderable part of
its commerce. In fliort, there was fcarce any article of
merchandife but what was to be found at all times in
Surat, almoft as readily as in London itfelf. While
the Mogul government was in its vigour, there was
fuch a ftiow of juftice kept up, as induced merchants of
all religions and denominations to take up their refidence
in the city. The Gentoos efpecially reforted thither,
in order to avoid the oppreffions of their own govern¬
ment. Great care indeed was taken that no very fla¬
grant ads of oppreflion fliould be committed ; fo that,
in what fometimes happened, appearances were at leaft
kept up; and the oppreflions of government were chiefly
owing to the animofities and rivalftiip of the merchants
themfelves. As an inftance of the great extent to which
commerce was puftied in Surat, we ftiall here quote
from Mr Grofe, what is faid by Captain Hamilton of a
merchant named Abdu/gafour, viz. “ That he drove a
trade equal to the Eaft India company : for he had
known him fit out in a year above 20 fail of {hips, be¬
tween 300 and 8co tons, none of which had lefs of his
own flock than 20,000!, and fome of them 25,000!.
After that foreign flock was fent away, it behoved him
to have as much more of an inland flock for the follow¬
ing year’s market.” On the deceafe of this merchant,
the government feized on a million of his money 5 and
his prandfon was not only deprived of all that he poffef-
fed,L but barbaroufly murdered through the envy and
treachery of his brother merchants, and the rapacity of
the governor.
The city of Surat was taken and ruined by the Por-
tuguefe in 1520; and it was not till after this misfor¬
tune that it became fuch a celebrated emporium. All
the Indian merchants wdio had been accuftomed to trade
thither contributed to re-eftablilh it 5 but it was not till
near a century after that it became the general ftaple of
Indian
Sur
I
S U R [ 23 ] S U R
Surat, Indian and European merchandife j when the Dutch
Surcharge. appearing in the Indian ocean, had deprived the Portu-
gUefe 0f all their conquefts on that coaft, and almoft
entirely ruined their trade. The Englifh eftablilhed a
faftory here in 1639, the Dutch in 1616, and the
French in 1665. In procefs of time, the Indian feas
being greatly infefted by pirates, a naval officer was ap¬
pointed by the Mogul to keep them in awe. This of¬
ficer was named Siddee (a) Mujfoot, who had been chief
of an Ethiopian colony fettled at Rajapore. Here he
had collefted fame veffels of confiderable force, and car¬
ried on fome trade, till he was difpoffefied by the Mah-
rattas 5 upon which he repaired to Bombay, and after¬
wards to Surat,-where he was appointed admiral on that
Ration to the Mogul, with a yearly revenue of about
36,000!. Sterling. Though he had no powder, indepen¬
dent of the marine, he feized on the cattle, encroached
on the town, and appropriated to'himfelf a third part of
its revenues, under pretence of arrears due in his appoint¬
ed revenue. Another third was paid to the Mahrattas,
to prevent their depredations upon trade in the open
country ; but they, not fatisfied with this ftipulation,
watched an opportunity to plunder the town, which was
kept in fubjeftion by Siddee Muffoot, till his death
which happened in 1756.
Siddee Muflbot was fucceeded by his fon, who foon
rendered himfelf very difagreeable to the inhabitants. In
1758 the Engliffi factory was greatly oppreffed by him,
and the black merchants treated Hill worfe ; on which
the latter applied to Mr Ellis the Englith chief at that
time, defiring him to recommend it to the prefidency of
Bombay to take the caftle by force out of the hands of
the ufurper. This propofal proving agreeable, Admiral
Pococke, who wTas then with his i’quadron at Bombay,
readily concurred in fupporting the expedition. The
enterprife was conduced with the ufuaV fuccefs attend¬
ing the Britifh arms •, and Captain Maitland the con-
duftor took poffeffion of the caftle with its revenue in
name of the Eaft India company, who were confirmed
in the government by grants from the Mogul.
SURCHARGE of the forest, is when a com¬
moner puts more hearts in the foreft than he has a right
to. See Forest.
Surcharge of Common, is a difturbance of common
of paftiK’e, by putting more cattle therein than the paf-
ture and herbage will fuftain, or the party hath a right
to do. This injury can only happen where the com¬
mon is appendant or appurtenant, and of courfe limitable
by law ; or wffiere, when in g*ofs, it is exprefsly limited
and certain } for where a man hath common in grofs,
fans siombre, or without Hint, he cannot be a furcharge.
In this cafe indeed there mull be left fufficient for the
lord’s own hearts.
The ufual remedies for furcharging the common are
by the lord’s diftraining the furplus number, or by his
bringing an action of trefpafs, or by a fpecial aftion on
the cafe, in which any commoner may be plaintiff-. The
ancient and moft effectual method of proceeding is by
writ of admeafurement of pafture.
Writ of Second SURCHARGE, de fecunda fuperonera-
tione, is given by the ftatute of Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. I.
cap. 8. when, after the admeafurement of pafture hath
afcertained the right, the fame defendant furcharges the
common again ; and thereby the fheriff is directed to in¬
quire by a jury whether the defendant has in faft again
furcharged the common } and if he has, he {hall then
forfeit to the king the fupernumerary cattle put in, and
alfo {hall pay damages to the plaintiff.
SURCINGLE, a girdle wdierewith the clergy of the
church of England uiually tie their caffocks. See Gir-
Surcharge
' II
Surf.
DEE.
SURCOAT, a coat of arms, to be worn over body
armour.
The furcoat is properly a loofe thin taffety coat, with
arms embroidered or painted on it. Such as is worn by
heralds, anciently alfo ufed by military men over their
armour to diftinguiffi themfelves by.
SURD, in Arithmetic and Algebra, denotes any num¬
ber or quantity that is incommenfurable to unity : other-
wife called an irrational number or quantity. See Al¬
gebra, Part I. Chap. IV.
SURETY, in Law, generally fignifies the fame with
Bail.
SURF, is a term ufed by feamen to exprefs a peculiar
fwHl and breaking of the fea upon the ftiore. It fome-
times forms but a {ingle range along the ffiore, and at
others three or four behind one another extending per¬
haps half a mile out to fea. The furf begins to affume
its form at fome diftance from the place wffiere it breaks,
gradually accumulating as it moves forward till it gain,
not uncommonly, in places within the limits of the
trade-winds, a height of 15 or 23 feet, when it over¬
hangs at top, and falls like a cafcade with great force
and a prodigious nolle. Countries where furfs prevail
require boats of a particular conftruftion very different
from the greater part of thofe wffiich are built in Eu¬
rope. In fome places furfs are great at high, and in
others at low water •, but we believe they are uniformly
moft violent during the fpring-tides.
It is not eafy to affign the caule of furfs. That they
are affeffed by the winds can hardly be queftioned ; but-
that they do not proceed from the immediate operation
of the wind in the places where they happen, is evident
from this circumftance, that the furf is often higheft and
moft violent wffiere there is leaft wind, and vice verfa.
On the coaft of Sumatra the higheft are experienced
during the fouth-eaft monfoon, wffiich is never attended
with fuch gales as the north-wTefl. As they are moft:
general in the tropical latitudes, Mr Marfden, wffio
feems to have paid much attention to the fubjeff, attri¬
butes them to the trade-winds which prevail at a diftance
from {hore between the parallels of 30 degrees north
and fouth, whofe uniform and invariable aftion caufes a
long and conftant fwell, that exifts even in the calmeft
weather, about the line, towards which its dire£Hon
tends from either fide. This fwell, when a fquall hap¬
pens or the wind frefhens up, will for the time have
other fubfidiary waves on the extent of its furface, break¬
ing often in a direction contrary to it, and which will
again fubiide as a calm returns, without having pro¬
duced
(a) When the Abyflfmian Haves are promoted to any office under the Mogul government, they are called Sid?
dees.
S U R [ 24 ] S U R
Smrf duced on it any perceptible effect. Sumatra, though
Surfeit no^ continually exP°fed to the fouth-eaft trade-wind, is
'1 r C1 ' ■ not fo dillant but that its influence may be prefumed to
extend to it $ and accordingly at Poolo Pefang, near the
fouthern extremity of the ifland, a conftant foutherly fea
is obferved, even after a ftiong north-weft wind. This
linceflant and powerful fwell rolling in from an ocean,
open even to the pole, feems an agent adequate to the
• prodigious effe&s produced on the coaft *, whilft its very
iize contributes to its being overlooked. It reconciles
almoft all the difficulties which the phenomena feem to
•prefent, and in particular it accounts for the decreafe of
the furf during the north-weft monfoon, the local wind
.then counterafting the operation of the general one ;
and it is corroborated by an obfervation, that the furfs
on the Sumatran coaft ever begin to break at their
fouthern extreme the motion of the fwell not being per¬
pendicular to the diredtion of the fliore. This explana¬
tion of the phenomena is certainly plaufible ; but, as the
-author candidly acknowledges, objedfions may be urged
to it. The trade-winds and the fwell occaftoned by
,them are remarkably fteady and uniform j but the furfs
are much the reverfe. How then comes an uniform
caufe to produce unfteady effedts ?
In the opinion of our author it produces no unfteady
cffedfs. The irregularity of the furfs, he fays, is per¬
ceived only within the remoter limits of the trade-winds.
But the equatorial parts of the earth performing their
diurnal revolution with greater velocity than the reft, a
larger circle being defcribed in the fame time, the wa¬
ters thereabout, from the ftronger centrifugal force, may
be fuppofed more buoyant $ to feel lefs reftraint from
the fluggilh principle of matter 5 to have lefs gravity j
.and therefore to be more obedient to external impulfes
of every kind, whether from the winds or any other
.caufe.
SURFACE. See Superficies.
SURFEIT, in Medicine, a ficknefs with a fenfation
of a load at the ftomach, ufually proceeding from fome
.error in diet, either with regard to the quantity or qua¬
lity of the food taken. Sometimes, however, a furfeit
is only a plethora from indolence and full diet: in which
cafe perfpiration is defedtive $ and eruptions appear on
the Ikin.
Fading for fome time, and an attention to temperance Surfeit
afterwards, with fome brifk purgatives, will generally H
remove the effedls of a furfeit, when it is unaccompanied urgec,;,~'
’with other more permanent affedtions.
Surfeit, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
SURGE, in the fea-language, the fame with a wave.
See Wave.
SURGEON, or Chirurgeon, one that profefies the
art of Surgery.
In England there are two diftindl companies of fur-
geons now occupying the fcience or faculty of furgery j
the 6ne company called barbers, the other furgeons,
which latter are not incorporated.—The two are united
to fue, and be fued, by the names of mafters or gover¬
nors and commonalty of the myftery of barbers and fur¬
geons of London. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42.
No perfon ufing any barbery or {having in London,.
{hall occupy any furgery, letting of blood, or other mat¬
ter j drawing of teeth only excepted. And no perlon
uling the myftery or craft of furgery {hall occupy or ex-
ercife the feat or craft of barbery or {having, neither by
himfelf, nor any other for his-ufe. 32 Hen. VIII.
c. 42.
By the fame ftatute, furgeons are obliged to have
figns at their doors.
The French chirurgeons being refufed to be admitted
into the univerfities (notwithftanding that their art
makes a branch of medicine), on pretence of its border¬
ing a little on butchery or cruelty, affociated themfelves
into a brotherhood, under the protedtion of S. Cofmus
and S. Damian : on which account, according to the
laws of their inftitution, they are obliged to drefs and
look to wounds gratis the firft Monday of each month.
They diftinguiffi between a chirurgeon of the long
robe and a barber-chirurgeon. The firft has ftudied
phyfic, and is allowed to wear a gown. Ihe {kill of
the other, befides what relates to the management of
the beard, is fuppofed to be confined to the more Ample
and eafy operations in chirurgery j as bleeding, tooth¬
drawing, &c.
They were formerly diftinguiffied by badges: thofe
of the long gown bore a cafe of inftruments j the barber,
a bafon.
1
j
SURGERY-
THE term furgery has been ufually employed to
fignify that part of medicine which treats of the
difeafes of the human body which are to be cured or
alleviated by the hand, by inftruments, or by external
applications.
INTRODUCTION.
Medicine and furgery, formerly regarded as one and
the fame fcience, were exercifed by the fame perfon s
during the moft remote ages j and their feparation, fuch
as now generally exifts, is to be confidered as a modern
inftitution. If we confider their origin and end, the
knowledge which the praftitioner of each requires, and
the connexion which naturally fubfifts between the dif-
X
eafes which are fuppofed peculiarly to belong to each de¬
partment, it is probable that the firft praflitioners con¬
founded them with one another j and it is eafy to con¬
ceive how the fame ideas ffiould have paffed from one
generation t® another. At laft, however, the know¬
ledge of the healing art being greatly enlarged, it be¬
came neceflary to feparate it into different claffes, and
to form it into diftinft departments in pra&ice. Ac¬
cordingly there were not only fome who confined them-
felves to furgery, but there were lithotomifts, phleboto-
mifts, oculifts, aurifts, dentifts, &c.
We do not propofe here to enter into any detail in
attempting to {how how this feparation was made, and
{fill lefs to make mention of the puerile difputes regard¬
ing the pre-eminence of medicine to furgery. I here
are
SURGERY. 25
Introduo are few we believe wlio in our days do not feel that
tion. a pre-eminence does not exht in nature *, that
v medicine and furgery are one and the fame faience^-,
that they are coeval with the human race; and to thofe
who are” able to appreciate them, they mull appear of
equal utility and importance. The healing art is one,
its principles ought to be the fame throughout, and the
exercife of its different branches fuppofes the fame fun¬
damental knowledge 5 but it offers !u the detail fuch a
vaft field for ftudy, that few men are able to embrace
the whole, and to cultivate all the parts with equal fuc-
cefs. It becomes, therefore, an advantage to fociety
that firch parts as can be eafily feparated in praftice be
exercifed by different individuals 5 and that a man who
has acquired a general knowledge of the llrucluie,
functions, and difeafes of (he animal economy, praftifc
in fuch departments as he finds his talents and acquire¬
ments point out. .
Some have oppofed furgery to medicine by qualifying
the fir ft with the name of art, and in giving to the fe-
cond that of fcience. To pretend that furgery is no¬
thing but the art of treating dileafes by external means
or by manual operations, is to rank it among the me¬
chanical profeflions j and to confider as a good furgeon,
the man who can drefs an ulcer, apply a bandage, reduce
a fra&ure, amputate a limb, or perform fuch like opera¬
tions, on the living body. We have already mentioned
that the healing art is the fame in all its branches 5 the
internal organs of the body in a ftate of health are go¬
verned by the fame general laws, and many of them are
analogous in ftruciure to the external parts} and the
nature of a local difeafe can never be underftood if we
are not acquainted with all the deviations from tne na¬
tural ftate, of which the whole animal fyftem is fufcep-
tible. If a phyfician be called to treat a pleurify, he
cannot expeft to do it with fuccefs unlefs he have a fuf-
ficiently clear idea of the nature or inflammation, or at
leaft of the principal fymptoms which charafteriie :t j
of its confequences, and of the proper mode of applying
the means to remove it. This knowledge is not lets
necefiary to the furgcon wlro is called to treat an wound,
the management of which depends chiedy on the pie-
cautions neceffary to prevent and remove inflammation
in the afFedled parts, without at the fame time weaken¬
ing too much the vital powers, I he knowledge of the
phyfician does not merit more the name olfcience, than
that of the furgeon who is well acquainted with the
functions of the animal economy, with morbid ftru&ure,
and with the progrefs and termination of difeafes.
The ftudent of furgery has therefore to acquire, not
only all that knowledge neceffary for the well educated
phyfician, but be has likewife to learn the manner of
performing furgical operations. This, though no doubt
an effential requifite to the furgeon, is by no means fo
important as a competent knowledge of thofe difeafes
and ftates of difeafe which require fuch means \ and tne
young furgeon fhould endeavour not to cnenfh that I'W'6
of operating which is obferved in fome, anu which anfes
from the eclat which a dexterous operator generally re¬
ceives.
To become an intelligent and expert operator, leveral
qualifications are neceffary j and feme oi thefe fall to
the lot of few individuals. There are many people,
who, though they have acquired an extenfive knowledge
©f difeafes, have not that calmnefs of mind, that collefl-
Vgl. XX, Part I.
ednefs of thought, which is neceffary for a good opera- Introduc-
tor j and there are fome who are even deficient in that. t‘°n'
mechanical dexterity, which, though not requifite in all,
is yet neceffary in feveral of the operations in furgery.
Thefe talents, however, are never given in fuch per-
feflion as not to require cultivation. An early habit of
being prefer.t, and of aftifting at operations, prepares the
ftudent to ad for himfelf; and a long and unremitting
habit of ufing the knife, and of performing operations
on the dead body, gives a facility in all the mechanical
part of them, which even experience on the living body-
does not procure.
Hiftory of Surgery. 1
That furgery was coeval with the other branches of v
medicine, or perhaps antecedent to any of them, will
not admit of doubt. The wars and contentions which
have taken place among mankind almoft ever fince their
creation, neceffarily imply that there would be occafion
for furgeons at a very early period ; and probably ex¬
ternal injuries would for fome time be the only dif¬
eafes for which a cure would be attempted, or perhaps
thought pradicable. In the facred writings we find
much mention of balfams, particularly the balm of
Gilead, as excellent in the cure of wounds: though at
the fame time we are informed that there were fome
Wounds which this balfam could not heal.
Concerning the furgery prattifed among the Egyp- £
tians, Jews, and Afiatic nations, we know little. The
art defeended from the Greeks to us, though they con-
feffedly received it from the eaftern nations. The firft
Greek furgeons on record are /Efculapiu* and his fons
Podalirius and Machaon. TEfculapius flourilhed about
50 years before the Trojan war ; and his two fons dtftin-
guilhed themfelves in that war both by their valour and
by their (kill in-curing wounds. This indeed is the whole
of the medical Ikill attributed to them by Homer ; for
in the plague which broken cut in the Grecian camp,
he does not mention their being at all confulted. Nay,
what is ftill more ftrange, though he fometimes mentions
his heroes having their bones broke, be never takes no¬
tice of their being reduced or cured by any other than
fupernatural means ; as in the cafe of TEneas, whofe
thigh-bone was broken by a ftone caft at him by Dio-
med. The methods which thefe two famous furgeons
ufed in curing the wounds of their fellow foldiers, feems
to have been the extrafting or cutting out the darts
which inflidled them, and applying emollient fomenta¬
tions or ftyptics to them when necefiary: and to thefe
they undoubtedly attributed much more virtue than
they could pofiibly pofiefs *, as appears from the follow¬
ing lines, where Homer deferibes Eurypylus as wounded
and under the hands of Patroclus, who would certainly
pradtife according to the diredfions of the furgeons.
Patroclus cut the forky fteel away *,
Then in his hand a bitter root he bruis’d,
The wound he wafir’d, the ftyptic juice infus’d.
The clofngflefh that inftant ceas’d to glow *,
The wound to torture, and the blood to flow.
Till the days of Hippocrates we knew very little of
what was the pradtice of the Greek furgeons. From
him, however, we learn, that the pradtice of blood-let¬
ting, cupping, andfcarification, was known to them ; al-
X> &
26 S U R (
, IIlflory- fo the ufe of warm and emollient fomentations, iffues
•mL.. v macje Jjq,. ironS) peffaries, injeftions, fumigations,
&c. Hippocrates alfo gives diredions with regard to
fra&ures, luxations, ulcers, fiftulas. He diredts the ex-
tenfion, reduction, bandages, and fplints, proper to be
ufed in fradures and luxations of different bones, with
feveral machines to increafe the extenfion wThen necef-
fary. He direds the laxity and tightnefs of the ban¬
dages ; the intervals for unloofing and binding them on
again ; the pofition and repofe of the fradured member,
and the proper regimen ; and he mentions the time
when a callus is ufually formed. He treats alfo of frac¬
tures of the fkull, and the method of applying the tre¬
pan. In his treatment of ulcers, he fpeaks of reducing
fungous flefh by means of efcharotics, feme of which
are alum, nitre, verdigrife, quicklime, &c.
4 _ Surgery appears not to have exifted in Rome, not-
withftanding the warlike genius of the people, for more
than 500 years. Archagathus, a Greek, was the firft
profeffor of the art in that city j and fo frequently em¬
ployed the knife, hot irons, and other cruel methods of
cure, that he was branded with the opprobrious title of
carnifex, and expelled the city, where no phyfician or
furgeon of eminence again made his appearance for 180
years. At this time Afclepiades undertook the profef-
fion of medicine 5 but feems to have dealt little in fur-
gery. Neither have we any thing of importance on
that fubjed till the time of Celfus, who flourilhed du¬
ring the reigns of Auguflus and Tiberius. — In his
work on furgery, all the improvements from Hippocrates
to his own days are colleded; the mod minute and
trifling difeafes are not omitted. An eminent furgeon,
of the moderns, emphatically exhorts every perfon in
that profeffion “ to keep Celfus in his hands by day
and by night.” He deferibes the figns of a fradured
fkull, the method of examining for the fradure, of lay¬
ing the fkull bare by an incifion in the form of the let¬
ter X, and afterwards of cutting away the angles, and
of applying the trepan, mentioning alfo the figns of
danger and of recovery. He obferved, that fometimes,
though very rarely, a fatal concuffion of the brain might
happen from the blood-veffels within the fkull being
burlt, the bone remaining entire. After the operation of
the trepan, fponges and cloths whetted with vinegar, and
feveral other applications, were made to the head ; and,
th roughout, fevere abftinence was enjoined. In violent
fradures of the ribs, he ordered venefedion ; low diet;
to guard againfl all agitation of the mind, loud fpeak-
ing, motion, and every thing that might excite cough¬
ing or fheezing. Cloths wetted with wine, rofes and
oil, and other applications, were laid over the fradure.
The cure of fradures, in the upper and lower extremi¬
ties, he faid were nearly alike; that fradures differ in
degree of violence and danger, in being fimple or com¬
pound, that is, with or without a wound of the flefh, and
s in being(near to the joint. He direds the extenfion of
the member by afliftants; the redudion, by the fur-
geon’s nands, of the fradured bones into their natural
lituation j and to bind the fradured part with bandages
of different lengths, previoufly dipped in wine and oil:
on the third day frefh bandages are to be applied, and
the fradured member fomented with warm vapour,
efpecially during the inflammation. Splints, if necef-
fary, are^to be applied, to retain the bones in a fixed po¬
fition. The fradured arm is to be fufpended in a broad
E R Y.
fling hung round the neck : the fradured leg is to be Hiftory.
inclofed in a kind of cafe, reaching above the ham, and 1 ,J 11 v—
accommodated likewile with a fupport to the foot, and
with ftraps at the fide, to keep the leg fteady : in the
fradured thigh-bone, the cafe is to extend from the top
of the hip to the foot. He deferibes the method of treat¬
ing compound fradures, and of removing fmall frag¬
ments of fplinters of bones j and the manner of extrad¬
ing darts. In lux •Lions of the fhoulder, he mentions
feveral methods of giving force to the extenfion, and of
replacing the diflocated bone. One method fimilar to
that of Hippocrates was, to fufpend the patient by the
arm; the fore part of the fhoulder, at the fame time,
refling upon the top of a door, or any other fuch firm
fulcrum. Another method was to lay the patient fu-
pine, fome afliftants retaining the body in a fixed pofi¬
tion, and others extending the aim in the contrary di-
redTon ; the furgeon, in the mean time, attempting, by
his hands, forcibly to reduce the bone into its former
place.
If a large inflammation was expeded to enfue after a
W’ound, it was fuffered to bleed for fome time, and blood
wras drawn from the arm. To wounds accompanied with
confiderable haemorrhagy, he applied a fponge wet in
vinegar, and conflant preffure : If neceffary, on account
of the violence of the haemorrhagy., ligatures were made
round the veffels, and fometimes the bleeding orifice
was feared up with the point of a hot iron. On the
third day frefh drefiings were applied. In confiderable
contufions, with a fmall wound of the flefh, if neither
blood-vtffels nor nerves prevented, the wound was to be
enlarged. Abflinence and low diet, upon all fuch ac¬
cidents, were preferibed ; cloths wet with vinegar, and
feveral other applications, were to be applied to the in¬
flamed part. He obferves, that frefli wounds may be
healed without compound applications. In external
gangrene, he cut into the found flefh ; and when the
difeafe, in fpite of every effort, fpread, he advifed am¬
putation of the member. After cutting to the bone,
the flelh was then feparated from it, and drawn back, in
order to fave as much flefh as poflible to cover the ex¬
tremity of the bone. Celfus, though extremefy diffufe
in the defeription of furgical difeafes, and of various re¬
medies and external applications, treats flightly ef the
method of amputating ; from wrhich, comparing his
treatife with the modern fyflems, we might infer that
the operation was then feldomer pradlifed than at pre-
fent. He deferibes the fymptoms of that dangerous
inflammation the carbuncle, and diredls, immediately to
burn or corrode the gangrened part. To promote
the fuppuration of abfeeffes, he orders poultices of
barley-meal, or of marfhmallows, or the feeds of lin-
feed and fenugreek. He alfo mentions the compoff.
tions of feveral repellent cataplafms. In the cri/Jipe/asy
he applies cerufe, mixed with the juice of folanum dr
nightfhade. Sal ammoniac was fometimes mixed with
his plafters.
He is very minute in deferibing difeafes of the eyes,
ears, and teeth, and in preferibing a multitude of re¬
medies and applications. In inflammation of the eyes,
he enjoined abflinence and low diet, reft, and a dark
room : if the inflammation was violent, with great pain,
he ordered venefeftion, and a purgative a finall poul¬
tice of fine flower, faffron, and the white of an egg, to
be laid to the forehead to fupprefs the flow of pituita 4
the
SURGERY.
Hiftory. the foft inude of WRftvi wheat bread dipped in wine, to
be laid to the eye ; poppy and rofes were alfo added to
his collyriums, and various ingredients too tedious to
enumerate. In chronic watery defluxions ot the eyes,
he applied aftringents, cupped the temples, and burnt
the veins over the temple and forehead. He couched
catarafts by depreffmg the cryftalline lens to the bot¬
tom of the orbit. Teeth, loofened by any1 accident, he
diretts, after the example of Hippocrates, to be faftened
with a gold thread to thofe adjoining on each fide.
Previous to drawing a tooth, he ordered the gum.to be
cut round its neck ; and if the tooth was hollow, it was
to be filled with lead before extraftion, to prevent its
breaking by the forceps. He deferibes not only the in¬
flammation, but likewife the elongation, of the uvula .
he alfo deferibes the polypus, and fome other difeafes af-
fefting the nofe.
He deferibes feveral fpecies of herniae or rupture,.and
the manual affiftance required in thofe complaints.
After the return of the inteftines into the abdomen, a
firm comprefs was applied to that part of the groin
through which they protruded, and was fecured by a
bandage round the loins. In fome cafes, after the re¬
turn of inteftinal ruptures, he diminifhed the quantity of
loofe fkin, and formed a cicatrix, fo as to contract over
the part, to render it more rigid and capable of refill¬
ing. He deferibes various difeafes of the genital parts,
the hydrocele or dropfy of the ferotum, a difficulty of
urine, and the manner of drawing oft the water by a
catheter ^ the figns of ftone in the bladder, and the me¬
thod of founding or feeljng for that ftone. Lithotomy
was at that time performed by introducing two fingers
into the anus} the ftone was then prefled forward to the
perinaenm, and a cut made into the bladder •, and by the
finger or by a fcoop the ftone was extra£led. He de¬
feribes the manner of performing this operation on both
the fexes, of treating the patient, and the figns of re¬
covery and of danger.
Celfus dire&ed various corrofive applications and in-
jeftions to fiftulas •, and, in the laft extremity, opened
them to the bottom with a knife, cutting upon a groov¬
ed inftrument or conduflor. In old callous ulcers, he
made a new wound, by either cutting away the hard
edges, or corroding them with verdigrife, quicklime,
alum, nitre, and with fome vegetable efcharotics.. He
mentions the fymptoms or caries in the bone } directs
the bone to be laid bare, and to be pierced with feveral
holes, or to be burnt or rafped, in order to promote an
exfoliation of the corrupted part; afterwards to apply
nitre and feveral other ingredients. One of his applica¬
tions to a cancer was auripigmentum or arfenic. .He
dire&s the manner of tapping the abdomen in afeites,
and of drawing blood by the lancet and cupping-glaffes.
His cupping-glaffes feem not to have been fo convenient
as the modern : they were made either of btafs or horn,
and were unprovided with a pump. He cured varicofe
veins by uftion or by incifion. He gives direttions for
extracting the dead foetus from thC wmmb, in whatever
pofition it ffiould prefent *, and, after delivery, to apply
to the private parts foft cloths wet in an infufion of vi¬
negar and rofes. In Celfus’s works there is a great
redundance and fuperfluity of plafters, ointments, ef¬
charotics, collyriums, of fuppurating and difeutient ca-
taplafms, and ex‘ernal applications of every kind,, both
fiftriple and compound : Perhaps, amongft the multitude-,
there are a few ufeful remedies now laid afide and ne¬
glected.
The laft writer of confequence who flourilhed at Rome
was Galen, phyfician to the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
His works are for the molt part purely medical j al¬
though he wrote alfo on furgery, and made Commen¬
taries on the Surgery of Hippocrates. He opened the
jugular veins and performed arteriotomy at the temples $
directed leeches, fcarification, and cupping-glafles, to
draw blood. He alfo defenbed witb accuracy the dif¬
ferent fpecies of herniae or ruptures.
In the year 500 flouriffied Aetius, in whofe works we
meet with many obfervations omitted by Celfus and Ga¬
len, particularly on the furgical operations, the difeaies
of women, the caufes of difficult labours, and modes of
delivery. He alfo takes notice of the dracunculus, or
Guinea worm. Aetius, however, is greatly excelled by
Paulus Egineta, who flourifhed in 640 } whofe treatile
on furgery is fupenor to that of all the other ancients.
He directs how to extra# darts ; to perform the opera¬
tion fometimes required in dangerous cafes of rupture or
hernia. He treats alfo of aneurifm. Galen, Paulus,
and all the ancients, fpeak only of one fpecies of aneu¬
rifm, and define it to be “ a tumor arifing from, arterial
blood extravafated from a ruptured artery,”. I he an¬
eurifm from a dilatation of the artery is a difeovery of
the moderns. In violent inflammations of the throat,
where immediate danger of fuffocation was threatened,
Paulus performed the operation of bronchotomy. In
obftinate defluxions upon the eyes, he opened the ju¬
gular veins. He deferibes the manner of opening the
arteries behind the ears in chronic pains of the head.
He wrote alfo upon midwifery. Fabricius ab Aquapen-
dente, a celebrated furgeon of the 16th century, has
followed Celfus and Paulus as text books.
From the time of Paulus Egineta to the year 900,
no writer of any confequence, either on medicine or
furgery, appeared. At this time the Arabian phyficians
Rhazes and Avicenna revived in the eaft the medical
art, which, as well as others, was almoft entirely extin-
guiffied in the rveft. Avicenna’s Canon Medicines, or
General Syftem of Medicine and Surgery, was for many
ages celebrated through all the fchools of phyfic. It
was principally compiled from the writings of Galen
and Rhazes. The latter had correftly deferibed the
fpina ventofa, accompanied with an enlargement of the
bone, caries, and acute pain. In difficult labours, he
recommends the fillet to affift in the extraction of the
fetus *, and for the fame purpofe, Avicenna recommends
the forceps. He deferibes the compofition of feveral
cofmetics to polifh the fkin, and make the hair grow, or
fall off.
'Notwithftanding this, however, it was not till the
time of Albucafts that furgery came into repute among
the Arabians. Rhazes complains of their grofs igno¬
rance, and that the manual operations were performed
by the phyficians fervants. Albucafis enumerates a
tremendous lift of operations, fufficient to fill us with
horror. The hot iron and cauteries were favourite re¬
medies of the Arabians; and, in inveterate pains, they
repofed, like the Egyptians and eaflern Afiatics, great
confidence in burning the part. He deferibes accurate¬
ly the manner of tapping in afeites 5 mentions feveral
kinds of inftruments for drawing blood •, and has left a
more ample and com# delineation of furgical inftru-
D o. ments
2S
SURGERY.
Iliilory.
ments than any of the ancients. He gives various ob-
ifetiical diie6lions for extradting the fcetus in cafes oi
diilicult labour. He mentions the bronchocele, or pro¬
minent tumor on the neck, which, he tells us, was moft
frequent among the female fex. We are alfo informed
by this writer, that the delicacy of the Arabian women
did not permit male furgeons to perform lithotomy on
females; but when neceffary, it was executed by one of
their own fex.
From the nth century to the middle of the xqth,
the hiltory of furgery affords nothing remarkable ex¬
cept the importation of that naufeous difeafe the leproiy
into Europe. Towards the end of the 15th century
the venereal difeafe is faid to have been imported from
America by the firlt difcoverers of that continent.
At the beginning of the 16th century, furgery was
held in contempt in this ifland, and was pradbfed indif-
crirninately by barbers, farriers, and fow-gelders. Bar¬
bers and furgeons continued, for 200 years after, to
be incorporated in one company both in London and
Paris. In Holland and fome parts of Germany, even
at this day, barbers exercife the razor and lancet alter¬
nately.
It is within the laft three centuries that we have any
confiderable improvement in furgery 5 nor do we know
of any eminent Britifh furgical writers until within the
laft 130 years. “ In Germany (fays Heifter) all the
different furgical operations, at the beginning even of
the iS'h century, were left to empirics j while regular
praclilioners were contented to cure a wound, open a
vein or an abfcefs, return a fractured or luxated bone ;
but they feldom or never ventured to perform any of the
difficult operations.” He alfo fpeaks of their grofs ig>
5 norance of the Latin language.
Sixteenth The firft furgical work of the 16th century worthy
century. cf not;ice is that of J. Carpus. F. ab Aquapendente, an
Italian, publilhed a Syftem of Surgery, containing a de-
feription of the various difeafes, accidents, and opera¬
tions. Boerhaave pays this author the following com¬
pliment : ///<? f/peravit omnes, et nemo illi hanc clifputat
gloriam ; omnibus polius quam hocce carcre pcj/iwius.
About the fame period, A. Parey, a Frenchman, made
fcveral important additions to furgery, particularly in
h:s colleffion of cafes of wounds, fractures, and other
accidents which occur during war. The ancients, who
were ignorant of powder and fire-arms, are defective in
this part of military furgery. Parey pretends to have
firft invented the method of tying with a needle and
ftrong filk-thread waxed the extremities of large ar¬
teries, after the amputation of a member. The liga¬
ture of the blood-veffels is, however, merely a revival of
the ancient pradlice, which had fallen into difufe :
Throughout the dark ages, the hot iron, cauteries, and
ftrong aftringents, were fubftituted in its place. B.
Maggius and L. Botellus wrote on the cure of gunfhot
wounds. J. A. Cruce wrote a fyftemof furgery.
In the 17th century, furgery was enriched with feve-
ral fyftems, and with detached or mifcellaneous obferva-
t'ons. The principal authors are, M. A. Severinus,
V. Vidius, R. Wifeman, Le Clerc, J. Scultetus, J.Man-
getus, C. Magatus, Spigellius, F. Hildanus, T. Bartho-
^ lin, P. de Marchett.
Eighteenth During the laft century, furgery, like all the other
century. fciences, made more rapid progrefs toward perfefHon,
than during all the, preceding periods. This partly a-
rofe from the afliftance of governments in the different Hiftory.
countries. I hey being convinced that anaiomy is one or v~"-“
tiie moft neceliary Lienees, and the groundwork of the
whole healing art, but particularly ot furgery, in many
great cities academies were inliiiuted tor the cultiva*
tioa of practical anaiomy ; and fchools were alio efta-
bliihed for the inftrudtion of the theoretical and pra&ical
parts of furgery.
Thefe improvements in furgery have been chiefly-
made in England, France, and Germany j and in all
there countries a number of very eminent men have ap¬
peared.
i he Englifh furgeons, befides pofiefling an accurate
knowledge of anatomy, and great abilities in the opera¬
tive part of their piofeffion, u'ere the fivft who endea¬
voured to bring the art to its prefent fimplicity. They
directed alio their attention, in a particular manner, to
the diet of patients j the negledt of which had caufed
the unfoi tunate iffue of many operations which had been
dexteroufly performed.
Among the furgeons of later times, we may firft men¬
tion the name of Sharp. He was a fcholar of Cheffelden,
and one of the belt iurgeons of his day. He wrote a
Compendium of Surgical Operations, 1746 j and alfo a
Critical Inquiry into the State of Surgery ; both of
which works are ftill in high eftimation.
In the year 1719, Dr Monro, after viSting the
fchools of London, Paris, and Leyden, where he was a
pupil of the great Boerhaave, came to Edinburgh ; and
this may be confidered as the date of the foundation of
the Edinburgh medical fchool. He began by giving .
lectures on anatomy and furgery, the firft which were de¬
livered in Edinburgh j and in the year 1721 he was ap¬
pointed profeffor ot anatomy and iurgery to the univer-
fity. This eminent anatemift and furgeon, belides fill¬
ing his chair with the greateft reputation, contributed to
the advancement of cur knowledge in many important
parts of anatomy and furgery. His works, publilhed by
his fon, befides his Treatife on Ofteology, which is cer¬
tainly the belt defeription of the bones that has ever been
given, will be found to contain many interefting and
valuable obfervations on various furgical difeafes.
Jofeph Warner, furgeon of Guy’s Hofpital, in Lon¬
don, publilhed his Cafes and Remarks in Surgery, in
the year 1754, a work which contains many very im¬
portant practical remarks He afterwards publilhed a
very good -work, containing a defeription of the human
eye and its adjacent parts, in which die particularly re-
jedls the fattening of the eye during the operation of ca-
tarafl. He alfo publilhed An Account of the Tefticlcs,
their Common Coverings and Coats, &.c.
Per aval Pott, furgeon of St Bartholomew’s Hofpital,
may be juftly confidered as one of the principal Englifh
furgeons of his time. He was not only a fuccefsful prac¬
titioner, but an induftrious and excellent writer. The
merits of Pott are indeed confiderable. He threw
much light on the d-odlrine of wounds of the head, by
his accurate arrangement of the different kinds of in¬
juries to which the head is fubjecL He alfo gives a good
account of hydrocele and the other difeafes of the tefti-
cle. For the operation of the fiftula in ano, he made ma¬
terial improvements. He has given many ufeful hints
on fradtures and dillocations; and he was a great cham¬
pion in favour of the operation for cataradl by couching.
He was the firft perfon who deferibed the chimney-
fweeps
Hlftery.
S
Arrange¬
ment of
furgical
difeafes.
S tr It G E It Y,
29
(Weeps cancer j and on her rise, polypus, and curvatures
of the fpine, he has made many judicious pathological
and practical obfervations.
Charles IVhiie, furgeon in Manchefter, publithed an
excellent praftical work, in the year 17 70, in which he
recommends amputation of the foot, a little above the
ankle joint, inftead of under the knee, as had ufually
been pra&ifed. He alio (hows the effect of fawing off
the ends of bones j and difcuffes feveral other intereft-
ing points in fur^ery. In the fame year, Mr Elfe of
St Thomas’s Hofpital, publifhed his treatife on the hy¬
drocele, in which he recommends the ufe of cauftic in
the cure of that difeafe.
In the year 1770, Air Deafe, of Dublin, wrote an ex¬
cellent treatife on the wounds of the head. Mr Brom-
field, of St George’s Hofpital, and Mr Hill, furgeon at
Dumfries, alfo diftioguiihed themfelves 5 Mr Bromfield
for his Chiruigical Obfervations, and Mr Hill for his
Obfervations on Cancers.
In the year 1778, Air Benjamin Bell publifhed the
firft volume of his Syftem of Surgery. The reputation
of this work was foon fuch, that it was tranflated into
the French and German languages ; and it has fince
gone through feveral editions in thefe, and many in
Fnglifh.
This work prefented the mod complete fyftem of for¬
gery which had ever appeared } and in every part of it
there is difplayed a talent for pradlical obfervation and
clearnefs of thought which mud render it ever a ufeful
and valuable prefent to furgery. Like all fuch extenlive
works, it is not without faults, and the language in
which it is written is in fome placef prolix and diffufe j
but notwithdanding its errors, it certainly mud be con-
(idered as the mod ufeful body of furgery that has ever
yet appeared in this country.
Belides thefe, mention mud be made of two other
eminent furgeons, William and John Hunter; the former
rendered immortal by his fplendid work on the gravid
uterus, and the latter by his treatife on the venereal dif¬
eafe, and his treatife on the blood, inflammation, and
gun-fhot wounds.
Many very eminent men arofe, both in France and
Germany, during the lad century. The tranfa&ions of
their academies leave a lading monument of their zeal
and indudry.
In France we have the names of Petit, Arnaud, Ga-
rangeot, Morand, Le Dran, Le Cat, Louis, David Lev-
ret, Le Blanc, De la Faye, David Chopart, Defifault,
damn, Jourdain, Pouteau, Andre Lombard Wenfel.
In Germany, furgery has been enriched by the works
°f Vogel, Platner, iUbert Haller, Bilguer, Weitz, Sei-
bold, Brambilla, Theden, Smucker, Stork, Plenk, Ifen-
flamm, Rougemont, Conradi, and many others.
Mod authors who have written fydems of furgery
have deferibed difeafes according to the parts of the
body where they were fituated *, beginnning with the
head, and deferibing the parts in fugeefuon, according
to their fityation.
Befides this mode of arrangement being unphilofophj-
cal, it has many ferious difadvantages. Difeafes which have
no analogy to each other, are treated of in the fame place ;
and fimilar difeafes are treated of feparately, indead of be-
ijig claffed together, and conlidered in one general point
of view. A repetition of what may be confidered as the Hiftory.
fpecific chara&ers of the difeafe, therefore, is con- va¬
liantly occurring. The utility of nofological fydems in
praftical medicine and in pathology, has been very ge¬
nerally acknowledged. Difeafes which have common
characters are thus brought together and are arranged
under claffes, orders, genera, and fpecies. It is to be
conlidered, therefore, as an important ftep in order to
facilitate the knowledge of the difeafes of the human
body, and to give clear and diftinCt ideas of them j for
it is equally important, to be able to didinguilh difeafes,
as to point out how they diould be treated.
All nofological writers have not, however, cohdruCl-
ed their fydems on fimilar principles j and their efforts
have been often frudrated by the falfe theories andhypo-
thefes with which they have fet out.
The world is indebted to the ingenious and celebrat¬
ed Bichat, for the fird truly philofophical view of the
drufture of the human body. The fimple divilion of it
into its component parts, which that great anatomid and
philofopher pointed out, mud be confidered as the ground- .
work of all future anatomical and pathological inquiries.
Bichat demondrated, that mod of the organs of our
body are made up of a variety of elementary parts or
textures j each of which, in whatever part of the body it
is found, uniformly has the fame phyfical properties, ard
prefent the fame morbid pha:nomena. Thefe he confi-
ders as the elementary parts; which, by the diverfity ot
their combinations, produce all the modifications of druc-
ture and funftions exhibited in the different organs of
animals. This method of confidering organized bodies,
accords with every phtenomenon with which we are ac¬
quainted, and feems to arife from the effential nature of
their conditution. We may trace this view of the ftruc-
ture of the body in the obfervations of many of the ol¬
der anatomills \ and particularly it may be confidcred as
the bafis of fome of the mod ingenious philofophical
theories of the late ingenious Mr John Hunter.
In order to fix the chara&ers of the elementary tex¬
tures, Bichat employed various modes of inquiry. He
performed numerous experiments on living animals ; per-
fevered in tedious and minute diffeftions 5 employed che¬
mical reagents to fupply the place of the knife; andexa- .
mined with minutenefs all the varieties of morbid druc-
turs. Having by thefe means accompiifhed his object in
tracing the characfer of each feparate texture, he pro¬
ceeded next to invedigatc their combinations as they are '
found in the different organs.
The effefts of this mode of invedigating the flru&ure
of the human body when difeafed, mud be at once ob¬
vious. We learn from it, that difeafes at their com¬
mencement are generally confined to one texture of an . '
organ ; the ether textures of which the organ is com-
pofed remaining found.
There is no organ of the body from which this im¬
portant truth may not be deduced. It may be readily
illudrated from confidering the difeafes of the mucous,
ferous, and mufcular textures,.which compofe the domach
and alimentary canal ; of the cellular texture of the
lungs ; of the mucous membrane of the. bronchi, the
ferous one pf the pleura, and many others.
But difeafes are not only confined to one individual
texture of any organ, as in the cafes jud mentioned ;
the fymptoms and morbid changes are likewrfe uniform- .
ly the fame in textures of a fimiiar ftrudl-qre, in whatever.
.
V
3©
SURGERY.
Hi (lory, parts of the body thefe textures may happen to be found.
",r_v m'~~ Thus the ferous membranes which invelt the lungs, the
brain, the heart, the abdominal vifcera, have one com¬
mon charaftef when affe&ed with any fpecific difeafe :
fo alfo have the mucous membranes, whether we trace
them in the mouth, the nofe, the vagina, the urethra, or
.covering the eye-ball $ and the fame may be obferved of
every individual texture which enters into the compofi-
tion of our bodies.
Befides the fymptoms and morbid changes which are
common to all textures whofe ftru&ure is fimilar in the
natural ftate, there are others which are determined
from the particular fun£lions of the organ in which the
difeafed texture exifts. For example, when ,any of the
ferous membranes are inflamed, the nature of the pain,
the degree of fever, and the duration of the fymptoms,
are the fame, in whichfoever one it may have taken
place. But to thefe fymptoms are added, cough, diffi¬
culty of breathing, &c. when it happens to be conneft-
ed with the organs of refpiration, as in the cafe of pleu-
ritis ; coftivenefs, ftrangury, delirium, lofs of vifion,
when the inteftines, the bladder, the brain, or the eye,
are involved in the difeafe.
This view of the fubjeft naturally fuggefts a corre-
fpondent divifion of the fymptoms. The firft clafs are
general, and chara&erife a whole genus of textures $
the fecond are in a manner acceflbry, and depend Upon
the relative fituation or the particular fundlions of the
organ into the compofition of which the affefted texture
enters.
But here we muft fet bounds to this theory j—the hi-
llory and progrefs of difeafes fhew, that we Ought not to
confine our obfervations within fuch narrow limits. The
principles which have been dated, indeed, account ad¬
mirably well for the propagation of fome affe&ions;
and for fome of the fympathies which fubfifl: between
different parts of the body 5 but there are other difor-
ders which advance in a very different manner. In fome
difeafes wffiich are termed chronic, for example, the
whole ftrufture of an organ becomes gradually altered,
although the primary affe&ion was confined to one of
its component textures. This is often to be obferved in
cancer, fcrofula, lues venerea, &c. When cancer at¬
tacks the mamma, it is at its commencement generally
confined to a fmall portion of that gland ; but if allow¬
ed to proceed, it ultimately involves the whole gland,
and the adjacent cellular and cutaneous textures, in one
mafs of difeafe.
Thefe general obfervations will be fufficient to give
an outline cf the principles of a pathological fyftem,
founded on the bafis of anatomical knowledge j and in
giving an account of thefe difeafes which more properly
belong to a fyftem of furgery, we have ventured to ap¬
ply thefe principles. We {hall, in the firft place, there¬
fore, confider the difeafes of the cellular membrane ; the
difeafes of the Ikin ; of the mucous, ferous, and finovial
membranes; of bone and cartilage ", of the vafcular and
nervous fyftems; and of the glands. In the fecond
place, wre ihall treat of difeafes which occur only in par¬
ticular organs, whether from the peculiarity of their
ftru&ure or functions : fuch are the difeafes of the eyes,
ears, nofe, teetn, mouth, and fauces, and the organs of
urine and generation. In the third place, we ffiall take
.notice of malconformations, diftortions, and protru-
4
fions •, and in the laft place, of wounds, fra&ures, diflo- Hiftory.
cations, and fuch operations as are occafionally neceffary 1 V'”""
to be performed on different parts of the body, as ampu-
tion, futures, &.c.
Chap. I.
Of the Difeafes of the Cellular Membrane.
Sect. I. General Remarks on the Pathology of the t
Cellular Membrane.
The cellular membrane is diftinguiffied from other
organs, by the power which it has of throwing out
granulations, by its being capable of elongation, of re¬
production, and of growth when it has been divided or
cut by any means *. * Bichat
Suppuration alfo takes place in the cellular mem- Anatomic
brane, with a rapidity of which we have few examples Defcri*~
in other textures. The fluid which is the refult of this
fuppuration, is well known. Its colour, its confiftence,
and all its external qualities, have become the criterion
by which we form our ideas oipus ; in confequence of
which, all difeharges which do not refemble it, have
been commonly confidered as pus of a bad kind, or as
fames. This opinion, however, is falfe ; and has been
formed in confequence of a too fuperficial view' of the
different circumftances attending different kinds of dif-
charged fluids. Certainly the pus which is difeharged
from a bone, from a mufcle, from the Ikin in eryfipelas,
from the mucous membranes in catarrh, is of a good
kind whenever the inflammation runs through regu¬
larly its different periods, and notwithftanding it is
quite different in all thefe cafes from the pus produced
by fuppuration of the cellular membrane. As the lat¬
ter is moft frequently obferved, from it W'e have formed
an idea of laudable pus, and of fatties. The cutaneous
pus, the mucous pus, the offeous pus, &c. have all their
proper fanies $ which differ from one another as much
as the natural ftruflure and funftions of the organs from
which they are produced.
There are few parts of the body which have a greater
number of exhalents than the cellular membrane ; and
this expofes it to a number of alterations of ftruc-
ture, fuch as being preternaturally diftended by the dif¬
ferent iubftances wffiich it exhales ", thefe prefentmg a
folid appearance, and fometimes producing a lardy fub-
ftance, fometimes a gelatinous matter, and fometimes a
much firmer and harder mafs. The numerous abfor*
bent veffels which are alfo diftributed on the cellular
membrane, is another caufe of various difeafes ; every
Cnall cell being a refervoir common to the exhalents
which terminate in it, and to the abforbents which arife
from it.
There are fome difeafes, too, which produce a change
in the elafticity and powers of diftenfion, which the
cellular membrane naturally poffeffes. In health it has
enormous powders of diftenfion, as may be obferved in
emphyfema and in anafarca; and whenever thefe caufes
are removed, it regains its natural bulk and form. In
inflammations, this property is in part deftroyed, and it
happens alfo in many of the different indurations to
which it is liable. Its elafticity is alfo lefs remarkable in
people advanced in life, than in children. When an old
man becomes rapidly thin, the {kin becomes flacid, and
formed
Chap. I. S U R G
Of the Pa- formed into many folds; but when a young man is ema-
thology the Ikin is applied exadlly to the fubjacent organ,
Membrane1 and Prc^erves ^ts tenfion.
i The cellular membrane, when difeafed, becomes
fometimes extremely lenfible, and the feat of acute pain,
though it feems to poffels no fenlibility in its natural
Hate. When either blood, milk, or lymph, are effufed
in it, its fenfibility is not altered, and thefe fluids are
abforbed. On the contrary, the fenfibility is fo much
altered by the contact of urine, of bile, of faliva, and of
the other fluids deftined to be thrown out of the body,
that often the inflammation which fucceeds the efiruflon
prevents their abforption.
As the cellular membrane enters into the compofition
of every organ, it is often difficult to diftinguilh in dif-
eafes what belongs to it from what is the attribute
of the parts with wdiich it is found. Thefe connec¬
tions, however, become manifeft under feveral circum-
flances : in acute and chronic difeafes it is very fufcep-
tible of being influenced by the difeafe of the organs.
We do not fpeak here of the alterations produced
from juxtapofition and continuity, but of thofe which
arife in parts of the cellular membrane which have no
known connection with the affected organ.
In acute difeafes which affeCt a particular organ, as
the lungs, ftomach, inteflines, &c. often the cellular
membrane becomes fympathetically affeCted and the feat
of inflammation and abfceflesj &c. The greater num¬
ber of critical abfcefles arife from this connection which
exifts between the organ affeCted and the cellular mem¬
brane. In acute difeafes too it is commonly the func¬
tion of exhalation or abforption of the cellular mem¬
brane that is affeCted, and hence the hidden oedema
which often accompanies them. In chronic difeafes
their influence is no lefs remarkable. It is well known,
that in chronic difeafes of the heart, of the lungs, of the
liver, of the flomach, kidneys, uterus, &.c. they have for
their fymptom during their laft flages an anafarca, more
or lefs general, which arifes from a debility produced in
the cellular fyffem.
We obferve, that in all acute difeafes, the fkin re¬
ceives with great facility the fympathetic influence of
the difeafed organ, and that it is alternately moifl.
and dry frequently during the fame day. It is by no
means improbable that the cellular membrane under¬
goes alterations analogous to thofe of the Ikin ; and if
we could obferve what paffes in it, we would difcover
the cells more or lefs moift, more or lefs dry, according
as it happened to be influenced : it is alfo to this that
we ought to attribute the different ftate of the cellular
membrane, in patients who have died of acute difeafes ;.
. thefe prefenting numberlefs varieties in the ferous ef-
fufions.
The cellular fyftem is not only influenced by its fym-
pathy wdth other organs ) but it alfo exercifes a lym-
pathy over them. In a phlegmon or inflammation of
the cellular membrane, if the tumour is confiderable,
often various alterations take place in the funftions of
the brain, of the heart, of the liver, or of the ftomach.
The fympathetic vomiting, &c. are thofe phenomena in
great phlegmons which are often manifefted without be¬
ing conlidered as belonging to the difeafe.
Art avails itfelf of the influence of the cellular
lyftem being affedled by other organs, in the ufe of
fetons. Often in the difeafes of the eye and of joints
E R Y. si
a feton produces an effect which cannot be obtained by Of the Pa-
a blifter} and this probably arifes from the conneiftion
which exifts between the cellular membrane and the Membrane_
eye, being more aftive than that which exifts between u—
that organ and the fkin *. , * Vide
It ought alfo to be remarked, in conftdering the pa- -A^atomis
thology of the cellular fyftem, that there is a manifeft
difference in the properties of the cellular texture, which 2icidu -
is compofed of layers and filaments •, and in that found
exterior to the different mucous lurfaces, to the blood-
veffels and excretories, which confifts of filaments alone.
From this difference refults the rare occurrence of in¬
flammations and of different kinds of tumors in the lat¬
ter. It often forms a barrier where the morbid affec¬
tion of the former flops, and thus protedls the organ
which it envelopes.
The unfrequency of hemorrhagy when extenfive fup-
purations have laid bare large arteries is a proof of what
has been faid. We have feen cafes where the cellu¬
lar membrane contiguous to the brachial and femoral
arteries has been completely ulcerated, whilfl: the coats
of the arteries remained found. We have obferveff the
fame phenomenon in the urethra and in the inteftines.
In cafes of fuppuration of the proftate gland and cavern¬
ous bodies of the urethra, the canal has remained un¬
touched ; and in a cafe of femoral hernia, where the
hernial fac, and the cellular membrane covering it, all
mortified, the protruded gut remained quite found.
The cellular membrane has alfo a powerful influence
in the produ&ion of a variety of tumors and excref-
cences, forming as it were their bafe or parenchyma of
nutrition. Fncyfted tumors are met with alone in the
cellular texture of different parts of the body, and va¬
rious kinds of folid tumors and excrefcences are formed
by the growth of that texture on the part where the
tumor is to be developed ; afterwards different fub-
flances are deposited amongft it, the difference in the
nature of which ccnftitutes the difference in the tu¬
mors.
Thefe remarks will' be fuffleient to give a general
view of the pathology of the cellular membrane, and
will enable us to form a more comprehenfive and con¬
nected view of thofe difeafes, which may be more pro¬
perly conlidered as coming within the province of fur-
geyy-
The difeafes of the cellular membrane which we lhall
treat of in this chapter are, i. Inflammation of the cel¬
lular membrane, or phlegmon. 2. Panaris or whitloe.
3. Sinufes. 4. Carbuncle. 5. Encyfted tumors. 6. Stea-
tom. 7. Sarcoma. 8. CEdema. And, 9. Emphyfema.
Sect. II. Of ’Phlegmon. ^
In raoft accounts which furgical authors have given
of inflammation, they have taken the deferintion of its
general phenomena from inflammation of the cellular
membrane.
Inflammation of the cellular membrane, or phlegmon,
is characterized by a tumor more or lefs elevated and
cireumfcribed, vifible or not vifible, according to the
part where it is fituated. It is always accompanied with
an increafed fenfibility of the part, and with a lancina¬
ting or beating pain, a degree of heat, greater than
natural, a bright rednefs, which becomes more livid as
the difeafe advances, an elevated point, and it gradual¬
ly
5 0 II G E 11 Y.
Chap. I.
ly turns fofter from tbc cenler to one part of the cir¬
cumference.
Thefe are the fymptoms which are generally to be
obferved more or'lefs remarkable in every fpecies of
phlegmon. When they are flight, and when the af-
fe£ted part is not extenfive? or very important from
the nature of its fundtions, it generally has not much
influence on the general fyllem. But when they are more
coniiderable, and the inflammation extends tar, the pulie
becomes commonly full, frequent, and hard j at the
fame time, the patient complains of univerfal heat, thirif,
and other febrile fymptoms.
When by the efforts of nature, or by the application
of proper remedies, the pain, the heat, and the tenfion
go away, the other fymptoms, which depend in a great
degree or altogether on the firft which have been men¬
tioned, difappear alfo, and the patient quickly recovers
his health. This termination, which is commonly the
the moft defirable, is called /v/s/W/cw.
But if, notwithstanding the remedies ufed, the differ¬
ent fymptoms augment inftead of diminifhing, the tu¬
mor gradually increaies in fize and turns foft. A fm^ll
eminence is obferved towards the centre of the tumor
or at fome particular point, and its furface becomes
polifhed. Soon afterwards the pain diminifhes, and the
febrile fymptoms abate ; and on comprefling the tumor,
the flu£tuation of a fluid can be perceived in it, and
this conftitutes the fecond termination of a phlegmon,
or abfeefs.
Of the treatment of Phlegmon.—The principal object
which is to be generally "kept in view in the treatment
of inflammatory tumors, is to obtain their refolution j
this being the moft prompt and moft certain mode of
cure. There are, however, fome cafes which are an
exception to this general rule } fuch as fome inflamma¬
tory tumors which precede fevers, and other internal
difeafes : for it is commonly fuppofed that in thefe cafes,
fuppuration is a mode by which nature throws off cer¬
tain fluids or humours, which are pernicious to remain in
the fyftem. There are other tumors which feem to
arife from internal caufes, where it is perhaps better nei¬
ther to attempt to accelerate their fuppuration nor refo¬
lution, but to truft them entirely to nature. Such are
inflammatory tumors which occur in fcrofulous fub-
jefts. There are few cafes of this kind where fuppu¬
ration ought to be promoted, for their treatment is al¬
ways embarrafling whether they are opened naturally
or by art. It is well known too, that fuch tumors
often remain a long time without any danger , from
whence we may conclude, that it is moft prudent not to
touch them.
In the venereal difeafe, we have a fpecific for its cure ;
and when buboes are opened, or other inflammatory ve¬
nereal fwellings, they generally become very difficult
and embarraffing to treat. It is therefore always moft
prudent to attempt their refolution.
The principal means to be employed, in order to pro¬
cure the refolution of an inflammatory tumor, are local
and general blood-letting, the application of heat and
moifture, &c. Leeches is perhaps the beft mode of bleed¬
ing the inflamed part \ but fhould the inflammation
take place in any of the extremities, or contiguous to
any of the large veins, one or other of thefe may be
onened. There is no application which tends fo much
to remove the tenfion and pain of an inflamed part as
3
the ufe of poultices or warm fomentations. Applica- ^
tions of a fedative nature are recommended by many, P^egmcn^
fuch as the different preparations of lead, the fulphate ct
zinc, vinegar, Sec. •, but as far as we have been able to
obferve, the ufe of this clafs of medicines has by no
means luch powerful effedls as emollients, though it
has been generally fuppofed that emollients haften fup¬
puration. In applying poultices, they fhould generally
be removed three or four times in twenty-four hours, and
the part bathed with warm water each time the poultice
is changed. When fomentations are to be ufed, many
employ warm water alone, whilfl others prefer a decoc¬
tion of chamomile flowers, or of poppy heads. A piece
of flannel of confiderable flze, wet with either of thefe
in nearly the boiling heat, is to be forcibly wrung out,
and applied as warm as the patient can fuffer it, to the
inflamed part. A fecond piece of flannel is to be pre¬
pared in the fame manner, and whenever that which is
flirt applied begins to cool, the fecond piece is to be em¬
ployed ; and this praftice is to be continued for ten or
fifteen minutes, and repeated as often as it is found to re¬
lieve the patient. The bell mode of applying the fe¬
dative remedies in external inflammation, is in the form
of watery folution. Half an ounce of the acetate of
lead diffolved in four ounces of vinegar, with the addi¬
tion of two pounds of diftilled water, is a convenient
form. In making ufe of this folution, it is of confe-
quence to have the parts aftefted kept conftantly mcift,
and cataplafms prepared with it generally anfwer that
intention exceedingly well. But when the inflamed
part is fo tender and painful, as not eafily to bear the
weight of a poultice, pieces of foft linen, moiflened with
the folution ihould be employed. Both ftiould be ap¬
plied cold, or at leaft with no greater warmth than is
merely neceffary for preventing pain or uneafinefs to the
patient. They fhould be kept conftantly at the part,
and always renewed before turning dry and ftift.
When the part affeirled with inflammation is not very
tender, or lies deep, applications of vinegar are often
had recourfe to with confiderable advantage; and the
moft effectual form in uflng it, is in that of cata-
plafm, made with the ftrongeft vinegar and crumb of
bread. In fuch cafes, the alternate ufe of this remedy,
with the faturnine folution, has produced more benefi¬
cial tffe&s than are commonly obferved from a continu¬
ed courfe of any one of them.
In all cafes of inflammation, the whole body, but
more efpecially the difeafed part, ffiould be preferved as
free as poftible from every kind of motion, and the pa¬
tient fliould be confined to a low cooling diet, and alfo
a total abftinence from fpirituous and fermented li¬
quors.
In flight cafes of inflammation, a due perfet'erance in
the mode of treatment which has been mentioned, will
be in general fufficient to accomplifh the intended pur-
pofes 5 but wffien there is likewife a full, hard, and quick
pulfe, with other fymptoms of fever, general blood-let¬
ting becomes neceffary; and the quantity of blood ta¬
ken away is always to be determined by the extent and
violence of'the difeafe, and by the age and ftrength of
the patient. Evacuations, however, fhould never be
carried to a greater height than what is merely necef¬
fary for moderating the febrile fymptoms; for fhould
fuppuration take place after the fyftem is too much re¬
duced, its progrefs becomes more flow and uncertain j
nor
Chap. I. S U R
Of nor is the patient able to fupport the difcharge that en-
Phlegmon. pues> ^'jje ufe Gf g^tle laxatives, with a cooling diet,
js aif0 attended with very good effefts.
Befides thefe different evacuations, it is of great con-
fequence to procure eafe and quietneis to the patient.
The moft effectual remedy for this purpofe is opium,
and, when the pain and irritation are Confiderable, as
in extenfive inflammations very frequently happens, it
fliould never be omitted. In all fuch cafes, the opium
fhould be given in full dofes, otherwife, inftead of prov¬
ing ferviceable, it feems rather to have the contrary ef-
fed:, a circumftance which is perhaps the chief reafon
for fopiates having been by feme very unjuflly con¬
demned in every cafe of inflammation.
By a proper attention to thefe different circumftances,
a refolution of the tumor will generally begin to take
place in the courfe of three or four days, and fometimes
in a fhorter time ; at leaf! before the end of that period,
it may be for the moft part known how the diforder is
to terminate. If the heat, pain, and rednefs, and other
attendant circumftances abate, and efpecially if the tu¬
mor begins to decreafe, it is probable that, by a con¬
tinuance of the fame plan, a total refolution will be final-
lyeffeded.
But, on the contrary, if all the different fymptcms
rather increafe, and efpecially if the tumor turns larger,
and fomewhat foft, with an increafe of throbbing pain,
we may with tolerable certainty conclude that fuppura-
tion will take place 5 and we fhould therefore immedi¬
ately defift from fuch applications as were judged pro¬
per while a cure was thought pradicable by refolution,
and* endeavour to aflift nature as much as poflible in
the formation of pus, or what is called the maturation
of the tumor. To effect this, nothing is more ufeful
than warm fomentations and cataplafms ; and fhould
thefe not have been employed during the former ftage,
the cold faturnine applications fhould be given up, and
recourfe had to the emollient remedies.
Dry cupping, as it is termed, viz. ufing the cupping
glaffes without the fcarificator, applied as near as pof-
fible to the part affedled, is frequently had recourfe to
in promoting the fuppuration of tumors. It is only,
however, in thofe in which there feems to be a defi¬
ciency of inflammation, that it can ever be either necef-
fary or ufeful j but in all tumors of an indolent nature,
and where there is ftill fome probability of a fuppura¬
tion, no remedy is more effeflual. By thefe different ap¬
plications, continued for a longer or fhorter time, accord¬
ing to the fize of the tumor, its fituation and other cir¬
cumftances, a complete fuppuration may generally be at
laft expedited.
Whilft an abfcefs is forming, it extends acccording as
the quantity of purulent matter is augmented in the ca¬
vity in which it is contained ; and this extenfion takes
place towards that fide where there is leaft refiftance. It
is on this account that where an abfcefs is deep, or
covered by an aponeurofis, it extends in the interfti-
ces of the neighbouring parts, and differs, as it were,
the tendons, the mufcles, and the bones, w'hilft in com¬
mon cafes it makes its way towards the fkin. When
matter is colledled very near to the furface of the body,
and is only covered by the common integuments, it
fpeedily makes its way externally 5 but when it is deep,
and furrounded by parts which make great refiftance,
purulent matter infinuates itfelf until it arrives at fome
Vox.. XX. Part I.
G E R Y. 33
place u?here there is nothing to oppofe its exit “, and it is Of
obferved making its efcape alter having made, in fome cafes, phlegmon.
a very great circuit. It is generally towards the inferior v
parts of the body that purulent matter, in confequence of
its weight, makes its route. On this account we fee large
abfceffes open themfelves moft frequently at their inferior
part, and from thence the advantage which is found by
waiting till they open of themfelves, or that they indi¬
cate the place moft convenient for the opening to be
made. Thus, we fee abfceffes formed under the tempo¬
ral mufcles open themfelves in the mouth, and thofe of
the loins making their appearance near the ring, or upon
the anterior part of the thigh. Deep abfcefles, in certain
parts of the body, proceed rather towards the interior
than towards the furface, becaufe the purulent matter
finds lefs obftrudlion in its paffage. Thofe, for example,
which form on the furface of the lungs, find great re¬
fiftance from the ribs and other parts forming the tho¬
rax, whilft they eafily make their way through the
fpongy fubftance of the lungs, and open in the ramifica¬
tions of the bronchiae. For the fame reafon, abfceffes
formed in the cavity of the abdomen fometimes difcharge
themfelves into the ftomach or inteftines ; but as the pa-
rietes of the belly yield more eafily than thofe of the
cheft, w?e alfo fee abfceffes of the different organs con¬
tained in the belly, difcharge their contents through its
parietes.
When matter is fully formed in a tumor, a remiflion
of all the fymptoms takes place. The throbbing pain,
which before was frequent, now goes off, and the patient
complains of a more dull, heavy, and conftant pain. The
tumor points at fome particular part, generally near to
its middle, wThere, if the matter be not deep feated, a
whitifh yellow appearance is obferved, inftead of the
deep red that formerly took place 5 and a fluctuation of
the fluid underneath is, upon preffure, very evidently
perceived. Sometimes, indeed, when the abfcefs is
thick, and covered writh mufcle and other parts, though
from concurring circumftances there can be little doubt
of there being a very confiderable collection of matter,
yet the fluctuation cannot be readily diitinguilhed. It
does not, however, often happen that matter is fo very
deeply lodged as not to be difcovered on proper exami¬
nation.
This, however, is a circumftance of the greateft con¬
fequence in praCtice, and deferves more attention than is
commonly paid to it. In no part of the furgeon’s
ployment is experience in fimilar cafes of greater ufe
to him than in the prefent j and however Ample it
may appear, yet nothing more readily diftinguifties a
man of extenfive obfervation than his being able eafily
to deteCt deep-feated collections of matter ; whilft; no¬
thing, on the contrary, fo materially affeCts the charac¬
ter of the furgeon as his having, in fuch cafes, given an
inaccurate or unjuft prognofis.
In addition to the feveral local fymptoms of the pre¬
fence of pus already enumerated, may be mentioned the
frequent ftfiverings to which patients are liable on its
firft formation. Thefe, however, feldom occur fo as to
be eafily diftinguiftied, unlefs the colleCHon is confider¬
able ; but it is a fymptom conftantly obferved in all
large abfoeffes; and when it takes place, along with
other fymptoms of fuppuration, it always contributes to'
point out the true nature of the difeafe.
Of the opening of Abfcejfes,—When abfceffes come to 15
E complete
34
SURGERY.
Chap. 1.
Of complete maturity, the integuments gradually become
Abfcefles. dinner over the more prominent psrt of the tumor ^ tind
  they become ulcerated in one or more points through
which the pus is evacuated. In many cafes it is advi-
f'able to wait for the fpontaneous rupture but, on the
other hand, it is often more prudent, and is indeed abfo-
lutely necelfary, ro give vent to the matter by an artifi¬
cial opening. It is a general rule not to have recouife
to fuch means before fuppuration is completely formed j
for if an abfeefs be opened before this period, and a con-
fiderable hardnefs remain around, the treatment after¬
wards becomes very embarrafiing and difficult. It is,
however, necelfary in fome cafes to depart from this ge¬
neral rule, and to open an abfeefs much fooner. Above
all, thofe which are critical, and thofe which are the
confequence of lingering fevers.
In many cafes there is neither fafety nor convenience
to be expedled from the fpontanecus opening of the in¬
teguments. In abfeefies lituated in any of the joints, or
upon either of the cavities of the breaft or abdomen, and
more efpecially when they feem to run deep, they (hould
always be opened as foon as the leaf! fludluation of mat¬
ter can be difeovered ^ for when the refiftance is on either
fide equal, it juft as readily points inwardly towards the
cavity, as outwardly towards the fkm } and the confe¬
quence of a large abfeefs buvfting into either of the large
cavities, moft frequently proves fatal.
Abfceffes are fometimes formed about the face, which
point externally, and tliefe fhould be opened in the mfide
of the mouth, in order to prevent any deformity. _ When¬
ever the fluftuation is fenfible, this {hould be immedi¬
ately done. They cicatrife very rapidly, and require
no dreflings.
Abfcefles confined under an aponeurofis, and in gene¬
ral under thofe parts which are not capable of being ex¬
tended without much difficulty, ought to be opened
early. Such are abfceffes which are formed under the
temporal mufcles or fafeia lata of the thigh, or thofe
which frequently happen in the extremity of the fingers,
under the arch of the palate, round the maxillary bones,
behind the ear, above the mafloid procefles, &c.. All
thefe ought to be opened very fpeedily, and in particular
thofe laft mentioned, on account of the danger of a ca¬
ries of the bone in which they lie being produced.
It is alfo particularly neceffary to open without delay
abfceffes in the neighbourhood of the anus, or near the
urethra. This ought alfo to be done in large.abfceffes of
the extremities, and in particular thofe which are the
confequence of violent inflammation, occupying the
whole member, as the thigh, the arm, &c. If in fuch
cafes the matter be allowed to remain too long, the
greater part of the cellular memorane is detached irom
the fubjacent aponeurofis, and . there often follow large
gangrenous {loughs, which in leparating themfelves lay
open extenfive Surfaces, and often form large bags of
pus, which become as many feparate abfceffes •, and often
the diforder is fuch that the whole of the integuments of
the member fphacelate and fall off. It is alio neceffary
not to delay the opening of abfceffes formed among the
large mufcles, the interftices of which are filled up
with cellular texture ; fuch are thofe of the thigh, the
back leg, and under the arm-pit. In thefe fituations the
matter is'very apt to fpread, and to form ramifications of
the abfeefs in various direttions, which, if not treated
with sauch care, are very tedious to heal.
Of
J 7
} ?
With the exception of thofe cafes which have been
mentioned, it ought to be obferved as a general rule not, ^ ,
to open an abfeefs until fuppuration has completely form¬
ed *, for if it be true, as it is faid, that pus is always fuf-
ficiently prepared to be evacuated, it is alio the cafe,
that the more we favour its formation before giving it
vent, the more we are fure of diminifhing and of redu¬
cing the hardneffes which exift in the neighbourhood^
and facilitating the cicatrization of the ulcer.
Of the different Methods of opening Abfceffes.
There are three different modes of opening abfceffes j ^
viz. by cauftic, incifion, or feton.
i. By Caufic.—The ufe of cauftic is recommended
in cafes where fuppuration has been flow, and has not
occupied the whole tumor 3 in thole wThere the integu>-
ments have fuffered much, and where it was necefiary to
wait long before opening it, on account of fome affection
of the bottom of the abicefs 3 and in general in all cafes
of the fuppuration of glands.
But though there are circumftances which may render
it neceffary to employ the cauftic rather than the incifion,
yet the latter generally deferves the preference. The pain
which it occafions lafts only a moment, whilft that of
cauftic lafts many hours 3 and when the inflamed part
has acquired a morbid degree of fenfibility, the pain is
very violent. The furgeon alfo can never limit precifely
the extent of the aclion of the cauftic 3 and whatever at'
tendon be paid to it, it often extends too far, and pene¬
trates too deep.
To open an abfeefs with cauftic, an adhtfive plafter
fpread on leather is to be applied over the tumor, with a
flit in it of a fize fomewhat lefs than what is intended to
be made in the fkin by the cauftic. The flit is to be
filled with the cauftic reduced into powder, mixed with
a fmall quantity of foap, and wetted, fo as to make it
operate more quickly. Another adhefive plafter is then
to be laid over it, and the whole fecured v.iffi a firm
comprefs and bandage. The time necefl'ary to allow the
cauftic to make a fufficient opening will depend on the
thicknefs of the fkin and ftrength of the cauftic, but
generally it requires two, three, or more hours. When
the efehar is made, and the matter has not efcaped, we
ought to affift its exit with the end of a probe, or the
point of a biftoury; and the {Separation of the efehar is to
be promoted by emollient applications.
2. By the Incifion.—The tumors which are not very ex- r4
tenfive may generally be opened by making a longituo.nal Plate
incifion with the lancet, fee Plate DXHI.fig. 1, For this BXIII.
purpofe, when the lituRtion of the abfeefs peimits it, the ^
furgeon is to apply one hand on the bale of the tumor, and
prefs the pus towards the fkin, by doing which there is no
rifk of wounding any artery, or important part at the bot¬
tom of the tumor, and the lancet penetrates into the cavity
of the abfeefs with more certainty and eafe, and with lefs
pain. With the other hand an incifion of the integu¬
ments is to be made in fuch a direftion, that it terminate
at the moft depending part of the tumor 3 and ffiould
be made of fuch length as may appear neceffary, in or¬
der that the matter may be allowed freely to efcape. It
is in general fuppofed fufficient, in cafes cf fmall abfeef-
fes, that the incifion extend two thirds of the length of
the* tumor. Some authors have advifed, .tbat when the
integuments are much diftended, an incifion fhould be
made through the whole length of the turner, even
where
Chap. I. . S U R G
Of where it is of a large foe > but this praaice ought to be
Abfceffes. rarely adopted* 1 he irritation and confec^uent inilamiTia-
tion, produced from fuch an operation, muft always be very
considerable ; and as it fcarcely ever happen^ that the in¬
teguments are ever fo much extended as entirely to lofe
their contraaile power, there is always reafon to hope
that they will recover their natural dimenlions. In all
very large abfcetles, it is the fafeft praaice to make at
firft a fmall incifion fufficient to allow the contents to
be difcharged j for whenever this is done, the extent of
the cavity rather diminiihcs j and fhould it be found af¬
terwards neceffary to make a more extenfive opening,
this can now be done with much advantage. When an
abfcefs has been opened by either of thele methods, it is
reduced to the date of a fimple wound or ulcer, and
ought to be treated accordingly.
The mode by incifion ought to be preferred to that of
cauftic, when the matter is colkaed deep 5 when it is
in the neighbourhood of important nerves or blood-vef-
fels •, when it is neceffary to make the opening large j
when the fkin which is to be opened has a natural ap¬
pearance ; and, above all, when the ulcer is wiihed for to
be healed rapidly up, and leave little deformity. .
Although furgeons generally agree in preferring the
incifion to the cauftic, it has neverthelefs its inconveni¬
ences. V/henever the incifion is made, the matter con¬
tained in the tumor is fuddenly evacuated j from whence
it happens, when the colleftion is conftderable, that the
patient faints, or has fome other difagreeable fymptoms j
but the principal difadvantage of this method is, that it
gives free accefs to the air over a large extent of the ul¬
cerated furface •, a circumftance which is followed by
Very pernicious effefts, particularly in large abfceffes. A
total change takes place in the nature of the matter $ a
laudable pus is transformed into an ichorous indigefted
fluid j the pulfe becomes quick *, colliquative fweats and
other fymptoms of fever come on, and commonly the
patient dies in a ftiort time. Surgeons have too often oc-
cafion to obferve the dangerous effefls which probably are
altogether produced by the admiflion of the air for we fee
a great number of patients have for a long time after a
termination of inflammatory difeafesconfiderable abfceffes,
where the pus is perfe&ly formed, without (hewing at
the fame time any fymptoxn of heftic fever. But when
thefe abfceffes exceed a certain fize, and if a large inci¬
fion be made into them, there always follow fymptoms
of fever, generally in forty-eight hours from the time that
the abfcefs had been opened. Thefe accidents, which
wc have frequently obferved in private practice, are ftill
more frequent in great hofpitals, where the air is im-
' pregnated with putrid exhalations.
3. By the Seton.—From the obfervalions which have
been already made, it appears neceffary that as much pre¬
caution as pofiible fliould be taken te prevent the contadl
of the air with the internal furface of the abfcefs. Thefeton,
therefore, has the advantage, not only of being attended
•with little pain, and emptying the abfcefs in a gradual
manner, but it completely prevents the accefs of the air.
When patients are otherwife in good health, there is an¬
other advantage in employing the feton ; for frequently
a cure is obtained at a period much {hotter than that
which is ufually neceffary when the incifion has been
* adopted. On the other hand, if we have reafon to
wifti to keep up for a long time a certain degree of irri¬
tation and fuppuration in the affedled part, the feton
E R Y.
ought to be preferred to every other means, r nere have
been various inftruments contrived for introducing the (e-
ton, andit may eafily be done by a lancetand common probe,
or by the inftruments reprefented in Plate DXIII. fig. 15.
and 16. One of thefe being threaded with glovers foft filk
or with cotton, (hould be introduced into the upper pait.
of the tumor ; but if the blunt one be employed, it will
be neceffary to have the afliftance of the lancet. "I he
inftrument is then to be brought out at the under part of
the tumor, and the matter allowed to run gradually
along the threads. The feton (heuld be changed forty-
eight Irours after it has been introduced, and as. much
of it fhould be pulled out at the under part as is fufti-
cient to allow the removal of that which was (hut up
m the abfcefs. The abfcefs is to be dreffed in this man¬
ner every day as long as circumftances feem to require.
By means of the feton, we obtain a regular and flow
difeharge of the matter contained in the abfeeis 5 the
fides of the abfcefs are allowed to contraft in a gradual
manner ) the prefence and fri&ion of the feton on the
furfaces, excites a (light inflammation which contributes
to unite them, and to complete an adhefion, much moie
readily than by any other method. In proportion as the
difeharge diminifhes, the thicknefs of the (eton ought to
Be leffened * and this is eafily done by taking out fome
of the threads of the cotton every two or three days.
It ought to be entirely taken out when no more matter
is difcharged than what would be produced by the irri¬
tation of the feton alone j and by comprefling gently the
parts for fome days after it has been withdrawn, with a
comprefs and bandage, we can in general depend upon
a complete cure. _
When fpeaking of the mode of introducing the fe¬
ton, we recommended that this fliould be done from
above downwards, becaufe, if the firft opening be made
at the bafe of the tumor, a great quantity of matter
immediately efcapes. Thus the boundaries of the ab¬
fcefs at the upper part become eftaced, and the paflage
of the direftor along the abfcefs is much more difficult
than when the abfcefs is opened according to the manner
we have pointed out. In that way the under part
of the tumor is left completely diftended till the lafl
moments, and only a very fmall quantity of matter et-
capes by the fuperior orifice. Another advantage is,
that the part of the feton left for the future dreffings,
is eafily kept clean and dry.
The method of opening abfceffes by the feton has
been found particularly ufeful in fuppurations of-the
joints, and in all thofe glandular parts where the ad¬
miflion of the air is followed by very pernicious effefts.
Thus, when it is thought neceffary to open a fcrofulous
tumour, we may generally be able to obtain a more
prompt and eafy cure from the ufe of the feton, than by
making a larger incifion. Venereal buboes, too, when
come to maturity, have been faid to get well much fooner
by this than by any other method, when the integu¬
ments have not become too thin by great diftenfion long
continued. On the other hand, this mode is not with¬
out its inconveniencies, for in adopting it we cannot be
well affured of the (late of the bottom of the abfcefs,
which it is often important to know.
Whatever advantages thefe different methods of open¬
ing abfceffes may poffefs over one another, yet there is not
one of them which deferves the preference in all cafes,
although the cauftic, as already mentioned, be the means
E 2 to
36
Of Sinufes.
16
S U R
to which we ought moft rarely to have recourfe. How¬
ever troublefome it may be, the a£tion of the air on the
interior furface of the abfcefs is not always equally per¬
nicious and when by properly applied dreffings, care
is taken not to allow purulent matter to form in any
particular cavity, and to prevent the accefs of cold air
on the furface of the wound, and above all when the
furrounding air, as that in hofpitals, is contaminated
with putrid exhalations, daily experience (hews, that the
method by incifion is accompanied with molt fuccefs.
On the other hand, we have feen the feton extremely
ufeful in gradually difcharging, and without exciting
much inflammation, large abfceffes.
Thefe are the general principles we have to obferve in
the treatment of abfcefles, in whatever part of the body
they are found. There are, however, fome modifications,
lome particular details of practice, which ought to be
kept in view, when the difeafe is feated in particular or¬
gans, as the eyes, the mammre, the cavity of the cheft,
the groin, the fcrotum, &c. Mention will be made of
thefe in giving an account of the difeafes of the particu¬
lar organs.
Sect. III. Of Sinufes (Fillulae).
When an abfcefs, inftead of healing continues to dif-
charge purulent matter, and when this takes place
through a fmall orifice, it obtains the name of a fifula.
The orifice has fmooth and callous edges, and the fiftu-
la commonly communicates with one or more cavities
of different dimenfions, fituated in the cellular mem¬
brane, between the common integuments and the muf-
cles, or'between the interflices of the mufcles themfelves,
Thefe different cavities, which are generally known
by the name oi fnufes, ferve as refervoirs, both for the
matter which is formed in the body of the ulcer, and
for that furnifhed by their own fides. It is thus that
when by compreflion, the matter contained in the
finufes is prefled out through the ulcers, thefe difcharge
a much greater quantity than what might have been
expeffed, by confidering the extent of their furface
alone.
This defcription of a fiflulous ulcer indicates the mofl
fimple form of the difeafe j but when it has laded for a
long time, the whole internal furface frequently becomes
hard and callous, acquiring the properties and ftrudture
of a mucous fuvface.
The mofl frequent caufe of the formation of finufes
is, when an abfcefs burfls, that the purulent matter, in¬
ftead of being all difcharged, remains fhut up in fome
part of the cavity. Remaining there, it naturally falls
to the lower part, and gradually infinuates itfelf among
the layers of the cellular membrane, which, from its
foftnefs, gives little refiitance 5 it advances by degrees
among the interftices of the more folid organs, which
are connefted by that fubfiance alone j and at lad it
makes its appearance on the furface of the body, or pe¬
netrates into one of the cavities. Both recent and old
fidulous ulcers are generally curable, provided that the
ulcer be fituated in fuch a manner, that the necedary
remedies can be applied to it, and that the conditution
be otherwife free from diforder. But when the difeafe
has been of very long duration, and, above all, when
the finufes open into any articulating cavity, or are pla¬
ced in fuch a manner, that one cannot pradlife any ope-
G E R Y. Chap. L
ration, the treatment then becomes extremely difficult, Of Sinufes.
and the event very doubtful. There is no dileafe which
refids more frequently all the efforts of art than certain
fpecies of fidula, and particularly fome of thofe about the
anus and perinaeum.
Of the treatment of Fiftulce.—There are feveral dif¬
ferent modes which have been propofed for the treat¬
ment of this difeafe, all of which may be ufeful in par¬
ticular cafes. 17
Injedtions, fuppofed to have a cicatrizing quality, By injec-
have been propoftd by fome j and thefe are no doubtuo11,
ufeful in particular cafes, in diminidung the quantity of
the difcharge, and in preventing the extent of the finus
from increafing. When the difeafe is far advanced,
and the edges become perfedlly callous, injedtions of an
efcharotic quality have been employed 5 but thefe reme¬
dies have feldom, if ever, produced any good effedls j
and their too frequent ufe has even rendered finufes ig
hard and callous, -which were of a more benign nature. ]3yCompref..
In fome cafes, particularly when the difeafe is recent, lion,
great advantage may be derived from the proper appli¬
cation of a comprefs and bandage. In applying thefe,
the comprefs ffiould be placed in fuch a manner, and
made of fuch a form, as to make a firm preffure from
the bottom of the finus towards its orifice j and care
firould be taken that no preffure be made towards the
orifice itfelf, in order that any matter which is form¬
ed may not be allowed to colleft, but be difcharged
from it. Indeed in whatever mode we treat finufes, the
objeft to be held in view, is to allow any matter which
is formed to be immediately difcharged.
Some have advifed, that, in all fiftulae of long Hand¬
ing, their cavities fhould be laid open from one end to
the other, and all the parts fhould be differed out which
have become hard, and thus to convert the wdrole into
an ulcer, and treat it in the ordinary manner. There
is no doubt, but that by fuch an operation, it will often
be poffible to obtain a cure j but independent of the
great pain, and of the large and difagreeable cicatrix
which muff always follow’, the pradtice is not without
danger. It cannot anfwer, for inftance, in thofe fiftulas
which extend far up the reftum. No praftitioner fure-
ly- wmuld advife the adoption of fuch a method in the
cafe of fiftulas which penetrate very deep, and extend,
as often happens, underneath the blood-veffels, the ten¬
dons, and the nerves j and even although this practice
was without danger, it ought to be adopted in no cafe,
as wTe are enabled, by an operation more fimple, and
much lefs painful, always to obtain a cure with as much
certainty, as by a total deftruftion of the parts. I9
In the treatment of fiftulas, it is neceffary to procure By incifiorsi,
an agglutination of the edges of the finufes, fo as to ob¬
literate the cavity. The means moft efficacious to ful¬
fil this indication are, to make firft an opening, fo as to
allow the exit of the matter \ and to excite a certain de¬
gree of inflammation on the internal furface of the ca¬
vity, fo as to produce an adhefion between its fides.
Both of thefe indications may, in fome cafes, be ful¬
filled in the moft convenient manner, by introducing in¬
to the orifice of the ulcer a feton which will follow the
whole courfe of the finus as far as its oppofite extremi¬
ty. The feton ftiould be of a fize proportioned to that
of the finus q and it may be diminiftied by degrees as
the cure advances, by taking away fome of the threads
day after day. At laft, -when the cavity of the finus is
nearly
Chap.
i. sun
Of Sinufes. nearly filled up, and confequently the difcharge much
' V 'moderated, the felon ought to be withdrawn. After¬
wards a bandage is to be firmly applied over the
part, which fhould be allowed to continue a convenient
time, in order to obtain a complete cure. In all cafes,
therefore, we ought to difcover the dire£tion of the
finus, which can commonly be done by introducing a
probe, or by obferving the place in which the matter
colledts, when it has been allowed time to accumulate,
and by marking the place from whence it comes, the
preffure is to be made on the affefted part. A feton
ought then to be introduced into each finus.
Another means of procuring the obliteration of finu-
Tes is, by a longitudinal incifion along the whole cavity.
In cafes where the fiftula extends to parts which it is
not dangerous to cut, and where the feton has inconve¬
niences which render it inadmifiible, w7e fhould not he-
fitate to have recourfe to this means. Indeed, the lon¬
gitudinal incifion of the films' is to be confidered in all
cafes, as the only means which can be adopted with cer¬
tainty in the cure of the difeafe j and though in many
cafes it may be proper to attempt the cure by the mild¬
er means which have been mentioned, yet they often
fail, and the mode by incifion ought always to be held
in view.
We may obferve here, that this part of furgery owes
much to the celebrated Mr Pott, he having rendered
much more fimple and fuccefsful the treatment of fiftu-
las, particularly thofe fituated in the perinseum and anus.
When a fiftula is to be laid open, the firft thing to be
done, is to determine the extent of the incifion. The
exa£t extent of the finus ftiould be accurately afcertain-
ed with a probe, and it is neceflary to lay it open to the
extreme point, in order completely to fecure the filling
up of the cavity. The operation may be performed
by introducing a diredtor (fig. 9. and 12.), along the
whole courfe of the finus, and cutting on it with a com¬
mon fcalpel(fig. I.); ortheftrarp-pointedbiftoury (rig. 4.)
may be introduced along the groove of the diredtor, the
point of the inftrument puftied through at the bottom of
the finus, and then, by withdrawing the diredtor, the
incifion may be fp^edily completed with the biftoury.
A ftill better method is one we have often adopted in
cafes of finus with the greateft advantage. It confifts
fimply in putting a finall bit of wax, about the fize of a
pin head, upon the end of a fharp-pointed biftoury, in¬
troducing the point of the inftrument thus defended
along the finus 5 and when it arrives at the bottom of
it, the point may be pulhed through the fkin, and dif-
place the wax with very little preflure. When the
point has been brought through the fkin, the incifion may
afterwards be completed with one quick motion of the
knife. In laying open finufes in this manner, it is par¬
ticularly neceffary to form an exadt idea of the direc¬
tion of the finus, and of the extent of the incifion to be
made, before attempting to introduce the biftoury. For
as a very flight degree of preffure is fufficient to difplace
the wax on its point, any untoward motion upon the
fide of the abfcefs would thus expofe the point of the in-
flrument, and render the operation more tedious and
difficult, and always more painful.
The principal advantages of this mode of laying
open finufes are, that the operation can be much more
fpeedily performed, and that it cofts much lefs pain tO'
G E R Y.
the patient. The introdudlion of the diredlor through
a fmall fiftulous opening, and the tedious procefs of cut- ,
ting through the integuments with a fcalpel, cannot fail
of creating much diltrefs, whereas a thin biftoury can
be introduced without giving almoft any uneafinefs j
and after the operator has conduced its point to the
bottom of the finus, it may be puftied through the
integuments, and the finus cut open with a coup ds
main.
All finufes fhould be laid open in this manner, which
can be detedled by a careful examination with the
probe •, and if the edges of the fiftulous fore are found
to have acquired a great degree of callofity, it is alfo-
fometimes advifeable to cut them entirely away.
The finufes are now to be dreffed by placing between
the edges portions of caddis dipped in oil, or fimple
ointment; and great care fhould be taken that no por¬
tion of newly divided parts be allowed to come into
contaft, as there will be great rifk of an adhefion tak¬
ing place between them, thus fruftrating the very ob-
je£ls of the operation. After the pledgets have been
introduced between the edges of the wound, it is com¬
monly direfled that the whole wound be covered up
with a piece of linen fpread with ointment. In place
of the ointment, we have generally found a poultice an-
fwer better. The poultice, by its moifture prevents
any agglutination of the lips of the wound j and it has
the power of diminifhing the inflammation more than
any other application. The wmund is afterwards to be
treated on the principle of the common ulcer *.
37
Of the
Whitloe.
Plate
DXIII,
See UU
cers.
Sect. IV. Of the Whitloe (Paronichia),
The whitloe is a painful inflammatory fwelling, oc¬
cupying the extremities of the fingers, moft frequently
at the root of the nails. Several varieties of the difeafe
have been defcribed by authors 5 but thefe differences
only confift in the depth the difeafe is fuppofed to have
been feated. From wdiat we have been able to obferve,
it appears to be fituated chiefly in the cellular membrane',
immediately underneath the fkin, and in the ftrufture
connefted with the nails j though at the fametime the*
pathology of this difeafe is not yet well underftood.
The firft fymptom of the whitloe is an uneafy burning
fenfation over the point of the finger, or root of the nail.
The part becomes tender and painful to the touch j and
a flight degree of fwelling takes place, refembling oedema,
attended by little difcolouration. A tranfparent effufion
takes place below the epidermis, and forms a vefication
round the root of the nail. A purulent difcharge takes
place round the edge of the nail, and the nail always fe-
parates. The peculiarity in this difeafe is, that it ge¬
nerally affects feveral fingers, one after the other, and
fometimes all the fingers of both hands.
In the more fevere forms of the difeafe, the inflam¬
mation extends to the cellular membrane underneath the
fkin, and even to the tendinous aponeurolis and perio-
fteum of the fingers, producing caries. In fuch cafes the
whole hand generally fwells, and the fvvelling even ex¬
tends up the arm and affe6ts the axillary glands.
Whitloes fometimes fucceed a blow or injury of the
finger ; but they moft ufually make their appearance
without any known caufe.
Treatmen'.—ln the. treatment of whitloe, two fets of-
remedies
38 S U R G
Of the remedies have been employed. Some ufe fomenta-
C.irbunclo^ tjons> poultices, and leeches; whilil others apply ar-
* ~ dent fpirits, vinegar, cold water, and allringents.
Local bleeding and emollients do not feem to give the
fame relief in this as in other fpecies of inflammation.
When, however, the inflammatory fymptoms and pain
are violent, it is always neceffary to take away fome
blood $ and this may be belt done at the bend of the
arm. The affe&ed part Ihould be afterwards immerfed
in ftrong brandy, fpirit of wine, Or alcohol or ftrong vine¬
gar. We have alfo feen the inflammation much abated
by immerfing the hand, on its firft commencement, in
a very large veffel of cold water.
It is only, however, in the firft ftages of this affec¬
tion that remedies of this kind can prove ufeful: for, when
effufion has aftually taken place, and fuppuration begun,
that ftate of the difeafe is produced which thefe remedies
were intended to prevent. Emollient remedies ftiould
now be employed j and whenever the prefence of a fluid
can be afeertained^it ftiould be difeharged with a lancet.
The wound is afterwards to be treated as a common
abfeefs; but we may remark, that here, more than in
any other part of the body, it is of the greateft import¬
ance to lay open freely every finus, which a patient ufe
of the probe can deleft. Sinufes, fituated here, never
heal j and, when allowed to fpread, are always attend¬
ed with mifehief. They deftroy ligaments and tendons,
or at leaft produce a thickening of the parts around the
joints, fo. as afterwards to interrupt their free motion.
Sect. V. Of the Carbuncle.
^ The carbuncle {anthrax') may be confidered as a fpe¬
cies of phlegmon, attended with a remarkable degree of
malignity, and is one of the fymptoms of the plague,
where that difeafe rages, or of typhus fever in this
country. It confifts in a deep-leated very hard fwell-
ing, attended with an intenfely painful fenfe of burn¬
ing in the part, and confiderable difcolouration of the
ikin.
The carbuncle is often fudden in its appearance. It
is of a dulky red colour at its centre, but much paler
and variegated at its circumference. Vefications appear
on its furface, and when thefe are ruptured they dif-
charge a dark-coloured fanies. The difeafe fometimes
commences with fymptoms of general inflammation 3
but moft commonly it is attended with rigors, ficknefs,
great reftleffhefs and depreflion of ftrength, fainting,
delirium, &c. A miliary eruption, or even petechias,
are alfo fometimes found difperfed in different parts of
the body.
When fuppuration takes place, feveral openings ge¬
nerally form in the Ikin, a thin ichorous fluid is dif¬
eharged, and a dark yellow flough is obferved at the
bottom of the fore.
The carbuncle moft frequently takes place about the
back, tieck, and Ihoulders, and is generally folitary.
They are ufually two or three inches in diameter, though
fometimes they acquire an enormous fize.
The cellular membrane and fkin feem to be the prin¬
cipal textures affefted in this difeafe 3 a great part of
the former is always deftroyed by the formation and fe-
paration of very large Houghs, and that of the latter by
the extenfive ulceration.
2
E It Y. Chap. I.
In the treatment of this difeafe great attention is ne-OfEncyfted
ceffary, not only to the local applications, but alfo to , Tuir:0r-:- _
the general remedies. "" v
Emollient poultices, and warm anodyne fomentations,
ought to be employed during the firft ftages of the dif¬
eafe 3 and when ulceration of the Ikin has taken place,
the application of an ointment, compofed of a confider¬
able quantity of the powder of opium, we have found
to relieve very much the pain which the ulcerative pro-
cefs generally creates. The ufe of rags, wet with dilu¬
ted nitrous acid, or a folution of lunar cauftic, has been
found of great ufe in promoting the feparation of the
Hough, and the granulation of the cavities which re¬
main.
When the conftitutional fymptoms are inflammatory
in their commencement, it may be neceffary to employ
general blood-letting 5 but the fever being commonly
of a typhoid form, wine, bark, and opium, ought to be
freely adminiftered. It will be alfo proper to preferibe
a generous diet, and to pay great attention to keep the
bowels regular.
Sect. VI. Of Encyjled Tumors.
24
The word tumor has been the origin of much confu- General ob-
fion in the arrangements of difeafes adopted by the moft fervatiom
celebrated nofologifts 3 they have employed it as a term on tumor*
to charafterife a clafs, and alfo as exprefling merely a
fymptom of difeafes. A vaft variety of difeafes have
been thus included under the clafs of tumors, difeafes
which are totally diflimilar, and have no analogy what¬
ever. Anafarca, bubo, eneyfted tumors, fcrofulous and
feirrhous tumors, warts, &c. have all been included un¬
der this clafs, thefe being as different from one another
as any difeafe with which ive are acquainted, having
only one common fymptom, which is that of fwelling.
Mr Abernethy has lately made a very laudable at¬
tempt to arrange tumors from their anatomical ftruc-
ture 3 but, like thofe who preceded him, he has claf-
fed difeafes together, among which no analogy can be
difeovered. He divides tumors into farcomatous, en¬
eyfted, and offeous. Under the farcortia he includes
the fteatom (adipofe farcoma), medullary farcoma, and
others, all of which have no refemblance to each other
in their hiftory or fymptoms.
The word tumor ought therefore to be expunged from
nofology, and be no longer employed to charaftevife
a clafs of difeafes. Its ufe fliould be fynonymous with
that of fwelling, and be confined to exprefs merely an
enlargement of any organ of the body, or a new
growth 3 whilft all thofe difeafes, which have been
formerly claffed among tumors, fhould be arranged ei¬
ther according to their fpecific nature, or to the texture of
the body in which they arife. Thus tumors, connefted
with lues venerea or fcrofula, fhould be included under
thefe general names. The Jieatom, being a growth
of fat, and being always formed in the cellular mem¬
brane, ought to be treated of among the difeafes of
that texture. Eneyfted tumors, being alfo formed in the
cellular membrane, ought to be arranged among its dif¬
eafes 3 and warts, corns, and other tumors being dif¬
eafes of the fkin, will be with propriety claffed among
them : and the fame may be faid of all other difeafes
which have ufually received the general appellation of
tumor.
Chap. I.
OfEncyfted tumor. We {hall, therefore, in this fettion, treat of
Tumors. ti10{-e tumors only which are formed in the cellular
v membrane.
Under the clafs of encyfted tumors [tumeurs enhjQies,
loups cyjlides), are comprehended all thofe tumors of
preternatural formation, the contents of which are fur-
rounded by a bag or cyll.
Of Encyfted Encyfted tumors are generally formed in the cellular
tumors* membrane, immediately underneath the common inte¬
guments, they are moveable, circumfcribed, commonly
indolent, without heat or any change of colour in the
{kin j and they are very flow in their formation and
progrefs. They contain a matter more or lefs thick in
confidence; and, according to the nature and confid¬
ence of this matter, they are diftinguilhed by different
names. They have been denominated atheroma, from
the contents being of a foft cheefy confiftence ; me-
liceris, when they contain a matter of the confiftence
of honey ; and JiecJotna, when formed of fat. Ehe
flea tom,' however, ought not to be clafied among the
encyfted tumors, as the thin cellular covering in which
it is contained has no analogy in its ftrufture to the
cnjjl of the other tumors.
It ought to be obferved, that the confiftence of the
matter contained within the cyft varies in every fpecies of
encyfted tumor. In the atheroma and mcliceris they have
fometimes the confiftence and firmnefs of new cheefe, and
at other times they are fofter than the moft liquid honey.
Thefe varieties depend on the length of time which the
fluids have remained in the cyfts, and in the proportion
of coagulable lymph and ferum, which have been fepa-
rated and abfoibed, and alfo from their having been
inflamed or not, and on the extent to which this inflam¬
mation may have proceeded. Sometimes an encyfted
tumor is compofed of different cyfts, each of which con¬
tains a fubflance of a different nature. Thefe different
circumftances render in general the diagnofis in the va¬
rieties of encyfted tumors very difficult 5 and happily
this diftimflion is not neceffary in praflice, and perhaps
ought alfo to be omitted in our nofological arrange¬
ments. The fac of an encyfted tumor is generally
pretty firm, and compofed of concentric lamellae. We
have obferved fome of the cyfts which were nearly as
firm as cartilage, having fmall chalky concretions form¬
ed in many parts between each layer. When the con¬
tents of the tumor are waflied out, the internal furface
of the fac generally appears fmooth and polifhed ; but,
in others, feme of the matter adheres firmly to the fur-
face of the fac. In fome cafes the tumor very much re-
fembles the hydatids found in the liver and other or¬
gans } for, befides the firm fac, there is fometimes
formed within it, and apparently having no adhefion
with it, a thin and very eafily torn whitilh bag, which
contains the fluid.
Encyfted tumors are very fmall at their commence¬
ment, and grow by almoft infenfible degrees. They
vary a good deal in their form and fize. Thofe which
are formed in the hip, are generally round and fmooth ;
commonly of the fize of a nut, and acquire rarely the
bulk of a large egg. Thofe which are feated in other
parts of the body are more irregularly formed, and
;ometimes become of a prodigious fize, fome having
been found which weighed 10, 15, and even 20 lbs.
i hey are never painful, at leaft at their commencement,
and the Ikin preferves, for a long- time,, its natural co-
39
lour j but vvben they become very large, the veins of GfEncyfted
the ikin are large, and become variccfe j and the {kin L uniori. ^
on their upper part becomes poliftied, and acquires a v~**"
reddifti colour, fimilar to that of a part inflamed. They
feldom give pain or uneafinefs, except when they re¬
ceive a blow. Inflammation and pain then eafily come
on, and the cyft becomes ruptured, if it is not previoufly
opened by an inftrument.
Such is the ufual progrefs of encyfted tumors j and
although they do not come to a rapid termination, yet
this fometimes happens more readily under certain cir¬
cumftances, and even before they have acquired a large
fize. In the hip, for example, we perceive the integu¬
ments become tender and very thin, and open before
the tumor has acquired any confiderable fize. But on
other parts of the body, and particularly the back,
{boulders, and thighs, the integuments preferve their
natural appearance, even when the tumor has acquired
a large bulk. This appears to arife from the {kin being
more loofe in thefe parts.
The fituation of encyfted tumors alfo contributes much
to determine the degree of adhefion which they have
contrafted with the neighbouring parts. In fome fitua-
tions they are fo detached, efpecially while they continue
fmall, that they readily alter their fituation by very
flight degrees of preffure *, but in others, particularly
when covered by any mufcular fibre, they- are more
firmly fixed from their commencement. The attach¬
ment of encyfted tumors is alfo influenced by their re¬
maining more or lefs free from inflammation; for they
never become inflamed, even in the flighteft manner,
without fome degree of adhefion being produced be¬
tween the cyfts and contiguous parts. 2(J
It has been generally fuppofed that the membrane Mode of
which forms the cyft of this fpecies of tumor is not a their fonr.a»-
new' formation in this part, but that it is formed by a11011,
collection of fluid in one of the cells of the cellular
membrane, which by its increafe dilates the cell, and
brings it in clofe contact with the adjacent cells fo as
finally to obliterate them, and increafe the thicknefs of
its own coats.
The ingenious Bichat* has (hown that this opinion fo * Vide-
generally adopted is without foundation, and that \ht AnatomT'e *
formation of eneyfted tumors more probably depends on Gent,aLe*
law's, analogous to thofe which regulate the growth of
the different parts of our bodies. He has'alfo ftiown
that there is a great analogy between thefe cyfts and the
ferous membranes.
The cyfts, like ferous membranes, form a fpecies of
fac without an opening p they contain the fluid which
they exhale, and they have a fmooth and polifiied fur-
face contiguous to the fluid, whilft the other furface is
unequal, and connedled with the adiacent cellular mem¬
brane.
The cyfts have a fimiiar ftrueffure to ferous mem¬
branes ; maceration, Sec. proving them both to be compof-
ed of a cellular texture. In the natural ftate neither of
them have any fenfibility, but when inflamed they both
become extremely fenfible. The cyfts alfo are evident¬
ly fecretory organs, exhaling the fluid with which they
are filled, and their pow'er of abfovption is alfo very ma-
nifeft from the fpontaneous cures of fome encyfted drop-
fies.
Thefe confiderations led Bichat to conclude that
there exifts a perfect refemblance between the cyfts of
the
SURGERY.
Tumors.
40 S U R G
OfEncyfted the encyfted tumors and the ferous membranes. An
important queftion here prefents itfelf, to know how
thefe cyfts are formed, how a membrane which did not
exift in the natural date can be produced, can grow,
and even acquire a confiderable developement under
certain circumftances ? The mechanical explanation of
thefe phenomena which has been already mentioned,
though it at firft fight may appear fimple and fatisfac-
tory, yet it is by no means conformable to the ufual
proceedings of nature. How does it happen that as the
cyfts and ferous membranes are analogous, that thefe
membranes are formed in a different manner, the ferous
membranes being never formed from a compreffion of
the cellular membrane ? How is it, if the cells are ap¬
plied and cornpa&ed with one another fo as to form a
fac, that the neighbouring cellular membrane does not
difappear, or even diminifh, whilft the fac acquires a
large bulk ? Thefe refledtions would lead us to believe
with Bichat, that the common manner of explaining the
formation of cyfts is effentially different from the man¬
ner in which nature generally follows in all her opera¬
tions.
Bichat ingenioufty remarks that all tumors which
vegetate externally, or appear internally, are formed
and grow in the fame manner as the cyfts, there being
no difference between thefe two morbid productions but
in the form in which each of them appears. Moft tu¬
mors throw out upon their external furface the fluid
which they feparate. The cyft, on the contrary, ex¬
hales that fluid from its internal furface, and preferves
it in its cavity. “ Suppofe a fungous tumor in fuppura-
tion (fays Bichat), transformed in a moment into a
cavity, and the fuppuration to be tranfported from the
external furface to the fides of the cavity, that cavity
will then become a cyft.—Reciprocally, fuppofe a fu-
perficial cyft, the cavity of which is obliterated, and of
which the fluid is exhaled from its external furface, you
will then have a tumor in fuppuration.
“ If therefore the form alone eftabliflies the difference
between tumors and cyfts, how does it happen that the
formation of the latter is not analogous to that of the
firft ? or has ever any one attempted to attribute the
formation of external or internal tumors to compreflion ?
We ought therefore to conceive the produdlion of cyfts
in the following manner : ,they begin to be formed in
the cellular membrane by laws analogous to thofe which
regulate the general growth of our bodies, and which
appear to be deviations of thefe fundamental laws
of which we are ignorant. When the cyft is once
formed, exhalation begins to take place, and though
at firft in a fmall degree, it at laft augments in pro¬
portion to its progrefs. The increafe of the exhalent
organ then always precedes the accumulation of the
exhaled fluid, in fuch a manner that the quantity of the
fuppuration of a tumor is always direftly in proportion
to its bulk
This mode of explaining the formation of cyfts appears
much more conformable to the laws of nature than that
which has been formerly mentioned and generally receiv¬
ed. But it ftill remains to determine the precife mechanifm
of the origin and growth of cyfts, and confequently of all
other tumors. We ought to flop where the firft caufes
commence ; and as we do not know the mechanifm of the
natural growth of our organs, how ought we to guefs at
4hat of morbid produfticns which depend upon the fame
* Vide
Anatomie
Sene rale.
E R Y. Chap. I.
laws. It is a great deal in the economy of our organs Of Encyfted
to point out analogies, and to (how the uniformity of a t * um0l's- t
phenomenon not underftood with one in regard to
which all the world agree. Much would be done for
the benefit of fcience, if in all its branches we could de-
monftrate that principle on which depends fuch a great
number of effedts, that nature, avaricious in her means,
is prodigal in her refults 5 that a few caufes prefide over
a multitude of effedts, and that the greater number of
thofe regarding which we are uncertain, depend en the
fame principles as many others which appear to us evi¬
dent.
Of the treatment of Encyfed Ti/worj-.-—Encyfted
tumors, though not dangerous, are often inconvenient
from their fize, fituation, and from the deformity which
they produce, fo that whenever their removal becomes
neceffary, this can be done alone by a furgical opera¬
tion. 2 3
If the tumor be of the thin or meliceris kind, which By the fe-
for the moft part will be the cafe when a diftindt flue-1011,
tuation is perceived in it, it ought to be treated as a
common abfeefs. If the tumor be fmall, the matter
may be difeharged by laying open the moft; dependent .
part of it with a common lancet, and treating it in the
ordinary w^ay till the fides of the cavity come in contadl
by adhefion, or by the procefs of granulation.' But
when the tumor is more confiderable, the free admiflion
of air into the interior of its cavity is always dangerous $
and we ought to be attentive to prevent its effedls by
making the opening in fuch a manner, that the wound
be expofed as little as poflible. When treating of ab-
feeffes, we have recommended the pafling of a feton or
cord through them, as the beft method of opening them
when they are of a large fize. This method is alfo very
convenient in the cafe of encyfted tumors, which con¬
tain a matter of a liquid confiftence. It will only be
neceffary here to obferve, that the feton fhould traverfe
the whole tumor, from the fuperior part of it to the
moft depending point, and that the inferior opening
fhould be fufficiently large for allowing the matter to be
freely difeharged. This method often anfwers extreme¬
ly wTell 5 and cures have been performed by it which
could not have been obtained in fo fhort a time in fol¬
lowing the ordinary method of treatment by incifion.
But this method cannot be employed, except in thofe
cafes in which the contents of the tumor are fo liquid as
to be eafily difeharged by a fmall opening. When it is
of too firm a confiftence to admit of the feton, the con¬
tents muft be emptied, either by making an extenfive
opening into the cyft:, or the cyft and its contents may
be differed out.
When an encyfted tumor adheres fo firmly to the
contiguous parts, as to render its removal tedious and
difficult, it is often better not to undertake the opera¬
tion. In fuch a cafe it will be fufficient to lay open the
tumor its whole length, and to cut away any portions of
the cyft which can be eafily detached. The contents of
the tumor will in this manner be completely removed,
and the cure will be effefted, either by keeping the
wound open till the cavity of the cyft: is filled with gra¬
nulations ; or it may be attempted by drawing the dt-
vided edges of the fkin together, and applying mode¬
rate preffure, fo as to produce adhefion within the fides
of the cavity. It foraetimes happens, horvever, that
from the adhefion being complete, the remaining por¬
tion
Chap. I.
Of
Encylted
Tumors.
lion of llie cyil forms as it were the nucleus of a new tu-
29
fig-
f See the
tumor re-
%• 19-
Operation.—When it is determined upon to remove the
cyft completely, the firft ftep of the operation is to make
a free incinon through the integuments covering the tu-
* See Plate mor with a common fcalpel *. If the tumor be not very
DXIII. large, a longitudinal incifion will anfwer the purpofe j
but fliould the tumor be of fuch a fize, that the whole in¬
teguments covering it are too large to lie neatly upon the
wound, it is much better to remove an oval portion of
them f. The lize of this portion muft be left entirely to
the judgement of the operator, who Ihould always take
^rC^Y\lxt mcare t^!at a fuffic>ent quantity is left, fo as completely to
DXIII. c°ver the wound. After the fkin is divided, the cel¬
lular membrane fliould be difle&ed back, fo as diftindlly
to expofe the furface of the fac ; and as the fac will be
generally found loofely attached to the adjacent parts,
it may be eafily feparated by a very Ample diflec¬
tion. In removing encyfted tumours, it is particularly
neceflary to cut fairly down upon the fac 3 for if this be
not done, inftead of the tumor being readily turned out
of the (heath of loofe cellular membrane which furrounds
it, it can only be removed by a very tedious procefs of
difleftion. Some furgeons have recommended that the
contents of the tumor fliould be removed, before at¬
tempting to difledt out the fac 3 but if the inciAon of the
integuments be made fufficiently large, this may be ge¬
nerally avoided. We have often obferved the operation
of extirpating encyfted tumors, and indeed tumors of
every defcription, rendered extremely tedious by a want
of proper attention to this ftep of the operation. We
‘would therefore particularly recommend, that in the
extirpation of ail tumors, the inciflon of the integu¬
ments extend both above and below the tumor a confl-
derable way, proportioned in all cafes to its bulk and
eafy accefs. -
In fome cafes it is advifeable to open the cyft, and
remove its contents, before an attempt be made to dif-
fedl it out. This pradtice will only be neceflary in cafes
where, either from the ftiape or Atuation of the tumor,
it is impradticable to pafs the knife round it, and where,
irom the Atuation of important parts at its bafe, the dif-
fedfion is rendered very nice and delicate. We remem¬
ber a cafe of encyfted tumor clofely attached to the cap-
fule of the. knee joint, where great afliftance wras de¬
rived from operating in this manner. Whilft the tumor
remained diftended, it was impoflible to feparate it,
without running great rilk of cutting, either into it, or
into the cavity of the knee joint. When, however, its
contents wTerc removed, the tumors could be readily difledl-
ed from one another, without the fmalleft rilk of injury.
After an encyfted tumour is extirpated, if any artery
bleed very profufely, it ought to be fecured by a ligature 3
but this ftiould always be avoided as much as poflible,
as ligatures are apt to interfere with the adhefton of the
lips of the wound. At the fame time it is always ne-
ceffary that the bleeding be completely flopped before
the wound is drefled 3 for (hould any hemorrhagy take
place after the dreflings have been applied, it is very
apt to difplace the edges of the wound, and prevent
them from adhering by adhefton.
Vol. XX. Part I.
SURGERY.
The edges of the wound are to be placed accurately
together, and kept in contact wdth adheftve plafter, a
comprefs and proper bandage being applied over it.
The wound is to be treated in the ufual manner, remov¬
ing the drefl'mgs wdienever they become foiled, and the
application of the adheftve plafter continued till a com¬
plete cicatrization has taken place.
Sect. VII. Of the Steatom or Fatty Tumor (f).
&
This fpecies of tumor confifts of a mere accumulation
of cellular membrane and fat in a particular part of the
body. They occur frequently, and are formed moft
commonly on the front or back part of the trunk of the
body, and fometimes in the extremities. They gene¬
rally grow in a flow and progreflive manner, and the
blood-vefl'els are neither large nor numerous. They
have always a thin capfule of common cellular fub-
ftance 3 and this capfule feems merely to be the effedl
of that condenfation of the furrounding cellular fub-
ftance which the prefliire of the tumor occafions. “ As
the growth of adipofe tumors is regularly and (lowly
progreflive, and as nothing like inflammation in gene¬
ral accompanies their increafe, their capfules afford a
ftriking inftance of an inveftment acquired, Amply
by a flight condenfation of the furrounding cellular
ftrudlure, unaffefted. by inflammation When the « Aber-
capfule, which is extremely thin, and w7hich adheres but nethv's
(lightly to the tumor, is removed, the tumor within con- Surgical
lifts of a mere piece of fat, more or lefs compared ac- Obferva-
cording to its fituation in the body, and the length 27-
time which it has remained.
Of the treatment of the Steatom.—When a fteatom is
fmall, when it caufes little deformity, and when it does
not feem to injure the funftions of any organ, it is mod
prudent to allow it to remain. They fometimes, how¬
ever, acquire a very large bulk, and from their fitua¬
tion are extremely inconvenient and unfeemly, and they
then become an objeft of medical treatment. No ex¬
ternal application was ever known to be ufeful in dif-
cufling tumors of this kind 3 and the only means to be
employed for removing them is by an operation. There
is indeed no fpecies of tumors that can be differed out
with fo much celerity, or with fuch apparent dexterity.
In fome cafes, however, if inflammation has been in¬
duced, the capfules even of thefe tumors are thickened,
and adhere fo as not to be feparated without difficulty
from their furface.
In diffecting out a tumor of this kind, the fame gene¬
ral rules may be followed as we mentioned when treat¬
ing of encyfted tumors. The external incifton fliould
be made very free, and it is alfo of great importance to
cut completely dowm to the capfule of the tumor, be¬
fore attempting to diffeft it out.
31
Sect. VIII. Of the Sarcoma or Flejlnj Tumor.
Our knowledge of the pathology of tumors of the
cellular membrane is yet too limited to be able to ar¬
range them in any fyftematic form 3 and it would be
foreign to our purpofe to attempt in this place the in-
F veftigation
33
tB.) Stcatoma, adipofe farcoma of Mr Abernethy.
42 S V K G
Sarcoma- veftlgatlon of tlie fubjeft. We have adopted the term
tous Iu* farcotna as very general j and include under it all thcfe
i,„ . ^ . fwellings or v.Tens of a flefhy feel, which occur in the
cellular membrane thoughout the body,
The bans of thefe tumors, as we before mentioned, is
the cellular membrane } and the difference in the qua¬
lities of the fubifances depofited in the cells gives the
peculiar appearance to the tumor.
The veffels which pervade them are either larger or
{mailer, and more or lefs numerous. They are alfo
difhibuted in their ufual arborcfcent manner, without
any defcribeable peculiarity of arrangement.
When tumors of this kind have attained a confider-
sble fize, the fuperficial veins appear remarkably large.
They have little fenfibility, enduring a rough examina¬
tion.
This kind of tumor generally grows till the fkin is fo
diftended that it ulcerates, and expofes the new formed
fubdance, which doughs away. In this manner does
the diteafe occafxonally terminate \ but fuch is the con-
flitutional irritation attending this prccefs, and the dif-
guding fcetor and frightful appearance of the part, that
the furgeon generally recommends its removal. In
fome indances farcomatous tumors are compofed of a
number of irregular-fhaped mafles, which from their
refemblance to the pancreas have been called by Mr
Abernethy the pancreatic farcotna, and confidered as a
diftindt fpecies. “ This new-formed fubdance is made
up of irregularly-draped mnfles, which in colour, tex¬
ture, and hze, refemble the larger mafles compofing the
pancreas. They appear alfo to be connefted to each
other like the portion of that gland, by a fibrous fub-
ftance of a loofer texture.” Other farcomatous tumors
are compofed of a number of cyfts, containing fome-
times a tranfparent and fomecimes a dark fluid; and
have been called by Mr Abernethy, the cystic farco-
tnas.
33 The Mammary and Tuberculated Sarcomas are alfo
other two fpeeies enumerated by Mr Abernethy. In
the fird the drudlure of the tumor has been fuppofed to
refemble the natural ftru&ure of the mamma, and in the
fecond the tumor “ confids of an aggregation of fmall,
firm, roundidi tumors of different fizes and colours,
Connedled together by a kind of cellular texture. The
fize of the tubercle is from that of a pea to that of a
horfe-bean, or fometimes larger-, the colour of a brownifh
red, and fome are of a yellow tint (c).”
Thefs different terms employed to characterize the
various kinds of fwellings which form in the cellular
membrane, are by no means adequate j and tumors will
be daily met with which it is impofiible to aflign to one
or other of thefe fpecies. This fubjeft therefore dill
remains open for the invedigation of future inquiry.
And it is probable, that when the fubject is better un-
derdood, the furgeon will not on all occafions be obli¬
ged to have recourfe to the knife; and that he will be
able to didinguifh tbjofe which may be allowed to re¬
main, or as harmlefs treated by external applications,
from thofe whofe nature is more malignant, and re¬
quire an early extirpation.
35
E R Y. Chap. I.
Treatment.—When farcomatous tumors are painful Sarcoma-
and tender to the touch, advantage may be had by lo¬
cal blood-letting, either by leeches or cupping. Foment¬
ing the parts with a dteoedion of chamomile flowers
or poppy heads, and applying a folution of muriate of
ammonia or of vinegar, and acetate of lead, are alio
ufeful in diminifliing their bulk. Fridions with unc¬
tuous fubdances, as mercurial ointment and camphor j
camporated fpirits, aqua ammonia and oil; tindure of
cantharides—have been ufed for the difeudion of indo¬
lent fwellings : Soap and mercurial pladers have been
alfo much commended by fome j but of all thefe re¬
medies perhaps there is none more ufeful than fridion
with the dry hand. The mode by which this pradice
is to be conduded is particularly mentioned under
Swellings of the Joint. While we employ thefe appli¬
cations to the tumor, we ought alfo to preferibe purga¬
tive medicines every fecond or third day, enjoin an ab-
demious diet and red. An alterative courle of medi¬
cine is alfo fuppofed to be ufeful. Small doies of calo¬
mel or corrodve fublimace are given for this purpofe.
The extrad of hyofeyamus and calomel, or calomel and
the extrad of cicuta, has been much extolled by fome.
By caufic.—Some furgeons (and it is a favourite
pradice with all itinerants) have attempted to remove
tumors with caudic j and though this mode is much
more painful and more clumfy than the knife, yet there
are fome cafes, where, either from the tumor being fo
dtuated, or from the patient being timorous, this prac¬
tice may be reforted to.
Where a tumor is to be removed by caudics, the
common caudic potafs will anfwer the purpofe extremely
well. This is to be placed over a fufficient bulk of
the Ikin, and allowed to rernain longer or fhorter ac¬
cording to the depth of the tumor, and'the portion of
it intended to be removed. After the dead portion
has feparated by the adidance of poultices, &c. the
caudic may be again renewed until the whole mafs is
dedroyed. Equal parts of red precipitate and burnt
alum forms a very a&ive caudic, and is ufed by fome j
but it creates great pain. By mixing opium with the
caudics, the pain has been alleviated.
By incifion.—When a farcomatous tumor is to be re¬
moved by incifion, the furgeon (hould always keep in
remembrance, that whild the tumor is growing, the
contiguous cellular membrane is generally condenfed, and
is formed into a kind of capfule. A knowledge of this
not only renders the extirpation of the tumor much
eafier, but tumors may be cut out from a depth, and
from connexions, apparently dangerous. The integu¬
ments are to be freely divided, and the incifion carried
down to the capfule of the tumor, before we attempt to
diffeft it from the contiguous parts; if this be not done,
the difleftion becomes more tedious and difficult, and
more blood is lod than what was neceffary, from veffeltf
being divided which might have been faved; and if the
tumor happen to be deeply feated, its extirpation even
becomes impra£licable. The general direftions given
for the extirpation and after treatment of eneyfted tu¬
mors may alfo be applied to the farcomatous tumors.
Sect.
3*
(c) Another fpecies of farcoma has been termed the qfito farcoma, from bony matter being formed in the
Jumpr,
Chap. I.
Oedema.
37
35
39
S U R G
Sect. IX. Of Oedema.
Oedema confifts in the effufion of a watery fluid in
the cellular membrane of any part of the body.
The fwelling in oedema is not circumfcribed. The
ikin of the fwollen part retains its natural colour, and
fometimes becomes paler than natural, having a glofly
hue. The part has a cold feeling ; and preffure made
by the point of the finger forms an imprefiion or dim¬
ple, which remains for 1'ome time after the finger is re¬
moved, and difappears flowly. There is no acute pain,
but there is an uneafinefs or fenfe of weight and tight-
nefs in the part. If a limb be oedematous, the magni¬
tude of the fwelling is always increafed or diminiflied,
according as it is placed in a depending or horizontal
pofture. Oedema always arifes from the want of pro-
per balance in the fundtions of the exhalent and abforb-
ent fyflems, and it appears both in a conftitutional and
local form. Contufions, fprains, the long ufe of re¬
laxing poultices and wafhes, are often local caufes of
oedema. More or lefs oedema is conjoined with eryfi-
pelatous inflammation, and this fometimes terminates in
gangrene. A part which has been acutely inflamed
often remains oedematous for fome time afterwards. It
is alfo often owing to fome impediment which prevents
the return of the blood to the heart. Preffure of the
gravid uterus on the iliac veins often renders the lower
extremities cedematous. Aneurifms and other tumors,
by comprefling the veins of the extremity, often pro¬
duce this affedlion. It alfo accompanies afcites, hij-
drothorax. Sec. &c.
Treatment.—As an oedematous fwelling is generally
the effedt of fome other difeafe, the cure mult depend
upon the original difeafe being removed.
If the limb be the part affedted, it fhould be kept in
a horizontal pofition. Fridtions made on the part with
flannel, and a moderately tight roller, applied from the
toes upwards, have a powerful effedt in diminilhing the
fwelling. The operation of thefe means is to be aflifted
by giving purgatives and diaphoretics. See Medicine.
If the tumor become fo tenfe as to create much
pain and inflammation of the Ikin, thefe are better mo¬
derated by the difeharge of the fluid by means of a
fmall pundlure, than to allow the integuments to burlt.
A pundlure is, however, not void of danger, for wounds
in dropfical conftitutions generally excite a great de¬
gree of inflammation, and are apt to become gangren¬
ous. The pundlure fliould be made upon the mod
prominent parts of the fwelling with the point of a
lancet; and as the fluid which oozes out is apt to create
great irritation of the tender Ikin over which it flows,
it is a proper and very ufeful precaution to keep the
ikin always covered with fome undluous adhefive fub-
ilance. For this purpofe the unguentum rejimfum is
very well calculated.
Sect. X. Of Emphyfema.
Emphyfema confifts in an effufion of air into the cel¬
lular membrane of any part of the body.
The fwelling is without pain, and colourlefsj and it is
eafily diftinguifhed from oedema, by the noife and par¬
ticular feeling it has when preffed upon. It then makes
a crackling noife, and refembles the feeling created by
41
Oedema.
E R Y.
prefling a dry thin bladder hair filled with air. The 
fwelling is not heavy. At its commencement, it only
affedts one part 5 but it foon fpreads over the body, and
diftends the whole Ikin.
Emphyfema generally arifes from a wound of the
lungs; often from a fpicula of a broken rib *. It has * See
alfo been known to arife from an ulceration in the Wounds of
lungs $ but this feldom happens,, as the inflammation
attending the formation of the matter condenfes the con¬
tiguous veficles, and produces adhefions between the
lungs and cavity of the thorax.
Emphyfema has alfo been fometimes obferved in fome
putrid difeafes. Dr Huxham has recorded a cafe of this
kind in a failor who was attacked with putridjever and
fore throat f. I Aledun!
A partial emphyfema has alfo been obferved in cafes
of gangrene. Dr William Hunter has mentioned a cafe Xnqjdnes,
of that kind. , vol. i.
The treatment of emphyfema muft always depend
on the nature of the original difeafe. It may be here*
however, remarked, that the effufed air is readily ab-
forbed, and creates no inflammation or any change in
the cellular ftruflure where it had been effufed.
Chap. II.
Of the Difeafes of the Skin.
Sect. I. General Remarks on the Pathology of the Skin.
There are a confiderable number of difeafes which
arife in the different parts which compofe the fkin •, and
there are ethers which feem to be the effedl of that fym-
pathy which the Ikin has with moft organs of the body.
Of the difeafes which attack the Ikin, there are five
claffes. In the firft, the papillae are affe&ed ; in the fe-
cond, the cellular membrane contained in the areolae of
the Ikin \ in the third, the rete mucofum or capillary
net-work, from which the exhalents arife j in the fourth,
the cutis vera or chorion 5 and in the fifth, the epidermis
or fcarf Ikin.
1. Under the difeafes of the firft clafs, or thofe of the
papillae, may be confidered all thofe in which an altera¬
tion in the fenfibility of the Ikin takes place. When¬
ever inflammation affedts the fkin, this alteration of len-
fibility is perceptible $ and in fome of the nervous dif¬
eafes of women it is very remarkable ; for on touching
the fkin a little roughly, convulfions are produced. It is
alfo well known the effedt of titillation on the fkin ; and
perhaps an application of this knowledge might be ex¬
tremely ufeful in the treatment of fome difeafes.
2. We have examples of the fecond clafs of difeafes of
the fkin, where the areolae of the cellular membrane of the
cutis vera becomes inflamed, in boils and perhaps alfo
in fmallpox, and In fome of thofe tumors commonly call¬
ed pimples of the fkin.
3. The rete mucofum, from its vafcularity, is pro¬
bably the feat of eryfipelas, mealies, fcarlatina, and that
multiplicity of eruptions to which the fkinjs fubjedt.
4. In elephantiafis, cancer, &c. and in general in all
chronic cutaneous difeafes, the cutis vera is affedted j it
appears, however, to be feldom primarily affedted in
acute difeafes.
5. The epidermis is paflive in all the difeafes of the
fkin, and is only affedted by its continuity. Its fenfibi-
F 2 lity
41
* Bichat
Anatomic
Generalc,
tom. iv.
f- 73°*
44 S U R G
Difeafes of Hty is never increafed, nor is it fufceptible of being in-
thc Skm. anj confequently it never forms adhefions. Its
internal furface, too, raifed by a blilfer or any other
means, and applied to the parts below, never reunites.
The excrefcences which form on it, fuch as corns, &c.
are dry and inert, and without circulation ; if they are
painful, it arifes alone from their preffure on the nerves
of the fubjacent parts.
From all thefe different affe&ions of the fein, a num¬
ber of fympathetic affe&ions arife which it is worth
while here to remark, though only a few of the difeafes
of this organ come properly within the limits of a fy-
flem of furgery.
1. Every time that the papillae are much exxited in
irritable people, as in titillation, various organs are fym-
pathetically affefted by it. Sometimes it is the heart j
hence follows fainting. Sometimes the ftomach, and in
two cafes mentioned by Bich&t, the perfons vomited.
Sometimes it is the brain, as is obferved in people, where
tickling brings on laughter, and even violent convul-
lions.
“ Medical men,” fays Bich&t*, “ are often aftoniftied
at the extraordinary effefts which quacks produce on
the body from the knowledge they have acquired of
the fympathies ol the Ikin produced by titillation. But
how Ihould we be more aftonifhed at this, than by vo¬
miting produced by difeafes of the womb, than by dif¬
eafes of the liver being brought on from a injury of the
brain, or by headaches ariftng from a difordered ftate of
the gaftric vifcera ?” The influence of titillation of the
Ikin may be of much ufe in the treatment of fome dif¬
eafes. In hemiplegia, &c. would not the excitement
of the foies of the feet, which have fo much fenfibility,
as every one knows, not anfwer much better repeated
ten or twelve times a day, than the application of a
blifter, the irritation of which continues only during a
fhort time.
From this fympathy which the Ikin has with the di-
ftant organs, we may be perhaps able to explain fatis-
fa&orily the influence which friftion has been lately
found to have in fome difeafes. Mr , an ingeni¬
ous furgeon at Oxford, has employed this remedy to a
very great extent in difeafes of the joints j and he has
experienced from it the beft effedlsf.
2. Whenever the exhalents of the fldn, or the ex¬
terior capillary fyftem from whence they arife, are af-
fedled in any manner, a number of other parts partici¬
pate, and thence arifes a fecond order of fympathies of
the fkin.
There are few organs which have more fympathy
with the Ikin than the ftomach. The bath, which afts
upon the Ikin, during digeftion affetts fympathetically
the ftomach, and difturbs its functions. When that or¬
gan is fpafmodically affe&ed, it often is reftored to a
ftate of health, by the influence it receives from the
bath. Bichat mentions a cafe of a woman who was
troubled with conftant vomiting, in confequence of fup-
preffed menfes; and who was immediately relieved by the
warm bath after other remedies had failed.
The aftion of cold on the fkin produces a variety of
fympathetic effe&s ; above all when that aftion takes
place during perfpiration. It is alfo well known what
a number of phsenomena refult from a hidden difappear-
ance of many eruptions of the fkin.
3. When the cellular membrane contained in the
f Treat¬
ment of the
White
Swelling
o f the
Joints-
E R Y. Chap. II.
areolae of the fkin, becomes inflamed, as in boils, puftules, Difeafes of
&c. a number of fympathies enfue, which may be refer- t^e skin-
red to the cellular fyftem in general *. v 1
4. The difeafes of the cutis vera and epidermis being
all of a chronic nature, their fympathetic affections have
the fame character, little more being known of them.
We have alfo mentioned, that befides difeafes of the
fkin, arifing from a change of ftruCture in that organ,
there were alfo others which arofe from the fympathy it
has with other organs. Whenever a cold body enters
the ftomach whilft there is a perfpiration on the fkin,
the perfpiration inftantly flops. The entry of warm
drinks into the ftomach, and an augmentation of the
cutaneous exhalation, are twm phenomena which coin¬
cide at the fame' moment, in fuch a manner, that one
cannot attribute the fecond to the abforption of the
drink, to its paffage to the venous blood through the
lungs, and then to the arteries. The production of per¬
fpiration is, therefore, analogous to the fuppreflion of it
in the former inftance. Hence rvill be found a great va¬
riety of phenomena in different diieafes, arifing from the
fympathy exifting between the fkin and the other or¬
gans, various degrees of drynefs, of moifture, and of per¬
fpiration. Sometimes thefe phenomena are chronic.
In many organic difeafes, different kinds of tumors are
formed on the fkin, in the fame manner as we obferve
petechice, miliary eruptions, &c. &c. produced in acute
fevers ; the difference being merely in the duration of
the periods of the fympathetic affeCtions.
I he difeafes of the fkin form a very important clafs
in a fyftem of nofology. There are, however, only a
few which ought properly to be confidered in a fyftem
of furgery.
It is the feat of all eruptions, as fmallpox, mealies,
and a vaft number of other difeafes. It is liable to in¬
flammation, fuppuration, and gangrene. It is alfo fub-
jeCt to difeafes and injuries from its expofure to the ac¬
tion of external bodies, and from ferving as a defence to
the internal parts, It is alfo fubjeCt to cancer, warts,
and other excrefcences, the treatment of which more
properly belong to the furgeon.
Sect. II. Of the Erijsipelasy or the Rofe.
The rofe is fometimes a local difeafe j at other times
it is merely a fymptom of fome other affeCtion. It
differs from all other inflammations in the peculiar (hade
of red colour, and it is alfo remarkable for the diforder
which it generally creates throughout the whole fyftem.
The part of the fkin which is affeCted becomes of a
bright fcarlet colour, with a tinge of yellow j and towards
the termination of the complaint, the yellow becomes
more difcernible. Beftdes the difference in the (hade of
red, the fwelling is neither fo hard, fo elevated, nor fo
circumfcribed as that of phlegmon. The fkin has a
gloffy fmooth appearance, a burning heat, and on its
being touched with the finger, the fcarlet colour difap-
pears where the preffure is made, leaving a white fpot,
which, however, is almoft immediately replaced when
the finger is removed. The pain attending the difeafe
is fometimes very great 5 there is alfo always more or
lefs fwelling of the parts affected and thofe in the im¬
mediate vicinity ; and this feems chiefly to arife from a
W'atery effufion in the cellular membrane.
The rofe is very apt to fpread rapidly to a great ex¬
tent i
4a
Chap. IT. SURGERY.
Eryfipelas. tent; and it frequently changes its fituation, growing
gradually well in one fide, and extending itfelf on the
other. Sometimes it difappears entirely at one place,
and attacks fome other. As the dileafe gets well, the
cuticle peels off from the affe&ed part.
Eryfipelas may be combined with phlegmon (eryfipe¬
las phlegmonoides), in which cafe the intlammation is of
a deeper red colour ; the fwelling is alfo greater and
deeper, and the pain is more acute. There is alfo a
throbbing in the part, and the pulfe is full and hard.
There is alfo a particular fpecies of eryfipelas called
St Anthony'sJirey in which fmall veficles are formed on
different parts of the fkin. Thefe burft, and difcharge
a thin fluid which forms a fcab, and beneath the fcab
v fuppuration fometimes takes place.
The true eryfipelatous inflammation feldom fuppurates,
but generally terminates by refolution $ vety violent cafes
fometimes caufe gangrene.
When eryfipelas is accompanied with inflammation of
the cellular membrane, as there are no diftindt limits of
the difeafe, the matter which is formed in thofe cafes
which advance to fuppuration, often extends very far in
every diredtion, and fometimes produces very corifider-
able Houghing, not only of the cellular fubftance, but of
the fafciae and tendons beneath the fldn. Eryfipelas is
generally accompanied with all the fymptoms of general
fever, and thefe occur in a very confiderable degree,
even where the external inflammation is extremely flight.
Languor, laflitude, wearinefs in the limbs, headach, lofs
of appetite, oppreflion about the ftomach, precede the
appearance of the local complaint. The mofl: violent
form of eryfipelas is moft frequently feen attacking the
face, producing a great deal of general fever, often ac¬
companied with delirium j and in a few cafes we have
known it to proceed fo far as to inflame and fuppurate
the membranes of the brain. Eryfipelas feems to be in¬
timately connedled with the flate of the general confti-
tution. Perfons in the habit of drunkennefs and other
fpecies of intemperance, and who, when in a ftate of in¬
toxication meet with local injuries, often have eryfipe-
tatous inflammation in confequence of thefe. In gene¬
ral, eryfipelas has its principal fource in a difordered ftate
of the chylopoetic vifcera, and the wrong ftate of the bi¬
lious fecretion. It feems alfo to be often connedted with
a fuppreflion of perfpiration, for it never recedes until
that fymptom is relieved.
43 _ Of the treatment of Erysipelas.—The mild eryfipelas
is to be relieved by the exhibition of gentle diaphoretics.
Afewdofesof nitre, in order to promote the ordinary
evacuations, and the general attention to the antiphlogi-
ftic regimen.
It is alfo of great importance to attend to the ftate of
the bowels, and to give purgative medicines, both with
a view of removing any feculent matter contained in
them, and as a general evacuant.
When the cafe is conjoined with phlegmon, and when
there are ftrong fymptoms of inflammatory fever, vene-
fedtion becomes neceflary ; and this is particularly the
cafe when the face is the feat of the difeafe. Copious
bleeding, however, is generally hurtful, and no blood
ought ever to be taken away when the fundtions of the
abdominal vifcera are much difordered.
When the patient has a very foul tongue, a bitter
tafte in his mouth, and a propenfity to vomit \ if thefe
fymptoms cannot be removed, purgatives and emetics
become neceflary. Indeed, in almoft all fevere cafes,
an emetic is indicated, and ought even to be repeated,
flrould the fymptoms remain fevere.
There has been a great variety of opinions with re¬
gard to the external treatment of eryfipelas j fome re¬
commending the part to be kept dry, of a moderate
warmth, and excluded from the air: others have ufed
warm or cold moift applications. The pradlice of Def-
fault is perhaps the moft judicious. In thofe cafes of
eryfipelas which were produced from an internal caufe,
no topical application is to be employed, except, per¬
haps, dufting the part with flour j but when any fpecies
of eryfipelas lucceeds a contufion, a wound or an ulcer,
the regimen and internal medicines are infufficient, if
proper topical remedies are not at the fame time em¬
ployed to alleviate the local irritation. In this point
of view Deflault employed poultices, the good effedts of
Tvhich in thefe fort of cafes were confirmed by numerous
obfervations. He confidered it, however, as an eflen-
tial precaution not to extend this topical application
further than the bruifed part, or the edge of the wound
or ulcer. If any application is made to the eryfipela¬
tous furface, it ought to confift merely of a weak af-
tringent folution: that which was always employed at
the Hotel Dieu, confifted of a fcruple of the extraft of
lead in a pint of water.
Sect. III. Of the Farunculus or Roil.
The farunculus appears to be an inflammation of the
cellular membrane of the areola of the chorion ; the
other inflammations of the fkin and cutaneous eruptions
being feated on the corpus reticulare. The farunculus
is a circumfcribed, very prominent, and hard tumor, of
a deep red colour ; and they vary, from the fize of a
pea to that of a pigeon’s egg. They are extremely
painful, and are feldom attended with fever. They are
alfo moft frequent in young people. Boils generally pafs
into a more or lefs perfeft kind of fuppuration j a fmall
white fpot is formed on the apex of the tumor, which,
when it has reached the fkin, difcharges but a fmall
quantity of pus in proportion to the bulk of the fwell¬
ing. Before the tumor begins to fubfide, a yellow
flough, foimed by a portion of dead cellular membrane
comes out. *
As fwellings of this kind almoft always fuppurate,
and as induration conftantly remains after an incomplete
refolution of them, vve ought to promote fuppuration by
ufing emollient applications. Emollient poultices are
beft for this purpofe. When a quantity of matter is
colle&ed, it is fometimes advantageous to open the boil
with the point of a lancet, then to allow’ it to remain
until the fkin ulcerates. Gentle aperients and antiphlo-
giftic regimen ought not to be omitted.
Sect. IV. Of the Chilblain.
The chilblain is a painful, and very often an extreme¬
ly itchy fwelling of the fkin of an extreme part of the
body, in confequence of expofure to extreme cold, or
hidden change from a very cold to a warmer atmo-
fphere.
Chilblains are moft frequent in young people of fero-
fulous conftitutions, and in this country the difeafe is
moft-prevalent during the winter months. It appears
uicii..
45
Eryfipelas.
44. -
4S
46 S U RG
Chilblain, nioft commonly on tlie toes and heels, and fometimes
\ J alfo on the fingers, and parts where the circulation is
moft languid.
The firft fymptoms of the difeafe are a palenefs of the
part, which is quickly fucceeded by more or lefs red-
xnefs, a very troublefome itching, and fometimes pain.
The fk’m gradually acquires a purple hue 5 the part
fwells, and the cuticle feparates from a ferous effufion
which takes place below it. Beneath the cuticle an
ulcer appears of a very irritable appearance, and accom¬
panied with great pain. This ulcer ipreads rapidly, has
very acute edges, and its furface is of a dark or rather
dirty yellow colour. Sometimes the ulceration pene¬
trates as low as the tendons, or even expofes the fur-
face of the bones, producing a fphacelation of an extre¬
mity.
In the treatment of chilblains, before the Ikin has
ulcerated, the principal attention ought to be paid in
keeping the affedted part of an equal temperature, and
to rub it over with ftimulating applications. Campho¬
rated fpirit, fpirit of turpentine, &c. have been gene¬
rally recommended for this purpofe j but we have found
the tindlure of catharides, properly diluted, to be much
more efficacious. A drachm of this tin&ure to an ounce
of the tin&ure of foap, will be generally found to an-
fwer extremely well; and this is to be rubbed on the
part once or twice a day.
When vefications begin to appear, and ulceration has
taken place, emollient poultices flrould be employed *,
but after this procefs has gone on a certain time, and
the pain and irritation abated, much benefit will be ex¬
perienced by the application of the red precipitate
ointment to the ulcers. Under this treatment we have
repeatedly obferved large ulcers of this kind heal with
unufual rapidity.
Reft and a plain nourifhing diet will be commonly
belt fuited to people with chilblains 3 and ftmuld fymp-
t©ms of debility and a Houghing of the fore enfue, it may
be even neceffary to give freely wine and bark.
46
Sect. V. Of Cancer of the Shin.
The Ikin is frequently attacked with cancer. That
of the face is more particularly expofed to it 3 and this
no doubt arifes from its delicacy, from the great num¬
ber of veffels which penetrate it, and perhaps alfo from
its more frequent expofure th?n any other part of the
body to external irritations. Cancer, however, is not
confined to the fkin of the face 3 it frequently appears
on the back of the hands, and on the feet. Wifeman
has feen it on the cranium, Gooch on the infide of the
thigh, Richter at the umbilicus 3 and we have feen an
example of it in the {kin above the pubes.
When cancer affe&s the (kin, it begins in the form
of a fmall, hard, and dark-coloured wart, which in-
creafes very flowly in fize 3 the contiguous {kin be¬
comes hardened, forming a ftool or button around the
wart. The progrefs of the difeafe in the {kin has been
always obferved to be more flow than cancer in any
other part; fo that it often &mains in the form of a
black fcab for many years. The fcab at laft feparates,
and then an ulcer of the {kin is expofed, having all the
charafters of the true cancerous fore It has a pale co¬
lour, ragged hard edges, and unequal furface 3 and it gra¬
dually extends in an irregular manner along the {kin 3
3
E R f. Chap, It.
the hard tumor which forms its bafts, at the fame time Cancer of
increafing in fize. Inftead of pu1:, the ulcer difcharges ,11L 'in* ,
a thin ichor, which reddens and excoriates the adjacent
{kin. The difeafe which, when in the form of a fcab
gave little uneafinefs, now becomes painful 3 and the
patient feels more or lefs frequently (harp lancinating
pains darting through the tumor, and extending from it
to the adjacent foft parts.
When a cancerous affection of the {kin is examined
after it is removed from the body, it has all the leading
characters we have defcribed in our general obfervations
on cancer *. The great degree of hardnefs of the mor- * See chap,
bid mafs, is produced from the formation of the hau^on Cancer.
fibrous-looking matter obferved in all fchirrous tumors 3
and the direction of its fibres will be generally found extend¬
ing from the bafe of the tumor to the furface of the {kin.
Cancer of the {kin follows the fame progrefs as can¬
cerous affeCtions of other textures 3 the contiguous glands
become enlarged and ulcerate 3 an<i both the ulcers
which thefe form, and the primary one, fpread over
whatever parts they meet, till they deilroy the pa¬
tient.
Treatment.—The fuccefs which has been attributed 4-
to various medicines, particularly to arfenic and ftrong
corrofive applications, in the cure of cancer, has been
chiefly from the ufe of thefe medicines in cancerous
affeCtions of the {kin. From the difeafe being obferved
in the {kin before it has far advanced, from its flow pro¬
grefs in that part, and the ready application of reme¬
dies, it affords better opportunities of experiment than
other parts of the body when affeCted with that di{-
eafe. Baft experience, however, leaves us but little
room to hope for a cure of cancer in the {kin by any
external application with which we are as yet acquaint¬
ed 3 and we know of no remedy to be trufted to but the
complete excifion of the difeafed parts.
The more early the difeafed {kin is removed, the
greater is the chance of a permanent cure of the dif¬
eafe. And in whatever part of the body the {kin is
affeCled, it is of the utmoft importance to remove every
part where there is the leaft fufpicion of contamination.
In the face, we have often obferved the furgeon too
anxious to fave {kin, with a view of leffening the ble-
mifli of an exTenfive fear 3 but in a difeafe fo deporable
as cancer, no objefl: of this kind can in any degree com-
penfate for being expofed to the finalleft rifk of its re¬
turn ; the more fo, efpecially as we have often remark¬
ed that a fecond operation is feldom if ever attended
with permanent advantage. T he furgeon, therefore,
ought to lay it down as a general rule, to include in his
incifion a confiderable portion of the found {kin fur¬
rounding the difeafed parts.
The particular cafes wherein an operation is advifable,
muft be left entirely to the judgement of the furgeon.
The operation may be performed in all cafes where the
difeafed parts appear to be within the reach of the knife 3
or if there are &ny glands affe&ed, if thefe can be fafe-
]y removed, it may be even under thele circumftances
undertaken, though no doubt the chance of a return of
the difeafe in fuch cafes is greater.
Whenever the periofteum and parts furrounding any
of the bones is affefted, there is little chance from any
afliftance of art, except when the difeafe occurs in the ex¬
tremities of the body, as in the hands or feet; for in fuch
cafes, amputation of the whole member may be performed.
When
Chap. II. S U 11 (
Cancer of When cancerous fores appear about the eyelids, and
,t e . fpread along the conjunctiva, covering the eyeball, it is
the ©nly fafe praftice to remove the whole contents of
the orbit. The different parts which compofe the eye¬
ball and its appendages, leem to have fuch a clofe connec¬
tion with one another, that it is difficult, perhaps impof-
fible, to mark the boundaries of the difeafed adtion which
is going on ; and as the lofs of any part of the organ
prevents the others from performing their fundtions,
it becomes no material objedt to fave any particular
part.
It is generally remarked, that the lips are particular¬
ly fubjedt to cancer, at lead; in men ; and that the un¬
der lip is more fo than the upper one. The difeafed
part may be removed in this part of the body with great
neatnefs upon the general principles of the operation of
harelip. This can only be done when the difeafed
portion is fmall, and may be included by two incifions
forming an angle, inclining towards the chin. See
Harelip. When, however, the difeafe has fpread
over a confiderable portion of the lip, fo as to pre¬
vent the found parts from being united : after the
difeafed parts have been removed, all that can be done
is to remove the parts affedted, fecure the bleeding vef-
fels, and drefs the fore like any other recent wound.
By a little ingenuity and contrivance, much may be
fometimes done in making the incilion in fuch a man¬
ner as to allow the found parts to be afterwards brought
together and united ; fo that in all cafes of extenfive
difeafe, the furgeon ffiould confider of all the different
modes by which the difeafed parts may be removed with
moft advantage.
The operation is performed by fome wdth a com¬
mon fcalpel, by others with fciffars. When the fcal¬
pel is ufed, the lip is to be held firmly with for¬
ceps by an affiftant, and the fecond incifion made a-
long their edge ; but when the difeafe extends beyond
the adhefion of the lip to the jaw, no forceps are necef-
fary.
The fciffars are, however, the preferable inftrument $
they divide the lip with much led pain, and with a ma¬
thematical precifion. When they are ufed for this pur-
pofe, it is neceffary they be made thick and firong ;
and as in fome people the lip is extremely thick, and apt
through the blades, inftead of being divided.
Giving the cutting edge of the blades a circular form
will be iound to be an improvement on the common
ftraight edge. It is evident, however, that the fcif¬
fars can only be employed in thofe cafes where *the
forceps could be ufed to aid the knife. All wounds
of the lip heal beft and moft accurately w'ith the
twifted future ; fo that the edges ffiould be brought
together in the fame manner as has been recommended
m the cafe of harelip, and the fame mode of after-treat¬
ment is alfo to be purfued.
4? Sect. VI. Of Warts.
There are two kinds of ivarts which grow upon the
furface of the body 5 the one fpecies is connected with the
pan by a broad bafe ; is of a hard, firm texture, unequal
in the furface, and free from pain. Warts of this de-
fcnption are frequent in young people, and are generally
found on the hands.
The other fpecies of wart is attached to the Ikin by
; E R Y.
a flender pedicle $ they have a very unequal lurface,
appearing as if compofed of an aggregate of fmall tu¬
mors. Warts of this kind feldom attain any very con-
iiderable fize, the largeft fcarcely exceeding that of a
pea. T hey are feldom troublefome \ but in fome fitua-
tions they become extremely irritable, and produce, ef-
pecially wffien injured, very difagreeable fenfations.
1. his fpecies of wart is molt frequently met writh on
the prepuce and glans of the penis ; on the labite }
around the anus, and alfo frequently upon the hairy
fcalp. In thele fituations they fometimes acquire a
very large fize, numerous wTarts arifing over the wffiole
furface, and forming a mafs of a cauliflower appear¬
ance. They are molt frequent in people advanced in
life, and are often connefted with the venereal dif¬
eafe.
Befides thefe, there are varieties of fmall ivarts which
occur in different parts of the body, which have not
been accurately defcribed by authors. There is one
variety where a number of fmall, whitifh tumors ap¬
pear in fome parts of the face of children ; thele contain
an opaque white fluid, which when difchargtd, and al¬
lowed to remain upon the contiguous fkin, contaminates
it, and produces warts of the fame defcription.
Of the treatment of Warts—A variety of local re¬
medies have been applied, both by medical men and the
vulgar, for the curing of warts j and thefe generally
pofiefs a corrofive quality.
Lunar cauftic is one of thofe which generally anfwers..
beft, and is moft eafily managed for deftroying the firft
fpecies of warts which we have defcribed. A faturnine
folution applied to the warts three or four times a day,
or cqua ammonia;, and tin&ure of cantharides, have
alfo been found beneficial in promoting their abforp-
tion.
In the fecond fpecies, when the excrefcences are very
large, they ffiould always be removed along with a por¬
tion of the adjacent fkin, by the knife. In thofe cafes
where the warts are very numerous, and where, from
their fituation, it becomes impcflible to remove them
wuth the knife, equal portions of cerugo ceris and favine
powder, or favine powder alone, will be found fome¬
times to fucceed in removing them. In fome cafes, par¬
ticularly vyhere the W'arts are fituated about the glans
of the penis, wTe have found a faturated folution of the
muriate of mercury in fpirit of wine, completely anfvver
the purpofe. In thofe cafes connefted with fyphilis,
befides local applications, it is neceffary to ufe mercury.
Sometimes, indeed, the warts drop off whenever the mer¬
cury begins to affcd the conflitution..
Sect. VII. Of Corns.
A corn is a peculiar hardnefs of the epidermis, which
fometimes extends to the fubjacert fkin. In the firfi:
cafe, the difeaftd part is removeable ; in the fecond cafe
it is more fixed. It frequently elevates itlelf above the
fkin, and is not unlike one fpecies of w’art. It is hard
dry, and infenfible, except when preffed upon the con¬
tiguous parts j and it refembles in colour and appear¬
ance tlie thickened cuticle on the hands of workmen,,
Corns commonly are formed on the toes and fides of the
feet, and they are generally owing to the wearing of
right ffioes. Sometimes corns do not occafion the lealt
inconveniencyj but in other inftances they occafion fo
much
47
Warts.
4^
50
R Y.
48
Corns.
51
S U R G
tnuc'n pain, that the patient can walk with difficulty.
Corns are generally more painful in warm than in cold
weather. The pain feems to arife from an inflamed
ilate of the parts in the circumference of the corn,
which ft ate is excited and kept up by the preffure of the
induration, and not from any fenflbility in the corn it-
felf. They are more painful in dry than in moift wea¬
ther, becaufe they become much more hard and dry.
Treatment of Corns.—The pain and difficulty of walk¬
ing produced by corns, may be alleviated by immerfing
them in warm water, and with 3 fharp inftrument cut¬
ting off their external layers} much relief will alfo be
found by covering the part with a piece of adhefive
plafter, and by being careful not to rvear Ihoes which are
too tight. But what w^e have found a moft complete
cure for corns, is the application of one. or other of
thofe corrofive fubftances which were mentioned for the
treatment of warts. T he lunar cauftic, or the fatur-
ated folution of muriate of mercury in fpirit of wine,
ought to be preferred. They may be applied once every
fecorid or third day, until the abforption of the corn be
completed 5 and before ufmg them, it will be found pro¬
per to pare off foroe of the external hard layers of the
corn.
Some corn-operators extirpate the corn by a ffiarp
inftrument \ but this only proves a palliative treat¬
ment, for fooner or later a hard fubftance is again de-
pofited.
Sect. VIII. Of Navi Materni.
Ntevi materni are thofe marks wffiich frequently ap¬
pear upon the bodies of children at birth, and wffiich are
ftippofed to originate from impreffions made on the mind
of the mother during pregnancy. They are of various
forms •, their colour is likewife various, though moft
frequently refembling that of claret or port-wine.
Many of* thefe marks are perfectly flat, and never rife
above the level of the ikin : thefe do not require the
affiftance of furgery ; but in fome cafes they appear in
the form of fmall protuberances, wffiich frequently in-
creafe to a great fize in the courfe of a few months.
They appear to be foft and fleftiy •, of a cellular texture,
the cells containing liquid blood. They may be re¬
moved with little danger when not involving any im¬
portant organ. They are fupplied indeed more plenti¬
fully with blood than moft other tumors are •, and even
fometimes they appear to be entirely formed of a con¬
geries of fmall blood-veflels ; but the arteries which fup-
ply them may be, for the moft part, eafily fecured by
ligature. An operation (Irould never be long delayed j
for as the fize of the veffels correfponds with that of the
tumor, they fometimes are fo large as to throw out a
good deal of blood before they can be fecured. . In per¬
forming it, the tumor is to be cut out, the arteries taken
up, and the remaining fkin brought as well together as
the nature of the part will allow', and kept fo by adhe¬
five plafter or future.
If the whole tumor be removed, little haemorrhagy
generally follows •, but if the fmalleft portion of the dif-
eafed veffels remain, not only a troublefome bleeding fol¬
lows, but the tumor is quickly reproduced by an increaf-
ed exuberance. Tumors of this kind have been alfo
removed by ulceration excited by the application of
corrofive fubflances \ and a knowledge of this circum-
ftance might be in fome cafes of practical application.
4
E
On
Chap HI.
Chap. III.
the Difeafes of Mucous Membranes.
Difeafes of
the Mucous
Mem¬
branes.
Sect. I. General Remarks on the Pathology of the S3
Mucous Membranes.
Though at firft fight it may appear that the mucous
membranes are very confiderable in number, yet when
they are view'ed more generally, they appear much more
limited } and we will find that in whatever part of the
body they be found, they are fubjedt to the fame morbid
alterations of ftrudlure.
The ingenious Bichat has fliown that there are two
general mucous lunaces, of which the others are all
portions. T he one penetrates into the interior of the
mouth, the nofe, and the anterior furface of the eye.
After lining thefe two firft cavities, it is prolonged
into the excretory dufts of the parotids, and lub-
maxillary glands. It paffes into all the finules, ioims
the conjundliva, enters the lachrymal points, the natal
canal, the lachrymal fac, and is continued into the no(e.
It lines the pharynx and euftachian tube, the trachea and
bronchi®. It goes down the cefophagus into the fto-
mach, and paffes along the whole inteftinal canal till it
joins with the fkin at the extremity of the reftum.
This he calls the gafro-puhnonary mucous furface.
The other general mucous furface, the genito-urinary,
begins in the male at the urethra ; pafies along that
canal into the bladder, lines the bladder, veficulse lemi-
nales, and vafa deferentia, along with their numerous
branches. It alfo extends into the excretories of the
proftate gland, the ureters, and the pelvis of the kidneys.
In the female it begins at the vulva, penetrates the
ureter, and paffes as in the male over the urinary organs.
It alfo enters the vagina, lines the womb and fallopian
tubes, and is then continued with the peritoneum. This
is the only example of a communication eftablifhed be¬
tween the mucous and ferous furfaces.
This view of the extenfion of the mucous membranes
is ftrongly exemplified by an examination of their dif¬
eafes ; for it will appear that there is not only an ana-
logy between the different portions of the firft, by an
affe£!ion of the whole parts over which it extends, but
there is alfo a line of demarkation between the two,
from the one remaining found whilft the other is affe&ed
throughout. This laft circumftance is confirmed m the
hiftory of many epidemic catarrhs} one of thefe mem¬
branes having been obferved affefted throughout, whilft
the other remained unchanged. The epidemic obferved
at Paris in the year 1780 had this character. . “ This
epidemic (fays Pinel *) which was very general in Paris,^ N(),_
and with which I was myfelf attacked, vras remarkable jpjjig philo-
for it affefted almoft the whole mucous membranes,
that of the trachea and bronchi®, the conjunftiva, the tom. ii.
pituitary membrane, the palate, the pharynx, and the ah-P
mentary canal.” The epidemic catarrh of 1752, de-
feribed in the Memoirs of the Medical Society of Edin¬
burgh, is an example of the fame kind 5 lor in all thefe,
the mucous membrane lining the urinary and genital
organs remained unaffe&ed.
We alfo obferve that an irritation of any part of a
mucous membrane frequently creates a pain^ on a part
of the membrane which was not irritated. Thus a cal¬
culus
Chap. III. S U R C
Inflamma- cuius in the urinary bladder produces the chief pain at
cous<Mern~the P°in,; the penis, and the preffure of worms in the
branes. inteitines produces an itching at the ncfe.
u.—v...Among thefe phenomena, which are purely fym-
pathetic, it is feldom that a partial irritation of one
of the mucous furfaces produces pain in any part of the
other. The lingular conneftion which fubfifts between
the membranes of the uterus and bronchiae in mucous
hcemorrhagies, however, is an example of this kind.
If the blood accidentally ceafe to flow from the one
during menftruation, the other frequently fupplies the
funftions of the fir ft, and exhales it. In cafes of ftric-
ture, or thickening and diforganization of the mucous
membranes of the urethra, the ftomach is fometimes
affe&ed: this may alfo arife from the fympathy of the
two mucous membranes.
Mucous membranes, from being conftantly expofed to
the a£tion of the external air, or to the contact of ex¬
traneous fubftances, do not fuffer, when difplaced, like
other parts of the animal economy. In a prolapfus of
the uterus or redlum, their mucous furfaces ferve all the
purpofes of Ikin ; and furrounding bodies do not pro¬
duce more pain on them than on common Ikin. This
is very different from the effefts produced on opening a
ferous cavity or a capfule of any joint. The cellular,
mufcular, nervous, glandular, and other fyftems, when laid
open, prefent alfo very different phenomena.
The mucous membrane, like the Ikin, is organifed in
fuch a manner as to endure with impunity the contadt of
external bodies j thefe merely producing an increafed
fecretion of thin mucus. A found introduced and re¬
tained in the bladder produces no alteration in the ftruc-
ture of the mucous membrane of the urethra; and for
the fame reafon, a ftyle or tube can be kept in the la¬
chrymal du£l without caufing any irritation.
Moft of the difeafes of mucous membranes come with¬
in the province of the furgeon ; the others have been
already treated of under the article Medicine.
54 Sect. II. Inflammation of Mucous Membranes.
The contaft of extraneous and irritating fubftances,
^acrid vapours, or the hidden expofure to cold air of any
mucous furface, is often followed by feme degree of in¬
flammation.
A preteinatural degree of rednefs is a conftant fymp-
tom of inflammation in moft parts of the body j but the
moft remarkable chara&er of inflammation in mucous
membranes, and that which diftinguilhes it from all
others, is the fecretion of a puriform fluid. The mu¬
cus, which in the natural ftate is nearly tranfparent,
and merely moiftens the furface, becomes of a yellow
colour, and the quantity is fo abundant as to form a
purulent difeharge. It is from the fufeeptibility of the
mucous glands to be afted upon by any irritation
which is applied to the extremities of their dufts,
that the ftone or any tumor in the bladder, polypi of
the nofe or vagina, are always accompanied by a profufe
difeharge.
The inflammation is accompanied with a more or Ids
degree of thickening of the membrane ; and fometimes
this remains after all the inflammatory fymptoms ceafe.
The abatement of the inflammation is marked by an in-
creafe in the thicknefs of the difeharge and a diminution
in its quantity.
Vol. XX. Fart L
E R Y. 49
We have an example of inflammation affe&irtg the Gonorrhoea
mucous membrane of the nofe in coryza, the ear in J
otitis, the urethra and vagina in gonorrhoea, the blad¬
der in a catarrhus veficae, and the eye in the puriform
ophthalmia, the lachrymal fac or dud in fiftula lacryma-
lis. In all thefe difeafes the fymptoms have a ftriking
analogy, and are varied only from the difference in the
fundions of the particular organ, the mucous covering
of which has been affeded.
During life, mucous membranes become gangrenous
much more feldom than the Ikin. T his is proved from
the confequences of catarrh, compared with thofe of
eryfipelas. There are, however, cafes where this tex¬
ture dies, whilft thofe adjacent continue to live j as in
malignant angina.
Sect. II I. Of the Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane
of the Urethra.
The term gonorrhoea is employed to fignify a dif- Gonorrhoea
charge of puriform matter from the orifice of the ure- (Ecoule-
thra or prepuce in men, and from the vagina in women j
whether it proceed from a fyphilitic or any other irritat-^^*
ing caufe.
The gonorrhoea may be defined a difeharge of a con¬
tagious, puriform fluid, which comes from the mucous
glands of the urethra, and membrane which lines that
canal; or from the glans in men, and the interior of the
genital organs in women. The difeafe feems to be pro¬
duced by a virus fui generis.
This difeafe generally makes its appearance in three
or four days, fometimes in fix, but rarely later, after im¬
pure coition, with the following fymptoms. The patient
finds a particular itching and difagreeable fenfation at
the point of the yard, and a fort of flight itching alfo
at the part of the urethra placed immediately under the
frenum. This lafts one or two days, and on the fol¬
lowing days the orifice of the urethra becomes fenfible
and red ; it alfo fwells, and a limpid matter of a clear
yellow colour flows from it, which tinges the linen.
Whilft the flow of this matter continues, the titillation
becomes ftronger and more painful, particularly in ma¬
king water; for this leaves a burning impreflion and
ftiarp pain in the affefted part. In fome individuals the
firft fymptom prefenting itfelf is the difeharge of a thick
mucus. In thefe cafes the patient feels from the com¬
mencement a burning and painful fenfation in making
water. Thefe fymptoms generally increafe in three
or four days. Sometimes, however, that does not fen-
fibly happen till after eight or twelve days. The glans
acquires a deep red livid colour; the difeharge through
it increafes, and the matter becomes of a yellow, or
greenifh yellow colour, refembling pus diluted. The
fwelling of the glans, and alfo of the whole penis, be¬
comes confiderable; the patient has frequently a defire
to make water, and he finds, particularly when he has
remained for fome time in bed lying on his back, fre¬
quent and involuntary ereftions, and fo painful’that
they difturb his fleep, and oblige him to rife out of
bed.
Such is ufually the progrefs of the difeafe when the in¬
flammation is Ample, flight, and fuperficial $ but in many
cafes the inflammation extends farther and penetrates
more deeply, affecting the reticular fubftances of the'
cavernous
SURGERY.
•cavernous bodies of the urethra. Then the pain be¬
comes exceflive during erections, and the frenum of the
glans is drawn downwards as by a cord, in fuch a man¬
ner that the body of the penis is forced upwards by the
violence of the ere&ion. It is this which is called
cordee. It fometimes happens, that in this Hate the
veffels of the urethra are torn, and thus occalion conli-
derable haemorrhagy. At other times, the difcharged
matter is mixed with ftreaks of blood j the prepuce is
alfo fo much inflamed and fwelled that it cannot be
pulled back over the glans, or if it has been pulled
back, it cannot be again brought forward. In fome
cafes the ftrangulation which accompanies this laft ac¬
cident, produces a mortification of the glans, and even
occafions the death of the patient j this, however, lel-
dom happens.
In fome perfons one or more of the inguinal glands
fwell, become painful, and are attended with fymptoma-
tic fever. Often the glands of the penis fwell alfo, a
cord or knots can be felt on the back of the penis, and
the Ikin is alfo fwelled and painful. Befides thefe fymp-
toms, the patient often feels, either from his own fault,
or on account of bad treatment, a particular uneafy
aching fenfation, with tenfion and fwelling of the fper-
matic cord and tefticles, accompanied with a diminu¬
tion, or even a complete fuppreflion of the difcharge by
the urethra. In otner cafes the diieafe makes greater
progrefs j the irritation and inflammation ftretching
along the canal of the urethra. All the fymptoms
then become more violent, the pain which is felt in the
perinaeum or behind it, in making water, is fo violent,
that the patient is afraid to make the attempt, at the
fame time that he is frequently folicited by the
fatiguing titillation at the neck of the bladder and
anus. There is a perpetual delire to let off the water,
vvhilff he can make no more than a few drops at a time
with a burning pain. The whole canal of the urethra
is fwelled, and in a ftate of tenfion } the patient has fre¬
quent eredlions, and lancinating pains along the whole
length of the canal, through the perinaeum and anus,
xle cannot lie down for a long time, nor can he reft
seated. In this ftate the fwelling of the glands of the
urethra, and the fpafmodic contra&ion of its internal
membrane, obftrucl the free paffage of the urine, and
allow it to flow in a very thin bifurcated ftream, or drop
by drop j and if at the fame time the difcharge dimi-
nifli confiderably, or totally flop, a complete fuppref-
fion of urine fometimes fucceeds, occafioned by the in¬
flammation and ftrifture of the neck of the bladder, or
by the inflammation and fwelling of the proflate gland
and adjacent parts.
It fometimes happens that the inflammation of the
urethra becomes fo violent, that its internal furface, and
tjie orifices of the glands which line it, fecrete nothing 5
the lame as we obferve fometimes happens in inflamma¬
tion of the mucous membrane of the nofe and of the
lungs. It is this ftate of the difeafe which fome authors
have defcribed under the name otgonorrhoea Jxcca.
After lhe!e fymptoms have continued with more or lefs
violence, or when they have increafed during one, two,
or three weeks, or even during fix or feven, according
to the treatment employed, they begin gradually to di-
rninifti. The difficulty and the frequent defire to make
water ceafe ; the ereftions are no longer painful; the
matter acquires more conliftence, and forms into threads
Chap. III.
between the fingers, and at laft the difcharge entirely Gonorrhces
difappears. In other cafes, and thefe the molt frequent,'1*
the inflammatory fymptoms difappear by degrees j but
tue difcharge remains during weeks, months, or even
years. It is this form of the difeafe which is called
gleet, or Amply hlennorrhaea.
Sometimes the inflammatory fy niptoms difappear by
degrees, and leave behind them in the urethra an ulcer,
from which there is a malignant and purulent difeharue*
and which occafions an affe&ion of the fyftem. This is
what has been called gonorrhoea complicata or ulce-
rofa ; but it occurs rarely.
In other cafes a contraction remains in the urethra ■
fometunes a paraphymofls continues, and fometimes
there is a tumor of the tefticles, a hardening of thefe
parts or of fome of the glands of the urethra, an in¬
flammation of the proftate gland, with a more or lefs
complete fuppreffion of urine 5 at other times, though
very rarely, the difcharge, when fuppreffed, produces
fuddenly a perfeCt deafnefs, or molt violent ophthal¬
mia *.
The exciting caufe of fyphilitic gonorrhoea is always 'Zahui?6
the application of the fpecific virus to fome part of the Vena-inn
mucous membrane lining the urethra. The contagious^/- Swe-
fluid, applied to any part of the body of a found perfon diaur-
aCls with more or lefs difficulty, according to the differ¬
ence in the flrufture, the greater or lefs debility of the part
and alfo according to the particular conftitution of the
individual 5 for we fee people who are expofed to every
danger of infeftion, without ever having the difeafe
even during their whole life. Perhaps alfo the more or
lefs violence of the a&ion of the virus depends fome¬
times on the greater or lefs degree of acrimony of the
virus itfelf.
The feat of gonorrhoea, when it immediately proceeds
from impure coition, is always at a fmall diftance from
the oriflee of the urethra, under the frenum, at that
part of the canal where we obferve a dilatation, called
fojfa navicularis. All gonorrhoeas which are lituated
more anteriorly on the curvature of the penis, in the
vent montanum, the neck of the bladder, or in the
bladder itfelf, arife from bad treatment, or from fome
caufe which has flopped or fuppreffed the primary dif¬
charge.
Sometimes by the natural progrels of the difeafe, and
more frequently from faults committed by the patient,
or by the effedls of improper remedies, the inflammation
and irritation are apt to change their place. They of¬
ten occupy the orifice of a mucous gland which opens
at the firft turn of the penis. At other times they af-
fe<ft the two glands of Cowper. Sometimes they occu¬
py the protuberances which cover the orifices of the le-
minal veficles j and they alfo fometimes takes place in
the proftate gland, or in the neck of the bladder.
In fome rare cafes the contagious virus does not pe¬
netrate during the inflammation into the urethra, but
applied to the extremity of the penis, it fixes itfelf up¬
on the corona of the glans, and irritating the excretory
dufls of the febaceous glands there, produces a difcharge
which has been called the gonorrhoea of the glans.
When the urethra of a perfon who has laboured under
gonorrhoea is laid open, no ulcer is ahnoft ever found upon
the furface of the internal membrane ; and in thofe who
have fuffered much in confequence of the difeafe, there
is merely a thickening and contraftion of one or more
parts
Chap. ITT. S U R G
Gonorrhoea, parts of tlie urethra. Sometimes, though very rarely,
"V—excrefcences are formed within it. The dufts of the
mucous glands are obliterated, and the proftate gland
and bladder changed in their ftru&ure.
It has been a matter of great difpute among thofe
who have written on the venereal difeafe, whether the
gonorrhoeal and venereal virus are the fame. In this
56 controverfy a number of very futile arguments have
Specific na- been brought forward. It is a ftriking fadf, however,
ture of the which the pra&ical man mult have always in view,
virus‘ that the venereal difeafe is never cured without mercu¬
ry ", whilft a gonorrhoea, however virulent, never re¬
quires that remedy. This ditference in the treatment
of the difeafes fome authors have attempted to ex¬
plain, from the difference in the ftrudture of the parts
affected. It is remarkable, however, that the matter
from the gonorrhoea never afteds the fkin, producing
chancre ; but that when its virus is applied to the va¬
gina, or to the urethra of another perfon, gonorrhoea is
the confequence. When it affeds the prepuce too, it
produces, in place of chancre, a morbid difeharge from
the febaceous glands of that organ. It is alfo a linking
fad, in the hiftory of gonorrhoea, that however long it
may remain, it never produces any conftitutional affec¬
tion. All thefe circumltances in the hillory of the difeafe,
in its progrefs and fymptoms, and in its cure, being fo dif-
fimilar to thofe of the venereal difeafe, are furely fuffi-
cient grounds to confider gonorrhoea and fyphilis as two
diftind morbid affedions, and different from one an¬
other as much as any two difeafes of the animal eco¬
nomy.
57 Treatment All the forms of the venereal difeafe,
when they are left to themfelves, undermine and deftroy
the conftitution; but gonorrhoea ceafes without the re-
fources of art, particularly if during its courfe the pa¬
tient live a fober and regular life. The irritability of
the urethra, the conftitution of the patient, the faults in
his diet, and his exercife and choice of remedies, and
perhaps alfo the nature of the virus itfelf, which is more
or lefs acrid, and of which the adion will be more or
lefs violent, often renders gonorrhoea a very fevere dif¬
eafe. Experience confirms, that the fooner proper re¬
medies are applied, and the fooner the patient is cured,
the lefs he fuffers} and the more certainly he avoids
the difagreeable accidents which are fo often the con-
fequence of that difeafe. From this confideration, it is
evidently of importance, either to prevent the difeafe
entirely, or deftroy it in its beginning. Two means
have been propofed to accomplifh thefe ends j one is, to
remove the virus before it can ad on the parts expofed
to it; the other deftroys and alters its nature, and pre¬
vents thefe effeds from the moment that it gives the firft
figns of its. adion.
Different praditioners have tried and recommended
various prophyladic remedies. Some have applied mer¬
curial ointment upon the furface of the glans and pre¬
puce, immediately after coition, and others different
kinds of lotions and injedions, as cauftic alkali, lime
water, alcohol diluted with water : thefe preparations
being injeded feven or eight times a-day, for feveral
days after the commencement of the difeharge.
By the ufe of in]edions the irritation is diminifhed,
and the progrefs of the inflammation flopped ; and when
the difeharge becomes thicker during their ufe, they
ought to be continued eight or ten days after it has dif-
E R Y. 5i
appeared ; for if we were to give up too foon the ufe of Gonorrhoea.
thefe injedions, the inflammation and difeharge would—v—'
increafe. In this cafe it is neceffary to make the injec¬
tion ftronger, and to ufe it more frequently. The ad¬
vantages to be derived from this pradice do not feem,
however, to be altogether confirmed j and it is to be
wiflied, that enlightened and prudent praditioners would
make fome decifive experiments to determine whether
injedions are ufeful or hurtful in the commencement of
gonorrhoea.
When inflammation has taken place, and when the
difeharge and other fymptoms of gonorrhoea are com¬
pletely formed, a different mode of treatment ought to
be purfued. Repofe, abftinence from all kinds of irrita¬
ting food, fpiceries, wine, &c. will contribute much to al¬
lay the irritation.
In order to defend the irritable parts againft the acrid
matter, and to moderate the fymptoms of inflammation,
authors have recommended the ufe of mucilaginous,
oily, and fedative applications. That wThich renders the
urethra in man fo violently affeded by gonorrhoea, and
fo different from catarrh, is not from the difference of
ftrudure in the organ, which has been fuppofed to
be more irritable than the mucous membrane of the
nofe and other parts of the body. It is the falts of the
urine pafling along the urethra, which keeps up the ir¬
ritation produced by the virus. It has been propofed,
in order to remedy this fource of irritation, to give gum
arabic or the infufion of linfeed internally; but thefe,
when taken in the neceffary quantities, generally injure
the ftomach. An infufion of hemp has been found by
Swediaur to anfwer all the purpofes, and not to be fub-
jed to the inconveniencies of the others. This remedy
may be rendered more agreeable to take, by adding a
little fugar to it} and in fome cafes a weak decodion
of farfaparilla may be advantageoufly added. All thele
drinks (hould be taken cold, or at leaft nearly milk-
warm, and in fmall dofes frequently repeated.
The antiphlogiftic regimen muft alfo be purfued in
the treatment of gonorrhoea. The patient ought to
avoid all exercife, or high-feafoned food. Lint, wret
with a faturnipe folution, {hould be kept conftantly ap¬
plied to the penis; and the patient {hould keep his
bowels open with faline purgatives. When the fymp¬
toms of inflammation are confiderable, and the pulfe
hard and frequent, bleeding becomes neceffary, either
general or topical : the conftant application of fomenta¬
tions and emollient poultices is alfo ufeful. Swediaur
has advifed, that camphor and the nitrate of potafli
{hould be given internally, and this {hould be continued
according to its effeds. Camphor alone, taken in the
form of emulfion with fugar or fre(h egg, is an efficaci¬
ous remedy in allaying the pain and ardor urvice. The
ufe of camphor has alfo been recommended externally,
with a view to allay the cordee.
Thefe remedies ought to be continued as long as the
pain and fymptoms of inflammation in the urethra con¬
tinue. After they are abated, the patient may be allowed
a better diet, in order to prevent the urethra from being
affeded wdth a chronic gonorrhoea or gleet. Injedions
made of the extrad of opium with acetate of lead, applied
frequently from the commencement of the difeafe, con¬
tribute much to ftiorten it, and allay the accompanying
pain. Sometimes, however, even the moft mild injec¬
tions do harm, from a particular irritable Hate of the
G 2 urethra.
52 SURGERY.
Chap. 111.
Gonorrhea, uretlira. Great advantage has alfo been obtained
i3y fome, in very aggravated cafes of the difeafe, by
fridtions of mercurial ointment on the perineeum, and
along the courfe of the urethra, or by mercurial fumi¬
gations applied to the genital organs, and even by the
injection of mercurial ointment into the uiethra.
On the other hand, when the fymptoms of eryfipela-
tous inflammation prevail $ when the patient is feeble,
and of an irritable temperament j when he feels better
after dinner j when the difcharge is clear and profufe,
accompanied with (harp pain, often lancinating through¬
out the whole urethra ; and if the pulfe is feeble and
frequent, it is more advifeable to give him a lefs rigid
. diet; to allow him the moderate ufe of wine, and in
fome cafes to give him opium and bark internally. We
are fometimes furprifed at the fudden changes which
thefe remedies in fuch cafes produce. The ufe of opium
alfo contributes much to prevent cordee ; and in all
cafes this ought to be avoided as much as poflible, by
fixing the penis downwards, and in making the patient
lie on his fide upon a mattrefs, which anfwers better
than lying upon the back, and in a feather bed.
If in confequence of the violence of the inflammation
the difcharge flops, and the pofterior parts of the urethra
begin to be affe&ed, we fliould have recourfe ta the
warm bath, or apply vapours to the part, by placing
the patient upon a veffel containing boiling w7ater, and
this iliould be repeated three or four times a-day $ the
patient Ihould keep his bed, and an emollient cataplafm
applied upon the penis, which Ihould be renewed every
hour. All kinds of injeftions in fuch cafes are hurtful.
The fame treatment is alfo applicable when the dif¬
charge is flopped by the ufe of acrid and aftringent in-
jedtions, or by injections improperly ufed, or by the im¬
proper ufe of turpentine and balfams.
When the proftate glands and the neck of the blad¬
der are affedted, and the patient of a plethoric habit, it
becomes neceffary to bleed profufely, either at the arm,
or by applying a number of leeches to the peringeum.
In all thefe cafes, a fedative clyfter repeated every feven
cr eight hours, and a general or local warm bath ufed
twice a-day, are the belt remedies w’hich can be ufed.
Sometimes a blifter applied to the perinaeum is alfo ufe-
ful.
The fwelling of the lymphatic glands of the groin
which fometimes takes place, is purely fympathetic, and
difappears along with the inflammatory fymptoms of the
urethra.
In all cafes of gonorrhoea the patient Ihould wTear a
fufpenfory bandage wdiilft the difeafe continues *. It is al¬
fo ufeful to perfons w?ho are obliged to take exercife, to
wear a convenient bandage round the penis, which may
be united to the fufpenfory in fuch a manner, that the
penis may be enclofed in a kind of cafe, and thus defended
from external injuries, from cold, and from fridlion1, this
bandage being kept conftantly clean, by often changing
the caddis, which is placed in its cavity. For this
purpofe, a hole fhould be left in the bag, covered by
the caddis, wdiich the patient can take away each time
he makes water. Another general precaution which it
is ufeful to make, is never to keep the penis bound up
high, but to keep it low, in fcrder that the matter may
flow out freely, and may not pafs backwards along the
urethra..
* Plate
DXIV.
The gonorrhoea which takes place in the glans and Gonorrhoea.
prepuce is generally eafily cured, by inje&ing frequent-' 
ly warm milk between the glans and prepuce, and by
keeping the penis in an emollient poultice. -In thofe
cafes w here the prepuce is fo fwelled that it cannot be
pulled back, we ought to have recourfe to fedative in¬
jections.
It is a ufeful general rule, which ought to be obferved
in all cafes of gonorrhoea, to touch the parts affeCted as
little and as feldom as poflible j and every time that it
is touched, to wafli the hands immediately afterw-ards,
and with the greateft care, fearing that, by carrying
them unintentionally upon the eyes, nofe, &c. thefe or¬
gans might be inoculated with the difeafe.
Gonorrhoea in women is feldom followed by fo vio- in women-
lent fymptoms, or by fo fevere and dangerous confe-
quences as in men. In fome cafes the fymptoms are fo
flight, that they conceive the difcharge, particularly at
its commencement, to be nothing but the whites, to
which difeafe a great many are fubjeft, efpecially in the
large towns of Europe.
The gonorrhoea in women has been fuppofed by many
authors to have its feat in the cavities of the urethra.
This, however, will not be found to be the cafe. The
difeafe is feated, either upon the clitoris, or on the ori¬
fice of the urethra 5 upon the nymphae, or in the ca¬
vity of the vagina j or even upon the inferior commif-
fure* . . S9
With regard to the treatment, we have the fame in-Treatment,
dications to fulfil in gonorrhoea in women as in men,
with this difference, that one can fee the change of
ftruClure in thefe parts, and thus, from the feat of the
difeafe, employ proper injeClions and lotions from the
beginning.
Precautions in ujing InjeBions.—The fyringe ufed in
men for this purpofe ought to have a ftiort point of a
conical form and of a thicknefs proportioned, that not
more than its extremity may pafs into the orifice of the
urethra *. The body of the fyringe fhould be perfe&ly # plate
cylindrical, and the pifton ought to play very accurate- DXIV.
ly j for if the pifton does not fit the body of the fy- %•
ringe, the inje&ion, inftead of pafling into the urethra,
regurgitates between the pifton and the fyringe. From
the unfteadinefs of the motion of the pifton, the point of
the fyringe is apt to move fuddenly on the urethra, and
injure its thin and delicate membrane. To prevent any
injury of this kind, we have employed with great ad¬
vantage, particularly if the mouth of the fyringe is
made of metal, a fmall ftrip of caddis wrapped in a
fpiral manner round the mouth of the fyringe, fo as
nearly to expofe its point. If the difeafe is feated near
the point of the urethra, the patient fhould be attentive
to comprefs with one hand the urethra above the arch
of the pubis, where the ferotum commences, whilft wdth
the other hand he holds and guides the fyringe. The
liquid fhould be thrown in gently, and fo as flightly to
diftend the urethra *, the liquid is to be kept for a mi¬
nute or two, and the fame operation repeated two or
three times in fucceflion.
The liquid employed fhould always be ufed warm,
which may be eafily done by filling a cup with the ne¬
ceffary quantity, and placing the cup in a bafon of boil¬
ing water.
It often happens, particularly in young people, that
after.
Chap. HI. S U R G
Gleet, after having ufed injections forae time with advan-
v 1 tage, they become lefs attentive in ufing them, and ne-
gleCt them even for a day. This omiffion is always fol¬
lowed with bad confequences, the difcharge returning
with double force ; and the patient is obliged to con¬
tinue the injections during fome weeks more than would
have been neceffary, if the ufe of the remedy had not
been interrupted.
In order, therefore, to prevent the danger of a re-
lapfe, it is always prudent to advife patients to injeCt
three, four, or even fix times a-day, if the circumltan-
ces demand it, and to continue the fame twm or three
times a-day regularly for at lead ten or fifteen days after
the difcharge has entirely ceafed.
For women the canula ought to be larger and longer.
A canula of ivory, an inch in diameter, and two or
* plate t^iree inches in length, fixed to a bottle of elaftic gum,
33XIV. is the mold convenient form of a fyringe *.
%• I3‘
6o
Of Gleet.
It very often happens, that after the fpecific inflam¬
mation of the urethra is removed, from wdiich gonor-
rhoea is fuppofed to originate, a difcharge dill continues.
This difcharge is not attended with pain, nor can it be
communicated from one perfon to another. The matter
which efcapes is generally of a tenacious confidence,
and of a yellow colour, appearing to be compofed of
globules, mixed with a mucous fluid. When a cure
cannot be performed, either by the ufe of injeClion«, or
by bougies, it has fometimes been propofed to injeCt li¬
quids capable of exciting irritation and inflammation in
the affeCled part of the urethra. It is probably from
this principle that fome gleets have been cured by vio¬
lent exercife on horfeback, or a long journey. There
have alfo been examples of fimilar cafes cured by coi¬
tion ; but this is a cure not to be recommended, as there
alwrays may be a rifk of communicating the difeafe to
the women. A blider, applied externally to the part
affe&ed, or to the perinaeum, has alfo been found ufe-
ful. The cold bath has often been recommended in ob-
ftinate gleets, from which good effedls often refult \ but
there are other cafes in which it feems to increafe the
difcharge.
It is alfo proper to change the injedlion for it is ob-
ferved that an injeftion lefs drong fometimes produces a
good effedt, after a drong one has been employed with¬
out fuccefs, and vice verfa. In many cafes it is ufeful
to combine the ufe of internal medicines with external
means. The chief of thefe are mercurial preparations,
balfamic and refinous fubdances, and tonics. Swediaur
has ufed, with much fuccefs, in gleets, pills made of
turpentine and oxide of mercury. Among the refinous
fubdances which are employed, the mod common is the
balfam of copaiba. The bed way of taking this remedy
is to give the patient thirty or forty drops in a fmall glafs
of cold water morning and evening, or from fifty to eighty
drops for one dofe in the middle of the day, and after¬
wards to take, in a fmall glafs of w^ater, twenty drops of
the elixir of vitriol, which renders the balfam lefs dif-
agreeable to the domach. Half a dram of turpentine,
of the balfam of Tolu, or of the balfam of Canada,, an-
Iwers the fame end. Swediaur mentions the cafe of a
young man, wrho, having been for a long time didreffed
xyijth a very, obdinate gleet, fwallowed at once between,
E R Y. 53
two and three ounces of the balfam of copaiba, and was Coryza. .
cured. y—
Sometimes the balfams, combined with tinflure of
guaiac, or with kino, produce a defireable edeft.
Among the corroborant or tonic remedies, the kino,
wdiich we have already mentioned, is one of the mod
ufeful; the cinchona alfo in powder or infufion in red
wine, or, which is dill better, in lime water 5 tormen-
tilla in powder, or in extraft, in the form of pills, join¬
ed, according to circumdances, with preparations of
iron, Glauber’s falts, are ufeful and efficacious remedies.
The tindlure of cantharides, given in a dofe from twenty to
thirty drops, has often been found a mod ufeful remedy.
It is one, however, which ought to be given with pre¬
caution, as it might do much harm to people ot a deli¬
cate and irritable temperament.
There are, however, cafes, where all our efiorts to
cure a gleet are fruitlefs } and we fometimes fee, that
nature alone can in time fucceed, after we have ulelefsly
tried all the refources of art.
There fometimes remains a fpecies of cordee or cur¬
vature of the penis after all the other fymptoms of go¬
norrhoea have difappeared. Fri&ions, with mercurial
ointment, with camphorated oil, fpirituous lotions, or
eleftricity applied to the part, are mod appropriate re¬
medies in fuch cafes.
In all cafes of obdinate gleet, which are fituated far-
back in the canal of the urethra, the date of the pro¬
date gland diould be carefully examined j for they often
arife from a difeafe in that part. When the prodate is
found fwelled and hard, Swediaur has feen indances
where, after a mercurial treatment, the repeated appli¬
cation of cupping-glades to the perinceum, and the ufe
of large dofes of the conium maculatum, has fucceeded,
other remedies having failed.
The gonorrhoea of the prodate is a morbid difcharge
of mucus from that gland, mixed fometimes with the
liquor of the feminal veficles •, and it takes place princi¬
pally through the day, without any venereal defire.
This difeafe is foon followed by feeblenefs and general
debility, with emaciation of the whole body, and even
with death ; particularly if the patient has not employed
proper remedies.
The remedies mod efficacious are the cold bath, in-
jedlions of metallic falts, fomentations of hemlock, bliders
to the perinseum, and internally tonic medicines, with a
well-regulated diet.
Sect. II. Of Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane of Coryza.
the Nofe.
Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nofe is
generally preceded by drynefs in the noflrils, with an
itching feeling, and with a weight over the forehead.
It is alfo accompanied with fneezing and an increafed
flow of tears. The fecretion of mucus from the nofe is
at fird diminiffied, and afterwards becomes very abun¬
dant. At fird it is limpid and irritates the found Ikin
of the upper lip, over which it paffes, and becomes af¬
terwards opaque, of a yellowiflr white colour, and a dif-
agreeable odour. This date is fometimes accompanied
by fever, and it continues for a longer or ffiorter period.
Mod commonly it ceafes at the end of a few days. It.
fometimes, however, becomes chronic and indetermined,
in which cafe it is often intermittent, and re-appears at
regular
t
54 S U R G
Otitis^ regular periods. Coryza, like all ot’ner inflammations
of the mucous membranes, terminates by refolution. It
fometimes paflfes into the ftate of chronic catarrh, and
it alfo occasions an ulceration of the mucous membrane
of the nofe ; but this is extremely rare.
Coryza is frequently accompanied with inflammation
of the mucous membrane of the eye, it alfo fpreads in
many inftances along the euflachian tube, producing
deafnefs, and it is very apt alfo to pafs down the trachea
and affedt the lungs.
The nofe is fometimes afiedled with a difcharge of
thick vifcid mucous, when there is very little apparent
rednefs or pain. Such inftances are often connedfed
with the formation of polypi : but we have obferved fe-
veral cafes, where no other fymptom than the mucous dif¬
charge appeared, and where the difeafe had very much
the general charadler of fome difcharges from the
urethra.
0:1 Treatment.—Coryza is commonly an affedflon fo
flight, and of fuch fhort duration, that it is feldom ne-
ceflary to employ any means to produce an abatement
of its fymptoms. Sometimes, however, the fymptoms
go to a very high degree, and it is then that emollient
vapours diredled into the nafal cavities are particularly
indicated. If much fymptomatic fever accompanies the
difeafe, it may be advifeable to draw fome blood from
the arm, and in all cafes a brifk purgative will be
found to relieve the fullnefs and uneafinefs in the
head. When the inflammation fpreads along the mu¬
cous membrane of the trachea, it becomes the more ne-
ceffary to ufe every means to alleviate the inflammatory
fymptoms, and to prevent the inflammation affedling the
mucous membrane of the bronchi.
Patients labouring under this difeafe, feel remarkable
relief from living in a warm atmofphere ; and the fymp¬
toms of inflammation of the nofe and trachea will be
much alleviated by the internal exhibition of opium.
When the inflammation and the difcharge are of a
, chronic nature, aftringent injedlions, or a doflel dipt in
flmilar folutions, kept in the nofe during the night, are
in fuch cafes the moft ufeful applications. They gra¬
dually diminifh the quantity of the difcharge, and render
it more thick and tenacious; and the fenfe of fmelling,
which is commonly deftroyed, is gradually reftored.
If the difcharge be foetid, and occalionally mixed
with blood, in all probability it oiiginates from the
formation of an abfcefs or ulcer, connected with a carious
bone.
,.63 Sect. III. Of the Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane
of the Ear (Otitis).
In inflammation of the ear, there is the fame charac¬
ters deduced from analogy of ftruflure, as in other
mucous membranes. The principal caufes of this difeafe
are fudden changes in the atmofphere ■, above all, the
change from heat to cold, or from drynefs to moifture •,
■coldnefs of the nights, north winds, fuppreflion of any
regular difcharge, the crifts of acute difeafes, me-
tafiafis, the prefence of an irritating body in the ear,
or the imprudent application of oily or fpirituous fub-
ftances.
The inflammation fometimes takes place in the meatus
auditorius ; and in other cafes it is confined to the cavity
E R Y. Chap. in.
of the tympanum and euftachian tube. In the firft cafe, Otiti;.
there is more or lefs pain, and buzzing in the ears, and '““"'"v '
afterwards a difcharge of thin reddiih yellow matter.
This matter gradually becomes white and opaque, and
increafes in conliftence till the termination of the dif¬
eafe j when it differs in nothing from the wax of the
ear, but in its white colour. This affeftion generally
lafts twelve or fifteen days. It fometimes fpreads to the
external parts of the ear, and often paffes into a chronic
ftate.
When the inflammation is confined to the cavity of
the tympanum, it produces an obfeure tingling fenfa-
tion, and a feeling of tenfion, which the patient fupports
without much inconvenience ; but moft frequently the
inflammation is propagated from the cavity of the tym¬
panum along the euftachian tube. In this cafe, the
pains become more violent and extend along the con¬
tiguous mucous furfaces ; they pafs from the interior
of the ear into the throat; there is great difficulty in
fwallowing, and the food, when paffing through the
pharynx, gives a fenfation as if the fkin had been ero¬
ded. The motions of the neck alio become uneafy, and
the fmalleft attempt to cough, to fneeze, or blow the
nofe, produces a painful fenfation in the ear. The pa¬
tient alfo complains of a ftoppage in the nofe, of a fre¬
quent dry cough, and of pain in the head, and more or
lefs fever in the evening. The ear alfo feels hard and
diftended, and there is generally deafnefs, particularly
towards the end of the difeafe. Soon all thefe fymptoms
diminilh except the hardnefs in the ear, which augments
continually till the fifteenth or twentieth day.
Moft commonly after this period, a quantity of foetid
matter is fuddenly difeharged into the external ear, or
into the throat, and then all the fymptoms difappear.
This difcharge generally diminilhes daily, and in a ffiort
time ceafes altogether. At other times, particularly in
young people, it continues, and becomes chronic.
Treattnent.—WThen the inflammation is confined to the 64
external meatus, the difeafe is generally fo flight that it
may be allowed to run though its common periods, and
it is merely neceffary to keep the patient wTarm. When
the inflammation is very confiderable, the mildeft injec¬
tions give pain, and in place of moderating the fymp.
toms, they increafe the irritation. We ought there¬
fore to do nothing, except, perhaps, to allow ibme warm
vapour to pafs into the ear, and to purfue the antiphlo-
giftic regimen. About the twelfth or fifteenth day, it may
be ufeful to apply tonic medicines, fuch as aromatic alco¬
hol dipped in a piece of cotton. When the inflamma¬
tion is in the tympanum, or the euftachian tube, befides
emollients, it will be alfo neceffary to give fome biiflc
purgative, or to employ local or general blood-letting.
If the membrane of the drum is much diftended, and
accompanied with violent pains, it has been even propo-
fed to make an opening through the tympanum *. When * Nfoyra-
the matter has been difeharged from the tympanum Philo-
ther fpontaneoufly or artificially, little more is requiredA-^7^
to be done, unlefs the difeafe affumes a chronic formA^ F‘ne!'
This is more frequent in children. We often fee the
purulent difeharve continue in them for many months,
and fome of the fmall bones of the ear become carious,
and are difeharged along with the matter. In fuch
cafes fmall dofes of calomel, for fome time repeated,
blifters applied behind the ear, and inje&ions of lime
water
Chap, III.
SURGERY.
Angina, water combine-! with muriate of mercury, acetate of lead
anci tlie like, fhould be employed.
65 Sect. IV. Of Angina,
55
produces fymptcms of fuffocation, it has been propofed Of the Ca~
to make an artificial opening into the trachea below tar[k °f the
where the matter is eifuied, in order to fave the life of, c‘' ,
the patient. See Bronchotomy.
The parietes of the mouth, t rachea, and larynx, are of¬
ten inflamed in catarrhal aflfe£lions, and prefent fymptoms
which vary according to the intenfity of the difeafe, and
particular feat of the aflfe£ted membrane.
Angma has therefore been diftinguifhed according
to its feat in the tonfils, the trachea, the pharynx, and
larynx.
When the patient has great difficulty in fwallowing
his food, and when the pain ftretches in chewing, to
the ear along the euftachian tube, by a fort of crepita¬
tion, and if, on infpedlion of the throat, the, amygdalae
and edge of the palate appear much inflamed, along with
an abundant excretion of mucus, the angina has its feat
principally in the amygdalae.
Angina affefis the pharynx when deglutition is diffi¬
cult or impoffible, and the food is returned by the nofe,
refpiration at the fame time not being impeded. This
inflammation is alfo vifible by examining the bottom of
the mouth.
But if the deglutition is difficult; if no rednefs is to
perceived at the bottom of the throat, and if the patient
has great difficulty in refpiring, a (harp pain in the mo¬
tions of the larynx, the voice acute but w^eak, and
the fpeech ffiort, we may then conclude that the inflam¬
mation has attacked the larynx, or upper part of the
wind-pipe. An affection of this kind, though a few
cafes have been known to take place in adults, generally
attacks children under twelve years of age. It is known
by the name of croup.
When the inflammation affe&s the amygdalae, inhal¬
ing fleams of warm water and vinegar will often be
found to give great relief. A poultice, too, applied to
the outfide of the throat, affifts in lelTening the tenfion
of the inflamed parts. Though in many cafes the inflam¬
mation feems to be confined to the mucous covering of
the glands, yet in others it fpreads into the glandular
fubffance, where it generally advances to fuppuration
and abfcefs. In fuch cafes, the early difcharge of the
matter gives great and immediate relief; and though no
matter has been formed, punfturing the inflamed part
with a fharp inftrument often produces an alleviation of
all the fymptoms. The inftrument delineated in Plate
DXIV. fig. 14. is well calculated for thefe purpofes.
By altering the pofition of the fcrew in the handle, the
depth of the cutting part of the inftrument may be re¬
gulated. When it is to be ufed, the fore finger of the
left hand is to be introduced down the mouth, and the
perforator concealed in the canula introduced as a direc¬
tor. When the extremity of the canula reaches the
inflamed part, the perforator may be then fafely puflied
•nto it, of a fufficient depth, which had been previoufly
regulated.
When the inflammation affe£fs the pharynx, relief
will alfo be obtained by inhaling the fleam of warm wa¬
ter, and by employing antiphlogiflic remedies. In
croup, calomel has been found to have a fpecific eflecf ;
and it is afloniffiing the quantity that has been given to
infants for the cure of that difeafe. See Mf/DTCINE.
When the effufioh which takes place in croup, is
chiefly confined to the upper part of the larynx, and
Sect. V. Of the Catarrh of the Bladder.
The ureters, the bladder, and the urethra, are all li¬
able to be affetled with catarrhal affe£tions from gene¬
ral caufes, the fame as thofe affeftions of the mucous
membranes which have been already mentioned j and
befides, the furfaces of the mucous membranes of thefe
parts are expofed to the aflion of particular caufes,
namely, the ureters and the bladder to calculi, and the
urethra to the venereal virus.
The catarrh of the bladder is more frequent among
men than among women ; and old people are more
fubjecl to it, than thofe at any other period of life.
It is often produced by the internal ufe of cantharides,
by acrid diuretics, and by the progrefs of hsemorrhagy
from the urethra. The hidden expofure to cold, fup-
preffed perfpiration, the difappearance of different dif-
eafes of the fkin, of rheumatifm, and of gout, are fol¬
lowed almoft fuddenly by this catarrh. Other circum-
ffances may alfo give rife to the chronic catarrh of the
bladder. The prefence of a calculus or any foreign body,
the continual application of bougies, a fwelling of the
profiate gland ; and above all, ftriilures of the ure¬
thra.
This difeafe is marked by pains of the bladder, and
at the point of the urethra, both before, and whilff
making water. The injeftion of the urethra is more
or lefs difficult, according to the ablion of the bladder,
and of the freedom of the paffage of the urethra. The
hypograftric region is tenfe, and the urine prefents va¬
riety of colours j it is fometimes whitifli, or reddiih, or
of a deep yellow colour *, it is muddy, and it exhales
an odour of ammonia, which becomes more fenfible a
fhort time after it has cooled. It alfo forms, in molt
common cafes, a mucus, which mixes and comes away
with the urine in the form of glary filaments, and which
is afterwards depofited at the bottom of the veffel, in
the form of the tenacious glary fubftance, refembling
fomewhat the white of egg.
The chronic inflammation of the mucous membrane
of the bladder, may be accompanied with an ulceration
of the kidneys or bladder j the mucus difcharged
then becomes of a greeniffi yellow colour, fometimes
mixed with flreaks of blood. It is depofited flowly, is
mixed cafily among the urine, and in water ; it has lit¬
tle vifcidity, or foetor, and does not coagulate by ebul¬
lition. The other fymptoms which accompany this ex¬
cretion, as fever, pain, wafting of the flefli, fufficiently
difiinguifli this double affe&ion of the bladder. The
chronic catarrh is fubjeft to return rvith intolerant pain
in the region of the pubis and perinaeum, accompanied
with reftlcffnefs and anxiety. Thefe intermiffions are
irregular, and may remain fome weeks.
Treatment—The matter which exifts in the mucous
membrane of the bladder, and that of other membranes
of the lame name, is fufficient to point out the means
which are to be employed in its treatment. The warm
bath, and mucilaginous drinks, are particularly indicated
at the beginning of the acute catarrh 5 but the tendency
which it has to become chronic, ought to make us cau¬
tious
65
67
A
56 S U II G
Strictures. tloUs in not profeculing debilitating remedies too far.
Opium Ihould be employed with great prudence, not-
withftanding the intenfity of the pain j and as this is
often the refult of the diftenfion of the bladder, from the
accumulation of urine, it is fometimes neceffary to have
recourfe to the introduflion of the catheter.
The chronic catarrh of the bladder is generally dif¬
ficult to cure, and the more fo, if it occur in old age:
if it arifes from the preffure of a Hone in the bladder,
there is no cure but the operation of lithotomy j if it
arifes from metaftafis, rheumatifm, or any other difeafe,
we ought to employ remedies to the Ikin and inteftinal
canal, and pour tonic inje&ions into the bladder. The
uva urfi has alfo been found a ufeful remedy. Exercife,
dwelling in dry and elevated places, the ufe of woollen
clothes next the fkin, contribute often more to the cure
of this difeafe, than the ufe of medicines, and they ought
always to be combined.
The conjunftiva covering the eye-ball, eye-lids, and
lacrymal paffages, are alfo fubje& to inflammation 5 but
thefe will be treated of among the difeafes of the eye
and its appendages.
*8 Sect. V. General Remarks on StriBures.
The term ftri&ure has been ufually applied to a con-
ira&ion of the urethra 5 generally arifing from a thick¬
ening of the mucous membrane lining that canal. This
change of ftrufture is not, however, confined to the mu¬
cous membrane which lines the urethra ; the fame mor¬
bid alteration takes place in the cefophagus, in the eufta-
chian tube and meatus externus, in the maxillary finus,
in the bladder, in the lacrymal paflages, and in all ca¬
nals lined by mucous membranes. Striftures, however,
occur much more frequently in the urethra, and are
there more pernicious than in any other part. They
appear alfo fometimes in the upper part of the cefopha¬
gus. A fimilar change has been obferved in the in¬
ternal part of the bladder. Bichat found the membrane
lining the maxillary finus feveral lines in thicknefs, and
* Anatomic alfo the canals of the tympanum much thick tned *;
Generate, sncj reafoning from analogy, and from what we may ob-
p ferve by an attentive examination of the fymptoms of
many cafes, of what is ufually called fiftula lacrymalis,
there is little doubt but a contraftion and thickening often
take place of the mucous membrane lining the lacry¬
mal fac and du6t, and produce that difeafe.
This change in the ftru&ure of mucous membranes
is always the confequence of inflammation ; and when
the membrane is thus altered, the difcharge, inftead of
being healthy mucus, is generally a puriform fluid, ap¬
parently a mixture of pure mucus and globules of
pus.
6p Sect. VI. Of StriBures in the Urethra.
The treatment of the difeafes of the bladder and ure¬
thra has always been confidered a difficult branch of fur-
gery, as their true nature is often obfcure, and as it is
by no means eafy to direct the proper means of relief.
Of the great variety of caufes which difturb the func¬
tions of thefe organs, ftri&ures in the urethra are
perhaps the moll frequent, and moft ferious. They pre¬
vent the free evacuation of the bladder ; greatly difturb,
if not entirely deftroy the funftion of generation ; and
cften give origin to conftitutional fymptoms which lome-
E R Y. Chap. HI.
times increafe to an alarming degree, and even prove Stri&ures
fatal. oftheUre-
That the urethra ffiould be fubjeft to many morbid , tl^a' ,
changes, we may infer, not only from our knowledge of
the functions it performs, but alio from its delicate and
no lefs complicated ftrudlure.
One part of this ftru&ure is intended for the evacua¬
tion of the urinary bladner, the other for the tranfmiffion
of the feminal fluid j and as in the exercife of this laft
fun&ion, the urethra fympathifes, in a greater or
lefs degree, with the whole fyftem, and alfo with the
mind itfclf, it muft have a connexion with many of the
other organs of the body.
Accordingly, we find that patients who have ob-
ftruftions in the urinary canal, have at the fame time
other complaints, which get well when the obftru&ion
is removed. And, on the other hand, difeafes of other
parts bring on morbid affections of the urethra, which
are cured along with the original complaint.
The whole extent of the urinary canal is lined by a
delicate membrane, which is conftantly covered with a
vifcid fluid, fecreted by numerous glands, whofe dudts
open on its internal furface by orifices which are called
lacunae.
It is highly vafcular, and is endowed with fo much
nervous fenfibility, that irritating bodies applied to it
often affeCt, or even derange the whole fyftem.
It has a confiderable degree of contraftility, is evident¬
ly elaftic, and perhaps may poffefs a mufcular power,
although no mufcular coat has yet been demonftrated j
but to whatever caufe this contractility be owing, it
is well known it does not contraCt upon irritation.
As a proof of this contraCtile powrer, a remarkable
cafe is mentioned by Mr Gline in his leCtures, where a
ftone wras lying in the membranous part of the urethra
one evening, which during fleep had been expelled and
was found among the bed clothes the following morning.
The contraction which forms a ftriCture in the ure¬
thra may take place round the wThole circumference of
the canal; it may arife chiefly at a particular point of
the circumference •, or, it may extend along a confidera¬
ble extent of its furface, and thus produce obftruCtions
of different forms.
The ftriCture once begun, continues no longer than
the caufe which firft produced it continues to operate.
But if the parts are kept long in this ftate of contrac¬
tion they generally are attended with a degree of inflam¬
mation *, the membrane of the urethra acquires a morbid
degree of thicknefs; the furrounding parts are altered in
ftruClure •, and this change of form and appearance re¬
mains after the caufe which originally produced them
has ceafed to operate.
That fpafmodic ftri&ures do exift appears from the
impreffions made on bougies which have been paffed
through them, and from the examination of the parts
after death \ for although complete obftruCtions to the
bougie w’ere found when alive, yet not the fmalleft re¬
mains can be obferved on diffeflion. This contraction
is peculiarly violent, and from what we have feen more
frequent, at the foffa navicularis than at any other part
of the canal.
A gentleman, after many attempts to make water
during the night, was not able to pafs a drop, and lie
applied for relief in the morning. A bougie was intro¬
duced, and met with a complete obftruCtion at the glans,
which
Chap.
. III.
Strictures, which yielded in a few feconds after the bougie was
in clofe contadl with it j on being withdrawn the urine
flowed freely, and the complaint has never fince re¬
turned.
Contra&ions at this place are fometimes fo violent as
for a long time to interrupt the entrance of the bougie *,
and in one cafe it was fo ftrong as nearly to cut the in-
ftrument through, after it was introduced. What is re¬
markable, this happened repeatedly with the fame patient.
7° When there has been a permanent ftri&ure, the natu-
Appearan- raj ftrufture 0f the urethra is changed, and the morbid
fe&ion. " alterations it has undergone may be feen on diffe&ion.
There is commonly a contradlion at one particular part
of the canal j and the appearance of it has been com¬
pared to that which would have been given had a pack¬
thread been tied round it, or in flight cafes it is a mere
* See Plate narrowing *.
6 and *7.g When a ridge is formed proje&ing into the cavity of
the canal, it is found to be a doubling of the inner mem¬
brane, with the cellular fubftance lying between the
fold. The internal membrane itfelf is difeafed ; it af-
fumes a whitifli colour ; becomes much harder, fometimes
as hard as cartilage ; and in fome cafes this change is con¬
fined to the doubling of the ftrifture itfelf, whilft in
others it extends into the cavernous bodies. Thefe ridges
or folds often form over one another, fo that the inter¬
mediate portion of urethra becomes preternaturally con-
traded alfo ; but it never becomes fo narrow as at thofe
parts where the original ftri&ures were formed. Inftead
of a diftind curtain or fold, it happens alfo in fome cafes
that the urethra has the appearance of a cone gradually
converging before the ftridure, and diverging in the
fame manner behind it.
The contradion is generally round the whole of the
circumference of the urethra •, but it fometimes happens
that it is only at one fide, and in fuch cafes the urethra
does not form a uniform tube, but it becomes ferpentine
and contorted in various diredions.
When one ftridure is formed, that portion of the
urethra anterior to it is liable to fuffer fome changes,
and thefe probably arife from its not meeting with the
ordinary diftenfion, the ftream of urine being diminilh-
ed. It is by no means uncommon, therefore, to find in
thofe cafes where the original ftridure has been formed
near the bladder, another ftridure anterior to it, fo that
when an obftrudion is found at the glans or four in¬
ches and a half from it, another is generally met with at
feven inches, or at the bulb.
From the peculiarity in the form of the urethra,
fome parts are fubjed to ftridures much more frequent¬
ly than others.
In the adult, and in the relaxed ftate, the urinary
canal is about nine inches long, and nearly of the fame
diameter as a common quillj but its fize varies at three
different points, and there ftridures moft frequently
arife. Thefe contradions are at the glans, the bulb, and
the proftate gland (fee fig. 5. Plate DXIV.) The nar-
roweft part is juft below the bulb, and here ftridures
moft frequently occur.
The natural contradion renders it, in almoft every
cafe of ftridure, the feat of the difeafe. This part of
the canal feems alfo to poffefs an uncommon degree of
irritability, as it is here that the contradion takes place
in cafes of ftrangury. When ftridures continue long,
Vol. XX. Part I.
SURGERY.
57
71
Situations
«f ftridure.
and the violence of the fymptoms increafe, difeafes arife Strictures
in other parts. u
The urethra between the ftridure and bladder, from
the obftrudion the urine has to overcome, enlarges, and
is fometimes attacked by inflammation.
As in moft cafes the ttridure is attended with a gleet,
the glands fituated about the neck of the bladder be¬
come difeafed. The bladder becomes extremely thick¬
ened, and its capacity diminifhed. From the ftrong
exertions it is neceffary to make in order to overcome
the obftrudion, and as it cannot contain much urine,
the ureters alfo become dilated.
When the difeafe advances ftill farther, fo that it is
impoflible to evacuate the bladder, the obftrudion being
complete, the urine efcapes by fome new channel; for
as in fuch cafes the parts between the bladder and ob¬
ftrudion make lefs refiftance than its coats, both on ac¬
count of their natural ftrudure, and as thefe parts are
generally inflamed or ulcerated, they give way, and the
urine takes a new courfe. When this change has once
taken place, fo that no urine paffes through the meatus
urinarius, the other fymptoms will differ according as
the aperture has been formed by ulceration of the inner
membrane of the urethra, or by a fudden rupture. For
when the membranous part of the urethra has been ero¬
ded, a fuppurating cavity muft have formed in the con¬
tiguous cellular fubftance, and as the urine cannot fo
eafily be diffufed in the furrounding parts, it makes its
way without difficulty through the integuments.
But when a fudden rupture or ulceration t>f the inner
membrane of the urethra takes place, as the urine meets
with no obftrudion in infinuating itfelf into the cellular
membrane, it effufes itfelf in a ftiort time over the peri-
noeum, ferotum, and adjacent parts ; extenfive abfeeffes
are formed where the urine was diffufed ; and as thefe
burft in numerous places, fiftulous openings are formed,
which have either a dired or indited communication
with the bladder, and through which the urine conti¬
nues to pafs till the original obftrudion is removed.
Sym/rfoms.—Often this complaint does not become of
fuch importance as to give alarm to the patient till many
months, or even years, after the original caufe has been
forgot. At other times, a few months after a gonor-
rhoea has been cured, the urine, inftead of coming away
with the accuftomed eafe, begins to be paffed with fome
difficulty. The ftream, in place of being full and even,
diminifhes and becomes unequal; fometimes it comes in
drops after much ftraining and exertion, has a forked
appearance, or fcatters in all diredions. From the ir¬
ritable ftate of the parts, the fmalleft quantity colleded
in the bladder, brings on a defire to make water, and a
continual uneafinefs all along the courfe of the canal,
about the perinseum, anus, and lower part of the abdo¬
men. In moft cafes there is a difeharge of matter from
the urethra. The gleet is always more fevere after any
debauch or venereal ad. It comes on immediately after
fuch excefs* and gradually diminiflies or difappears. It
is alfo not unfrequent to find ftridures accompanied with
that profufe difeharge of mucus from the bladder called
catarrhus vejlcee. The irritation communicated to the
bladder in confequence of the difeafe of the urethra,
brings on inflammation, which is followed by a profufe
difeharge of mucus from the whole of its internal fur-
face, and this mucus comes away with the urine, and
H is
5&
Stratlures.
Uiarnoris
S U R G
is depofited, and firmly adheres at the bottom of the pot
in the form of a tough tenacious mafs.
No&mnal emiflions are fometimes the only fymptoms
which lead us to fufpedt the exiftence of ftridture ; for
in feme cafes the difeafe is neither attended with any
fixed pain in the urethra, nor is there any difeharge of
matter.
Fiftulas in the perinseum, and along the courfe of the
penis, often derive their origin from an obftruftion of
the urinary canal.
When, either from irritating injections, bougies, or
any other caufe, inflammation comes on, the urethra is
completely {hut at the place of the ftridture, and the in¬
ternal membrane giving way, the urine is eifufed in the
cellular membrane, which gives rife to abfeefles and fiitu-
lous openings, through which the urine continues to pafs,
till the ftridture is removed.
The inflammation in fome cafes fpreads to the fur¬
rounding parts ; the mucous glands inflame, fuppurate,
and built; and hemorrhoidal tumors often form at the
extremity of the redtum.
Belides thefe, the more ufual fymptoms of ftridture,
there are others which accompany that complaint, and
arife from conftitutional caufes.
The molt frequent of thefe is a febrile attack, in the
form of a complete paroxyfm ; but it differs from the
common intermittent fever, in its fliort continuance, its
irregularity, and in the violence of its termination. It
happens molt frequently to thofe who have been in
warm climates} but it is by no means confined to them
alone.
People of weak conftitutions have often ficknefs at
ftomach, naufea, and vomiting, and fometimes an uneafy
ftate of irritability about the llomach, which gets better
when the ftridlure is relieved.
Gout, epilepfy, hydrocele, fciatica, eryfipelas, fwellings
in the perinaeum, occafional fuppreflions of urine, have
all been found connedted with ftridture •, but fuch cales
rarely occur.
There are other difeafes of thefe organs which have
fo many fymptoms in common with Aridture, that it is
neceffary to inquire with much attention into the hiftory
and Hate of all the fymptoms, before we can judge of
the true nature of the complaint; and when there is
any reafon to fufpedl that an obftrudfion exiils, it is af-
certained only by the mtrodudfion of a bougie j but the
mode of doing this will be explained when fpeaking 01
that inflrument.
There are difeafes that ought to be mentioned as be¬
ing liable to be miftaken for ftridture, and always kept
jn view in forming the diagnofls. An irntaoie ftate of
the urethra, proceeding from gonorrhoea, is one that is
very frequent.
In fuch a cafe there is a difeharge of matter and a
pain in making water. ’Ihe urine flows in a fmall
ftream at the commencement, but before it is all eva¬
cuated it is of the natural fize. The fymptoms come
on a few hours after coition, but abate in a fliort time,
and whenever the irritating caufe is repeated, they re-
turn. #
The bladder alfo, when irritated, brings on difeafes of
the urethra, as thefe parts fympalhize fo ftrongly with
ope another % but when the primary affedlion is in the
bladder, there are always fymptoms which aid us in
difeovering the true complaint.
E R Y. Chap. III.
Enlargements of the proftate gland are by far the Strictures,
moft apt to miflead our judgement. Scrophulous and ' '
fchirrous enlargements of that organ were at one time
fuppoled to be very frequent caufes of retention ; it is
now generally believed that they occur feldom, and are
chiefly confined to people advanced in life.
It will be afterwards mentioned how fwellings of the
valvular procefs of the proftate are apt to be miftaken
for ftrifture when a bougie or catheter is introduced.
The obftruffion in fuch a cafe is always at a diftance, as
the canal has increafed in length from the enlargement
of the parts.
If attention be paid to this remark, and if the gland
be at the fame time examined from the redlum, little
doubt will remain of the nature of the difeafe.
It is often difficult to draw off the water when the
proftate gland has become thus difeafed : to do this,
much benefit will be found in ufing a catheter longer
than ordinary, as the common curve cannot reach the
extremity of the urethra from the increafed length of
that canal. Pouches or irregularities are alfo apt to form
from the unequal growth of the gland ; and as the dufts
of the feminal veficles and mucous glands become en¬
larged, the inllrument ought to be of a large diameter
to avoid being entangled by them. 74
From the idea we have of the manner in which Cawfes of.
ftriffures are formed, we infer that many fubftancesftn^ture‘
of an irritating nature, whether applied immediately to
the parts themfelves, or to thofe connefled with them,
may, under particular circumftanoes, produce this dif-
eafe. The ftone irritating the bladder, numerous dif¬
eafes of that organ and proftate gland, irritations in
confequence of gonorrhoea, long and repeated ereftions
or other ftimulants, and the natural difpofition which,
the urethra has to contraft in fome conftitutions, are
the common caufes of ftrifture. In whatever man¬
ner this irritation is produced, the fymptoms and chan¬
ges obferved in the ftruflure of the urethra, make
it probable that there is always a certain degree of
inflammation fubfequent to or accompanying it. Ob-
ftruftions in the urethra were fuppofed by Daran, and
others about his time, to originate from caufes very dif¬
ferent from thofe now mentioned. They conceived that
the difeharge from gonorrhoea proceeded from internal
ulcers, and that the cicatrices and indurations they left-
behind were the moft common caufes of ftrifture. But
fince the nature of the difeharge from gonorrhoea is
found very rarely, if ever, to be purulent, and as ulcers
occur very feldom, they cannot be confidered as a
common caufe of the dileafe in queftion.
Caruncles were alfo fuppofed to be frequent caufes of
obffru&ion in the urethra 5 but thefe are rarely met with.
One preparation of fuch a cafe may be feen in the mu-
feum of St Thomas’s Plofpital. Drs Hunter and Baillie
have feldom met with them. Indeed, fince the internal
membrane of the urethra fo much refembles that which
lines the cavities of the nofe, mouth, and cefophagus,
and as ulcers in thefe parts are more difpofed to form
(kin and heal, than to produce fungi, few cafes of ob-
ftruftion can be aferibed to fucb tumors.
The other caufes which prevent the free difeharge
of the urine, are thofe which are attended with no
morbid change in the ftrufture of the urethra itfelf.
Such are tumors or indurations of the proftate gland,
of the veficulae feminales, or parts compofing the body
nf
Chap. III.
Strictures.
VS
Wifeman’s
practice.
_ 77 „
The ufe of
cauftic pro'
pofed by
him.
of the penis, or of the mucous glands along the coutfe of
* the canal.
By far the moft common of thefe, is an obftruction
into the entrance of the bladder, from a difeafed prollate
gla- d.
'['Iris proceeds from a new form which the canal has
affirmed in confequcnce of an enlargement of its parts.
Its cavity becomes deeper from the growth ot its fldes,
and the pollerior extremity or valvular procefs forms a
projefling tumour into the cavity of the bladder, which
interrupts the pafiage of the urine, or the entrance of a
catheter.
From the frequency of this appearance in difeafed
protlate glands, it is probable that it is the caufe of dif-
eafes of that organ being often miftaken and treated as
ftriftures of the urethra, and has in numerous inftances
not only prevented the introduftion of a bougie into the
bladder, but has been the caufe of the formation of arti¬
ficial paffages through the fubffance of the gland.
Treatment of StriBure.—From the erroneous ideas
that the older furgeons formed of the nature of ftridtures,
it was not to be expedled that the means of cure they
employed were either founded on juft principles, or at¬
tended with match fuccefs.
They made ufe of various external and internal reme¬
dies j they preferibed long arid tedious courfes of mer¬
cury, and gave many medicines which were fuppofcd
to have peculiar virtues in curing difeafes of thefe or¬
gans.
They fometimes introduced into the canal mechanical
inftruments in order to dilate it 5 and when that was im-
prafticable, a new paffage was made by force, or the
difeafed parts were d'.ffe&ed away, and a new canal
formed in the found parts.
Wifeman, fo far back as the beginning of the laft
century, exploded many of thefe rude and dangerous
practices, and introduced into ufe the waxed candle or
bougie, by means of which he faid he “ cruihed the ca-
runculi to pieces.” He met with cafes, however, where
this could not be done ; that is to fay, cafes where it
was impracticable to pafs fmall bougies into the blad¬
der ; and this led him to adopt another mode of treat¬
ment. He confumed them by ftimulating applications
in the following manner. The wax at one end of the
candle was feraped away, and the wick dipped in plafters
compofed of alum, red precipitate, calcined vitriol,
eerugo, and other fuch fubftances, and then it was ap¬
plied to the caruncle.
“ But (fays he), if after doing this you cannot pafs
.the caruncle, you may well conclude it callous ; in
which cafe you may pafs a canula into the urethra to
that caruncle, and whilft you hold that there fteady,
you may convey a grain of cauftic into the canula, and
prefs the cauftic to it ; and whilft you hold it there, you
will perceive its operation by the prefting forward of the
cauftic. The caruncle thus confumed, caft in a lenient
injedlion daily •, and if you take notice of his urine, you
may fee the feparation of the floughs as rags in it. After
which you may with the common medicated candles
wear away the remainder, and with the injedlions cica¬
trize it.”
After Wifeman, Daran introduced into ufe a kind of
bougies, the particular compofition of which was kept
fecret. They were fuppofed to poffefs very great medi¬
cal virtues j and it was from thefe qualities that their fu-
s u R G E R Y. 59
pertor efficacy was fuppofed to proceed. Other furgeons Striflures-^
toon began to imitate them, and they found that thoie y '
they made had the fame qualities as thofe of the original
inventor. This led them foon after this to alter their
opinion of their mode of aft ion ; and, inffead ot hippo-
ting that all the beneficial effefts proceeded from the
medicines in their cornpofidon promoting fuppuration,
cicatrization, &c. they explained their action on the
principle of a ftmpie wedge.
But however fuccefsful their praftice might have been
in alleviating, if not in curing ftriflares, yet many cafes
occurred where tfoe obftruftion was to complete as alto¬
gether to prevent the bougie being introduced. X hey
wrere therefore obliged to continue forcing pad the
obftruflion, till the mode of treatment deferibed by
Wifeman was renewed, and held out as an original in¬
vention. The praftice, indeed, generally followed by
modern furgeons is founded entirely on what Wifeman
has written ; but fince thefe have been better under-
ftood, from the progrefs of pathological inveftigation, it
has been confiderably modified and improved.
When we confider the effefts of thefe modes of prac¬
tice, and try to reconcile them with the ideas we have
formed of the caufes producing the ftriflure, it would
appear that thole very means employed for their removal
belong to the fame clafs of bodies as thofe originally
producing the complaint.
As this cannot be denied, yet it will appear neither
furprifing nor improbable, when we reafon from analogy,
and obferve the effeft of iimilar applications to other diU
eafed parts, and fimilar phenomena in other organs. It
may be here obferved, that the aflion ot any part de¬
pends not only on the kind of the ftimulus applied, but
alio on its degree of violence. We know that a flight
preiTure on the Ikin produces uneafinefs or tickling,
whilft to a ftronger degree it pafles unnoticed. A cer¬
tain degree of light produces diftinct vifion, but a more
intenfe one deftroys it. The upper part of the throat is
thrown into violent aiftion by a flight irritation, but a
more powerful one has no effchl. Similar phenomena
take place in difeafe ; or flight irritations fometimes cc-
cafton violent morbid ahlion, whilft thofe that are more
powerful not only produce a leffer degree of difeafe, but
are even employed to remove fuch as are brought on
from a flighter caufe. We fee this opinion ftrongly con¬
firmed in ulcers, attended with much local or conftitu-
tional irritation. The moft emollient applications in
fuch cafes, if they do not increafe the fufferings of the
patient, bring no relief 5 whilft ftrong ftimulating ones,
fuch as a folution of lunar cauftic, or diluted nitrous acid,
feldom fail to diminifh the pain and promote the cure of
the difeafe *. Home's Ob-
In toothach, the irritation produced by the externalj-^Zations'
air on the expofed nervous furface excites much pain and 0;i Stric-
even fymptomatic fever ; but the application of cauftic or taw-
acid deftroys thefe fenfations.
The fame we will find to take place when we confider
the nature and the mode of treating ftridlures of the
urethra •, and if we can prove that ftriftures have all
that variety of charafter which an ulcer or many other
difeafes have, we will be better able to judge of the
comparative merit of the different modes of treatment, - . ■
and be able in feme degree to account for their mode of ■ s
adlion. "
* See
H 2
Of
S U R G
Of the Bougie.
When furgeons attributed all the beneficial effects of
bougies to their mechanical qualities, the principal defi*
deratum was to have them fufficiently pliable to take the
curvature of the urethra, firm and elaftic to make refin¬
ance, and mild fo as to produce no irritation. But
however fimple fuch inftruments might be in their com-
pofition, yet it will appear probable that their ultimate
cffedt is not the fame as that which a wedge produces on
inanimate matter. That bougies cannot aft by their
mechanical powers in removing fpafmodic ftrifture, ap¬
pears from thofe cafes where the mere introduftion of
the inftrument into the urethra, and its contaft with
the obftruftion, removes at once all fpafm.
The fame thing is obferved in thofe cafes of perma¬
nent ftrifture which are attended with occafional fpafm.
In fuch cafes it frequently happens that a bougie finds
a complete obftruftion on its firft introduftion, but after
being allowed to remain for fome time in the canal it
paffes readily without force. A remarkable cafe of this
kind happened, where there was not only a ftrifture in
the urethra, but fiftulous openings in the perinaeum and
fcrotum, through which moft of the urine was difchar-
ed. After much trouble, a very fmall-fized elaftic ca¬
theter was paffed into the bladder, and as it gave no pain
it was allowed conftantly to remain. For the firft five
days the urine flowed through the inftrument, but after¬
wards it began to pafs along its fidesj and gradually as
the urethra dilated, larger inftruments were introduced
with fimilar good effeft.
_ The filver ftiles ufed by Mr Ware feem to aft, in remo¬
ving obftruftions of the lacrymal paffages in fiftula lacry-
malis, on the fame principle as the catheter appears to
have done in the above example. The ftile when firft
introduced, fills up completely the lacrymal duft j but
in a ftiort time the tears begin to flow along the fides,
and pafs into the cavity of the nofe. In thefe examples
it is difficult to explain the aftion of bougies on mere
mechanical principles ; it feems much more probable that
they produce their good effefts, either by a change of
aftion of the living body, or by fome alteration in the
ftrufture of the difeafed parts. Says Hunter, “ Preffure
produces aftion of the animal powers, either to adapt
the parts to their new pofition or to recede by ulcera-
.. ^ tion.”
Mode of in- When fpeaking of the fymptoms of ftrifture, it was
troducing obferved, that in order to determine with certainty their
the bougie. prefence, it was neceffary to introduce a bougie. To do
this, either with a view of afcertaining the ftate of the
urethra, or in order to remove a ftrxfture, a good deal of
caution and nicety is required ; for as the urethra is
generally tender, painrul, and eafily thrown into fpafmo¬
dic aftion, any aukwardnefs might entirely prevent the
poffibility of afcertaining the nature of the complaint,
or of affording the means -of relief.
When, therefore, the operation is to be performed, in
order to difcover the kind of obftruftion, bougies ought
to be provided of different fizes, of a foft confiftence,
* See Plate and of a cylindrical form*. One of the fize of a
BXIV.
kg- 3-
E It Y. Chap. III.
common goofe quill, or even larger, generally paffes Strictures-
eafily, and is lefs apt to meet with obftrudfions before
it comes to the ftrifture, than one of lefs diameter.
Being of a foft confiftence, it readily takes an impreflion
of the ftrifture, and its blunt point prevents its being en¬
tangled by any accidental irregularity.
As it ought always to be rubbed over with oil before
being ufed, it generally paffes with little more force than
its own weight, till it comes to the contrafted part, where
it flops. After changing with much caution the direftion
of the point, by elevating or depreffing the other extre¬
mity of the bougie, and perhaps bringing it a little
backwards and then forwards, fo as to be fatisfied of the
fituation of the ftrifture, the inftrument may be allowed
to remain in clofe contaft with it for a few feconds and
receive its impreflion, fo that when it is withdrawn, a
precife knowledge is obtained of its fltuation and form.
Some patients are often fo irritable, that any foreign
body touching the urethra excites much irritation and
pain. In fuch cafes it is the more neceffary not to em¬
ploy the fmalleft force, and to ufe an application of
opium, or fuch medicine, to the perinaeum, to prevent
thefe inconveniences as far as poffible.
When the ftrifture lies near the extremity of the ure¬
thra next the bladder, the point of the bougie ought al¬
ways to be confiderably bent previous to its introduftion,
fo that it may readily accommodate itfelf to the curve of
the urethra 5 for as a large inftrument does not bend ea¬
fily, it is apt to prefs on one of the fide of the canal,
and give rife to the fufpicion of a ftrifture.
It is alfo of confiderable importance that the point of
the inftrument be not conical *. When once we are well * ^ee ^ats
acquainted with the ftate of the parts, fuch formed in- ]?X*V'
liniments may be ufed with much advantage, as the ^ *
fmall point enters the ftrifture, and by pufhing the bou¬
gie forward it is dilated by the bafe of the cone.
It may be alfo here remarked, that in fome inftances
a catheter can be eafily introduced when no bougie can
be made to pafs ; we ought therefore to make ufe of that
inftrument before finally deciding on the nature of the
obftruftion (d).
When a ftrifture is difeovered, and when bougies are
to be ufed with a view of curing it, the firft thing we
are to attempt is to pafs one through it. As the bougie
we employ is moft frequently of a very fmall fize, we
muft attend particularly to the irregularities in the canal
w'hich may entangle the point of fuch a fmall inftruroent
and the occafional bendings it may make, while it is
fuppofed it is paffing forwards towards the bladder. As
the mouth of the lacunae are chiefly fituated on the fu-
perior part of the canal, the point of the bougie ought
to glide along its inferior furface to avoid them.
The bending of the bougie is only to be prevented
by a forbearance in ufing force, and in direfting pro¬
perly the point j but as the common bougies are apt to
do this, it is often extremely ufeful to have catgut ones for
this purpofe ; and it is neceffary to have them very fmall.
In order to overcome the obftruftion when the bou¬
gie reaches it, the fituation of the point ought to be
changed by ftiifting it backwards and forwards, and
from
a *rePr®(ente^ m DXIV. fig. 4. have alfo been found ufeful in afcertaining the nature of
ftnftures by Mr Charles Bell. ®
Chap. III. S U R
Strictures, from fide to fide, and even employing a little preffure,
till it paffes forwards, provided the furgeon has a clear
and diftinft idea of the dire&ion of the urethra.
As the introduction of the bougie almofi: always
brings on fpafm to a greater or lefs degree on the firft
attempt, it is often neceffary to perfevere fome time be¬
fore it can be made to pais the ftriCture j and we muft
continue in our endeavours a long time before wTe de¬
clare it impracticable.
Blifters on the perinaeumor loins, fomentations of warm
water and fpirits, turpentine glyfters, dipping the feet
or glans in cold water, anodyne applications, and
the internal ufe of camphor, opium, or tinCture of iron,
all a (Tift in alleviating the fpafmodic fymptoms when
they occur, and may be feleCted for ufe according to
the judgement of the furgeon.
Attention ought to be paid to the compofition of the
bougie for thofe made of elaftic metal, catgut, or elaftic
gum, often give pain, while thofe mads of foft plafter
are mild and harmlefs.
The time which a bougie ought to remain in the ure¬
thra, muft depend greatly on the peculiarities of the
cafe, for there are no difeafes which appear under more
various forms than ftriCture. In moft cafes bougies can
be introduced with little pain, and can remain for fome
minutes without inconvenience j but there are others
where the introduction not only produces general irrita¬
tion, but the pain is fo violent, as hardly to allow them
to enter the canal, and fbmetimes they give rife to con-
ftitutional fymptoms. In the firft cafe, from the little
pain the patient fuffers, their ufe has been abufed, and
they have been allowed to remain mot only when afleep,
but they have been worn during the patient’s daily em¬
ployments.
It is found, however, that bougies have a more power¬
ful effeCl when retained for a fhort time, and often re¬
peated, than when they are longer continued, but fel-
domer ufed; fo that in no cafe, however little pain they
may produce, ought they to be allowed to remain for a
long time. Many indeed think that all their good ef¬
fects are obtained after they have remained twenty or
fifteen minutes, while others allow them to remain for
one or more hours.
In cafes of ftriCture accompanied with much irrita¬
tion, whatever pain the bougie may bring on, it ought
not to be thrown afide, but it (hould be introduced re¬
peatedly whenever there is the leaft abatement of the
fymptoms. This praCtice {hould be continued for weeks
before we defpair offuccefs, as afterwards the pain, from
daily habit, will be diminiftied, and the patient will be
gradually more and more able to bear it. Whilft wre
continue the ufe of the bougie, it ought gradually to be
increafed in fize as the ftrifture gives way, and be in¬
troduced once or perhaps twice a-day till the obftruc-
tion is no longer felt, and till the urine flows in a full,
even, and natural ftream.
When this happens we are not to confider the
cure as altogether complete 5 for it is very generally
found, that if the ufe of the bougie is at this time given
up, the parts foon begin to contraCf again, as they have
ftill a difpofition to return to their former fituation, and
the difeafe in a ftiort time is completely renewed.
It will therefore be proper to continue ufing them at
diftant intervals, fome time after the cure appears com-
G E R Y. 61
plete, and give them up in a very flow and gradual man- Stridlures.^
ner. _ '
It may be here mentioned, that it is not neceflary to
retain the point of the bougie in the cavity of the blad¬
der, but merely to allow it to pafs the ftriClure.
Of the Cauftic. 80
In fpeakirg of the ufe of bougies, we have fuppofed
that it has been praClicable to pafs one through the
ftriCture j but it is well knowm, that cafes do often occur,
where, from the tortuous form the canal has aflumed,
the fmalleft bougie is prevented from entering the blad¬
der.
In fuch cafes, preflure was employed on the difeafed
parts, in order to produce ulceration to deftroy the
obftruCtion j but as this mode was found in many cafes
to be followed with violent inflammation, and attended
wuth great pain, it wras not often performed.
Laying open the finufes, and diffefting out the dif¬
eafed parts, was alfo a painful and no lefs difficult ope¬
ration, fo that no eafy mode was ever adopted till Wife-
man employed lunar cauftic.
From the delicate ftruClure of the urinary canal, it
was not without much caution, and in very urgent
cafes, that this remedy was firft employed; but fince its
a&ion was found not to be fo violent, it has been freely
ufed by many furgeons, and its application not confined
to the more advanced ftages of the complaint.
From the time of Wifeman to that of Mr J. Hunter,
wTe find little worthy of remark in furgical waiters re¬
garding the ufe of cauftic. The latter of thefe authors,
however, again introduced it into praftice, and applied it
to all thofe cafes where he could either do no good with
bougies, or when he could not pafs them through the
ftridfure. In his firft trials he met with fuccefs ; and as
he foon improved the mode of its application, he was able
to employ it with confiderable advantage.
Mr Hunter’s mode of applying cauftic was firft adopted
by Wifeman j but as the filver canula which he employ¬
ed, not only gave much pain, but could not be intro¬
duced as far down the urethra as a common bougie in
many inftances, and as the cauftic could not be applied
direflly to the centre of the obftruftion, a new mode
was invented. A piece of cauftic was fixed in the ex¬
tremity of a common bougie, and covered with the pla¬
fter except at the extremity, where a part was expofed,
but fo fmall as merely to form the apex of the conical
point of the bougie. In this manner it is found poflible
to apply it to almoft all cafes, and when in dexterous
hands, may be ufed with confiderable fafety. When it
is to be applied to a ftrifture, it is necefiary that fame
previous knowledge of the cafe has been obtained from
the introduftion of a foft bougie. When this has been
done, the armed bougie muft be introduced rather quick¬
ly, but fteadily, till it meets the ftrifture, which we
know both from the feel, and from the fituation previoufly
determined. When brought into contaft with the ftric-
ture, it is perhaps better merely to touch it with the cau¬
ftic the two or three firft applications, and afterwards it
may be retained longer. When the bougie is to be with¬
drawn, it ought to be done cautioufly 5 for as it has be¬
come foft, and the cauftic not fo firmly fixed in it, it may
fall out, and be left behind in the urethra. Although
thia-
. S U R G
Stridliires.
Sx
■pKid effects
of cauftic.
82
Strangury.
83
Haemor-
rhagy.
this mode has advantages over the filver canula former¬
ly employed, yet there is a way which we think may
Ine attended with confiderable fuperiority, as it not only
requires lefs dexterity on the part of the furgeon, but is
lefs apt to do mifchief.
It is evident, that when the armed bougie is pafied
to a ftrifture, it will unavoidably touch feveral parts of
the fide of the canal in its paffage ; and as often its in¬
troduction brings on a fpaim, which lafts fome feconds,
or even minutes, a confiderable portion of cauftic may
be diffolved on the found membrane.
The frequency of the application of the cauftic muft
be determined by the particular circumftances of the
cafe. It ftiould never be repeated till after the effeCts of
the firft application have ceated j in general, every fecond
day will be found to be enough, but in fome inftances it
may be applied daily.
After the ufe of the cauftic, the patient ought to be
kept quiet} he fhould not make any exertions to
empty the bladder, nor take any violent exercife. In
general the pain from the cauftic lafts but a few mi¬
nutes ; and the day following, when the flough fepa-
rates, a rawnefs is felt on making water.
The application of cauftic to the urethra is, however,
often followed by a train of very alarming fymptoms j
inftead of a mere burning heat in the parts, the patient
is feized with violent pain, followed by retention of
urine, fwelling of the tefticles and perinseum, haemor-
rhagy, and fometimes, a complete febrile paroxyfm.
From the fympathy that exifts betwixt the urethra
and tefticles, it is not unfrequent to find difeafes of the
former produce morbid afteCtions of the latter.
Stone of the bladder and the ufe of common bougies
often bring on fwelling on one or both of the tefticles;
and in one cafe the irritation of a bougie brought on an
inflammation, which terminated in a hydrocele of the
vaginal coat. It is a frequent effe£t of cauftic, but foon
difappears when its ufe is given up.
Strangury has often followed the application of
cauftic after any imprudence on the part of the patient
and it generally happens in thofe cafes where it has been
applied near the bladder. This may happen not only
from the great fufceptibility this part of the canal has to
contract 5 but it may arife from the bougie palling a
part of the urethra where cauftic had been formerly ap¬
plied, and which remained ftill tender. This retention
of urine in general does not continue long, and in moft
cafes it is relieved by the introduftion of a bougie, or
the application of a blifter.
When cauftic has not only deftroyed the ftri£fure,
but its aftion extended to the found parts, blood is often
poured out into the canal, or is eflfufed into the cedular
texture of the penis. The haemorrhage is fometimes very
profufe, and feems to proceed from an erofion of the
fpongy bodies; but as it has, in every cafe hitherto pub-
liflred, ceafed of itfelf, no particular means have been
found neceffary to flop it. Keeping the parts cool, and
giving cold acid drinks, quietnefs, and caution againft
all caufes of irritation, Ihould be attended to. The
tumor compofed of effufed blood generally gives little in¬
convenience, and like an ecchimofis on any other part,
it may be removed by the topical application of ftimu-
lants.
By far the moll ferious and moft alarming fymptom
£ R Y. Chap. Ill-
which arifes from the ufe 01 cauftic is an ague of febrile Strictures,
fit. It begins with a fevere cold ftage, which continues ./
from fifteen minutes to an hour. This is followed by gt,
another fit, which lafts fometimes feveral hours, and is
fucceeded by a very profufe perfpiration, which is much
greater than what happens in common ague, 'i hefe
paroxyfms do not return at the fame periods, and feldom
occur more than two or three times. When repeated,
they become more and more fevere, and every future
application of the cauftic brings on one fix or twelve
minutes after. Patients attacked in this manner become
extremely debilitated j and three inftances have come
under our immediate knowledge where it proved fatal.
When fuch a fymptom occurs, the cauftic ought to
be immediately laid afide, emollients applied to the ure¬
thra, and the patient tuppgrted by cordials.
The cauftic too has been fometimes known to fall out Falling out
of the bougie, and diffolve in the urethra. When fucli®f the cau-
an accident happens, if it be not immediately removed,^10,
it may produce a flough of almoft the whole extent of
the canal, and bring on very alarming fymptoms. S(.
In place, therefore, of fixing a large piece ot cauftic Mocleof-ai>
in the bougie, take fuch a quantity as is intended to bepying the
diffolved on the ftridture j reduce it into a fine powder,cauftic.
and ftick it on the point of the bougie, by prefling them
on one another. When this is done, it may be dipped
in warm wax, and receive a thin covering of it.
A bougie prepared in this manner may be introduced
down to the ftricfure without any rifk of injuring the
found membrane •, for as the thin layer of wax which
covers the cauftic, prevents it being immediately dif¬
folved, it is not till it has been kept iome time in con-
ta£! with the ftricfure that it begins to a£l. By follow¬
ing this plan we not only avoid injuring the internal
membrane, but we difiolve no more of the cauftic on
the difeafed parts than what is wiftied for, and there is
no rifk from a portion of cauftic being left behind.
There are, however, cafes where a foft bougie cannot
be fo eafily introduced as a metallic inftruinent : in
them, a filver catheter, or one made of Smith’s elaftic
metal, may be ufed with much advantage.
Inftead of the holes being made at the fides of the in-
ftrument, it ought to be perforated at the extremity,
and this hole filled with cauftic, and fixed in that fitu-
ation with adhefive plafter. Or, what anfwers equally
well, the catheter may be introduced down to the
obftruftion, and an armed bougie paffed through it.
Comparative advantages of the Bougie and Caujlic.
Thus far we have mentioned the manner in which
the bougie or cauftic are to be employed \ we now come
to confider the peculiar merits of thofe two modes of
praffice, and to point out thole cafes where the one is
to be employed in preference to the other.
Notwithftanding the zealous advocates which have
lately introduced cauftic as a general remedy for ftric-
tures, we have no hefitation in declaring it as our opi¬
nion, that the Ample bougie is the inflrument to be pre¬
ferred in the generality of cafes of this difeafe, and that
in all cafes where the cure can be accomplifhed by its
means, it fhould be adopted. Cauftic, however, is a
remedy by no means lefs beneficial, though its ufe ought
to be much more circumfcribed 5 for we certainly believe
3
Chap. Ill S U H G
^Str-i(fhires.^ that by its proper application many of the worft cafes of
ftrifture, cafes indeed which are quite incurable by the
bougie, may be benefited by its application.
In thofe cafes of fpafmodic ftridlure where the com¬
mon bougie either cannot pafs the ftri&ured part, or
where it has no effeft in relieving the fymptoms, cauflic
may be ufed with advantage.
It may be alfo employed whenever the ftri&ure is at¬
tended with much pain and irritation or conftitutional
fymptoms; and in cafes where the contraction of the
urethra is fuch, as entirely to clofe up the canal, and
the urine to come through fiflulous openings in the
fcrotum and pednseum, the ufe of cauftic is attended
with the belt effedts. We have met with cafes, where
during a fucceflion of years, urine has drilled through
fittulous openings in the fcrotum, in which fix, eight, or
ten applications of the cauflic bougie have opened a free
paflage into the bladder, and allowed all the fiitulas to
heal up.
From the rapidity of the cures performed by cauftic
in comparifon to thofe of the bougie, the former a few
years ago came into very general ufe, and was tried by
different furgeons all over this iiland in every poftible va¬
riety of the difeafe. In this extenfive field of experiment
the merits of cauftic have been fairly balanced, and its ex-
aggerated good effects have fallen into difrepute, whilft
the calumnious reports of its fatal and dreadful confe-
quences in the hands of experienced men, have been ihown
to be without foundation. Thus in the midft of medi¬
cal rancour and difpute, cautious and intelligent men
have become acquainted with the good qualities of a
rnoft a&ive application ; and an unprejudiced mind has
laid open before it a vaft field of cbfervation on a dif¬
eafe which deeply interefts a confiderable number of
men.
*8
Sect. II. Of Slri&urcs in the Oefophagur.
The mucous membrane lining the oefophagus, like
that of the urethra, is liable to become contrafted,
forming a ftrifture. Thefe contraftions may be formed
at any part of the canal •, but it is obfcrved that there
is one fpot more liable than any other to become affecft-
ed with it. The part alluded to is immediately behind
tue cricoid cartilages of the larynx, where the fauces mav
be faid to terminate, and the cefophagus begin. The
difeafe appears, on diffedion, to confift of a tranfverfe fold
of the internal membrane of the cefophagus, filling up in
different degrees the aperture of the canal.
i his part of the oefophagus is alfo liable to two other
difeafes, whole fymptoms are nearly alike, and therefore
m.ly be miftaken for ftri&ure. One of thefe is a thick¬
ening of the coats of the oeibphagus, which extends to the
surrounding parts, and in the end moft commonly dege¬
nerates into cancer. The other is an ulcer of the lin-
ing of tne cefophagus, which is commonly fituated a.
Httie below the ordinary place of ftricture, and upon the
polterior or vertebral portion of the canal. Both of thefe
complaints produce a difficulty in deglutition, and in
their early ftages are only to be diftinguiffied from ftric-
ture, by an examination with a bougie. Stricture ap-
pears to be a difeafe more frequent in the early periods
^ li e t:^e txvo other difeafes are more commonlv
met with at an advanced age.
E it Y. 63
With a view to afccrtain the true nature of the dif- Stridlures.
eafe, it is always neceffary to introduce a bougie. The v—v—^
belt mode of doing this, is that recommended by Mr Eve-
rard Home. The patient is defired to puftr the tongue
as far as poffible out of the mouth, thus bringing the ori¬
fice of the ftridture as nearly as poffible in a line with
the middle of the pharynx. The bougie being oiled or
covered with mucilage, is then to be thruft down into
the oefophagus. When the bougie paffes down to the
diftance of eight inches, meafuring from the cutting
edge of the front teeth in the upper jawq the furgeon
may be fatisfied that it has gone beyond the ufual feat
of ftridlure ; and if it is brought back without any re¬
finance, he may conclude that the aperture of the oefo¬
phagus confiderably exceeds the fize of the bougie which
has been ufed. But if the bougie flops at fix inches or
even lower, he is to retain it there with a uniform fteady
preffure for half a minute, fo as to receive on its point
an impreffion on the furface to which it was oppofed.
If the end of the bougie retains its natural form, or
nearly fo, and there is an indentation like the mark of a
cord on its fide, whether all round or only partially, he
may decide that the dileafe is a ftn&ure. But if, on the
other hand, the bougie paflcs without any difficulty to
the diftance of feven inches and a half, and when
brought back the point has an irregular jagged furface,
it is equally clear that the difeafe is an ulcer on the po-
fterior furface of the cefophagus.
When ftri&ures of the cefophagus have been of long
continuance, ulceration takes place on the fide of the
ftii'Ture next the ftomach. Wlien fuch ulceration
takes place, the charafler of the original difeafe is
loft ; and when the ulceration extends upwards, the
llriclure itfelf is deftroyed. A bougie paffed under
fuch circumfiances, will, in general, have its point en¬
tangled in the ulcer j and when fo fkilfully direfted as to
go down. into the cefophagus, it will meet with a diffi¬
culty while it is palling from the found oefophagus to
tne ulcer, and again when it leaves the ulcer and re-
enters the found canal below; and in its return there xvill
alfo be. two parts at which a refiftance is felt. This
may miftead the moft accurate obferver, and create a
belief that there are two ftriftures, whereas in fa£f: there
is none .but. an ulcer of fome extent, and a power of
contraflion in the upper and lower extremities of the
oefophagus where they terminate in the ulcer.
Treatment —The treatment of ftrifiure in the eefo-
phagus is to be conducted on the fame general principles
as ftri&ure in the urethra.
. Bougies which are made much longer and 'of larger 9
dimenfions than thofe for the urethra, may be ufed
with the greateft fafety. At firft, indeed, they fome-
times create a good deal of irritation and a febrile at¬
tack ; and in luch cafes they muft be employed with
tiie gieatcft caution. Once in twenty-four or forty-eight
ijoin s, according to the nature of the cafe, will be fuffi-
ciently often to introduce them ; and they may be dif*
continued in proportion to the alleviation of the fymp¬
toms. The ufe of cauftic in this fpecies of ftridure has
alfo been not only propofed, but adopted ; a praftice
uhich is.more a proof of the boldnels of its inventor
than of his prudence *. It is not to be denied, that fome * Horne on
deiperate cafes of the difeafe may occur, where every Strictures,
remedy proves ufelefs, and that in'thefe, the cauftic
bougie,
^64 S U R G
Stridures. bougie, introduced and applied to tbe ftri£ture with much
"'v" " -1 dexterity, may be beneficial. But thefe cafes are fo
rare, and there are fo few able to ufe this a&ive remedy
properly, that we cannot help thinking it can never be
very generally introduced into pradtice.
pa Sect. III. Stri&ure of the ReBum.
As far as we know, there is no author who has given
any accurate account of the various morbid appearances
of the extremity of the redtum. Under the general name
of haemorrhoids^ a variety of tumors very different from
one another have been claffed; whilft under the name of
fchirrus, have been confidered all cafes where the diameter
of the lower part of the inteftinal canal has been dimi-
nifhed. In a pradtical point of view, thefe obferva-
tions are of the greateft importance, as they lead the
furgeon to diferiminate between thofe cafes which are
likely to be aided by the ufe of medicines, and thofe
which are beyond the reach of art, or which the fame
mode of treatment might tend more to aggravate than
to alleviate.
In many cafes of the true feirrhus, or cancerous
affedlion of the inteftine, the difeafe firft appears by
the formation of one or more griftly tumors on the
internal furface of the canal; and thefe by increa-
fing in number and in fize, and by involving the ad¬
jacent parts, contradf the canal, and at laft ulcerate,
forming true cancerous fores. But there is another
clafs of cafes, in which the diameter of the inteftines be¬
comes narrowed by a thickening of its coats, and which,
were we to reafon from analogy, might be compared to
that thickening which forms ftridture in the other mu¬
cous furfaces, as in the cefophagus and urethra. It is the
ame cafes that we fufpedf Deffault treated with fo
* Oeuvres much fuccefs by the ufe of bougies * *, and from the good
Chirur- effedts of this mode of treatment in cafes of ftridture in
gicales. other parts of the body, it is reafonable to expedt benefit
from their ufe in ftridtures of the redtum. Deflault,
however, wifhes it to be underftood that the pradtice is
to be employed in the true fchirrus j but the two cafes
which are given in detail by Bichat in his edition of
Deffault’s works, in illuftration of the pradtice in fchirrus,
are by no means conclufive. The firft is a cafe of tumors
of the internal membrane, which were much alleviated by
the compreffion of a bougie 5 whilft the fecond was a
cafe which (hows the relief to be obtained by the ufe of
bougies in cafes of fchirrous contradtion in the difeharge
of the faeces, but by no means in the cure of the
difeafe.
In cafes, therefore, of contradtion of the redtum which
are not of a feirrhous nature, befides the ftridt attention
to keep the bowels regular, and render the faeces as li¬
quid as poflible by the ufe of laxatives and emolient injec¬
tions, bougies made of a proper fize may beufed with re¬
lief •, and, as we have mentioned in another place, the
pradtice is alfo highly ferviceable in fome cafes of tumors
which grow from this part of the inteftine.
^ 2 Sect. IV. Of Roly pi.
When the mucous membrane of any part of the body
becomes elevated above its natural level, fo as to form a
circumfcribed fwelling, the difeafe is called a polypus.
4
E R Y. Chap. III.
Polypi have been found on all the different mucous Of Polypi,
furfaces j in the nofe, frontal and maxillary finufes,
pharynx, gullet, mouth and gums, meatus externus, con-
jundtiva, ftomach, inteftines, redtum, uterus, vagina,
bladder, and urethra.
There are four different kinds of polypi, varying from
each other in their ftrudture. tft, The tnucous ; 2d, the
3d, the carcinomatous; and 4th, the eneyfed po-
Jypi.
The mucous polypi have a flippery furface, and are
conftantly covered with a quantity of mucus. They
are of a greyilh or dull white colour, and have a demi-
tranfparent appearance, refembling, particularly at their
extremities, a piece of foftened glue. They are eafily
torn and bleed freely j they are neither painful nor fenfi-
ble to the touch ; they fuller remarkable alterations- from
changes in the ftate of the atmofphere, extending prodi-
gioufly in cold and moift, and contradling in a dry and
warm air. They are of an irregular and angular lhape,
and often feem to take the particular form of the cavity
in which they grow. They are commonly attached by
a narrow neck, and are quite moveable.
The flefhy or carcinomatous polypi are of a bright red
colour, their furface is fmooth and regular. They are
of a rounded form, and are attached by a narrow neck.
They are firmer and are not fo eafily torn, nor do they
bleed fo readily as thofe of the mucous kind.
The carcinomatous polypi are of a darker red or more
purple colour than thofe of the flelhy kind, and fome-
times they are of a livid hue. They are fupplied by a
great number of blood-veffels, which makes them bleed
profufely even when (lightly injured, or gives them a
difpofition to bleed of themfelves. They are of a very
hard firm ftrufture j fome of them are as hard as car¬
tilage. They are more or lefs painful, and are very
fenfible to the touch. Sometimes the pain is of that
flinging lancinating kind which carcinomatous tumors
have in other parts of the body. Their furface fome-
times ulcerates, and the ulcer affumes all the charafters
of a cancerous fore. They are commonly attached by
a firm broad bafis.
The eneyfed polypi occur leaft frequently. Rich¬
ter fays that they refemble a reticular fac, which
contains fluid fometimes refembling mucus *, at o-
ther times it is of a thick confiftence. In one cafe
we found the mucous membrane covering the fupe-
rior fpongy bones extended, but not much thicken¬
ed ; and between its folds there were feveral round
femitranfparent veficles, containing a thick glairy
fluid.
Sect. V. Of Polypi of the Nofe.
All the four different kinds of polypi have been
found growing from the mucous membrane lining tbe
cavity of the nofe 5 we have alfo feen the fuperior fpongy
bone fo increafed in bulk, as to form a tumor refem¬
bling the flelhy polypus.
The firft fymptom of a polypus in the nofe is a preter¬
natural degree of rednefs of its mucous furface. It be¬
comes fpongy and callous, and there is an increafed fe-
cretion of mucus. The patient has fome interruption
in breathing, and the voice is rendered more or lefs in-
diftinft} he feels as if ftifled, and he tries to get quit
Chap. III. S U R G
Of Polypi, of fometliing which incommodes him by blowing his
"v nofe, for the fame reafon as a perfon does who labours
under a common catarrh ; the lenfe of fmell becomes
impaired, and all thefe fymptoms are more trouble-
fome in wet than in dry weather.
The fymptoms increafe till the extenfion of the mu¬
cous membrane increafes to fuch a degree, as to form a
diftinft circumfcribed tumor j and the progrefs of the
complaint is generally fo flow, that its nature is fre¬
quently not fufpefted till it gets this length.
By degrees the breathing through the nofe and the
fenfe of fmell are entirely deftroyed from the mecha¬
nical obftru&ion of the tumor ^ and the patient himfelf
finds, that by a violent expiration or infpiration, the tu¬
mour can be pufhed forward or backward in the nofe.
The preflure which a polypus fometimes makes on
the nafal du£t prevents the tears from flowing freely in¬
to the nofe, and is the caufe of a watery eye.
When the tumor is large, the feptum of the nofe is
frequently preffed on, and puftied to the oppofite fide,
and then the refpiration is opprefled in both noftrils.
Sometimes the tumor defcends, and part of it proje&s
through the noftril; when this takes place, the furface
of the part expofed to the air becomes like common
flcin. This indeed happens when any mucous furface is
expofed. We have obferved it in the vagina when
it was inverted, and in the eyelid when the palpebral
membrane was turned outwards, from a tumor, or any
other caufe.
Morgagni takes particular notice that the natural po-
fition of the feptum is apt to be miflaken for difeafe, as
it very frequently divides the nafal cavity into two un¬
equal portions.
More frequently polypi extend backward into the
pharynx, and can be felt by introducing the finger be¬
hind the velum pendulum palati. In one rare inftance, we
have known a polypus fo large, as to defcend along the
eefophagus into the ftomach, and in another to fill up
the whole cavity ©f the mouth, and produce fuffoca-
tion.
It happens alfo that polypi growing from an exten-
five bafe, feparate, difplace, and produce an abforption
of the bones which furround them. The bones of the
nofe are puflied upward j the maxillary bones and the
palate bones are disjoined, and carried outward j the
arch of the palate deprefled 5 the inferior margins of the
orbits are prefled upward, and pufti the eyes out of their
orbits.
Polypi are found to arife from every part of the nafal
cavity $ but moft frequently from the inferior fpongy
bones. Many furgeons have conceived that polypi
arofe from general difeafes of the conftitution, as fcrofula,
fyphilis, &c. j but it will in general be found to be a mere
* local difeafe, and probably to arife from whatever tends
to produce a continued or repeated attack of inflamma¬
tion in the part.
53 Treatment.—If polypi are attached to the upper
fpongy bones, their removal will be more dangerous, as
the inflammation excited by an operation will be rea¬
dily conveyed to the brain. When they are attached to
the inferior fpongy bones, they can be removed with
perfect fafety.
The mofl: celebrated furgeons have never advifed any
operation when the tumor is fmall and gives no diflrefs 5
but whenever it becomes of fuch a fize as to fill up the
Vol. XX. Part I.
94
E R Y. ' 65
cavity of the noftril, difturb refpiration, and afliime a OfPolypi
malign afpeft, it ought to be removed. y
As long as polypi continue fmall, or when the mu¬
cous membrane acquires that appearance which indi¬
cates the commencement of the difeafe, tonic and af-
tringent remedies are generally recommended, as de-
codlion of oak bark, with alum j ftrong lolutions oi
white vitriol, faccharum faturni, or muriate of mer¬
cury, ardent fpirits, and vinegar. Either of thefe
folutions, which may be fele£ted, ought to be thrown
up a little warm into the nafal cavity with a fy-
ringe, retained there half a minute or more, and re¬
peated four or five times daily ; or a piece of charpee
wet with them may be put into the nofe with a probe,
and applied to the difeafed furface. Kino, galls, white
vitriol, &c. fabine in the form of powder, fnuffed up in¬
to the nofe, as ftrong as the patient can fuller it, are
alfo ufeful in flopping the progrefs of the difeafe. Mer¬
cury has been found rather to make them worfe j cauftic
and other corroding applications have been of ufe in the
fofter kind, though they have never produced a cure.
Bougies have been recommended by Mr B. Bell, and
are faid to have been ufeful •, and when the polypus is
fmall, they may add on the fame principle as bougies
do on tumors of the redlum, a practice fo fuccefsful in
the hands of Deffault.
Polypi may be removed either by tying a ligature
round their neck, by tearing or twilling them, or by
cutting them out writh a knife or fciflfars.
Operation.—Profeffor Richter of Gottingen, and fe-
veral eminent practitioners of this country, ufe, in gene¬
ral, the forceps j and in thofe cafes where the polypus
is attached to the inferior fpongy bones, or to any of
the inferior part of the nafal cavity, this mode of opera¬
tion is much more eafily performed, and has the belt
chance of fuccefs.
From the foft fpongy texture of the fuperior fpongy
bones, and ethmoid bone, with wrhich they are conneft-
ed, there is a confiderable rilk of tearing and injuring
more parts than is neceffary for the removal of the
polypus; and, as any inflammation excited on thefe
may fpread to the membranes of the brain, it is more
advifeable to remove polypi attached to thefe parts by
the ligature.
When polypi are completely within the reach of the
knife, adhering towards the external opening of the no¬
ftrils, they may be eafily cut away.
In performing any operation, or even making an exa¬
mination of the ftate of the nofe, it is of confiderable
importance to attend to the pofition of the forehead,
and to employ a proper light.
The head ftiould be bent backwards ; and in order
to enlarge the external noftril, an afliftant, on whofe
bread the head of the patient refts, ought, with the
fore-finger of his right hand, to prefs upward the point
of the nofe \ whilft, with a probe in his left, he fpreads
out the alse.
Of removing Polypi with the Forceps.—Forceps for
this purpofe ought to be fix inches or fix inches and a
half long, and the axis at two-thirds of their length
diftant from the extremity of the handle $ fo that the
operator may have the advantage of a long lever. See
Fig. 1. Plate DXV.
The points of them ought to be blunt, rounded on
the outfide, perforated, and a concavity, made rough,
I extending
95
Plate
DXV.
Fig. I.
66
SURGERY.
Chap. IIL
Of Polypi, extending to near the axis. The two blades ought to
y-—kg feparatecj at their union, when clofed, and not to
become parallel till they are opened to a confiderable
diilance, in order that the polypus may be held very
firmly. The blades fhould be ftrong, and pretty
broad.
Even this form of forceps is not always fufficient j
and it is ufeful to have a pair of fuch as has been recom-
* See Plate mended by Richter *. They are intended to be em-
DXV.fig. 2, pi0ye(j jn thole cafes, where the polypus is fo large
as completely lo fill the noftril, and lo hard, that the
upper part of the blades of the common forceps cannot
fufficiently dilate to allow their extremity to pafs down
the noftril, and reach the bottom or neck of the
tumor.
It is of great importance to fix the forceps as near the
root of the polypus as pofiible j for, wrhen that is ac-
compliftied, the whole mafs may be at once removed:
and the hsemorrhagy is never fo great as if the polypus
was torn through the middle.
Often, however, it happens, that the polypus is fo
large as to diftend the noftrils in fuch a manner, that it
is impofiible to difeover the root till the extremity is
removed. We muft, in fuch a cafe, remove as much
as we are able, and even although the bleeding is pro-
fufe, perfevere in the operation as long as we can pull
any away with fafety.
When the operation is to be performed, the patient
ought, by his own efforts, to pulh the body as far for¬
wards as pofiible •, then the furgeon, with a pair of
fmall forceps in his left hand, feizes the point of the
polypus, and having kept faft hold of it, he cautiouily
introduces the polypus forceps on the outfide of the
others. The more time that is beftowed on this ftep of
the operation, the more the polypus becomes elongated
and thinner, the more room is given for the forceps, and
therefore the higher up can the polypus be grafped.
After it is completely fecured between the blades of the
forceps, it is to be twfifted flowdy round, and at the
fame time pulled outwards. If only a portion of the
polypus is removed, what remains is to be extracted in
the fame manner. The hoemorrhagy is generally pro-
fufe, but feldom requires the afliftance of art to flop
it.
96 Of Removing Polypi by the Ligature.—The liga¬
tures confitt of wore, catgut, filk or cord ; and dif¬
ferent methods have been employed for palling them
round the root of the polypus. In order to remove
a polypus, the anterior part of which is fituated in
■\ Plate ems °f the noftrils, a ligature («) f is to be introduced
DXV.fig.3. through a double canula (£), and one end fixed round
the ring (c) j whilft the other end (V) being loofe, al¬
lows the noofe at a, to be increafed or diminiftied, ac¬
cording to the fize of the polypus. The polypus is to
be grafped by a pair of forceps put through the noofe,
and drawn forwards. The ligature is then to be carried
to the root of the polypus, either by means of the forked
probe (fig. 4.), or by one of the porte-nceuds (fig. 5.),
taking care to tighten the wire gradually, the further
the inftrument is introduced. When the noofe reaches
the root of the polypus, the ligature is to be firmly
drawn, and fecured by being twilled round the ring of
the canula. If the polypus hangs down behind the ve¬
lum pendulum palati, the doubled wire is to be flowdy
infinuated through the noftrii into the throat. The
finger of the furgeon is to be introduced into the mouth, Of Polypi,
and by opening its doubling the noofe paffed over the
extremity of the polypus, and conducted to its root,
by gradually tightening the ligature, and then it is to
be firmly fixed. The ligature Ihould be tightened once
or twice a-day, until the tumor entirely feparates. As
there is generally a confiderable degree of fwelling and
inflammation of the tumor before this takes place, if it
be fo fituated as to difturb refpiration, it may even be ne-
ceffary to perform bronchotomy as a preliminary ftep.
Should any part of the polypus remain, it may be de-
ftroyed by cauftic, or the affual cautery, if pra&icabJe.
JBefides this, which is the common and moft Ample
mode of applying the ligatures, there are others which
are well adapted for particular cafes. The apparatus
employed by Deflault is extremely ingenious and well-
fuited for its purpofe, but is more particularly ufeful in
polypi of the vagina and uterus. ^
When this apparatus is to be ufed, twro porte-nceuds Defl'ault’s
(a a) ought to be procured, and having puflied the apparatus,
cylinder over the branches of the ftalk, fo as to Ihut the
rings (o') completely, a ligature of waxed thread, cat¬
gut, or filver wire, is to be paffed through them (£),
and the extremities may be either held along writh the
canula or fecured at e *. * See
The two canulas, thus armed, are introduced pa-PlateDXV.
rallel to one another between the tumor and paricles of*^1 5’
the cavity in which it lies ; and when they reach its
bafe, one is held firm, and the other carried round the
bafe, croffed over the other, forming a noofe round
it.
The ligature being pulled tight by an afliftant, the
two ends are to be put through the hole (g) of the
other canula, and fixed to the axis at h.
The extremity (g) is then to be flipt along the liga¬
ture clofe to the polypus •, and the ligature being firmly
fixed to the other extremity, the tw7o porte-noeuds may be
at once removed, by allowing the ring to divide, and
the ligature to efcape.
This being done, nothing remains to complete the
operation. The ligature is kept round the polypus till it
drops off, and as the parts begin to give wray, it ought to
be retained always perfeftly tight 5 and this may be ea-
fily accomplilhed by turning the ferew at //.
The apparatus, too, (fig. 6. Plate DXV.) may alfo
be fometimes ufeful, from the flexibility of the canula,
which conveys and direfts the ligature.
2. Of the Polypus of the ReBum\
Polypi of the re&um differ confiderably from the
common hemorrhoidal tumor, in their fymptoms and ap¬
pearances. They referable the flelhy polypi in other
parts of the body, in their colour and external form,
and they are alfo fometimes ulcerated on the furface-
On cutting through a large tumor of this kind, we
found it compofed of a vaft number of cells, fome of
them very large, and all of them filled w'ith blood.
Their progrefs is flow, and we have feen them grow7 as
big as a large walnut. They do not alter their fize at
different times, as is obferved in the baemorrhoidal tu¬
mor, except that they are apt to fwell, when allowed
to remain long external to the anus. They are moft
commonly fituated in the reflum, clofe to the anus; fo
that when the patient goes to ftool they are pufhed
downwards,
Chap. III. S U R G
Of Polypi, downwards, and appear externally. When very large,
'—'■'Y'"—-'' they are alfo apt to come through the anus by the leaft
exertion in walking. They are generally attended with
more or lefs pain or uneafinefs on going to ftool *, and when
they become fo large as to come through the anus in
walking, the difeafe becomes very diftrefling. They
are often accompanied with a difcharge of mucus.
Sometimes, too, haemorrhoidal tumors are formed con¬
tiguous to the polypus} but the latter is generally
pointed out by the patient as the original fwelling, and
that which gives moft pain. Thefe tumors may alfo be
readily diftinguithed from one another by their diifer-
ence in colour and general form.
99 Treatment.—Aftringents, with opium, and bougies,
may alleviate the fymptoms j but as they feldom give
permanent relief, the moll complete and fafeft mode of
cure is removing them with the knife, if they can be
readily reached ; if not, the ligature is preferable, al¬
though it gives much more pain •, for it fometimes hap¬
pens, that a very profufe bleeding follows after they
have been cut away. The haemorrhoidal tumors which
accompany the polypus difappear after its removal.
When they are tied with a ligature, this can be done
in molt cafes by fimply tying a ftrong {ilk thread firmly
round the bafe of the tumor. Often the bafe is larger
than the apex, and then it is neceffary to pafs through
the middle of the tumor a curved needle with two liga¬
tures, one to tie each half of it. To prevent any mif-
take, and accelerate the operation, furgeons make one
of the ligatures of black, and the other of white thread.
Whilft the mortified part is feparating, great attention
is neceffary to keep the furrounding parts from excoria¬
ting *, and this is to be done by frequently wafhing with
warm water, or a faturnine folution, and anointing them
with faturnine ointments, or the unguentum refino-
fum. Fig. 7. Plate DXV. gives an outline of tumors of
this kind.
100 3. Polypi of the Gums
Mofl frequently are conne&ed with a carious tooth,
or of the alveolar procefles of the jaw bone j fometimes,
however, not. They are generally of a firm fiefhy
texture, rounded form, polifhed furface, and are very
apt to bleed and they fometimes grow to a very large
fize, and become malignant. They are beft removed
by the knife; and, as they bleed profufely, it is often
necefiary to ufe the aftual cautery to reftrain it. If the
bone is found carious, the difeafed part fhould, if poffi-
ble, be removed, or means ufed to affift and promote its
exfoliation ; and when this has taken place the polypus
often difappears without any operation.
101 4. Polypus of the Frontal Sinus.
This is a very rare difeafe, and it produces the fame
dreadful confequences as that of the antrum. Art can
perhaps venture to do little, as the clofe connexion to
the brain would render any attempt to remove it dan¬
gerous.
i©3 5. Polypus of the Antrum Maxillare.
The furgeon is feldom aware of the prefence of this
difeafe until it is far advanced, and has begun to diftend
the bony cavity in which it is formed. It fometimes
acquires a prodigious bulk, feparating and rendering ca¬
rious the bones of the face, pufhing the eyeball out of
E R Y.
6
the orbit, and filling up the cavity of the mouth. If Of Polypi-
the nature of the complaint is early fufpedled, by re- ^
moving a portion of the external parietes of the an¬
trum with a trephine, the polypus may perhaps be re¬
moved from its attachments; but if that is impracti¬
cable, ftrong aftringent applications, cauftic or the ac¬
tual cautery, or removing portions by the knife, may
arreft the proerefs of the difeafe.
6. Polypi of the Urethra. I03
Thefe are what have been called caruncles, and were
fuppofed to be the moft common caufe of ftridture. It
is now, however, well known that they occur feldom.
If their growth is not checked by the ufe of a bougie,
and if they are not near the meatus urinarius, it may be
necefiary in fome cafes to cut in upon the urethra, in or¬
der to get them extirpated j but that muft happen
rarely.
7. Polypi of the Plodder 1G4
Are beyond the reach of the furgeon, but they occur
very rarely ; and the diftrefling fymptoms which attend
this difeafe, can only be alleviated by thofe internal me¬
dicines which dilute the urine and allay the irritability
of the bladder.
8. Polypi of the Far.
They fometimes grow from the membrana tym-
pani, but they generally arife from the cavity of the
tympanum, after the membrana tympani has been de-
ftroyed by ulceration. They refemble the common
mucous polypi in ftru£turc j and they are moft frequent ¬
ly accompanied by a difcharge of puriform matter and
a total lofs of hearing. They may be removed with a
ligature in moft cafes very eafily j or they may be tom
out with forceps j and it is always neceffary to touch the
part to which they adhered repeatedly with cauftic.
and to ufe ftrong aftringent wafhes, in order to pre¬
vent their future growth.
9. Polypus of the ConjunEliva. ic6
We have never obferved them on the conjuntliva co¬
vering the eyeball •, but they are formed on the inner
membrane of the eyelids, and moft; frequently on the
upper one. They are foft pendulous maffes, which,
being loofe, float between the eyelid and ball, and fome •
times even pafs beyond the edge of the lids. They are
of the red colour of the inflamed mucous membrane •,
but thofe portions which are expofed to the external at-
mofphere become dry, and often drop off. They are
often formed in confequence of the membrane being infla¬
med by the abfeefs burfting internally. They are eafily
removed by the knife *, and they are prevented from
being regenerated, by flight fcarifications or the appli¬
cation of lunar cauftic to the bare.
10. Of the Polypus of the Uterus.
Thefe polypi are found to grow either from the fun¬
dus, the lower edge of the os uteri, or from the infide
of the cervix. The firft is the moft, and the fecond
the leaft; frequent. The fhape of the uterine polypi is
generally pyriform, having a very narrow neck. They
are commonly of the farcomatous kind ; though it often
happens that polypi are formed in uteri affe&ed with
I 2 cancer.
\
-^1
68
O? cancer. Polypi protruding into tlie vagina are apt to
, he miftaken for prolapfed uteri j and this miftake is more
^ likely to take place in fome cafes where the polypus ac¬
quires a large bulk in the uterus, and is fuddenly pro¬
truded into the vagina, and ftrangulated by the os tinci.
Cafes, too, of prolapled uteri have been miifaken for,
and treated as polypi.
The fafeft mode of removing uterine polypi is with
the ligature. When it is fituated in the uterus, this
operation is impracticable ; but when it defcends into
the vagina, it may be very readily done by the appara¬
tus of Deffault (Plate DXV. fig. 5.).
10S Sect. VI. Of Aphthce.
The formation of aphthae, when they are examined
with care in their different degrees, may probably ex¬
tend our views of the intimate ItruCture of the mucous
membranes. Boerhaave confidered them as fmall fuper-
frcial ulcerations, and Stahl regarded them as tubercles
or puftules. From the prefent Hate of our knowledge
it is difficult to determine whether aphthae arife from
the chorion of the mucous membrane, in its papillae, or
in its mucous follicles.
Aphthae are formed on the lips, the gums, the interior
of the mouth, the tongue, the palate, the amygdalae, the
cefophagus, and alfo in the ftomach and inteftines. They
are moft frequent in children and old people, and they
have been obferved in people who inhabit places where
the air is tainted, and who live on unw’holefome
food.
The aphthae of the adult may be confidered as a col-
leftion, more or lefs agglomerated or infulated, of white
fuperficial rounded tubercles, each about the fize of a
millet feed. Thefe tubercles difcharge a ferous humour j
the pellicle which covers the mucous membrane is de¬
tached, and is progreflively formed in the different parts
of the mouth, and even in the reft of the alimentary
canal. They are fometiines diffeminated in folitary pu-
itules over the tongue, the angles of the lips, or the
back part of the mouth, with a benign charafter. At
other times they are formed and fcemingly propagated
from the interior of the cefophagus •, pafs the back part
of the mouth, forming a white, thick, and ftrongly adhe¬
ring cruft; and thefe are often dangerous from a compli¬
cation of typhus fever.
The aphthous tubercles vary in colour. Sometimes
they are tranfparent ; at other times they are white,
with a certain degree of thicknefs; they are alfo fome-
times of a deep yellow colour, and fometimes they are
livid or blackilh, a fymptom which always indicates a
greater degree of danger.
Aphthae may alfo be frequently obferved in people
who have taken many courfes of mercury. In thefe
cafes, the repeated atffion of the mercury on the mouth
appears to leave on that organ a degree of fenfibility or
weaknefs which difpofes it to the difeafe. It happens
not unfrequently that thefe aphthae are confidered as
venereal fores, in confequence of the venereal difeafe
not having been properly cured ; on this fuppofition a
new mercurial courfe is employed, wdiich only augments
the difpofition to aphthae, and makes the fores fpread
more rapidly.
The aphthae of children are preceded by a profound
fleepv by agitation of the mufcles of the face and lips, dif-
chap. nr.
ficulty of refpiration, proftratlon of ftrength, feeblenefs OfH®.
of the pulfe, and vomiting. In the mild form of the
difeafe, white fuperficial fpots appear in different parts CQu”jvieni-
of the mouth, which are feparated from one another, branes.
and the interftices are neithe* red nor inflamed. The v —-v ■">
bottom of the mouth has often been dilcoloured, and
the heat immoderate; there is no difficulty in fwal-
lowing, and the child can readily fuckle; the ileep is
natural, and there is a flight diarrhoea. The fpots du¬
ring the firft days preferve their whitenefs and tranfpa-
rency ; they afterwards become a little yellow, exfoliate
in flakes, and go away entirely about the ninth or tenth
day, particularly when the child has a nurfe.
The confluent or gangrenous aphthae have other cha-
rafters. The fmall puftules are contiguous to one an¬
other, and fpread not only over the lips, the gums, the
tongue, and the interior of the cheek ; but we alfo fee
them at the bottom of the throat. The mouth of the
child is burning ; the lips are with difficulty applied to
the nipple, andlometimes it is excoriated by their contaft.
Deglutition is very difficult, and the moft Ample drinks
given in fmall quantities, and with precaution, do not
enter into the ftomach but with pain. There is a con-
ftant purging of greenilh matter, wffiich inflames and
excoriates the fkin round the anus; the child is very
feeble and heavy, and the eyes are funk and fliut, and
the child fcreams. The whole interior of the mouth
from the lips to the throat becomes at laft lined with a
white thick cruft, refembling coagulated milk. This
cruft becomes yellow, and forms a flough, which, after
it falls off, expofes gangrenous ulcers of a dark brownifti
yellow colour.
Treatment.—In the benign form of the difeafe in 109
children, it is of great confequence to get the child a
good nurfe ; and the affedted parts may be waftied over
five or fix times a-day with a piece of caddis dipped in
a little water gruel, to which has been added a few
drops of fulphuric acid. Borax, either in powder or
folution, has alfo been confidered by fome as a ufeful
application. When the cruft has feparated, if the re¬
maining ulcer be painful and irritable, its furface may
be rubbed over with nitrate of filver, or any other cau-
ftic application. Sometimes very malignant looking ul¬
cers remain in the adult, after the feparation of the
cruft. In thefe cafes, cauftic may be employed ; and
we have often feen them heal rapidly by touching their
furfaces once a-day with a weak folution of corrofive
fublimate or muriatic acid. For the treatment of the
confluent aphthce, fee Medicine.
Sect. VII. General Remarks on the Hcemorrhagy from IIO
Mucous Membranes.
All the mucous furfaces are particularly fubjeft to
hcemorrhagy ; and this may arife either from a rupture
of the veffels, or the blood may be poured out by the
exhalents.
The fuperficial pofition of the veffels, and confequent-
ly their want of firmnefs and fupport, expofes them much
to rupture by very flight concuffions. We have ex¬
amples of this in the bronchiae, brought on by coughing ;
in the nofe, by flight blows on the head, or by violent
fneezing ; and in the reftum, by (training on going to
ftool. The effefts of ftones or gravel on the mucous
membrane lining the urinary organs are the fame ; and
even
SURGERY,
Chap. III.
Of Hec- even the mofi: caulious introduiTtion of a found or bougie
fronf'mii' t^le urethra, often caufes bleeding j cr the flighteft
tons Metru of polypi of the nofe and gums, or the introduc-
branes. tion of a probe into the lachrymal paflages. When con-
*-■—■'V—J fidering the difeafes of the Ikin, we mentioned, that in
fome difeafes, particularly fome peftilential fevers, the
exhalents of the Ikin poured out red blood. The fame
thing happens among the mucous membranes. We of¬
ten fee blood come from the nofe, from the bronchiae,
ftomach, and inteifines, urinary bladder and kidneys,
where there has been no reafon to fuppofe ulceration
previoully to have taken place, or any thing to caufe a
rupture of any of the veffels.
511 i. Hcemorrhagy from the Nofe.
Haemorrhagy from the nofe arifes from a variety of
caufes. We often obferve it after fevers, and then it has
been confidered as critical. In young people it occurs
very frequently, and from very flight caufes; and it has
been fometimes known to take place at the menftrual
period.
Haemorrhagy from the nofe is generally preceded by
fymptoms of an increafed quantity of blood to the head,
pulfatmg motion of the temporal arteries, feeling of
weight about the head, fymptoms which are preceded
or accompanied by other changes in more diftant parts j
fuch as fpontaneous laflitude, pains about the belly.
When the means mentioned for this complaint in the
article Medicine have failed, recourfe muft be had to
compreflion. Doflils of lint introduced into the noftrils
are fometimes effeftual ; or the gut of fome fmall ani¬
mal, tied at one end, then introduced by a probe into
the nofe as far as the pharynx, and filled with cold wa¬
ter, or water and vinegar, and fecured by a ligature, by
adapting itfeif to all the parts, and prefling equally on
them, has been attended with advantage. When thefe
remedies like wife fail in their effeft, a piece of catgut
or wire may be introduced through the nofe into the
throat, and brought out at the mouth ^ a piece of fponge,
or a bolder of lint of a fize fufficient to fill the back-
part of the noflril, is then to be fixed to it 5 the fponge
is next to be drawm back and properly applied. An¬
other is to be applied to the anterior part of the noftril
and fecured. The fame may be done to the other
noftril, if it be neceliary ; or the fponge may be of fuch
a fize as to fill the ends of both noftrils at the fame
time. By this contrivance the blood not finding an
outlet, will foon coagulate, and prevent any farther eva¬
cuation.
izz 2. Hcemorrhagy from the ReBum, or F/uxus ILetnor-
rhoidafis.
The difcharge of blood from the return is a difeafe
chiefly confined to thofe advanced in life. It is often
occafioned by full living, change from an adlive to a
very fedentary life, the abufe of purgatives, particularly
aloes j violent paflions, or habitual melancholy. The
fymptoms which precede and accompany this difeafe, are
bearing down pains, and a fenfation of weight in the
back and loins, fometimes a numbnefs in the limbsj
and a contradict! pulfe, thirft, diminution of urine, fla-«
tulency, and fometimes a difcharge by ftool of a white
mucus. I he difcharge returns commonly in a periodi¬
cal manner once a month, and thus becomes neceffary
69
for the prefervation of health ; for if it be fuppreflfed, cr Of Hoe-
if it flops fpontaneoufly, it occafions a variety of nervous niorrh^y
aflfedlions, fuch as fpalmodic lightnings about the cheft, co°™]viem-
colic and vertigo. branes.
Treatment.—When the baemorrhoidal difcharge has 1 —t
become habitual like the menftrual difcharge, we not
only ought not to attempt curing it, but it it be from
any caufe fuppreffed, it ought to be reftored. If it be
the effect oi general plethora, it is to be removed by a
vegetable diet and moderate exercife. In order to mo¬
derate the difcharge, the patient ought to lie in the ho¬
rizontal polture on a hard bed, avoid all exercife, keep
the belly open by cooling laxatives, or even to take
acids if the bleeding is exceflive, and apply cold to the
loins and perinseum. As a fudden fuppreflion of the hae-
morrhoidal difcharge is the caufe of many difeafes, it is
of much importance to reproduce it. To effett this,
leeches applied to the anus, and warm fomentations, are
the moft efficacious remedies.
3. Hcemorrhagy from the Bladder (Hematuria). 113;
Hcemorrhagy from the bladder is a difeafe moft fre¬
quent in old people j it is often occafioned by a fuppref-
fion of the haemorrhoidal difcharge, or any other accuf-
tomed difcharge of blood. It is fometimes the confe-
quence of excefs in living and drinking, and of a feden¬
tary life followed by great exercife. It alfo arifes from
a plethoric ftate of the fyftem, violent exercife on
horfeback, the internal ufe of cantharides, a contufion in
the region of the kidneys, or from ftone in the bladder.-
Treatment.—The treatment to be employed is the
fame as in haemorrhagy in general. Every thing ought
to be avoided which might tend to irritate the kidneys
or the urinary bladder. Laxatives, acid drinks, the ap¬
plication of ice to the lumbar region, hypogaftrium, and
perinceum, or to the infide of the thighs, is of great im¬
portance. Under the articles Medicine and Mid¬
wifery, we have confidered the haemorrhagies from
the lungs and uterus. We may here remark the con¬
nexion and ftrong fympathy which fubfifts between
thefe organs, and alfo between them and the other or¬
gans of the body \ for a minute acquaintance with thefe
may often lead to a fuccefsful mode of treating their dif¬
eafes. When the menfes are fuppreffed, there is often
a haemorrhagy from the mucous membrane of-the lungs j
and there are alfo many cafes of obftruXion in the
bowels which bring on haemorrhagy both from the lungs
and uterus; a haemorrhagy which never ceafes until the
primary affeXion be removed.
Sect. VIII. General Remarks on the Ulceration of Mu- 114
cous Membranes.
Simple inflammation of a mucous furface feldom, if
ever, terminates in ulceration, moft ulcers of thefe parts
having a fpecific charaXer. The venereal inflammation
rapidly terminates in ulceration 5 and aphthte have the
fame tendency, forming often what are called phagade-
nic fores.
The mucous membrane of the nofe is peculiarly fub-
jeX to ulceration ; ulcers alfo occur in the different
parts of the mouth and gums, in the inteftinal canal,
and alfo, .though very feldom, in the urethra. It iT
the-
S U R G E R Y.
S U R G E R Y. Chap. IV.
Of the the firft of tliefe only which are to be treated of in this
Diteafes oi place.
Serous r
Mem- Of Ulcers of the Nofc, or 0%a:na.
branes.
v—^ This fpecies of ulcer fometimes appears in the no-
115 ftrils, and fometimes in the frontal or maxillary finus.
It generally fucceeds a violent coryza. It alfo fome¬
times arifes from blows on the nofe, or from the appli¬
cation of very acrid fubftances. Ozaena is often accom¬
panied with inflammation, haemorrhagy, pains, caries of
the bones which fometimes dettroys the palate bones,
cartilages of the noftrils j and by hindering more or lefs
the free paffage of the air, it alters the tone of the
voice.
Treatment.—In the fimple ozaena, much benefit ge¬
nerally arifes from the ufe of aftringent walhes, fuch as
a decoflion of oak-baik and alum, folutions of fulphate
or acetate of zinc, or the acetate of lead. The beft
mode of ufing thefe is to injeft them a little warmed,
with a common fyringe, into the affefted noftril, three or
four times a day j and when the quantity of difcharge
diminifhes and becomes of a better quality, an ointment
compofed of the flowers of zinc or the like, fpread on a
piece of lint, (hould be introduced once or twice a day
into the noftril.
When the ozaena is of a more virulent nature, and
the bones affefted with caries, there is generally great
reafon to fufpeft a venereal taint. This can only be de¬
termined by the hiftory of the complaint and the confti-
tutional fymptoms of the venereal difeafe being prefent.
In fuch cafes mercury is the only remedy, and along
with its internal ufe the injeftion of mercurial lotions,
and the ufe of fumigations, will be ferviceable. In fuch
ulcers as are obftinate, and which do not partake of any
venereal taint, a liniment, -with an eighth part of the
red precipitate of mercury, or a fmaller proportion ot
the acetate of copper, has been recommended by Mr
Bell as a ufeful application. In fome cafes, too, where,
after the venereal taint is deftroyed by a proper mercu¬
rial courfe, there remains an obflinate fore, the above
liniment may be ufeful, and it has alfo been found in
fuch cafes of much advantage, a courfe of farfaparilla or
cinchona.
Chap. IV.
Il6 Of the Difeafes of Serous Membranes.
General Remarks on the Pathologij of Serous Membranes.
The phenomena of the difeafes of ferous membranes
are very different from any of thofe of the other textures
which have been mentioned. When they are attacked
with inflammation, the ferous furfaces often adhere to-
o-ether, or if fuppuration takes place, it is never accom¬
panied with ulceration or erofion of their fubftance.
However abundant thefe purulent colleftions may be,
the membranes always remain found, with only a little
additional thicknefs *, the purulent fluid rejecled from
them, being like the natural fluid formed by exhala-
tion.
The ferous cavities are alfo fubjefl to htemorrhagy,
and to preternatural collections of the exhaled fluid.
Under the article Medicine we have treated of in¬
flammation of the pleura, membranes of the brain and
peritoneum, and alio of hacmorrhagy from thefe organs. Oi Afcites.
In this place we (hall confider dropiy and hmmorrhagy l'J,r"v
from the vaginal coat of the telles, as the only difeafes
belonging to forgery.
Sect. I. Dropfy of the Peritoneum, or Afcites. 117
When water colledts in a confiderable quantity
within the cavity of the peritoneum, the fldn becomes
dry and feurfy, and the fuperficial veins varicofe. In
one cafe they appeared like large tubes half filled with
blood, the anterior part of the canal thin and dry, and
the polterior portion hard and unyielding. The Ikin at
the umbilicus is fometimes much diftended, and the
water feen fhining through it as in a common blifter.
The water varies much in its appearance j moft fre¬
quently it is yellow or brownifh. We have feen it as
thick and dark coloured as coffee grounds. In one cafe
it was vifeid and tenacious, refembling the white of an
egg •, and in other inftances it refembled milk and
water, with the milk partly curdled. Afcites is gene¬
rally accompanied with a difeafe of fome of the abdo¬
minal vifeera, and moft frequently the liver.
It is not confined to any particular period of life,
but has been obferved more frequently in men than in
women.
The fymptoms of afcites are, 1. The fwelling and
fenfe of tightnefs over the belly. 2. Laborious and dif¬
ficult breathing, efpecially in the horizontal pofture.
3. The diftinft feeling of flu&uation, upon applying one
hand to one fide of the belly, and ftriking it with the
other hand on the oppofite fide. 4. The urine is in
fmall quantity, and of a dark red colour. There is
alfo thirft, a dry fkin, often a feeling of heat, and very
frequently oedema of the inferior extremities. 1:8
Paracentefu.—When the fwelling becomes large, .and Operation,
internal medicines have no effeft in diminifliing it, it is
advifeable to difcharge the water by an artificial open¬
ing, an operation which feldom cures the difeafe, but is
always attended with temporary relief, and may be
repeated as often as the water is found to celled!.
Smucker has performed it feventy times, and protraft-
ed the patient’s life for many years. The operation
is to be performed by introducing a trocar* at the linea * See Plate
alba, as in a hydrocele, about two or three inches below DX1V.
the umbilicus. Many furgeons now prefer this place, as
it prevents all rifk of wounding the epigaftric artery, or
any other important part. It was formerly the common
prattice to introduce the inftrument on the left fide of
the abdomen, half way between the umbilicus and an¬
terior fuperior fpinous procefs of the ileum, in order to
avoid the liver and epigaftric artery. But thofe who
laid down this rule were not aware of the change in the
relative fituation of parts when difeafed ; and it has fe-
veral times happened to Mr Cline and other eminent
furgeons, in performing the operation at this place, that
they have wounded the epigaftric artery, and the pa¬
tient has died of haemorrhage. 1 he diffedlion of the
abdominal mufcles in patients who have died of dropfy,
{hows how much the red?/are extended in breadth, and
the fituation of the epigaftric artery changed.
The place for entering the trocar being determined,
and marked with ink, the patient {hould be placed in
the horizontal pofture, and in fuch a fituation that the
water
2
Chap. IV.
S U R
Of
* Plate
DXIV.
water can be run off readily into a veffel proper to re-
Hydrocele. ccive as patients are very apt to faint if the
v wrater is fuddenly removed, and no preffure applied to
fupport the belly as it is emptied, it is necefl'ary to
make an equal preffure during, and after the operation.
From neglecting this in feme cafes, dangerous fymptoms
have arifen, and in one inltance the patient died three
days after the operation from this caufe.
A piece of flannel as broad as the belly, and divided
into feveral pieces at each end, and thefe drawn acrofs
each other by afliftants, or the bandage *, anfwers for
this purpofe. By either of thefe modes the belly
may be gradually coinpreffed as the water is let out,
and the comprefllon continued for feveral days after the
operation. Sometimes the w7ater does not come out
readily, by a portion of omentum or intelline coming
in contadl with the end of the canulaj but the difeharge
may be allifted by introducing within the canula a blunt
probe, or a lefs canula within the firff, having fmall
perforations at the extremity and edges. After all the
water is difeharged, a piece of plafter fliould be applied
to the wound, and every caution taken to exclude the
admiflion of the external air. The bandage fiiould alfo
be kept applied, and it may be worn for fome time.
up Sect. II. Water collected in the Ca vity of the Vaginal
Coat, or Hydrocele,
The effufion of w^ater in the tunica vaginalis frequent¬
ly accompanies hernia, the fcrophulous fchirrus, vene¬
real and other enlargements of the tefticle *, but in fuch
cafes, it is merely to be confidered as a fymptom accom¬
panying thefe diforders. Mr Home mentions cafes
where it was a fymptom of ftri&ure. It occurs alfo
during the abatement of inflammation of the tefticle ;
and fometimes more or lefs of the water remains after
the inflammatory fvmptoms have difappeared. In cafes
of this kind the tunica vaginalis is generally found
thickened, and there is an effufion of lymph over its furface
and over the furface of the albuginea. In many cafes,
the water is collefled where there is no apparent altera¬
tion in the ftru&ure of the parts. The difeafe in fuch
cafes moft probably arifes either from a diminiflied ab-
forption or from an increafed exhalation. If the difeafe
has been of long duration, the tunica vaginalis is gene¬
rally thickened, to a great degree fometimes 5 and par¬
ticularly in old people it becomes hard or cartilaginous.
We have feen feveral preparations where it was converted
into a fliell of bone. We have met with two cafes where
a round fubftance refembling cartilage was found float¬
ing Icofe in the water of a hydrocele. It is not uncom¬
mon to find the veffels alfo of the fpermatic veins be¬
come mere or lefs varicofe. Collections of water
of a very confiderable fize form fometimes after birth
{find rupture'); but in old people they are moft frequent.
I he water is ufually collected only in one cavity; but it
fometimes happens, that in confequence of adhefions be¬
tween the tunica vaginalis and tefticle, feveral irregular
lhaped bags are formed in which it is contained. The
water ufually collefts in one fide of the ferotum, fome¬
times aifo in both. The water is generally clear and
ftraw-coloured, fometimes it is coloured with blood,
fometimes yellow or brown, and fometimes thick, and
like coffee grounds. See Morgagni, Ep. xxxviii.
G E R Y. 71
The quantity of water varies. In the AC1. Erud. Lip- ^ Of
fienfis 1725. p. 492, there is mention made of a cafeiHydrocele.
which contained forty pounds of fluid. Hoight faw one v"~
which contained four pounds. There are fometimes al¬
fo hyda lids found along with the water. Richter has
met with four cafes of this kind.
Symptoms.— 1. The ferotum is commonly of a pyrami-
dal form, and the corrugations of the external fkin
are deftroyed in proportion to the bulk of the fwelling.
1 he fliape of the tumor, however varies j in fome cafes, it
is very globular, and in others it appears like two fwel-
lings joined. It is even altered from the manner in
which it is fufpended ; if a bag trufs has been worn it is
ufually oblong. 2. The fwelling generally begins at
the lower part of the ferotum, and as its bulk increafes,
it gradually afeends towards the abdominal ring. 3. It
appears pellucid when held between the eye and a can¬
dle ; but this is not a certain prognoftic, as the tranfpa-
rency is deftroyed when the tunica vaginalis is thick
and hard, or when the water is turbid and dark. 4. It
gives the diftinCt fenfation of fluctuation. In fome
cafes, however, the degree of thickening of the tunica
vaginalis renders the fluCluation obfeure or impercep¬
tible, and alfo deftroys its tranfparency. 5. The tumor
cannot be made to recede or change its fituation from
preffure or change of pofture of the body. 6. The tef¬
ticle is involved in the fwelling, and can be diftinguilhed
like a firm unyielding mafs at the pofterior part of it.
In cafes where adhefions have been formed, the pofition
varies; but the patient generally knows where it lies,
and preffure applied to the part of the fwelling where
it is fituated gives pain. Sometimes the tefticle is pla¬
ced at the under part of the fwelling, fometimes in
the middle. Mr. Bell felt it twice forwards. Some-.
Rmes along with the water there are hydatids float¬
ing in the cavity of the vaginal coat. Sommering fays,
that he has often obferved this appearance. 7. The
fpermatic cord can be readily diftinguiflied unaltered.
8.^1 he tumor gives little or no pain, and the patient
fuffers merely from its bulk. 9, The growth of'
the fwelling is generally very flow, and fometimes
years elapfe before it becomes a great inconveni¬
ence ; fometimes, however, it forms rapidly. When
it grows very large, the integuments become thick,
and Ihe veins varicofe ; if the fwelling extends up to
the inguinal ring, the cord cannot be felt, and the
penis is fometimes fo much involved in the tumor, that
it appears like an umbilicus or piece of corrugated
Ikin.
Treatment.—In children, the water generally difap- 121
pears in a fhort time, by the application of ftrong aftrin-
gent or difeutient applications. In fome cafes, the difeafe
advances fo flowly, that it is fufficient to wear a fufpenfory
bandage. Richter mentions a cafe where it was twenty
years old before it was neceffary to remove the water.
When the fvvelling becomes fo large as to render it
neceffary to djfcharge the water, the operation may be
either palliative or radical. The objeft of the’ firft
is merely to remove the water, after which the
dileafe commonly returns ; and by the fecond, an ad-
hefion is intended to be produced between the furface
Oi the vaginal coat and albuginea, and confequently the
cavity in which the water was colle&ed entirely oblitera¬
ted, In making choice of thefe inodes of treatment,
122
G See Plate
DXIV.
123
124
SURGERY.
Chap. IV.
it is neceiTary to attend to the following rules. 1. When
the hydrocele is large, it is fafer to perform the palliative
operation ; and afterwards when it has again colledted
in lefs bulk, the radical one may be employed. 2. When
the ftate of the tefticle is not accurately afeertained, it
is better firft merely to difeharge the water, which al¬
lows it to be completely examined. 3. The palliative
operation Ibould be employed in all cafes where the dif-
eafe is connected with a morbid ftate of any contiguous
organ. 4. In all other cafes, the radical operation is
preferable.
Palliative Operation. —The matter may be difehar-
ged either by a puntture made with a lancet or by a fmall
trocar.
When the trocar * is to be introduced, the pofte-
rior part of the tumor ftiould be firmly grafped in the
left hand, fo that the fluid is puftied to the anterior
and inferior part of it. A pundlure is to be made, with
a lancet, through the integuments at the moft prominent
part of the fwTelling, large enough to admit readily the
trocar, taking care to avoid any large fuperficial vein.
The trocar is then to be pudied through the coats of
the tumor perpendicularly; but when it has entered the
cavity, which is knowm by the feeling of a fudden want
of refiftance, the point fhould be direfted upward, and
carried forward a fufficient way ; fo that the furgeon is
affured of its being within the cavity fo far that there is
no rifk of its falling out.
After all the matter has been allowed to flow out,
and the canula withdrawn, the wound ftiould be cover¬
ed with a piece of flicking plafter, and the ferotum fup-
ported by a fufpenfory bandage. If the operation is to
be done with a lancet, an incifion ftiould be firft made
through the fldn, rather larger than what is neceflary
into the cavity. Then a punfture is to be made through
the tunica vaginalis, wdiich will allow the water to
flow out; and the difeharge may be aflifted by the in-
troduftion of a probe, direftor, or hollow tube, into the
opening. The trocar fhould always be employed for this
operation, except when the hydrocele is fo fmall that the
tefticle would be in danger of being wounded by it, or
when there is any enlargement of the tefticle accom¬
panying the hydrocele, which is not well underftood, or
if the tunica vaginalis is extremely thick and the fluc¬
tuation not diftinft.
Radical Operation.—An obliteration of the tunica
vaginalis may be produced either by an effufion of lymph
on the furfaces of the tunica vaginalis and albuginea,
or by the procefs of granulation. The firft is effe£ted
by injefting into the cavity a ftimulating fluid to pro¬
duce inflammation and adhefion ; the fecond is by lay¬
ing open the cavity to produce inflammation and fup-
puration, and to allow it to fill by granulation.
By Injeciion.—Dr Monro primus firft propofed and
adopted this ingenious, yet Ample mode of cure ; and
it is now that which is moft generally praftifed in all
cafes not attended with any peculiarity or puzzling
i'ymptom. The fluid contained in the tunica vaginalis,
is to be difeharged by a trocar, in the manner recom¬
mended in the palliative treatment. The trocar for
this purpofe fhould be of a rounded form, w’hich is ei¬
ther altogether cylindrical, or only a fmall flit at its
extremity ; for that of Andre, which is flat and flit up
at both lides, is apt to allow the fluid to be effufed into
the cellular membrane of the ferotum $ an accident Of
which we have feen repeatedly happen, and always fru- Hydrocele.^
ftrates the object of the operation. T"" '
The fluid is then to be injefled through the canula
either by a fyringe (Plate DXIV.), which has a move-
dkAeflop-cock, that it may be filled as frequently as is
necefiary, or by an elaftic bottle, which has a valve in
its pipe, fo as to allow the fluid to pafs forward, but to
prevent its exit. It is not neceffary to inje£t as much
fluid, as there was water in the hydrocele j it anfwers
wrell to fill the cavity moderately and by gentle ftrokes
on the ferotum agitate it over the whole furface. The
fluid moft commonly employed is port wine. Some
recommend it to be diluted, but it is better to ufe
it pure, and allow it to remain a longer or ftiort-
er time according to the degree of pain it excites,
and the general irritability of the patient. In hofpi-
tals, other fluids are ufed, as being lefs expenfive. Mr
Cline of St Thomas’s hofpital employs a folution of
the fulphate of zinc 5b ad Ibi. From five minutes
to a quarter of an hour is in moft cafes a fufticient
length of time to allow the wine to remain. If
it excite fevere pain in the tefticle or cord, it may
be detained more or lefs time. A confiderable degree
of uneafinefs is always to be wifhed for in order to fe-
cure fuccefs in the operation. After the wine is with¬
drawn, the wound Ihould be covered with a piece of
flicking plafter or caddis 5 the ferotum well fupported
with either pillows or a trufs, and the patient put to
bed. The operation excites more or lefs fwelling in a
longer or fhorter period. The medium effe£t on the
tefticle is to caufe it to fwell about the bulk of a tur¬
key’s egg in four or five days j and the furgeon ftiould,
by purluing the antiphlogiftic regimen, moderate as far
as in his power the inflammatory fymptoms to that
pitch, and by an oppofite treatment bring them up
to that degree fhould they be too mild. Low diet,
local or even general blood-letting, purging, the ho¬
rizontal pofture and fomentations, are the moft powerful
means to arreft inflammation j but if the patient has
little pain, he fhould live on a nourifhing diet, and lome
local ftimulant may be applied over the ferotum until
a fufficient degree of inflammation comes on. If the
inflammatory fymptoms abate, the fwelling difappears;
and it is advifable to wear always afterwards a bag trufs
to fupport the whole ferotum. In fome cafes the water
again colledts, and then the operation fhould be re¬
peated j but it requires caution, as the relative fituation
of parts is fometimes altered from fome partial adhefions
having formed between the tunics.
We have feen frequently cafes where it was thought
that the w^ater has been regenerated a few days after
the operation, which fwelling afterwards difappeared.
This probably arifes from an effufion in the cellular mem¬
brane, but it requires no particular treatment.
By Incifion.—After grafping the tumor firmly, an in- 123
cifion is to be made through the fkin with a fcalpel, from
its fuperior to its inferior part. A pun£lure is to be made
towards the upper part, with a lancet, large enough to ad¬
mit the point of the fore finger j the fluid is allowed gra¬
dually to efcape through the opening ; and the tunica
vaginalis is to be laid open its whole extent with a probe-
pointed biftoury in the fame diredlion as the incifion
through the integuments. Pledgets of lint dipped in
oil,
I
Chap. IV.
oil, or covered with fimple ointment, are to be put be-
Hydrocele. tween tile ]jpS 0f wounclj down to the bottom of the
cavity, one on each fide of the tefticle ; and the edges
of the fcrotum are to be brought together either by
fhaps or future. A fingle ligature put through the in¬
teguments oppofite the tefticle, anfwers belt, and pre¬
vents the tellicle from being pufiied without the edges
of the wound in conlequence of the degree of fwelling
the operation occalions. The whole ihould be covered
with a pledget of ointment, and fufpended in a tight
bandage.
In three or four days after the operation, the external
drefiings ihould be removed ; and in one or two days
more, the pledgets inter pofed between the tunica vagi¬
nalis and tefticle may be taken away and renewed. The
ligature fiiould be cut out whenever the fwelling of the
parts begins to abate, or at any time when it appears to
create irritation. During the cure, great care ihould
be taken, firft, by the introduction of Hips of plafter,
to prevent the union but from the bottom ; fecondly, to
guard againfi: the colleftion of matter in any cavity 5
thirdly, to prevent the lips of the wound feparating far,
thus expofing the tefticle and protracting the cure ; and
fourthly, to lay open freely any finufes which may form.
The cure goes on much more rapidly by perfevering in
the horizontal pofture, and keeping the fcrotum well
fupported. 1 he bowels ihould be always kept open
and regular, and when fuppuration has begun, the pa-
126 tient’s ftrength ihould be fupported by a nouriftiing diet
when CO be and bark or port wine, if neceffary. The cure takes from
adopted. three to eight weeks in moft cafes. This mo'\ of ope¬
rating, is the moft eligible when there is any ambiguity
in the cafe, as it allows the tefticles to be accurately
examined, and caftration performed if neceffary. It
ought alfo to be performed when the tunica vagina¬
lis is much thickened and hardened, and it is fometimes
neeeffary, even to cut away fome of the hardeft por¬
tions. The mode of curing hydrocele by a feton, caujlic,
&.c. are now generally given up.
Sect. III. Dropfy of the Thorax, or Hydro thorax.
The fluid is fometimes confined to one, and fometimes
affefts both fides of the cheft. It is commonly of a
brown or yellow colour j fometimes it is reddiftr from
a mixture of blood. Its chemical qualities are thofe of
ferum. When it is accumulated in a large quantity,
the lungs are more or lefs compreffed. Dr Baillie has
reen a lung not larger than the clofed fift. It is alfo in
fome inftances accompanied with adhefions between the
furface of the lungs and pleura.
The exiftence of water is known by the following
fymptoms. Refpiration is flrort and difficult; and the
patient cannot reft in bed, except the head and trunk
be elevated from the horizontal pofture. The deep is
often interrupted by alarms and difagreeable dreams,
and the patient fuddenly ftarts from it with a fenfe of
fuffocation : he is unable to ftoop much forward, or raife
any thing from the ground. There is fometimes a teaf-
ing cough, with little ex peroration. During the pro-
grefs of the difeafe, the pulfe is very variable ; but it is
generally irregular. The countenance is pale, and the
lips and cheeks of a purple hue. The urine is dimi-
nifhed in quantity, and of a high colour. The bowels
are generally conftipated. The feet and legs are com-
Vojl. XX. Part I. b
73
monly anafarcous. The undulation of a fluid may be Crt
heard by the patient himfelf, and moving the body by
fudden jerks will fometimes aflitl in difcovering the dif-
eafe. The affected fide has in fome cafes been obferved
to be enlarged.
This dileale is treated by the exhibition of internal
medicines, where the quantity of water is (mail ; but
when it collefts in fuch a quantity as to threaten fuffo¬
cation, it ought to be difcharged by an opening made
into the cavity of the thorax. The incilion ought to
be made between the fifth and fixth ribs, half way be¬
tween the fternum and fpine ; two inches in length
through the fidn. The fubjacent parts ought to be
cautioufiy divided ; and the incifion ftiould be directed
rather towards the upper part of the fixth rib, to avoid
wounding the intercoftal artery and nerve, which creep
along the inferior edge of the fifth rib. The pleura,
which is diftinguiftied by its bluifli colour, fhould be
carefully cut with the point of the knife 5 fo that, in cafe
of adhefion, the lung is not wounded : and if the water
flows out, a canula ftiould be introduced into the open¬
ing. If it does not, in confequence ot adhefion, another
incifion muft be made. Great care ftiould be taken to
prevent the admiflion of air, and for that purpofe, the
opening ftiould be made valvular, by pulling up the
flcin which is to be cut through. If the quantity is very
great, it may be drawn oft' at two different intervals ;
or if it is collected in both cavities of the thorax.
SECT. IV. Dropfy of the Pericardium. 12*
Water is fometimes found in the pericardium when
there is none in any other cavity of the thorax, but it is
generally accompanied with a collection of water in
fome of them. The fymptoms of this difeafe are nearly
fimilar to thofe of hydrothorax •, and we find that
Deffault and other very eminent furgeons have not been
able to diftinguifti them. Dr Baillie fays, “ that the
feeling of oppreflion is more accurately confined to the
fituation of the heart 5 and the heart is more difturbed
in its functions in dropfy of the pericardium than in
hydrothorax.” It is alio find, that a firm undulatory
motion can be felt at every ftrcke of the heart.
If the exiftence of this complaint is afcertained, and
if the quantity of water is i'ufpefted to be great, it may
be perhaps advifable to difcharge it, as pratfifed in one
cafe by Deffault, by making an opening between the
fixth and feventh ribs of the left fide, oppofite to the
apex of the heart.
SECT. V. Blood ejfufed in the Tunica Vaginalis. t,
(Htematocele).
The effufion of blood within the cavity of the va¬
ginal coat is charadterifed by the hidden appearance
of the tumor, by its wanting the tranfparency of a hy¬
drocele, by Its greater weight, and by its being moft
commonly occafioned by fome accident. It is ufually
produced by the trocar ufed in performing the palliative
operation wounding a veffel which pours its blood into
the vaginal cavity 5 it is ftill more apt to happen when
a lancet is ufed and a varicofe veffefpundlured. It alfo
takes place from the rupture of a varicofe veffel by the
hidden depletion of a large hydrocele.
If the fwelling is fmall, it may difappear by the local
K ufe
SURGERY.
74
Of
Ganglions.
130
X3I
S U R G
ufe of difcutients and ftimulants, fuch as folulions of
faccharum faturni, or that of alum, vinegar,
If it does not yield to thefe, and if it has acquired a
confiderable bulk, the blood Ihould be difcharged by
an incifion ; and any bleeding veffel either fecured by a
ligature, or by ftrong ftimulants, and the wound after¬
wards treated as in common hydrocele.
E K Y. Chap. V.
move them. In fome inftances they have been removed i
by the application of blifters ; but the moft certain me-
thod is, to make a fmall pundlure into the lac, or to j0ints.
draw a cord through it j or, after the pundlure is made, >
to prefs out the contents, and then injedt lome gently
ftimulating fluid, as port wine and water heated blood-
warm.
Chap. V.
Difeafes of the Sinovial Membranes.
SECT. I. General Obferuations on the Pathology of
Sinovial Membranes.
The difeafes of the finovial membranes are much
more limited nnd lefs underftood than thole of the tex¬
tures which we have examined. They do not appear
to be fympathetically affedted in the difeafes of other
parts. In the acute difeafes of the important vifeera,
the fldn, the mucous furfaces, the cellular membrane,
the nerves, &c. are more or lefs fympathetically affedt¬
ed, wrhilft all the finovial membranes remain undifturbed.
In this refpedt they refemble the bones, cartilages, and
fibrous membranes. Neither is the finovial fluid fubjedt
to the different alterations, which we oblerve of the
ferous fluid. We never find any preternatural mem¬
branes formed on the articulating furfaces j and the pre¬
ternatural colledtions of finovia never contain any of
the white floculent matter fo frequent in ferous collec¬
tions.
The finovial membranes are fubjedl to inflammation,
and are probably the feat of many of thofe pains about
the joints which are fo frequent. Their fluids are alfo
fometimes increafed to a preternatural quantity, and
chalky or earthy depofitions are alfo occafionally found
in them.
Sect. II. Of Ganglions.
An increafe of the finovial fluid in the burfae, or ten¬
dinous Iheaths, forms a fpecies of dropfy called a ganglion.
It is not, however, probable that thefe tumors are al¬
ways formed in a natural finovial capfule : moft com¬
monly they are accidental, and are formed in the cellu¬
lar membrane •, for they are frequently found in parts
where no natural capfule exifts. They are moft frequent¬
ly met with over the tendons upon the back of the
wrift, and often likewife about thofe of the ankle and
other parts of the extremities. When preffed, they are
found to poffefs a confiderable degree of elafticity, from
' which, and from their fituation, they may generally be
diftinguifhed from other eneyfted tumors. They feldom
arrive at any great bulk, are not often attended with
pain, and commonly the Ikin retains its natural appear¬
ance. On being laid open, they are found to contain a
tough, vifeid, tranfparent fluid, refembling the glaire of
egg, w?hich is alfo fometimes of a reddifti colour.
They are generally produced by fprains or contufions
of the joints, or by rheurbatifm. In many inftances,
they go off infenfibly, without any afliftance from art;
but as this is often not the cafe, means ought to be ufed
for removing them. For this purpofe^ fridlion frequent¬
ly repeated, or gentle compreflion applied to them by
meaty of thin plates of lead and bandages, femetimes je-
Sect. III. Of ColleBions within the Capfular Ligaments 13^
of the Joints.
Colle&ions here may confift of ferum, blood, or pus
and fynovia combined. They are moft frequently met
with in the joint of the knee, and may be produced
either by internal or external cauies. Thefe kinds of
colledlions may in general be diftinguiflied from each
other.
Watery effufions, commonly called dropfeal tvizWmgs
of the joints, arife chiefly in conlequence of fevere rheu¬
matic complaints j and when the tumor is not very
large, the fludluation of the fluid may be felt by pref-
fure. When a large effufion appears immediately after
a violent bruife, it is probable that it confifts chiefly of
blood : but when it fucceeds a violent fprain, attended
with great pain, inflammation, and fuelling, termina¬
ting in an effufion, there is every reafon to think that
the contained fluid cbnfifis of pus mixed with fynovia.
Swellings of the joints are moft apt to be confounded
with colledlions in the burfte mucofte, or with matter
effufed in the adjacent cellular fubftance. From the
firft of ihefe they are generally diftinguilhed by the con¬
tained fluid pafling readily from one fide of the joint to
the other, and from its being diffufed over the w7hole of
it; whereas, when it is contained in the burfae, the tu¬
mor is confined to a particular part, and is feldom at¬
tended with much pain.
When fuch colle&ions can fafely be allowed to re¬
main, the capfular ligament ought never to be opened,
as they can often be removed by difcutients. Even con¬
fiderable colle&ions arifing from rheumatifm may com¬
monly be difeufied by fri&ion, fomenting the parts with
warm vapour, keeping them conftantly moift with fa-
turnine folutions, covering them properly with flannel,
and applying blifters. When thefe fail, fupporting the
part with a laced flocking, or with a roller, has fre¬
quently been of fervice. But whether a rheumatic tu¬
mor can be difeuffed or not, it ought not to be opened •,
for the inconvenience attending it is more tolerable
than the pain and inflammation which may enfue. But
when the matter would do mifehief by lodging, it (hould
be difcharged. Effufed blood and matter which fuc-
ceed high degrees of inflammation are of this kind.
Blood is frequently extravafated among foft parts with¬
out much detriment } but when in contact with carti¬
lage or bone, it foon injures them. The matter ought
to be difcharged fo as moft effeffually to prevent the ad-
miflion of air into the cavity of the joint. For this pur-
pofe the opening fhould be made with a trocar ; and
the fkin, previoufly drawn tight to the upper part of the
tumor, fliould be pulled down immediately on withdraw¬
ing the canula. A piece of adhefive plafter fhould be
immediately laid over the opening, and the whole joint
fhould be firmly fupported by a flannel roller carefully
applied. If the patient be plethoric, he fhould be
blooded to fuch an extent as his ftrength will bear •, he
fhould
Chap.
Bones.
iJ3
y{t S - U R G
Of the Dif- jfhould be put upon a ftria antipblogiftic regimen, and
rafes of tne every relpea lliould be managed wxtb caution , for
inflammation being very apt to enfue, we cannot too
mucb guard againft it.
Sect. IV. Of Moveable Bodies which are found within
the Sinovial Capfules.
Moveable bodies have been found in many of the
finovial canfules of the human body. But they are moft
frequent in the knee joint; and it is there only where
they require furgical afliitance. Thefe bodies are gene¬
rally compofed of cartilage in the form of lamellae, and
there is often an offeous concretion in their centre. Phe
caufe of their formation is not known•, but it is probable
that they are formed by a gradual depofition of the car¬
tilaginous matter on the articulating lurface. i hey
have been often met with, attached by narrow necks to
the finovial cavity ^ fo that w’hen this attachment is de-
ftroyed, they float loofe in the cavity, and undergo per¬
haps but little future change.
When they occur in the knee joint, and acquire fuch
a bulk as to obftruft or derange the motions of the joint,
it then becomes neceffary to remove them. I his ought
to be done by bringing the moveable body to the outer
part of the joint, and making a valvular incifion of fuch
a fize as admit of its extraftion. Sometimes much in¬
flammation fucceeds this operation, which ought to
make us careful in choofing a proper time for perform¬
ing it, and in ufing every endeavour to reprels any in¬
flammatory fymptoms afterwards.
Sect. V. Of the Spina Bifida.
Spina bifida is a tumor which fometimes appears upon
the lower part of the fpine in new-born children. A
fluftuation is diflinftly perceived in it, and the fluid it
contains can in fome meafure be preffed in at an opening
between the vertebrae. In fome cafes this opening is
owing to a natural deficiency of bone in others, to the
feparation of the fpinous proceffes of the vertebrae.
The difeafe proceeds from a ferous looking fluid col-
lefted within the coverings of the fpinal marrow. It is
always fatal. Children labouring under it have been
known to live for two or three years •, but, in general,
they linger and die in a few wreeks. All that art has
been able to do is to fupport the tumor by gentle pref-
fure with a proper bandage. When a tumor of this kind
is laid open or burfls, the child generally dies in a few7 hours.
A tumor nearly of the fame nature with this is fometimes
met with upon different parts of the head in new-born
children : it is formed by a fluid lodged beneath the
membranes of the brain, which have been forced out
at fome unoflified part of the fkull. What we have
faid with refpeft to the former is exactly applicable to
this difeafe.
Chap. VI.
Of the Difeafes of the Bones.
Sect. I. General Remarks on the Pathology of the
Bones.
The difeafes of bones are remarkable for their flow
progrefs, in comparifon with what is obferved in the
other organs. Inflammation proceeds extremely {lowly,
and callus is remarkable when compared with the cica-
*34
*35
E R Y. 75
trization of other parts, for the length of time neceffary O^the D*!-
for its formation •, the origin and progrefs too of an ex-ea ^°*J e
oitofis is very different from a tumor of the foft parts, i —^ - >
as we obferve in phlegmon. Suppuration too, which
requires only a few days in other organs, takes months
before the fame procefs is completed in bones. I here
is alfo a Itriking difference between a gangrene of the
foft parts and a caries or necrofis of the bones. In the
natural ftate the bones have no fenfibility, but when
difeafed, they are often the feat of acute pain } we ob¬
ferve this in the fpina ventofa, in caries, necrofis, &c.
Befides the changes to which the bones are fubj^ft from
inflammation and various accidents, they alfo iuffer al¬
terations in their hardnefs and foftnefs. Preternatural
growths alfo form upon them; and they are Kable to ^
abforption.
Sect. II. Of Particular Difeafes of the Bones.
The bones, as well as the fofter parts, are liable to
be fwelled, either throughout their whole length, or to
have tumors formed on particular parts of them.
Exoftofis is one fpecies of tumor of the bone. Ac- Exoftofw.
cording to Mr Bromefield, no fwelling fliould be called
fo, but an excrefcence continued from a bone, like a
branch from the trunk of a tree. Under this head there¬
fore is ranked the benign node, which may be produced
by external injury, fuch as contufions and fraftures: it
can hardly be called a difeafe, as pain feldom fucceeds,
but rather a deformity. ^
There are rifings or tumors obfervable on the bones Tophus,
which are often the confequents of venereal virus, and
are termed tophi, gummi, or nodes.—Tophus is a foft tu¬
mor in the bone ; and feems to be formed of a chalky
fubflance, that is intermediate between the cfi'eous
fibres. Thefe cretaceous extravafations are fometimes
found on the ligaments and tendons, as well as on the
bone \ and may fometimes be taken out by the knife.
We have many inftances where chalk ftones in gouty
people make their way out through the {kin of the
fingers and toes. 139
Gummi is a foft tumor on the fiirface of the bone, be- Gummi.
tween it and the periofteum ; and its contents referable
gum foftened, from whence it has taken its name. ^
The confirmed venereal node has the appearance of a Venereal
divarication of the offeous fibres. When the periofteum node,
is thickened, but the bone not affe&ed, a courfe of mer¬
cury will often produce a perfeft cure : but when the
bone itfelf is difeafed, this method will often fail. But
here the divifion of the extended periofteum has been
known to give perfect cafe.
The ufual method, formerly, was to apply a cauftic
equal to the extent of the node, which being laid bare,
required exfoliation before it could be cicatrized. If
the incifion is made early, that is, before matter be
formed under the invefting membrane, it feldom requires
exfoliation •, and, as we often find that the bone itfelf is
not affecfted, but only the periofteum thickened, we
may be deceived even after a careful examination : it is
therefore proper that the patient ihould be pretty far
advanced in a courfe of mercurial unftion before even
the incifion is mads ; for, ftiould the tumor decreafe,
and the pain abate during the courfe, chirurgical af-
fiftance, with the knife, moft likely may become un-
neceffarv.
K 2 A
76 S U R G
Of the Dif- A bone may become carious firft in its internal parts j
eaies ot the anj ^]iat from external injury, as well as from a vitiated
, J':nl‘c ^ , fiate of the animal-fluids. Authors feem not to agree
r^r as to the technical term for this kind of difeafe of the
Cams. bones ; feme calling it cancer or gangrccna ojjis ; othersj
ffuna vent of a, from the pointed extuberances ufually at¬
tendant on this diforder of the bone; and fome again,
teredo, from the appearance of the carious bone, like
j^2 wood that is worm-eaten.
Abfccfs. It is univeifally allowed, that this difeafe takes its
rife from matter being formed either in the diploe, or in
the marrow : whenever obllrudlion is begun in the vel-
fels expanded on, or terminating in, the medullary cylls,
the confequence will be inflammation, and, if not early
removed, matter will form ; for this reafon this cafe
may be called abfcefus in medulla. Whenever, then, a
patient complains of dull heavy pain, deeply fituated in
the bone, confequent to a violent blow received on
the part fome time before, though the integuments
appear perfectly found, and the bone itfelf not in the
leaf! injured, we have great reafon to fufpect an abfcels
in the medulla. Children of a bad habit of body, though
they have not iuftered any external injury, will often be¬
come lame, and complain of the limb being remarkably
heavy ; and though not attended with acute pain, yet
the dull throbbing uneafinefs is conftant. If rigors hap¬
pen during the time the patient labours under this in-
difpofition, it generally implies that matter will be form¬
ed within the fubftance of the bone. If the extremities
of the difeafed bone fwell, or if it becomes enlarged
throughout its whole extent, it may be known to be an
abfeefs in the medulla, or the true fpina ventofa, as it is
called : if neither of thefe fymptoms take place, the
great infenflbility of the bone in fome fubjefts will pre¬
vent that acutenefs of pain ufual in other parts where
matter is formed, though the acrid matter is eroding the
bone during the whole time it is contained within it.
This matter at length having made its way through, ar¬
rives at the periofteum, where it creates moll violent
pain. The integuments then become Iwelled and in¬
flamed, and have a fort of emphyfematous feel. On
being examined by preflure, the tumor will fometimes
be leffened, from part of the matter retiring into the
bone : from this appearance to the touch, moll likely
the name of ventofa was added to the term fpina.
When we are allured of matter being under the peri-
oileum, we cannot be too early in letting it out, as it
will fave a confiderable deal of pain to the patient,
though probably it may not be of any confiderable ad¬
vantage in refpeft to the carious bone j for, where the
fluids in general are vitiated, no chance of cure can be
expedfed from topical remedies } but where the confli-
tution is mended, nature will fometimes aflonifh us in
her part, as the carious bone will be thrown off from
the epiphyfes, or the teredines will be filled up by the
offific matter that flows from the parts of the bone where
fome of the fpince have come away.
If proper medicines are given, the children well fup-
ported, and the parts kept clean and dry, patience and
perfeverance will frequently give great credit to the fur-
geon. In cafe it fhould have been thought advifable to
apply a trephine, to give free difeharge to the matter,
the walhing it away, as well as the fmall Grumblings of
the carious bone, by means of deterfive and drying in-
E R Y. Chap. VI.
jedlions, has been known to contribute greatly to the Of the Dif-
curing this kind of caries, after the habit of body in ge-e‘l^s t^ie
neral had been mended. ■ ™eS~ ■
Befides thofe above-mentioned, the bones are liable
to two onpofite difeafes ■, the one termed friabilitas, the
other mollities ; the former peculiar to adults, the latter
more frequent in infants, though fometimes feen in
adults, from a vitiated ftate of their juices. 143
From repeated falivations, the bones in old people Ricket?.
have been rendered extremely brittle j infomuch that in
many fubjefls they have been fraflured merely from
their weight and the adfiion of the mufcles : but in fuch
cafe% this is not owing to the friability of the bones,
but to the lofs of fubftance, from the eroiion of the bone
by an acrimonious humour thrown on it : to which
caufe perhaps may be attributed the difeafe called rickets
in children. The effe&s of fcorbutic humour in render¬
ing the bones loft in many inftances, have often been
remarked.
By proper diet, gentle fri£lion, exercife, and cold
bathing, rickety children will frequently get their con-
ftitution fo much changed, as that, by the time they ar¬
rive at the age of 20 years, there lhall not remain the
leaft veftige of their former dileafe. The epiphyfes are
generally moil affefted in this fpecies of the diforder.
For want of early attention to invalids of this fort, we
find that their bones not only become fofr, and yield to
the powrers of the mufcles, but remain diftorted during
the reft ol life, though they have acquired a perfeft de¬
gree of foiidity. In luch cafes, therefore, the afliftance
of a Ikilful mechanic is neceiTary both to fupport the
parts improperly afted on, and to alter the line of direc¬
tion of the diftorted offeous fibres.
Though the curvature of the extremities, or thick-
nefs of the ends of the bones near their articulations,
may give the firft alarm to thofe who are conftantly
with children, yet there are other fymptoms that give
earlier notice •, which if they had been timely difeover-
ed, it is highly probable that the curvature of the limbs
in many children might not have happened. The belly
generally becomes larger in this difeafe, from the ih-
creafed fize of the contained bowels ; the head then be¬
comes enlarged j then a difficulty of breathing fucceeds,
which is generally fuppefed to be the effects of taking
cold. The fternum is elevated and fharp, and the tho¬
rax becomes contrafted ; the fpine is protruded in feve-
ral parts; the pelvis altered, according to the preffure
of the parts within, and habitual inclination of the pa¬
tient to obtain that line of diredlion in which the per¬
pendicular from the centre of gravity may fall within
the common bafe of the body, the extremities of the
cylindrical bones, and the ends of the ribs next the fter¬
num, become enlarged ; foon after this the bones in ge¬
neral become foft and flexible, yielding in fuch direc¬
tions as the ftrongeft mufcles determine.
Where the affe&ion of the mefenteric glands is evi¬
dent, Mr Bromefield afferts, that after a dofe or two of
the pulvis bafilicus to empty the inteftines thoroughly,
the purified crude quickfilver is by much the moft effi¬
cacious medicine to remove obftruftions in thofe glands.
When the belly begins to foften and fubfide, the chyle
pafles without interruption, and the child begins to get
fleffi ; then the cold bath becomes truly ferviceable, and
the decoftr.n or cold infufion of the Peruvian bark is a
proper
Chap. VI. SURGERY. 77
Of the Dif-proper reftorative j but the cold bath ufed too early, or
cafes of the the bark given before there is a free circulation of chyle
. B°^cs . through the la&eals, would be very injurious.
144 Among the difeafes of the bones we may likewife
Palfy of the take notice of that palfy of the lower extremities which
lower ex- takes place, as is generally fuppofed, in confequence of
trenuties. a curvatul.e }n fome parts of the fpine. To this diftem-
per both fexes and all ages are liable. When it attacks
an infant of only a year or two old or younger, the true
caufe of it is feldom difcovered until fome time after the
effect has taken place. The child is faid to be uncom¬
monly backward in the ufe of his legs, or it is thought
to have received fome hurt in the birth. When the
child is of an age fufficient to have already walked,
and who has been able to walk, the lofs of the ufe of
his legs is gradual, though in general not very flow.
He at firft complains of being very foon tired, is lan¬
guid, liftlefs, and unwilling to move much or at all
brifkly. Soon after this he may be obferved frequently
to trip and humble, though there be no impediment in
his way ; and whenever he attempts to move brifkly, he
finds that his legs involuntarily crofs each other, by which
he is frequently thrown down without humbling j and
when he endeavours to hand hill in an ere£t pohure
without fupport, even for a few minutes, his knees give
way and bend forward. As the dihemper advances, it
will be found that he cannot, without much difficulty
and deliberation, direct either of his feet exaftly to any
one point •, and very foon after this, both legs and
thighs lofe a good deal of their natural fenhbility, and
become quite ufelefs. In adults, the progrefs of the
difeafe is much quicker, but the fymptoms nearly the
fame.
Until the curvature of the fpine is difcovered, the
complaint generally paffes for a nervous one j but when
the hate of the back bone is adverted to, recourfe is al-
moh always had to fome previous violence to account for
it. That this might have been the cafe in fome few in-
hances might be admitted ; but in by far the greateh
number fome predifpofing caufe muh be looked for.
Mr Pott, xvho has written a treatife upon this difeafe,
recommends it to our obfervation, that though the lower
limbs are rendered almoh ufelefs, or even entirely fo,
yet there are fome circumhances in which it differs from
a common nervous palfy. The legs and thighs, though
fo much affe&ed, have neither the flabby feel of a truly
paralytic limb ; nor have they that feeming loofenefs at
‘ the joints, nor the total incapacity of reliftance, which
allows the latter to be twilled almoft in all direftions :
on the contrary, the joints have frequently a confider-
able degree of ffiffnefs, particularly the ankles j by which
lliffnefs the feet of children are generally pointed down¬
ward, and they are prevented from fetting them flat up¬
on the ground.
At firft the general health of the patient feems not to
be at all, or at leaft not materially affe&ed ; but when
the difeafe has continued for fome time, and the curva¬
ture is thereby increafed, many inconveniences and com¬
plaints come on j fuch as difficulty in refpiration, indi-
geftion, pain, and what they call tightnefs at theJlomach,
obftinate conftipations, purgings, involuntary flux of
urine and faeces, &c. with the addition of fome nervous
complaints, which are partly caufed by the alterations
made in the form of the cavity of the thorax, and partly
by impteflions made on the abdominal vifcera.
Mr Pott was led to a knowledge of the true cauie Of *he Dif-
and cure of this diftemper, from obferving the cafe of a ea^t°^at^e
youth of 14, who was reftored to the ufe of his limbs Syftem
immediately after a feemingly accidental abfcefs near ..i
the part. From this he was inclined to think, that the
curvature of the Ipin^ was not the original caufe of the
diforder, but that the furrounding parts were predifpof-
ed towards it by fome affection of the folids and fluids
there ; and he was confirmed in thefe fufpicions by a
variety of appearances, which he obferved both in the
living body and upon diffedftion of the fubjed after
death •, all of which are narrated at full length in his
treatife upon this fubjed.
“ The remedy (fays he) for this moft dreadful difeafe
confifts merely in procuring a large difeharge of matter,
by fuppuration, from underneath the mffcmbrana adipofa
on each fide of the curvature, and in maintaining fuch
difeharge until the patient ffiall have perfedly recovered
the ufe of his legs. To accompliffi this purpofe, I have
made ufe of different means, fuch as fetons, iffues made
by incifion, and iffues made by cauftic; and although
there be no very material difference, I do upon the
whole prefer the laft. A feton is a painful and a nafly
thing : befides which it frequently wears through the
fkin before the end for which it was made can be ac-
complilhed. Iffues made by incifion, it they be large
enough for the intended purpofe, are apt to become in¬
flamed, fnd to be very troublefome before they come to
fuppuration} but openings made by cauftic are not in ge¬
neral liable to any of thefe inconveniences, at leaft not ft>
frequently nor in the fame degree: they are neither fo
troublefome to make or maintain. I make the efehars
of an oval form, about two thirds of an inch in diame¬
ter on each fide the curve, taking care to leave a fuf-
ficient portion of Ikin between them. In a few days,
when the efehar begins to loofen and feparate, I cut out all
the middle, and put into each a large kidney-bean: when
the bottoms of the fores are become clean by fuppuration,
I fprinkle, every third or fourth day, a fmall quantity of
finely powdered cantharides on them, by which the fores
are prevented from contracting, the difeharge increafed,
and poflibly other benefit obtained. 'I he iffues I keep
open until the cure is complete ; that is, until the pa¬
tient recovers perfedtly the ufe of bis legs, or even for
fome time longer : and I ffiould think that it would be
more prudent to heal only one of them firft, keeping the
other open for fome time; that is, not only until the
patient can walk, but until he can walk firmly, brilkly,
and without the affiftance of a flick : until he can ftand
quite upright, and has recovered all the height which
the habit or rather the neceffity of Hooping, occafioned
by the diftempers, had made him lofe.”
Chap. VII. 145
Of the Difeafes of the Arterial System.
Sect. I. General Remarks on the Difeafes of the Ar¬
terial System*
The difeafes of the vafcular fyftem form an important
clafs in fyftems of Nofology. In the difeafes of every
organ, the aftion of the arteries and veins is more or
lefs influenced, though the changes of ftfu<fture to which
thefe veffels are fubjeft are very limited. The only
difeafes
78
Of direafes to be confidered in a fyftera offurgerv, are aneu-
Aneunfrns. rjfm anci var;x>
I45 Sect. II. Of Aneurifms.
The term Aneurifm was originally meant to fignify a
tumor formed by the dilatation of the coats of an ar¬
tery ; but by modern practitioners it applies not only to
tumors of this kind, but to fuch as are formed by blood
efFuled from arteries into the contiguous parts. There
are three fpecies generally enumerated ; the true or
encyjled, the falre or dijfufed, and the varicofe aneu-
147 rifm.
Of the en- The true or encyfed aneurifm, when fituated near
neurifm" ^ur^ace t^e body, produces a tumor at firlt fmail
and circumfcril^d ; the fldn retains its natural appear¬
ance : when preffed by the fingers, a pulfation is evi¬
dently diltinguiftied ; and with very little force the con¬
tents of the (welling may be made to difappear j but
they immediately return upon removing the preffure.
By degrees the fwelling increafes, and becomes more
prominent; the (kin turns paler than ufual, and in more
advanced ftages is cedematous : the puliation (till con¬
tinues ; but parts of the tumor become firm from the
coagulation of the contained blood, and yield little to
prelTure ; at iaft the fwelling increafes in a gradual
manner, and is attended with a great degree of pain.
The (kin turns livid, and has a gangrenous appearance.
There is an oozing of bloody ferum from thj integu¬
ments ; and, if mortification do not take place, the
(kin cracks in different parts •, and the artery being
now deprived of the ufual refiitance, the blood burlls
out with fuch force as to occafion the almoft immediate
death of the patient.
When affeCtions of this kind happen in the larger ar¬
teries, the foft parts not only yield to a great extent, but
even the bones frequently undergo a great degree of de-
rangement.
Of the dif- The falfe or diffufed aneurifm confifts in a wound or
fufedancu- rupture in an artery, producing, by the blood thrown
nfm. out of it, a fwelling in the contiguous parts. It is mod
frequently produced by a wound made direCIly into the
artery. A tumor, about the fize of a horfe bean, gene¬
rally rifes at the orifice in the artery foon after the dif-
charge of the blood has been (topped by compreffion.
At firlt it is foft, has a (trong pulfation, and yields a
little to preffure, but cannot be made entirely to difap¬
pear ; for the blood forming the tumor being at reft,
begins to coagulate. If not improperly treated by
much preffure, it generally remains nearly of the fame
fize for feveral weeks. The enlargement however pro¬
ceeds more rapidly in fome cafes than in others. In-
(lances have occurred of the blood being diffufed over
the whole arm in the fpace of a few hours j while,
on the contrary, fwellings of this kind have been many
months, nay even years, in arriving at any confiderable
fixe.
As the tumor becomes larger, it does not, like the
true aneurifm, grow much more prominent, but rather
fpreads and diffufes itfelf into the furrounding parts.
By degrees it acquires a firm confidence ; and the pul¬
fation, which was at firft confiderable, gradually dimi-
nifhes, till it is fometimes fcarcely perceptible. If the
blcol at firfl thrown out proceed from an artery deeply
fealed, the (kin preferves its natural appearance till the
diforder is far advanced: but when the blood gets at
4
Chap. VII.
firft into contaCI with the (kin, the parts become infhnt- Of
ly livid, indicating the approach of mortification ; and Aneurifms.
a real fphacelus has fometimes been induced. The tu- y——*
mor at firft produces little uneafinefs 5 but as it increafes
in fize, the patient complains of fevere pain, (tiffnefs,
numbnefs, and immobility of the whole joint; and thefe
fymptoms continuing to augment, if the artery be large,
and afliftance not given, the teguments at laft burft, and
death enfues.
When an artery is punCIured through a vein, as in Qf t[^v
blood-letting at the arm, the blood generally rufties intoricofe a-
the yielding cellular fubftance, and there fpreads fo as neurifm.
to (hut the tides of the vein together. But in fome in-
ftances where the artery happens to be in contaCl with
the vein, the communication opened has been preferved j
and the vein not being fufficiently ftrong for refitting the
impulfe of the artery, muft confequently be dilated.
This is a varicofe aneurifm. Soon after the injury the
vein immediately communicating with the artery begins
to fwell, and enlarge gradually. If there be any confi¬
derable communications in the neighbourhood, the veins
which form them are alfo enlarged. The tumor difap-
pears upon preffure, the blood contained in it being
chiefly puflied forwards in its courfe towards the heart j
and when the tumor is large, there is a Angular tremu¬
lous motion, attended with a perpetual hiding noife, as
if air was pafling into it through a fmail aperture.
If a ligature be applied upon the limb immediately
below the fwelling, tight enough to (lop the pulfe in
the under part of the member, the fwelling difappears by
preffure, but returns immediately upon the preffure be¬
ing removed. If, after the fwelling is removed by pref¬
fure, the finger be placed upon the orifice in the artery,
the veins remain perfeCIly flaccid till the preffure is ta¬
ken off. If the trunk of the artery be compreffed above
the orifice, fo as effeftually to (lop the circulation, the tre¬
mulous motion and hiding noife immediately ceafe ; and
it the veins be now emptied by prefi'ure, they remain fo
till the compreflion upon the artery be removed. If the
vein be compreffed a little above, as well as below the
tumor, all the blood may generally, though not always,
be puttied through the orifice into the artery ; from
whence it immediately returns on the preflure being dil-
continued.
When the difeafe has continued long, and the dilata¬
tion of the veins has become confiderable, the trunk of
the artery above the orifice generally becomes greatly
enlarged, while that below becomes proportionably
(mail; of confequence the pulfe in the under pari of the
member is always more feeble than in the found limb of
the oppofite fide.
Aneurifms have frequently been miftaken for abfeef-^o,
fes and other colleflions of matter, and have been laid
open by incifion •, on which account great attention is
fometimes required to make the proper diftinclion. In
the commencement of the difeafe the pulfation in the
tumor is commonly fo ftrong, and other concomitant
circumftances fo evidently point out the nature of the
diforder, that little or no doubt refpefting it can ever
take place ; but in the more advanced ftages of the dif¬
eafe, when the fwelling has become large and has loft
its pulfaiion, nothing but a minute attention to the pre¬
vious hiftory of the cafe can enable the practitioner to
form a judgment of its nature.
Aneurifms may be confounded with foft eneyfted tu¬
mors,
SURGERY.
Chap
ISV
Prognons.
VII. ' S U R
Of mors, fcropliulous iwellings, and abfcefi'es iiruatco fo near
Aneurifms. artery as Lo be affected by its puliation. JjUi, one
  V fymptom, when conneaed with ftrong puliation, may
always lead to a certain determination that the fwelling
is of the aneurifmal kind, viz. the contents of the tumor
being made ealily to difappear upon preflure, and their
returning on the comprefiion being removed. The
want of this circumftance, however, ought not to con¬
vince us that it is not of that nature ; for it frequently
happens, efpecially in the advanced ftages of aneurifms,
that their contents become fo firm that no effedl is pro¬
duced upon them by preffure. Hence the propriety, in
doubtful cafes, of proceeding as if the difeafe was clear¬
ly of the aneurifmal kind.
In the prognofis, three circumftances are chiefly to
be attended to ; the manner in which the difeafe appears
to have been produced, the part of the body in which
the fwelling is fituated, and the age and habit of bo¬
dy of the patient.
If an aneurifm has come forward in a gradual man¬
ner, without any apparent injury done to the part, and
not fucceding any violent bodily exertion, there will be
reafon to fuppofe that the difeafe depends upon a gene¬
ral affettion either of the trunk in which it occurs, or
of the whole arterial fyftem. In fuch cafes art can give
little afliftance ; wdiereas if the tumor has fucceeded an
external accident, an operation may be attended with
fuccefs.
In the varicofe aneurifm a more favourable prognofis
may generally be given than in either of the other tw7o
fpecies. It does not proceed fo rapidly } wdien it has
arrived at a certain length, it does not afterwards ac¬
quire much additional fize ; and it may be fuftamed
without much inconvenience for a great number of
years. As long as there is reafon to expeft this, the
hazard which almoft always attends the operation ought
to be avoided.
Treatment.—In every cafe of aneurifm, theufe ofprel-
fure has been indifcriminately recommended, not only in
the incipient period of the difeafe, but even in its more ad¬
vanced ftages. In the diffufed or falfe aneurifm, as pref¬
fure cannot be applied to the artery alone, without at the
fame time affeftmg the refluent veins} and as this, by
producing an increafed refiftance to the arterial pul!a-
tions, muft force an additional quantity of blood to the
p/efftire. orifice in the artery—no advantage is to be expected
from it, though it may be produftive of mifchief.
In the early ftages of encyfted aneurifm, while the
blood can be yet preffed entirely out of the fac into the
artery, it often happens, by the ufe of a bandage of folt
and fomeivhat elaftic materials, properly fitted to the
part, that much may be done in preventing the fwel¬
ling from receiving any degree of increafe ; and on
fome occafions, by the continued fupport thus given to
the weakened artery, complete cures have been at laft
obtained. In all fuch cafes, therefore, particularly in
every inftance of the varicofe aneurifm, much advan¬
tage may be expected from moderate preffure.
Rut preflure, even in encyfted aneurifm, ought never
to be carried to any great length •, for tight bandages,
by producing an immoderate degree of reaftion in the
containing parts to which they are applied, inftead of
anfwering the purpofe for wdiich they w7ere intended,
have evidently the contrary effeft, Indeed the greateft
length to which preffure in fuch cafes ought to g°>
G E R Y.
flrould be to ferve as an eafy fupport to the parts af-
1S3-
fedted.
Of late years the fubjeft of aneurifm has attracted
the notice of feveral eminent furgeons of this country *,
and arterial trunks have been fuccefsfully tied, which
had been often propofed, but never executed. Mr
John Bell feveral years ago, tied the trunk of tne glu¬
teal artery. Mr Abernethy of St. Bartholomew’s hof-
pital, tied the common femoral. Mr Afiley Cooper
of Guys, tied the common carotid ; and Mr Ramfden
of St. Bartholomew’s hofpital, has lately tied the fub-
clavian artery.
Sect. III. Of the Popliteal Aneurifm.
We are indebted to Mr John Hunter for the ingeni¬
ous operation for popliteal aneurifm. The operation
confifts in expofing the femoral artery about the middle
of the thigh, and putting a ligature round the veflel.
An incifion is to be made through the integuments, two
inches and a half in length on the inner edge ol the
fartorius mufcle (fee Plate DXV. fig. I.). An teci-
fion is to be made through the theath containing
the artery with its accompanying vein and nerve, and a
double ligature is to be introduced underneath it, by ^ pj^e
means of a blunt needle ; care being taken not to in- pj^III.
elude either the femoral vein, or crural nerve. One li¬
gature is to be tied as high up, and the other as low as
the artery is feparated from the contiguous parts ; the.
diftance between the twm being rather more than half
an inch. The artery fiiould then be divided by a
probe-pointed biftoury, (Plate DXIII.) in the inter-
fpace between the two ligatures, but nearer to the lower
ligature than to the upper one. The ligature ihould be
moderately thick, in ordeMhat the r.oofe may be drawn
as tightly as poffible, without rifk of tearing, or cutting
the coats of the veffel. The limb may be kept warm
after the operation, by artificial heat if neceffary j and
the wound treated in the ufual manner.
Sect. IV. Of the Femoral Aneurifm.
*54
The external iliac artery was firft tied by Mr Aber¬
nethy * ; and there are noweight cafes on record where the * See Mr
practice has been followed, fix of which were fuccefsful. Ahermthy's
Mr Abernethy’s operation confifts in making an inch
fion through the integuments of the abdomen, about
three inches in length in the dire&ion of the artery,
beginning juft above Poupart’s ligament, (fee Plate
DXV. fig. i.) and half an inch on the outfide of
the abdominal ring, in order to avoid the epigaftric ar¬
tery. The aponeurofis of the external oblique mufcle is
then to be divided in the direftion of the ivound. The
lower margin of the internal oblique and tranfverfe
mufcles is to be cut with a crooked biftoury. The
finger may then be paffed between the peritonaeum by
the fide of the pfoas mufcle, fo as to touch the artery.
A double ligature is to be put underneath the veffel, and
tied as in the operation for popliteal aneurifm.
Sect. V. Of the Carotid Aneurifm.
It had been repeatedly propofed to tie the carotid
artery; but the operation was firft performed by Mr
Aftlev
i Sit7
$0
SURGERY
Chap. DL
Of Varicofe Aftley Cooper. There are three inftances of this artery
, Ycins- having been i'uccefsfully tied, fo that there is fufficient
v encouragement to adopt the practice in future cafes,
where there is room to tie the artery above the fternum.
The operation is to be done by making an incilion on
the fide of the artery next the trachea, laying bare the
veffel, and carefully avoiding the par vagum and the
recurrent branch in placing the ligature.
eafes of the
Tefticle.
nating dire&ly m the vena cava, but m the emul-the D't-
gent.
TV eatment.—The ufe of aftringents, along with a pro¬
per fufpersfory bandage, will generally afford relief. It
has alfo been propoled to tie a ligature round one or
more of the varicofe veffels. In one cafe this was done
with complete fuccefs.
Sect. VI. Of the Axillary Aneui'ifm.
Mr Keate of St George’s Hofpital, tied with fuccefs
the axillary artery, where it paffes over the firlt rib j
and Mr Ramfden has lately tied the fubclavian artery
for an axillary aneurifm. The patient however died.
A fimilar operation was attempted by Mr Cooper, but
he failed in tying the ligature round the artery, from
the bulk of the tumor. The great difficulty felt in
thefe operations was the paffing of the ligature below
the vefiel on account of its depth. Some contrivance is
therefore neceffary in order to facilitate this part of the
operation.
Chap. VIII.
Of the Difeafes of the Venous System.
Sect. I. Of Varioofe Veins.
When the Veins of any organ become preternaturally
dilated, they are faid to be varicofe. This Hate of the
veins is molt ufually met with in thofe which are fuper-
ficial, and feems to arife either from fome mechanical
caufe preventing the ready flow of blood through them,
or from the veins themfelves lofing the neceffary fup-
port of the Ikin and adjacent parts. The gravid uterus,
by preffing on the iliac veffels, frequently renders the
veins of the lower extremity varicofe. Various tumors
produce fimilar effects. We alfo fee the veins of the in¬
teguments of old people become tortuous and fwelled
from no mechanical preffure.
Varicofe veins are a frequent attendant on ulcers
of the leg, and it has been obferved that the ulcer fel-
dom or ever heals until the varix is cured.
Varicofe veins of the extremities may generally be
much relieved by the application of a proper bandage
from the toes upwards j and in cafes where this does not
give relief, the venous trunk ffiould be tied with a liga¬
ture as directed in aneurifm.
Sect. II. Varicofe Spermatic Veins (Variocele).
The veins of the fpermatic cord often remain vari-
cofe after inflammation of the tefticle, and alfo in early
life without any known caufe. The difeafe is generally
eafily diftinguifhed by the tortuous irregular fwelling.
It fometimes, however, acquires a large fize ; but even
then its nature may be readily diflinguifhed by placing
the patient in a horizontal pofition, and applying pref¬
fure to the tumor. By this the fwelling difappears, and
if the upper part be grafped fo as to allow nothing to
pafs out of the abdomen, the fwelling will neverthelefs
be again formed.
The difeafe occurs moft frequently in the left fide,
and thb may arife from the vein in that fide not termi-
Sect. III. Of Llcemorrhoidal Tumors.
The haemcrrhoidal tumor confifls in a dilatation of
the veins about the anus and extremity of the redtum.
They are round fmooth tumors of a purple colour, and
more or lefs painful. They vary in their fize and num¬
ber. Sometimes they are accompanied by a regular
periodical difeharge of blood, (bleeding piles) and in
other cafes no fuch difeharge takes place, (blind piles)
and then they are more fubjedt to inflammatory at¬
tacks.
Hsemorrhoids occur more frequently in women than
in men, and they commonly arife from a long continued
preffure on the redtum ; as obilinate coftivenefs, pro-
lapfus, geftation, calculus or tumors about the biadder,
uterus, or vagina.
Treatments—When they are inflamed, local bleed¬
ing, fomentations and poultices give much relief, care
being taken at the fame time to keep the turners within
the anus, and to keep the bowels very open by mild
laxatives and clyfters.
In fome cafes the piles acquire a very confiderable
bulk, and form a number of large and loofe tumors
round the anus, which prevent the free difeharge of
fseces. In fuch cafes the tumors ought to be removed,
and this may be beft done with the knife •, or, as fome-
times happens, if they be fo filuated as to render this
dangerous, they may be removed by a ligature.
Chap. IX.
Of the Difeafes of the Glandular System.
Sect. I. General Re marls on the Pathology of the l(>0
Glands.
We obferve a vafl: variety of difeafes of the glandular
fyftem, and the greater number of thefe arile irem a
morbid flate of their fecretions. We fee linking ex¬
amples of an increafed fecretion in diabetes, in the mer¬
curial falivation, and in many bilious diforders : on the
other hand the natural fecretion is diminifhed in fuppref-
fion of urine, in drynefs of the mouth, &c.
An alteration in the fecretory function is not, how¬
ever, the only difeafe of this fyftem ; there are a great
number of organic alterations of flrufture with which
they are affefted, and a variety of tumors are alfo found
to form in them. As, however, moft of the principal
glands of the body are fituated within the larger cavi¬
ties, few of their difeafes come within the province of
the furgeon.
Sect. I. Of the Difeafes of the Tef icle.
16s
I. Of the Schirrus and Cancer of the Teficle, (Sarcocele).
This affe&ion is liable to a confiderable variety in its
appearances j and as in the defeription ofit which has been
given by authors, they have included fymptoms of
a difeafes
Chap. IX.
S U R G E R Y.
162
Symptoms.
163
Appear¬
ances on
difiecftion.
Of the Dif- difeafes which are very different from the true fchir-
eafes of the rus>
■ ie^1Lle~ . The moft remarkable fymptom of fchirrous tefticle is
a gradual enlargement and induration of the body of
the gland or epididimis, advancing from one point, without
marks of inflammation or pain. Along with its increafe
in bulk it acquires additional hardnefs, and its furface,
from being fmooth, turns by degrees unequal and knot¬
ty. The integuments become of a purplifti red, at
lafl: ulcerate, difcharge a foetid ichor, and a cancerous
fungus grows from the wound. The fpermatic chord
^Ifo becomes enlarged, knotty, and hard, and the glands
of the groin fwell, the health of the patient becoming
entirely deftroyed, and at laft carrying him off in the
greateft mifery.
The progrefs of this difeafe is in general flow, and is
commonly attended with an aching fenfation about the
tefticle, and fevere pain darting from it to the loins,
particularly when the tefticle is not fupported. The
difeafe is moft frequent in the advanced ftages of life. It
commonly arifes from an unknown caufe. It has at
times been known to fucceed a venereal affeftion, but
this is by no means common, and it is fometimes pre¬
ceded by a blow or fome accident wdiich excites inflam¬
mation.
When the fchirrous tefticle is examined by diffe£tion,
Dr Baillie obferves that “ it is found to be changed into
a hard mafs of a bro'wnifti colour, which is generally
more or lefs interfered by membrane. In this there is
no veftige of the natural ftru£l:ure, but cells are fre¬
quently obfervable in it containing a fanious fluid, and
fometimes there is a mixture of cartilage.” Sometimes
water is found collefted in the cavity of the tunica va¬
ginalis, but more frequently the tunics adhere to each
other. When the fpermatic cord is affe<5led, that exhi¬
bits the fame changes of ftruflure as the tefticle itfelf.
Treatment.—When a tefticle is known to be affedled
wuth the true fchirrus, all profper of a cure by the ex¬
hibition of internal or external remedies becomes hope-
lefs, as there is no faft better known and more feverely
felt in the hiftory of fchirrus and cancer in every organ
of the body,, than its refilling all means of relief, but by
the complete removal of the difeafed part. In a few
rare cafes, by a moderate diet, keeping the bowels open,
fufpending the tumor, avoiding violent exercife, or any
thing which may prove a fource of irritation, the dif-
order has been faid to be not only prevented from in-
creafing, but has in a gradual manner entirely difap-
peared ; but we much fufpedl that thefe cafes whofe
termination was fo favourable, have not been of a fchir¬
rous nature. This is probable from what is known of the
termination of fchirrus in other organs of the body, and
alfo from the difficulty we have in forming an accurate
diagnofis in the difeafes of the tefticle. There are, we
hefitate not to fay, many tefticles extirpated which
might have been faved ; for our imperfedft knowledge of
the various morbid changes of this organ, has made it
too much an eftabliffied pra&ice to extirpate all tefticles
which are enlarged and hard,, and which do not yield
to mercury.
When, however, by an attentive examination of the
hiftory and fymptoms of the difeafe, no doubt is enter¬
tained of its fchirrous or cancerous nature, the more
fpeedily the tumor is removed, the better chance there
is of a permanent cure. In performing the operation,
Vol. XX. Part I.
154
care ffiould be taken to remove completely every part Of the Dif-
fufpe<fted to be difeafed, and no part of the fldn Ihould ea|fs ,the
1 1 r • 1 • r ‘ 1 j Teftrcle.
be lett with a view 01 covering the wound more com- <
pletely which has the leaft difcolouration or mark of dif¬
eafe.
Mode of extirpating the Tejlicle. 165
The parts being previoufly ffiaved, the patient is to
be laid upon a firm table covered with a blanket or mat-
trefs. His legs ffiould hang over the table, and be fup¬
ported by affiftants. An incifion is to be made through
the integuments with a common fcalpel, extending from
a little above the external abdominal ring to the bottom
of the fcrotum. The cellular membrane around the
fpermatic chord is to be diffedted back, and the chord
laid fairly bare ; and this part of the operation is much
mote eafily accompliffied when the incifion through the
flun is very free. A ligature of confiderable thicknefs
is to be put underneath the chord, and it ’may be intro¬
duced with a blunt pointed needle or inftrument (fig. 17.
Plate DXIII.). The extent of the difeafe in the
chord ftiould now be examined as accurately as poffible,
and the ligature ffiould be tied firm with a running
knot, as far above the difeafed part as poffible. If any
hardnefs extends to the external abdominal ring, the
chord may be even diffedled up along the inguinal ca¬
nal, and the ligature put qp at that place. The chord
may be divided one-fourth of an inch below where the
ligature has been applied, and then the whole of the
tefticle and its vaginal coat may be readily differed
away, taking care not to cut into the vaginal cavity of
the oppofite fide of the fcrotum. After the tefticle is
removed, the ligature ftould be loofened, and the fper¬
matic artery and veins included in feparate ligatures.
The ligature upon the fpermatic chord is to be left
loofe, fo as to aft as a tourniquet if a hremorrhagy
ffiould enfue. Much care ffiould alfo be taken to fecure
any arteries of the integuments of the fcrotum which-
are feen bleeding j as we once met with a very trouble-
fome haemorrhagy from one of thefe retrafting among
the loofe cellular texture, and not being feen after the
operation. It therefore will be a good general rule
to tie thefe with ligatures immediately after they are di¬
vided.
The wound is to be dreffed, fo as to be healed if pof¬
fible by adhefion ; and this may generally be accompliffi¬
ed, except at the upper part where the ligatures come
through. With this view the wound and fcrotum are to
be carefully waffied, and two or three flitches, as may be
thought moft expedient, are to be put through the edges
of the wound ; for in a part like the fcrotum, where the
Ikin is loofe and puckered, it is hardly poffible to ap¬
ply adhefive ftraps with fufficient accuracy, fo as to
ferve the purpofe. Small pieces of adhefive plafter,
however, ffiould be neatly placed between each of the
flitches, along the whole extent of the wound, and a pled¬
get of Ample ointment and comprefs afterwards to be
laid over it, the whole being fecured with a T ban-
dage.
After the operation, the patient is to be put to bed,
being direfted to lie on his back with a pillow between
the thighs, fo as to fuppoft the fcrotum.
Opiates fliould be given to allay pain, and if any in¬
flammatory fymptoms fupervene, bleeding at the arm
ffiould be had recourfe to without the leaft hefitation ;
•k for
82 SURGERY. Chap. IX.
Or the Dif- for we have made a general remark, that alter almoft
e Te^Hcle^6 ^urg*cal operations, there has fcarcely ever an in-
. ftance occurred where the patient died from lofs of
blood, and on the contrary, that almoft all patients who
have loft much blood, or who have been previoufly much
emaciated, have recovered more quickly than thole in
full health. The antiphlogiftic regimen in almoft every
cafe fhould be rigidly purfued, until at leaft all inflam-
matory appearances of the wound are gone, and a healthy
Mode of fuppuration commenced. About four, five, or fix days,
dreffing according to circumftances, the drefiings ftiould be re-
the wound, moved, and if the wound has healed by adhefion, the
flitches may be withdrawn, and the edges of the wound
kept together by adhefive plafters. The ligature on
the fpermatic chord may now be fafely taken away, and
that round the fpermatic artery and veins generally
comes readily away before the tenth dreffing. In this
manner the wound ihould be dreffed daily until it is
cicatrifed. When the wound, inftead of healing by ad¬
hefion, fuppurates, the flitches may be taken away as
foon as it appears that the edges of the wound can be
accurately kept together with the adhefive plafters j for
if the flitches are allowed to remain long, they general¬
ly ulcerate the contiguous fkin, and form finufes, which
continue to difcharge matter after the reft of the wound
has healed. The wound fliould be dreffed once or even
twice in twenty-four hours if the difcharge be profufe,
and care Ihould be taken to waffi away with a fponge
any matter which may be depofited on the found flcin
of the fcrotum or groin. The edges of the wound
ffiould be brought accurately together at each dreffing,
any matter collefted in different parts of it ffiould be
gently fqueezed out, fo as to prevent any lodgement
from taking place. Should the patient become weak
from the continuance of the difcharge, he ffiould be or¬
dered a nourilhing diet, with a proper proportion of
wine 5 and if the difcharge be at any time thin and very
profufe, we have found much benefit in fuch a cafe from
the internal ufe of bark (cinchona).
2. Inflammation of the Tejlicle (Hernia humoralis).
•Symptoms. Inflammation is one of the moft frequent difeafes of
the tefticle. Sometimes the inflammation is confined to
the fubftance of the tefticle, at other times it affe&s the
epididimis, and in fome cafes it fpreads to the albuginea
and vaginalis. The furface of the inflamed tefticle is
uniform and fmooth, more or lefs fenfible to the touch,
equally firm and tenfe throughout when preffed upon,
and the integuments are generally difcoloured, having a
bluftr of rednefs, and interfperfed with varicofe veins.
When examined by diffe&ion, the tefticle exhibits, ac¬
cording to Dr Baillie, precifely the fame appearances as
the inflammation of the fubftance of other parts. The
yas deferens fometimes partakes of the inflammation, its
coats becoming confiderably thickened, and in other in-
flances the veins of the fpermatic chord become vari¬
cofe. Inflammation of the tefticle moft frequently is
preceded bv gonorrhoea, but it alfo occurs from a varie¬
ty of caufes. It occurs fometimes from expofure to
cold, from violent exercife, and is often excited from
blows, riding on horfeback, &c.
Thp inflammation of the tefticle concomitant of go-
Borrhoei generally begins by fpreading along the vas
deferens froia the proftate gland through the inguinal
canal till it comes to the tefticle 5 it is in moft cafes at-Of the Dif-
tended with excruciating pain from the rapidity of
piogrefs; and as it commonly comes on when the gonor- ■ ^ .
rhceal difcharge diminiffies or difappears, and iubfides
when the difcharge returns, many authors have fup-
pofed that it wras a true metaftafis of the venereal mat¬
ter.
If the difeafe be left to itfelf, the body of the tefticle
becomes more hard and painful, with all the fymptoms
of local inflammation, and the tumor fometimes acquires
an enormous bulk. Sometimes the inflammatien is ac¬
companied with violent fever, with a pulfe hard and
ftrong in the plethoric, and feeble and rapid in conftitu-
tions which are delicate and irritable. The patient alfo
often complains of pains in the loins, and has naufea and
vomiting. In general the difcharge from the urethra
diminiffies conliderably, and often it ceafes altogether
before the tefticle becomes affefted $ but fometimes that
does not happen in any remarkable degree till one dr
two days after the fwelling has begun to appear. It
never happens that both tefticles are affe&ed at the fame
time, but when the fwelling of one difappears, often the
other one begins to be attacked.
The tefticles fometimes fwell and inflame from the
abforption of the matter of a chancre, and as the pro-
grefs of the fwelling is in fuch cafes flowf, and generally
more irregular, it has fometimes been miftaken for a
fchirrous tefticle j but an inveftigation into the hiftory of
the cafe, and particular attention to the appearance o£
the Ikin of the fcrotum, and any fymptoms of the vene¬
real difeafe in other parts of the body will generally lead
to a knowledge of the true nature of the cafe. It fome¬
times happens that inflammation is chiefly confined to
the fpermatic chord, and in many cafes it affedts the
epididimis alone. The extent of the difeafe is always
eafily afcertained by a careful examination of the parts.
It feldom happens that both tefticles are inflamed at
once $ w^e have, however, remarked this to take place.
Inflammation fuch as has now been defcribed, generally
abates by the application of proper remedies : in fome
cafes, however, an induration of the tefticle remains.
It terminates, though rarely, in fuppuration.
Treatment.—When an inflammation has arifen from i6fr
a blow, from expofure to cold, or from any injury done
to the tefticle, it ought to be treated according to the
general plan laid down of treating inflammation of other
organs. Local bleeding by leeches is a moft ufeful re¬
medy, and ought to be the firft thing employed, if there
is the flighteft pain, tendernefs, or rednefs of the fcro¬
tum. Fomenting the fcrotum with warm water, or a
deco&ion of poppy heads, chamomile flowers, or tobacco
leaves, often give much relief, and great attention
ffiould be paid in fupporting the tefticle with a filk net
trufs (Plate DXIV.). Some have alfo ufed with fuc-
cefs the application of ice or fnow to the part. If the
fymptoms and pain are very violent, bleeding at the arm
may be neceffary. The bowels fliould be kept open,
and even purged; the patient fliould be confined to a
low diet, and he ffiould keep as much as poffible to the
horizontal pofture, as this is found to be of the greateft
importance in promoting the cure.
When the inflammation arifes from gonorrhoea, par¬
ticular attention muft be paid not only to the difeafe in
the tefticle, but to that of the urethra. Indeed it is of
much importance in the treatment of gonorrhoea to ufe
means
Chap. IX. S U R G
Of the Dif- means to prevent tlie tefticles from becoming inflamed ;
cafes of the an(j as every thing which caufes a fuppreflion of the dif-
, TeibcIe- charge tends to produce a fwelling of the tefticle, it is
" —v natural to fuppofe, that in order to prevent this trouble-
fome diforder, every thing ftiould be avoided capable of
increafmg the irritation and inflammation of the urethra,
as expofure to cold, violent exercife, ill chofen injec¬
tions, and balfamic medicines j but above all, the ufe of
* Traite a fufpenfory is moft efficacious, and Swediaur * recom-
fur les Ma- mends one to be worn in every cafe of gonorrhoea from
ladies Ve- the commencement of the difeafe, to prevent all rilk of
veriermes. the tefticles becoming inflamed. When the inflamma¬
tory fymptoms are levere, the treatment ftrould be
adopted as we have recommended in common inflamma¬
tion of the tefticle. If the difcharge from the urethra
is ftopt, means ftrould be ufed to reftore it. Whenever
the inflammatory fever is rendered more mild, Swediaur
recommends, with this view, a dofe of opium to be
given, and according to circumftances, an injedfion com-
pofed of two or three ounces of oil of linieed and decoc¬
tion of barley, along with fifty or fixty drops of the vi¬
nous tinfture of opium. This may be repeated every
ten or twelve hours, taking care always to have the
bowels well opened before ufing it. Swediaur has
found the extraft of hyofcyamus in many cafes anfwer
better than opium. Fomentating the penis and adjacent
parts with warm vinegar and water, inje£ting warm oil,
and the ufe of bougies, may alfo be advantageous in pro¬
moting the difcharge from the urethra.
3. Induration of the Teflicle.
After the inflammatory fymptoms have abated, it ge¬
nerally happens that a degree of fwelling and hardr.efs
of the body of the tefticle, but ftill more frequently of
the fpermatic cord or epididimis, remains, and in many
cafes continues for months, or even during life. This
effeft takes place from whatever caufe the inflammation
may have arifen. In many cafes the tefticle itfelf re¬
mains quite found, and the epididimis is converted into a
very hard unyielding mafs, which feels as if it were in-
jefted with quickfilver. Sometimes the tefticle, whilft
it remains hard, diminilhes in fize, and becomes much
fmaller than natural. When the tefticle is examined
by diffeftion, it is found to have loft its natural ftruc-
ture, and is fometimes changed into a hard brown-co¬
loured mafs (Voigtel), interfefted more or lefs by mem¬
branous bands; fometimes parts having a cartilaginous
quality appear it, and fometimes cells are formed which
contain matter. The feminal veffels are fo changed
and hardened, that they cannot be diftinguiflied from
each other. In fome cafes the whole tefticle has been
found converted into a cartilaginous mafs, and in a few
inftances fome parts of it have been converted into
bone.
Treatment. treatment ufually recommended in cafes of in¬
duration of the tefticle preceded by inflammation, are
firong ftimulating and aftringent applications ; fuch as
folutions of the muriate of ammonia, acetate of lead, fui-
phate of zinc, &c. either applied by moiftening writh
them a piece of linen, which is to be kept conftantly wet,
or by ufing them in the form of a poultice. Fnftions
with mercural ointment, either fingly or combined w-ith
camphor, over the fcrotum and perinaeum, fometimes
produce a good effeft ; mercural fumigations to the
genital organs have alfo been recommended. In fome
E R Y. 83
cafes the internal ufe of mercury has been found necef- Of the oif-
fary. A mercurial plafter with camphor, or the com- s
mon foap plaftor, is alfo a good application, and is very . ^ «
ufeful in defending the tefticle.
The internal and external ufe of the hemlock (Vo-
nium maculatum) has been much recommended by
Plenk. Ele&ricity has alfo been fuccelsfully employ¬
ed. The muriate of lime, and the muriate oi barytes,
have been ufed by fome authors. Swediaur fays that he
has knowm fome affections of the tefticle produced by
gonorrhoea, and alfo fome difeafes of the eye from the
fame caufe, cured by the patient getting a frelh infec¬
tion. In a few cafes of induration, and fwelling of the
tefticles, wTe have employed bliftering with good effects.
The fcrotum fhould be fhaved before this is done 5 and
it is often neceffary to repeat the blifter feveral times be¬
fore the hardnefs or fwelling begin to abate.
4. Ahfcefs of the Teflicle.
It fometimes, though rarely happens, that the tefticle Symptoms,
fuppurates. The matter which is formed, is commonly
a tough, thready, yellow-coloured fubftance, which ad¬
heres to the furface of the cavity in which it is contain¬
ed. Sometimes there is only one abfeefs; in other cafes
the matter is contained in feveral Imall irregular ftiaped
cavities. Sometimes the matter is formed in the very
middle of the body of the tefticle j in other cafes we
have obferved fmall abfeeffes in different parts of the
epididimis, the body of the tefticle remaining quite found.
When an abfeefs is formed in the tefticle, the ftrufture
of the gland becomes more or lefs changed $ generally
inftead of being foft, and the tubes of which it is com-
pofed being eafily feparated, it degenerates into a hard
firm mafs. 172
Abfeeffes of the tefticle fliuuld be opened as foon as Treatment,
poffible, in order to prevent the fubftance of the tefticle
from being deftroyed. The prefence of matter is learnt
by a fludluation which can be felt externally ; but it is
often extremely difficult to determine the true fituation
of the abfeefs, whether it is formed in the body of the
tefticle, in the epididimis, or between the albuginea and
tunica vaginalis, or in the cellular membrane external
to the tunica vaginalis j for when fuch a degree of in¬
flammation has taken place as to terminate in the for¬
mation of an abfeefs, the accompanying fwelling deftroys
the natural form of the parts, and involves the whole
into a undetermined ftiapelefs mafs. Richter remarks,
that there are fometimes foft fpots in the tefticle, in
which it is believed there is a fludluation. When fuch
fwellings are opened no matter is difeharged, nothing
but blood appears, and the inflammatory fymptoms are
afterwards increafed. The more matter which is dif¬
eharged from an abfeefs of the tefticle, the fmaller the
tefticle groxvs, as the matter is fometimes formed partly
of the thready fubftance of the tefticle. Cafes have oc¬
curred where the whole tefticle has been pulled away, the
furgeon havingmiftaken the feminiferous tubes for floughs.
Abfeeffes of the fubftance of the tefticle feldom heal,
and generally a fiftulous opening remains, through which
there is a conftant oozing of the feminal fluid.
5. Fflulous Sinus of the Teflicle. 173
As far as we know no author has taken notice of this
appearance. In one cafe we obferved it very remark¬
able. The epididimis alone was fwelled, and there was
L 2 a
84 S U R G
Of the Dif- a thickened portion of fcrotum adhering to one part of
it, in which there was a fmall Jinus, and through which
> 1 feminal fluid conUantly oozed. In a fimilar cafe
the finus was laid open, but with no good effeft ; for a
fmall opening remained unhealed, through which the
femen continued to be difcharged.
6. Scrofulous Tcficle.
Symptoms. When the teflicle is affe&ed with fcrofula, it prefents
fome of thole general charafters of fcrofula in other
glandular parts. Its tubular appearance is deftroyed \
it becomes enlarged 5 and when cut, it is found to be
compofed of a dull white fubflance, of the confidence of
curd, which in fome parts is mixed with a thin puriform
fluid. The fcrotum is in almoft all cafes involved in
the difeafe 5 it becomes red and inflamed, and the vagi¬
nal coat adheres to the albuginea. AbfcelTes alfo form in
various parts of the cellular membrane of the fcrotum,
which fometimes communicate with the body of the
teflicle. This difeafe generally occurs during the early
periods of life, and molt commonly only one tefticle is
affefted with it. Sometimes, however, when one reco-
vers, the fame difeafe attacks the other.
Treatment. In mofl: cafes of this kind furgical aid does not avail
much, for the progrefs of the difeafe cannot be checked
by any internal and external remedies. All that can
be done is to relieve the inflammatory fymptoms, to al¬
lay pain, and to prevent the formation of finufes. With
a view’ to alleviate the fymptoms of inflammation, no¬
thing is fo beneficial as the application of leeches to the
fcrotum, and the ufe of fomentations and poulticing, or
folutions of the acetate or lead. Opiates and laxatives
may be alfo freely given, unlefs in cafes where from ex¬
perience thefe are known to difagree. When matter has
once formed, the fooner it is difcharged the better, and
this fhould be done by a fmall incifion. After one
abfcefs has healed, others are very apt to form in fuccef-
fion ; thefe fhould be treated in the fame manner, and
if at any period of the difeafe finufes form, they fhould
be at once laid completely open to the bottom ; or if
they are very deep and extenfive, a feton may be in¬
troduced ; if this, however, does not produce an adhe-
fion of the cavity, they fhould be laid open with a bi-
itoury in the manner diredled when treating of finufes.
i'jS 7. Tcficle preter naturally fmall^ and a wan ting.
After violent attacks of inflammation, or in cafes of
abfcefs, the tefticle fometimes diminifhes greatly in fize,
is almoft entirely abforbed ; and in a few inftances
people have been born with them much fmaller than '
natural (Baillie). Sometimes a tefticle has been known
to wrafte away without any known caufe, fo as to difap-
pear altogether. Sometimes one tefticle, and fome¬
times both remain in the cavity of the abdomen through
life ; fo that a perfon appears to have only one teflicle
or to be without them altogether. Mr Hunter fufpedls
that in thefe cafes they are not fo perfect as when they
defcend into the fcrotum •, and if we were to reafon
from what is obferved in other animals, in the horfe
particularly, where this by no means unfrequently takes
place, it is highly probable that when the teflicles do not
defcend into the fcrotum, they are not capable of perform¬
ing their fundftions.
Thefe cafes, though they cannot be relieved by medi¬
cal aid, yet they are worthy of the notice of medical men.
E R Y.
Chap. IX.
8. Fungus of the Teficle.
There fometimes arifes from the tefticle a fpecies of
fungous tumor, which was firfi: accurately defcribed by
Mr Lawrence, demonftrator of anatomy at Bartholo¬
mew’s hofpital, in London. 177
The patient generally afligns the origin of the com- Symptoms,
plaint to fome injury. In fome cafes, it is the confe-
quence of hernia humoralis, and in others it appears
fpontaneoufly. The fcrotum, after a certain length of
time inflames, and adheres to the tefticle already fwell-
ed 5 at laft the fkin ulcerates, and the opening thus
formed, inftead of difcharging matter, is filled up with
a fungous tumor, which is of a firm texture, and gene¬
rally infenfible. Whilft the fungus is increafing, the
inflammation of the fcrotum diminifties; and if the fun¬
gus is at this time removed, a cicatrix is formed in the
fkin, which adheres to the tefticle. There is fometimes
a copious and very foetid difcharge from the whole fur-
face of the fungus. On difleftion, the fungus is found
to arife from the pulpy fubftance of the tefticle, more
or lefs of wdiich remains according to the duration and
extent of the difeafe.
It may be worth while to remark here, that we have
met with one cafe, where, from an abfcefs and ulcera¬
tion of the fcrotum, the tefticle itfelf flipt out at the ul¬
cerated orifice, and exhibited very much the appearance
of the fungus above defcribed.
This fpecies of tumor may be fafely removed by the Treatmcn’-
knife, by ligature, or by efcharotics; the removal by the
knife is perhaps the fafeft, and certainly the moft expe¬
ditious method. ^
For an account of Fungus Hcemalodes in the tefticle,
we refer to War dr op's Obfervations on Fungus Hce-
matodes.
Sect. II. Of the Difeafes of the Mamma.
179
From the changes which take place in the female General ob.
breaft at the age of puberty, during the menftrual dif-fervations-
charge, and before and after the birth of the child, we
ought to expedl a confiderable variety in the difeafes of
this organ •, and, in confidering thefe, we fhould always
keep in view the powerful fympathy between that gland
and the uterine fvftem.
The gland of the mamma is fubjeft to inflammation
and abfcefs. Scrofulous tumors alfo form in it 5 it is
fubjefl to a particular difeafe, called milk abfcefs, to
feirrhus, and to other fpecies of indurations, the nature
of which is not well afeertained.
The nipple and integuments around it are alfo fub-
je£I to particular kinds of excoriations and ulcerations •,
the lymphatic glands which, lie clofe to the mamma,
are alfo frequently difeafed, and the contiguous cellular
membrane is fubjeft to thofe difeafes which are met
with in the cellular membrane of other parts of the
body.
At the age of puberty, w7hen the uterine fyftem be¬
comes fully developed, the female breaft fwells, turns
hard, and becomes tender, or even painful. A change
alfo takes place during pregnancy ; the breaft enlarges,
becomes very tender and painful, and a dark-coloured
zone is obferved round the nipple. In women who are
fuckling about the ninth or tenth month after parturi¬
tion, and fometimes fooner, the menfes reappear; and
if
Chap. IX. S U R G
OftheDif-if the woman afterwards continues to fuekle, at each
eafes of the monthly return a remarkable change takes place in the
. a”m ' , milk j it lofes its fvveetnefs, acquires a bitterilh tafte, be¬
comes of a reddilh colour, and excites a temporary de¬
rangement in the fyftem of the child. Obftruftions of
the menfes, their final ceflation, and all the difeafes of
the womb, affe£t more or lefs the mamma ; and it is at
the age of puberty, at the time of menftruation, during
pregnancy, in the early months of fuckling, and at the
time of the ceflation of the menfes, which are the pe¬
culiar periods when blows and other injuries are moll
,apt to produce difeafe in the mamma.
This confent between the mamma and uterine fyftem
ought to be always kept in view when forming our opi¬
nion of any difeafe in thefe organsj and it is particularly
worthy of the notice of furgeons when operations on
that organ become neceflary.
i. Of Inflammation and Ahfcefs of the Mamma.
180
Treatment.
This diforder occurs moft frequently in nurfes by the
ftoppage of the milk, which is always occafioncd by hid¬
den or imprudent expofure to cold.
In the early ftages of the affedlion, refolution is to be
attempted, unlefs the fwelling appears to have an evident
tendency towards fuppuration. The remedies ufed in
inflammation, in general, feem ufeful in every cafe of in¬
flammation of the breafts. When the patient happens
to be nurfing, a fudden evacuation of blood is apt to
diminifh the quantity of milk : In fuch cafes, therefore,
blood is to be extradted in (mail quantities at a time.
The application of cooling faturnine poultices is advife-
able. When fuppuration is taking place, fomentations
and poultices are to be ufed, and the matter is to be dif-
charged by making an incifion in the mcft depending
part of the tumor.
2. Of Scirrhus and Cancer of the Mamma.
181
Symptoms,
Cancer has been met wuth in the female breaft more
frequently than in any other part of the body. We
have alfo feen an example of it in that gland of the
male ; but fuch inftances are extremely rare.
The commencement and progrefs of a fcirrhous tu¬
mor in the female breaft, is extremely various in differ¬
ent people; and has been often the caufe of fcirrhous tu¬
mors, and tumors of a more benign nature, being mif-
taken for one another.
Scirrhous tumors have generally made fome progrefs
before they are taken notice of. Sometimes they are
firft felt like a pea underneath the Ikin, and lying loofe
ever the gland of the mamma ; in other inftances, a
portion of the central part of the gland is found indu¬
rated. Of whatever bulk, and in whatever fituation
the fwelling be difeovered, it is remarkable for its un¬
yielding and incompreftible hardnefs, and its rugged
unequal feel.
When the tumor is imall it feldom gives any pain,
and the patient generally difeovers its prefence by ac¬
cident. In fome cafes its exiftence is difeovered by an
acute pang darting through the breaft leading to its
examination ; but in many cafes it acquires the bulk of
a large hazel nut or walnut, particularly when the pa¬
tient is fat, before any circumftance leads to its dilco-
very.
As the tumor increafes in bulk, it advances towards
the furface of the body and adheres to the fldn. The
E R Y. 85
(kin then becomes thickened, inflamed, and ulcerated. IfOf the Dif-
the tumor be fituated near the nipple, the difeafe fpeedi-6^*^^ e
ly affedls that part, fometimes enlarging and hardening
it; and in other cafes puckering it and drawing it in¬
wards. When the nipple becomes involved in the dil-
eafe, the fanious fluid formed in the tumor often efcapes
before the fldn ulcerates, by the ladliferous tubes.
The pain which accompanies the tumor in its more
advanced form, is generally of a lancinating kind ; but
its frequency and degree is fufceptible of great variety.
Sometimes fharp flinging pains pafs frequently from the
tumor as a centre, and extend through the whole breaft:;
in other cafes there is more of a burning heat in the part.
The progrefs of the difeafe is generally very flow,
and in many cafes three, four, or more years elapfe be¬
fore it ulcerates. When ulceration has taken place,
the appearance of the ulcer is fimilar to that we have
deferibed when treating of cancer of the (kin * ; and the * See Chap,
progrefs of the ulceration is often fo flow, as that many H. feeft. v.
years elapfe before the difeafe proves fatal.
Scirrhous tumors have been met w ith in the mamma,
from the age of twenty or twenty-five, to a very advan¬
ced period of life ; but they occur about that period,
when the catamenia difappear, much more frequently
than at any other.
Treatment.—There is no part of praftice about which 182
lefs has been fatisfaftorily eftablilhed, than the treatment
of feirrhus in the mamma. The good effedls of an early
extirpation of cancer in the {kin is very generally ad¬
mitted ; but the want of fuccefs in removing fcirrhous
mammae in the hands of many, has not only led fomc
furgeons to defift performing an operation, except in
very recent cafes, but has even deterred others from at¬
tempting their removal in the firft ftages. There are
no doubt many patients who fubmit to a painful opera¬
tion from which no relief can be reafonably expedted ;
on the contrary, the irritation and fever occafioned by
it feem to haften the progrefs of the difeafe. But there are
others where this pradtice has had a happier effedf, and
where the patients have lived for many years without a
return of the difeafe. Whenever, therefore, a feirrhous
tumor appears in the mamma, which is moveable and
diftindlly circumfcribed, paft experience warrants us
in removing it. On the other hand, when any of the
abforbent glands have become enlarged and hardened,
or when the {kin has ulcerated, we believe the opera¬
tion in all fuch cafes fliould not be reforted to. Some
folitary examples of the difeafe, affuming this form, may
have occurred to individuals, where an operation has ar-
refted the progrefs of the difeafe ; but thefe, oppofed to
the vaft number of unfuccefsful cafes, are by no-means.
fufHcient to warrant us in propofing the operation.
Method of Extirpatmg the Mamma.—In extirpating 1g-
the mamma, which we fliall firft fuppofe is to be done
where the {kin is found, and where the tumor has no
uncommon adhefion to the pedtoral mufcle, the patient
ought to be placed horizontally in a bed, or upon a
table covered with a mattrefs. Two incifions are to be
made with a common fcalpel through the {kin and cel¬
lular fubftance along the whole extent of the tumor, in¬
cluding a fmall portion of {kin. When the longeft dia¬
meter of the tumor is acrofs the body, inftead of a lon¬
gitudinal incifion, a tranfverfe one is to be made. The
integuments being differed from the mamma on both
fides of the incificns, the patient’s arm is to be extend¬
ed
86
SURGERY.
Chap. IX.
Of the pif- ed to fave the pe£loral mufcle j and the whole glandu-
cales c the jar t js t0 from the mufcle, though a
> < fmall portion only ihould be difeafed, beginning at the
upper fide, and feparating downwards. After the dif-
eated parts are removed, the wound is to be cleaned
wuli a fponge wrung out of warm water, which will ge¬
nerally render the fmall bleeding veffels more confpicu-
ous. Thefe are to be tied, and the integuments are to
be clofely applied to the parts underneath, and retained
there by adhefive (traps. A large pledgit of fimple
ointment is now to be laid over the whole j and this is
to be covered with a comprefs of lint, tow, or foft li
nen ; and the drelfings to be kept in their place, and
moderate preffure made by a circular rbller and fcapu-
lary bandage.
184 3. Of Sore Nipples.
Women are more generally affected with fore nipples in
fuckling their firft child than at any future period. This
-may, in fome meafure, be owing to the fmallnefs of the
nioplcs 5 but very often it arifes from their being unac-
cuitomed to the irritation of fucking. In fome cafes,
the nipples are fo flat, and fo much funk in the breaft,
as to render it difficult for the child to lay hold of them.
Here affidance can fometimes be given, by the mother
preffing back the prominent part of the breaft, fo as to
make the nipple projeft between two of her fingers.
Should this be infufficient, the nipple may be made to
projeft by applying to it a ftout child feveral months
* See Plate old : but when this cannot be done, breaft-glaffes * may
X>XV. anfwer the fame purpofe. By applying thefe to the
nipple, and fucking out the air, the child will com¬
monly be enabled to lay hold of it.
The nipples at this time are liable to excoriations,
cracks, or chops $ which, though not attended with a
formidable appearance, are frequently more diftreffing
than large ulcers. Mild, aftringent, and drying appli¬
cations are moft to be depended upon in fuch complaints 5
faturnine water, or lime-water, will anfwer j and either
ought to be applied warm. After bathing the parts
with any of thefe, the nipple (hould be covered with
Goulard’s cerate. Even a little foft pomatum frequently
rubbed upon the part, and covered with a foft linen
rag, is fometimes found to give confiderable relief. But
the nipple (hould be perfectly cleared of thefe applica¬
tions before the child is laid to the breaft ; and this may
be done with a little port wine, or equal parts of brandy
and vinegar. If proper attention be paid to thefe reme¬
dies, they will commonly be found to have the defired
•, but if the contrary (hould happen, another re¬
mains to be mentioned, which, in different inftances,
has given great relief : it confifts in the application of a
thin (kin to the nipple, as the neck and part of the
body of a fvvine’s bladder with an aperture in it} which,
being properly moiftened and fixed to the breaft, will
completely proteft it in the time of fucking. As long
as the nipples remain any way affefted, fmall cups of
glafs or tin are. ufeful for retaining the dreffings, de¬
fending the nipples from the fri&ion of the clothes, and
receiving any milk which may fall from the breaft.
Anomalous    t 
the mam-° Swellings and hardneffes are found in the breaft
ma. which are not of a feirrhous nature. Scrofulous indura-
4
tions are particularly frequent. They often become Of the Dif-
old and hard, and are then commonly confidered asfa^esoft^e
feirrhus. If the furgeon fucceeds in dilcuffing them by
means of any kind of remedy, he is apt to think that he . ^ ' .
has difeuffed a feirrhus. Thefe fcrofulous fwellings
fometimes inflame, and the progrefs of the inflammation
is very tedious. The breaft is long painful before any
foftening or fluctuation can be perceived. The furgeon
then perhaps confiders it as an occult cancer, extirpates
it, and thinks that he has fuccefsfully cured a cancerous
affeftion. If the furgeon opens fuch a fuppurating knot
before all the hardnefs is diflblved by the fuppuration,
and if he makes a large opening, then commonly fol¬
lows a very malignant ulcer, which may be alfo mif-
taken for a cancerous fore. Many cafes, where ulcer¬
ated cancers have been fuppofed to have been extirpated
with fuccefs, may have been of this kind.
Venereal indurations are not unfrequent in the breaft,
and alfo caufe fimilar miftakes in praftice. Encyfted
tumors are alfo met with in the breaft, and are moft
commonly of that kind called tneliceris.
In the breaft of young girls, ten or twelve years of
age, hardneffes fometimes appear, which difappear as
foon as menftruation takes place. Sometimes they do
not go away until the firft delivery. Sometimes the
breaft fwells to an enormous fize, and becomes indeed
not hard, but throughout firm, like mufcular fleffi. In
fuch a cafe the extirpation has been fuccefsfully per¬
formed.
Sometimes confiderable and often quite hard fwell¬
ings appear in the breads, which proceed merely from
blood. In fuch cafes blood flows from the nipple at
each menftrual period. When the menfes difappear
with years, the difeharge of blood no longer appears
from the breaft •, but then there is a hard not painful
fwelling arifes, which often acquires a confiderable fize.
If it is opened, coagulated and fluid blood is difeharged,
and a fiftula follows, which difeharges a purulent fluid,
and fometimes pure blood, and often continues feveral
years, without giving great uneafinefs. The fwelling.
which was at firft quite hard, fometimes becomes foft,
and then the furgeon is commonly induced to open it.
Sometimes fuch fwellings are obferved in women who have
the menftrual difeharge j and in fuch cafes the fwelling
always becomes greater at each period. Sometimes he£Hc
fever and death follow the opening of thefe tumors.
(Monro). The mamma is alfo fubjeft to fungus hce-
matodes ,* for an account of which, we refer our readers
to Wardrop’s Obfervations on Fungus Hcematodes.
1S6
Sect. III. Of the Difeafes of the Tonfls and Uvula.
1. Of the Fniargement of the Tonfls and Uvula.
The tonfils fometimes grow fo large and hard as to
become incurable, and even to threaten fuffocation.
The tumors have been commonly confidered to be of a
feirrhous nature j but they are neither attended with
(hooting pain, nor are they apt to degenerate into can¬
cer 5 neither do fwellings return after the tonfils have
been extirpated : hence they ought not to be removed
till by their fize they effentially impede deglutition or
refpiration ; but whenever they do this, they may be
removed with fafety. The only proper method of re-TreatJerit
moving them is by ligature, which is not only void of
danger,
Chap.
IX. S U R G
Of the Dif danger, but feldom fails to perform a cure. If the bafe
cafes of the 0£ tjle ton£|i j-,e fmaller than the top, the ligature is to
Uvula*1 ke U^e<^ as ^or P°lyP‘ *n t^ie throat •, but however broad
1 ' , . _r the bafe of it may be, much difficulty will feldom occur
in fixing it, for the fwelling is always very prominent.
In difeafes of this kind both tonfils are generally affedt-
ed ; but if the removal of one of them forms a fufficient
paffage for the food, the other may be allowed to re¬
main. When, however, it is neceffary to extirpate
them both, the inflammatory fymptoms produced by
the extirpation of the firft fliould be allowed to fubfide
before any attempt be made to remove the other.
When the form of the tonfils happens to be conical,
fo that the ligature wmuld be apt to flip over their ex¬
tremities, Mr Chefelden has recommended a needle
(Plate DXV.) ivith an eye near the point : a double li-
ga ure being put into the eye, the inftrument is to be
pulhed through the centre of the bafe of the tumor,
and the ligature being laid hold of by a hook and pulled
forwards, the inftrument is to be withdrawn then the
ligature is to be divided, and fo tied that each part
may furround one half of the tumor. This method,
igg however, is fcarcely ever found to be neceflary.
Enlarge- Enlargements of the uvula, from inflammation or
ments of the from other caufes, may generally be removed by the
frequent ufe of aftringent gargles, as of ftrong infufions
of red rofe-leaves or of Peruvian bark. But when thefe
fail, and the enlargement is fo confiderable as to give
great uneafinefs by impeding deglutition, irritating the
throat, and fo caufing cough, retching, and vomiting,
extirpation is the only thing upon which any depend¬
ence can be placed. Excifion is the readieft method
when the uvula is only elongated ; but wffien the fize is^
confiderable, dangerous haemorrhagies fometimes attend
this method *, on which account a ligature is prefer¬
able.
In performing the operation, the fpeculum oris (Plate
DXV.) is neceflary to keep the mouth fufficiently open,
and the uvula ffiould be laid hold of by a pair of for¬
ceps or a fmall hook, fo as to keep it firm, and prevent
it from falling into the throat. After the operation, if
the bleeding be confiderable, it may be checked by
aftringent gargles, or by touching the part with lunar
cauftic -7 but this wall feldom be neceflary.
When a ligature is to be employed, it may be readily
done according to the method recommended in the ex¬
tirpation of polypi. A double canula with a ligature
may be pafled through the nofe, or the ligature may be
applied according to Chefelden’s method in extirpation
of the tonfils.
uvula.
189
Treatment.
559 2. Of Scarifying and Fomenting the Throat.
In inflammatory affe&ions of the throat, the means
commonly employed are gargles, fomentations, fcarifi-
cation, or topical bleeding. Gargles are ufeful for
cleaning the fauces from mucus, or in cafes of ulcera¬
tion. In relaxation of the parts, they are employed with
advantage when made of aftringent materials. Fomen¬
tations may be of fome ufe when externally applied $
but the fteam of water, &c. drawn into the throat, by
means of Madge’s inhaler (Plate DXV.), is preferable.
Sometimes it is neceflary to draw blood from the part
affe&ed. Here recourfe may be had to fcarifying, which
may be readily done by the fcarificator (Plate DXIV,
E R T. 87
fig. 14.). After a fufficient number of pun&ures have Of the Dif-
been made, the flow of blood may be promoted by the63^0^^16
patient’s frequently applying warm water to the punc- ^e‘ „
tures. When an abfcefs forms, notwithftanding the ufe
of thefe remedies, the matter may be difcharged with the
fcarificator already mentioned.
Chap. X.
Of the Difeafes of the Eye and its Appendages.
In the account of the difeafes of the eye, we lhall
follow the lame principles of arrangement as we have al¬
ready adopted, and treat of the diieafes of each particu¬
lar texture of which the eye is compofed, in the order
in wffiich they appear moft natural j as the difeafes of
the conjunfliva, cornea, iris, crystalline lens, &c.
Sect. I. Of Inf animation of the Conjun&iva.
jyr
193
The general phenomena of inflammation of the con-General
junftiva, are analogous to thole which have been al. remarks,
ready enumerated, when treating of the inflammation
of mucous membranes*. Along with the fymptoms there* See chaUt
enumerated, there are others which arife from the pecu-III.
liar funftions of the organ. The eye cannot endure the
ufual quantity of light, vifion becomes obfcured, and
there is an increafed fecretion of tears. The inflamma¬
tion is fometimes confined to the palpebrae, fometimes-
to the conjundtiva covering the white of the eye, in
fome cafes to that portion of it which forms the external
layer of the cornea, and in others it fpreads over the
whole of thefe furfaces. Thefe differences merely re¬
gard the extent of the inflammation: but there are
others which arife from a difference in the fpecific na¬
ture of the difeafe, forming three diftinft Ipecies; i,-
The purulent ophthalmia ; 2. The purulent eyes of ‘
new-born children j and, 3, The gonorrhoeal ophthal¬
mia.
I. Of the Purulent Ophthalmia.
The purulent ophthalmia appeared in this country as Symptoms,
an epidemic after the return of our troops from Egypt
in the year 1801. Since that period, it has fpread
with the greateft violence over moft part of Britain.
This difeafe generally begins with a peculiar purple-
coloured rednefs over the whole eyeball and inner mem¬
brane of the eyelids. - There is a fudden pain produced
in the eye, as if land or fome foreign fubftance was
lodged between it and the eyelid. As the rednefs in-
creafes, the conjun&iva becomes fwTelled, from the effu-
fion of a tranfparent fluid in the loofe cellular mem¬
branes, between it and the fclerotic coat. There is at
firft a profufe difcharge of tears from the eye, and the
eyelalhes are glued together when the patient awakes.
There is foon created intenfe pain in the ball of the eye,
and a. dull aching pain in the forehead. The cornea
fometimes becomes opaque j and if the violence of the
inflammation continues, it ulcerates and ruptures al-
low-ing the aqueous humour to be difcharged j after
which, an abatement of the inflammatory fymptoms ge¬
nerally takes place. 6
Before the difeafe advances thus far, the eyelids are
generally conlideiably fwelled 3 and, befides the flow of
tears. .
88
SURGERY.
Of the Dif-
eafes of the
Eye.
1514
* See Mr
Ware's
Treatife on
the Puru¬
lent Oph¬
thalmia.
tears, there is a profufe difcharge of a puriform fluid.
The inflammation ufually attacks both eyes, and it be¬
gins in one feveral days before the other.
Treatment.—In flighter cafes of the difeafe, foment¬
ing the eye with a decoftion of poppy heads, and a
brilk purge, have been found fufficient to abate the in¬
flammatory fymptoms. In other cafes, however, it has
been neceflary to draw blood to a very great extent.
When the difeafe occurs in a ftrong plethoric perfon,
recourfe fliould be immediately had to the lancet, and
the operation repeated on any recurrence of the fymp¬
toms. It has been the ufual practice of Dr Veitch, and
of thofe who have had extenfive opportunities of treat¬
ing this difeafe, to draw the blood from the arm. A
fmaller quantity, however, taken from the temporal ar¬
tery or external jugular vein, would be found to have
an equally good effeft.
When the purulent difcharge becomes profufe, fome
have recommended the ufe of collyria, in the form of
injections. The aqua camphorata is recommended by
Mr Ware ; and a weak folution of corroflye fublimate,
with opium, has been found to have equally good ef-
fc£b. In thofe cafes where there is much pain and ten-
fion in the eyeball and brow, along with a turbid Hate
of the anterior chamber, and ulceration beginning in the
cornea, the difcharge of the aqueous humour has been
attended with much fuccefs *. This operation may be
eafily, and at all times fafely performed, by making a
punCture with a common extracting knife, through the
found part of the cornea, near its junCtion with the fcle-
rotic coat.
IP5
2. Of the Purulent Ophthalmia in Children.
The fymptoms of the purulent eyes of children are
very fimilar to thofe which have been mentioned. The
difeafe generally appears a few days after birth, by an
increafed rednefs of the palpebral membrane, more or
lefs fwelling, and a puriform difcharge. Sometimes the
membrane {wells fo much as to evert the eyelids, and
render it impoflible to examine the eye-ball. The cor¬
nea becomes obfcure, ulcerates, and allows the aqueous
humour to be difcharged. The difeafe generally affeCls
both eyes. From what we know of the origin of puru¬
lent ophthalmia, and from fome ingenious obfervations
* See The Gibfon of Manchelter, * it appears probable, that
Edinburgh the origin of this difeafe is communicated by the lodge-
Medical ment of an acrimonious difcharge upon the eyes of the
and Surgi- chjl^ from the vagina of the mother. In a great pro-
"iii Porti°n cafes> Mr Gibfon found the mothers of thofe
children, affeCled with purulent ophthalmia, had leu-
corrhoea ; and it is probable, that this, as well as other
acrimonious difcharges, which we know to take place
from the mucous membranes ■ of thefe parts, produces
the difeafe.
^ Treatment.—-Zolwiyor.s of faccharum faturni and
opium, injefled between the eyelids, or the aqua cam¬
phorata of Beetles, ought to be employed in the firlt
ilage of the difeafe ; and the eyelids ought to be like-
wife covered with fome mild unCluous application.
When ulceration has advanced.fo as to endanger a rup¬
ture of the cornea, that may be prevented by difchar-
ging the aqueous humour. In the fecond flage cf the
inflammation, fcarifying the eyelids, and applying the
red precipitate ointment, will generally be found to
be ufeful in allaying the inflammation and fwelling of
. ' 4
Sect. II. Of the Pterigium.
*91
Chap. X.
the eyelids, and in re&oring the Iranfparency of theOftheDif-
fiales of" the
Eye.
3. Of the Gonorrhoeal Ophthalmia. v
The gonorrhoeal ophthalmia occurs very rarely ; and
it has been known to arife from the fuppreflion of a go¬
norrhoea, or from the accidental application of the go¬
norrhoeal matter to the eyes. In this refpedt, its origin
is very fimilar to the common purulent or Egyptian
ophthalmia, and to the purulent ophthalmia which oc¬
curs in children.
The fymptoms and progrefs of the difeafe are alfo fi¬
milar, only that its progrefs is much more violent,
and it generally completely deftroys the organ.
Treatment.—When it is fufpefted that the difeafe has
arifen from a fupprefled gonorrhoea, fuch means ought
to be employed as are moft likely to reflore the dif¬
charge from the urethra ; fuch as the introduction of a
bougie, the injedting of warm oil, and the application
of poultices and fomentations to the periraeum. If the
inflammatory fymptoms run high, powerful evacuants
fliould be employed. Befides purgatives, blood fhould
be taken from the arm or temporal artery.
The local applications Humid confift of wreak injec¬
tions of corrofive fublimate and opium, or acetate of
lead and opium j and the fwelling and rednefs may be
alfo relieved by the application of the red precipitate
ointment, or the ointment of Janin.
193
*99
The word pterigium denotes all thofe morbid changes
in wThich that portion of the conjunCliva covering any part
of the cornea or Iclerotic coat Becomes thickened, vafeu*
lar, and opaque. If the difeafe be confined to a particu¬
lar part of the conjunCliva. the difeafe is obferved at its
commencement like a finall globule of fat, or condenled
cellular fubftance, fituated moll frequently near the junc¬
tion of the cornea and fclerolic coat j and this fpot ex¬
tending imperceptibly along the furface of the conjunc¬
tiva at length paffes over the cornea, the conjunctiva on
the adjoining part of the fclerotic coat becomes puckered,
and as if it were forcibly drawn over the cornea. The
portion of it wrhich lies on the fclerotic coat is commonly
loofe, and can be eafily elevated, but that which is on
the cornea adheres more firmly. This fpecies of pteri-
giutn has generally a triangular form ; one of the
angles of the triangle advancing towards the cornea, or
covering a portion of it, and the bafe lying on the fcle¬
rotic coat. Sometimes the thickening of the conjunc¬
tiva is firft perceived on the cornea. The conjunftiva cov¬
ering the fclerotic coat remaining quite found. A pte¬
rigium is always confiderably elevated above the adja¬
cent cornea j but the degree of its thicknefs varies from
that of a thin membrane to that of a flefliy mafs.
Pterigia arife mod commonly at the nafal angle of
the eyeball. They are formed, alfo, at the temporal
angle \ and they fometimes occur at both places in the
fame eye. In one cafe there were two pterigia in each
eye. They are formed very rarely on the upper and un¬
der parts of the eyeball.
Treatment.—The only mode of removing this difeafe 2CO
is by excifion. This may be done by elevating the dif-
eafed portion of the conjunftiva wflth a pair of forceps j
and feparating it at its bafe by cutting it through with a
pair
eafes of the
Eye.
Chap. X. S U R G
Of the Dif- pair of fciffars j and then carefully difle&ing it off to its
apex. If any portion of it has been allowed to remain,
or if the wound (hews any tendency to form a fungus,
lunar cauftic ought to be applied to it, and the appli¬
cation repeated as often as may appear neceffary. Any
flight inflammation or weaknefs in the eye which may
continue after the operation, may be fpeedily removed by
the application of the vinous tin&ure of opium.
E R Y. , 89
with a much greater degree of general fever, in proper-Of the Dif-
■ - - —res of t1'"
Eye.
tion to the feverity of the local fymptoms, than any ea^es °* tlic
201
Symptoms.
Sect. III. Of Pufules (Ophthalmia puftulofa).
Puftules are fmall tumors which are formed both on the
cornea and fclerotic coat, but they occur moft frequent¬
ly near the jumflion of thefe membranes. A pullule
commonly firft: appears like a dufky yellow or reddiflr
fpot, a little elevated above the furface of the cornea
or fclerotic coat; and in a fhort time it becomes a di-
ftinfl conical tumor. The adjacent part of the cornea
is always more or lefs dim •, and a confiderable degree of
inflammation accompanies it, which is either confined to
the white of the eye contiguous to the puftule, or is
fpread over the whole eyeball. Whilft the puftule is
forming, the inflammation is generally confined to that
part of the white of the eye which is in its immediate
vicinity. The blood velfels are of a pale livid hue j
they appear fuperficial, and can be readily elevated by a
pointed inftrument; each trunk can be diflinguifhed, for
they are never fo numerous as to appear confufed, or
like one red mafs. They fometimes run in various di-
reftions, anaftomofe freely with one another, forming
net-works upon the white of the eye.
If the inflammation and puftule remain for fome time,
the puftule generally advances to fuppuration. When
fuppuration takes place, the apex of the puftule ulce¬
rates, and frequently a chalky wdfite fpot appears at the
centre of the ulceration ; and the opacity of the cornea
at the fame time daily increafes around it. In other
cafes, the opaque matter feparates, and leaves behind it
a deep ulcerous excavation.
Sometimes the fuppuration proceeds more like a com¬
mon pimple or phlegmon of the fkin j a fmall quantity
of a thick matter colle&s within the puftule, and when
it is difeharged, a conical tumor remains, which has a
depreflion at the apex. When the puftule contains a
watery fluid, the fluid is moft frequently abforbed in a
gradual manner ; but at other times the puftule breaks,
and an ulcer is formed.
If, in either of thefe cafes, the contents are artificially
difeharged, all the accompanying inflammatory fymp¬
toms are much increafed.
Moft frequently there is only one puftule, and only
one eye affefted ; but in fome cafes there are feveral
both on the cornea and fclerotic coat of each eye.
The difeaie, at its commencement, is almoft inva¬
riably accompanied with the fenfation of a mote in the
eye, and the whole conjundliva covering the fclerotic
coat has often a yellowiih and fliining glaffy colour be¬
fore the rednefs appears. There is often, alfo, a degree
of rednefs and fwelling, chiefly of the upper eyelid 5 and
ihe tarfi are found adhering together in the morning,
from the exudation of a yellow matter among the cilia;.
! here is frequently an unufual drynefs felt in the eye 5
but if it be ejepofed to a bright light, or if an attempt be
made to ufe it, the fecretion of tears is increafed.
This fpecies of inflammation is always accompanied
Vol. XX. Part I.
other ophthalmia. The pain is rarely acute till the pu¬
ftule ulcerates j but, if that takes place, it is commonly
very fevere.
An eye which has been once affefted with puftule, is
very fubjetl to repeated attacks of the difeafe. Puftules
of the cornea are met with in people of all ages } but
they are more common in young people than in thofe
advanced in life. ’
Treatment.—Sudorific medicines, cooling diluent
drinks, and purgatives, ought to be employed in the firft;
ftage of the difeafe •, and given according to the violence
of the conftitutional fymptoms. The eye, and parts a-
round it, (hould be fomented three or four times a day,
with a decodtion of poppy heads; to wdfich may be add¬
ed a fmall quantity of fpirits. When the fymptomatic
fever abates, and the rednefs affumes a more purple hue,
the vinous tindlure of opium may be applied to the eye
once or twice a-day 5 and this will be found equally uie-
ful whether the puftule is in a ftate of fuppuration or
not $ and it ought to be continued as long as there are
any remains of the difeafe.
Sect. IV. Of Matter colleBed between the Lamella of
the Cornea.
Purulent matter is fometimes collefted between the
lamellae of the cornea, when the difeafe is termed unguis
or mix ; or in the anterior chamber, when it is called
hypopion.
When the matter is collected between the lamellae of
the cornea, it appears in the form of a yellow fpot $ and
as the quantity increafes, the fpot becomes larger, but
does not alter its fituation from the pofition of the head.
When the matter is colledled in the anterior cham¬
ber, it generally appears like a fmall yellow globule be¬
tween the iris and cornea, occupying the inferior part of
the cavity. Thefe abfeeffes are commonly the effedl of
violent ophthalmia, occafioned by a blow, or injuries of
the eyeball j they are alfo formed, though rarely, with¬
out any accompanying inflammatory fymptoms.
Treatment.—Though the purulent matter may be
more or lefs abforbed on the abatement of the accom¬
panying inflammatory fymptoms j yet it would be found
a good general praftice to evacuate the matter when¬
ever it appears, by making an incifion through the cor¬
nea. The difeharge of the aqueous humor along with
the matter, never fails to diminilh the inflammation j
and this perhaps may be the reafon why the praftice is
fo ufeful. Befides this, fomentations, brilk purges, and
cupping at the temples, may be necelfary if the inflam¬
matory fymptoms are fevere.
Sect. V. Of Ulcers of the Cornea.
Ulcers of the cornea have been divided by fome au¬
thors into a number of fpecies, from differences in their
fize, in their duration, in the degree of the feverity of the
accompanying fymptoms, and from the various caufes
from which they have been fuppofed to originate.
The moft frequent variety of ulcer, is that which re¬
mains after the cornea has fuppurated and burft j either
in confequence of a puftule or of an abfeefs.
When a puftule fuppurates, the central part of it ge-
M nerally
20.5
tp S U R
Of the Dif- neraily gives way j and ns the difeafe continues, the ul-
^Eve t^e cerati°n extends in all directions from that point. Ul-
i . '7 , cers of this kind are generally circular, and the edges
rounded and fmooth 5 having fometimes the appearance
of a fmall artificial dimple : in other inltances they
have an irregular fiiape, and their edges are jagged and
acute. The fize oi ulcers is very various ; in fome
cafes they do not appear larger than a depreffion made
by the point of a pin, vvhilft in others they cover a large
furface. Molt frequently the part of the cornea conti¬
guous to the ulcer becomes more or lefs dim ; and in
fbrne cafes red veffels may alfo be traced in it.
Treatment,—The acute pain which generally attends
moft ulcers, particularly thofe which are the confequence
of pufiules, will generally be much relieved by the ap¬
plication of the vinous tinfture of opium, repeated two
or three times a day. When this produces no good ef-
feCt, and the ulcer fpreads rapidly, attended with acute
pain, much relief will be obtained by touching the fur-
face of it with lunar cauflic, or if there is a rilk of the
ulcer eroding the whole thicknefs of the cornea, and a
prolapfus of the iris to take place, it may be advifable
to prevent this by difcharging the aqueous humor.
a»4 Sect. VI. Of Specks of the Cornea.
There are three forms of the corneal fpeck; the frfl
and moft limple variety, is when a particular part of the
cornea lafes its natural tranfparency, and appears cloud¬
ed 5 objefts being feen by the patient as if looked at
through a mift or fmoke. Some of thefe fpecks are un¬
defined, others diftimftly circumfcribed, and they have
each an equal degree of opacity throughout, or one part
is more opaque than the reft. They are moft commonly
of a circular form •, but in fome cafes their ftrape is very
irregular. This fize varies from the fmalleft fpot, to
fuch an extent as occupies the whole cornea.
In the fecond form of the corneal fpeck, the opacity
is of a darker {hade, giving the cornea a bluifh, or in
fome parts a milky appearance. It is feldom equally
opaque through its whole extent ; being generally more
fo at the centre, and becoming gradually of a lighter
{hade towards the margin. In fome inftances the lhade
is very unequal in the different parts of the fpeck.
In the third form of the corneal fpeck, the cornea
becomes of the opaque gliftening white colour of com¬
mon pearl, and the opacity generally extends through the
whole of the lamellae of the cornea-, fo that if even leveral
of thofe layers which are external be removed, the remain¬
ing ones completely interrupt vifion. Specks of this de-
fcription fometimes produce a flight thickening of the
cornea, and are accompanied by adhefions between the
cornea and iris. They are almoft always diftindtly cir¬
cumfcribed, though generally not fo opaque at the edge.
When they are of any conliderable fize, they are nour-
iihed by one or more red veffels.
In the firft form of fpeck, the iris can be feen through
the difeafed portion of the cornea 5 but in the fecond and
third form of the difeafe, the degree of opacity is fuch,
that nothing can accurately be diftinguiflted behind it.
If there is an external inflammation accompanying the
fpeck, the red veffels will be feen in a clufter on that
part of the fclerotic part neareft to it ; and fome of the
branches can often be traced pafling over the edge of
G E R Y. Chap. X.
the cornea, and terminating in the fubftance of the Of the Dif-
fpeck. As the accompanying inflammation abates, the e“^es ^
number of the red veffels on the cornea commonly dimi-, ^-*e'
nifhes ; but lometimes one or more trunks remain, and
are dfttributed on the fpeck. In fome cafes, there are
large fpecks with numerous blood-veffels fupplying them
during the continuance of adlive inflammation ; and al¬
though the opacity remains exteiifive after the inflam¬
mation abates, yet no red veffels continue to nouriih it.
The number of blood-veffels is in no cafe in proportion
to the degree or extent of the opacity during any ftage
of the accompanying inflammation. For we frequently
dbferve a net-work of blood-veffels on a cornea which
has very little obfcurity, and at other times there is a
large opaque fpot, wfith only one, or even without a
fingle red veffel fupplying it. Specks appear on every
part of the cornea, but moft frequently towards its
centre.
Specks appear to be formed moft frequently on the
external lamella of the cornea 5 but it is difficult to de¬
termine accurately their fituation. They vary in num¬
ber. Commonly there is only one ; but it frequently
happens that there are two, three, or more diftindt fpots
on one cornea, all of which differ in their fize, ffiape,
and in degree of opacity.
Specks impede vifion in proportion to the degree of
their obfcurity, and according to their fituation. Even
a fpeck of the flighteft {hade, which is hardly percep¬
tible to a common obferver, if it be placed diredtly op-
pofite the pupil, materially injures the fight; whereas
thofe of the opake kind, if placed beyond its circumfer¬
ence, diminifti the fphere, but not the diftindfnefs of vi¬
fion. In thofe cafes where the fpeck is of a moderate
fize, and placed towards the centre of the cornea, the
patient fees better in a dull, than in a clear light. For
in a clear light the pupil contradls fo much, that it be¬
comes covered by the fpeck, and the rays of light are
prevented from entering ; but in a dull light it becomes
larger, fo that the rays of light enter by its edge.
Specks, moft commonly, are either preceded or ac¬
companied by inflammation of the cornea. Likewife
wounds, if they do not unite without fuppuration, and
ulcers of the cornea, are followed by a fpeck.
Specks are formed at every period of life ; but they
occur moft frequently in young people ; probably be-
caufe in them the cornea is much fofter, and more
fpongy j and alfo as they are more fubjedl; to inflamma¬
tory complaints of the eye than adults.
Treatment.—Thofe fpecks which have been defcribed
under the frf and fecond form of the difeafe, generally 2v*>
difappear either by the ufe of remedies, or in fome cafes
after the inflammatory fymptoms abate.
When the eye is inflamed, and the eyelids turgid with
blood, llightly fcarifying the eyelids, and .immediately
after ihe bleeding ceafes, applying a quantity of an oint¬
ment compofed of the red oxide of mercury (ten grains
to a dram of Ample ointment), will be found a very ac¬
tive remedy. And the fcarifications along with the oint¬
ment Ihould be repeated every fecond or third day as
long as any inflammation continues. When there is no
inflammation accompanying the fpeck, the ointment may
be applied alone. The unguentum citrinum, and various
powders compofed of the fulphate of alum, fulphate of
zinc, fub-borate of foda, diluted with from a fourth to an
eighth
Chap. X. S U R G
Of the Dif-eighth part of fugar, may alfo be advantageoufiy employ-
cafes of theecp jn fpCCks of long duration, it will be found ufeful to
, Eye‘ vary the application, and to employ two or three of the
~v above medicines ten days or a fortnight alternately.
Thofe fpecks of the third form, feldom become more
tranfparent, even by the ufe of the molt aftive reme¬
dies. In thofe cafes where only a fmall central portion
is of that defcription, the iize of the fpeck may be di-
minilhed by the treatment already mentioned *, and in
fome cafes, much benefit has arifen from cutting away
an external layer of the moft opaque part \ and after¬
wards ufing the above applications. It often happens,
however, that if portions of a very old and opaque fpeck
be cut away, the part is regenerated by an equally opaque
matter.
The fpecks which are formed rapidly, are in general
moft fpeedily removed. They go away, too, much more
quickly in children than in old people ; and in them,
alfo, a much greater degree of obfcurity can be made
entirely to difappear. When a part of the cornea has
become opaque, the opacity begins to difappear at the
circumference of the fpeck, or at that portion of it
neareft to the circumference of the cornea. In fome
cafes it may alfo be obferved, that the external lami-
nte of the cornea firft regain their tranfparency.
aetf Sect. VII. Of the Staphyloma.
When the cornea, befides lofing its tranfparency,
fwells to fuch a degree, that its internal furface comes
in contaft with, and adheres to the iris, and when it
forms a prominent tumor externally, the difeafe has ge¬
nerally been called Jlaphyloma. When the whole cor¬
nea is affe&ed, it generally affumes a more or lefs coni¬
cal form j lofes entirely its natural tranfparency ; and
vifion is completely deftroyed. The opacity is generally
moft remarkable towards the apex of the tumor, and is
generally of a pearl white colour diffufed through the
whole corneal fubftance. The internal furface of the
cornea adheres to the iris, and the pupil is in moft cafes
altogether obliterated.
In many cafes the cornea does not projedft beyond
the eyelids j but in others, particularly in children, a
large tumor is formed, which projefls beyond the eye¬
lids, and is attended with pain and inflammation, which,
in forae inftances, renders the other eye weak and ir¬
ritable.
Treatment.—When a part of the tumor gives way,
and allows the contents of the tumor to be difcharged,
the patient always experiences a fpeedy relief, but the
tumor is foon formed again j fo that in order to prevent
its growth, it is neceffary not only to difcharge its con¬
tents, but alfo to remove a portion of the difeafed cor¬
nea of fuch a fize as to prevent the humors from again
colle&ing. A common extrading knife may be paffed
through the tumor, fo as to divide a fegment nearly
equal to half the cornea, and the other half may be
readily cut away with fcilTars. Inflammation and fup-
puration fucceed •, and the eyeball finally collapfes if
there be not a fufficient degree of inflammation excited.
A pointed inftvument may be introduced through the
wound, fo as to allow the cryftalline lens, or any por¬
tion of the vitreous humour which may have remained,
to be prefled out.
E R Y.
9*
Of the Dif-
Sect. VIII. Of Inflammation of the Iris.
eal'es of the
Eye.
Inflammation feldom afteds the iris alone, though in 307,
fome cafes it appears to be the principal difeafed part of
the organ. The difeafe is accompanied with intenfe
pain on expofure to light ; difcoloration of the iris
from the addition of red blood 5 dilpofition of the pupil
to contrad ; and lymph to be effufed on the furface of
the iris and pupil.
Treatment.—Copious bleedings from the arm, or tem¬
poral artery, are generally neceffary ; and in order to
prevent any permanent contradion of the pupil from
taking place, much benefit will be derived from keep¬
ing it dilated by the adion of an infufion of beliadona.
Sect. IX. Of the Mode of making an Artificial Pupil. 205
The iris, whether from previous inflammation or other
caufe, has been often found with the pupil fo much con-
traded, and adhefions formed between it and the capfule
of the cryftalline, to fuch a degree, as to prevent vifion.
The pupillar edge of the iris, too, fometimes adheres to
the cornea, and is contraded j and fometimes a portion
of cornea oppofite to the pupil is a caufe of blindnefs. In'
all fuch cafes it has been repeatedly attempted to make
an artificial pupil; but this operation has feldom been
fuccefsful. Various modes have been propofed to perform
it, but that recommended by Scaipa is entitled to moft:
attention. This method confifls in introducing a curved
couching needle (Plate DXVil. fig. 20.), as in the
operation of couching the catarad, pafling its point
through the iris at the place where it is intended the
new opening fhould be made, and then forcibly tearing
down a portion of iris from its connedion with the cili¬
ary ligament. After the operation it will be found ufe¬
ful to keep the iris for fome time under the influence of
beliadona. We underftand that Mr Gibfon, an inge¬
nious furgeon in Manchefter, has operated with great
fuccefs in a new manner. He makes the punduation of
the cornea at its tranfparent part with an extrading
knife (Plate DXVII. fig. 1.), and preffes the eye¬
ball fo as to fqueeze the iris through the incifion of the
cornea ; or if any adhefions render that impradicable,
he drags it out with a hook (Plate DXVII. fig. 19.),
and afterwards cuts away with a fciffars the prolapfed
portion. Then immediately the perforated iris falls back
into its natural fituation, leaving a proper opening.
Sect. X. Of the CataraB.
The moft common difeafe of the lens is a lofs of its
natural tranfparency j and this arifes either from a
change in its ftrudure, or from a depofition of new mat¬
ter. The capfule of the lens is alfo fubjed to opacities.
Thefe difeafes are known by the name of cataraB.
There are four fpecies of catarad generally enumera¬
ted. In the fiift, the cryftalline lens ilfelf becomes
opake (cataraBa cryfial/inaf In the fecond, the cap¬
fule is changed in its ftrudure (cataraBa membranacea).
In the third, the liquor Morgagni becomes opake (cata~
raBa intetfiitialis); and when all thofe parts are affeded
at the fame time, it has been denominated the mixed
catarad, cataraBa mixta.
M a
When
2M
Colour of
catara<fts.
212
Diagnofis
between
hard and
foft cata¬
racts.
92
Of the Dif- When the cryftalline lens becomes opake, the opacity
eaus oi the genctaj]y begins towards the central part of the lens,
and extends towards its circumference
general obfcurity extends over the whole lens
The conliftence of the lens varies very much in the
different kinds of cataraft. Sometimes it is converted
into an aqueous or milky fluid, or like thin jelly j at
other times it becomes harder and firmer than natural j
and in feveral cafes it has been found converted into
bone or into a chalky looking fubftance. It has been
generally remarked, that the fluid or milky cataraft is
moil frequent in children, but we have alfo met with it
in thofe advanced in life. The folid or concrete cata-
radl, on the other hand, has been generally found in
adults. At the fame time, we have obferved the lens of
young people converted into a hard and white lubftance
refembling chalk.
The colour of different catarafls is very various j and
they never appear of the fame colour in the eye as when
removed from it. The mofl ufual colour of them in
the eye is a bluifh white or gray; fometimes clouded in
different parts or ftriated, fometimes of a lead colour,
fometimes greenifh, and fometimes of a yellow or amber
colour. When taken out of the body, thofe which ap¬
peared white or gray are generally dark yellow or am¬
ber j and thole of a yellow tinge in the eye often ap¬
pear white when extracted.
There is fcarcely any diagnoftic mark of a foft and
.hard cataract which can be altogether depended on. The
colour proves nothing, thofe of a milky colour being
often quite hard, and fometimes thofe of a pearl colour
are quite foft. Neither is there any thing to be learnt
from the degree of the opacity ; for it will be found that
thofe who fee no more than to be able to diftinguifli light
from darknefs have the lens quite foft, whilfl: thofe who
can diflinguifh colours and large objefls have the lens
quite hard. Richter, however, has remarked two fymp-
toms, which he fays have feldom deceived him in afcer-
taining this point. The fofter the lens is, the larger and
thicker it is in general, and therefore approaches nearer
to the plane of the iris or to the edge of the pupil.
Hence he always concludes that the cataradt is foft
when it is near the pupil. In order, however, to judge
of the fpace between the pupil and lens, the furgeon
muft look into the patient’s eye from one fide j and in
general it requires much experience to judge of this with
accuracy.
We are alfo able, in fome cafes, to difcern points,
flreaks, or inequalities, in the {hade of a cataradi. If,
after having obferved the place, figure, and difpofition of
them, we find that in fome days afterwards, or upon
rubbing the eye pretty hard, they have undergone any
change in their figure, fituation, or fliade of colour, we
may then conclude with certainty that the cataradf is
foft ; only we muft be cautious not to draw an oppofite
conclufion, viz. that we are not to conceive the cataradl
to be hard if tbefe changes fhould not be perceptible.
* See Be- “ A perfedlly hard cataradl,” fays Beer, * “ ftiows it-
merkungen^Xl very plainly before the operation ; the pupil is
equally opake in its whole circumference ; there are not
to be obferved any points, ftreaks, or fpots, of a clearer
or darker colour j the lens is evidently feparated from
the iris, fo that a fufficient number of rays of light can
enter, and the patient is ftill capable of diftinguifhing
fome objedls from the fide of the eye j the motions of the
u R G E R Y.
vber den
G< enter
Star.
Chap. X,
pupil are extremely lively, and it never remains confi- Of the Dif-
derably enlarged. The opacity behind the pupil at theeales t*ie
commencement of the difeafe is firft obferved in the , £ye'
middle, and it then extends, but very {lowly, towards
the circumference. Such patients, if the middle part of
the pupil- is completely opake, can for the moll part
read writing by the alliftance of a magnifying glafs, and
diftinguifh fmall objedls. The colour of the hard cata¬
radl is gray, palling more or lefs to a greeniili hue ; and
the fmooth level of the lens may be very plainly re¬
marked.” 213
In mod patients the cataradl is to be confidered as aOatara<ft
local difeafe, though there are alfo many cafes where anSe”era^y
opacity of the lens comes on after or along with other
difeafes of the eye. It has been obferved in gouty and
rheumatic conftitutions, and in fuch people there is rea-
fon to fufpedl that it is more or lefs connedted with the
general conftitutional affedlion. This obfervation is of
importance ; for when an operation is performed in fuch
cafes, a total blindnefs is ufually the confequence. Rich¬
ter operated on a man who had been much troubled with
gout, and his fight was reltored. In feven months after¬
wards the pupil gradually contradled, at laft clofed, and
a fecond blindnefs followed. In one cafe of a fimilar
kind on which we operated, an attack of gout fucceeded
the operation, the eye fuppurated, and the inflammation
has never altogether difappeared, though two years have
elapfed fince the operation. Even in iuch cafes the ope¬
ration is not to be entirely forbidden : the fuccefs is lefs
certain, and the patient will require a very careful pre¬
paration before it, and much attention after it.
There are fome varieties of cataradl which are confi- Hereditary
dered to be hereditary. Richter extradled a cataradl cataract,
from a man whofe father and grandfather were both
blind from that complaint. Maitre Jean and Janin have
both met with fimilar cafes. Richter alfo faw three chil¬
dren, born of the fame parents, who had all cataradls
at the age of three years. We have known feveral fimi¬
lar fadls, and particularly one of twins, who both were af-
fedted with cataradl when one year old. 215
When the cataradl is feated in the capfule above, it in CataraA
general arifes from a blow or wound with a pointed in-°1caP*
liniment. Sometimes the whole anterior portion is opake ^u‘e*
and very much thickened, wftiilft that which is pofterior
remains tranfparent 5 and in fome cafes the capfule has
been extradled in the form of a bag, having become al¬
together opake, and containing within it the cryftalline.
Such cafes have been called by Richter the cataraBa
cyjlica. He fays he has only met with one cafe of that
form of the difeafe ; Beer, however, mentions many j
and from meeting with them he has been led to propofe
the extradlion of the capfule along with the cryftalline in
all cafes of the difeafe.
The cataraBa membranacea primitiva of Scarpa is
alfo another form of the difeafe. In this variety the
lens difappears, and leaves the capfule opake, or at moft
in its interior a fpeck not larger than a pin-head. This
kind of cataradl, Scarpa remarks, occurs moft frequently
in infants, or in people under twenty years of age. It
may be diftinguifhed by its refemblance to a very thin
fcale, or by a very white point, at the center or at the
circumference of the cryftalline. ai(j
The tremulous cataradl (cataraBe tremblante of the Trembling
French), is another variety of the difeafe which defervescataradt.
to be noticed. It is generally of a very opake white
colour,
Chap X. SURGERY, gj
Of the Dif-colour, and feldom large. It moves about on every mo-
eafes of the t}Qn 0f eye^ an(j whole iris trembles and fluftu-
. J^e' ates to and fro. Sometimes they altogether difappear,
at times palling behind the iris, but they foon regain
their fituation. In one example of this difeafe we obfer-
ved that the opake lens fometimes fell into the anterior
chamber through the pupil. In this form of the difeafe
it generally happens that the funflions of the retina are
2l7 impaired or loft ; though this is not always the cale.
Cataract Cataraft is often accompanied with a complete ameu-
combined rolls. In fome cafes of this kind there is a great dilata-
with aman-tion? an(j immobility of the pupil, and the opake lens
ro^s‘ is obferved of a very large fize behind it. The patient
can feldom diftinguifh right from darknefs and the
want of fight generally precedes any obfcurity of the
lens. In fome cafes, where there is a combination of
cataraft and amaurofis, the pupil remains of its natural
form, and alters according to the quantity of light.
But, as in the former variety of the difeafe the opacity
of the lens moft commonly precedes the amaurofis, it
generally too comes on fuddenly, preceded by fparks of
fire appearing before the eyes, or clouds flying before
them, or headach, and pains about the brow or temples.
We have feen an inftance of a Ample cataraft in one
eye, and in the other cataraft and amaurofis combined.
Commonly cataraft affefls both eyes fimultaneoufly ;
but there are alfo many examples of the difeafe affecting
only one eye. It alfo happens, that firft one eye is affeft-
ed, and many years afterwards the fecond. We have in
general obferved, that when the cataract takes place
only in one eye in young people, or wThen it fucceeds
a blow, the other eye is feldom affefted. But on this
we fhould not truft much, for it is an undeniable fa<ft,
that a great fympathy exifts between the two eyes ; and
that when one of them becomes difeafed, the other is
very apt to become fimilarly affetfted. We have feen
a cafe where a ftaphyloma arofe in one eye in con-
fequence of a wound, and in a few years afterwards the
other eye became ftaphylomatous. A man who received
a blow on one eye, w'hich produced amaurofis, had fooiv
afterwards a cataraft formed on the other. Richter men¬
tions an analogous cafe. St Ives mentions a very re¬
markable cafe of a man who was wounded in the right
eye with a fmall {hot, and ftiortly after that eye was
affefted with a cataraft. Some time afterwards the
fame difeafe took place in the left eye, but which gra¬
dually difappeared after the cataraft had been extraCded
from the rig/it eye. Thefe obfervations on the connec¬
tion between the twro eyes, have led fome furgeons to ad-
vife operating for cataraft when only one eye is affefted,
in order to prevent the fecond eye from becoming
difeafed. There are a few cafes where this pradlice has
been fuccefsfullv adopted, and there are others where it
has failed. We know of one gentleman, now upwards
of feventy years of age, who w^as couched for a cataraf!
in one eye when twenty years old, and the difeafe has
never attacked the other eye. Richter once performed
the operation on a woman who had a complete pearl-co¬
loured cataraft in the left eye, and an incipient one in
the right, w’hich, before the operation took place, was
beginning to advance rapidly. After operating on the
left eye, the progrefs of the difeafe in the right feemed
to be checked, and for years after the operation it had
not made the fmalleft progrefs. On the other hand, we
have operated in feveral cafes where the difeafe was juft Of the Dif-
comraencing in one eye, and when the operation did notea^e® tJ7e
appear to arreft its progrefs in the fecond one. It is, ^ ^
therefore a point not yet determined in what cafes it
wmuld be advifable to operate when only one eye is af-
fefled \ for in thofe where the progrefs of the difeafe
in the fecond eye cannot be arrefted by an operation on
the firft, no operation flrould be performed on either eye
until vifion is nearly altogether deftroyed. 2Ig
The progrefs of this difeafe is very various; fome-Progrefs of
times it proceeds fo flowly as not to deftroy vifion for the dilealer-
many years, at other times a complete obfcurity of the
lens has been known to take place almoft inftantaneouf-
ly. Richter and Efchenback both relate cafes where
people labouring under gout, w'hich fuddenly retroced¬
ed, were entirely deprived of their fight in one night.
We have obferved analogous cafes, though we could-
not determine the exiftence of any conftitutional af-
fedlion.
From the found cryftalline being chiefly compofed of
albumen and a fmall quantity of gelatine, whatever
might produce a coagulation of thefe, would deftroy
the pellucidity of the lens. Whatever too would pro¬
duce inflammation of the capfule of the lens might alfo
render it obfeure; for when any ferous furtace is in¬
flamed, and to that claf> belongs the capfule of the lens,
its tranfparency is deftroyed, and it becomes thickened
from an effufion of albuminous matter on its furface.
Catarafts arifing from wounds are probably produced in
this manner.
In old people there is often diftinguiftiable a flight
obfcurity of the lens, and fometimes it even forms a
complete cataraft. In fuch cafes the obfcurity pro¬
bably arifes from a want of balance in the fecretrng and
abforbent fyftems, or the neceffary perfedlion ot thefe
functions to preferve the natural ftate of parts, which
we obferve to decay in many other organs, as wTell as the
eye, in thofe far advanced in life.
Befides the fymptoms which are to be obferved in an eye yniptoms
affe&ed with cataraft, there are others remarked by the remarked
patient. Objefts appear to him as viewed through akyd16?*-
mift or cloud ; and as the opacity of the lens increafes, t'ent'
the cloud appears greater until it finally prevents even
the largeft objedls from being diftinguiflrable.
The patient, at the commencement of the difeafe,. can
diftinguifti objefts better in a moderate than in a bright
light; and the fame thing happens if the light be in¬
terrupted by the interpofition of the hand or any other
{hade. The reafon of this is obvious; becaufe the pupil
is more dilated in a moderate than in a bright light,
and thus ftill admits a certain number of rays of light
by means of the pellucid circle of the lens.
When the exterior part of the lens is lefs obfeured
than the centre, the patient fees thofe objedls much bet¬
ter which are placed by his fide, than thofe which are
oppofite to him.
If the obfcurity has not affefled the middle of the
lens, but fome part of its edge, any circular body look¬
ed at by the patient, appears to have its edge imperfedt.
It has been alfo remarked that fome patients fee every
thing with perforations in them. The cataraft is fel¬
dom accompanied with any pain. When it is brought
on from internal caufes, both eyes are generally aft'etl-
ed.
Of
94
Of the Dif*
eafes of the
Eye.
s u
Of the Treatment of CataraB.
R G E R Y.
In the treatment of cataraft, recourfe has generally
220 been had to a furgical operation. Some have pretend¬
ed to cure cataraft by internal medicines. Small dofes
of calomel, eleBricily, extraBum hyofeyami, aqua lauro-
cerafi, have been extolled; but their ufe is now very ge¬
nerally given up. In fome cafes of cataract which have
arifen from an injury of the eye, Mr Ware has feen
them difappear by an external application of aether,
* See his which promoted the abforption of the opaque body *.
Surgical There are two operations which have been propofed
Operations, for the cure of the cataraft •, the one called extraBion,
and the other couching. In the firlf, an incifion is
made into the cornea, and the lens removed by pufhing
it through the pupil. In the fecond, the lens is taken
out of its caplule, and lodged in fome part of the vitre¬
ous humour, where it may be entirely out of the axis of
the eye. Each of thefe methods has been much prac-
tifed $ and though a decided preference feems at prefent
to be given by the mod diilinguifhed furgeons to the
mode by extraftion, yet there are alfo cafes attended
with peculiar circumftances, in which the operation of
couching may be fuccefsfully employed. Both opera¬
tions ought therefore to be w’dl underftood by every
m furgeon.
■Preparatory It was formerly the cuftom, before performing either
iteps. of thefe operations, to confine the patient for feveral
weeks, or even months, to a drift antiphlogiilic regi¬
men $ but this precaution, except in very particular
cafes, may be generally difpenfed with. People who
have become blind, generally lead a quiet life, and are
not expofed to any of thdTe diflipations which are likely
to affeft the conftitution. It will therefore general¬
ly be found fufficient precaution, before attempting
an operation, to enjoin the patient to live moderately j
to avoid fpirituous liquors, and take a few dofes of any
of the common laxative medicines. If he be ftrong
and plethoric, it will be neceffary to purfue fuch a
courfe a little further j to give dofes of laxative medi¬
cines for a longer period, and even to bleed the patient
in the arm. Many furgeons lay it down as a general
rule, to take fome blood on the morning of the day of
the operation, either from the arm, from the temples,
or from the neck by cupping ; and either of thefe me¬
thods is to be preferred, according to the quantity of
blood which is intended to be taken. In old people of
a healthy conftitution, we have often found it unnecef-
fary to ufe any of thefe means, no inflammatory fymp-
tom having arifen during the progrefs of the cure. In
many cafes, inftead of bleeding before the operation, we
have preferred doing it after the operation rvas perform¬
ed, when the patient was put quiet in bed. Blood
taken at this period may be reafonably fuppofed to have
a more powerful effeft in giving check to any inflam¬
matory attack which might be apt to fucceed the ope¬
ration, than if an equal quantity had been taken away
before it. The bleeding too, immediately after the
operation, we have often obferved, renders the patient
calm, and more difpofed to reft, whereas at the fame
time any of thofe difagreeable fymptoms are avoided
during the operation, which are apt to remain for feve¬
ral hours after bleeding, when the patient is in the ereft
pofture. It is alfo of importance before the operation is
performed, the patient being fo fituated, that he can be
Chap.
eafily put to bed. The operation fliould therefore be Of the
performed in the fame chamber in which he is to re-do¬
main, or in one immediately adjoining ; and he ftrould , .
be clothed in a bed-gown, or fome loofe drefs, fo as to
enable him to get into bed without much trouble. The
bed fhould be placed in fuch a pofition in the room that,
the light does not fall direftly on the patient’s face, fo
that during the cure, all glaring lights may be eafily
avoided..
Of the ExtraBion of the CataraB. 22'^
In this operation the objeft of the furgeon is to make
a wound in the cornea, and to extraft through it the
opake lens. In performing it there are four fteps which
require to be particularly confidered. The frjl of
them is the means to be employed for fecuring the eye
during the operation. The fccond is the mode of
making the incilion through the cornea ; the third, the
mode of opening the capfule of the cryftalline lens j and
the fourth is the extraftion of the lens. All thefe {hall
be confidered feparately.
Mode of fecuring the Eye and Eyelids. 223
One of the great improvements in modern furgery
is the fimplicity of the mechanical means employed in
performing operations. A great variety of contrivances
have been propofed, in order to fecure the eyeball and
eyelids during the extraftion of the cataraft. Experience,
however, ftiews, that almoft all thefe are completely
ufelefs, and moft of them extremely hurtful. To dif-
penfe, therefore, with thefe initruments, and to be able
to execute with the fingers alone thofe parts of the
operation for wdrich they were employed may be juftly
confidered as a material improvement. The eyeball
and eyelids may be completely fecured in almoft; all
cafes, by the fingers of one hand of the operator, and
thofe of an aflrftant. The afliftant will generally find
that, with the forefinger of one or of both hands placed
upon the tarfus, one upon the internal, and another to¬
wards the external angle of the eye, he will be eafily
able to raife the upper eyelid, fo as to expofe the cor¬
nea ; and by the finger being placed towards the inter¬
nal angle he will be alfo able to affift the operator in
preventing the eyeball from being turned inwards,
when the incifion into the cornea is about to be made.
The operator is to fecure the under eyelid by the fore
and middle fingers of his left hand. They are to be
placed in fuch a manner over the edge of the tarfus,
that they may come in contaft with the eyeball; and
the middle finger is to be prefied pretty firmly in the
internal angle of the eye, between the eyeball and
lachrymal carcuncle, fo as effeftually to prevent the mo¬
tion of the eye towards the nofe. In this pofition of
the fingers of the operator and afliftant, thofe wrho are
accuftomed to perform operations on the eye, find that
they are completely mafter of the motions of the eye¬
ball 5 and by altering the pofitions of the points of the
fingers, and applying more or lefs preffure, they are able
to counteraft any untoward motion of the organ. Be¬
fore attempting to fecure the, eyeball, the operator
(hould be prepared to advance in every ftep of the ope¬
ration ; for it will be generally found, that if an at¬
tempt has been made to open the eyelids forcibly, a
certain degree of irritation and watering of the eye
takes place} fo that, when a fecond attempt is made,
with
U X
Chap. X.
SURGERY.
Of the Dif-with a view of proceeding to the other fteps of the ope-
eafes of the ration> more difficulty is met with in holding the eye
, 'Eye' . than at firft would have been the cafe. It is a good
precaution, however, for the furgeon to take an oppor¬
tunity, before the day of the operation, to try to fix the
eye, and to explain to the patient this ftep of the ope¬
ration ; for it often happens, that patients ftart, and
make great refiflance by fqueezing the eyelids, when
the operation comes to be performed 5 fo that by habi¬
tuating them to the mode of fecuring the eye, it is
more eafily accomplilhed. The firft thing to be attend¬
ed to, before attempting to fix the eye, is a proper
light, the pofition of the patient’s head, and the
height of the chair in which he is to fit. The light
of the room (horrid come from one window, and the
patient fit in fuch a manner that the light fells oblique¬
ly over his nofe upon the eye to be operated on. If
he be placed fo that the rays of light from the win¬
dow fall in the direct line of the eye, the furgeon will
find that he is obliged, either to fit in his own light, or
that the reflections upon the cornea tend to embarrafs
him. As foon as the other eye is covered, fo as to pre¬
vent it from having any motion, and communicating
that motion to the eye on which the operation is to be
performed, the afliftant is to be placed behind the pa¬
tient, and the patient’s head to be fupported firmly on
his bread. The height of the chair on which the pa¬
tient is to be placed, will depend on the height of the
patient, and always (hould be fo low, that the afliftant
is able to look over the head, and completely command
the motion of his own fingers. The operator and aflift¬
ant (hould open both eyelids at the fame time, which will
more readily fecure the eyeball in a proper pofition. The
eyeball, however, is apt to be turned upwards, fo that
the cornea is thrown out of view. When this happens,
the upper eyelid (hould be firft raifed, and the afliftant
(hould be always ready with the points of his fingers, to
prefs in fuch directions, that when the eyeball at any
moment places itfelf in a proper pofition, he may be
ready to fecure it. When, on the other hand, the eye¬
ball is thrown downwards, the operator himfelf muft
place it in a proper pofition,'and in this manner both the
operator and afliftant are to co-operate with each other,
and the one or the other placing his fingers in fuch a
manner as to counteract moft effectually any aukward
pofition of the eyeball. When the eyeball appears
fteady, the incifion of the cornea ought to be immediate¬
ly performed. But before entering the knife, it will be
found a ufeful precaution to touch the cornea frequent¬
ly with its back, and fee if the patient ftarts, or if the
eyeball remains quite fteady. It will often happen,
that whenever the point of the| inftrument touches the
eyeball, it is fuddenly thrown into motion ; and was the
incifion of the cornea to have been begun at this mo¬
ment, much difficulty would have arifen. If however,
the eye be repeatedly touched wdth the knife, the (fart¬
ing motion will fooner or later ceafe, and then the inci-
fion of the cornea may be begun with every poflible ad¬
vantage. When the knife has pafled through both fides
of the cornea, there is no danger of any motion of the
eyeball hindering the operation.
If fometimes happens that the eye is extremely fmall,
and that it is funk deep in the orbit. In fuch people the
operation becomes much more difficult; and we have
met with cafes, where, from thefc circumftance it was
95
almoft impoflible to fecure the eyeball with the fingers; Of the Bif-
the room which the fingers neceffarily take preventing ea^es ^
the knife from being properly managed, and covering a ,
portion of the cornea. In fuch cafes, the fpeculum con¬
trived by M. Pellier will be found to be a ufeful in¬
ftrument. See Plate DXVII. fig. 8. The fpeculum
confifts of a piece of filver wire, bent in the manner
reprefentfed in the plate j and though in itfelf extreme¬
ly Ample, it requires a good deal of management and
nicety in ufing it. The curved edge of the wire (a) is to
be placed upon the infide of the cilice on the horizontal
plate of the tarfus j the (kin of the upper eyelid being
previoufly ftretched upwards. The affiftant is then to
move the fpeculum upwards, imitating, as it were, the
natural motion of the eyelids j and, when the eyeball
is fufficiently expofed, the fpeculum, with the handle
(b) refting on the brow of the patient, is to be kept
firm and fteady in the fame pofition. In ufing the fpe¬
culum, it is neceflary to make a confiderable preflure on
the eyeball, in order to prevent the eyelid from (lip¬
ping from underneath the fpeculum. At the fame
time as little preffure (hould be employed, as will pre¬
vent this from taking place. Many furgeons, in ufing
the fpeculum, place it behind the cilice; and whenever
any watering of the eye takes place, (rom the irritation
of the inftrument, it is very apt to (lip from the moifture
of the (kin. In order to prevent this, we have found
very material benefit from (imply folding round the
fpeculum a thin fold of crape, which, from its rough-
nefs, effe&ually prevents the rifle of the fpeculum (lip¬
ping. The operator is to manage the under eyelid in
the fame manner as if the upper eyelid was covered by
the fingers of an afliftant j and it more particularly reiis
with him to prevent the eyeball from rolling inwards,
the fpeculum merely ferving to fupport the upper
eyelid.
After the knife has penetrated both fides of the
cornea, the afliftant is to be aware that no prdfure is
to be made upon the eyeball. When, therefore, this
ftep of the operation is completed, the afliftant, if he be
ufing the fpeculum, is to be particularly careful in
taking off any preffure which it may make, and merely
to fupport the eyelid.
Mode of making the Incifion of the Cornea.
The great objeft to be kept in view in making an in¬
cifion of the cornea is, that it be of fufficient fize to allow
the eafy extra&ion of the cryftalline lens, and that any
cicatrix which may remain may not interrupt the en¬
trance of the rays of light through the pupil. The
mode which has been recommended to effedt thefe pur-
pofes, is to make a femicircular incifion, parallel to the
circumference of the cornea, and about half a line diftant
from the jundlion of the cornea and fclerotic coat. One
of the knives (Plate DXVII. fig. 1, 2, 3.) is to pundlure
the cornea half a line diftant from its circumference,
to be carried acrofs the anterior chamber to the op-
pofite fide, and brought through the cornea at the fame
diftance from the fclerotic coat to where it was entered j
afterwards the incifion is to be finilhed by puftiing the
knife forwards till the incifion is completed. * Qee ^-n
Inftead of making the incifion in this manner, Mr burgh Me-
James Wardrop has propofed another form of incxhon, dical and
in order to remove feveral objedlions to which the other Chirurgical
operation was liable *. The difadvantages which Mr War- *
drop
96
SURGERY.
Chap. X.
Of the Dlf- drop fuppofes to arife from the ufual mode recommend-
eafes of the are
Eye' , i. The cornea being of very confiderable thicknefs,
a great part of the femicircular incifion will be carried
through between its laminae, and therefore the length
of the incifion of the internal lamina wall be much lefs
than that of the external one. This he explains by two
plans, Plate DXVII. fig. 11, and 12.wherebefidesthe ex¬
ternal form of the incifion (a a a), there is drawn a fecond
line (£), intended to reprefent the incifion of the inter¬
nal lamina. The dark fpace, therefore, included be¬
tween thefe two lines (6 and a) is intended to reprefent
that portion of the incifion which is made between the
laminae.
2. The external form deceives us in the extent of
the internal incifion, and much more difficulty's met
with in bringing the lens through it, than from its ap¬
parent length could have been expetted ; for, as the line
of the internal incifion has a very flight curvature, the
thicknefs and tenfion cf the cornea allow the edges of
the wound from being feparated only a little way fiom
one another.
3. When the cornea is divided nearly at its union
with the fclerotic coat, and when the aqueous humour
and lens have efcaped, the portion of the iris oppofite to
the centre, and moll depending part of the wound, lofes
its natural fupport given to it by the cornea, and is
puffied forward, fo that it comes in contadl writh the
cornea, and even infinuates itfelf between the edges of
the incifion. The greater the opening is, the more
danger there is of a prolapfus, both of the iris and vi¬
treous humour j for it would leem as if thefe two parts
of the eye were puflied forwards in confequence of the
contra&ion of the coats of the eye, which takes place as
foon as the incifion is made j and if two thirds of the
cornea be cut, there is certainly much lefs refiftance
than when the half only has been divided. Thus, the
iris and cornea form permanent adhefions in confequence
of the inflammation which always follows the operation.
The pupil becomes of an irregular form, is drawn from
the centre of the eyeball; is fometimes very much con¬
tracted, and retains but a very limited fphere of con¬
traction and dilatation.
4. The contraction of the mufcles of the globe of
the eye preffing forward the contents of the pofterior
chamber, are very apt to puffi a portion of the vitreous
humour through the pupil and wound of the cornea.
When this happens, the pupil becomes irregular, and
drawn down towards the incifion, the form of the eye¬
ball is fomewhat altered, and the prolapfed vitreous hu¬
mour inclofed in its capfule, appears externally in the
form of a round tranfparent tumor.
5. As the external edge of the femicircular flap of
the cornea is very thin, and lies loofe, the fmalleft move¬
ment of the eyelids, particularly of the upper one, is
apt to catch and raife it out of its proper fituation, and
thus that fpeedy union is prevented which would take
place if the two divided furfaces had been kept in accu¬
rate and conftant contaft.
6. and laftly *, As the internal edge of the incifion
is often unavoidably made, from the fmallnefs of the
anterior chamber, and the flatnefs of the cornea, near¬
ly oppofite to the inferior margin of the pupil; and as
all the extent of the cut furface a b (Plate DXVII. fig.
32.), fometimes remains opaque after the wound is heal¬
ed, the opacity of the cicatrix mull diminiffi the fphere Of the DiU
ox vilion. > E
All thefe difadvantages in the ufual mode of making , , t
an incifion of the cornea, appeared to Mr Wardrop to
arife chiefly from the want ol a fufficient portion of the
cornea being left at the inferior part of the wound, to
fupport the iris, and to prevent the preffure of the parts
contained within the eyeball, and the occafional aflion
of the mufcles pulhing forward the iris towards the
wound of the cornea •, he therefore conceived that if the
incifion could be made in fuch a manner that a larger
portion of the cornea could be left at the inferior part of
the wound, being at the fame time made of fuch a form
as to allow the eafy extraftion of the cataratt, and the
cicatrix not afterwards to interfere with vifion, a confi¬
derable improvement would be made in the operation.
With this view he made the incifion in the following
manner. JI5
The beft knife for the purpofe is of the fame fize and Of the cor-
fhape with that delineated in Plate DXVII. fig. l.rea n e*
The blade is of a fimple triangular form, the back being
one continued line with the handle, except merely the
point. The point, though extremely {harp, ffiould be
made firm, and the blade {hould turn gradually thicker
from the point towards the handle. I he point of the
knife muft be (harp on both edges for at leafi: the
breadth of a line, in order that it may penetrate the
cornea quickly and eafily. The back of the knife
fliculd not be left angular, but the edges rounded off
and made fmooth, fo that it be convex on both fides.
Particular care ought to be taken that the point of the
knife be well conditioned j and it is not only neceffary
that it be ffiarp, but that the metal of which it is made
be neither too hard nor too foft. Phis may be eafily
afeertained by preffing the point upon the nail j for if it
bend readily, not being fo brittle as to break through,
and fufficiently elaftic to recover the ftraight line, we
may be confident that it will anfwer the purpofe. It is
alfo a good precaution to have the knife ffiarpened the
day before, or the morning of the operation j and in
cafe of any accident happening to the point, the opera¬
tor himfelf fhould carefully examine by trying how it
penetrates a thin piece of leather, immediately before
ufing it. From the point of the knife being too brittle,
we have known a cafe where the point of it was broken
off, when attempting to penetrate the inner part of the
cornea ; and from the point being too foft, wre in one
cafe, after puncturing the cornea, found it impoffible to
penetrate with the knife the oppofite fide, and this we
found had arifen from the point of the knife bending
round.
Having previoufly fmeared the knife with oil, or
fmoothed the edge of it upon the palm of the hand, in
order to make it cut more keenly, its point is to be
thruft through the cornea at its tranfverfe diameter, and
at leaft half a line diftant from the fclerotic coat, and in
a direction as if it was to wound the iris, or nearly per¬
pendicular to the fpherical furface of the cornea (lee
Plate DXVII. fig. 13. and 15. a). When the point of
the knife reaches the plane of the iris, it is to be turned
towards the oppofite fide of the cornea, by moving the
blade upon the incifion already made, as a fulcrum. It
is then to be carried forward, fo that the cornea is again
punClured at its tranfverfe diameter b, at the fame diftance
from the fclerotic coat at which it bad been entered on
the
Chap. X. S U R
Of the Dif-the oppofite fide (fig. 13.). By thefe two incifions the
cafes of the blade of the knife has cut perpendicularly, or very nearly
, Eye- , f0, to the fpherical furface of the cornea, and the gradual
' ~Tf6 ' thickening of the knife, by filling Up the wound as fall
Of the in- as it is made, prevents any of the aqueous humour from
eifion of the making its efcape. The eye is now completely fecured
«Urnea. vv;Lh the knife, and the afliftant who has been fupport-
ing the upper eyelid, (hould receive a fignal from the
operator, to take away all preffure from the eyeball, and
merely to fupport the eyelid fufficiently to allow the in¬
ferior half of the cornea to be feen. When the knile
has been puflred forward a little way, as is reprefented
in fig. 15. the incifion is to be finilhed, by turning
round the blade on its axis, and thus keeping the
edge turned outwards, in fuch a manner, that the re¬
maining part of the incifion is made a firaight line, and
therefore nearly perpendicular to the lamellas of the cor¬
nea (fig. 13. c). Whenever the laft fiep of the operation
is begun, the aqueous humour begins to efcape, which
allows the knife to cut the cornea readily and in any
dire&ion.
Suppofing, therefore, that the cornea, inftead of being
fpherical, were a plain furface, the incifion now de-
fcribed would be reprefented by the lines a, b, and c,
fig. 13.; but as it is a fegment of a fphere, the form will
more refemble that reprefented in fig. 14.5 at leaft this is
the form of the incifion which the operator (hould have
in view when performing the operation. By the infpec-
tion of thefe figures (13 and 14), it appears,
1. That a large portion or ring of the cornea is left
attached to the fclerotic coat, and muft form, from its
thicknefs, a complete fupport to the iris.
2. That as the incifion is made throughout nearly per¬
pendicular to the lamellae of the cornea, the length of
the incifion of the internal lamella will be nearly equal
to that of the external one, and will be greater than
when it is made in the ufual manner, by the femicircular
incifion ; and confequently the cataraft will be more
eafily extracted through it.
3. The upper edge of the internal incifion is at a
greater diftance from, or further below the edge of the
pupil.
4. As the flap of the cornea is very fmall, the exter¬
nal edge thick, and not eafily moveable, or apt to be
caught by the motion of the eyelids, the edges of the
incifion are not liable to be difplaced, and confequently
the wound has a much better chance of uniting by ad-
hefion.
Laftly, the cicatrix which remains is fcarcely percep¬
tible, and cannot even be diftinguiflied when the cornea
is looked upon in a direftion perpendicular to its fur¬
face. The incifion (hould be made fo that the inferior
edge of the wound (fig. 3. c) is half way between the
circumference of the cornea and the edge of the pupil,
fuopofing the pupil to be in a moderate ftate of dilata¬
tion. If it be made nearer to the fclerotic coat, then the
advantages to be expefted from this mode of operating
will be loft •, and on the other hand, if it be made at
too great a diftance from the fclerotic coat, and confe¬
quently too near the pupil, the edge of the pupil will
be apt to pafs through between the lips of the wound.
In one cafe in which this accident happened, partly on
account of the incifion being at too great a diftance
from the fclerotic coat, and alfo from the knife having
been entered too far above the tranfverfe diameter of
Vol. XX. Part I.
Eye.
“v—
G E R Y. 07
the cornea, the wound was long in uniting, and after it Of the D f-
was healed, the pupil remained very irregular and con-eaies of the
traded. i
In making the incifion of the cornea in the manner
that has been direded, another circumftance alfo parti¬
cularly deferves notice, which is, that after having punc¬
tured both fides of the cornea, in giving the knife the
motion round its axis, feme of the aqueous humour
efcapes, and there is a great rifle of the iris turning over
the cutting edge of the knife. An operator who meets
with this for the firft time, is apt to think an wound
of the iris is inevitable ; but if he cautioufly Hops the
progrefs of the knife by gliding the point of the fore¬
finger over the cornea, and prefling the iris from its
edge, the incifion wall be completed with perfed fafety.
It femetimes happens that after the knife has entered
the cornea, the eyeball makes a fudden motion inwards,
towards the nofe, and a confiderable part of the cornea
is thus thrown out of view. This accident happens
either from a fault in the operator or his afliftant, and
ought to be particularly guarded againft j for when it
has taken place, it is irremediable. The operator muft
not attempt to proceed any further, but immediately
withdraw the knife, allow the wound of the cornea to
heal, the aqueous humour to be regenerated, and after
any flight inflammation which might fucceed, has gone
off, the operation may be a tecond time attempted with¬
out any additional rifle.
It femetimes happens that, on punduring the cornea
on the nafal fide, the point of the knife does not come
through at the proper diftance from the felerotic coat. If
it pafs through too near the centre of the cornea, as is
reprefented in Plate DXVII. fig. 17. confiderable difad-
vantage arifes j for befides the incifion being too fmall,
fo that the lens is extraded with difficulty, the eye is
apt to receive confiderable injury, and the cicatrix after¬
wards to interfere with vilion. When this accident hap¬
pens, it will be the moft prudent pradice to proceed no
further in the operation, but to allow the wound to heal
by adhefion, fo that a fecond operation might be after¬
wards attempted with all the advantages of the firft. It
is aftonifliing the rapidity with which a wound of the
cornea made by a cutting inftrument heals, and except
it be very large, fcarcely can the moft acute eye deted
any cicatrix. It is therefore much more prudent when¬
ever any fault in the incifion arifes, that the wound be
allowed to reunite, fo that afterwards a fecond operation
may be fuccefsfully performed, inftead of attempting by
feiffars or other inftruments to corred any bungling.
If the knife paffes through the cornea too clofe to the
fclerotic coat, it is not attended with fuch bad effVds
as when it paffes near to the pupil; and was it not for
the danger in wounding the iris, it would be advifable
in all cafes to lay it down as a general rule to make the
knife come out very clofe to the fclerotic coat.
See fig. it.
Of the Mode of opening the Capfule of the Lens.
After the operator has completed the incifion of the
cornea, he Ihould make a paufe, and allow the patient
to compofe himfelf a little, in cafe of any involuntary
motion of the eye-ball injuring any part of its ftrudure.
It fometimes happens, indeed, that the moment the in¬
cifion of the cornea is finiftied, the lens fuddenly follows
the knife ; but this is a circumftance never to be wifhed
for, ss the lame caufe which throws out the lens my
N al&
228
Mode of
98 . S U
°f ^ alfo pullb after it feme of the vitreous humour. When
cafes of the tj1£ jnc5£on 0f cornea is finifhed, and nothing has
efcaped but the aqueous humour, the patient fliould be
directed to turn his eye from the light, and to keep his
eyelids fhut, taking great care not to fqueeze them, fo
that the pupil may be allowed to dilate. In moft furgi-
cal operations, particularly thofe attended with much
pain, it is of importance to finifh them as quickly as pof-
fible. This, however, is not the cafe in the extraction of
tl'.e cataraCr. It will be in general found that the feverity
of an injury done to any part of the body depends, not
only on its extent, but on the fudden manner in which it
is inflidled. Thus, a fmall drop of blood fuddenly effufed
on the furface of the brain, often produces a feries of
much more diftreffing fymptoms than a large collection
of purulent matter in that organ. It is therefore rea-
fonable to expeCt that if the different Heps of the opera¬
tion for the extraction of the catarad are gone through
in a rapid manner, the eye will be much more injured
than if the fame operation be performed more {lowly.
There is another advantage too, derived from perform¬
ing the operation in a cautious manner ; by holding the
eye firmly for fome time, the mufcles become fatigued,
and during the latter fteps of the operation, when there
is the greateft danger of injuring the organ, the power
of refiftance to the operator is much diminifhed.
The next ftep of the operation is to make a punCture
ihn<^i'Ufuf’ caP^e cryffalline lens, fo that the lens is
ae UIiJl ‘'"allowed to pafs through the pupil. On opening the
eyelids, it will generally be found that the pupil has a
very irregular appearance, which a beginner may often
fuppofe to be in confequence of a wound of the iris,
though no fuch accident has happened. Some furgeons
employ an affiflant to fupport the upper eyelid, whilfl:
others take both eyelids completely under their own
management 5 and when the operator finds that he can
eafily accomplifh this laft mode, he Ihould always prefer
doing fo. When the eyelids are opened in fuch a man¬
ner as to expofe the incifion of the cornea and pupil, the
* See Plate point of the inftrument called the curette *, is to be in-
DXV1I. troduced through the wound of the cornea and pupil, to
punCture the capfule of the lens. Richter advifes that
the capfule (hould be punCtured feveral times with the
point of this inftrument, in order that a large opening
may be made into it. When the lens is foft and milky,
this may be neceffary, but when it is of a firmer texture,
if one punCture is made it fufticiently tears the capfule
fo as to allow itfelf to come away eafily. Before intro¬
ducing the curette, moderate preffure fhould be made on
the eyeball, which has the effeCt not only of keeping the
eye fteady, but alfo of dilating the pupil. The convex
part of the inftrument (a) is then to be introduced through
the wound of the cornea, and conducted to the central
pari of the pupil. When it reaches the pupil, from the
curvature of the inftrument, a very fmall turn of the
handle will place the point upon the capfule of the
cryftalline lens, and by pufhing the point inwards, the
capfule will be readily punftured. It is not neceffary
that the point of this inftrument be very thin j a round¬
ed point will anfwer all the purpofes of punCturing the
capfule •, whilft from this form there will be lefs danger
of wounding the iris from any unexpected motion of the
eveball. Very little force is neceffary to punCture the
capfuls, and when the point of the curette paffes through
R G E It Y.
Chap. X.
rig. 19.
J29
it, it gives the fenfation as if punCturing a piece of very Of the Dit
fine paper with a pin. ea^es the
This part of the operation we have often found to be L £ye‘ ,
one of the moft difficult; for in many patients the eye
becomes extremely unfteady, and whenever an attempt is
made to hold it firm, or introduce the point of the cu¬
rette, the eyeball is immediately rolled upwards under
the roof of the orbit. The eyeball, too, is apt to make
fome untoward motion, after the point of the curette has
been introduced into the anterior chamber j fo that if
the operator be not on his guard, the iris may be caught
and torn by the point of the curette. In one cafe
where, after the point of the curette was introduced
through the pupil, the eye turned fuddenly upwards,
and the hooked part of the inftrument catching the edge
of the iris, pulled it a good way downwards, though for¬
tunately it did not tear it.
Mode of Extradiing the Lens.
Whenever the capfule of the lens is punCIured, the
lens in many cafes begins to move forward, and the pu¬
pil to dilate. The operator carefully watching this ef-
feCI, ftiould keep up an equal and moderate preffure
upon the eyeball, which will aflift the lens in getting
through the pupil. Whilfl; the lens is making its efcape,
and appears to prefs very much on the inferior part of
the pupil, the iris ftiould be fupported by the back of
the fpoon, {b Plate DXVII. fig. 19.) which is gene¬
rally for conveniency, fixed upon the oppofite end of the
handle of the curette. In applying the preffure on the
eyeball, it is of great importance that it be kept up uni¬
formly, and it ftiould always be proportioned to the ef-
fe&s w'hich it appears to produce on the dilatation of
the pupil. In moft: cafes a very moderate preffure will
be found to anfwer the purpofe. We have met with
others, however, where it was neceffary to comprefs the
eye with a good deal of force, before it was poflible to
remove the lens.
Any fmall portion of opaque lens which now remains
in the capfule, or on its furface, muft be extrafted by
means of a fmall fcoop. When the fragment lies on
the furface of the capfule, or in any part of the anterior
chamber, it is in general eafily removed j but when the
opaque body remains within the capfule, it becomes ne¬
ceffary, that the fcoop (hould enter the capfule through
the opening which was made in it. When this opening
is large and wide, the fcoop will eafily get in, and reach
the opaque fragment; but on the contrary, when the
opening is fmall, the fcoop may be moved about in
every direction, in hopes of laying hold of it, for
the fcoop is on the outfide of the capfule, and can¬
not procure an entrance. It has happened accordingly,
that every endeavour to extraft the remaining fragment
has been fruitlefs, and in fuch cafes it was fuppofed by
the operator to adhere to the capfule. It was more
probable, however, that the capfule had not been fuf-
ficiently opened, and that the fcoop could not reach the
fmall fragments. In all cafes, however, it is an ob-
jeft of importance, completely to remove the opaque
body ; for though any remaining portions be ultimate¬
ly abforbed, yet in the mean time the operation is by
no means fo complete as it would have been, had no¬
thing been allowed to remain. It has been advifed by
fome, (and the practice has certainly been attended
with
Chap. X.
Of the »if-with good effeSs), that after the principal part of the
cafes of thejens {s removed) any fragments which may remain, and
j ^ ' . which are not vifible, may be brought into view by (hut¬
ting the eyelids, and cautioufly rubbing them with the
finger.
33® Of the Extra&ion of the Capfule.
When, after the cryftalline lens is removed, the cap¬
fule is found to be opaque, it is abfolutely neceffary that
it be at the fame time taken away. Opacities of the
capfule are generally lituated in its anterior parts, which
renders the removal of them much more prafticable.
The forceps for this purpofe (Plate DXVII. fig. 9.)
are to be cautioufly introduced through the wound of
the cornea and pupil, and any opaque portion laid hold
of, and cautioufly removed. It has been obferved that
though the capfule did not appear opaque during the
operation, yet in confequence of inflammation, which
occurs more or lefs afterwards, the capfule has become
opaque. This circumftance has led to a propofal, that
in all cafes the capfule fhould be extradled along with
the opaque lens. From the natural ftrufture of the eye,
and the ftrong adhefion which exifts between the pofte-
rior part of the capfule of the lens and the anterior por¬
tion of the capfule of the vitreous humour, it would ap¬
pear impra&icable to feparate them from each other, fo
as to extraft the capfule entire. Many cafes, however,
are recorded by different authors, where, in performing
the common operation, the lens inclofed in its capfule
has made its efcape. In thefe cafes, however, it is
probable, that the natural adhefion between the capfules
of the two humours had been deftroyed by fome mor¬
bid alteration of ftruflure. Such cafes have probably
been the caufe of the propofal to extra ft in all cafes
the capfule of the lens. Mr Beer, a celebrated oculift
*.P/77fhy^ein Vienna, has publifhed a work*, in order to recom-
Beobach- mend and defcribe the mode in which fuch an operation
iungen. (hould be performed. After fome general obfervations
on the bad confequences which arife from portions of
the capfule remaining behind after the lens is removr
ed, he defcribes his mode of operating in the following
words.
“ Immediately after dividing the cornea, I dilate the
pupil as much as poflible, by a gentle preffure on the
eyeball with the finger. I then introduce the lancet
(Plate DXVII. fig. 4.) through the wound of the
cornea, and plunge it into the lens} one furface being
turned upwards, and the other downwards, fo that none
of the lancet is vifible. It is particularly to be recom¬
mended to the inftrument-maker, that this lancet have
a pretty thick body, by which means, the moment of
introducing it, the lens will be fomewhat preffed back,
and its weak anterior adhefion will be feparated. The
lancet muff now, when in the middle of the lens, be
moved upwards and downwards, in order to divide its
conneftions above and below. Laftly, the inftrument
muft be turned fuddenly on its axis, and moved to the
inner angle of the eye, and then drawn out in a ftraight
direftion. The lens often follows with its capfule, im¬
mediately after the lancet is withdrawn, or at lead it
comes out quite eafily, along with its capfules, on a
continued preffure of the finger. There is not merely
a fleight of hand, which mufl: be carefully obferved
in the ufe of the lancet j experience has taught me many
precautions which muft not be ncglefted the moment
99
that the lens comes out, otherwife the capfule may be Of the Dif-
very eafily rubbed off from the lens, either in paffxng the eafc5.of the
pupil, or in the wound of the cornea. ■ ^e‘ .
“ In order to avoid this, the opening of the cornea
(hould be made as large as poflible, and it is belt to di¬
vide two-thirds of it j thereby the operator has the fol¬
lowing advantages.
“ 1. The pupil dilates of itfelf after the divifion of
the cornea by the prefling forward of the lens ; and
this dilatation may be eafily increafed by the flighted
preffure.
“ 2. The more the pupil is dilated, the better^the ope¬
rator can obferve the management of the lancet j he can
move his inftrument more freely in different direftions
in the lens, and confequently feparate more quickly and
more furely, the lens along with the capfule, from all
its conneftions.
“ 3. The lens with its capfule paffes more eafily through,
the pupil, the wider the opening in the cornea, (which
indeed requires in moft cafes much fpace), and the
further and more eafily the pupil dilates, the lefs dan¬
ger there is of the capfule being feparated on coming
out. If the wound of the cornea is fmall, the capfule
will be either feparated from the lens in the pupil, or in
the wound of the cornea, or paffed back again either
entirely, or at lead partly, into the pofterior chamber of
the eye.”
To thofe who are accuftomed to perform operations
on the eye, the method which we have detailed will at
once appear to be difficult, extremely dangerous, and in
many cafes totally imprafticable. The caufes of failure
in the operation for the cataraft feldom arife from an
opacity of the capfule of the lens, and when this does
occur, it is always in confequence of a violent or long-
continued inflammation of the eyeball. Whenever,
therefore, the inflammation which takes place after the
operation is checked by proper remedies, a cataraft of
the capfule will feldom be met with.
Of the Treatment after the Operation.
After the lens has been extrafted, and the eyelids al¬
lowed to remain (hut for a (hort time, the eye ought to
be examined, in order to afcertain that the edges of the
wound of the cornea are in their proper place 5 that no
portion of the iris has paffed through it, and the pupil is
quite regular. When the incifion of the cornea is made
in the manner and fize already defcribed, the edges of
the wound, from their firmnefs and thickaefs, accurate¬
ly apply themfelves to each other; and if the iris has
fuftained 00 injury, it will remain in its natural fitua-
tion, and the pupil will become perfeftly circular.
When the pupil is not regular, it has been generally re¬
commended to expofe the eye to a bright light, in order
to make it contraft, and thus detach it from any part to
which it might have adhered. When a portion of the
iris protrudes through the wound, this generally arifes,
not from any injury of that part, but in confequence of
the incifion of the cornea having been made too large.
If the incifion be more than femicircular, (or two-thirds
of the circqinference of the cornea as direfted by Mr
Beer) this accident will almoft conftantly happen ; and
when it does take place, can never, as far as we know,
be remedied. In fuch cafes the operator (hould be care¬
ful not even to attempt with the fpoon, or any fuch in¬
ftrument, to replace the prolapfed iris ; for it has always
N2- been
S U R G £ B. Y.
T03
^een 0^^erve^» t^at attempts of this kind are fruitlels,
ff£}°g the and neycr fail to increafe the inflammation which fuc-
t.m, . ceeds the operation.
In applying the neceffary compreffes and bandages on
the eye, the obje&s to be held in view are, to keep the
eyelids in fuch a pofition, that they cannot diltnrb the
wound of the cornea by their motion, and that the eye
be not expof’ed to any light. The upper eyelid will be
completely fecured, by placing over it, and in the hol¬
low of the orbit, a fmall ftripe of wet caddis. The piece
of caddis fliould not be fo large as to prefs much upon
the eye, and from its being wet, it will be readily kept
in its fituation. Above the caddis (hould be placed a
piece ot linen covered with fimplefointment, large enough
to cover both eyes $ and this may be fecured by one
turn of a bandage round the head. In applying the
bandage, care ftrould be taken to place it fo that the
pins are put in at the forehead and temples. The con-
veniency of this will be afterwards found, the bandage
being eafily removed without moving the patient’s
head from the pillow. The patient fliould now be put
cautioufly to bed, and his head kept extremely low.
The room in which he fleeps fhould be made fo dark,
that no light may pafs through the bandage to the eye.
In an hour or half an hour after the operation, after the
patient has become compofed, he {hould be bled in the
arm, if from the previous ftate of the patient’s health that
fhould be deemed a proper precaution. Reft, quiet-
nefs, and abftinence, ought to be rigidly adhered to for
the fi>ft day after the operation ; the patient fhould be
allowed no food except that which is liquid, in order
that any motions of the jaw may be avoided, and the
food {hould be given through a tea-pot, in order to pre¬
vent any motion of the head. Sixteen or twenty hours
are fuflicient to produce an adhefion of the cornea in fa¬
vourable cafes j and after this period, the comprefs of
wet caddis placed upon the upper eyelid, becomes no
longer neceifary ; for if it be allowed to remain any
longer, it becomes hard and dry, and will be apt to ir¬
ritate. The bandage and plafter ought therefore to be
loofened, and the piece of caddis removed. The eye¬
lids will now' be found to adhere, and the patient wdll
find much relief by cautioufly wetting the ciliae with
cold water, in order to liberate the eyelids. From
this period it is advifeable to keep the eyelafties con-
fbntly greafy with any un&uous application.
In all cafes, the fymptoms which we are particu¬
larly to guard againft after this operation, are thofe
of inflammation ; for when thefe arife, various effe&s
may be produced which might fruftrate all our endea¬
vours to reflore the patient’s fight. If the wound in
the cornea, inftead of uniting by adhefion, goes through
a tedious procefs of fuppuration, the pupil becomes irre¬
gular and contra6!ed 5 or if there is an effiifion of lymph
in the pupil, or if an opacity of the capfule takes place,
thefe effects, all of which may arife in confequence of
inflammation, might either greatly impair, or entirely
deftroy vifion. The patient, therefore, ought to be
carefully watched every fix or eight hours for feveral
days, and on the evening of the day of the operation,
or at any future period, if fymptoms arife which indi¬
cate the commencement of inflammation, he ought to
be freely bled. The fymptoms which are to guide us
In adopting fucb means, are pain and uneafinefs darting
through the eye or head, and a frequent and full pulfe.
Chap.iX.
We have often remarked, after this operation, that even of the Dii-
in thole cafes where no bleeding is neceffary, the pulfe eafes of th*
becomes unufually full. This fymptom alone wrould not,, £ye' .
therefore, be fufficient to warrant us in proceeding far *r
in adopting fuch a praftice. We have long believed,
that the fuccefs of all furgical operations depends much
on the adoption of the means to prevent any inflamma¬
tory adlion. It is w7ell known the danger of amputa¬
tion, and fuch operations in a vigorous and healthy con-
ftitution } it is equally well known the Ipeedy recovery
of patients from operations, who have been much debili¬
tated from previous dileafe $ and wre have repeatedly re¬
marked that patients who have loft much blood from
fome accident, after an operation, have recovered much
more fpeedily than thofe to whom no fuch accident had
happened. Aware of thefe circumftances, we have in¬
variably adopted rigoroufly the depletive fyftem after
the operation for the catarafl j and in many of thofe
patients from whom a very confiderable quantity of
blood has at different periods been taken, we have ob-
ferved that the fuccefs of the operation has been more
fpeedy and more complete. The furgeon will fometimes
find cafes where, from the mildnefs of the fymptoms, he
is led to hefitate on the propriety of bleeding. In fuch
a fituation it is the fafeft plan to have recourfe to it j
for in general, wherever no fymptoms have arifen wdiich
may indicate the impropriety of fuch a practice, if it be
not ufeful, it is at leaft never followed by any bad con-
fequences.
Venefeftion at the arm is the eafieft and heft mode of
extrafling the blood; but {hould any circumftances occur
which render the operation at this place impraflicable,
or {hould it be thought neceffary to take away the blood
nearer to the inflamed organ, an opening may be made
in the temporal artery. For the firft two or three nights
after the operation, the patient’s arms {hould be watch¬
ed, or fecured in fuch a manner, that w7hen he is afleep,
he {hall not be able to raife his hand towards his eye ^
for the moft gentle ftroke upon the eye, even feveral
days after this operation, is attended with moft excru¬
ciating pain, and is generally fucceeded by violent in¬
flammation. The patient fhould be enjoined to lie on
his back, or on the found fide of the head ; and after
the firft twelve hours he may be allowed to raife his
head to the ufual height. Moft authors who have laid
down rules to be followed after this operation, have di-.
refled that the eye {hould be kept ftiut up, and in total
datknefs for many days after the operation. We have,
however, found an oppofite praflice attended with the
moft beneficial effefls, and we have always confidered it
as a general principle to be followed, that the eye, from
the very day after the operation, be gradually reftored
to its natural ftate, that the globe of the eye and eyelids
be allowed to move, and that day after day the quantity
of light to which it is expofed be gradually increafed.
In regulating the quantity of light, and the motion of
the eye and eyelids, we {hould be entirely guided by
the patient’s feelings. Whatever be the quantity of light
to which the eye is expofed, or its extent of motion,
if it does not create uneafinefs or pain, it will never be
found to prove injurious ; but on the contrary, if fuch
a quantity of light be admitted as to create uneafineis,
or if any motion of the eyes or eyelids gives pain, thefe-
circumfbnces will all tend to incrcafe the inflammatory
fymptoms.
SURGERY.
it
Chap. X. S U R G
Of the Dif- It has been already mentioned, that on the firft day
eafes of the after t}je operation, the wet caddis fhould be removed,
Eye‘ . and the eyelids feparated and covered with fome unftu-
V ous fubftance) f0 that the patient may, fiom time to
time, cautioufly move the eyelids, provided it gives
him no uneafinefs. The pledget of ointment covering
the eyes will prevent, during this day, any light from
entering.
On the fecond day the pledget of ointment may be
removed, and both eyes covered with two or three folds
of old linen, the patient being dire&ed to bathe his eye
frequently with a little warm water, fo as to remove any
glutinous or concreted matter from the eyelids. He
fliould alfo continue frequently to move the eyelids, and
by opening them, to expofe the eye to the fmall quan¬
tity of light which paffes through the linen. On the
following days, the light is to be admitted more and
more freely into the room, and by degrees the patient
will find that he is able to look down upon the bed
clothes, or any large obje£l, without uneafinefs. People
are often apt, from the joy which they feel in having
their fight reftored, to make too much ufe of the eye,
and to render it weak and painful. Too much care,
however, cannot be taken, to avoid any accident of
this kind ; and though the patient may feel his eye
perfeclly eafy, and has no other complaint, yet it is al¬
ways prudent to confine him to his bed for the firft fix
or eight days. After the fecond or third day he may
raife the head or body fafely in bed j but we have re¬
peatedly obferved that when patients began to fit up
early, and particularly when they approached too near
a fire, they have been feized with a peculiar head-
ach and inflammation of the eye, which were at¬
tended with much diftrefs, and very difficult to remove.
In ten or twelve days after the operation, the patient
is commonly able to ufe the eye with confiderable free¬
dom, and to look even at minute objects without pain
or uneafinefs. It fometimes happens that after this pe¬
riod, a flight irritability of the eye remains, but this in
general is fpeedily removed by the ufe of the vinous
tindlure of opium, or fometimes by the application of a
weak ointment compofed of the red oxide of mercury.
The application of the vinous tinfture of opium will be
found peculiarly ufeful \ and we have known many in-
ftances of patients who have undergone this operation,
who were frequently, fora long time afterwards, attacked
with flight pain or inflammation of the eye, which were
always fpeedily and completely removed by the ufe of
this medicine. It is fcarcely necefliry to obferve that
during the whole of the after treatment, the antiphlo-
giftic regimen fliould be rigidly purfued, and that the
patient fhould avoid every kind of food which from expe¬
rience he knows to be apt to difagree with him; and that
above all he fhould abflain from the ufe of wine and
fpirituous liquors of every defcription.
Of Couching.
Bv this operation the lens is deprefied from its natu¬
ral fituation behind the pupil, by introducing a needle
into the pofterior chamber.
The operation may be performed by introducing a
needle (Plate DXVI1. fig. 20.) through the fclero-
tic coat, about two lines diftant from its junclion wfth
the cornea. The noint of the needle is to be dire&ed
'Immediately over the opaque lens, and the lens to be
Eye
E R Y. 101
deprefled a little with the convex furface of the end of Of the Dif-
the needle. The point is to be pufhed in a tranfverleea^ot t^e’
direftion as far as the inner edge of the lens. Then the ,
operator is to incline the handle of the inftrument to¬
wards himfelf, by which means its point will be direfted
through the capfule into the fubftance of the opaque
lens, and by inclining the needle downward and back¬
ward, the former will be lacerated and conveyed with
the latter deeply into the vitreous humour. The treat¬
ment to be employed after couching is fimilar to that
after extra&ion.
Sect XI. Of ihe Fiftula Lacrymalis.
When the lacrymal fac is diftended with a puriform
fluid, or when it has ulcerated, and the tears do not
pais freely down the nafal du£t, the difeafe is called fif
lula lacrymalis. In the fit ft ftage of the difeafe, a di-
ftinft tumor is formed in the fituation of the lac, which,
when comprefled, a quantity of puriform fluid flows up¬
on the eyeball through the pumfture, or fome of it pafies
through the nofe. In the iecond ftage of the difeafe,.
the integuments covering the fac ulcerate, and the puri¬
form fluid and tears are conftantly oozing through the
fiftulous opening. The eyelids are affected molt com¬
monly in the fecond ftage of the difeafe, and fometimes
alfo in the firft, though not always. From the affe&ioa
of the internal palpebral membrane, Scarpa has fuppof-
ed that all the puriform fluid contained in the fac was
fecreted by it, but this does not always happen-
Treatment.— When the difeafe has originated in the
mucous membrane of the eyelids, applications to it alone
will be fufficient to remove the accumulation in the fac.
A collyrium of the muriate of mercury, and the daily
application of the ointment of Janin, or of an ointment
compofed of the red oxide of mercury, are well fuited
for this purpofe. When the fac has been the original
feat of the difeafe, a folution of corrofive fublimate, ace-
tite of zinc or of lead, will be ufeful, and thefe may be
ufed by allowing them to be abforbed by the punfta in¬
to the lac, along with the tears, or by inje&ing them
into the pun£la by a proper fyringe, (fee Plate DXVII.
%• 23O-
If there be a complete obftru&ion in the nafal du£f,
thefe remedies generally fail, and it becomes neceffary
to open the fac, and remove the caufe of obftruflion
in the duft. The fac may be readily opened by bold¬
ly plunging a common lancet into it while diftended
with matter. The fac Ihould then be examined with
a probe, and the probe paffed down into the nofe in the
direflion of the natural canal. A lurgeon well acquainted
with the fituation and direction of the duft, can never
fail in introducing the probe $ for we never met with
any cafe where the cbftruclion could not be over¬
come. A ftyle, (Plate DXVII. fig. 24.) fuch as has
been recommended by Mr Ware, is to be introduced in
place of the probe, and allowed to remain until the ca¬
nal is quite open. When the parts around the fac ap¬
pear healthy, the ftyle may be withdrawn, and the
opening of the fac then heals. In many cafes the dif¬
eafe re urns, and in fuch, after the parts are a feco< d
time healthy, a tube (Plate DXVII. fig 25 ) may 'jc
introduced and allowed to remain during life. This
operation requires that there be a free external opening,
and that the head of the tube be preffed completely-:
dawn
2J3
103 S U R G
Of the Dif-r down below the edge of the tkin. Generally the ex-
ea^Eye ^erna^ opening heals in a few days. When the fac has
»34
ulcerated, there will generally be found fome fmufes in
the integuments covering the fac, all which fhould be
freely laid open, and the ftyle introduced as in the
former cafe. After the Ikin and fac are apparently
healthy, the tube may be introduced as in the former-
cafe. Befides the ufe of the ftyle, it is alfo requiftte to
apply the eye-waters and ointments recommended in the
firft ftages of the difeafe.
Sect. XII. Of the Pfor ophthalmia.
In this difeafe there are numerous fmall brown co*
loured eminences formed at the roots of the ciliae of
both eyelids, and generally both eyes are afte&ed. The
adjacent Ikin has a browniflr red tinge, and becomes
fcurfy j the ciliae drop out, and the patient has a difficul¬
ty and uneafinefs in opening the eyelids, particularly in
candle light. The blood-veffels of the internal palpe¬
bral membrane are alfo turgid, and preternaturally nu¬
merous. This difeafe affedls often many branches of the
fame family.
Treatment.—Theunguentum citrinum is a fpecific re¬
medy in this difeafe. When there is much inflammation
of the eyelids, they ought to be fcarified, and the oint¬
ment applied immediately after. A collyrium compofed
of a weak folution of corroftve fublimate is alfo fome-
times ufeful.
235 Of the Ophthalmia Tarf .
In many people who ufe their eyes much, particular¬
ly in candle light, and in thofe who live freely, the in¬
ternal membrane of the eyelid often becomes gorged
with blood •, a thick puriform fluid glues the ciliae to-
gether in the morning, and the patient complains of an
inability to move the eyelids, or to look at an objeft
in a bright or dazzling light, without much uneafinefs
being excited. In other inftances the eyelids become af¬
fected with fcrofulous inflammation, the glands of Mei-
bomius fwell and fuppurate, the cilise drop out, and the
eyelids lofe their natural form.
Treatment.—Scarifying the inflamed veflels, and ap¬
plying immediately afterwards a quantity of the red
precipitate ointment, feldom fails in bringing relief, and
in many inftances alone the ointment will anfwer. In
fome cafes the difeafe in the eyelid is much aggravated,
and connected with affeCtions of the ftomach and
bowels, and in fuch the greateft attention becomes re-
quifite to keep the belly regular, and even to purge.
236 Of the Entropion.
When the eyelids are inverted, fo that the tarfus with
its cilia: come in contaCt with the eyeball, the difeafe is
called entropion. This difeafe, Mr Crampton has ffiown^
arifes in fome cafes from a thickened and difeafed ftate
of the internal palpebral membrane. In others the ci-
lim are turned in upon the eye from repeated and tedious
inflammation altering the form of the tarfus, land in
fome old people where the integumeuts are very loofe,
the whole tarfus is inverted by the aftion of the orbicu-
lari mufcle.
Treatment.—In the firft cafe, Mr Crampton has in-
genioufly recommended that the tarfi be divided at their
junClion towards the external canthus, and that the eye¬
lids thus liberated be kept in their proper fituation by
I
E R Y. Chap. XI,
plafters, compreffes, and when in the upper eyelid byOftheDii-
fixing the fpeculum of Pellier, until fuch time as tbee:j^es t'ie
wound has healed. In the fecond cafe little can be done S^e<^s
but pulling out from their roots any of the cilia; which ■ / -v- »
may have taken a wrong direction, and repeating the
operation whenever they grow again. In the third
cafe the difeafe may be cured by removing an oval por¬
tion of the fkin the whole length, and clofe to the tar¬
fus, and uniting the wound by one or tw-o ftitches and
adhefive plafters. This operation may be alfo advife-
able along with that of Mr Crampton, when one is not
fufficient to cure the complaint.
Chap. XL
Of the Difeafes of the Ear. 237
The fundions and ftruCture of the internal mem¬
brane of the external meatus, and alfo of the euftachian
tube and cavity of the tympanum, prove that it belongs
to the mucous fyftem, and that it is not a continuation
of the periofteum as many anatomifts have fuppofed.
The analogy in the difeales of this organ prove the
fame. In catarrhal affeCtions of the pituitary membrane
of the pharynx, the ear is always more or lefs affeCted,
and often the function of the organ is much impaired.
Polypi alfo grow from the cavity and membrane of the
tympanum of a fimilar ftruCture to thofe found in other
mucous furfaces. See Polypi. It is alfo fubjeCt to hae-
morrhagies, and when it becomes inflamed, inftead of
fuppuration taking place, there is a difeharge of a puri¬
form fluid from the furface, the fame as what is obferv-
ed in inflammation of the urethra, nofe, &c.* * See In-
The internal membrane of the ear is alfo fubjeCt Xjofiammati°n
the fame kind of thickening and contraction of the ca- ikfc/n"
nal, as what takes place in the urethra and lacrymal^^j..
fac, &c. in confequence of long continued inflamma¬
tion f. This we might conclude from analogy, but the|gee ^tr-c^
faCt has been proved in one inftance. Bichat diffeCted tures of
the body of a perfon who had been expofed during his Mucous
life to a puriform difeharge from the ear, in which he Mem-
found a very remarkable thickening of the membrane
of the tympanum, but no mark of erofion could be de¬
tected.
The moft common difeafe of the ear, and almoft the
only one which the furgeon can relieve, is a collection
of wax in the meatus externus. Its prefence can always
be determined by the infpeCtion of the ear 5 and it can
be removed by directing the patient to drop fome warm
water into the ear for a few fucceflive nights, and after¬
wards fyringing out the foftened w-ax, an operation
which may be performed with a fyringe, fuch as is re-
prefented in Plate DXVII.), having fitted for it a
pipe of confiderable length.
Chap. XII.
Of the Difeafes of the Nervous System. 333
Sect. I. General Remarks on the Pathology of the
Nerves.
A great number of difeafes have been confidered
under the clafs of nervous; and much obfeurity has
been thrown on this department of medical Icience,
from
1
Chap. XII. S U R
Of the Dif- from our imperfecl knotvledge of the laws which regu-
eaies ot the jate part 0f natural fyttem, and from mere fymp-
Svlhtir toms having often been confidered as primary affec-
■ ' t ' tions.
Pathological inveftigations have been alfo unfuc-
cefsful; and in only a few cafes has the knife of the
molt fkilful anatomift been able to deteft any morbid
alteration of Itrudture in nerves, which, during life,
had been the feat of agonizing difeafe. In a few cafes,
where tumors have been found growing in their fub-
ftance, it is not unlikely, that the cellular ftrufture,
connecting their fibrillre, has been the firft part affe£ted.
Their arteries and veins are fubjeft to the difeafes of
thefe fyftems in other organs •, and we have feen an
aneurifmal tumor as big as a hazel nut formed in the
nutrient artery of the popliteal nerve ; and Bichat men¬
tions having feen the veins of the fciatic nerve varicofe
in a paralytic limb. Mr E. Home has defcribed in the
Philofophical Tranfa&ions a particular tumor of one of
the axillary nerves, in which it is difficult to afcertain
if the medullary portion be affetffed ; and in the Ency-
clopedie Methodlque there is a defcription of a cafe of a
difeafe, refembling in fome refpefts the cafe of Mr
Home’s. The difeafe was in the middle of the radial
nerve ; and as the hand had neither loft its fenfibility
nor the movement of any of the fingers, this circum-
ftance led to the fuppofition, that the medullary portion
of the nerve was not affeffted, but merely its vearilema.
In the fungus hcematodes, it is by no means improbable
that there is a morbid alteration in the medullary mat¬
ter of the nerves ; though this fafl can only be deter¬
mined by an accurate examination of the difeafe in va¬
rious organs.
Moft difeafes belonging to this fyftem have been fully
treated of in the article Medicine. There is only one
which becomes an objedl of furgical treatment.
*39
Sect. II. Of the Tic Doleureux (Nevralgie).
Affeftions of this kind are diftinguifhed by the na¬
ture of the pain, which is fharp, gnawing, and, particu¬
larly at its commencement, accompanied with torpor,
and fometimes with pulfations. It is attended wdth no
heat or rednefs, or any tenfion or fwelling of the part.
It comes on in paroxyfms, more or lefs long, and at
different intervals. Sometimes the attack is perio¬
dical.
The pain is always fixed in the trunk or branch of a
nerve ; and, during the paroxyfm, it darts from the
part firft affeifted through all the ramifications of the
nerve.
Many nerves of the body have been found affeifted
with this difeafe. The firft pair of the loins (nevralgie
ilio-fcrotale), the pofterior crural (ilchias nervofa pofti-
ca), the crural, but particularly the nerves of the face
are fubjedt to it. When the difeafe affedls the face, it
is generally fituated either in the frontal nerve, in the
infra-orbitar nerve, or in the fubmental nerve. Some¬
times the pain affedts not only all the branches of thefe
nerves, but it extends to their anaftomofing branches,
and fpreads to one or more of the trunks.
This difeafe appears to be produced from a variety of
caufes, according to which its fymptoms are varied.
Sometimes it has been known to fucceed a local irrita¬
tion, fuch as an injury on the trunk of the nerve j and
G E R Y. iqs
in other cafes, the affedlion of the particular nerve IsOfHernise.
fympathethic of a difeafe in fome diftant organ. ‘ 1 "“v
In fome inftances we have obferved this difeafe arife
from an affedtion of the primae viae \ fo that in all cafes
it becomes the firft objedl of the furgeon to trace the
caufe of the difeafe.
Treatment.—When the ftomach or inteftinal canal
are difordered, along with the particular affedtion of the
nerve, the nervous aftedtion will often ceafe when they
are reftored to their natural ftate. This is to be ac-
complithed in moft cafes by emetics, and a courfe of
laxative medicines, purfued according to the qualities
and quantity of the evacuated matter.
In fome cafes, particularly in the affedtion of the
frontal nerve, we have found great relief from the re¬
peated application of fmall blifters over the nervous
trunk. In fome inftances, too, the patients have expe¬
rienced great relief, and have even completely recover¬
ed, by a continued attention to a very fpare vegetable
diet, or to a milk diet. The celebrated Marmontei
rvas a remarkable inftance of this kind.
There are, however, cafes where thefe means fail,
and where the difeafe appears to depend on fome fixed
caufe of irritation in the affedled nervous trunk. In
fuch cafes, it is the ufual pradtice to divide the trunk
of the nerve. This operation generally gives inftant re¬
lief ; but its effedts have, we believe, in moft cafes,
been but of ftiort duration. It is a fadt completely
eftablifhed, that the ramifications of the nervous as well
as of the vafcular fyftem, though divided, are gradually
regenerated. The numerous anaftomofes preferve the
life of the part on which the divided trunk was diftri-
buted, and the divided edges of the trunk gradually
coalefce ; fo that the nerve is again able to perform its
natural fundtions. This reunion of the nerves does not
take place fo rapidly as we obferve it in the arteries, in
the fkin, cellular membrane, or mufcle ; and months
elapfe before it is completed : but, from this reunion,
it is probable, that the morbid adlion in tic doleureux,
of the nature of which we are ignorant, the operation,
in moft cafes at leaft, brings merely temporary re¬
lief.
When the operation is to be performed, the neceffary
fteps are extremely fimple. Some have contented them-
felves with introducing a (harp-pointed biltoury through
the integuments towards one fide of the exit of the
nerve, paffing the point underneath it, and then dividing
it; thus leaving only a fmall pundlure of the (kin.
When, however, the operation is done in this man¬
ner, the divided extremities, from being feparated only
a little way, are apt immediately to reunite ; a circum-
ftance which (hould be prevented. We would therefore
advife that a free incifion be made immediately above
the nerve j that the nerve be completely divided, ’and
either a portion cut altogether away, or the divided ex¬
tremities feparated to a diftance, and the wound allowed
to heal by fuppuration.
Chap. XIII.
Of Herniae.
240
The word hernia has been ufed to fignify a protrufion
of any vifcus, from its proper cavity ; but we (hall only
treat in this place of abdominal hernia. The vifcera of
this cavity are moft frequently protruded at the inguinal
and
I°4 s u a G
Of Hermae, aruJ crural r;ngS an^ umbilicus. They, however,
protrude alfo at the foramen ovale, at the perinaum,
through the ifchiatk notch, and diaphragm.
The names that have been given to different kinds
of hernia, have been derived both from the contents of
the hernia, and from its fituation. If they contain omen
turn only, they are called omental hernia, or epiplocele;
if only inteftine, intejlinal hernia j if both, omentum
and inteftine, entero-epiplocele; if the ftomach is con¬
tained in the tumor, gajlrocele ; if the liver, hepatocele ;
-if the bladder, cystocele ; if the uterus, hysterocele,
The peritonaeum generally protrudes prior to any of
the vifcera, forming a bag called the hernial fac, in
which the protruded vifcera are afterwards contained.
The protruded portion of peritonaeum is not dragged
from its natural fituation, but becomes elongated by
gradual diftenfion j and it is ufually not only lengthen¬
ed, but more or lefs thickened.
341
242
Appear-
osnoes on
etifleiftion
Sect. I. Of the Inguinal Hernia.
In an inguinal hernia, the protruded vifcus enters the
abdominal ring, pafies along the inguinal canal, and
comes out either at the inguinal ring, and goes into the
fcrotum (fcrotal hernia), or burfts through the tendon
of the external oblique mufcle (inguino-abdominal).
Or, it pafles through the tendon of the tranfverfalis,
and internal oblique, and appears at the inguinal ring
(abdomino-inguinal).
Inguinal hernia is more frequent in men than women,
the round ligament of the uterus being of a fmaller fize
than the fpermatic cord. It fometimes appears on both
fides, but moft frequently on the right fide.
When the fkin of the fcrotum of an inguinal hernia
is removed by diffe&ion, a fafcia is found lying under¬
neath it, which varies in thicknefs, according to the
bulk and duration of the tumor. This fafcia comes off
from the tendon of the external oblique mufcle above
the abdominal ring. Below this fafcia is the cremaffer
mufcle, which is united both to the fafcia and hernial
fac, though eafily feparable from them by diffedtion.
When the fafcia and cremafter mufcle are removed, the
hernial fac is expofed. The epigaftric artery is fituated
on the pubic fide of the fac. The fpermatic cord lies
generally behind the fac; fometimes to one fide, and
lometimes on its anterior part. Often the veffels of the
cord are fplit, the epididimts pafling along one fide of
the fac, and the artery, veins, and abforbents, on the
other. Sometimes there are more than one hernial fac
on the fame fide. Mr Cooper found, in one cafe, tw'o
within the inguinal canal. This arifes in fome cafes
from wearing a trufs.
In the inguino-abdominal her nice, the fac enters the
abdominal ring j and, inftead of being continued along
the inguinal canal, it pafles through the tendon of the
external oblique mufcle. The hernial fac, in this cafe,
is compofed of two diftinft layers j the one internal and
peritoneal, the other external, and produced by an
elongation and gradual thickening of the aponeurolls of
** Merry Sx. the external oblique mufcle *.
Tetit. In the abdomino-inguinal hernia, the fac paffes through
the tendon of the tranfverfalis or the tendons of both
the tranfverfalis and oblique mufcle, enters the inguinal
canal, appears at the inguinal ring, and then paffes
E R Y. Chap. XIII.
down into the fcrotum. In this cafe, Mr Cooper ob-Of Herm's.
ferves, that the fpermatic cord lies on the upper or out- ——-v—*
er part of the fac. The epigaftric artery lies on the
outfide of the fac f. _ f Richter,
Lhe inguinal hernia is generally pyriform, fmall to- fiejfaiilt,
wTards the ring, and enlarging as it defcends. It may
be diftinguifired from other fwellings of thefe parts, bymo/tt'
the following fymptoms : 1. When the patient is defired
to cough, the tumor becomes immediately diftended,
owing to the preffure of the abdominal mufcles forcing
into the iac more of the vifcera or of their contents.
2. When the patient can remember that the tumor ufed
to difappear when in the horizontal pofition. 3. When
the progrefs of the tumor has been from the groin to
the fcrotum. 4. When the tumor contains inteftine, it
is elaftic and uniform j and, when puftied up into the
abdomen, it returns with a gurgling noife. When
omentum is contained, the tumor is lefs equal on its
furface, receives an impreflion with the fingers, and
does not return with a gurgling noife. Moft common¬
ly, however, both inteftine and omentum are contained
in the fac. 5. The fundlions of the vifcera are fome-
what interrupted, producing eruftations, ficknefs, con-
ftipation, colicky pains, and diftenfion of the abdo¬
men.
The inguinal herniae ought to be carefully diftin-
guiftied from hydrocele of the vaginal coat, from ineyft.
ed hydrocele of the fperroatic cord, from enlargements
of the tefticle, from haematocele, and from varicocele.
Hydrocele and hernia, too, are often combined, particu¬
larly omental hernia.
Sect. II. Of Reducible Inguinal Hernia, and of Truffes. 243
Hernia are either reducible, irreducible, or ftrangu-
lated. In the reducible ftate, the parts may be return¬
ed into the cavity of the abdomen. To prevent the ef-
cape of the bowels, and the danger of fuch an accident,
a conftant preffure ftiould be applied at the part where
the hernia opens into the abdomen, to fimt the mouth
of the fac, and thus oppofe an effe£hial refiftance to the
protrufion of its contents. To accompliih thefe pur-
pofes, various truffes have been contrived. The trufs
ftiould be made of fteel, and the fpring not ftronger
than what is fufficient to keep up the bowels; for, if the
preffure be great, the abdominal mufcles, where it is
applied, are weakened, and even abforbed. Mr Cooper
advifes the pad to be made of a conical form, the apex
of W'hich (hould reft on the mouth of the fac. But, as
there will be found much variety in the fituation and
fize of the opening through wfiiich the hernia paffes, it
will often be neceffary to vary the form and bulk of 'he
pad. The trufs ought to be applied fo that it makes
preffure not on the inguinal ring where the hernia comes
out, but upon that part where the fpermatic cord, and
with it the hernia, fivft quit the abdomen ; and this
point may always be determined, by making the patient
cough after the hernia has been reduced, and afrertain-
ing the furtheft part from the inguinal ring, where the
hernial fac is found to protrude. On this point the pad
ftiould reft. If the pad be too large, and prefs merely
on the inguinal ring, it will allow the bowels to pafs
through the internal or abdominal ring, and enter into
the inguinal canal. On the other hand, the pad ftiould
not
Chap. XIII. S U R G
Of Inguinal not be too fnaall, fo as to prefs into the mouth of the
Hernia;. fac an(i piUg up> for that would prevent all chance
cf a permanent cure; the bowels may be prevented
from entering into the fac ; but the pad will ad as a
dilater or bougie, keep the mouth of the fac conftantly
open, and even increafe its diameter. 'The pad, there¬
fore, ought always to be made of fuch a fize and drape,
as to make a preffure on the abdominal ring, inguinal
canal, and inguinal ring.
*44
Sect. III. Of Irreducible Hernice.
Herniae become irreducible when the protruded parts
are fullered to remain long in the hernial fac and in¬
creafe much in bulk, when membranous bands form
acrofs the fac and entangle its contents, or when an ad-
hefion takes place between the fac and its contents, or
amongft the contents themfelves.
Treattnent.—In fuch cafes, a bag trufs ought to be
worn, fo as to keep up a uniform and fteady preffure on
the fcrotum. The application of ice, too, has been
known to procure the return of a hernia which appeared
irreducible.
Sect. IV. Of Strangulated Hernia:.
A hernia is faid to be ftrangulated when not only the
inteftine and omentum are irreducible, but when the
protruded bowels are inflamed, and when the paffage of
the feces through the ftrangulated portion is completely
interrupted.
*45 ^ The tumor is attended with confiderable pain, which
Symptoms. Pometjmes extends through the abdomen, and is often
fituated at the umbilicus. Hiccup and vomiting fuc-
ceed ; at firft the contents of the ftomach only are eva¬
cuated, but afterwards thofe of the lower portions of the
alimentary canal. The bowels are completely obftruft-
ed, except that portion below the feat of ftrangulation.
The pulfe is commonly quick and hard ; fometimes,
however, it is full. If the difeafe continues, the {kin
covering the tumor becomes difcoloured and (lightly
oedematous, and the abdomen tender and tenfe j the
pulfe becomes fmall and thready, the countenance has
an expreflion of anxiety j and all thefe fymptoms are
fubjeft to exacerbations. They are greatly mitigated
for a while, but foon recur with increafed violence.
After having fuffered great pain during the firft ftage
of the difeafe, the patient becomes fuddenly eafy, and
the tumor becomes of a purple colour, and has a crack¬
ling feel. The abdomen becomes more tenfe, a cold
fweat covers the body, and the pulfe is weak and inter¬
mittent. At laft the patient, deluded with the hopes
of a recovery, finks under the complaint.
24l5 On diffediion, the hernial fac is generally found to
Appear- conta;n a quantity of dark bloody ferum. The inteftine
diffedion. *s °f a dark chocolate brown, with black fpots inter-
fperfed over it, which are eafily torn on being touched
with the finger. The furface is covered with a. layer
of coagulated lymph. Even when the inteftine is not
mortified the colour is extremely dark, but then the
black fpots do not appear. Within the abdomen the
wdiole inteftinal canal fometimes appears quite natural j
at other times portions of the inteftines appear inflamed,
and in fome rare cafes they-are glued together by an ef-
fufion of lymph.
Vol. XX. Part L
E R Y. 105
On examining the feat of ftridture, it will be found-Of Inguinal
to take place either at the abdominal or inguinal ring. Hernics' ,
In large herniae, Mr Cooper has remarked that the (trie-
ture is moft frequent at the external opening, and then
it may be often feen from the particular fhape of the tu¬
mor, a csnftrkftion being diftinguifhable at that part.
In other cafes the ftridlure is feen at the entrance of the
fpermatic veffeis into the inguinal canal •, fo that, in
operating for hernia, it is not fufficient to dilate the ex¬
ternal ring, but it becomes neceffary to dilate the upper
part of the canal.
Treatment.—In the treatment of ftrangulated hernia,
the leading objedl which is to be kept in view, is to re¬
turn the difplaced vifeera as fpeedily as poflible, and,,
at the fame time, while doing this, to diminifh the
fymptoms of inflammation or prevent their acceflion.
The firft thing to be attempted, except when the tumor Taxis. '
is much inflamed and painful, is the redulhon of the
hernia. In doing this, it is neceffary to attend to the po-
fition of the patient and the mode of applying the pref¬
fure. The body of the patient fhould be placed on an
inclined plane, with the head downwards, and the
thighs bent towards the trunk of the body. The pref¬
fure which is employed on the tumor fhould always be
direfted upwards and outwards along the courfe of the
fpermatic cord, and it may be perfevered in from a
quarter to half an hour. Befides thefe mechanical
means, tobacco clyfters, and cold, have been ufeful in
accomplifhing the reduction. Ice is the eafieft and beft:
mode of applying cold to hernial tumors j but, when
this cannot be procured, Mr Cooper ufes a mixture of
equal parts of fal ammoniac and nitre. To one pint of
water in a bladder, ten ounces of the mixed falts are
added, the bladder tied up, and then laid over the tu¬
mor. If, after four hours, the fymptoms become miti¬
gated, and the tumor leffens, this remedy may be per¬
fevered in for fome time longer ; but if they continue
with equal violence, and the tumor refill every at¬
tempt to reduftion, no further trial lliould be made of
the application. 2^3
The operation which it is now neceffary to perform, openuiott,
confifts in making an incifion through the integuments
along the upper part of the tumor, making an opening
into the hernial fac, and extending it, fo as to allow
the contents to be examined, and the fore finger to
reach the feat of ftrifture. The ftrifture wall be readily
detefted by the point of the finger, and may be eafily
divided by introduciisg the biftoury along the finger,
till the point of it paffes below the ftridlure. * A very * See Plate,
flight preffure of the edge of the inftrument will be fuf- DXI2C
ficient to divide the ftridlure, and allow the bowels to
be returned into the abdomen. If merely the ftridlure
is divided, and it is never neceffary to extend the inci¬
fion further, it is of little importance in which diredlion
the incifion is made j though furgeons have been at
great pains to point out the dangers which might arife
were it of too great an extent.
Sect. V. Of Femoral Hernia.
M9
In femoral hernia, the hernial fac lies beneath the
crural arch, being puftred through an opening between
the edge of the broad infertion of Poupart’s ligament. ^ ^ ^
and the pubic fide of the femoral vein.f As the tumor1 r^x'
enlarges, inftead of falling downwards like the inguinal
O hernia.
io6 S U R
Of Femoral hernia, it paffes forwards, and often turns over the an-
. Hc™iae- , terior edge of the crural arch. As it proceeds, the
fwelling increafes more laterally than upwards or down¬
wards ; fo that it affumes an oblong Ihape. In the cru¬
ral hernia, the fac has two coverings befides the inte¬
guments ; the fuperficial fafcia of the external oblique
mufcle, and the fafcia propria of Mr Cooper, which is
formed by the protrufion of the fafcia which naturally
covers the opening through which the hernia paffes, and
the fafcia of the crural Iheath. The taxis and ufe of
trufles are the fame in femoral as in inguinal hernia j
and the fame feries of fymptoms indicate the neceffity
of an operation in both when ftrangulated.
Operation.—Mr Cooper recommends that the inci-
fion of the integuments be made in the form of a T, be¬
ginning one incifiou about an inch and a half above the
crural arch, in a line with the middle of the tumor,
and extending it downwards below the arch, and
meeting a fecond incifjon nearly at right angles with the
other, the whole length of the tumor. The two fafcias
are next to be divided, and the hernial fac opened at
its lower part, fufficiently large to admit readily the
finger. The feat of the ftriflure is to be afcertained by
the introduction of the point of the fore finger under
the crural arch, and it may be readily divided in a di¬
rection upwards and inwards, of a fufficient extent to
liberate the intefline 5 generally a very flight motion of
the edge of the biftoury will be found fufficient for that
purpofe.
35° Chap. XIV.
Of Hare-lip.
The hare-lip is a fiflure in the upper lip, very fel-
* See Plate dom in the under one. * It is attended with want of
iDXXIV. fubftance, and has its name from a refemblance to the
lip of a hare. In general it is only a Ample fiflure,
though fometimes it is double.
In proceeding to the operation, the patient, if a
child, ffiould be fecured upon a table •, but if an adult,
he is to be feated upon a chair, in a proper light. The
frsenum connecting the gums to the upper lip is to be
divided 5 if a fore-tooth projeCt fo much as to prevent
the parts from being brought properly together, it is to
be extraCled *, or when the fiflure runs through the
bones of the palate, if a fmall portion of the bone pro-
Jed:, this muft be removed. The operator is then to
lay hold of one fide of the fiflure between the thumb
T Plate and fore-finger, or between the forceps f, then with a
PXXIV. pair 0f fjiarp and very ftrong fciflars, or with a fcalpel,
to cut off a thin portion of the lip, and to repeat the
fame thing upon the other fide of the fiflfure, fo as to
render the whole edges of the fiffure completely raw ;
by which, if the operation be properly performed, a
piece will be feparated in form like an inverted V. Af¬
ter the incifions have been made, the veffels Ihould be
allowed to bleed freely to prevent inflammation ; and
when the bleeding has ceafed, the fides of the wound
are to be brought accurately together, and kept in that
ftate by the twifled future. The firft pin ought to be
as near as poffible to the red edge of the lip ; another
is to be inferted near the upper angle; and if the pa¬
tient be an adult, a third pin rvill genet all v be neceffa-
yy, half way between the other twro. In paffing them,
G E R Y. Chap. XV.
they ought to go rather deeper than half through the Amputa-
lip, that the edges of the wound may be kept properly t’on-
in contaft. An affiflant now keeps the parts together, v——J
while the operator applies a firm waxed ligature firft to
the under pin j and having made three or four turns
with it in the form of an eight figure, it ihould then be
carried about the lecond, and in a fimilar way about the
third, care being taken that the thread be drawn of a
proper tightnefs. When, from a great want of fub¬
ftance, the retraftion has been conliderable, feme ad¬
vantage is derived from the ufe of adhefive plafters ap¬
plied to the cheeks and tied between the pins. During
the time of the cure the patient (horrid be fed upon
fpoon-meat, and prevented from making any exertion
with the lips, otherwife the cure might be confiderably
retarded. At the end of five or fix days the pins may
be taken out, when the parts will commonly be found
completely united.
In the cale of a double hare-lip, the operation (hould
be firft done upon one fifl’ure ; and when a cure is com¬
pleted there, it may be done fafely upon the other.
Chap. XV.
Of Amputation. 251
There are tw*o modes generally employed for per¬
forming amputation ; the common operation by two cir¬
cular incifions, and the flap operation. We (hall
deferibe in detail both thele modes of operating in the
—thigh. . 25a
The patient (hould be placed on a table of a conve- Amputa-
nient heigh , in fuch a manner that the difeaied limbtl0n °^‘e'
may hang over the edge of it, and be fecured by an ai-tla^‘
fiftant feated on a low chair before him j the other
limb and the arms are alio to be feewred by proper af-
fiftants. The tourniquet (fee Plate DXVI.) is to
be placed on the thigh, three or four inches below
Poupart’s ligament, where the femoral artery may be*
mod eafily and completely compreffed. Deffault pre¬
ferred to the tourniquet, the finger of a ftrong and
intelligent affiftant. A culhion fixed on a handle
anfwers very well for making preffure on the artery
when a tourniquet is not to be ufed ; and it is a ufeful
inftrument to have in readinefs, in cafe the tourniquet
(hould go wrong; or when it becomes neceffary to am¬
putate the thigh fo far up, that a tourniquet cannot be
fafely fixed.
After the operator has determined on the place for
the incifion of the integuments, an affiftant (hould grafp
the limb with both hands a little above the place where
the (kin is to be divided, and draw it upwards as far as
poffible. The operator then with the knife (fee Plate
DXXII. fig. 10.) makes a circular incifion through
the (kin and cellular membrane, down to the mufcles \
and this may be done, either by one ftroke of the knife,
or by firft making one femicircular incifion round the
under part of the limb, and afterwards another incifion
upon the upper part correfponding with the former.
When this is made, the integuments retraft confiderably
from their natural elafticity, and they are to be fepara¬
ted from the mufcles and differed with the point of the
knife, as far back as to leave a fufficient quantity of (kin
to cover the (lump. The fkin being turned back, the
operator,
Chap. XV. . S U. R G
Amputa- operator, by a fecond incifion carried clofe to its invert-
tl°n- | ed edge, cuts the mufcles perpendicularly down to the
' ~v"~ * bone. During this part of the operation, care Ihould
be taken to avoid wounding the edge of the tkin, by
tracing attentively the edge of the knife during the
whole courfe of the incifion. After the mufcles are di¬
vided, a confiderable retraftion takes place, and any
mufcular fibres attached to the periofteum Ihould be fe-
parated from it by the point of the knife, in order to
allow the bone to be fawn through as high as poffible,
and thus fecure to it a firm flefhy covering. All the
foft parts are next to be drawn upwards as far as their
feparation from the bone will admit of. I hey are to
be kept in this fituation by an initrument called the rc-
traflors, until the bone is fawn through. The retrac¬
tors may be either made of iron plates (iee Plate
DXXII. fig. 5.), or a piece of linen or leather cut as
reorefented m fig. 6* Xtic aflillant who ufes either
of thefe inflruments, fliould take care when he ap¬
plies them, that the foft parts are completely out of
the reach of the faw, and that they are held back as
far as the place where the bone is to be divided. Any
fliarp edges which may be left on the end of the bone
after it has been fawn through, fliould be taken away
with pliers, Plate DXXII. fig. 8. The arteries are
next to be tied, and both the femoral artery and vein
may be included in one ligature. The bleeding being
flopped, and the wound cleaned, the tourniquet is to
be altogether taken away, and the foft parts drawn
down, fo as to cover the extremity of the bone. In or¬
der to keep them in this fituation, a bandage of thin
flannel or cotton cloth, not exceeding two inches and a
half in breadth for an adult, is to make one or two cir¬
cular turns round the body above the ilium j it is then
to be carried obliquely over the groin, and turned round
the upper part of the thigh pretty firmly two or three times,
forming as it were at this place a point of fupport to the
mufcles and fkin. It is afterwards to be palled in a fpiral
manner downwards to near the edge of the wound, taking
care to pull the foft parts towards the flump, whilft ap-
plyir.g each turn of the bandage. The turns fliould
not be fo tight as to caufe pain, but fufRcient to keep
the parts in the fituation in which they are placed. The
furface of the mufcles and the edges of the Ikin are now
to be accurately brought together in fuch a direftion,
that the wound forms a ftraight line, extending from
the anterior to the pofterior afpe£t of the limb. Strips
of adhefive plafter, about half an inch ih breadth, and
eight or ten inches in length, fliould be applied, in or¬
der to keep the lips of the wound in this pofition.
Thofe over the middle part of the wound ought to be
put on firft; and great attention is neceflary in their ap¬
plication, to prevent the edges of the Ikin from over¬
lapping and puckering. They Ihould be ol iuch a
number as completely to cover the furface of the wound,
leaving only a fmall opening for the ligatures of the ar¬
teries to be brought out at that part of the wound near-
eft the place where the artery is fituated. '1 he wound
is to be afterw’ard« covered with a piece of linen or cad¬
dis fpread wTith Ample ointment, and a comprefs of fine
tow laid over it, the whole being fecured by a few turns
of the roller.
The bedclothes fliould be kept from prefling upon,
and coming in contact with the flump, by a frame or
cradle, as it is called. (See Plate DXXIII. Ag. 11.).
E R Y. io7
When this operation is to be performed, the incIAon Lithotomy.
of the integuments may be made, either with a com-
mon fcalpel, or with the end of the amputating knife, pjap opera-
as reprefented in Plate DXXII. Ag. 10. After the Ikin turn,
is divided, it is of importance to allow' it to retraft as
much as poffible, by cutting the Abres of cellular
membrane which conncft it with the fafeia of the
thigh, before dividing the mufcles. If the limb be
much emaciated, the diviAon of the mufcles may be aifo
made with the fcalpel; if, on the contrary, the limb be
bulky, the inciAon ought to be made by a common am¬
putating knife, in order that the furface of the flaps be
plain and uniform. After dividing the mufcles ob¬
liquely upwards down to the bone, they ftiould be fepa-
parated from it a futneient wTay, fo as to leave enough
to cover the end of ths bone, and they fliould be
allowed to contract as much as poflible before the
bone is fawn through. After the limb is ampu¬
tated, and the circular bandage applied, the flaps
will be found to meet very accurately together,
and to form a round and fmooth flump. From the
angles of the Ikin being removed, no puckering or cor¬
ners are left, and the two furfaces and mufcles being
applied to each other, and covering the end of the bone,
give it a Arm and flefhy covering, whereas in amputa¬
tions performed in the common mode, the bone is co¬
vered by integuments alone. The adheflve plafters
are to be applied in the fame manner, and the patient
is to be treated afterwards as in the other modes of ope-
rating.
The general rules to be attended to in amputation
in other parts of the body, are the fame as thofe already
mentioned ; and in Plate DXXII. and DXXIII. w’e-
have delineated the place and direftion of the incifions.
Chap. XVI.
Of Lithotomy.
The manner of preparing the patient for this opera¬
tion depends upon a variety of circumftances. If he be
plethoric, a few ounces of blood fhould be taken away,
and at proper intervals the bow'ds ought to be emptied
by any gentle laxative which will not gripe. The diet
fliould conAft of light food for fome time previous to the
operation. If the pain be violent, opium is neceflary.
Sometimes it is relieved by keeping the patient in bed
with the pelvis raifed, fo as to remove the Hone from
the neck of the bladder. He ought not to fit up, or
take any exercife, in the time of preparation. The
w'aim bath ought to be ufed two or three times, and
the patient fliould remain in it half an hour at each
time. A laxative ought to be given on the day preced¬
ing the operation, and an injection a few' hours before it
is performed. The patient ought to drink plentifully
of fome diluent liquor, and to retain the urine fever&l
hours previous to the operation. If this cannot be rea¬
dily effefted, a flight compreflion, by means of a liga¬
ture, may be made upon the penis, fo as to have the
bladder fufficiently diftended, that there may be no
danger of the poflerior furface being hurt by the end of
the gorget. The perimeum and parts about the anus
fhould be w'dl fhaved.
A table fomewhat more than three feet in height,
and of fufficient ftrength, is to be firmly placed,
O 2
ic8
S U R G
Lithotomy, and properly covered with blankets, pillows, &c. • Up-
on this the patient is to be laid and properly fecured $
and for this purpofe there ought to be two pieces of
broad firm tape, each about five feet in length, which
are to be doubled, and a noofe formed upon them. A
noofe is to be put upon each wrifl, and the patient de¬
filed to lay hold of the middle of his foot upon the out-
fide. One ead of the ligature is to go round the hand
and foot, and the other round the ankle and hand, and
crofs again, fo as to repeat the turns in the reverfe way.
A running knot is to be tied, by which the hand and
toot will be properly fecured. The buttocks are then
to be made to project an inch or two over the table,
and to be railed confiderably higher than the Ihoulders
by a couple or more pillows, and one pillow ought to
be put under his head.
The operator is now to introduce a grooved ftaff
(Plate DXXT. fig. 5.) of proportionable fize, and open
to the end, through the urethra into the bladder; and
having fully fatisfied himfelf of the exiftence of a ftone,
he inclines the ftaff, if he be right-handed, obliquely over
the right groin, fo that the convex part of the ftaff may
be felt in the perinaeum on the left fide of the raphe.
He then fixes it, and delivers it to his affhlant, who is
to hold it with his right hand, defiling him to prefs it
gently, in order to make the fulcus of the ftaff projett
in the dire&ion in which he received it. With his
left hand the fame aftiftant is to raife and fupport the
ferotum.
1 he thighs of the patient being fufficiently feparated
by the afliilants, and the furgeon being feated upon a
chair of a proper height, and in a convenient light, he
makes an inc-fion with a common convex-edged fcalpel
through the fkin and cellular fubftance, below the fym-
phyfis of the offa pubis, which is a little below the fero¬
tum, and where the crus penis and bulb of the urethra
meet, and on the left fide of the raphe, and continues it
in a flanting direftion down-wards and outwards to the
fpace between the anus and tuberofity of the ifehium,
ending fomewhat lower than the bafis of that procefs,
by which a cut wall be made of three or four inches in
length. This incifion ought not to be ftiorter than is
here direfled, otherwife there will not be room for the
reft of the operation. As foon as the integuments are
divided, he ought to introduce two of the fingers of the
left hand. With one he keeps back the lip of the
wound next the raphe, and with the other he preffes
down the reclum. He ought likewife particularly to
guard again ft cutting the crura of the penis, which he
can readily feel, and feparate at their under part with
one of his fingers. He next makes a fecond incifion al-
moft in the fame direction with the firft, but rather
nearer to the raphe and anus, by which he prefetves the
trunk of the arterw pudica. By this incifion he divides
the tranfverfalis penis, and as much of the levator ani
and cellular fubfiance within thefe as will make the
pvoftate gland perceptible to the finger. If any confi-
derable veffel be cut, it is immediately to be fecured,
though this is felclom neceffary. He is now to fearch
for the groove of the ftaff with the fore finger of his
left hand, the point of which he preffes alongHrom the
bulb of the urethra to the proftate gland, which fur-
rounds the neck of the bladder. He keeps it there ; and
turning the edge of the knife upwards, he cuts upon the
groove of the ftaff, and freely divides the membranous
DXXI.
Fig. 2.
E It Y. Chap. XVI.
part of the urethra, till the ftaff can be felt perfe£Hy Lithotomy,
bare, and that there is room to admit the nail of the
finger ; and as the finger aflifts in keeping the parts
ftretched, and effectually prevents the reCtum from be¬
ing hurt, the incifion into the urethra may be made
with perfedl eafe and fafety.
The next part of the operation, viz. dividing the pro¬
ftate gland and neck of the bladder, might, by a dexte¬
rous operator, be fafely performed with a common fcal¬
pel, with the edge turned the oppofite way. But to
guard againft accidents, a more convenient inftrument,
called the cutting gorget, is now in general ufe. It was
originally invented by Mi Hawkins of London, and
fince his time has undergone various alterations.* The* See Plate
membranous part of the urethra being now divided, and
the fore finger ftill retained in its place, the point of the
gorget, previoufly fitted to the groove, is to be direCIed
along the nail of the finger, which will ferve to condudl
it into the groove of the ftaff j and as this is one of the
mceft parts of the operation, the moft particular atten¬
tion is required that the point of the gorget be diftinCUy
felt to rub in the bare groove.
The operator now rifes from his feat, takes the ftaff
from the afliftant, raifes it to near a right angle, and
preffes the concave part againft thefymphyfis of the offa
pubis; fatisfies himfelf again that the point or beak is
in the groove, and then pufties on the gorget, following
the direftion of the groove till the beak flip from the
point of the ftaff into the bladder. The gorget is not
to be puffed farther than this, otherwife it may wound
the oppoftte fide of the bladder, &c.
The gorget having now entered the bladder, which
is readily known by the difeharge of urine from the
wound, the ftaff is to be withdrawn, and the finger in¬
troduced along the gorget to feareh for the ftone, which,
when felt, will point out the direction to be given to
the forceps ; at any rate, the introduction of the finger
ferves to dilate the wound in the bladder; and this be¬
ing done, a pair of forceps f of a proper fize, and with
their blades as nearly together as their form will allow,  
are to be introduced, and the gorget withdrawn {lowly, Fig* <>. & f*'
and in the fame direction in which it entered, fo as to
prevent it from injuring the parts in its return. After
the forceps are introduced, and paffed till they meet
with a gentle refiftance, but no farther, the handles
ought to be depreffed till they are fomewhat in an hori¬
zontal direCHon, as this will moft correfpond with the
fundus of the bladder. One blade of the forceps is to
be turned towards the fymphyfis of the pubes, to defend
the foft parts there ; the other of confequence will guard
the return. After they have diftinCtly touched the
ftone, by moving them a little in various direftions,
they are then to be opened, and the ftone laid hold of,
which may generally be done with confiderable eafe. It
frequently happens, however, that when the ftone is
fmall, it is not readily felt with the forceps ; and in-
ftances may happen where the under and back part of
the bladder may be fo depreffed as to conceal the ftone.
In fuch a fituation, nothing will more readily bring it
in the way of the forceps than to introduce the finger in¬
to the reCtum, and elevate this part of the bladder.
Straight forceps are generally ufed ; crooked ones, in
fome very rare cafes, however, may be neceffary, and
therefore the furgeon ought to be provided with
them.
t Plate
DXXI.
After
Chap. XVI. S U R G
Lithotomy. After the forceps has laid hold of the ftone, if it be
v-~**v  fmall and properly placed, it may readily be extra&ed :
but if, on the contrary, the handles of the forceps are
now obferved to be greatly expanded, it is certain the
{tone is improperly fixed, cr that it is remarkably
large : in either cafe it Ihould not be held fall, but
allowed to move into the molt favourable fituation ; or
the finger is to be introduced fo as to place it pro¬
perly for extraction. If this cannot be done with the
E R Y. 109-
fmger, it ought to be allowed to flip out of the for- Lithotomy^
ceps, in order to get it more properly fixed j and as the
moll common form of the (tone is flat and oval, or
fomewhat like a flattened egg, the forceps fhould have
hold of the fmallelt diameter, while an end prefemts to
the neck of the infhument. The flone fhould be grafp-
ed with no greater firmnefs than is merely fufficient to
bring it fairly out, and it Ihould be extracted in a flow
gradual manner.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES.
Plate DXIII.
Fig. I. and 2. Common fcalpels. Fig. 3. A blunt-
edged filver knife for diffe&ing clofe to important parts.
Fig. 4. and 5. A (harp and blunt-pointed bifloury.
Fig. 6. Richter’s hernia knife. Fig. 7. Diflecting for¬
ceps. Fig. 8. A blunt hook. Fig. 9. and 12. Direc¬
tories. Fig. 10. and 11. DifleCling hooks. Fig. 13.
Lancet. Fig. 14. 15. and 16. Seton needles. Fig. 17.
and 18. Sharp and blunt-pointed needles. Fig. 19.
Outline of a fteatomatous tumor, the dotted line point¬
ing out the direction in which the incifion of the integu¬
ments ought to be made for its extirpation.
Plate DXIV.
Fig. 1. 2. and 3. (hew the different forms of the
points of bougies. Fig. 4. 5. and 6. are different fizes
of filver balls ufed by Mr C. Bell for introducing into
the urethra in order to determine the form and length
of ftriCtures. Fig. 7. An outline taken from a cafl of
the urethra, to (hew the difference of the diameter at
different parts of that canal. Fig. 8. and 9. fhew the
form of ftriCtures in the urethra. Fig. 10. fhews a ftric-
ture in the oefophagus. Fig. 12. and 13. Male and fe¬
male fyringes. Fig. 14. Scarificator for the throat. Fig.
15. is the apparatus for injeCting hydrocele.
Plate DXV.
Fig. 1. and 2. Forceps for removing polypi deferibed
In Chap. III. SeCt. V. Fig. 3. 5. and 6. Inflruments
for removing polypi by ligature. Fig. 7. Outline of one
large and two fmall polypi in the reCtum. big. 8. A
breafl-glafs. Fig. 9. Chefelden’s needle. Fig. 10. A
fpeculum oris. Fig. 11. Mudge’s inhaler.
Plate DXVI.
Fig. 1. Drawing of a femoral aneurifm given by Mr
Freer, a is the direction and extent of the incifion as
made by Mr Abernethy. The artery, however, may
be more eafily tied by making an incifion parallel to
Poupart’s ligament (/>). c is tbe place and direction
where the incifion ought to be made in the high operation
for popliteal aneurifm. Fig. 2. is the inflrument ufed
for comprefling the artery or aneurifmal tumor. Fig. 3.
The common tourniquet.
Plate DXVII.
Fig. I. 2. and 3. Different forms of extracting knives.
Fig. 4. Beer’s lancet for extracting the capfule of the
lens. Fig. 5. Inftruments for fcarifying the eyelids.
Fig. 6. A thin fcalpel for paring the cornea. Fig. 7.
loftrument for holding down the under eyelid. Fig. 8,
Pelier’s fpeculum. Fig. 9. Capfule forceps of Wenzel.
Fig. 10. Eye feiflars. Fig. 11. 12. 13. 14. and 15.
have been referred in N° 224. Fig. 16. reprefents
the wound of the cornea where the knife has been en¬
tered too near the inner edge of the pupil j Fig. 17.
where it has been brought out at too great a diliance
from the fclerotic coat j Fig. 18. where it has been
brought out too clofe to the fclerotic coat. Fig. 19. A
curette and Daniel’s fpoon. Fig. 20. Scarpa’s needle :
Fig. 21. fhews its point magnified. Fig. 22. Common
fpear-pointed couching needle. Fig. 23. Fiflula lachry-
malis fyringe. Fig. 24. The ftyle for introducing into
the lachrymal duCt. Fig. 25. Tube for introducing
into the lachrymal duCl j and fig. 26. Inflrument for
introducing the tube.
Plate DXVIII.
Shews the external appearance of herniae. Fig. 1. is
a femoral hernia, the tumor being unequal and divided
into two portions at a ; the iliac portion is formed of
fw’elled glands, and the pubic contains the intefline.
Fig. 2. is a fpecimen of inguinal hernia, and fig. 3. of
inguino-abdominal.
Plate DXIX.
Fig. I. Common inguinal hernia, copied from Mr
Cooper’s plate, a, The abdominal ring. Poupart’s
ligament, c, The femoral artery, d. The epigaflric
artery, e, Hernial fac below the ring, f, Hernial fac
above the ring, g, Sharp part of the knife introduced
between the ring and the fac, with its fide placed to¬
wards the fac. Its edge fhould be turned forwards to
divide the flri£ture. Fig. 2. The hernia on the inner fide
of the epigaflric artery, a, The abdominal ring.
Poupart’s ligament, c, The femoral artery, d, The
epigaflric artery, e, Internal oblique and tranfverfe
mufcles palling over the fac. f, Tendon of the tranf¬
verfe mufcle palling under it. Fafcia from Poupart’s
ligament, from which the cord has been withdrawn to
fhew the place through which it pafles. h, i, The her¬
nial fac. £, Knife introduced to fhew the manner of
dilating the ftridture, which Mr Cooper dhe£ts always
to be done forwards and upwards, oppofite to the mid¬
dle of the mouth of the hernial fac, in all the varie¬
ties of inguinal hernia. Fig. 3. Form of the hernial
trufs j and fig. 4. Mode in which it fhould be applied.
Plate DXX.
Fig. 1. Crural hernial fac removed to fhew the hole
by which it defeended in the female, a, Seat of the
pubes, b, Crural arch extending towards the ilium,
cc, Abdominal mufcles. d^ Crural arch, e, Fafcia
lata, .
no
SURGERY.
Explana- lata. fy Semilunar edge of the fafcia lata, g, Third
t^0p!<u-s^e *n^er^on ^ie external oblique. /^, Crural artery, i,
. . Crural vein, k, Crural (heath. /, Abdominal ring.
m, The orifice by which the crura hernia defcends form¬
ed on the outer fide by the crural (heath •, on the inner
by the femicircular infertion ol the tendon of the exter¬
nal oblique} and above, in part, by the crural, and in
part by the femilunar edge of the fafcia lata. Fig. 2.
A final 1 crural hernia in the female-, (hexving its paffage
through the crural (heath, and its difiance from the
crural arch. Seat of the fymphyfis pubis, b. Spi¬
nous procefs of the ilium, c, Crural arch, d. Abdo¬
minal ring. <?, Fafcia lata, f Semilunar edge of the
fafcia lata, g. Portion of the crural (heath, /i, Sa¬
phena major vein palling into the crural (heath, i, Her¬
nial fac inclofed in its fafcia, which is extremely denfe,
and is proportionably fo as the hernia is fmall. £, The
hole in the crural (heath through which the hernia paffes.
Fig. 3. A fmall crural hernia diffefted. a, Seat of the
fymphyfis pubis. Seat of the fpinous procefs of the
ilium, c, Tendon of the external oblique mufeie. z/,
Internal oblique and tranfverfalis. c\ Fafcia of the
tranfverfalis. f, Tendon of the tranfverfalis. g. Inner-
portion of the fafcia tranfverfalis, palling to unite itfelf
with the tendon, h, The crural arch, it, Round li¬
gament. k, The round ligament palling into the abdo¬
men. /, Crural artery, m, Crural vein. », Origin
of the epigaftric artery. 0, Courfe of the epigaftric ar¬
tery behind the round ligament. />, Crural nerve, q,
Superficial fafcia. r, Fafcia propria of Mr Cooper, the
hernial fac having been drawn into the abdomen to
fhew this fafcia difiindlly. Fig. 4. (hews the form and
mode of applying the trufs in femoral hernia.
Plate DXXI.
Fig. 1. An umbilical hernia trufs. {a), The pad.
(£), The fpring added to the pad. (c), An elaftic band
to aflift the preffure of the pad ; the lower {b') points to
the belt which is added to keep this trufs in its place in
corpulent people. Fig. 2. 3. 4. Different forms of the
gorget, as ufed by Hawkins, Cline, and Cooper. Fig. 5.
The ftaff. Fig. 6. and 7. Different forms of the for¬
ceps for the extradlion of (tones from the bladder.
Plate DXXII.
Fig, 1. A lateral view of the thigh and leg j the
dotted lines (hewing the direftion of the incifion in am¬
putation. Fig. 2. An anterior view. Fig. 3. Form of
the flump j and, Fig. 4. Mode of applying the circular
bandage. Fig. 5. 6. and 7. Retractors. Fig. 8. Pliers
for removing any fpicuhe of bone. Fig. 9. Head of
a trephine, two-thirds of the cutting teeth- being remo¬
ved. This inftrument is intended for removing the
ends of bones, particularly thole of the metatarfus and
metacarpus. Fig. 10. and 11. Amputating knives.
Fig. 12. Amputating law.
Explana¬
tion of the
Plates.
Plate DXXIII.
Fig. 1. Lateral view of the arm and hand, the dot¬
ted lines (hewing the dire&ion of the incifion, in ampu¬
tation at the fhoulder joint and laft joint of the fore¬
finger. Fig. 2. and 3. Saws ufed in amputations of the
hands and feet. Fig, 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. and 9. (hew the dif¬
ferent parts ol an artificial leg. Fig. ix. Cradle uled
after amputation in order to prevent the bedclothes pref-
fing upon the limb.
Plate DXXIV.
Fig. 1. Ihew-s the hare-lip with a fiffure of the pa¬
late. Fig. 2. The fimple hare-lip. Fig. 3. A double
hare-lip with two irregular teeth. Fig. 4. (hews the
part of the lip into ■which the pins ought to be introdu¬
ced. Fig. 5. (hews the mode in which the ligatures
ought to be applied. Fig. 6. The lip after the opera¬
tion. Fig. 7. and 8. Pins for the lip. Fig. 9. Lip
forceps. Fig. 10. Lip forceps, with one blade broader
than the other, which is covered with wood in order to
make refiftance, and not injure the edge of the knife.
Fig. 11. Strong feiffars for dividing the lip. Fig. 12.
Sciffars with curved blades to be ufed when the lip is
very thick, and not eafily grafped by the common feif-
fars. Fig. 13. Shews the appearance of the club-foot.
Fig. 14. Machine invented by Scarpa for the cure of
club-feet. Fig. 15. Diftorted foot from a relaxed (late
of the ligaments, a deformity which may, in general, be
removed by wearing a boot, fig. 16. to which is fixed a
fleel-rod, extending from the foie of the foot to the knee.
INDEX.
ABSCESSES treated by Celfus, page 26
nature of, 32
opening of, _ 33
by caufiic, 34
by incifion, ib.
by the felon, 3*5
jdbfceffus in medulla, nature of, 76
JE/cu/apius, a Greek furgeon, 25
JEtius writes on furgery, 27
jilbucafes, an Arabian furgeon, ib.
his horrid operations, ib.
Amputation, 106
Angina, fymptems of, page 55
treatment of, ib.
Aneurifms, varieties of, 78-—80
eneyfted, tb.
falfe or diffufed, ib.
varicofe, tb.
diagnofis of, tb.
prognofis of, 79
treatment of, ib.
Anthrax, fee Carbuncle.
Antrum maxillare, polypus of, 67
Aphthae, fymptoms of, 68
treatment of, ib.
Archagathus, a Greek, pra&ifes furgery
in Rome, page 26
is banilhed from the city. ib.
Arrangement of furgical difeafes, 29
objedled to, ib.
of Bichat, ib.
Arfenic employed in cancer by Celfus, 27
Arterial fyftem, difeafes of, 77—80
Afclepiades prattifes medicine in Rome, 26
Afcites, fymptoms of, 70
operation for, ib.
Atheroma, a kind of-tumor, 39
Avicenna revives medicine in the eaff, 27
Avicenna,
page 27
80
28
Index.
Avicenna, his fyftem of furgery,
Axillary aneurifm,
B.
Barbers praftife furgery in Britain,
in Holland and Germany, 10.
Beer, his method of extracting the ca-
taradt, 99
Bell, Benjamin, his fyltem of furgery
the completed, 29
Bichat's arrangement of furgical dif-
eafes according to textures, ib.
Bladder, polypi of, 67
hemorrhage from, 69
nature and treatment of, ib.
Boil, nature and treatment of, 45
Bougie nature and method of ufing, 60,61
Broomfield, an Englifh furgeon, 29
Bowr, difeafes of, 75—77
C.
Cancer of the fkin, 46
fymptoms of, ib.
treatment of, ib.
Capfular ligaments, collection of fluid
in, 74
treatment of, ib.
Capfules, finovial, moveable bodies in, 75
how removed, ib.
Carotid aneurifm, 79
Carbuncle, nature of, 38
treatment of, ib.
Carpus, a writer of 16th century, 28
Cataract, nature of, 91
four fpecies of, ib.
confiftence of, 92
colour of, ib.
diagnofls of, ib.
a local difeafe, ib.
fometimes hereditary, ib.
of the capfule, ib.
trembling, ib.
combined with amaurofis, 93
progrefs of, ib.
fymptoms of, obferved by the
patient, ib.
treatment of, 94
extraction of, 94—101
treatment of, after extraction, 99
—101
couching, method of perform¬
ing, 101
Catarafls couched by Celfus, 27
Catarrh of bladder, nature of, and
treatment, 55
Cavfiic applied in opening abfcefles, 34
in ftriCture of urethra, 61
bad effeCts of, 62
ufe of, in ftriCture compared
with bougie, ib.
method of applying^ ib.
Cellular membrane, difeafes of, 30
enumerated, 31
Celfus, his work on furgery recommended, .26
SURGERY.
Chilblains, nature of, page 45
how treated, 46
Conjun&iva, polypi of, 67
inflammation of, 87
Cornea, difeafes of, 89, 90
ulcers of, ib.
treatment of, ib.
fpecks of, 90
mode of treating, tb.
Corns, nature of, 47
treatment of, 48
Cory%a, fymptoms of, 53
treatment of 54
Couching of the cataraCt, 101
Croup, nature and treatment of, 55
Cupping glalfes employed by Celfus, 27
dry, 33
Cyfiocele, 104
Cijfis, nature of, 39
D.
Deafie on wounds of the head, 29
Divifion of furgical difeafes, 30
E.
Ear, inflammation of mucous membrane
of. See Otitis.
polypi of, 67
difeales of, 102
Elfie writes on hydrocele, 29
Emphrjfiema, nature and fymptoms of, 43
Encyfied tumors, treatment of, 40
by the feton, ib.
by an operation, 41
Entropion, nature and treatment of, 102
Epiplucele, or ©mental hernia, 104
Eryfipelas, nature and fymptoms of, 44
treatment of, 4 5
Eyes, difeafes of, treated by Celfus, 26
of, 87—102
Exofiofis, nature of, 73
F.
Fabricius ab Aquapendente, a writer
on lurgery of 16th century, 28
Femoral aneurifm, 79
Fifiula lacrymalis, nature and treatment
of, 101, 102
Fi/lulce, nature of, 36
caufes of, ib.
treatment of, by injeCtion, ib.
by compreflion, ib.
by incifion, ib.
Fluxus hemorrhoidalis, nature and treat¬
ment of, 69
Fomentation, method of applying, 32
French writers on furgery, 29
Frontal finus, polypus of, 67
Furunculus, nature and treatment of, 45
G.
Ganglions, nature and treatment of, 74
Gafiroce/e, 104
German writers on furgery, 29
Glandular lyftem, difeafes of, 80—89
Gleet, a form of gonorrhoea, 50
nature and cure of, 53
I I I
Gonorrhoea, nature and fymploms of, 49, 50—^
virus, of, 51
treatment of, ib.
in women, 52
treatment of, ib.
injeCtions for, how ufed, ib.
Greek furgeons, 25, 26
Gums, polypi, nature and treatment ot, 67
Gummy, a difeale ot the bones, 75
H.
Hccmorrhage from mucous membranes, 68,
69
Hcemorrhoidal tumors, nature and treat¬
ment of, 80
Hcematuria, fymptoms and treatment
of, 69
Hare-lip, 106
Hematocele, nature and treatment of, 73
Her/z/fl, dekribed by Celfus, 27
Her nice, different kinds of, 103, 105
Hepatocele, 10 4
Hill writes on cancer, 29 ?
Hippocrates, a Gieek phyfician, 25
method of treating furgi¬
cal cafes, 26
Hydrocele, nature and fymptoms of, 71
treatment of, ib.
palliative operation for, 72
radical operation for, ib.
cured by injeCtion, ib..
different folutions for, ib.
cured by incifton, ib.
mode of treatment by inci¬
fion preferred, 73
Hunter, William and John, eminent
furgeons, 29.3
Hydrothorax, fymptoms and treatment
' of> 73
Hyfierocele, 104
I.
Inguinal hernia, nature and fymptoms
of, 104
reducible,, ib,
irreducible, ib.
ftrangulated, ib.
Iris, inflammation of, 91
treatment of, ib.
L.
Lens, cryftalline, method of extract¬
ing, 101
, capfule of, method of
opening, 97
Lithotomy, operation for, by Celfus, 27
pertormed by females among
the Arabians, 28
modern operation for 106
M.
Mamma, difeafes of, page 84—86
inflammation and abfcefs of, 85
fchirrus and cancer of, ib.
treatment of, ib.
method of extirpating, ib. .
anomalous fwellings of, 86
Maturation
112
Maturation of a tumor,
Meliceris, a kind of tumor,
Monro lectures on furgery,
his treatife on ofteology recom¬
mended,
Mucous membranes, difeafes of,
pathology of,
extent of,
inflammation of,
haemorrhage from,
ulceration of,
N.
Navi materni, defeription of,
how removed,
Nervous fyftem, difeafes of, 102,
Nipples, fore, nature and treatment of,
Nodes, venereal,
how treated,
Nofe, inflammation of mucous mem¬
brane of. See Coryza.
polypi of,
treatment of,
removed by an operation, ib.
with forceps, ib.
by ligature,
haemorrhage of,
ulcers of,
how treated,
P*ge 33
39
28
ib.
48
ib.
ib.
49
68
69
48
ib.
103
86
7-5
ib.
64
65
66
69
7°
ib.
o.
Oedema, fymptoms of, 48
treatment of, ib.
Oefophagus, ftrictures in, 63
how treated, ib.
Ophthalmia, purulent, fymptoms of, 87
treatment of, 88
in children, nature and
treatment of, ib.
gonorrhoeal, ib.
puftulofa, fymptoms and
treatment of, 89
tarfi, nature and treatment
of, 102
Otitis, fymptoms of, ^
treatment of, ib.
Ozcena, fymptoms, and treatment of, 70
P.
Pal/i/ in lower extremities, 77
Pancreatic farcoma, 42
Paracentejis, operation of, 70
Parey, a French furgeon, 28
Paronychia. See Whit/oe.
Paulus Egineta treats of furgery, 27
beft furgical writer among the
ancients, ib.
Pericardium, dropfy of, 73
Peritoneum, dropfy of, <70
Phlegmon, fymptoms of, 31
refolution of, g 2
terminates in abcefs, ib.
treatment of, ib.
S U R G E R
Pott, an Englith furgeon,
greatly improves the art,
Polypi, different kinds of.
Popliteal aneurifm,
Y.
page 28
ib.
64—67
79
Pforophthalmia, fymptoms and treat
ment of, 102
Pterygium, nature and treatment of, 88
Pus, nature of, g0
Pupil, artificial, method of making, for
the eye,
Mr Gibfon’s method,
R.
Reclum, flri&ures in,
treatment of,
polypi of,
how treated,
hsemorrhagy from,
treatment of,
Refolution, what,
Rhazes revives medicine in the eaft,
Rickets, nature and treatment of,
Romans, hiftory of furgery among,
Rofe. See Eryfpelas.
91
ib.
64
ib.
66
67
69
ib.
32
27
76
26, 27
s.
Sanies, nature of,
Sarcoma, nature of,
pancreatic,
mammary,
tuberculated,
Sarcomatous tumors, treatment of,
by eauflic,
by incifion,
Sarcocele. See Tejlicle.
Schirrus of tefticle,
Serous membranes, difeafes of,
Sinoyial membranes, difeafes of, 74,
Strictures, remarks on,
in urethra,
fituation of,
fymptoms of,
diagnofis of,
caufes of,
treatment of,
by Wifeman,
bougies applied to,
method of ufing, 60,
Sedative remedies in inflammation,
Seton, ufed in opening abfeeffes,
Sharpe, an Englilb furgeon,
Sinufes, nature of,
method of treating,
Skin, difeafes of,
pathology of,
Spina bifida, nature and management of,
ventofa, nature of,
Steatoma, a kind of tumor,
defeription of,
Steatema, treatment of,
Suppuration in the cellular membrane,
Staphyloma, nature and treatment of,
Surgeon, qualifications of,
30
41
42
ib.
ib.
42
ib.
ib.
80
70
75
56
ib.
57
ib.
58
ib.
59
ib.
60
61
32
35
28
36
ib.
43
ib.
75
76
39
41
41
30
91
25
Index.
Surgery, definition of,
different from medicine,
departments of,
hiftory of,
among the Greeks,
praftifed in Britain by bar¬
bers, farriers, &c. in 16th
century,
greatly improved in the 18th
century,
page 24
ib.
ib.
25
ib.
28
ib.
T.
Tejlicle, difeafes of,
mode of extirpating,
inflammation of,
induration of,
abfeefs of,
fcrophulous,
preternaturally fmall,
fungus of,
Thorax, dropfy of,
'1 hr oat, method of fcarifying and fo¬
menting,
Tic doloureux, nature and treatment
, 103
Tophus, a difeafe of the bones, h c
Tonfils, difeafes of, 85
treatment of, ib.
Truffles, nature and application of, to
herniae, I04
Tumors, nature of, 38
eneyfted,
fymptoms of, gp
mode of formation^ ib.
80—84
81
82
83
ib.
84
ib.
ib.
73
87
V.
Varicofe aneurifm,
veins,
fpermatic veins, nature and
treatment of,
Viricoccle, nature and treatment of,
Venereal difeafe brought from America,
Venous fyftem, difeafes of,
Urethra, inflammation of. See Gonor¬
rhoea.
polypi of,
Uterus, polypi of,
Uvula, difeafes of,
treatment of,
W.
Warner, his writings on furgery,
Warts, defeription of,
of two kinds,
treatment of,
White, his works on furgery,
Whitloe, fymptoms of,
treatment of,
finufes in, to be avoided,
Wounds treated of by Celfus,
78
80
ib.
ib.
28
80
67
ib.
87
lb.
28
47
ib.
ib.
29
37
38
ib.
26
SURINAM,
1
SURGERY
s UK G I'i U V
Phifp O XV.
v.-
0
S r ROERY
Plate D W1.
Fiy. /.
-
I
23
-
SUROERY
Plate DXVUl.
Fry. /■
FesnoraJ, Hernia
F.Mr/r/if//'/err//r ■
. .
STROERY
Plate DX1X.
d
/*}/ ^4-
(
I
SURGERY
Plate D XX .
F,v. /.
V
■
'
PlateBXXl .
SVHGEUV
. /.
* i
S UHG ERY
Plate DXXll.
//
E\UtrhU/j''■"//<
A’. J // A //. •// /s'.’ f/:/
S U R [I
Sarinam SURINAM, a country of Guiana, which extends
II ! about 7 5 miles along a river ol the fame name, in
Surniul'et.^ ^ £at> t $ -j'his river is navigable for 90 miles up
" 't}le country. The chief produftions of Surinam are,
wood for dyeing, indigo, cotton, fugar, tobacco, gums,
and different fpecies of fruit. Prodigious numbers of
monkeys infeft the woods, as well as very large ferpents.
This fettlement was ceded to the Dutch in 1674, as an
equivalent for New York, but was retaken by the Bri-
tilh in 1799. Paramaribo is the capital. N. Lat. 6. 16.
W. Long. 56. O. The productions of this country,
when in the hands of the Dutch, yielded, in the year
1775, the fum of 822,905!. fterling 5 and it may be
prefumed that the value of thefe will not diminifh in the
hands of its prefent proprietors. Population about
100,000 perfons.
Demerara.—ConneCted with Surinam we may notice
the colony of Demerara, which furrendered to the Bri-
tifli troops in 1781; was taken foon after by a French
frigate, and afterwards recaptured by the forces of Great
Britain. Its productions cleared from the port of De-
merara from January 1806 to the fame month of 1807,
were 19,337 hoglheads, 474 tierces, and 8oi bar/els of
fugar; 4722 puncheons and 17 hogfheads of rum;
23,604 bales, two bags of cotton; 12,390,102 pounds
of coffee ; and 1694 calks of melaffes ; a produce which
we hope will be conftantly increaling under the mild
and humane conduCt of the Britilh government, by the
troops of which it wras laft taken in 1796, under Sir
Ralph Abercromby. It is deemed a valuable acquili-
tion, on account of its flourilhing condition. Stabroek
is the capital of Demerara.
EJJequibo, on the banks of a river of the fame name,
was firft founded in 1698, but came into the hands of
the Britilh much about the fame time with the preced¬
ing. The unaccountable negleCt Ihewn by Holland
towards her colonies rendered them an eafy conqueft.
Berbice is lituated between Demerara and Surinam,
containing about ic^fmall plantations, fcattered at con-
liderable diftances from each other, the produce of
which was long ago valued at 50,000!. fterling, but
may be expeCted to have a rapid increafe. Population
between 8000 and 9000 perfons of various defcrip-
tions.
Pomaroon is a country which has a rich and fertile
foil; yet the inhabitants chiefly confine themfelves to
the cultivation of cetton, for the produce of which it is
found to be admirably adapted. It is not fo well fitted
to yield good crops of coffee or fugar, as the land is by
far too rich, and ftrongly impregnated with faline mat¬
ters. In 1799 and 1800 ; a thirft for planting cotton
was greatly increafed, as the crops of that article were
then the largelt ever known to be produced in the co¬
lonies.
SURMOUNTED, in Heraldry, is when one figure
is laid over another.
SURMULLET. See Mullus, Ichthyology
Index.
Vol. XX. Part I.
13 1 S U R
SURNAME, that which is added to the proper Surname,
name for diftinguilhing perfons and families. It was' “v '
originally diffinguilhed from Jirname, which denotes the
name of the Jire or progenitor : thus Macdonald, Ro-
bertfon, are firnames exprefling the fon of Donald, the
fon of Robert. The word furname, again, fignified
fome name fuperadded to the proper name to diflinguilh
the individual, as Artaxerxes Longimanus, Harold Hare-
foot, Malcolm Canmore. Fr'om this it is evident that
every firname was a furname, though the reverfe was
not fo. In modern times they are confounded ; and as
there is now no occafion to preferve the diftinftion, Dr
Johnfon has reje&ed the word Jirname altogether. See
Name.
Surnames were introduced among all nations at an
early period, and feem to have been formed at firft by
adding the name of the father to that of the fon. This
wras the praftice among the Hebrews, as appears from
the feriptures. Caleb is denominated the fon of Je-
phunneh, and Joftiua the fon of Nun. That the fame
thing was cuftomary among the Greeks, every one who
has read the poems of Homer mull remember. We
have an inftance of it in the very firft line of the Iliad :
A^AAajo? HnXwxoiu, “ Achilles the fon of Peleus.’’
This is perhaps the general origin of furnames, for it
has been'common among moft nations (a).
The Romans generally had three names. The firll
called preenomen anfvvered to our Chriftian name, and
was intended to diftinguilh the individuals of the fame
family ; the fecond called nomen correfponded to the
word clan in Scotland, and was given to all thofe who
were fprung from the fame ftock; the third called cog¬
nomen expreffed the particular branch of the tribe or
clan from which an individual was fprung. Thus Pub¬
lius Cornelius Scipio, Publius correfponded to our names
John, Robert, William ; Cornelius was the name of the
clan or tribe, as Campbell was formerly the name of
all the duke of Argyle’s clients, and Douglas the name
of the retainers of the duke of Hamilton’s progenitors.
ScipiO' being added, conveyed this information, that
Publius, who was of the tribe of the Cornelii, was of
the family of the Scipios, one of the branches or fami¬
lies into which that tribe was divided. Refpefting the
three names which were common among the Romans,
we may fay that the firft was a name and the other two’
furnames.
Du Chefne obferves, that furnames were unknown in
France before the year 987, when the lords began to
affurae the names of their demefnes. Camden relates,
that they were firft taken up in England, a little before’
the conqueft, under King Edward the Confeffor : but
he adds, they were never fully eftablifhed among the
common people till the time of Edward II.; till then
they varied with the father’s name ; if the father, e. gr.
was called Richard, or Roger, the fon was called Rich-
ardfon, or Hodgson; but from that time they were fet¬
tled, fome fay, by aft of parliament. The oldeft fur¬
names are thofe we find in Domefday-Book, moft of
P them
(a) Ihis might be fupported by examples borrowed from many nations. The old Normans ufed Fite, which
fignifies Ion; as Fitzherbert Fitzfimmons, the fon of Herbert, the fon of Simmons. The Iriffi ufed 0: as 0‘Neaf
the fon of Neal. The Scotch Highlanders employed Mac; as Macdonald, the fon of Donald. The Saxons add¬
ed the wordyo/z to the end of the father’s name, as Williamfon.
S U R [ i:
Surname, them taken from places, with the addition of de, as
Surpnce. ^ Godefridus fa Mannevilla, Walterus de Vernon, Ro-
* bert ds Oyly, &c. Others from their fathers, with Ji-
HuS) as Gulielmus Jiliiis Ofberni; others from their of¬
fices, as Eudo Dapifer, Gulielmus Camerarius, Gifle-
bertus Cocus, &c. But the inferior people are noted
limply by their Chriitian names, without any furnames
at all.
Surnames feem to have been introduced into Scotland
in the time of William the Conqueror by the Engliflr who
accompanied Edgar Atheling when he fled into that
kingdom. Thefe had their proper furnames, as Mou-
bray, Lovell, Lifle, ufing the particle de before them 5
which makes it probable that thefe furnames had been
derived from the lands which their anceftors or they
themfelves had poffefled. In Kenneth II.’s time in 800
the great men had indeed begun to call their lands by
their own names j but the ordinary diftin&ions then
ufed were only perfonal, and did not defcend to fuc-
ceeding generations, fuch as thofe employed by the He¬
brews and Greeks : For example, John the fon of Wil¬
liam; or the names of office, as Stewart j or accidental
diftinffions from complexion or ftation, as Black, White,
Long, Short j or the name of their trade, as Tailor,
Weaver.
It was long before any fumames were ufed in Wales,
except that of fon, as Evan ap Rice, Evan the fon of
Rice j Evan ap Howel, Evan the fon of Howel: but
many of them have at length formed feparate furnames,
as the Engliftr and Scots, by leaving out the a in «/>,
and joining the f> to the father’s name : thus Evan ap
Rice becomes Evan Price ; Evan ap Howel, Evan
Powel.—We are told, furnames were unknown in Swe¬
den till the year 1514, and that the common people of
that country ufe none to this day j and that the fame
is the cafe with the vulgar Irilh, Poles and Bohe¬
mians.
When we come to inquire into the etymology of fur-
names, ■we muft allow that many of them were origi¬
nally fignificant of the qualities of mind, as Bold, Har¬
dy, Meek fome of the qualities of body, as Strong,
Low, Short 5 others expreflive of the trade or profeffion
followed by the perfons to whom they were applied, as
Baker, Smith, Wright} Butler, Page, Marlhal. But
the greateft number, at leafl: of the ancient furnames,
were borrowed from the names of places. Camden fays,
that there is not a village in Normandy but has given
its name to fome family in England. He mentions as
examples, Percy, Devereux, Tankervil, Mortimer,
Warren, &c. They were introduced with William the
Conqueror. Several have been derived from places in
the Netherlands, as Gaunt, Tournay, Grandifon 5 and
many from the names of towns and villages in England
and Scotland, as Wentworth, Markham, Murray, A-
berdeen. Many have been formed from the names of
animals, as quadrupeds, birds, fifties j from vegetables,
and parts of vegetables, as trees, flirubs, flowers, and
fruits j from minerals of different kinds. Others are
formed from fuch a variety of accidents that it is impof-
fible to particularize them.
SURPLICE, the habit of the officiating clergy In
the church of England. By Can. 58, every minifter
faying the public prayers, or miniftering the facrament
or other rites of the church, {hall wear a decent and
oomely furplice with fleeves, to be provided at the
4 ] S U R
charge of the pariffi. But by 1 Eliz. c. 2. and 13 and Surplice
14 Car. II. the garb preferibed by aft of parliament, in II
the fecond year of King Edward VI. is enjoined 5 and ,Surre" er>.
this requires that in the faying or fingxng of matins and
even longs, baptizing and burying, the minifter in pa¬
riffi churches and chapels ffiall u!e a furplice. And in
all cathedral churches and colleges, the archdeacon,
dean, provofts, mafters, prebendaries, and fellows, be-
ing graduates, may ufe in the choir, belides their fur-
plices, fuch hoods as pertain to their feveral degrees.
But in all other places every miniffer fliall be at liberty
to ufe a furplice or not. And hence in marrying,
churching of women, and other offices not fpecified in
this rubric, and even in the adminiftration of the holy
communion, it feems that a furplice is not neceffary.
Indeed for the holy communion the rubric appoints a
white alb plain, which differs from the furplioe in
being clofe-fleeved, with a veflment or cope.
SURREBUTTER, in Law, is fecond rebutter j or
the replication of the plaintiff to the defendant’s rebut¬
ter.
SURREJOINDER, is a fecond defence of the plain¬
tiff’s declaration, by way of anfwer to the defendant’s
rejoinder.
SURRENDER, in Common Law, a deed, or inftru-
ment, teftifying that the particular tenant of lands and
tenements, for life or years, doth fufficiently confent
and agree, that he who has the next or immediate re¬
mainder or reverfion thereof, ffiall have the prefent
eftate of the fame in poffeffion; and that he hereby
yields and gives up the fame to him, fo that the eftate
for life or years may merge or drown by mutual agree¬
ment of the parties. Of furrenders there are three
kinds j a furrender properly taken at common law; a
furrender of copyhold or cuftomary eftates •, and a ffir-
render improperly taken, as of a deed, a patent, &c.
The firft is the ufual furrender, and it is ufually divided
into that in deed, and that in law.
Surrender, in deed, is that which is really made
by exprefs words in writing, where the words of the lef-
fee to the leffor prove a fufficient affent to furrender his
eftate back again.
Surrender, in Law, is that wrought by operation
of the law, and which is not aftual.—As if a man have
a leafe of a farm for life or years, and during the term
he accepts a new leafe j this aft is, in law, a furrender
of the former.
Surrender of a bankrupt. See COMMISSION of
Bankruptcy.
SUB RENDER of Copyholds is the yielding up of the
eftate by the tenant into the hands of the lord, for fuch
purpofes as are expreffed in the furrender : as to the ufe
and behoof of A and his heirs, to the ufe of his own
will, and the like. This method of conveyance is fo ef-
fential to the nature of a copyhold eftate, that it cannot
poffibly be transferred by any other affurance. 'NoRlackJl.
feoffment, fine, or recovery (in the king’s courts) hath Comment.
any operation upon it. If I would exchange a copyhold vo ‘ u‘
with another, I cannot do it by an ordinary deed of ex¬
change at the common law, but we muft furrender to
each other’s ufe, and the lord will admit us accordingly.
If I would devife a copyhold, I muft furrender it to the
ufe of my laft will and teftament j and in my will I
muft declare my intentions, and name a devifee, who
will then be entitled to admiffion.
Surrender
sun [ x;
Surrender SURRENDER of Letters Patent and Offices. A fur-
11 render may be made of letters patent to the king, io
Surveying. .1. 1 may grant the eftate to whom he pleales, 6cc.
and a fecond patent for years to the fame perfon for the
fame thing is a furrender in law of the firft patent.
10 Rep. 66. If an officer for life accept of another
Lrrant of the fame office, it is in law a furrender of the
grit grant ; but if fuch an officer take another grant
of the fame office to himfelf and another, it may be
otherwife.
SURREPTITIOUS. See Subreptitious.
SURROGATE, in Law, denotes a perfon that is
fubftituted or appointed in the room of another.
SURRY, a county of England, bounded on the weft
by Berkfhire and Hampftiire, on the fouth by Sulfex,
on the eaft by Kent, on the north by Middlefex, from
which it is parted by the Lhames, whence it had the
name of Suth-rey from the Saxons, 1. e. the country on
c Aden's the fouth fide of the river. It is 38 miles in length
Britannia from eaft to weft, 23 in breadth from north to fouth,
Gough, and 112 in circumference. It contains 13 hundieds,
140 pariffies, of which 35 are vicarages, 13 market-
towns, 450 villages, 592,000 acres, and about 269,043
inhabitants. The members fent from it to parliament
are 14, of which two are fent by each of the following
boroughs, viz. Southwark, Bleechingley,Ryegate, Guild¬
ford, Gallon, Haflemere, and two for the county.
The air of this county, towards the middle, which
confifts moftly of hills and heath, is ftiarp, but pure and
wholefome. About the ikirts, where it is more level,
and the foil richer, the air is milder, but alfo falubrious.
In the middle parts the foil is barren enough in general;
but towards the extremities, and where the country is
open and champaign, it is fruitful in grafs and corn, par¬
ticularly on the fouth fide in Holmfdale, in which mea¬
dows, woods, and corn-fields, are agreeably intermixed.
The foil is alfo very fertile along the Thames, efpecially
towards London, where it greatly contributes to main¬
tain plenty in the London markets. It has feveral ri¬
vers, abounding with fifti, the chief of which are the
Wye, the Mole, and the Wandle.
SURSOLID, or Surdesoeid, in arithmetic, the
fifth power of a number, or the fourth multiplication of
any number, confidered as a root.
SURVEYING. That part of pra&ical mathematics
which teaches the method of afcertaining the limits and
extent of lands or eftates, and of reprefenting thefe in
maps or plans, is called furveying, or land furveying ;
but this term, in a more extended fenfe, includes the
valuing of landed property, the buying and felling of
eftates, and the dividing or laying out of landed pro¬
perty to the beft advantage,
Confidered as a branch of pra&ical mathematics, fur¬
veying depends for its principles on Geometry and
Trigonometry, and as far as it is confined to the
menfuration of plain furfaces, has already been confider¬
ed under the article Mensuration. It is the objeft of
the prefent article to explain and illuftrate the moft ap¬
proved methods of applying thefe principles to praftice,
and in particular to point out the ufe of the field book,
and the mode of furveying large eftates, toivns, counties,
or fimilar extenfive trails of land. We fhall alfo point
out the moft approved mode of furveying fubterraneous
works, as coal-pits, mines, &c. a fubjeft which has hi¬
therto been entirely negle&ed in works of this nature.
©bjects of
furveying.
si. s u n
Before entering on the prailical part of the fubject, Siuwun<^
it may be proper to mention the previous knowledge ^ "
which a furveyor ought to poftefs, and to notice the in- preliminary
ftruments which he is to employ in his operations. _ knowledge
As a furveyor has perpetual occafton for calculation,proper for
it is neceffary that he be familiar with the four firfta lurVt''Vor-
rules of Arithmetic, and the rule of Proportion, both in.
whole numbers, and in Fractions, efpecially Decimals,
with the nature of Logarithms, and the ufe of Loga¬
rithmic Tables; and with, at lead, Algebraic Nota-
tion. As it is his bufinefs to inveftigate and meafure
lines and 'angles, and to defcribe thefe on paper, he
fhould be well acquainted with the elements of Geome¬
try and Trigonometry, and with the application of
thefe principles to the Mensuration of Heights, Di-
Jlances, and Surfaces. In particular, he fhould be fa¬
miliar with the beft praftical methods of folving the or¬
dinary geometrical problems, and Ihould be expert in
drawing lines and defcribing figures. He fhould be ac¬
quainted with the principles and practice ot Levelling ,
fhould know fomething of the principles of Optics and
Magnetism, and fhould poffefs at leaft a fmattering of
the arts of Drawing and Painting. 3
The inftruments dually employed in furveying, _ have Inftm-
been enumerated under Mensuration, vol. xiii. pp.men
511, 519, and of thefe the chain, \\\c plane-table, the
crofs, and the theodolite, are there fufficiently defcribc-J,
and the Circumferentor, the Compass, Levels, the
Perambulator, and Protractors, are defcribed, and
their ufes explained under their proper heads in the ge¬
neral alphabet of this work.
The moft fimple methods of furveying, are thofe in which
the chain or the plane-table are employed, and of thefe
methods a general idea has been given under Mensu¬
ration. It may be neceffary in this place to defcribe
a little more at large the ufe of the plane table, as this
inftrument is one of the moft convenient for furveying
fields, or other fmall plots of ground. 4
In preparing the plane table for ufe, a fheet of paper practical
that will about cover the plane-table, is to be wetted, then regions
fpread flat on the table, the marginal frame of which
is to be preffed dowm on its edges, fo as to keep itta^e
fmooth and even. On this paper thus ftretched, the
plan of the field or other plot is to be traced in the fol¬
lowing manner.
Suppofe it be required to make a plan of a field that
has the figure reprefented at A, B, C, D, E, F, fig. I.„ s
Plate DXXV. and in fuch a fituation, that all its angles , s ‘
are acceffible.
The plane table is to be fixed at one of the angles,
as at A, in the pofition reprefented at fig. 2. and its fur-
face muft be brought to a horizontal plane. A point is
then to be made on the paper with a pencil, as at <7, to
reprefent the point A, where the plane table is.ftation-
ed. Fixing a needle perpendicularly at this point, the
index of the table is to be applied to the needle, on that
fide which correfponds with the fight vanes, and is to be
turned round this point, Aiding on the table, till the
eye looking through the fights, perceives a mark fet up
at the point B. A line is now to be drawn from a
along the edge of the index. In the fame manner a
line is to be drawn from a, marking the direction of
the fide AF. Thus the angle b a f, (fig. 2.) will be
fimilar to the angle BAF (fig. 1.)’: the plane table is
now to be removed from the point A, to another corner
P 2 of
Plate
DXXV.
and
riff- 3.
S U R [II
Surveying. 0f the field, as B, and a pole or other mark is to be left
' at A. The length AB is to be meafured by the chain,
and a proportional length marked off on the paper, in
the dire&icn a, by from a plotting fcale, or fcale of
equal parts. Proceeding as at firit, a line is to be
drawn from b towards r, in the direction of the fide
BC, and marking the meafure of the angle CBA. In
this manner, by placing the plane table iucceflively at
each corner of the field or plot of ground, the outline
figure of the whole will be transferred to the paper,
and a, b, c, d, e^f will be the plan of the field A, B,
C, D, E, F.
If it be not convenient to place the plane table at the
corners of the ground to be furveyed, the plan may be
taken by placing the inftrument anywhere within the area,
Fig. 3. as at E (fig. 3.) in the middle of the field A, B, C, D.
In this cafe we can readily find the direction of the lines
EA, EB, EC, ED, and the angles which they form at
the point E. By meafuring the diftances from E to the
feveral angular points, and transferring the proportional
diftances from the plane fcale upon the paper, and then
joining the points thus found, there is eafily traced the
outline of the whole field.
It may happen that no part of the ground to be mea¬
fured is acceffible, except one line, as the line AE in
Fig. 4. the fpace A, B, C, D, E, F, G, (fig. 4.).
In this cafe, the plane table is to be fixed at the
point A, of the bafe line AE, and a point made on
feme part of the paper at pleafure, to reprefent the fta-
tion A, and the bafe line AE is in the ufual manner to
be afeertained and laid down. Then from the ftation
A, the fituation or dire&ion of the points B, C, D, E,
F, G, are to be obferved through the fights of the in¬
dex j and lines correfponding to the lines AB, AC, AD,
AE, AF, AG, are to be laid down on the paper, but
of an indefinite length. When this is done, great at¬
tention muft be paid to preferve the table fteady and
perfeftly horizontal. The length of the bafe line AE
being determined, the table is now to be removed to
the other extremity E, and fo difpofed that the bafe
line on the paper may be exactly over the bafe line EA
of the field •, and proceeding as before, the dire&ions of
the lines EA, EB, EC, ED, EF, EG, are to be de¬
termined, and correfponding indefinite lines drarvn on the
paper. The points where thefe laft lines crofs thofe
before traced, are to be carefully noted, and the outline
joining all thefe points of fedlion, will correfpond to the
outline of the plot to be furveyed.
The following general directions to be obferved in
ufing the plane table, are given by Dr Hutton. 1. Let
the lines on which ftations are made be direCled towards
objeCls as far diftant as poflible j and when any fuch
objeCt is fet, go round the table and look through the
fights from the Other end of the index, to fee if any
other remarkable objeCt be direCtly oppofite ; if there be
none fuch, endeavour to find another forward objeCt,
fuch as iliall have a remarkable backward oppofite one,
and make ufe of it, rather than the other \ becaufe the
back objeCt will be of ufe in fixing the table in the ori¬
ginal pofition, either when you have meafured too near
to the forward objeCt, or wThen it may be hid from
your fight at any neceffary ftation by intervening hedges,
&c-
2. Let the faid lines, on which the ftations are taken,
be purfued as far as conveniently can be done) for that
6 ] S U R
will be the means of preferving more accuracy in the Surveying. ,
work. ''“““'v—J
3. At each ftation it will be neceffary to prove the
truth of it, that is, whether the table be ftraight in the line
towards the objeCI, and alfo whether the diltance be,
rightly meafured and laid down on the paper. To
know w hether the table be fet down ftraight in the line,
lay the index on the table in any manner, and move the
table about, till through the fights you perceive either
the fore or back objeCI) then, without moving the
table, go round it, and look through the fights by the
other end of the index, to Tee if the other objeCI can be
perceived ) if it be, the table is in the line j if not, it
muft be ihifted to one fide, according to your judge¬
ment, till through the fights both objeCls can be feen.
The aforefaid obfervation only informs you if the ftation
be ftraight in the line) but to know if it be in the
right part of the line) that is, if the diftance has been
rightly laid down : fix the table in the original pofi¬
tion, by laying the index along the, ftation line, and
turning the table about till the fore and back objeCls
appear through the fights, and then alfo will the needle
point at the fame degree as at firft. Then lay the in¬
dex over the ftation point and any other point on the
paper reprefenting an objeCI which can be feen from the
ftation ) and if the faid objeCI appear ftraight through
the fights, the ftation may be depended on as right j if
not, the diftance ftiould be examined and correCled till
the objeCI can be fo feen. And for this very ufeful
purpofe, it is advifeable to have fome high objeCI or
two, which can be feen from the greateft part pf the
ground accurately laid down on the paper from the be¬
ginning of the furvey, to ferve continually as proof ob¬
jects.
When from any ftation, the fere and back objeCts
cannot both be feen, the agreement of the needle with
one of them may.be depended on for placing the table *See Hut-
ftraight on the line, and for fixing it in the original t°n s Mea"
pofition *. JUrer’s
The foregoing examples are extremely fimple, as the Method of
bounding lines are ftraight and regular. Here, there- meafuring
fore, it is not requifite to meafure what furveyors call°^sets*
the offsets, or the perpendicular diftances between a
bafe line,- and the feveral angles which it fubtends. It
feldom happens, however, that the work can be carried
on in fo regular a way, as the bounding lines, even of
fmall pieces of ground, are generally more or lefs
crooked.
Let us fuppofe A, /, m, n, o,f>, q, r, (fig. 5.) to be a
crooked hedge, or other boundary of a piece of ground,
and A B the general bafe line fubtending its feveral
angles. In meafuring along this bafe, when the furvey-
or comes oppofite to any of the bendings or corners of
the fence, as at c, d, e, &c. he meafures the perpendicu¬
lar offsets c l, d m, e n, &c. either with the offset ftaff,
or, if they are of confiderable length, with the chain.
Thefe offsets are to be noted down, as will be explained
immediately.
When the offsets are not very large, their places may
be determined pretty exaftly by the eye, efpecially when
affifted by laying down the offset ftaff in a direCHon per¬
pendicular to the bafe, and oppofirte to the angles ) but
when the offsets are very large, their pofitions are beft
determined by the crofs, or the plane table, in the fol¬
lowing manner. In meafuring along A B (fig--5-)*
when
Fig- £*
S U R [I
Surveying, when coming nearly oppofite to /, where an orfset is
; likely to Hand, the crofs or plane-table is there to be
fixed, as at c in the line A B, and its index is to be
turned till the extremities of the bafe A and B can be
feen through the fights, both backward and forward.
Then looking along the crofs fights of the crofs, or the
crofs line on the index of the plain table, it is eafy to
oblerve whether the ftation of the mftrumeivt be exactly
oppofite to the corner. If it be not, the inftrument mull
be moved backward or forward along the line A B, pre-
ferving the index in the fame filuation till the ftation
and the point / be exactly oppofite to each other. The
exaft meafured diftance between A and c, is then to be
noted and regiftered, and the meafure of the offset c/is
to be fet down oppofite to the former, and on the left
hand of it, as the work is advancing from A to B. In
the oppofite dire&ion the offsets would of courfe appear
on the right hand. In this method, no field book or
regifter is ufually neceffiry, but where the furvey is more
extenfive, and where the theodolite or other complex in-
ftruments are required, it is neceffary to have recourfe to
6 fome method of regiftering the fucceflive operations.
Ufe of the The field book employed on thefe occafions is va-
tield-book. rioufly conftrucfed, according to the tafte or particular
obje<ft of the furveyor. The following is a fpecimen of
the ufual field book, as defcribed by Dr Hutton.
Offsets and remarks on
the left.
92
Crofs a hedge, 24
Houfe corner, 51
34
A brook,
3°
Footpath, 16
Crofs-hedge, 18
Stations,
Bearings,
and
Diftances.
© X
XO50 2j'
OO
73
248
610
954
© 2
53° IO'
00
25
x 20
734
© 3
67° 20'
61
248
639
810
973
Offsets and remarks on
the right.
Brown’s hedge.
35
OO
OO
21
29 a tree.
40 a ftile.
35
16 a fpring.
20 a pond.
Of the three columns which compofe this field book,,
the middle or principal column is for noting down the
ftations, angles, bearings and diftances, as they are af-
certained, and the columns on the right and left are for
the offsets to the right and left of the principal courfe,
which are placed againft their correfponding diftances
in the middle column, as alfo for occafional remarks or
memorandums, to which it may be ufeful. to refer in
drawing the plan of the furveyed lands.
7 1 S U R
Here O 1 ftation, where the angle or Surveying.^
bearing is 105° 25'. On the left, at 73 links in the' V '
diftance or principal line, is an offset of 92 } and at
610 an offset of 24 to a crofs hedge. On the right, at
o, or the beginning, an offset 25 to the corner of the
field ; at 248 Brown’s boundary hedge commences ;
at 610 an offset 35 ; and at 945, the end oi the firft
line ; the o denotes its terminating in the hedge. And
fo on for the other ftations. A line is drawn at the end
of every ftation line, to prevent confufion. 7
Various improvements have been made on the field-Crocker’s
book, efpecially by Mr Abraham Crocker, and Mrfield-book*
John Bodham. We (hall give a fpecimen of each.
Fig. 6. reprefents a page of Mr Crocker’s field-book, Fig. 6-
exhibiting a part of the furvey of an eftate called the
Mill Eftate j the outlines of which were furveyed with
the theodolite, and the interior parts filled up with the
chain. In this book the operations are noted down, fo
as to begin from the foot of the page, carrying them on
upwards.
In furveying after this method, Mr Crocker advifes
to choofe two or more eminences, as principal ftations,
and meafure a general bafe line from one ftation to the
other, noting each hedge, brook, or other remarkable
objeft as it is paffed by ; meafuring alfo fuch fhort per¬
pendicular lines to fuch bends of hedges as may be near
the bafe. From the extremities of this bafe-line, or
from any convenient parts of it, the furveyor muft pro¬
ceed with other lines to fome remarkable objedft fituated
towards the fides of the eftate, without regarding the-
angles they make with the bafe-line or with one ano¬
ther, remembering to note every hedge, brook, or other
obje£t by which he paffes. Thefe lines, when laid down
by interfe&ions, will with the bafe-line form a principal
triangle on the ground to be furveyed feveral of which,
if neceflary, being thus laid down, the furveyor may
proceed to form other fmaller triangles and trapezoids,
on the fides of the former; and fo on till the feveral
enclofures are finiftred.
This principal triangle being completed, and laid
down on the rough plan paper, the parts, exterior as
well as interior, are to be completed by fmaller triangles
and trapezoids.
When the whole plan is laid down on paper, the con¬
tents of each part of the eftate may be calculated by the
methods already explained under Mensuration.
In countries where the lands are enclofed with high
hedges, and where many lanes or roads pafs through an
eftate, a theodolite may be employed with advantage,
in afeertaining the angles of fuch lands ; and by thefe
means an outline of the eftate may be obtained, and the
lane lines ferve as the bafes of fuch triangles and trape¬
zoids as are neceffary to fill up the interior parts.
To illuftrate this method, let us take AB in the plan
of the eftatej (fig. 8.) for the principal bafe line. From pjate
B go off to the tree at C, noting down in the field book DXXVI,
every crofs hedge as you meafure on, and from C mea- Fig. 8.
fure back to A, noting down every thing remarkable,
as before directed. This figure alfo illuftrates the me¬
thod of meafuring the crofs lines, offsets, and interior
parts and .enclofures. g
Fig. 7. reprefents a page from Mr Rodham’s field pv0ciham’s
book. His method of procedure is as follows ;—Like field-book.
Mr Crocker, he begins from the bottom of the page,7- aud
and writes upwards ; denoting the crofting of fences, by
lines
s U R [II
Surveying^ ];nes drawn acrofs the middle column, or only a part of
""“‘“V' fuch a line on the right and left oppolite the figures, to
avoid confufion, and the corners of fields, and other re¬
markable turnings in the fences, towards which offsets
are taken, by lines joining like the fences, as will be
belt feen by comparing the fpecimen at fig. 7. with the
plan at fig. 9.
The marks called a, b, c, &c. are bell made in the
fields, by making a fmall hole with a fpade, and placing
there a chip or fmall piece of w^ood, with the par¬
ticular letter marked on it, to prevent one mark being
taken for another, on any return to it, though in gene¬
ral the name of a mark is very eafily feen, by referring
in the book to the line in wdrich it was made. After
the fmall Italic letters have been gone through, the ca¬
pitals may be next employed, and the Roman letters af¬
terwards, and fo on. Perhaps it wrould be preferable to
diftinguilh the marks by figures.
The letters in the left hand corner at the beginning of
each line, denote the mark or place meafured from; and
that at the right hand corner of the end, is the mark
meafured to. Rut when it is not convenient to go ex-
adtly from a mark, the place meafured from is defcrib-
ed fuch a diftance from one mark towards another ; and
w’here a mark is not meafured to, the exaft place is af-
certained by writing, turn to the right or left hand,
fuch a dijlance to fuch a mark, it being always under-
llood that thofe diftances are taken in the chain line.
The characters ufed are f for twn to the right hand,
i for turn to the left hand, and A placed over an offset, to
fliew that it is not taken at right angles with the chain
line, but in the line with fome ftraight fence, being
ufed chietly when crofling their directions, and is a bet¬
ter mode of afcertaining their true places than by offsets
at right angles.
When a line is meafured whofe pofition is determin¬
ed, either by former operations (as in the cafe of pro¬
ducing a given line or meafuring from one known place
or mark to another) or by itfelf (as in the third fide of
a triangle) it is called a faf line, and a double line is
drawn acrofs the book at the conclufion of it; but if its
pofition be not determined (as in the fecond fide of a
triangle) it is called a loofe line, and a fingle line is
drawn acrofs the book. When a line becomes deter¬
mined in pofition, and is afterwards continued, a double
line is drawn half through the book.
When a loofe line is meafured, it becomes abfolutely
neceffary to meafure fome line that will determine its
pofition. Thus, the firft line ab, (fig. 9.) being the
bafe of a triangle, is always determined, till the third
fide j b is meafured ; then the triangle may be con-
ilrufted, and the pofition of both is determined.
At the beginning of a line to fix a loofe line to the
mark or place meafured from, the fign of turning to the
right or left hand muft be added (as at j in the third
line) j otherwife a ftranger, when laying down the work,
may as eafily conftruCt the triangle hjb, on the wrong
fide of the line a h, as on the right fide ; but this error
cannot be committed, if the fign above named be care¬
fully obferved.
In choofing a line to fix a loofe one, care muft be
taken that it does not make a very acute 01 obtule
angle, as in the triangle/. Br; by the angle at B being
very obtufe, a fmall deviation from truth would make
Fig. 10.'
3 ] S U R
the error at B when conftruCled very confiderable ; but Surveying,
by conftru&ing the triangle p B^, fuch a deviation is of
no confequence.
When the words leave off are written in the field * Huttoil's
book, it is to fignify that the taking of offsets is from
thence difeontinued ; and of courfe fomething is wanting/,,^ "ri^*
between that and the next offset *. 9
The general ufe of the theodolite in meafuring fepa-Pra<aical
rate plots, has been deferibed under Mensuration. !?‘rei^ons
The following praaical direaions for the ufe of this in- o/theVhlf-
ftrument are given by Mr Crocker, and apply to hisodolite.
field book, exemplified at fig. 6. and the plan at fig. 10.
Suppofe the furveyor to plant his theodolite in the
road ©1, and having duly adjufted it, by placing its
head exaaiy horizontal, by the levels 5 and fetting the
index part of the limb exaCUy at 360°; and by moving
the whole head about till 360° in the compafs-box comes
to the line in the north end of the needle ; there fixing
all fall, by the ferew under the head, between the legs,
he will have his inftrument completely adjufted.
The theodolite thus adjufted, the furveyor fends one
of his affiftants forward as far as he can conveniently
fee how to meafure a ftraight line, as at © 2. Taking
then his angle of obfervation, by his telefcope, to the
picket at that ftation, he finds it to be 69° from the
north part of his magnetic meridian line towards the
eaft, which he enters in his field book, noting it with
NE, as a memorandum on which fide of the magnetic
meridian it lies. He is now to faften his limb to the
other part of the head, by a ferew for that purpofe.
His chain-man having laid the chain in the dire&ion
to the picket © 2, in order to meafure the line, he makes
fuch offsets to the right and left, in this firft chain’s
length, as may be neceffary. At his firft ftation, he
finds that on the right, the general road fence is 30
links, arid alfo a nook of 40 links more, and 30 links
broad j and that on the left of his ftation he has an off-
fet of 10 links, all of which he muft note in his field
book. Proceeding forward on this line, he finds at 300
he has an offset of 25 on the right, where is a gate,
which he has to notice j and, on the left 20, which de¬
termines the breadth of the road at that fpot. At 400,
he will find 10 on the right and 20 on the left to be
the breadth ; and at 700 (the end of the line) he will
find 35 on the right and 15 on the left to be the breadth
of the road ; where alfo he will find a fmall road branch¬
ing off to the right. Thus the firft ftation line ig finifti-
ed.
To this fpot (which is his fecond ftation) he brings
the theodolite ;\and after fetting it level, he unlocks
the under ferew, and turns the whole head about, till,
through the telefcope, he fees the back picket or ftation
ftaft* to be cut by the crofs hairs. Here, again, lock¬
ing the head of his theodolite firm by the under ferew,
he muft unferew the limb, and turn it about, till through
the telefcope, he has a view of the picket at © 3 ; the
bearing of which he will find to be 253° 10' from the
north to the eaftward, which he will enter in his field
book. Meafuring on from ©2, towards ©3, he will
find at 130 links, that he is come to a turnpike, where
the breadths at the right and left are 30 and 15. At
200, he has an offset of 15 on the left, and a break off
at the right of another road, at 25 from his line, with
two other offsets, as exprefled in the field book. It
Hi lift
1
S U R
Surveying, mufl he noted where this road leads to. At 265 he
1 v ' has offsets of 30 on the left, and 20 on the right. Thus
ends the fecond ftation line.
Now bringing his inftrument to © 3, he is to adjuft
it in the manner before directed at © 2 j and turning
the limb about towards the picket forward, he will find
the angle of bearing to be 570 45', ifill from the north
to the ealtward. At 20 links he will be oppofite to a
crofs hedge on the left, belonging to the eltate he is
furveying. At 293 he ends the line of this ftation,
where the offsets are 5 and 35, as noted in the field
book.
Coming next to ©4, and having adjufted his theo¬
dolite, he finds his next angle — 226° NE. At 120
his offsets are 20 and 15. At 410, they are 15 and
30, where, on the left, is a crofs hedge, of a backward
direftion. At 480 his offsets are 5 and 25, where is
another crofs hedge. At 750, is a break-in of the
fence, and the offsets are 30-{-15 on the left, and 10 on
the right. At 1050, the offsets are 20 on each hand,
and another crofs hedge on the left. At 1150 are off¬
sets of 20 and -f- 20, where hands a houfe. At 1300,
the offset of 30 on the right terminates the houfe ; and
at 5 on the left is a crofs hedge, of a backward direc¬
tion. 1350 ends this line, where roads diverge to the
right and left.
At ©5, the inftrument being adjuffed, the angle is
found to be 284° 50' nearly \V. At 50, bis offset to
the hedge is 15 $ at 220 it is alfo 15, where is a crofs
hedge, the other end of which was noted at 1050 in the
laft line. At 320 the offset is 25 ; at 350, the end of
the ©, the diftance from the fence is 15.
At ©6, the bearing is 305° 35' N. W. At 130
the offset is 30, where a crofs hedge goes off to the
point which was noted at 750, in the line from ©4 to
05. At 160 the line is nearly clofe to the fence, end¬
ing at 210.
At ©7, the angle forward is 1060 25' N. W. The
line is 143 long, with an offset at the end of 15.
At ©8 the bearing is 269° 20' N. W. At 100
and at 300 the offsets are 15 and 10.
The bearing at ©9 is 70° 45' S. W. At 30 the
meafurer finds it expedient to crofs the fence, and pro¬
ceed within the bounds of the eftate. At 90 he has an
offset of 30 to the right, where he croffes a hedge. At
880 he croffes another hedge, having there an offset of
20 : at 940 is an offset of 30. At 990 he again croffes
the hedge $ and at 1020 is an offset of 20 to the left :
at 1040 he again croffes the hedge : at 1080 he conies
to the corner of the farm houfe ; and 1165 ends his line,
where is a fmall curve at the right.
At © 10, the bearing is 2040 S. W. At 70 is an
offset of 5 at the right: at 200 is 15 at the left, and a
crofs hedge : at 600 is 25 on the left, and 20-f-i5 on
the right : 690 ends the line, where are 15 on each
fide, where there is alfo a crofs hedge.
The angle at © 11 is 3550 30' S. E. At 280 is an
offset of 30 on the right, and 10 with a crofs hedge on
the left: at 400 is an offset of 30, and another crofs
hedge on the left •, and 470 ends the line, where are
offsets of 10 and 20 on the right and the left.
At © r 2 the angle is 1550 S. E. At 60 is a crofs
hedge : at 219 the offsets are 10 and 15 j and at 229
he comes to clofe his wTork at © x, from which he let
out.
S U R
Having thus taken the circuit of this eftate, the mea- Surveying,
furer muff proceed to plot the fame on paper, with fome ^ v ,'
convenient fcale * _ . Element! *
The fcale ufually employed tor this purpofe is that p. 235.
called the plotting fcale, plane fcale, or fcale of equal ^ 10
parts, reprefented at fig. 11. and 12. ^fuilTof1
This inftrument contains different feales or divided ^ pjot_
lines, on both fides. There are on one fide a number ting-fcales.
of plane feales, or feales of equal divifions, each of aFigs.n-and
different number to the inch, and alfo feales of chords12-
for laying down angles, and fometimes the degrees of a
circle marked on one edge, anfwering to a centre marked
on the oppofitc edge, by which means it alio anfwers
the purpofe of a protradlor. There are feveral diagonal
feales on the other fide, of different fizes, or different
dimenfions to the inch, fervmg to take off lines expreffed
by numbers to three dimenfions, as units, tens, hundreds,
as alfo a fcale of divifions which are the 100th parts of a
foot. The moft ufeful of all the lines which can be laid
down on this inftrument, though not always done, is a
plane fcale on the two oppofite edges, made thin for the
purpofe. This line is very ufeful in furveying j for by
laying down the inftrument on paper, with its divided
edge along a line whereon feveral diftances are to be
laid off, for the places of offsets, &c.; thefe diftances
are all transferred at once from the inftrument to the
line on the paper, by making fmall points or marks
againft the refpedfive divifions on the edge of the fcale. IX
The bufinefs of plotting or laying down a plan of an Directions •
eftate from the memoranda of a field book, is a very im-f°r plotting
portant branch of the furveyor’s office. This will beft” Ijlan"
be underftood by an example, which we ffiall take alfo*lin^"
from Mr Crocker. It is adapted to the page of his
field book, already alluded to; and the plan, when
completed, is feen at fig. 10.
The vellum or paper on which the plan is to be
drawn, being fmoothly laid on a drawing board, the
magnetic meridian is to be reprefented by a line drawn
from the bottom to the top.
A point is to be made about the middle of this line,
on which is to be laid the centre of the circular pro¬
tractor, placing the Ifraight edge in fuch a manner as to
coincide with the faid meridian line : draw a pencil line
around at the edge of the protradlor.
The protractor being thus placed, and firmly fixed by
means of pins in that pofition, or by a lead weight, the
field book is to be infpefted for the quantity of the an¬
gle at ©I, which, in the prefent cafe is Hated at 690 '
north-eafterly. This degree is then to be looked for on
the circular edge of the protraftor, and a mark made on
the paper with a fine plotting-pin, at that number, which
is to be marked 1, denoting © 1.
The field-book is then to be infpe&ed for the at
© 2, which in this cafe is 2530 10'j where a mark is
to be made as before.
A fimilar procefs is to be followed with all the other
angles, till the furveyor comes to the clofe on © 1.
All the angles being thus marked off, the protraClor
is to be removed.
The place where the beginning of the work ftiould
be placed is then to be confidered, that the whole may
come within the compafs of the paper laid down where
a mark is to be made, noting it as ©I, the beginning
of the plot.
The fore edge of the parallel ruler is then laid from.
tbs:-
[ 119 3
s U R [ 120 ] S U R
Surveying, the central point where the protra&or lay, to the mark
\r~-J on the pencilled circle denoting © x. The fore edge of
the parallel ruler is next moved till it touch the point
determined on for the beginning of the plot, from which
a pencil line in the direftion from the north to the eaft-
ward, is drawn, about the length of the whole line of
this ©nr760.
A feather-edge fcale is applied to this pencil or ob-
feure line, the o divifion of it at the beginning, marking
off every progreflive number where any ofhets have been
made, as at 300, 400, and 760.
The fcale is then turned acrofs the line (by fome crofs
divifion), and the offsets on each fide of the flation line
are pricked off. At o, or © 1, the field book {hews
that on the left hand, at 10 links, is the boundary line
of that fide, where there is likewife a fmall road branch¬
ing off. The offset on the right hand is 30, which,
with -f- 40, goes to the extent of a fmall corner, alfo
40 links in breadth. At 300 on the left there is an
offset of 20, and on the right another of 25, where
there is alfo a gate to be noticed. At 760 there is an
offset on the left of 15 j and on the right, one of 35,
where a fmall roadway branches off. All thefe offsets
are to be pricked off as the furveyor proceeds. The
boundary lines are drawn through thefe offset points,
and in this manner the firft ftation is completed.
The parallel ruler is then laid from the centre to the
angular point of © 2 ; the limb of it is moved till it
tfiuches the end of the laft flation line, from which ano¬
ther obfeure line is drawn, from the north-eafterly, as
noted in the field book.
The edge of the fcale is then applied as before, and
the numbers 30, 200, and 265 are pricked off. There
is a toll gate at 30 links, and a lane of 30 links broad,
going off at an acute angle. At 265, the end of this
flation, the offsets are 30 and 10.
The line from © 3 is then laid off, as before direffed,
north-eallerly, and the numbers 20 and 293 are pricked
off. Oppofite to £0 is a hedge branching off to the left,
and at 293 the offsets are 35 and 5.
The line north-eafterly is laid off from © 4, and the
numbers on that line are pricked off as they appear in
the field book, and the offsets are made as follows. At
120, 15 and 20 are fet off*, at 410 are 30 and 15,
where two hedges branch off nearly in the direction of
the fide fketches. At 480 the offsets are 25 and 5,
where there is a crofs hedge on the left. At 750 on
the left, is 30-f'I5 vvith a crofs hedge, and on the right
10. At 1050 on the left, is 20 with a crofs hedge,
and 20 on the right. At 1150 on the right, is 20-f-20,
where Hands a houfe. At 1300 on the left, is 5 with
a crofs hedge 5 on the right is 30, with a road branching
from it: 1350 completes this line.
At © 5 the work takes another direction, and goes
backward towards the weft. The ruler is laid from the
centre to this ftation, and an obfeure line drawn in the
dire&ion mentioned. The diftances and offsets are
pricked off as in the field book. Here are offsets on
one fide only, not being in a load way.
At © 6 fet oft the line fouth-wefterly, pricking off
the diftances and offsets as in the field-book.
Ti his fpecimen is fufticient to give a complete idea of
the praftice of plotting *, and more would be only a
tedious repetition. It muft, however, be obferved, that
the accuracy and facility of the work greatly depend on Surveying-
the judgement and care exercifed in keeping a corre£t
and clear field-book.
When a circuit is plotted off, the meafurer muff fill
up the interior, by feparately completing the meafure of
each field with the chain, fo that they may be laid down
on the plan in their proper fituations and dimenfions.
The lines taken with the theodolite will here be of
great fervice, as the bafe lines of a number of interior
angles.
The furveyor having thus on paper, a reprefentation
of the eftate, muft draw fuch mealuring lines on it, as
will enable him to calculate the content of each field
feparately. Having made out a fair plot of his work,
another line muft be drawn for the true meridian, to the
eaftward of the former, according to the variation of
the magnetic needle, where the eftate lies. On this true
meridian line may be placed any device whatever, as
a north point. A title muft alfo be given to the map,
a fcale drawn of the proportion ufed in the plotting, and
a border to the whole *. *See C?oc6-
Having thus explained the general pra&ice of fur-er’J'-E^-
veying according to the lateft improvements, we fhall ments'
fhew how a furveyor is to proceed in meafuring andP
planning counties and towns. I2
To furvey a County or large TraB of Land.— i.Chufe Method of
two, three, or four eminent places for ftations, 1’uch as^urveymS
the tops of high hills or mountains, towers, or church °4
fteeples, which may be feen from one another, and from
which moft of the towns, and other places of note, may
alfo be feen. And let them be as far diftant from each
other as poffible. On thefe places raife beacons, or
long poles, with flags of different colours dying at them,
fo as to be vifible from all the other ftations.
2. At all the places which are to be fet down in the
map, plant long poles with flags at them of feveral co¬
lours, to diftinguiih the places from each other, fixing
them on the tops of church fteeples, or the tops of
houfes, or in the centres of fmaller towns.
It is not neceffary to have thefe marks at many
places at once, as fuppofe ten at a time. For when the
angles have been taken at the two ftations, to all thefe
places, the marks may be removed to new ones, and fo
fucceflively to all the places required. Thefe marks
being fet up at a convenient number of places,, and fuch
as may be feen from both ftations, go to one of thefe fta¬
tions, and with an inftrument for taking angles, Handing
at that ftation, take all the angles between the other
ftation, and each of thefe marks, obferving which is
blue, which red, &c. and on which hand they lie ; and
fet all down with their colours. Next go to the other
ftation, and take all the angles between the firft fta¬
tion, and each of the former marks, and fet them down
with the reft, each againft thofe correfponding with the
fame colour. If pra&icable, the angles may alfo be
taken at fome third ftation, which may ferve to prove
the work, if the three lines interfeft in that point where
any mark Hands. The marks muft be allowed to re¬
main till the obfervations are finifhed at both ftations,
and then they muft be taken down, and fet up at frefh
places. The fame operations muft be performed at
both ftations, for thefe frefh places, and the like for
olhers. The inftrument for taking angles muft be ex¬
ceedingly accurate, made on purpofe with telefcopic
fights,
2
SURVEYING
HZAf r/n firr /d .rc////?
Plate DXXV.
Plate DXXVI .
i
SURVEY IN G
Plate DXXVil .
Tiq. //•
Fiq • / 2- •
Fi e/ ■ / 3 ■
K
S U R [ 121 ] S U R
Surveying, fights, and of three, four, or five feet radius. A cir-
cumferentor is reckoned a good inftrument for this pur-
pofe.
3. Though it be not abfolutely neceffary to meafure
any diftance 5 becaufe a Jlationary line being laid down
from any fcale, all the other lines will be proportional
to it; yet it is better to meafure fome of the lines, to
afcertain the diftances of places in miles : and to know
how many geometrical miles there are in any length $
and from thence to make a fcale for meafuring any di¬
ftance in miles. In meafuring any diftance, it will not
be exaft enough to go along the high roads, on account
of their turnings and windings, and fcarcely ever lying
in a right line between the ftations, which would caufe
endlefs reductions, and create trouble to make it a right
line, for which reafon it can never be exadt. But a
better way is to meafure in a right line with a chain,
between ftation and ftation, over hills and dales, or
level fields, and all obftacles. Only in cafes of water,
woods, towns, rocks, banks, &c. where one cannot pafs,
fuch parts of the line muft be meafured by the method
of inacceflible diftances j and befides, allowing for a-
• fcents and defcents, when we meet with them. A good
compafs that {hews the bearing of two ftations, will al¬
ways direCt to go ftraight, when the two ftations are
not feen; but when a ftraight progrefs can be made,
offsets may be taken to any remarkable places, likewife
noting the interfeftion of the ftationary line, with all
roads, rivers, &c.
4. From all the ftations, and in the whole progrefs,
care muft be taken to obferve fea coafts, the mouths of
rivers, towns, caftles, houfes, churches, windmills, wa¬
termills, trees, rocks, fands, roads, bridges, fords, ferries,
woods, hills, mountains, rills, brooks, parks, beacons,
fiuices, floodgates, locks, &x. and in general every thing
remarkable.
5. When the firft and main ftation lines are done,
which command the whole country, inner ftations are
then to be taken at fome places already determined,
which will divide the whole into feveral partitions, and
from thefe ftations may be determined the places of as
many of the remaining towns as pofiible. If any re¬
main in that part, more ftations may be taken at fome
places already determined, from which the reft may be
determined. Proceeding thus through all parts of the
country, ftation may be taken after llation, till all that
are required be determined. In general, the ftation
diftances muft always pafs through futh remarkable
points as have been formerly determined by the pre¬
ceding ftations.
6. The pofition of the ftation line meafured, or the
point of the compafs on which it lies, muft be deter¬
mined by aftronomical obfervation. Hang up a thread
and plummet in the fun over fome partin the ftation line,
obferving when the ftiadow runs along that line, and
at that moment take the fun’s altitude $ then having
his declination, and the latitude, the azimuth will be
found by fpherical trigonometry. The azimuth is the
angle which the ftation line makes with the meridian,
and therefore a meridian may eafily be drawn through
the map 5 or a meridian may be drawn through it by
hanging up two threads in a line with the pole ftar,
when due north, which may be known from aftrono-
mical tables. Or thus: Obferve the ftar Alioth, or
Vgl. XX. Part I.
that in the rump of the Great Bear, being that next the Surveying,
fquare j or elfe Cafliopeia’s hip $ obferving by a line l—“"Y'—
and plummet when either of thefe ftars and the pole
ftar comes into a perpendicular j and at that time they
are due north. Therefore two perpendicular lines be¬
ing fixed at that moment, towards thefe two ftars, will
give the pofition of the meridian. 13
A Town or City may be furveyed with any of the Method of
inftruments for taking angles, but beft of all with the
plane table, where every minute part is drawm while in
fight. It is alfo proper to have a chain of 50 feet long,
divided into 50 links, and an offset-ftaff of 10 feet long.
Begin at the meeting of two or more of the principal
ftreets through which the longeft profpedt may be had,
to get the longeft ftation lines. Having there fixed the
inftrument, draw lines of direftion along thofe ftreets,
ufing two men as marks, or poles fet in wooden pe-
deftals, or perhaps fome remarkable places in the houfes
at the farther ends, as windows, doors, corners, &c.
Meafure thefe lines with the chain, taking offsets with
the ftaff, at all corners of ftreets, bendings, or windings,
and to all remarkable objects, as churches, markets,
halls, colleges, eminent houfes, &c. Then remove the
inftrument to another ftation along one of thefe lines,
and there repeat the fame procefs as before, and fo on
till the whole be completed.
Thus, in fig. 13. (part of the New Town of Edin¬
burgh) fix the inftrument at A, and draw lines in the
dire&ion of all the ftreets meeting in that place, and
meafure AB, noting the ftreet on the left at m. At
the fecond ftation B, draw the dire&ions of the ftreets
meeting there, and meafure CD. Do the fame at D,
and meafure DE, noting the place of the crofs ftreets at
/>. In this manner go through all the principal ftreets.
This being done, proceed to the fmaller and intermedi-* ^,ee
ate ftseets j and laftly to the lanes, alleys, courts, yards,
and every part which it may be deemed expedient to re- Surveying.
prefent *. 14
We fhall conclude this article with a few pra<ftical^ubte,Ta“
remarks on fubterraneous furveying, or the method of”g0^ ur"
furveying mines, and other works below ground, taken' J 13
chiefly from Mr. Fenwick’s work on fubterraneous fur¬
veying, lately publiflbed.
The inftruments employed in furveying under ground,
are the circumferentor, the chain (in coal mines) con¬
taining loo links, and an inftrument for taking the
angles of elevation or depreflion, to reduce the mea-
furements to horiiOntal diftances, where the lines are not
level. In lead mines, they fometimes employ a cord,
divided into 10 feet, inftead of a chain.
In conducing a fubterraneous furvey, the inftrument
ufed is placed where the furvey is intended to commence,
and a perfon goes forward in the dire&ion of the line to
be furveyed, holding a lighted candle in his hand, to
the remoteft point at which his light can be feen through
the fights of the inftrument 5 its bearing is then taken by
the circumferentor, and noted down in the furvey book.
The furveyor then proceeds to take the diftance of the
light, or objeft, from the inftrument, which is after¬
wards removed, and a perfon ftands on the fpot where it
flood, holding one end of the chain in his hand, while
another, going towards the objedl, holds the other end,
together with a lighted candle, in the fame hand, and
being dire&ed by the former, till the hand holding the
Q, candle
SUB. [ 12
-Sorveying. candle arid the chain is in a dirt cl line with the ubjrcl
1 or light whofe bearing was taken. At that place, the
firft chain is marked. The perfon who flood where the
inftrument was placed then comes forward to the mark
at the end of the firfl chain, the other advancing for¬
ward another chain, with the chain and candle in the
fame hand, as before diredled : here the fecond chain is
to be marked. Proceeding in this manner till the dif-
tarfee of the objedf be determined, which being noted
down in chains and links in the furvey. book, oppofite
to the bearing, the firfl bearing and diflance is comple¬
ted. Fixing the inflrument again where the light as an
object flood, or at the termination of the foregoing
bearing and diftance, and taking the fecond bearing, by
diredling the perfon to go forward as before, fo far as
his light can be feen, or at any convenient diflance,
the furveyor is to proceed as before, till the whole is
completed.
Such furveys would require five people to be employ¬
ed, that the work may be expeditioufly performed j
viz. one to carry forward the furvey, and make the re-
quifite obfervations and remarks ) another to carry the
inftruments employed 5 another to diredl the chain j a
fourth perfon to lead it, and a fifth to go forward with
a light, as an objeff, from one ftation to another. Dur¬
ing the time of making the furvey, care mufl be taken
not to admit any iron or fteel within four feet of the
inftrument, for fear of attraffing the needle, which has
been known to be affecled at nearly three times that
diftance, by a mafly piece of iron. If the glafs of the
inftrument ftiould require cleaning, it muft be rubbed
as gently as poflible, and not with any {liken fubftance,
by means of which eledtric matter may be excited, and
prevent the needle from traverfing. Should fuch mat¬
ter be excited, it may be difeharged by touching the
lurface of the glafs with a wet finger.
To render this fyftem of furveying familiar to the
young miner, it would be necetTary for him to put up a
number of marks on the furface, taking afterwards their
bearing and diflance from each other, according to the
method before direfted •, but to make a nearer approach
to the form of lubterraneous furveying, it would be bet¬
ter to perform it at night, by the afllftance of candles $
and many evenings might be found favourable for this
method of praftiting. Lanterns may be employed, if
the current of air thould be too ftrong for the flame of a
candle *.
The method of furveying and recording bearings is as
follows,
Suppofe the bearing of ABC (fig. 14) is required.
Set the circumferentor on A (the north being repreiented
by N, and the fouth by S) j then turning that part of
the inftrument having the fleur de iis, or other device,
from you, or towards B, turn the inftrument till the
object B is feen through, and cut by the hair in the
fights -y and the angle NAB being the angle that the
fights and line A B make with the magnetic meridian,
N S will be the bearing of B from A, fuppofe 30°;
which alfo being to the right pde of the north meridian,
will be north 30° eaft. Then bring the inftrument for¬
ward to B, fixing it there, and directing the fame fight
at B towards C, as was direfted at A, towards B ;
then obferve the angle that B C makes with the magne¬
tic meridian, which fuppofe if NBC; and being to
* Fernjjtck
07t Subter¬
raneous
Surveying,
] S U R
the left of the meridian, -will be north 250 weft. To Sun
prove the work, and try the accuracy of the inftrument
when it is handing at B, apply tire eye to that light
which rvas next B when it flood at A ; then take the
bearing of A from B, which, if found to be the re¬
verie of B from A, fliows the work to be fo far true.
1 he bearing of B being taken in like manner from C,
will prove the truth of the lurvey. The degrees of each
bearing muft. always be taken by the fame end of the
needle.
Suppofe the bearing of B from A, C from B, and
D from C, (fig. 15.) be required. Fix the inftrument
at A, with the fleur de Us, or other arbitrary device,
towards B ; then take the bearing of B, as before de-
feribed, which luppofe to make an angle of 30° NAB
to the right wdth the magnetic meridian, or north 30°
eaft ; let the inftrument be removed to B, and take the
bearing of C, which fuppofe =30° NBC to the left, or
north 30° weft ; then remove the inftrument to C, and
take the bearing ©f D, which fuppofe =65° SCD to
the left, or fouth 65° eaft: : Thus,
From A to B north 30° eaft.
  B to C north 30° weft.
  C to D fouth 65° eaft.
I
This furvey may be proved in the fame manner as the
preceding.
Suppole thefubterraneousw'orking ABCDA(fig. 16.)
to be furveyed, beginning at the pit A : Fix the inftru¬
ment at the centre of the pit A ; then let a perfon hold
a lighted candle at B (being the utmoft dirtance at
which it can be feen through the lights of the inftru¬
ment), the bearing of which being taken from A, fup¬
pofe due fouth, or in the di reef ion of the magnetic me¬
ridian of A, and its diftance from A fuppofe 6 chains
57 links, which is placed in the furvey book as under :
Remove the inftrument to B, wdiere the candle flood,
and direct the perfon to place the lighted candle at C ;
then take its bearing from B, which fuppofe it to make
an angle CBS 8o° with the magnetic meridian, or
to bear fouth 8o° weft, and its diftance being found 7
chains 10 links, remove the inftrument to C, the candle
being removed to D ; then take its bearing and di-
ftar.ee as before, which fuppofe north io°weft 5 chains;
remove the inftrument to D, and diveft the candle to
be placed at the centre of the pit A, where the furvey
commenced ; jhen take its bearing from D, north 70°
eaft 8 chains 35 links, and the furvey is finilhed.
AB fouth
BC fouth 80 wTeft
CD north io° weft;
DA north 70° eafl:
Chains.
6
7
5
8
Links.
57
10
35
This furvey may be proved by adding together the
degrees contained in the interior angles, which, if they
amount to 360, the wrork will be right. '
The proof may be made by finding the northing,
fouthing, calling and wefting of all the bearings and dx-
ftances. If the Ibuthings are equal to the northings, and
the weftings equal to the callings, then will the work be
right.
Thus,
Surveying.
i
* lb. p. 29.
sun
Thus, S.
S. 8o° W
N. x q° W
N. 70° E»
[ 123 ]
sun
Surveying.
C. j,L.
6 57
7 10
6 o
8 35
Northings.
C. L.
o o
o o
4 93
2 87
7 80
Southings.
C. L.
6 57
1 23
o o
o o
7 80
Eq/Iings.
C. L.
o o
o o
o o
7 85
7 85
IVeJiings.
C. L.
o o
6 98
o 87
o o
7 85
The {bathings ami northings therefore being equal,
as alfo the callings and wettings, the work is thus pro¬
ved to be right *. .
Mr Fenwick gives the following directions tor plan¬
ning fubterraneous furveys, and for determining errors
that may arife in plotting, through inattention to tne
magnetic variation. .
As the magnetic meridian is always changing, the
bearings of the fame objeft, taken by fuch a meridian
at different times, mutt alfo vary from each other, ex¬
cept reduced to bearings with the. true meridian. Let
NS (fig. 17.I reprefent the meridian of a plan, which
is alfo fuppofed to be the time meridian and if a fub¬
terraneous excavation is to be plotted on it from the pit
A, and this excavation is found to form a bearing of
north io° weft 10 chains, by an inftrument whofe
needle had 20° of weft variation ; now if the excavation
north io° weft 10 chains be plotted on the plan by its
meridian NS, which is the true meridian, it will be re-
prefented by AB •, but the bearing being taken by a
needle having 20° of weft variation, it ftiould form a
bearing of north 30° weft with the meridian NI, as _re-
prefented by A b; then Kb will be the true direftion
of the excavation from the pit A, and b R will be the
magnitude of the error. Or, inftead of reducing tne
excavation to its bearing with the true meridian Nl, it
will be equally as true if n s \% drawn on the plan, and
made to reprefent the magnetic meridian of the needle
by which the bearing was taken, with which AB will
form a bearing of north io° wmft.
We Ihall add a few examples illuftrative of the error
ariftng from plotting a fubterraneous furvey on a plan,
without attending to the variation of the magnetic me¬
ridian, and alfo how its magnitude can be afcertained.
Example I. The following is a fubterraneous fur¬
vey, commencing at a pit called the B pit, noith 30 1
weft 6 chains, north 70°, eaft 10 chains, north 30°, eaft
5 chains, and north 2j°, weft 8 chains, which was fur-
veyed by an inftrument whofe needle had 24° of weft
variation *, under what bearings mult the furvey be plot¬
ted on a plan whofe delineated meridian has 150 of weft
variation ? ....
Reduce the bearings, as taken by a meridian having
240 of weft variation, to bearings with a meridian having
14° of weft variation : thus,
Bearings with a meridian
of 240 of wef variation.
Chains.
North 300 weft 6
North 70° eaft 10
North 30° eaft 5
North 250 weft 8
Bearings with a meridian
of if of wef variation.
Chains.
North 390 weft 6
North 610eaft 10
North 21° eaft 5
North 340 weft 8
The furvey muft be plotted under bearings with a
magnetic meridian having 150 of weft variation, as
above, commencing at the B pit.
Example II.—If the following fubterraneous furvey,
north 90 weft 8 chaiiis, north 30° eaft 7 chains, and
north 21° weft 8 chains be made by an inftrument'
whofe needle has 230 of weft variation, and plotted, on
a plan by a meridian having 50 of magnetic variation,
without being reduced thereto ; what will be the mag¬
nitude of the error refill ting from fuch neglett ?
Suppofe A (fig. 18.) the point of commencement of
the furvey on the plan, and let the meridian of the
plan be reprefented by N J, having 50 of weft variation
with the true meridian NS ; then the firft bearing, north
90 weft 8 chains, will be reprefented by AB ; the fe-
cond, north 30° eaft 7 chains, by BC ; and the third
bearing, north 21° weft 8 chains, by CI3 •, then ABC 13
will reprefent the furvey plotted, without attending to
the magnetic variation : But as the furvey was made
by an inftrument whole needle had 230 of weft varia¬
tion, theretore each bearing, when truly plotted, muft
be fet off from a meridian of that variation, which, let
n s reprefent 5 then, north 90 weft 8 chains will be re-
prefented by A b, north 300 eaft 7 chains by b c, and
north 21° weft 8 chains by c d; then A b c d will re¬
prefent the furvey truly plotted, and tf'D will be the
magnitude of the error.
Or the furvey may be plotted by reducing the bear¬
ings, as taken by a meridian of 230 of weft variation, to
bearings with a meridian of 50 of variation, as repre¬
fented by N s, and plotted from it accordingly 5 which
will exaftly coincide with A. b c d, as before.
To difeover, by calculation, the magnitude of the
error, reduce the bearings of the furvey, as taken by a
magnetic meridian having 230 of weft variation, to bear¬
ings with the true meridian ^ and alfo the fame bearings,
as if taken by a meridian having 50 of weft variation,
to bearings with the true meridian \ then determine the
northing and calling ot D from d: thus,
With a meridian of 230
of wef variation.
Chains.
N. 90 W. 8
N. 30° E. 7
N. 210 W. 8
With the true meridian.
N. 3 20 W.
N. 70 E.
N. 440 W.
With a meridian of j°
wef variation.
N. 90 W.
N. 30° E.
N. 210 W.
With the true meridian.
* C.
N. 140 W. 8
N. 250 E. 7
N. 26° W 8
0.2
N.
S U R
Surveying.
N. 320 W.
N. 7° E.
N. 44° W.
[ 124 ]
Northing.
C. L.
6 78
6 94
5 75
47
Southing.
C. L.
A a
Eajling.
C. L.
O 85
S U R
Wejling.
C. L.
4 23
5 55
9 78
o 85
8 ^ ad.
Surveying
Survivor-
fliip.
N. 140 W.
N. 250 E.
N. 26° W.
c.
7
6
7
L.
76
34
J9
21 29
C. L.
2 95
a d^> chains 93 links—af 2 chains 48 links—yV 6 chains 43 links.
A ^ 21 chains 29 links—A o 19 chains 47 linkszrc £ or^D 1 chain 82 links.
Then, asyV 6.45
Is to radius
So is f'Q 1.82
To tang, 150 43'
From 900—130 43,=74° 13',
•8095595
10.0000000
.2600714
9-45°5II7
. N</D.
L.
93
3 5®
43
95
2 48 <? D or af.
—2 —2
And 6.43-{-i.82=:6.7</D, or 6 chains 70 links.
P- 155* Therefore, the amount of the error, or the bearing
and diftance of D from d, will be north, 740 15' eaft
6 chains 70 links with the true meridian.
SURVEYOR, a perfon who has the overfight and
care of confiderable works, lands, or the like.
Surveyor, likewife denotes a gauger ; as alfo a per¬
fon who furveys lands, and makes maps of them.
SURVIVOR, in Law, fignifies thelongeft liver ofjoint
tenants, or of any two perfons jointly interefted in a thing.
SURVIVORSHIP, is that branch of mathematics
which treats of reverfions payable provided one or more
particular perfons furvive certain others. By reverfions
are meant payments not to take place till fome future
period. Survivorfhip forms one of the moft difficult and
complicated parts of the do&rine of reverfions and life-
annuities. It has been very fully treated of by Mr
Thomas Simpfon in his Seleft Exercifes, and confider-
ably improved by Dr Price and Mr Morgan, who have
beftowed a great deal of attention on this fubjeft $ though
fome parts of their principles are erroneous.
The calculations are founded on the expeflation of
lives at different ages, deduced from tables formed from
bills of mortality, of which lee feveral examples under
the article Bi//s of MORTALITY. By the expe&ation of
life is meant the mean time that any fingle or joint lives
at a given age is found to continue ; that is, the number
of years which, taking one with another, they actually
enjoy, and may be confidered as fure of enjoying; thofe
who furvive that period enjoying as much more time in
proportion to their number as thofe who fall ffiort of it
enjoy lefs. Thus, fuppofing 46 perfons alive all 40 years
of age, and that one will die every year till they are all
dead in 46 years, half 46 or 23 will be the expectation
of each of them. If M. de Moivre’s hypothefis were
true, that men always decreafe in an arithmetical pro-
greffion, the expectation of a fingle life is always half
its complement (a), and the expectation of two joint
lives one-third of their common complement. Thus,
fuppofing a man 40, his expectation would be 23, the
half of 46, his complement j the expectation of two joint
lives, each 40, would be 13 years 4 months, or the third
part of 46.
The number expreffing the expectation, multiplied
by the number of fingle or joint lives (of which it is the
expectation), added annually to a fociety, gives the whole
number living together, to which fuch an annual addi¬
tion would in time grow. Thus, fince x 9, or the third
of 37, is the expectation of twro joint lives, whofe com¬
mon age is 29, trventy marriages every year between
perfons of this age would in 37 years grow to 20 times
I9>
(a) By the complement of a life is meant what it wants of 86, which M. de Moivre makes the boundary of
human life. Thus if a man be 30, the complement of his life is 56.
S U R [12
Survivor- iq, or 380 marriages, always exifting together. And
^P' fince the expe£lation of a tingle life is always half its
' v   complement, in 57 years 20 tingle perfons added an¬
nually to a town will increafe to 20 times 28.3, or 57^1
and when arrived at this number, the deaths every year
will jutt equal the acceflions, and no farther increafe be
poflible. It appears from hence, that the particular pro¬
portion that becomes extinfl every year, out of the whole
number conftantly exifting together of tingle or joint
lives, muft, wherever this number undergoes no varia¬
tion, be exaftly the fame with the expe&ation of thofe
lives, at the time when their exiftence commenced.
Thus, was it found that a ipth part of all the marriages
among any bodies of men, whofe numbers do not vary,
are difiblved every year by the deaths of either the huf-
band or wife, it would appear that 19 was, at the time
they were contracted, the expectation of thefe maniages.
In like manner, was it found in a lociety, limited to a
fixed number of members, that a 28th part dies annually
out of the whole number of members, it would appear
that 28 was their common expectation of life at the time
they entered. So likewife, were it found in any town
or diftriCt, wrhere the number of births and burials are
equal, that a 20th or 30th part of the inhabitants die
annually, it would appear that 20 or 30 was the expec¬
tation of a child juft born in that town or diftriCt. 1 hefe
expectations, therefore, for all iingle lives, are ealny
found by a table of obfervations, ihowing the number
that die annually at all ages out of a given number alive
at thofe ages ; and the general rule for this purpofe is,,
to divide the fum of all the living in the table, at the
age whofe expectation is required, and at all greater
ages, by the fum of all that die annually at that age and
above it; or, which is the fame, by the number (in the
Table) of the living at that age j and half unity iuh-
traCted from the quotient will be the required expecta¬
tion. Thus, in Dr Halley’s table, given in the article
Annuity, the fum of all the living at 20 and upwards
is 20,724, which, divided by 598, the number living
at the age of 20, and half unity fubtraCted from the
quotient, gives 34-15 '’or expectation of 20.
In calculating the value or expectation of joint lives,
M. de Moivre had recourfe to the hypothefis, that tne
probabilities of life decreafe in a geometrical progreftion ;
believing that the values of joint lives, obtained by rules
derived from it, would not deviate much from the truth.
But in this he was greatly miftaken ; they generally give
refults which are near a quarter of the true value too
great in finding the prefent value of one life after it has
furvived another in a fingle payment, and about twTo-
fifths too great when the value is fought in annual pay¬
ments during the joint lives, d hey ought therefore to
be calculated on the hypothefis (if they are calculated
on hypothefis at all), that the probabilities of life de¬
creafe in arithmetical progreffion, which is not very far
from the truth. Even this hypothefis never correfponds
with the faCt in the firft and laft periods of life, and in
fome fituations not in any period of life. Dr Price and
Mr Morgan therefore have given tables of the value of
lives, not founded on any hypothefis, but deduced from
bills of mortality themfelves. Some of thefe we lhall
give at the end of this article. Mr Morgan has like¬
wife given rules for calculating values of lives in this
manner.
M. de Moivre has alfo fallen into miftakes in his rules
- ] s u R
for calculating the value of reverfions depending on fur- Survivor-^
vivorfhip : thefe have been pointed out by Dr Price in , .
the third effay in the firft volume of his Treatife on Re-
verfionary Payments j who has alfo given proper rules
for calculating thefe values, the moft important of which
are comprehended in the following paragraphs. . _ 1
Suppofe a fet of married men to enter into a fociety in Method of,
order to provide annuities for their widows, and that it
limited to a certain number of members, and conftantly aimuitants
kept up to that number by the admiffion of new mem-that will
bers as the old ones are loft 5 it is of importance, in the come on a
firft place, to know the number of annuitants that after fociety-
fome time will come upon the eftablifhment. Nowr fince
every marriage produces either a widow or widower j and
fince all marriages taken together would produce as many
widows as widowers, were every man and his wife of the
fame age, and the chance equal which (hall die firft 5 it
is evident, that the number of wddows that have ever-
exifted in the world, would in this cafe be equal to half
the number of marriages. And what would take place-
in the world muft alfo, on the fame fuppofitions, take
place in this fociety. In other words, every other per-
fon in fuch a fociety leaving a widow, there muft arife
from it a number of widows equal to half its own num¬
ber. But this does not determine what number, all liv¬
ing at one and the fame time, the fociety may expeft
will come to be conftantly on it. It is, therefore, ne-
ceffary to determine how long the duration of furvivor-
Ihip between perfons of equal ages will be, compared with
the duration of marriage. And the truth is, that, fup-
pofing the probabilities of life to decreafe uniformly, the
former is equal to-the latter j and confequently that the
number of furvivors, or (which is the fame, fuppofing-
no fecond marriages) of widows and wfidowers alive to¬
gether, which will arife from any given fet of fuch mar¬
riages conftantly kept up, will be equal to the whole
number of marriages j or half of them (the number of
wfidow’S in particular) equal to half the number of mar¬
riages. Now it appears that in moft towns the decreaffr
in the probabilities of life is in faft nearly uniform. Ac¬
cording to the Breflaw Table of Obfervations (fee An¬
nuity), almoft the fame numbers die every year from
20 years of age to 77. After this, indeed, fewer die,
and the rate of decreafe in the probabilities of Ifte is re¬
tarded. But this deviation from the hypothefis is incon-
fiderable ; and its effedt, in the prefent cafe, is to render
the duration of furvivorlhip longer than it would other-
wife be. According to the London Table of Obferva-
tions, the numbers dying every year begin to grow lefs
at 50 years of age } and from hence to extreme old age
there is a conftant retardation in the decreafe of the pro¬
babilities of life. Upon the whole, therefore, it appears
that, according to the Breflaw iable, and fuppofing no
widows to marry, the number inquired after is fomewhat
greater than half the number of the fociety 5 but, ac¬
cording to the London Table, a good deal greater.
This, however, has been determined on the fuppofition
that the hufbands and wives are of equal ages, and that
then there is an equal chance who fhall die firft. But in
reality huflbands are generally older than wives, and
males have been found to die fooner than females, as
appears inconteftably from feveral of the tables in Dr
Price’s Treatife on Reverfions. It is therefore more
than an equal chance that the hulband will die before
his wife. This will increafe confiderably the duration
4.
Sumvcr-
fliip.
When the
• number of
annuitants
arrives at
its maxi¬
mum.
VvTiat a
man ought
to pay in a
lingle pay¬
ment to
entitle his
widow to a
certain an¬
nuity.
S U R [ r
ot furvlvorflup on the part of the tvomen, and confe-
quently the number which we have been inquiring af¬
ter. The marriage of widows will diminilh this num¬
ber, but not fo much as the other caufes will increafe it.
if the fociety comprehends in it from the firlt all the
married people of all ages in any town, or among any
clafs of people where the numbers always continue the
fame, the whole colledtive body of members will be at
their greateft age at the time of the eilablilliment of the
fociety j and the number of widows left every year will
at a medium be always the fame. The number of wi¬
dows will increafe continually on the fociety, till as
many die every year as are added. This will.not be
till the whole colledlive body of widows are at their
greateft age, or till there are among them the greateft
poftible number of the oldeft widows ; and therefore not
till there has been time for an acceftion to the oldeft wi¬
dows from the youngeft part.
Let us, for the fake of greater precifion, divide the
whole medium of widows that come on every year into
different claffes according to their different ages, and
fuppofe fome to be left at 56 years of age, forne at 46,
fame at 36, and fome at 26. The widows, conftantly
in life together, derived from the firft clafs, will come
to their greateft age, and to a maximum, in 30 years,
fuppofing, with M. de Moivre, 86 to be the utmoft ex¬
tent of life. The fame will happen to the fecond clafs
in 40 years, and to the third in 50 years. But the whole
body compoied of thefe claffes will not come to a maxi¬
mum till the fame happens to the fourth or youngeft
clafs ; that is, not till the end of 6o years. After this
the affairs of the fociety will become ftationary, and the
number of annuitants on it of all ages will keep al¬
ways nearly the fame.
If a fociety begins with its complete number of mem¬
bers, but at the fame time admits none above a particu¬
lar age : If, for inftance, it begins with 200 mem¬
bers all under 50, and afterwards limits itfelf to this
number, and keeps it up by admitting every year, at all
ages between 26 and 50, new members as old ones drop
off) in this cafe, the period neceffary for bringing on
the maxursiim of annuitants will be juft doubled.
To determine the fqm that every individual ought to
pay in a Angle prefent payment, in order to intitle his
widow to a certain annuity for her life, let us fuppofe
the annuity 3I. per annum, and the rate of intereft four
per cent. It is evident, that the value of fuch an ex¬
pedition is different, according to the different ages of
the purchafers, and the proportion of the age of the wife
to that of the hufband. Let us then fuppofe that every
perfon in fuch a fociety is of the fame age with his wife,
and that one with another all the members when they
enter may be reckoned 40 years of age, as many enter¬
ing above this age as below it. It has been demonftra-
ted by M. de Moivre and Mr Simpfon, that the value
of an annuity on the joint continuance of any two lives,
fubtradled from the value of an annuity on the life in ex¬
pedition, gives the true prefent value of annuity on
what may happen to remain of the latter of the two
lives after the other.
In the prefent cafe, the value of an annuity to be en¬
joyed during the joint continuance of two lives, each
40, is, by 1 able II. 9.826, according to the probabili¬
ties of life in the Table of Obfervations formed by Dr
Halley from the bills of mortality of Breflaw in Silefia.
3
26 1
sun
1 he value of a Angle life 40 years of age, as given by Survivor*
M. de Moivre, agreeably to the fame table, is 13.20;
and the former fubtradfed from the latter, leaves 3.^7,
or the true number of years purchafe, which ought to
be paid for any given annuity, to be enjoyed by a per-
lon 40 years of age, provided he furvives another perfon
or the fame age, intereft being reckoned at four per
cent, per annum. Ihe annuity, therefore, being 30I.
the prefent value of it is 30 multiplied by 3-37. or
loll. 2S.
If, inftead of a Angle prefent payment, it is thought Wha?he
preferable to make annual payments during the mar- ought to
riage ; what thefe annual payments ought to be is eaAlypay m an*
determined by finding what annual payments during ™aJtpay‘
two joint lives of given ages are equivalent to the value '
of the reverfionaty annuity in prefent money. Suppofe,
as before, that the joint lives are each 40, and ttie re-
verfionary annuity 3 cl. per annum. An annual pay¬
ment during the continuance of two fuch lives is worth
(according to 1 able II.) 9.82 years purchafe. The an¬
nual payment ought to be Inch as, being multiplied by
9.82, will produce 101.il. the prefent value of the an¬
nuity in one payment. Divide then 101.1 by 9.82, and
10.3 the quotient will be the annual payment. This
method of calculation fuppofes that the fi/ft annual pay¬
ment is not to be made till the end of a year. If it is
to be made immediately, the value of the joint lives will
be increafed one year’s purchafe ; and therefore, in or¬
der to find the annual payments required, the value of
a prefent fingle payment muft be divided by the value
ot the joint lives increafed by unity. If the focietv pre¬
fer paying part of the value in a prefent fingle payment
on admiffion, and the reft in annual payments ; and if
they fix thefe annual payments at a particular fum, the
prefent fingle payment paid on admiffion is found by
lubtraftir.g the value of the annual payment during the
joint lives from the whole prefent value of the annuity
in one payment. Suppofe, for inftance, the annual pay¬
ments to be fixed at five guineas, the annuity to be 30I.
the rate of intereft four per cent, and the joint lives each
40 ; the value of the annuity in one prefent fingle pay¬
ment is 101.1l. The value of five guineas or 5.25 per
annum, is (5.25 multiplied by 9.82 the value of the
joint lives) 51.55 ; which, lubtiatted from 101.il. gives
49.5I. the anfwer.
It a fociety takes in all the marriages among perfons
of a particular profeflion within a given diftrift, and
fubjedfts them for perpetuity to a certain equal and com¬
mon tax or annual payment, in order to provide life
annuities for all the widows that {hall refult from thefe
marriages ; fince, at the commencement of fuch an efta-^
bliftiment, all the oldeft, as well as the youngeft, mar¬
riages are to be intitled equally to the propofed benefit,
a much greater number of annuitants will come imme¬
diately on it than would come on any fimilar efta-
bliffiment which limited itfelf in the admiffion of mem¬
bers to perfons not exceeding a given age. This will
check that accumulation of money which fhould take
place at firft, in order to produce an income equal to
the dilhurfements at the time when the number of an¬
nuitants comes to a maximum; and therefore will be a
particular burden upon the eftabliffiment in its infancy.
For this fome compenfation muft be provided ; and the
equitable method of providing it is, by levying fines at
the beginning of the eftabliffiment on every member ex¬
ceeding
SUK [ 127 ] SUE
Survivor- ceedlng a given sge» proportioned to tli£ namber of to be enjoyed by a bte now years ot sge, aftei a
Oilp. years rvhicb he has lived beyond that age. But if fach life of the fame _ age, provided both continue (even , “P~ ,
~*_v ' fines cannot be levied, and if every payment muft be years. The annuity then being 10I. its preient value is
be equal and common, whatever difparity there may be
in the value of the expectations of different members,
the fines mufl be reduced to' one common one, anfwer-
ing as nearly as poffiole to the difadvantage, and pay¬
able by every member at the time when the eftablhh-
ment begins. After this, the eflablifhment wall be the
fame with one that takes upon it all at the time they
marry ; and the tax or annual payment of every mem¬
ber adequate to its fupport will be the annual payment
during marriage due from perfons who marry at the
mean age at which, upon an average, all marriages may
be confidered as commencing. The fines to be paid at
firfl are, for every particular member, the fame with
the difference between the value of the expectation to
him at his prefent age, and what would have been its
value to him had the fcheme begun at the time he mar¬
ried. Or, they are, for the whole body of members,
the difference between the value of the common expec¬
tation, to perfons at the mean age of all married perfons
taken together as they exit! in the world, and to per¬
fons at that age which is to be deemed their mean age
^ when they marry.
Method of Suppofe we with to know the prefent value of an an-
finding the nifity to be enjoyed by one life, for what may happen
1 U to rema*n it beyond another lite, after a given term ;
annuity to that is, provided both lives continue from the pielent
be enjoyed time to the end of a given term of years ; the method
by one lite Gf calculating is this : Find the value of the annuity for
sutei the liveS) greater by the given term of years than the
ct another. giyen lives; dlfcount this value for the given term ;
and then multiply by the probability, that the two gi¬
ven lives fhall both continue the given term 3 and the
produft will be the anfwer. Thus, let the two lives be
each 30, the term (even years, the annuity 10I. interefl
four per cent. The given lives, increafed by feven
years, become each 37. The value of two joint lives,
each 37, is (by Table II.) 10.25. ^'he value of a
fingle life at 37 is (by the table under the article An¬
nuity) 13*67. The former fubtracled from the latter
is 3.42, or the value of an annuity for the life of a per-
fon 37 years of age, after another of the fame age, as
has been fiiown above. 3.42 difcounted for feven years
(that is, multiplied by 0.76 the value of il. due at the
end of feven years) is 2.6. The probability that a
fingle life at 30 fnall continue feven years is (b).
The probability, therefore, that two fuch lives ihall
continue feven years, is 4x°|-> or decimals 0.765 ;
and 2.6 multiplied by 0.765 is 1.989, the number of
years purchafe which ought to be given for an annuity
10.89!. 6
Suppofe the value is required of an annuity to be en- Method of
joyed for what may happen to remain of one life after die
another, provided the life in expectation continues a gi- annu;ty for
ven time. 1. Find the prefent value of the annuity for what may
the remainder of the life in expectation after the given happen to
time, which is done in this manner : Multiply the pre-r^?^of
fent value of the life at the given time by the Prefent after
value of il. to be received at that time, and multiply ther, pro-
the produCt again by the probability that the life in ex- vided the
peCtation will continue fo long. Let the given time
which the life in expectation is to continue be 15 years, ^ntinue!
and let the perfon then be arrived at 50 years of age.* given
A life at fifty, according to M. de Moivre’s valuation term,
of lives, and reckoning interett at four per cent, is
wotth 11.34 years purchafe. The prelent value oi il.
to be received at the end of 15 years, is C.5553, and
the probability that a hfe at 35 will continue 15 years
is Thefe three values multiplied into one another
give 4.44I. for the prefent value of the life in expecta¬
tion. 2. Find the value of the reverfion, provided both
lives continue the given time, by the rule given in
parag. 5th. 3. Add thefe values together, and the fum
will be the anfwer in a fingle prefent payment. We
(hall now illudrate this rule by an example.
An annuity of 10I. for the life of a perfon now 30, is
to commence at the end of 11 years, if another peribn
now 40 fhould be then dead ; or, if this (hould not
happen at the end of any year beyond 11 years in which
the former fhall happen to furvive the latter : What is
the prefent value of fuch an annuity, reckoning interefl
at four per cent, and taking the probabilities of life as
they are in Dr Halley’s table, given in the article
Mortality ?
The value of 10I. per annum, for the remainder of
the life of a perfon now 30, after 11 years is 69.43I.
The probability that a perfon 40 years of age fhall live
11 years, is, by Dr Halley’s table '^e probabi¬
lity, therefore, that he will die in 11 years, is fub-
traded from unity (c), or j which multiplied by
69.43I. gives 17.16I.—The value of the reverfion, pro¬
vided both live 11 years, is 17I. and this value added
to the former, makes 34.16k the value required in a
fingle prefent payment 5 which payment divided by
11.43]. the value of two joint lives, aged 30 and 40,
with unity added, gives 3I. ; or the value required in
annual payments during the joint lives, the firfl pay¬
ment to be made immediately.
Table
(b) The probability that a given life fhall continue any number of years, or reach a given age, is (as is well
known) the fradion, whofe numerator is the number of the living in any table of obfervations oppofite to the given
age, and denominator, the number oppofite to the prefent age of the given lite.
(c) For the difference between unity and the fradion exprefling the probability that an event will happen, gives
the probability that it will not happen.
Table
S U R
[ 120 ]
S U R
Survivor-
, Table I. Showing the Prefent Values of an Annuity of
v~ \\. on a Single Life, according to M. de Moivrc's Hy-
pothefs.
Ae;e.
9
10
1 2
J3
M
16
i?
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
2?
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
n
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
per ct.
I9-736
19.868
19.868
r9 736
19.604
19.469
r9 331
19.192
[9.050
18.90 c
l8-759
18.610
18.458
18.305
18.148
I7-99°
17.827
17.664
17.497
17-3 27
I7-I54
16.979
16.800
16.620
16.248
16.0 C7
15.864
15.666
i5-465
15.26c
I5-°53
i5.842
14.626
I4-4°7
14.185
13.728
I3-254
13.012
12.764
12.511
3aPerct
4 per ct.
18.160
18.269
18.269
18.16
18.049
I7,937
17.823
I7-7°7
17.588
17.467
17-344
17.22c
r7 °93
16.963
16.830
16.696
^■559
16.419
16.277
16.133
15.985
15-83 5
15.682
15.781
13.669
£5-554
‘5-437
15-318
I5-I97
I5-°73
14.946
14.816
14.684
15.526
16 43615.367
i c.204
15-039
14.871
14.699
14.524
14-345
I4-,63
‘3 978
l3-789
I3-596
I3-399
,3-I99
12.993
12.784
12.571
12.354
12.131
11 904
61
62
64
12-255
11 994
11.729
ii-457
11.183
TO.902
IO.616
IO.32
IO 020
9.727
9.419
9.I
8.787
8.462
II.673
11-437
.195
IO-95°
10.698
16.791
16.882
16.882
16.791
16.698
16 604
16.508
16.410
16.311
16.209
[6.105
r5-999
15.891
14-549
14-411
14.270
14.126
13-979
[3.829
x3-676
4 a per ct
15-595
15 672
I5-672
15-595
r5-5I7
15-437
‘5-356
‘5-273
15.189
15.102
15.015
14.923
14.831
‘4-737
14.641
r4-543
14.442
14.340
14-235
14.128
14.018
13-9° 5
I.3-79I
‘3-673
‘3-553
‘3-43°
‘3-304
‘3-‘75
13.044
12.909
‘3-5‘912-77‘
‘3-359
13.‘96
12.630
12.485
13.028
12.858
12.683
12.504
12.322
I 2-‘35
“•944
n .748
“•548
“.344
‘2-337
12.185
12.029
11.870
11.707
11.540
11.368
11.192
11.012
10.827
“•‘35
10.921
10.702
10.478
10.248
10.443 10.014
9-773
9-527
io.tSi
9-9‘3
9.640
9-361
9.076
8.786
8.488
8.185
per ct.
6 per ct.
‘4-544
14.607
14.607
‘4-544
14.480
14.412
‘4-342
14.271
‘4-197
14.123
‘4.047
‘3-97°
‘3-89‘
13.81c
‘3-727
13.64
‘3-555
13466
‘3-375
13.282
13.186
[3.088
12 988
12.855
12.78c
12.673
12.562
‘2.449
‘2-333
12.214
12.091
11.966
“.837
“•7°5
“.570
“•43‘
11.288
11.142
10.992
‘0-837
10.679
10.5 ‘ 5
10.348
9-275
9-°‘ 7
10.638 10.176
10.443 9-999
10.243 9-8‘7
10.039! 9.630
9.829! 9.437
9.614; 9.239
9.393! 9.036
9.166! 8.826
8.933! 8.611
8.6941 8.389
12.790
12.839
12.839
12.790
‘2-74‘
12.691
12 639
12.586
12-532
12.476
‘ 2.419
12.361
12.301
1 2.239
‘2.‘77
12.11 2
‘ 2.045
11.978
11.908
“.837
“.763
11.688
11.610
■530
“•449
“•365
11.278
11.189
11.098
11.003
10.907
10.807
10.704
10.599
10.490
10.378
10.263
10.144
10.021
9-895
9-765
9.630
9.492
8-753
8.482
8.205
7.921
8.449 8.161
8.197' 7.926
7 938 7-684
7.672, 7.435
9 349
9.201
9.049
8.891
8.729
8.561
8.387
8.208
8.025
7-831
7-633
7.428
7.216
6.997
Age.
3 per ct.
65
66
67
68
69
70
7‘
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
8.t 32
7-794
7-450
7-099
6-743
6.378
6.008
5i63‘
5.246
4-854
4-453
4.046
3-632
3.207
2.776
2-334
1.886
1.429
0.961
0.484
0.000
3-§perct 4 perct
7-875
7 558
7-234
6.962
6-565
6.219
5.865
5-5°5
5-‘36
4-759
^fperct 5perct.
7-63 ‘
7-33-3
7-027
6-7‘4
6-394
6.065
5.728
5-383
5.029
4.666
4-3 731 4-293
3.978 3.912
3-575
3-l63
2-74‘
2.309
3-520
3-‘“
2.707
2.284
i.867j 1.850
1.411J 1.406
o-955; 0.950
0.483 0.481
0.000' 0.000
7-399
7.“9
6.831
6-534
6.230
5.918
5-596
5*265
4.926
4-576
4.217
3-847
3-467
3.076
2.673
2.259
1.832
‘•394
o-943
0.479
0.000
7-‘79
6-9‘5
6.643
6.362
6.073
5-775
5.468
5-152
4.826
4.489
4-‘43
3-784
3-4‘5
3-°34
2.641
2-235
1.816
1.384
o-937
0.479
0.000
6 per ct.
6.77O
6-535
6.292
6.040
5-779
5.-5°8
5.228
4-937
4-636
4-324
4.000
3.664
3-3‘5
2-953
2,578
2.188
‘■783
‘.362
0.925
0.472
0.000
Table II. Showing the Value of an Annuity on the
’Joint Continuance of Two Lives, according to M. de
Moivre's Hypothefs.
><>
‘5
20
!>
Value at
per cent.
10
‘5
20
25
3°
35
4°
45
50
55
60
65
7°
‘5
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
7°
20
25
30
35
4°
45
50
5 V alue at 3
per cent.
15.206
14.878
‘4-503
‘4.074
I3-585
I3-025
12.381
11.644
IO.796
9.822
8.704
7-4‘7
5-936
‘4-574
14.225
13.822
‘3-359
12.824
12.207
11.496
10.675
9.727
8.632
7-377
5-932
Value at 4
per cent.
‘3-342
‘3-°93
12.808
12.480
12.102
11.665
“•156
10.564
9-87‘
9-°59
8.105
6.980
5-652
12.860
‘2-593
12.281
11.921
11.501
11.013
10*440
9.767
8-975
8.041
6-934
5-623
13.904
‘3-53‘
13.098
‘2-594
12.008
“•325
‘0.536
12.341
‘2.051
11.711
“•3‘ 4
10.847
10.297
9.648
11.855
11.661
“•430
11.182
10.884
‘0-537
10.128
9.646
9.074
8.39!
7-572
6-585
5-39‘
11.478
11.266
11.022
10.736
10.402
10.008
9-54‘
8.985
8.318
7-5‘5
6.544
5-364
11.067
10.840
‘ 0.565
10.278
9.S70
9 420
8.880
Ag?
Survivor-
(hip.
S U R
S U R
[ 129 1
Survivor-
fliip.
§°s
25
ttir
55
60
65
70
Value at
per cent.
3°
35
40
25
3°
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
13.192
12.794
!2.333
11.770
II*I3°
xo.374
9.488
8.452
7.241
5.826
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
45
5°
55
60
65
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
5°
55
60
65
70
55
60
65
70
6o
65
70
3 Value at 4
per cent.
V alue at 5
per cent.
9.6x7
8-549
7.2©8
5.868
8.879
7.967
6.882
5-59°
11.786
11.468
11.093
10.655
xo.xs1
9-5°9
8.766
7.880
6.826
5-551
12.434
12.0X0
11.502
IO.898
IO.183
9-338
8.338
7.l6l
5*777
11.622
xx.175
10.622
9-955
9-X56
8.202
7.066
5-7l8
xo.777
10.283
9.677
8.936
8.028
6.951
5.646
9.863
9-331
8.662
7-831
6.807
5-556
70
65
70
70
11.182
10.838
10.428
9-936
9-345
8.634
7-779
6.748
5-5°5
10.530
10.157
9-7°2
9.149
8.476
7.658
6.662
5.450
8.233
7.448
6.495
5*333
10.621
10.367
10.067
9.708
9.278
8.761
8.134
7-371
6.440
5.294
10.133
9-854
9-5I4
9.112
8.620
8.018
7.280
6-373
5-254
8.892
8.312
7.568
6.623
5-442
7.849
7.220
6-379
5.201
9.826
9.418
8.911
8.283
7-5io
6-556
5.383
9.062
8.619
8.044
7-332
6-435
5-300
8.235
7-738
7.091
6.258
5-I93
7-332
6.781
6.036
5-053
6-737
6.043
5.081
5-547
4-773
6-351
5-730
4.858
5-277
4-571
4.270 4.104 3.952
9.600
9.291
8.913
8.450
7.879
7.172
6.294
5-203
9.014
8.671
8.244
7-710
7-°39
6.198
5-I4I
8.370
7.987
7.500
6.875
6.080
5-063
7.660
7.220
6.664
5.926
4.964
6.873
6.386
5-724
4-833
6.001
5-444
4-653
5-031
4-385
Table III. Showing the Values of Annuities on Single
Lives, among Males and Females, according to the
Probabilities of the Duration of Life in the Kingdom
of Sweden.
Survivor-
fliip.
Males.
Ages. 4 per ct. 5 per ct.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
S2
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
Females. JjLives in general.
4 per ct. 5 per ct. 4 per ct. 5 per ct
16.503
17-355
17-935
18.328
18.CO3
18.622
18.693
18.725
18.715
18.674
18.600
18.491
18.278
18.246
18.105
17.958
17.802
17-643
17.492
I7-335
17.192
17.042
16.887
16.742
16.592
16.436
16.274
16.105
I5-930
I5-751
I5-575
T5-395
15.208
i5-oI4
14.812
14.601
14.382
i4-i54
i3-9i6
13.668
13.426
I3-I96
12.984
12.763
12.535
12.297
12.051
n-795
11.528
11.267
11.030
10.785
10.531
10.269
9.998
14.051
X4-778
i5-279i
15.624
15.786
15.901
15-977
16.021
16.030
16.014
15-97°
15.896
i5-8l9
I5-724
15.624
M-^7
15.404
15.285
I5-I75
I5-059
M-955
14.846
I4-732
14.627
I4-5I7
14.402
14.282
14.156
14.024
13.889
13-756
13.619
I3477
13-327
13.170
13.006
12.833
12.652
12.462
12.261
12.065
11.880
16.820
11.710
11-53 2
n-347
n-153
10.951
io.738i
10.516
10.298
10.100
9-895
9.682
9.46c
9.229
17*719
18.344
18.780
18.927
19.045
19.131
19.162
19.151
19.109
19.041
18.952
18.840
18.707
18.568
18.424
18.290
18.151
18.013
17.872
17-725
17-573
17.414
17.252
17.087
16.915
16.751
16.588
16.427
16.261
16.104
15-941
i5-787
15.629
15-465
15.278
15.070
14.854
14.629
14.401
14.185
13-994
13.798
13-596
13-383
iS-^i
12.894
12.620
12.333
12.049
11.769
11.492
11.220
'0.93.
10.642
14.271
i5-034
i5-57i
i5-95i
16.088
16.203
16.291
i6.335
i6.343
16.325
i6.286j
16.229
16.153
16.059
1 c.960
15.856
15.761
15.662
15-563
15.462
I5-356
15-245
15.129
15.009
14.886
14-757
14.636
I4-515
14.396
14.272
14.156
14-035
13-923
13.806
13.684
13-542I
i3-382;
13-213
13.036
12.856
12.687
12.538
12.387
12.229
12.061
11.876
11.668
ii-443
11.205
10.970
io-737
10.507
10.280
10.042
9.792
16.661
17-537
18.139
i8.554
18.715
18.833
18.912
18.943
18.933
18.891
18.820
18.721
18.609
18.476
18.336
18.191
18.046
17.897
I7-752
17.603
17-458
17.307
17.150
16.997
16.839
16.675
16.512
16.346
16.178
16.006
15-839
15.668
15-497
i5-321
15-138
14-939
14.726
14.504
14.27
14.034
13-805
!3-595
i3-39i
I3-I79
12.959
12.724
12.472
12.217
11.930
11.658
11-399
11.138
10.875
10.603
10.320
14.161
14.906
15-425
15-787
15-937
16.05:
16.1 34
16.178
16.186
16.169
16.128
16.062
15.986
15.891
I5-792
15.686
15-582
15-473
15-369
15.260
15-155
15-045
14.930
14.818
14.701
M-579
14-459
14-335
14.21c
14.080
13-956
13.827
13.700
13-566
13-427
13-274
13.107
I2-932
12.749
12.558
12.376
12.209
12.048
11.88
Vol. XX. Part I.
R
11.704
ii-5i4
11.309
11.096
10.860
10.634
10.418
10.201
9-98i
9-75i
9-51°
Males.
S U R
Survivor-
fhip.
[130 ]
Males.
Ages.j 4 per ct. 5 per ct.
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
6S
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
9.717
9425
9.140
8.845
8.540
8.241
7-950
7.669
7.382
7.090
6.792
6.489
6.201
5-933
5.670
54’8
5-i§o
4.940
4.724
4.487
4-253
4.024
3.768
3-512
3.260
3.017
2.792
2.600
2-473
2-371
2.281
2-I54
i-955
1.698
I-4I7
i-i54
0.835
0-477
0.240
0.000
0.000
8.988
8.736
8.489
8.232
7-963
7.700
744 2
7-i93
6.938
6.676
6.408
6.134
5.872
5.628
5.389
5-158
4.940
4.719
4.52;
4.302
4.084
3.871
3-631
3-390
3-152
2.921
2.706
2-523
2403
2.306
2.222
2.103
1.912
1.664
1.392
1.136
0.824
0.471
0.238
0.000
0.000
Females.
4 per ct. 5 per ct.
10-334
IO.OI 2
9.692
9-358
9-039
8-739
8-453
8.166
7.870
7.566
7.252
6.930
6.596
6.253
5-897
5-564
5.261
4-998
4.792
4.582
4-367
4-145
3-913
3.668
3402
3-145
2.905
2.699
2-559
2.552
2.518
2431
2.294
2.108
1-873
1.628
*•349
1.071
0.799
o-544
0.320:
9-529
9-253
8.Q76
8.687
8.406
8.144
7-895
7-643
7.382
7.111
6.831
6.541
6.239
5.926
5-599
5-293
5-013
4.770
4.581
4.388
4.189
3-983
3-767
3-536
3-285
3.041
2.812
2.615
2.48c
2.476
2.446
2-365
2.236
2.059
i-833
1.596
1-325
1.054
0.788
o-537
o-317
Lives in general
4 per ct. 5 per ct.
10.02 C
9.718
9.416
9.IOI
8.789
8.490
8.201
7.917
7.626
7-328
7.022
6.709
6.398
6.093
5-783
5-491
5.22c
4.969
4-758
4-534
4.310
4.084
3.840
3-590
3-33i
3.08]
2.848
2.649
2.516
2.461
2-399
2.292
2.124
1.903
1.645
i-39i
1.092
0.774
0.519
9.258
8.994
8.732
8.458
8.184
7.922
7.668
7.418
7.160
6.893
6.619
6-337
6.055
5-777
5-494
5-225
4.976
4-744
4-55i
4-345
4.136
3-927
3-699
3463
3.218
2.981
2-759
2.369
2.441
2.391
2-334
2.338
2.074
1.861
1.612
1.366
1.074
0.762
o-5i3
S U R
Interefl 4 per cent.
Survivor^
fl;ip.
Table IV. Showing the Value of Annuities on Two Joint
Lives, according to the Probabilities of the Duration of
Human Life, among Males and Females colleBivehj,
reckoning intcrejl at 4 per cent.
Intereft 4 per cent.
Difference of o, 6, 12, and 18 years.
Ages.
1- 1
2- 2
3- 3
4- 4
5- 5
6- 6
Values.
12 252
13- 583
14- 558
x c.267
15- 577
15-820]
Ages.
1- 7
2- 8
3- 9
4- 10
5- ii
6- 12
V alues.
13.989
14.780
'5-323
15.685
15.817
15.887
| Ages.
V alues.
1- I313.894
2- 1414.557
3- 15,14-988
4- 16,15.259
5- 17 15.326
6- l8 15.354
Ages.
1- 19
2- 20
3- 21
4- 2 2;
5- 23
6- 24
Values.
13- 389
14.008
14.417
14.67 1
14- 725
I4.74O
Ages
Values.
7- 7';l6.003
8- 816.109
9- 916.152
10-10
11-11
12-12
13- 13
14- 14
15- 15
16- 16
17- 17
18- 18
19- 19
20- 20
21-21
22-22
23- 23
24- 24
25- 25
26- 26
27- 27
28- 28
29- 29
30- 30
31- 31
32- 32
33- 33
34- 34
35- 35
36- 36
37- 37
38- 38
39- 39
40- 40
41- 41
42- 42
43- 43
44- 44
45- 45
46- 46
47- 47
48- 48
49- 49
50- 50
51- 5
52- 52
53- 53
54- 54
55- 55
56- 56
57- 57
58- 58
59- 59
60- 60
61- 61
62- 62
63- 63
64- 64
65- 65
66- 66
16.141
16.087
15.982
15.855
15.701
15.535
15.361
15.196
15-023
14-854
14.682
'4-525
14.560
14.194
14.020
13.849
13.671
13-495
13-323
13.148
12.965
12-795
12.624
12.456
12.286
12.109
11.904
11.683
11.452
11.209
10.964
10.732
10.531
10.346
10.154
9-954
9-736
9-497
9.236
8.966
8.707
Ages
7- 1.3
8- I4
Values.
15.914
15.888
9-15:15.824
io-i6'i5.729
n-17 15.617
i2-i8;i5.477
1I3-i9|i5-327
14-20 15.164
15.001
14.832
14.66 5
14.491
14.320
14-144
13-976
13.807
13-635
13-455
13.284
13.108
12.935
12.763
12.586
12.390
12.192
11.988
11-779
11.568
11.361
11.156
io-953
10.741
10.519
10.286
15- 21
16- 22
17- 23
18- 24
19- 25
20- 26
21- 27
22- 28
23- 29
24- 30
i2 5-3i
26- 32
27- 33
28- 34
A9-35
30- 36
31- 37
32- 38
33- 39
!34-40
!35-4i
36-42
137-43
'38-44
39- 45
40- 46
!4i-47
142- 48
143- 49
44- 50
45- 51
46- 52
47- 53
48- 54
49- 55
50- 56
8-469 5i-57
8.230
7-994
7.748
7-495
7.229
6.924
6.678
6.388
6.104
5-844
c.6oo
5-367
5.128
4.881
4.626
52- 58
53- 59
54- 60
55- 6i
56- 62
57- 63
58- 64
59- 65
60- 66
61- 67
62- 68
63- 69
64- 70
65- 71
66- 72
18- 30
19- 31
20- 32
21- 33
22- 34
23- 35
24- 36
25- 37
26- 38
27- 39
28- 40
29- 41
.30-42
31- 43
32- 44
33- 45
34- 46
35- 47
36- 48
37- 49
38- 50
39- 5i
40- 52
10.049; 41-53
9.813
9.581
9-351
9.129
8.897
8.658
8.402
8.139
7.874
7.613
7-35'
7.083
6.814
6.555
6.299
6.045
5.788
5.519
5-249
4.984
4-231
3.982
3*750
Ages.
Values.
7- i9;i5>35i
8- 20 15.310
9- 21:15.244
10- 2215.149
x 1-23 15.033
12- 24,14.889
13- 25:14.736
14- 26 14.566
15- 27i!4-392
16- 28:14.216
17- 29 14.042
42- 54
43- 55
44- 56
45- 57
46- 58
47- 59
48- 60
49- 6i
50- 62
51- 63
52- 64
53- 65
54- 66
55- 67
56- 68
57- 69
58- 70
59- 7i
60- 72
61- 73
4.729162-74
4.482 63-75
64-76
165-77
66-78
Ages.
7- 25
8- 26
V alues.
14.727
14.673
9-27 I4.590
14.484
14-357
13.860
13.687
13.512
13.345
13.173
12.997
I 2.801
12.599
12.387
12.17c
11*953
11.742
11*543
11-359
11.1 70
IO.978
10.775
10.557
IO.314
10.0 1:9
9.805
9.558
9.308
9.066
8.830
8.597
8-354
8.101
7.841
7.563
7.281
7.008
6.749
6.505
6.256
6.004
5-743
5-474
5.204
4.936
4.664
4-395
4.149
3.927
3*747
3.563
3.37o
3.180
2.974
10- 28
11- 29
12- 30
13- 31
M-32
15- 33
16- 34
17- 35
18- 36
19- 37
20- 38
21- 39
22- 40
23- 41
24- 42
25- 43
26- 44
27- 45
28- 46
29- 47
30- 48
31- 49
32- 50
33- 5i
34- 52
35- 53
36 54
37 55
38- 56
39- 57
40- 58'
41- 59
42- 60
43- 6i
44- 62
45- 63
46- 64
47- 65
48- 66
49- 67
50- 68
51- 69
52- 70
i3-7i
54- 72
55- 73
56- 74
57- 75
58- 76
59- 77
60- 78
61- 79
62- 80
63- 81
64- 82
65- 83
66- 84
14.202
14.045
i3.s74
13.700
13.520
13.340
13.141
13.934
12.720
12.505
12.286
12.073
11.873
11.683
11.485
11.284
11.072
10.847
10.606
10.365
xo.128
9.905
9.679
9-452
9.207
8.951
8.685
8.404
8.124
7.839
7.569
7.3i8
7.075
6.836
6.586
6.323
6.048
5.764
5.487'
c.221
4-953
4.694
4*455
4.231
4.043
3-844
3.637
3.43o
3.210
2.974
2.744
2.557
2.396
2.252
2.123
Intereit
£urvr*or~
(hip.
S U R
Intereft 4 per cent.
. [ 131 ]
A.^es. I Values, j
67- 67
68- 68
69- 69
70- 70
71- 71
72- 72
73- 73
74- 74
75*75
76- 76
77- 77
78- 78
79- 79
80- 80
81- 8l
82- 82
*3-83
84- 84
85- 85
86- 86
87- 87
88- 88
89- 89
90- 90
91- 91
92- 92
93- 93
94- 94
95- 95
Ag-es.
4.362
4.103
3-85i
3-593;
3-345
5.128
2-935
2.797
2.648
2.490
2.340
2.17c
1.967
i-758
1.600
I-472
1.364
1.276
1.212
1.17 2
1.127
1.071
0.949
0.718
0.516
0.326
0.236
0.190
0.024
Values.
67- 73
68- 74
69- 75
70- 76
71- 77
72- 78
73- 79
74- 8°
75- 81
76- 82
77- 83
78- 84
79- 8
80- 86
81- 87
82- “
83- 89
84- 90
85- 91|
86- 92
87- 93j
88- 94
89- 95
3-527
3-340
S-M?
2.946
2.752
2.355
2.172
Ages
67- 79
68- 80
69- 81
70- 82
7i*83
Values.
2.743
2-514
2.324
2.155
Ages. I Values
2.558 72-84
73- 85
74- 86
2.017 75-87
I*877
i.756
1.639-
1-524
1.416
1.320
76- 88
77- 89
78- 90
79- 91
80- 92
81- 93
1.225 82-94
1.094
0.902
0.725
0.556
0-459
0.396
0.364
83-95
1 67-85!
' 68-86!
69- 87!
70- 8 8j
2.004 71-89
1.%*! S\'T1-9°
1.768 73-91
1.692,74-92
1.605175-93
1.497!! 76-94
1-339
1.0971
0.863!
0.638
0.511
0.427
0.379
'77-95
2.010
1.910
1.798
1.661
1.464
1.189
0-937
0.708
0.575
0.481
0.421
Ages
1- 25
2- 26
3- 27
4- 28
5- 29
6- 30
7*31
8- 32
9- 33
10- 34
11- 3 ^
12- 36
I3’37
14- 38
15- 39
16- 40
Values.
12.832
13.409
13.778
I4.OO3
I4-°37
i4-o33
14.006
13-9441
i3-855
I3-74I
13-604!!
13.4281
i3-234i
13.023
12.798;
12.57°!
Ages. Values.
i 31
2-32
3*33
4- 34
5- 35
6- 36
12.196
12.730
13.066
13.264
I3-277
13.242
7- 37 13.170
8- 38'I3.°59
9- 39112.913
10- 4o;i 2.743
11- 41)12.563
12- 42:12.379
13- 43jI2.i96
14- 44111.997
15- 45'i1-787
16- 46!i 1.562
Ages.
1- 37
2- 38
3- 39
4- 40
5- 41
6- 42
7- 43
8- 44
9- 45
10- 46
11- 47
12- 48
jx3-49
,I4-5°
:x5-5i
,16-52
V alues.
II.465
II*9I3
12.164
12.284
12.242
12.185
12.112
12.004
11.865
11.694
IX-493
11.259
11.011
xo.759
10.514
10.264
Ages.
Values.
x-43
2- 44
3- 45
4- 46
5- 47
6- 48
7- 49
8- 50
9- 5x
10-52
xx-53
x2-54
x3-55
14- 56
15- 57
16- 58
10.546
10.946
11.168
11.260
11.183
11.064
10.915
io.743
10.560
io.357
10.140
9.898
9.644
9-371
9.087
8.799
S U R
Interell 4 per cent.
Survivor-
drip.
Ages.
17-41
8-42
19- 43
20- 44
21- 45
22- 46
23- 47
24- 48 10.862
25- 49 ' 0.6^2
Table V. Showing the Values of two Joint Lives, ac¬
cording to the Probabilities of the Duration of Human
Life among Males and Females colleEhvely.
Intereft 4 per cent.
Difference of age 24, 30, 36, and 42 years.
V alues.
12.351
12.146
11.951
n.751
ii.55°
n-335
11.107
Ages.
V alues.
Ages.
Values.
26- CO
27- 51
28- 52
29- 53
30- 54
31- 55
3?-56
33*57
34*58
35- 59
36- 60
37- 61
38- 62
39- 63
40- 64
4x-65
42- 66
43- 67
44- 68
45- 69
46- 70
47- 7i
48- 72
49- 73
50- 74
51- 75
52- 76
53- 77
54- 78
55- 79
56- 80
57- 8i
58- 82
59- 83
60- 84
61- 85
62- 86
63- 87
64- 88
65- 89
66- 90
67- 91
68- 92
69- 93
70- 94
71- 95
10.364
10.13c
9.894
9.659
17- 47
18- 48
19- 49
20- 50
21- 51
22- 52
23- 53
24- 54
25- 55
26- 56
27- 57
28- 58
29- 59
9.413 30-60
9.167
8.912
8.651
8.389
8.114
7-833
7-56i
7.296
7-0.33
6.763
3j-6i
32- 62
33- 63
34- 64
35- 65
36- 66
37- 67
38- 68
139- 69
140- 7
11.328
11.076!
10.819!
10.567!
10.332!
10.092!
9.852
9.602
9-347
9.080
8.807
8-534
8.250
7.967
7.702
7.446
7.196
6.492 41-71
6.225I42-7
5-957i|43-73
5.68944-74
5.42645-75
5-153 46-76
4.884)47-77
4-633
4-398
4.205
4.008
3-803
3-605
3-389
3-150
2.909
2.710 57-8
2-539
2.385
2.248
2.037
1.916
1.790
1.58 c
1.290
1.017
0.764
0.617
0.514
04x1
48- 78
49- 79
cc-8c
51- 81
52- 82
53- 83
54- 84
55- 85
56- 86
2.135 61-91
58-88
*9-89
60-90
62- 92
63- 93
64- 94
65- 95
17- 53
18- 54
'9-55
20- c6
21- 57
22- 58
23- 59
24- 60
25- 61
26- 62
27- 63
28- 64
29- 65
30- 66
31- 67
32- 68
33- 69;
17- 59
18- 60
19- 61
10.018
9-76x
9.500
9.228
8-953,
8.675122-64
Ages.
V alues.
8.503
8.208
7.928
20- 62 7.658
21- 63 7*396
— u, -r, 7.127
8.385i;23-65! 6.851
8*097! 24-66! 6.566
7.823(25-67; 6.275
7.CC7 26-68
7.297 27-69.
7.032128-701
6.761 29-71.
6.481,30-72'
6.i97:3I-73
5*947 32-74
5.642
6.942j 34-7°j 5.364
6.679
6.40 2 j
6.115
5.828:
5-543
5-254
4.977
4.730
4.507
4.322
4.128
3.921
3*7i5
3*489
3*238
2.990
2.792
2.623
2-475
2-344
2.232
2.130
2.010
1.864
1.644
1-333
1.050
0.789
0.639
o-533!
0.456
35- 7xi 5*°93
36- 72! 4.840
37- 73! 4.603
33- 75
34- 76
[35-77
36-78
137-79
38- 741 4.40538-80
39- 75! 4*i95!39-8i
40- 76, 3*975 40-82
41- 77i 3*762'4i-83
42- 781
43- 79.
14-80
45'8i
46- 82!
47- 83'
48- 84
49- 85
50- 86
5187
52- 88
53- 89
54- 90
55- 91
56- 92
57- 93
58- 94
59- 95
3*539
3*295
3*°5
2.854
2.684
2.533
2.396
2.277
2.171
2.050
1.901
1.681
1.366
1.078
0.810
0.655
0.546
0.464
42- 84
43- 85
44- 86
45- 87
46- 88
47- 89
48- 90
49- 91
50- 92
51- 93
52- 94
53- 95
5.986
5*702
5*4i5
5*i36
4.881
4.646
4*453
4.251
4.040
3*833
3*605
3*352
3.098
2.889
2.710
2-553
2.418
2.305
2.203
2.083
1-933
1.708
1.385
1.09c
0.818
0.662
0.551
0.468
R 2
The
/
s U II
Survivor-
fiiip.
The values of joint lives m thefe tables have been
^ computed for only one rate of intereft ; and of fingle
lives in Table III. for only two rates of intereft. The
following rules will fhow, that it would be a needlefs
laboui to compute thefe values (in ftri£t conformity to
the obfervations) for any other rates of intereft.
ACCOUNT of a method of deducing, from the correB va¬
lues (according to any obfervations) of any fingle or
joint Lives at one rate of Interef, the fame values at
other rates of Interef.
i Preliminary Problems.
Prob. I. The expeftation given of a ftngle life by
any table of obfervations, to find its value, fuppofiivr
the decrements of life equal, at any given rate of in¬
tereft.
Solution. Find the value of an annuity certain for
a number of years equal to twice the expeftation. Mul¬
tiply this value by the perpetuity increafed by unity,
and divide the product by twice the expe&ation : The
quotient^ fubtrafted from the perpetuity will be the va¬
lue required.
Example. The expe&ation of a male life aged 10,
by the Sweden obfervations, is 43.94. Twice this ex¬
pectation is S'j.SS. The value of an annuity certain
for 87.88 years is (reckoning intereft at 4 per cent.)
24.200. The produft of 24.200 into 26 (the perpe¬
tuity increafed by unity) is 629.2, which, divided by
87.88, gives 7.159. And this quotient fubtrafted from
25 (the perpetuity) gives 17.84 years purchafe, the va¬
lue of a life aged ten, deduced from the expectation of
life at that age, according to the Sweden obfervations.
(See the Tables in Dr Price on Reverfions, vol. ii.).
Pros. II. Having the expectations given of any two
lives by any table of obfervations, to deduce from thence
the value of the joint lives at any rate of intereft, fup-
pofing an equal decrement of life.
Solution. Find the difference between twice the ex¬
pectation of the youngeft life and twice the expectation
ot the old eft life increafed by unity and twice the per¬
petuity. Multiply this difference by the value of an
annuity certain for a time equal to twice the expecta¬
tion of the oldeft life ; and by twice the fame expecta¬
tion divide the produCt, referving the quotient.
From twice the perpetuity fubtraft the referved
quotient, and multiply the remainder by the perpetuity
increafed by unity. This laft produCt divided by twice
the expectation of the youngeft life, and then fubtraCted
from the perpetuity, will be the required value.
When twice the expectation of the youngeft life is
greater than twice the expectation of the oldeft life in-
crealed by unity and twice the perpetuity, the referved
quotient, inftead of being fubtraCted from twice the
perpetuityr muft be added to it, and the fum, not the
difference, multiplied by the perpetuity increafed by
unity.
Example. Let the joint lives propofed be a female
life aged 10, and a male life aged 15 ; and let the table
cf ooiei vations be the Sweden table for lives in general,
.md the rate of intereft 4 per cent. Twice the expec¬
tations of the two lives are 90.14 and 83.28.
I wice the expectation of the oldeft life, increafed by
unity, and twice the perpetuity, is 134.28, which leffened
by 9c. 14 (twice the expectation of the youngeft life),
[ 132 ]
s u R
leaves 44.14 for the referved remainder. This remain¬
der multiplied by 24.045 (the value of an annuity cer- (
tain for 83.28 years), and the produCt divided by 83.28
(twice the expectation of the oldeft life), gives 12.744,
the quotient to be referved j which fubtraCted from
double the perpetuity, and the remainder (or 37.255)
multiplied by the perpetuity increafed by unity (or by
26) gives 968.630, which divided by 90.14 (twdce the
expectation of the youngeft life) and the quotient fub¬
traCted from the perpetuity, we have 14.254 for the re¬
quired value.
The value of an annuity certain, when the number
of years is a whole number with a fraCtion added (as
will be commonly the cafe) may be beft computed in
the following manner. In this example the number of
years is 83.28. The value of an annuity certain for 83
years is 24.035. The fame value for 84 years is 24.072.
f he difference between thefe two values is 0.37 j which
difference multiplied by .28 (the fraaional part of
the number of years), and the produCt (.0103) added to
the leaft of the two values, will give 24.04? the value
for 83.28 years.
General Rule. Call the correCt value (fuppofed to be
computed for any rate of intereft) the firlt value. Call
the value deduced (by the preceding problems) from
the expectations at the fame rate of intereft, the fecond
value. Call the value deduced from the expectations
for any other rate of intereft the third value.
1 hen the difference between the firft and fecond va¬
lues added to or fubtraCted from the third value, juft as
the firft is greater or lefs than the fecond, will be the
value at the rate of intereft for which the third value
has been deduced from the expectations.
The following examples will make this perfectly plain.
Example I. In the two laft tables the correCt values
are given of trvo joint lives among mankind at large,
without diftinguhhing between males and females, ac¬
cording to the Sweden obfervations, reckoning intereft:
at 4 per cent. Let it be required to find from thefe
values the values at 3 per cent, and let the ages of the
joint lives be fuppofed 10 and 10.
The correCt value by Table IV. (reckoning intereft:
at 4 per cent.) is 16.141. The expectation of a life
aged 10 is 45.07. The value deduced from this ex¬
pectation at 4 per cent, by Prob. II. is 14.539. The
value deduced by the fame problem from the fame ex¬
pectation at 3 per cent, is 16.808. The difference be¬
tween the firft and fecond values is 1.602, which, added
to the third value (the firft being greater than the fe¬
cond), makes 18.410, the value required.
Example II. Let the value be required of a fingle
male life aged 10, at 3 per cent, intereft, from the cor¬
reCt value at 4 per cent, according to the Sweden ob¬
fervations.
Firft, or correCt value at 4 per cent, (by Table III.)
is 18.674. The expectation of a male life aged 10 is
43.94.
The fecond value (or the value deduced from this ex¬
pectation by Prob. I.) is 17.838.
The third value (or the value deduced from the fame
expectation at 3 per cent.) is 21.277.
The difference between the firft and fecond is .836 ;
which (lince the firft is greater than the fecond) muft
be added to the third ; and the fum (that is, 22.113)
will be the value required.
Survivor-
11 iip.
The.
S U R [I
The third value at 5 percent, is 15.286; and the
difference added to 15.286 makes 16.122 the value of
a male life aged 10 at 5 per cent, according to the
Sweden obfervations. The exadh value at 5 per cent, is
(by Table III.) 16.014.
Again : The difference between 16.014 (the corred
value at 5 per cent.), and 15.286 (the value at the
fame intereff deduced from the expettadon), is .728 ;
which, added (becaufe the firft value is greater than the
fecond) to 13.335 (the value deduced at 6 per cent,
from the expedtation) gives 14.063, the value of the
fame life, reckoning intereft at 6 per cent.
Thefe deductions, in the cafe of fingle lives particu¬
larly, are fo eafy, and give the true values fo nearly,
that it will be fcarcely ever neceffary to calculate the
exadt values (according to any given obfervations) for
more than one rate of intereft.
If, for inftance, the corredt values are computed at 4
per cent, according to any obfervations, the values at 3,
3^-, 4I-, 5, 6, 7, or 8 per cent, may be deduced from
them by the preceding rules as occaffon may require,
without much labour or any danger of confiderable er¬
rors. The values thus deduced will feldom differ from
the true values fo much as a tenth of a year’s purchafe.
They will not generally differ more than a 20th or 30th
of a year’s purchafe. In joint lives they will differ lefs
than in fingle lives, and they will come equally near to
one another whatever the rates of intereft are.
The preceding tables furnifh the means of determining
the exadt differences between the values of annuities, as
they are made to depend on the furvivorihip of any
male or female lives ; which hitherto has been a de-
Jideratum of confiderable confequence in the dodtrine of
life-annuities. What has made this of confequence is
chiefly the multitude of focieties lately eftabliflred in
this and foreign countries for providing annuities for
widows. The general rule for calculating from thefe
tables the value of fuch annuities is the following.
Ru/e. “ Find in Table III. the value of a female life
at the age of the wife. From this value fubtrad! the
value in Table IV. of the joint continuance of two lives
at the ages of the hufband and wife. The remainder
will be the value in a fingle pvefent payment of an an¬
nuity for the life of the wife, fiiould the be left a widow.
And this laft value divided by the value of the joint
lives increafed by unity, will be the value of the fame
annuity in annual payments during the joint lives, and
to commence immediately.”
Example. Let the age of the wife be 24, and of the
hufband 30. The value in Table III. (reckoning in¬
tereft at 4 per cent.) of a female life aged 24, is 17.252.
'The value in Table IV. of two joint lives aged 24 and
30, is 13.455, which fubtradfed from 17.252 leaves
3.797, the value in a fingle prefent payment of an an¬
nuity of il. for the life of the wife after the hufband ;
that is, for the life of the widow. The annuity, there¬
fore, being fuppofed 20I. its value in a fingle payment is
20 multiplied by 3.797, that is, 75.94k And this laft
value divided by 14.455 (that is, by the value of the
joint lives increafed by unity), gives 5.25, the value in
annual payments beginning immediately, and to be
continued during the joint lives of an annuity of 2oh to
a wife aged 24 for her life, after her hufband aged 30.
SURWA, the orb of the fun perfonified and adored
33 1 s u s
by a fedl of Hindoos as a god. He feems to be the
fame divinity with the Phoebus of Greece and Rome;
and the fe6t who pay him particular adoration are call¬
ed Sauras. Their poets and painters defcribe his car as
drawn by feven green horfes, preceded by Arun, or the
Dawn, who adls as his charioteer, and follow’ed by
thoufands of genii wTor(hipping him and modulating his
praifes. He has a multitude of names, and among them
twelve epithets or titles, which denote his diftincl
Snrya
II
Suflex.
Afiatic Re-
powers in each of the twelve months; and he is bt-fearches,
lieved to have defcended frequently from his car in avol. np.
human ftiape, and to have left a race on earth, who are^' arK
equally renowmed in the Indian ftories with the Heliadai2 0
of Greece : it is very lingular, that his two fons called
Afwinau or Afwinicumarau, in the dual, ftiould be con-
fidered as twin-brothers, and painted like Caftor and
Pollux ; but they have each the character of iEfculapi-
us among the gods, and are believed to have been born
of a nymph, who, in the form of a mare, was impreg¬
nated with funbeams,
SUS, the Hog, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to
the clafs of mammalia and order of bellute. See Mam¬
malia Index.
SUSA, the ancient royal refidence of the kings of
Perfia, built by Darius Hyftafpis, according to Pliny
though he probably only reftored it, being a very an¬
cient city, founded by Tithonus father of Memnon. It
was in compafs 120 ftadia, of an oblong quadrangular
form, with a citadel called Memnoneurn. In fcripture
it is called Sufan, the royal citadel, from the great
number of lilies growing in that diftrift (Athenajus) ;
fituated on the river Uhlai, or Eulaeus (Daniel) : and
the Spaniards call at this day a lily afufena (Pinedo).
Sufa was the winter, as Ecbatana was the fummer, refi¬
dence of the kings of Perfia, (Xenophon, Strabo, Plu-*
tarch). Here the kings kept their treafure, (Herodo¬
tus). Now called Tujler.
SUSPENSION, in Scots Law. See Law, N°
clxxxv. 5, 6, and 7.
SUSSEX, a county of England, deriving its name
from its fituation in refpefl of the other Saxons, and
called Siijfex, i. e. the country of the South Saxons, has
Hampfliire on the w'eft, the Britiih channel on the
fouth, Surry on the north, and Kent on the eaft. Its
length is 6 3 miles, its breadth 30, and its circumfer¬
ence 170. It is divided into 6 rapes, and thefe into
65 hundreds, in which are 342 parilhes, of which 123 Gough's
are vicarages, one city, 16 market-towns, \,\40,000edition of
acres, and about 159,311 fouls. It has few good ports,
though it lies along the channel for 65 miles, which is A'
its greateft length, the coaft being encumbered in many 19Ji
places with rocks; and where it is more open, fuch
quantities of fand are thrown upon it by the fouth-weft
winds, and the harbours fo choked up, that they will
not admit veffels of any great draught or burden. The
county is well watered by the rivers Arun, Adar, Oufe,
Rother, Lavant, Cuckmeer, Afhburn, and Aften, by
which it is well fupplied with fifh, as well as from the
fea. Hence different places of the county are famed
for different forts of fiih, as the Arun for mullets, which
enter it from- the fea in fummer in fhoals, and by feeding-
upon a particular kind of herb become extremely deli¬
cious : Chichefter for lobfters, Selfey for cockles, Am-
berley for trout, Pulborough for eels, Rye for herrings.;
and-.
S U R [ 1
Stifle*, and the county in general for carp. It is remarkable,
Sutherland, t]le rivers above mentioned rife and fall into the
lea within the county.
The air, as well as the foil, is various in different
parts of the county. Upon the coaft the air is aguilh,
upon the hills and downs pleafant and wholefome ; but
fomewhat moift and foggy in the valleys, the foil being
deep and rich, and the vegetation in fummer very vigo¬
rous. The downs in fome places are very fertile in corn
and grafs ; in others they feed great docks of Iheep,
whofe flelh and wool are very fine 5 but of the latter no
inconfiderable quantity is clandeltinely exported to
France. In the Weald and the valleys the roads are
very deep, efpecially in winter. In the north quarter
are many woods, and fome forefts in other places j
whence the king’s yards are fupplied with the largeft
and beft timber in England, beiide what is made into
charcoal and confumed in the iron-works ; for on the
call fide is plenty of iron ore, with furnaces, forges, and
mills for manufa&uring it. The gunpowder of this
county is faid to excel that of any other. Thofe deli¬
cious birds called wheat-ears are bred in this (hire; they
are not bigger than a lark, but very fat. That part
now called the Wild or Weald of Suffex, was anciently
a mere defert for hogs and deer, of great extent, taking
in a part of Kent and Surry 5 and was called Andenda
Silva, Coid Andred, and Andradfwald, from Anderida
an adjoining city. This county is in the home circuit
and diocefe of Chichefter, giving title of earl to the fa¬
mily of Yelverton, and fends 28 members to parliament,
viz. two for the county, two for the city of Chichefter,
and two for each of the following towns, Horlham,
Lewes, Bramber, Eaft-Grinftead, Midhurft, Shoreham,
Staining, Arundel, Haftings, Rye, Winchelfea, and
Seaford ; of which the four laft are cinque ports.
SU FHERLAND, one of the molt northerly coun¬
ties of Scotland, bordering on Caithnefs to the eaft, and
bounded by the ocean on the north, the country of Af-
fynt on the weft, Rofs-fhire on the fouth, and by the
German fea on the fouth-eaft. It ftretches about 70
miles in length, and 40 in breadth ; is generally hilly,
though in many parts arable *, well watered with fmall
rivers and ftreams replete with fifti, and containing about
60 lakes, the habitation of various fifti, fwans, ducks,
geefe, &c. One of the largeft of thefe is Lochftiin,
extending 18 miles in length. Some of them are
interfperfed wnth fmall verdant iflands, which in fummer
yield a very agreeable profpeft. On the coaft are many
commodious harbours, and all the bays fwarm with fifti.
Sutherland affords iron-ftone, freeftone, limeftoue, mar¬
ble and flate, in abundance. Turf and peat are the
common fuel. Lead ore, and fome copper ore have been
met with in fome parts of the county.
The air is fo temperate, and the foil fo eood, that
faffron has here been brought to perfeftion. Many parts
of the country are remarkably fruitful in corn, and the
pafturage is everywhere excellent. Deer and fome other
game are abundant in Sutherland. On the hills are
fed numerous flocks of ftieep and black cattle. The
northern part, called Strathnaver, and feparated from
the reft by a ridge of mountains, is bounded on the
north by the Deucaledonian fea, on the wreft by the
channel called the Minch, on the eaft by Caithnefs, and
on the fouth by Affynt. The length from eaft to weft,
is 34 miles j but the breadth from north to fouth does
2
34 1 S U T
not exceed 12 in fome places. It is very hilly j and the Sutherland
mountains are fo high, that the fnow remains on the tops
of them till midfumrner. It is watered by the Naver,. .
from whence it derives its name : this diftridt gives a
title to the eldeft fon of the earl of Sutherland. Strath¬
naver has many frefti-water lakes or lochs j the chief of
which are Loch Naver and Loch Lyel : there are feve-
ral iflands on the northern coaft. In various parts of
the country there are monuments of vidtories obtained
over the Danes or other foreign invaders. The inhabi¬
tants are hatdy, bold, and enterprifing j courteous to
ftrangers ; cheerful, open, frugal, and induftrious. The
falmon-fifhery in this county is confiderable, as well as
the trade in black cattle, ftieep, and horfes, at the
neighbouring fairs 5 corn, barley, falmon, butter, cheefe,
wool, hides, and tallow, are exported. Dornoch is the
capital of the county. The population of Sutherland in
1801 amounted to 23,000. The following table (hews
the population at two different periods*. *Statjf.
Parijhes.
Affynt
Clyne
Creich
Durnefs
5 Dornoch
Edderachyllis
Farr
Golfpie
Kildonan
10 Lairg
Loth
Rogart
13 Tongue
Population
in r7SS-
1934
1406
1705
IOOO
2780
869
2800
179°
*433
1010
1I93
1761
1093
20;774
Hiji. vol.
Population inxx*
1790—17 p8.
30OO
1660
173O
Il82
254I
IO24
2600
1700
I365
1350
I370
2000
M39
22,961
20,774
Increafe, 2,187
SUTLER, in War, one who follows the army, and
furnilhes the troops with provifion. Sutlers pitch their
tents, or build their huts, in the r«ar of each regiment,
and about head-quarters.
SUTRIUM, in Ancient Geography, a famous city,
and an ancient colony of the Romans, the key of Etru¬
ria •, founded about feven years after the taking of Rome
by the Gauls (Velleius). Now Sutri\r\ St Peter’s patri¬
mony, on the river Pozzolo ; furrounded on every fide
with rocks, 24 miles to the north-weft of Rome.
SUTTON, Samuel, was born at Alfreton in Der-
bvftiire, and going into the army ferved under the duke
©f Marlborough in Queen Anne’s .wars with great cre¬
dit. He afterwards came to London, commenced brew¬
er, and kept a coffee houfe in Alderfgate-ftreet, which
was well frequented by the learned men of that time, by
whom Mr Sutton was much refpefted, as a man of
ftrong natural parts and uncultivated genius. About the
year i^o he fchemed a very fimple and natural method
for extratfing the foul air from the wells of (hips, by
pipes communicating with the fire-places of the coppers 5
which operated as long as any fire was kept burning for
the (hip’s ufe. He took out a patent in 1744, to fecure
the profits of his invention j and died about the year
1752.
SUTURE,
Suture
SWA [i
SUTURE, in Anatomy, a kind of articulation pecu¬
liar to the cranium or Ikull. See Anatomy, Part I.
Sefl. ii. paflim.
Suture, in Surgery, a method of uniting the lips of
wounds together. See Surgery.
SWABBER, an inferior officer on board imps of
war, whofe employment it is to fee that the decks are
kept clean and neat.
SWABIA. See Suabia.
SWALLOW, a genus of birds. See HlRUNDO,
Ornithology Index. See alfo Migration.
SiVALLOW-Wort. See Asclepias, Botany Index.
SWAMMERDAM, John, a celebrated and learned
natural philofopher, was the fon of John James Swam¬
merdam, an apothecary and famous naturalift of Am-
fterdam, and was born in 1637. father intended
him for the church, and with this view had him in-
ftrufted in Latin and Greek j but he, thinking himfelf
unequal to fo important a talk, prevailed with his father
to confent to his applying himfelf to phyfic. As he wTas
kept at home till he thould be properly qualified to en¬
gage in that ftudy, he was frequently employed in clean¬
ing his father’s curiofities, and putting every thing in its
proper place. This infpired our author with an early
tafte for natural hiftory ; fo that, not content with the fur-
vey of the curiofities which his father had purchafed, he
foon began to make a colleflion of his own, which he com¬
pared with the accounts given of them by the belt wai¬
ters. When grown up, he ferioufly attended to his ana¬
tomical and medical ftudies ; yet fpent part of the day
and the night in difcovering, catching, and examining
the flying infefls proper to thofe times, not only in the
province of Holland, but in thofe of Guelderland and
Utrecht. Thus initiated in natural hiftory, he wTent to
the univerfity of Leyden in 1651 $ and in 1653 was ad-
mitted a candidate of phyfic in that univerfity, His at¬
tention being now engaged by anatomy, he began tp
confider how the parts of the body, prepared by diflec¬
tion, could be preferved, and kept in conftant order for
anatomical demonftration; and herein he fucceeded, as
he had done before in his nice contrivances for difledling
and managing the minuteft infeffs. Our author after-
ivards made a journey into France, where he fpent fome
time at Saumur, and whe,re he became acquainted with
feveral learned men. In 1667 he returned to Leyden,
and took his degree] of Doftor of Phyfic. The next
year the grand duke of Tufcany being in Holland in or¬
der to fee the curiofilies of the country, came to view
thofe of our author and his father j and on this occafion
Swammerdam made fome anatomical diffeftions of infefts
in the prefence of that prince, who was ftruck with ad¬
miration at our author’s great {kill in managing them,
efpecially at his proving that the future butterfly lay
with all its parts neatly folded up in a caterpillar, by ac¬
tually removing the integuments that covered the for¬
mer, and extricating and exhibiting all its parts, how-
35 1 S W E
ever minute, with incredible ingenuity, by means of in- Swammer-
ftruments of inconceivable finenefs. On this occafion ^arn
the duke offered our author 12,000 florins for his {hare Sw-'m
of the colleftion, on condition of his removing them * - ^ - «
himfelf into Tufcany, and coming to live at the court of
Florence ; but Swammerdam, who hated a court life,
declined his highnefs’s propofal. In 1663, he publiftied
a General Hiftory of Infetls. About this time, his fa¬
ther began to take offence at his inconfiderately neglect¬
ing the praCtice of phyfic, which might have fupported
him in affluence 5 and would neither fupply him with
money nor clothes. This reduced him to fome difficul¬
ties. In 1675 he publifhed his Hiftory of the Ephe¬
meras } and his father dying the fame year, left him a
fortune fufficient for his fupport 5 but he did not long
furvive him, for he died in 1682. Gaubius gave a tranf-
lation of all his works from the original Dutch into La¬
tin, from which they wrere tranflated into Englilh, in
folio, in 1738. The celebrated Boerhaave wrote his
life.
SWAN. See Anas, Ornithology Index.
SWANPAN, or Chinefe Abacus j an inltrument.
for performing arithmetical operations. See Abacus.
SWAN EMOTE, Swainmote, or Sweinmote.
See FOREST-Courts.
SWEARING. See Oath.
SWEAT, a fenfible moifture iffuing from the pores
of the {kins of living animals. See Physiology, N°
286.
SWEATING sickness, a diforder wfliich appeared
in England about the year 1481, and was by foreigners
called the Englijh fweat. See Medicine, N° 51.
SWEDEN, the fmalleft of the northern ftates of Eu-situation
rope, occupies the greater part of the north-vveftern cor- and extent:,
ner of that portion of the globe, lying between Norway
and the gulf of Bothnia. Before the treaty concluded
in 1809, between Sweden and Ruftia, the Swedilh ter¬
ritory extended over a confiderable traCl of country on
the eaft of the gulf of Bothnia 5 but by that treaty, the
whole of thefe provinces were ceded to Ruftia. At pre-
fent the boundaries of Sweden are, Norway and Lap-
land to the north ; to the weft Norway, from which it
is feparated by the mountains ; the Baltic to the fouth $
and to the eaft the gulf of Bothnia, the fea of Aland,
and the rivers of Tornea and Muonio, which feparate
it from the Ruffian empire. From north to fouth it lies
between the latitudes of 69° 30' and 550 20' j and it
extends from the 12th degree to about the 24th degree
of longitude eaft from Greenwich. Formerly its extent
in Britifh miles was computed at 1150 in length, and
600 in breadth, and its area at about 210,000 fquare
miles. Its length continues undiminiftied j but its
breadth is probably lefiened at leaft one half, and we
can fcarcely eftimate its prefent extent at more than
110,000 fquare miles. The following table will ftiew"
the prefent divifions of the Swcdifti territories.
Provinces*
Sweden.
S W E
t 136 ]
S W E
Sweden*
r
a
Diviiion.
Provinces.
Subdivijions.
Chief Towns.
Sweden Proper.
Gothland.
West Norland.
West Bothnia.
Swedish Lapland.
Swedish Pomerania (a).
Upland.
Sudermanland.
Nerike.
Weftmanland.
Dalecarlia.
Weft Gothland.
Eaft Gothland.
South Gothland.
Jemtland.
Angermanland.
Medelpad.
Halftngland.
Gaftrikland.
Hergeadalen.
Afele Lappmark.
Umea Lappmark.
Pitea Lappmark.
Lulea Lappmark.
Tornea Lappmark.
Kemi Lappmark.
STOCKHOLM.
J
!
Gottenburgh.
Tornea.
Stralfund.
The only colonial territory belonging to Sweden is
3 the ifland of St Bartholomew, in the Weft Indies.
Face of Sweden is diverfified in a moft pi&urefque manner,
the coun- extenfive lakes, large rivers, winding ftreams, ca-
tara&s, gloomy forefts, fertile vales, ftupendous rocks,
and cultivated fields. It poffeffes more navigable ri¬
vers than the neighbouring countries of Norway and
4 Denmark.
Soil. Sweden is by no means remarkable for the fertility
of its foil, moft of the country being rocky and unpro-
duftive. The valleys and the banks of the rivers af-
5 . ford the beft land for tillage.
"Mountains. Xhe principal mountains belonging to Sweden are
thofe of the elevated chain which divides it from Nor¬
way, and which branch off in a fouth-eafterly direftion.
5 One of the higheft of thefe is Swucku.
Rivers. The chief rivers are the Gotha connefting Lake We-
ner with the Gategat j the Motala, forming the outlet
of Lake Weter j the Dahl rifing in the Norwegian
mountains, and flowing through Dalecarlia into the gulf
of Bothnia, and the Tornea forming the north-eaftern
boundary, and emptying itfelf into the gulf of Bothnia
at the town of the fame name.
Xakes. There are feveral confiderable lakes in Sweden, chief¬
ly in the province of Sweden Proper. The moft re¬
markable are Wener, Weter, and Maela, on the banks
of which laft ftands the city of Stockholm. g
Sweden abounds with forefts, efpecially in Dalecarlia, Forefts.
and on the borders of the lakes. 9
The climate and feafons of Sweden nearly refemble Climate
thofe of the fame latitudes in Buflia. The winters are anc* ^ea^oni*
in moft places extremely fevere, and the fummers Ihort
and fudden. The gulf of Bothnia is generally frozen
over during winter, fo as to admit of travellers palling
over into Finland, and Eaft Bothnia. The fummer,
though fhort, is generally hot, and feldom cloudy or in-
conftant. In the higher latitudes the fun of courfe is feen
in the middle of fummer for feveral days together, and the
nights of winter are proportionably long. See Lapland. io
Much of the natural hiftory of Srveden has been al-Natural
ready given under the article Lapland. In the more hiftory.
fouthern provinces there are found in the forefts the
bear, lynx, wolf, beaver, otter, glutton, and flying fquir-
rel. The Swedifti horfes are commonly fmall, but fpi-
rited, and are confidered as fuperior to thofe of Germany
for cavalry. The cattle and ftieep prefent little remark¬
able, being fimilar to thofe of the neighbouring nations.
Seals are found in the gulf of Bothnia; and the lakes
and rivers of Sweden produce pikes that are remarkably
large, and which are failed and pickled for exportation.
The
(a) That diftria of Germany, called Swedi/h Pomerania, was long in poffeffion of the Swedifti monarchs; till,
in the contefts with France and Ruflia, it was taken poffeflion of by the former. By the late treaty (in 1809)
Between France and Sweden, Pomerania has been reftored to its old mafter.
Xhe map of Sweden is attached to that of Denmark and Norway, in Plate CLXX.
1
S W E [I
/Sweden. Xhe forefts produce a great variely of game, efpecially
‘,rr—y—«»/ tiae |arge yack cock? called in Scotland the cock, of the
foreft. Among the reptiles the rati a bornbina, and the
coluber cherfea, are confidered as almoft peculiar to
Sweden.
The principal vegetable productions of Sweden are
its immenfe forelts of pine and fir trees, though the
country is not deflitute of a great variety of fhrubs and
plants common to it with Denmark and Rufiia.
The principal riches of the natural hiftory of Sweden
are to be found in the mineral kingdom. It produces
cryftals, amethyfts, topazes, porphyry, lapis lazuli,
agate, cornelian, marble, and other fofiils. The chief
wealth of the country, however, arifes from her mines
of filver, copper, lead, and iron. The lafl; mentioned
metal employs not fewer than 450 forges, hammering-
mills, and fmelting houfes. A kind of a gold mine has
likewife been difcovered in Sweden, but fo inconfider-
able, that from the year 1741 to 1747, it produced on¬
ly 2398 ducats, each valued at 9 s. 4d. fterling. The
firft gallery of one filver mine is 100 fathoms below the
furface of the earth ; the roof is fupported by prodigious
oaken beams, and from thence the miners defcend about
40 fathoms to the loweft vein. This mine is faid to
produce 20,000 crowns a year. The produCl of the
copper mines is uncertain ; but the whole is loaded
with vail taxes and reductions to the government, which
has no other refources for the exigencies of the date.
Thofe fubterraneous manfions are aftoniibingly fpacious,
and at the fame time commodious for their inhabitants,
fo that they feem to form a hidden world. The water¬
falls in Sweden afford excellent conveniency for turn¬
ing mills for forges •, and for fome years the exports of
iron from Sweden brought in 300,000!. fterling.
There are likewife in Sweden fome filver mines, of
which that of Sahlberg is the richeft, as well as the
moft ancient. It exifted fo early as 1x88, and during
the whole of the 14th century, it yielded 24,000 marks
of filver per annum. Jn the 15th century the quantity
was diminiffred to 20,000. In the reign of Charles X.
it gave only 2,000 j and it furnifties at prefent ftill lefs,
the ore yielding only one ounce of pure metal per quin¬
tal. The chief gallery, where the pureft filver was ob¬
tained, having fallen in, is not yet cleared, notwithftand-
ing their inceffant labour. They are alfo digging pits
in a perpendicular direction, in order to arrive at the
principal vein, which extends itfelf from the north to
the fouth-eaft. Formerly lead employed in feparating
the metal rvas imported from England ; but the mine
furnifties at prefent a fufficient quantity for the purpofe.
The moft remarkable mineral waters in Sweden are
ti thofe of Medewi in Eaft Gothland,
tor^un^" early hiftory of Sweden is not lefs involved in
tam.UnCer" t^)an that of moft other nations. Some hiftorians .
have pretended to give regular catalogues of the princes
who reigned in Sweden in very early times; but they
differ fo much that no credit can be given to them.
All indeed agree that ancient Scandinavia was firft go¬
verned by judges eleCted for a certain time by the voice
of the people. Among thefe temporary princes the
country was divided, until, in the year of the world
2054, according to fome, or 1951, according to others,
Eric, or, if we believe Puffenddrf, Sueno, w-as raifed to the
iiipreme power, with the prerogatives of all the temporary
Vol. XX. Part I.
37 ] S W E
magiftrates united in his perfon for life, or untrl his con- Sweden,
du£t ftiould merit depofition.
Erom this very early period till the year 1366 of the An. 1366*
Chriftian era, the hiftories of Sweden prefent us with
nothing but what is common to all nations in their ear¬
ly periods, viz. the endlefs combats of barbarians, tend¬
ing to no other purpofe than the effufion of blood. At t2
the time juft mentioned, however, Albert of Mecklen- Albert of
burg, having concluded a peace between Sweden and Mecklen-
Denmark, which had been at violent war for fome timeburS de:
before, wras proclaimed king of Sweden. The peace
was of fliort duration, being broken in 1368 ; on which
Albert entered into an offenfive and defenfive league
with the earl of Holftein, the Jutland nobility, the dukes
of Slefwick, Mecklenburg, and the Hanfe-towns, again!!
the kings of Denmark and Norway. Albert proved wajMvid,
very fuccefsful againft Waldemar king of Denmark at Denmark
that time, driving him entirely out of his dominions jand Nor-
but he himfelf was defeated by the king of Norway,wajr*
who laid liege to his capital. Soon after this, a new
treaty was concluded, by which Albert was allowed to
enjoy the crown of Sweden in peace. Having formed
a defign however of rendering himfelf abfolute, he fo dif-
pleafed his fubje&s that Margaret of Norway was pro¬
claimed queen of Sweden by the malecontents. A war Is defeated
immediately enfued, in which Albert was defeated and and taken
taken prifoner ; but as the princes of Mecklenburg, thePriioner by
earls of Holftein, and the Planfe-towns, entered into a ]VJafgaret
- - - - - ’ of Norway.
league in his favour, the war raged with more fury than
ever.
At length, in 1394, the contending parties were re-Set aUi-
conciled. Albert was fet at liberty, on condition thatberty.
he flxould in three years give up to Margaret all pre- An- I394*
tenfions to the city of Stockholm; and the Hanfe-
towns engaged to pay the fum of 60,000 marks of filver
if Albert fhould break that treaty. Not long after
this, Eric the fon of Albert died; and he, having no
other child, did not think it worth his while to contend
for the kingdom of Sweden : he therefore acquiefced in
the pretenfions of Margaret, and paffed the remainder
of his days at Mecklenburg. I(y
Margaret died in 1415, and was fucceeded by Eric Margaret
of Pomerania. This prince’s reign was cruel and op-is fucc.eecIeii
preflive. The confequence of this was a revolt; and *
Charles Canutfon, grand marefchal of Sweden and go-rant. ty"
vernor of Finland, having joined the malecontents, was An. 141 r,
declared commander in chief of their army. Eric was
now formally depofed : Canutfon was chofen regent;
but beginning to opprefs the people, and afpiring openly
to the crown, the Swedes and Danes revolted 5 in con¬
fequence of which a revolution took place, and Chri-
ftopher duke of Bavaria, nephew to Eric, was chofen
king of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in 1442. ^
On the acceflion of the new prince, complaints againft Charles
Canutfon were brought from all quarters ; but, through Canutib.';,
the intereft of his friends, he efcaped puniftiment; and An’ I44s*
in 1448, Chriftopher having died after a tyrannical
reign of about five years, he was raifed to the throne to
which he had fo long afpired. The kingdoms of Den¬
mark and Norway however refufed allegiance to him ;
on which a war immediately commenced. In 1454
peace was concluded, and Denmark for the prefent freed
from the Swedifti yoke. Nor did Canutfon long enjoy
even the crown of Sweden. Having quarrelled with
S the
S W E
[ 138 1
S \V E
An. 1520.
Chriftiern
king of
Denmark
invades
Sweden,
but is de¬
feated and
driven out.
magiftfates and the archbifhop of Upfal, the latter form¬
ed fuch a ftrong party that the king could not refill him.
Canutfon died in 1470 after a long and turbulent reign.
The Swedilh affairs continued to be involved in dread¬
ful confufion till the year 15 20, when a great revolution
was effe&ed by Guftavus Ericfbn, a nobleman of the
firft rank, wTho reftored the kingdom to its liberty, and
laid the foundation of its future grandeur. The occa-
fion of this great revolution was as follows : In 1518,
Chriftiern king of Denmark invaded Sweden, with a
defign to fubdue the whole country 5 but being defeated
with great lofs by young Steen Sture, at that time re¬
gent, he fet fail for Denmark. But meeting with con¬
trary winds, he made feveral defeents on the Swedilh
coafi, which he ravaged with all the fury of an incenfed
barbarian. The inhabitants, however, bravely defend¬
ed themfelves, and Chriftiern was reduced to the utmoft
diftrefs; one half of his forces having periihed with
hunger, and the reft being in the mole imminent danger
by the approach of a rigorous winter. He then thought
of a ftratagem, which had almoft proved fatal to the
regent j for having invited him to a conference, at
which he defigned either to afiaflinate or take him pri-
foner, Sture was about to comply, had not the fenate,
who fufpe&ed the plot, interpofed and prevented him.
Cbriftiern then offered to go in perfon to Stockholm in
order to confer with Sture, on condition that fix hoft-
ages Ihould be fent in his room. This was accordingly
done j but the wind happening then to prove favour-
able, he fet fail for Denmark with the hoftages, of
He treache- whom Guftavus Ericfon was one. Next year he re-
roufly car- turned; and having drawn Sture into an ambulh, the
hofta es^of regent received a wound of which he died fome time af-
whom Guf-ter* The kingdom being thus left without a head,mat-
tavus Eric, ters foon came to the molt defperate crifis. The army
fon is one. dilbanded itfelf; and the fenate, inftead of taking pro¬
per meafures to oppofe the enemy, fpent their time in
idle debates. Chriftiern in the mean time advanced in¬
to the heart of the kingdom, deftroying every thing
with fire and fword j but on his arrival at Stragnez, he
granted a fufpenfion of arms, on condition that they
would ele£t him king. This they accordingly did ;
and Chriftiern proved one of the molt bloody tyrants
mdEbloodythat ever fat on the throne of any kingdom. Immedi-
ryrant. ately after his coronation, he gave grand entertainments
for three days j during which time he projefted the
diabolical defign of extirpating at once all the Swedifh
nobility, and thus for ever preventing the people from
revolting, by depriving them of their proper leaders.
As the tyrant had figned articles, by wdricb he promifed
Indemnity to all who had borne arms againft him, it be¬
came neceffary to invent fome caufe of offence againft
thofe whom he intended to deftroy. To accomplifh his
purpofe, Guftavus Trolle, formerly archbiftiop of Upfal,
but who had been degraded from that dignity, in an
oration before his majefty lamented the demolition of
Stecka, his place of refidence, and the Ioffes fuftained by
the fee of Upfal, amounting to near a million of money.
He then proceeded in a bitter accufation againft the
widow and the fon-in-law of Sture the late regent, com¬
prehending in the fame accufation about 15 of the prin¬
cipal nobility, the whole fenate, and the burghers of
Stockholm. In confequence of this, about 60 of the
principal nobility and people ef firft rank in Sweden
were hanged as traitors. Innumerable other cruelties
An. 1515).
Is ehofen
king, and
were committed j part of which are owned by the Da- Sweden,
nilh hiftorians, and minutely related by thofe of Sweden.' *
At laft he departed for Denmark, ordering gibbets tOjyiafikcres
be erefted, and caufing the pealants to be hanged on the nobili-
them for the High left offences. ty, and
This monftrous cruelty, inftead of fecurirg him on the<_aufets
throne, exafperated the whole nation againft him. ft^re&edsw
has already been mentioned, that Guftavus Ericlbn, or, he paffes
as he is commonly called, Gujiavus Vafa, was among along,
the number of the hoftages whom Chriftiern had perfi- 22
dioufly carried to Denmark in 15x9. Large
had been made in order to reconcile him to Chriftiern,yafa or
and all means had been employed, but in vain. Secret Ericfon.
orders were given to ftrangle him in prifon j but the
officer to wffiom the affaffination w'as committed remon-
ftrated to the king about the confequences of it, and
prevailed on him to change the fentence of death into
clofe confinement in the caftle of Copenhagen. Some
of the hoftages periihed in confequence of the rigorous
treatment they met with ; but Guftavus withftood all
hardlhips. At laft one Banner, a Daniil; nobleman,
prevailed on the king to put him into his hands, in or¬
der to try whether or not he could prevail on him to
change his fentiments. The king, however, told Ban¬
ner, that he muft pay 6000 crowns if the prifoner ffiould
make his efcape. Banner generoufly confented j and
having brought the noble prifoner to his fortrefs of Calo
in Jutland, foon allowed him all the liberty he could
defire, and otherwife heaped favours on him. All this,
however, could not extinguiffi his remembrance of the
cruelties of Chriftiern, and the defire he had of being ^
ferviceable to his country. He therefore determined to He efcapes
make his efcape *, and the liberty he enjoyed foon putftotn ]Den'
him in a capacity of effecting it. Having one daymar '*
mounted his horfe, under pretence of hunting as ufual
in the foreft, when he got at a proper diftance, he
changed his drefs to the habit of a peafant: and quit¬
ting his horfe, travelled for two days on foot through
by-paths, and over mountains almoft impaffable, arriving
on the third at Flenfburgh. Here no one was admitted
without a paffport : and Guftavus dreaded prefenting
himfelf to the governor or the officer on guard, for fear
of being difeovered. Guftavus hired himfelf to a cattle 24
merchant; and in this difguife efcaped out of the Da-Arrives at
niffi territories, and arrived at Lubec. Lubec.
Banner was no fooner acquainted with his efcape,
than he fet out after him with the utmoft diligence,
found him at Lubec, and reproached him with great
wTarmth as ungrateful and treacherous; but he was foon
appeafed by the arguments urged by Guftavus, and
eipecially by a promife of indemnifying him in the lofs
of his ranfom. On this Banner returned, giving out
that he could not find his prifoner. Chriftiern was en¬
raged at his efcape, apprehending that he might reverfe
all his defigns in Sweden ; and gave orders to Otho his
general to make the ftri&eft fearch, and leave no means
untried to arreft him. Guftavus applied to the regency
for a fliip to convey him to Sweden, where he hoped he 35
flrould be able to form a party againft the Danes. He Attempts
likewife endeavoured to draw- the regency of Lubec in-
to Ins meafures ; and reafoned with fo much zeal smcl regency of
ability, that Nicholas Gemins, firft conful, was entirely Lubec over
gained ; but the regency could never be prevailed on to to his fide*
declare for a party without friends, arms, money, or
credit. Before his departure, however, the conlul gave
him
t 139 ]
fufficient to among the
S W E
Sweden, him affumids, that if he could raife a fore
—“'v-—J make head againlt the enemy in the field, he might de¬
pend on the lervices of the republic, and that the re¬
gency would immediately declare for him. Guftavus
deiired to be landed at Stockholm 5 but the captain of
the fhip, either having fecret orders to the contrary, or
bufinefs elfewhere, (teered a different courfe, and put
him on {hore near Calmar •, a city then garrifoned by
the troops of Chriltina widow of the regent. In ftft,
the governor held this place for his own purpoi'es, and
only waited to make the bed terms he could with the
Danes. When Gultavus arrived, he made hrmlelf
known to him and the principal officers of the garrifon,
who were mollly Germans, and his fellow-foldiers in
with an un-tp,e jate adminiftrator’s army j but the mercenary band,
feeing him without troops and without attendants, re¬
garded him as a defperate perfon devoted to deftruc-
tion, refufed to embrace his propofals, and even threat¬
ened to kill or betray him, if he did nor inftantly quit
the city.
Difappointed in his expectations, Guitavus departed j
and his arrival being now publicly known, he was
again forced to have recourfe to his peafant’s difguife to
conceal him from the Danilh emiiTaries difperfed over
the country to fearch for him. In a waggon loaded
with hay he palled through the Daniih army, and at
laft repaired to an old family cattle in Sudermania.
Hence he wwote to his friends, intimating his return
to Sweden, and befeeching them to affemble all their
forces in order to break through the enemy’s ar¬
my into Stockholm, at that time befieged •, but they
refufed to embark in fo hazardous and defperate an at¬
tempt.
Guftavus next applied himfelf to the peafants •, but
He arrives
at Calmar,
but meets
favourable
reception
27
His friends
refufe to
afliit him.
aS
Applies in
vain to tl
yeafants.
vain to5the ^ey anfweted, that they enjoyed fait and herrings un-
s w E
miners, without relinquifliing his hopes
of one day afeending the throne of Sweden. His whole
objeft for the prefent was to live concealed, and gain a
maintenance, till fortune fhould effeCt fomething in his
favour : nor was it long before this happened. A wo- is difeover-
m.m in the mines perceived, under the habit of a pea- ed and re-
^ r ci • n • .   1 :j u
.
Arrives in
Dalecarlia,
is robbed
by nis
guide, and
obliged to
Sweden.
30
lant,
der the government of the king of Denmark \ and that
any attempts to bring about a revolution would be at¬
tended with certain ruin, without the profpect of bet¬
tering their condition j for peafants they were, and pea¬
fants they flrould remain, whoever washing. At length,
after feveral attempts to throw himfelf into Stockholm,
after that city was furrendered to the king, after the
horrid maffacre of the fenate, and after running a thou-
fand dangers, and undergoing hardflaips and fatigues
fcarcely to be fupported by human nature, he formed
the refolution of trying the courage and affeCtion of
the Dalecarlians. While he was in the deepeft obfeu-
rity, and plunged in almoft infunnountable adverfity, he
never relinquiffied his defigns nor his hopes. The news
of the maflacre had, however, nearly funk him into de-
fpondency, as by it he loft all his friends, relations, and
connections, and indeed almoft every profpeCt of fafety to
himfelf or deliverance to his country. This fuggefted
the thought of going to Dalecarlia, where he might
live wath more fecurity in the high mountains and thick
woods of that country, if he fhould fail in the attempt of
exciting the inhabitants to revolt.
Attended by a peafant, to wffiom he was knowm, he
travelled in difguft'e through Sudermania, Nericia, and
Weftermania, and, after a laborious and painful jour¬
ney, arrived in the mountains of Dalecarlia. Scarcely
had he finiffied his journey, when he found himfelf de¬
work in the ferted by his companion and guide, who carried off
mines. with him all the money which he had provided for his
fubfiftence. Thus forlorn and deftitute, he entered
that the collar of his fliirt was embroidered. This.liev€<i*
circurnftance excited curiofity 5 and the graces of his
perfon and converfation, wffiich had fomething in them
to attraCl the notice of the meaneft of the vulgar, af¬
forded room for fufpicion that he was fome peifon ot
quality in difguife, forced by the tyranny of the govern¬
ment to feek Ihelter in thefe remote parts. The ftory
came to the ears of a neighbouring gentleman, who im¬
mediately went to the mines to offer his protection to
the unfortunate ftranger j and was aftoniftred on recog¬
nizing the features of Guftavus, to whom he had been
known at the univerfity of Upfal, Touched with com-
paffion at the deplorable fttuation of lo diftinguiffied a
nobleman, he could fcarcely refrain from tears. At
night he fent for Guftavus, made him an offer of his
houfe, and gave him the ftrongeft affurances of his
friendlhip and protection. He told him, he would there
meet v/!th better accommodations, and as much fecurity
as in the mines j and that, ftiould he chance o e dif-
covered, he would, with all his friends and vaffals, take
arms in his defence.
This offer was embraced by Guftavus with joy, and
he remained for fome time at his friend’s houfe ; but
finding it impoffible to induce him to take part in his
defigns, he quitted him, and fled to one Peterfon, a
gentleman whom he had formerly known in the fer-
vice. This man received Guftavus with all the ap¬
pearance of kindnefs; and, on the very firft propofal,
offered to raife his vaffals. He even named the lords
and peafants wdiom he pretended to have engaged in his
fervice ; but in a few days, he went fecretly to a Da¬
nilh officer, and gave him information of what had paf-
fed. The officer immediately caufed the houfe to be
furrounded with foldiers, in fuch a manner that it feem- ^
ed impoffible for Guftavus to efcape. Being warned,Has a very
by Peterfon’s wife of the treachery of her huffiand, he,narrow ef-
by her direction, contrived to flee to the houfe of
clergyman, her friend, by whom he was received with
all the refpeft due to his birth and merit ; and left:
the domeftic who conduCled him ffiould follow the trea¬
cherous example of his mailer, he removed him to the
church, and conduCled him to a fmall clofet, of
which he kept the key. Having lived for fome time
in this manner, Guftavus began to confult with his
friend concerning the moll proper method of putting
their fchemes in execution. The prieft advifed him
to apply direCtly to the peafants themfelves; told him
that it would be proper to fpread a report, that the
Danes w-ere to enter Dalecarlia in order toellabliffi new
taxes by force of arms j and as the annual feaft of all
the neighbouring villages was to be held in a few days,
he could not have a more favourable opportunity : he
alfo promifed to engage the principal perfons of the dio-
cefe in his intereft.
In complian.ee with this advice, Guftavus fet out for H;s 3 ,,,-g
Mora, where the feaft was to be held. He found the efpoufed by
peafants already informed of his defigns, and impatient the peafants
to fee him. Being already prepoffeffed in his favour,of Hulecar-
they were foon excited to an enthufiafm in his caufe,
S 2 and
S W E
Sweden, and inftantly refolved to throw off the Danifa yoke.
' ■' In this defign they were more confirmed by their fu-
perftition j fome of their old men having obferved
that the wind had blown from the north while Gufta-
vus was fpeaking, which among them was reckoned an
infallible omen of fuccefs. Guftavus did not allow
their ardour to cool, but inftantly led them againft
the governor’s caftle; which he took by affault, and
nut the garrifon to the fword. This inconfiderable en-
terprife was attended with the moft happy confequences.
Great numbers of the peafants ilocked to his ftandard j
fome of the gentry openly efpoufed his caufe, and o-
thers fupplied him with money. Chriftiern was foon
informed of what had palled ; but defpifing fuch an
inconfiderable enemy, he fent only a fiender detach¬
ment to affdt his adherents in Dalecarlia. Guftavus
The Danes advanced with ycoo men, and defeated a body of
defeated. Danes j but he was ftrenuoufty oppofed by the arch-
bilhop of Upfal, who raifed numerous forces for Chrif¬
tiern. The fortune of Guftavus, however, ftill prevail¬
ed, and the archbilhop was defeated with great lofs.
Guftavus then laid fiege to Stockholm ; but his force
being unequal to fuch an undertaking, he was forced to
abandon it with lofs.
This check did not prove in any confiderable de¬
gree detrimental to the affairs of Guftavus; the pea¬
fants from all parts of the kingdom flocked to his
camp, and he was joined by a reinforcement from
Horrid Lubec. Chriftiern, unable to fupprefs the revolt,
cruelty of wreaked his vengeance on the mother and lifters of
King Chri- Guftavus, whom he put to death. His barbarities fer-
ihern. vec[ on]y to make his enemies more refolute. Guftavus
having affembled the ftates at Wadftena, he was unani-
moufly chofen regent, the diet taking an oath of fide¬
lity to him, and promifing to aftift him to the utmoft.
Having thus obtained the fan&ion of legal authority,
he purfued his advantages againft the Danes. A body
of troops appointed to throw fuccours into Stockholm
were cut in pieces ; and the regent fending fome troops
35 into Finland, ftruck the Danes there with fuch terror,
Guflavus^ the archbifhop of Upfal, together with the Danifh
governors, fled to Denmark. Chriftiern then fent ex-
prefs orders to all his governors and officers in Finland
and Sweden to maffacre the Swedifh gentry without
diftindlion. The Swedes made reprifals by roaffacring
all the Danes they could find } fo that the whole coun¬
try was filled with flaughter.
In the mean time Guftavus had laid fiege to the
towns of Calmar, Abo, and Stockholm •, but Novby
found means to oblige him to raife them with lofs.
Guftavus, in revenge, laid fiege to the capital a third
time, and applied to the regency of Lubec for a fqua-
dron of ftiips and other fuccours for carrying on the
fiege. This was granted on condition that Guftavus
fliould oblige himfelf, in the name of the ftates, to pay
60,000 merks of filver as the expence of the armament ;
that, until the kingdom fhould be in a condition to pay
that firm, the Lubec merchants trading to Sweden fhould
be exempted from all duties on imports or exports; that
all other nations fhould be prohibited from trading with
Sweden, and that fuch traffic fhould be deemed illicit 5
that Guftavus ftiould neither conclude a peace, nor even
agree to a truce, with Denmark, without the concur¬
rence of the regency of Lubec •, and that if the repub¬
lic fhould be attacked by Chriftiern, he fhould enter
S W E
Denmark at the head of 20,000 men. On thefe hard Sweden,
terms Guftavus obtained afliftance from the regency of
Lubec ; nor did his dear-bought allies prove very faith¬
ful. They did not indeed go over to the enemy ; but
in a fea-fight, where the Danes were entirely in the
power of their enemies, they fullered them to efcape,
when their whole force might have been entirely de-
ftroyed. This treachery had nearly ruined the affairs
of Guftavus; for Norby was now making preparations
effeftually to relieve Stockholm : in which he would
probably have fucceeded : but at this critical period
news arrived that the Danes had unanimoufly revolted,
and driven Chriftiern from the throne ; and that the
king had retired into Germany, in hopes of being re-
ftored by the arms of his brother-in-law the emperor.
On hearing this news, Norby retired with his whole
fleet to the ifland of Gothland, leaving but a fiender
garrifon in Calmar. Guftavus did not fail to improve
this opportunity to his own advantage, and quickly made
himfelf mafter of Calmar. Mean time Stockholm con¬
tinued clofely inverted ; but Guftavus thought proper
to protraft the fiege till he fhould get himfelf eledfed
king. Having for this purpofe called a general diet,
he firft filled up the vacancy in the fenate occafioned by
the maffacres of Chriftiern. Guftavus had the addrefs
to get fuch nominated as were in his intereft. The af-
fembly was no fooner met, than a fpeech was made, ^<5
containing the higheft encomiums on Guftavus, fefting He is cho-
forth in the ftrongeft light the many eminent fervices hefcn ^in§ °^
had done for his country, and concluded that the ftates^ec^tn2’,
would fhow themfelves equally ungrateful and blind to '
their own intereft if they did not immediately eleft him
king. This propofal was acceded, to by fuch tumultuous
acclamations that it was impoflible to colleft the votes 5
fo that Guftavus himfelf acknowledged, that their af-
feffion exceed his merit, and was more agreeable to him
than the effedls of their gratitude. He was urged to
have the ceremony of his coronation immediately per¬
formed : but this he delayed, in confcquence of fome
defigns which he had farmed to reduce the exorbitant
power of the clergy. Guftavus had himfelf embraced
the dofhines of the reformed religion, and did all in his
power to eftablith the reformation in his new kingdom.
His defign could not fail to raife againft him the enmity
of the clergy, and of all the more fuperftitious part of
his fubjefls. Accordingly, the firft years of his reign
were embittered by internal difturbances and revolts,
which were aided and fomented by the depofed Chri-
ftiern, who was at one time very near regaining poffef-
fion of the Swedifh dominions.
Chriftiern having eftablifhed a powerful intereft inUnfuccefs-
Norway, once more made an attempt to recover his hil attempt
kingdoms, and was joined by the Dalecarlians 5 but be-0*" Ginlti-
ing defeated by the Swedifti forces, lie was forced t©ern‘
return to Norway, where, being obliged to capitulate
with the Danifti generals, he was kept prifoner all his
life. 38
In 1542, Guftavus having happily extricated himfelfUr'fuccefs*
out of all his troubles, prevailed on the ftates to make*lli
the crown hereditary in his family $ after which he ap-3
plied himfelf to the encouragement of learning and com-with Queen
merce. A treaty was fet on foot for a marriage betweenElizabetli.
Ins eldeft for. Eric and Elizabeth queen of England ; but A‘11'
this negociation failed of fuccefs.
Guftavus Vafa died in 1560, and was fucceeded by
his
t ho ]
S W E
[ 14
39
Gullavus
dies, and is
Succeeded
by Eric, a
weak and
imprudent
prince.
An. 1560.
40
Eric de-
pofed, and
fucceeded
by his bro¬
ther John.
. 41 .
Frince Sx-
cifmund
Sweden. his ion Eric XIV. The new king was poffefied of all
the exterior ornaments which give an air of dignity to
the perfon 5 but he had neither the prudence nor the pe¬
netration of his father. He created the fuft nobility that
were ever known in Sweden ; but this he had no Iboner
done than he quarrelled with them, by pafling fome a£i,
which they thought derogatory to their honour and dig¬
nity. The whole coarfe of his reign was difturbed by
wars with Denmark, and difputes with his own fubjefts.
In the former he was unfortunate, and towards the latter
he behaved with the grealelt cruelty. At laft, he is faid
to have become mad. He afterwards recovered his fen-
fes, but was foon dethroned by his brothers; of whom
Duke John fucceeded him in the kingdom.
This revolution took place in the year 1568, but
with no great advantage to Sweden. Difputes about
religion between the king and his brothers, and wars
with Ruffia, threw matters into the utmoft confufion.
At laft Prince Sigifmund, the king’s ,fon, was chofen
king of Poland, which proved the fource of much trouble
chofen king to the kingdom. In 1590 King John died ; and as Si-
cf Poland. gjfmunj was at a diftance, every thing fell into the ut-
n'^2 S' moft confufion: the treafury was plundered, and the
Succeeds to royal wardrobe quite fpoiled, before even Duke Charles
the crown could come to Stockholm to take on himfelf the admi-
of Sweden. n;ftration until King Sigiimund ftiould return. This,
An. 1590. however, was far from being the greateft difafter which
befel the nation at this time. It was known that the
king had embraced the Popifh religion, and it was with
good reafon fufpefted that he would attempt to reftore it
upon his arrival in Sweden. Sigifmund was alio obliged,
on leaving Poland, to promife that he would ftay no
longer in Sweden than was neceffary to regulate his af¬
fairs. Thefe circumfiances ferved to alienate the minds
of the Swedes from their fovereign even before they
faw him •, and the univerfal diffatisfattion was increafed,
by feeing him attended, on his arrival in Swreden in J593>
by the pope’s nuncio, to whom he made a prefent of
30.000 ducats to defray the expences of his journey to
SwTeden.
What the people had forefeen was too well verified :
the king refufed to confirm the Pro.'eftants in their reli¬
gious privileges, and ftrowed fuch partiality on all occa-
fions to the Papifts, that a party was formed againft him •
at the head of which was Duke Charles his uncle. Re-
monftrances, accompanied with threats, took place on
both fides. Sigifmund was apparently reconciled to his
brother, and promifed to comply with the inclinations of
the people, though without any inclination to perform
what he had promifed. The agreement, indeed, was
fcarcely made, before Sigiimund conceived tbe'horrid
Forms^a de murdering his uncle at the Italian comedy
fign ofmur-sd the night after his coronation. The duke, how-
dering his ever, having notice of the plot, found means to avoid it.
uncle. This enraged the king fo much, that he had refolved to
accomplilh his defigns by force •, and therefore com¬
manded a Polifti army to march towards the frontiers of
Sweden, where they committed 'all the ravages that
could be expeffed from an enraged and cruel enemy.
Complaints were made by the Proteftant clergy to the
fenate : but no other reply was made them, than that
they fhould abftain from thofe bitter inveflives and re¬
proaches, which had provoked the Catholics, till the
king’s departure j at which time they would be at more
liberty.
43
A party
formed
againft
him.
I 1 S W E
-* S'
Iii 1595 Sigifmund fet fail for Dantzic, leaving the Sweden,
admin: ft ration in the hands of Duke Charles. The con- “v
fequence of this was, that the difienfions which had al¬
ready taken place being continually increafed by the ob-
ftinacy of the king, Duke Charles affumed the fovereign
power; and in 1604 Sigifmund was formally depofed, Sigifmund
and his uncle Charles IX. railed to the throne. He pro-depofed,
ved a wife and brave prince, reftoring the tranquillity
the kingdom, and carrying on a war with vigour againft
Poland and Denmark. He died in 1611, leaving the An. 1604.
kingdom to his fon, the celebrated Guftavus Adolphus. ^
Though Charles IX. by his wife and vigorous con-state of
du£t had in a great meafure retrieved the affairs of Svve-Sweden on
den, they were ftill in a very bad fituation. The finan-tlie accef-
ces of the kingdom were entirely drained by a fenes
wars and revolutions ; powerful armies were preparing in^joiphu^
Denmark, Poland, and Ruftia, while not only the Swe-An. 16x1.
difh troops were inferior in number to their enemies, but
the government was deftitute of refources for their pay¬
ment.
Though the Swe difh laws required that the prince
fhould have attained his 18th year before he was of age, ^
yet fuch ftriking marks of the great qualities of Gufta-He is al-
vus appeared, that he was allowed by the ftates to take lowed to
on him the adminiftration even before this early period.
His firft a£t was to refume all the crown-grants, that he‘ion
might be the better able to carry on the wars in which yet a mi-
he was engaged ; and to fill all places, both civil andnor.
miltary, with perfons of merit. At the head of domef-
tic and foreign affairs was placed Chancellor Oxenftiern,
a perfon every way equal to the important truft, and the
choofing of whom impreffed Europe with the higheft
opinion of the young monarch’s penetration and capa¬
city.
Soon after his acceffion, Guftavus received an embaffy
from James I. of Britain, exhorting him to make peace
with his neighbours. This wms feconded by another
from Holland. But as the king perceived that the D.r-
nifh monarch intended to take every opportunity of
crufhing him, he refolved to aft with fuch vigour, as
might convince him that he was not eafily to be over¬
come. Accordingly be invaded Denmark v.ith three jje j^ades
different armies at once ; and though the enemy’s fupe-Denmark,
riority at fea gave them great advantages, and the num- and obliges
ber of the king’s enemies diftrafted his attention, he car-1^6 ^ng to
ried on the war with fuch fpirit, that in 1613 a peace
was concluded on good terms. This wrar being finiftred,
the king applied himfelf to civil polity, and made fome
reformation in the laws of Sweden. In 1615, hoftilities
were commenced againft: Rufiia, on account of the refu-
fal of that court to reftore fome money which had been
formerly lent them. The king entered Ingria, tookRuftfal
Kexholm by ftorm, and was laying fiege to Plefcov,vaded with
when, by the mediation of James I. peace was concha-lucceR’
ded, on condition of the Ruffians repaying the money,
and yielding to Sweden fome part of their territory. In
this and the former war, notwithftanding the fhortnefs
of their duration, Guftavus learned the rudiments of the
military art for which he foon became fo famous. He is£xtl.
faid, indeed, to have taken every opportunity of im-nary mili-
provement wfith a quicknefs of underftanding feemingly tary genius
more than human. In one campaign, he not onlyttlc klӣ
learned, but improved, all the military maxims of La
Gardie, a celebrated general, brought the Swedifh army
to a more fleady and regular difeipline, and formed an
invincible *'
peace.
49
50
aordi-
S W E
[ 142 1
S W E
S.vcden. invincible body of Finlanders, who had afterwards a
very confiderable flrare in the viftories of Sweden.
Peace wras no fooner concluded with Ruffia, than
Guftavus was crowned with great folemnity at Upfal.
Soon after this he ordered his general La Gardie to ac¬
quaint the Polifh commander Codekowitz, that as the
truce between the two kingdoms, which had been con¬
cluded for-two years, was now expired, he defired to be
certainly informed whether he was to expedl peace or
w’ar from his mailer. In the mean time, having bor-
Has
51
terview
with the
king of
Denmark,
and pre¬
pares for
war with
Poland.
52
Marries
pleonora,
the elector
of Branden
burg.
S3
Riga be-
iieged and
taken.
54
The Poles
defeated.
55
The Poles
again de-
tyjwns re¬
duced by
Guftavus.
friendly in- rowed money of the Dutch for the redemption of a town
from Denmark, he had an interview on the frontiers
with Chriftiern the king of that country. At this in¬
terview, the two monarchs conceived the utmoft efteem
and friendihip for each other ; and Guftavus obtained a
promife, that Chriftiern w7ould not aftift Sigifmund in
any defign he might have againft Sweden. In the mean
time, receiving no fatisfaftory anfwer from Poland, Gu-
ftavus began to prepare for war. Sigifmund entered
into a negociation, and made fome pretended conceftions,
W'itb a view to feize Guftavus by treacbery ; but the lat¬
ter having intimation of his defign, the whole negocia¬
tion was changed into reproaches and threats on the part
of Guftavus.
Immediately after this, Guftavus made a tour in dif-
guife through Germany, and married Eleonora the
daughter of daughter of the eledlor of Brandenburg. Ele then re-
iolved to enter heartily into a war with Poland j and
with this view fet fail for Riga with a great fleet, which
carried 20,000 men. The place was well fortified, and
defended by a body of veterans enthufiaftically attached
to Sigifmund; but after a vigorous fiege, the garrifon
being reduced to extremity, were obliged to capitulate,
and wrere treated with great clemency.
After the reduftion of Riga, the Swedifti monarch
entered Courland, where he reduced Mittau but ceded
it again on the conclufion of a truce for one year. Si¬
gifmund, however, no fooner bad time to recover him-
felf, than he began to form new enterprifes againft the
■Swedes in Pruflia j but Guftavus fetting fail with his
whole fleet for Dantzic, where the king of Poland then
refided, fo defeated his meafures, that he veas obliged
to prolong the truce for another year. Sigifmund, how¬
ever, was not yet apprifed of his danger, and refufed to
liften to any terms of accommodation : on which Gufta¬
vus entering Livonia, defeated the Poliih general, and
and feveral took Derpt, Hockenhaufen, and feveral other places of
pla^es jj^portaoce ^ after which, entering Lithuania, he
a took the city of Birfen.
Notwithilanding this fuccefs, Guftavus propofed peace
on the fame equitable terms as before but Sigifmund
was ftill infatuated with the hopes that, by means of the
emperor of Germany, he fhould be able to conquer
Sweden. Guftavus finding him inflexible, refolved to
pufli his good fortune. His generals Horn and Thurn
defeated the Poles in Semigallia. Guftavus himfelf
feated, and witE jjq (hips fet fail for Pruflia, where he landed at
3 of ■P^aw' This place was immediately delivered up to
him *, as were feveral other places. Sigifmund, alarmed
at the great progrefs of Guftavus, fent a body of forces
to oppofe him, and to prevent Dantzic from falling in¬
to his hands. In this he was attended with as little fuc¬
cefs as before ; and in May 1627, Guftavus arrived with
frefh forces before Dantzic, which he would probably
have carried, had he not been wounded in the belly by
3
a cannon-fliot. The States of Holland fent ambaiTadors Sweden,
to mediate a peace between the two crowns; but Sigif- —v J
mund, depending on the aflitlance of the emperor °f ype5p0ies
Germany and king of Spain, determined to hearken to defeated a
no terms, and retolved to make a winter campaign, third time.
Guftavus, however, was to well intrenched, and all his A-n- li27-
forts were fo ftrongly garrifoned, that the utmoft efforts
of the Poles were to no purpofe. The city of Dantzic
in the mean time made fuch a defperate reliftance as
greatly irritated Guftavus. In a tea engagement the The^Ves
Swedith fleet defeated that of the enemy j after which defeated
Guftavus, having blocked up the harbour with his fleet, anci
puIhed his advances on the land fide with incredible vi-
gour. He made a furprifing march over a morafs 13
miles broad, aflifted by bridges of a peculiar conftruc-
tion, over which he carried a fpecies of light cannon in¬
vented by himfelf. By this unexpected manoeuvre he
got the command of the city in fuch a manner, that the
garrifon were on the point of furrendering, when, by a
fudden fvvell of the Viftula, the Swediih works were The king
ruined, and the king was obliged, to raife the fiege. In obliged by
other refpecls, however, the affairs of Guftavus went on an munda-
with their ufual good fortune. His general Wrangel tl°” 0£t*ie
defeated the Poles before Brodnitz. At Stum the king ra|feUt^et0
gained another and more confiderable victory in perfon. fiege.
The emperor had fent 5000 foot and 2000 bovfe under 59
Arnheim, who joined the main army commanded by ^e^PoLes
the Polith general ConiecfpoHki, in order to attack the
Swedifii aimy encamped at Quidzin. The enemy were feated with
fo much fuperior in number, that the friends of Gufta- great
vus warmly diffuaded him from attacking them. But^auS^ter
the king being determined, the engagement began.ln ,t^°e^!’
The Swedifti cavalry charged with fuch impetuofity,fa 0
contrary to their fovereign’s exprefs order, that they
were almoft furrounded by the enemy • .but Guftavus,
coming up to their affillance, puflied the enemy’s infan¬
try with fo much vigour, that they gave way, and re¬
treated to a bridge that had been thrown over the Wer-
der. But here they were difappointed ; for the Swedes
had already taken pofl'eflion of the bridge. On this a
new aftion enfued more bloody than the former, in
which the king was expofed to great danger, and thrice
narrowly efcaped being taken piifoner •, but at laft the
Poles were totally defeated, with immenfe lofs. The
daughter of the German auxiliaries was fo great, that
Arnheim fcarcely carried off one half of the troops
which he brought into the field. This defeat did not
hinder the Polifli general from attempting the fiege of
Stum ; but here again he was attended by his ufual bad
fortune. Arnheim was recalled, and fucceeded by^^^
Henry of Saxe Lawenbuvg and Philip Count Mansfeldt. aga;n ^
The change of general officers, however, produced no feated, and
good confequences to the Poles j a famine and plague °^figeclto
raged in their camp, fo that they were at laft obliged ^
to confent to a truce for fix years, to expire in thef1Xyears.
month of June 1635. Guftavus kept the port and ci¬
tadel of Memel, the harbour of Pillau, the town of El-
bing, Brunfberg, and all that he had conquered in Li¬
vonia.
Guftavus having thus brought the war with Poland Guftavus
to an honourable conclufion, began to think of refent!ngref°lves on
the conduct of the emperor in affifting his enemies and
oppreffing the Proteftant ftates. Before • embarking in ro^ cinP"
fuch an important undertaking, it was neceffary that he
fhould confult the diet. In this the propriety of enga-
gillg
S W E
[
62
Reduces
Wolgaft,
Sweden. ging Jn a war xvi'ih Germany was warmly debated ; but,
_ v after much altercation, Gutiavus in a very noble fpeech
determined the matter, and fet forth in fuch ftrong
terms the virtuous motives by which he was adUiated,
that the whole aflembly wTept, and every thing was
granted which he could require.
It was not difficult for Guftavus to begin his expedi¬
tion. His troops amounted to 60,000 men, hardened
by a fucceffion of fevere campaigns in Ruifia, Finland,
Livonia, and Pruflia. His fleet exceeded 70 fail, car-
rying from 20 to 40 guns, and manned with 6000 fea-
men. Embarking his troops, he landed at Ufedom on
the 24th of June 1630, the Imperialifts having evacua-
wuigiUL ^ortle^es which they pofleffed there ; and the
Stetin, &c. |^e °f Rugenhad been before reduced by General Leily,
Au. 1630. in order to fecure a retreat if fortune fhould prove un¬
favourable. Pafling the frith, Guftavus ftormed Wol-
gaft and another ftrong fortrefs in the neighbourhood,
leaving a garrifon for the defence of thefe conquefts.
He then proceeded to Stetin ; which confented to re¬
ceive a Sweddh garrifon, and the king perfuaded the
duke of Pomerania to enter into an alliance with him.
In confequence of this the Swediih troops were received
into feveral towns of Pomerania ; and the moft bitter
enmity took place between the Imperialifts and Pome¬
ranians.
Thefe fuccefifes of Guftavus ftruck the empire with
confternation ,• for being already overwhelmed with ci-
vil diflenfions, they were in no condition to refill fo im-
Count Til- Petuous an _ enemy. At laft Count Tilly was invefted
ly chofen with the dignity of veldt marifchab In the mean
general by time the king being reinforced by a confiderable body
the empe- Gf troops in Finland and Livonia under the conduft of
Guftavus Horn, defeated the Imperialifts before Grif-
fenhagen ; taking the place foon after by affault. By
this and fome other conquefts he opened a pafiage into
Lufatia and Silefia ; but in the mean time Count Tilly
cut oft 2000 Swedes at New Brandenburg, This ad¬
vantage, however, was foon overbalanced by the con-
queft of Franckfort on the Oder, which Guftavus took
F. rf ^7 aiTault, making the whole garrifon prifoners. Thus
andLandf- lie command.ecl tbe rivers Elbe and Oder on both fides,
berg taken and bad a fair paffage not only to the countries already
by Gulta- mentioned, but alfo to Saxony and the hereditary domi-
vus. nions of the houfe of Auftria. Soon after this," Gufta¬
vus laid fiege to Landfberg, which he took by af-
fault.
About this time the Proteftant princes held a diet at
Leipfic ; to which Guftavus fent deputies, and conduc¬
ed his negociations with fuch addrefs, as tended greatly
yr, 6(\ 1° promote his interefts. Immediately after this he re-
Pomerankg duced _ Gripfw'ald, and with it all Pomerania. Then
and reftores marching to Guftrow, he reftored the dukes of Meck-
tbe dukes of Lnburg to their dominions.
bur^'611" inis time Count Tilly was employed in the fiege
of Magdeburg ; but now, being alarmed at the repeat¬
ed fuccefles of the Swedes, he left Pappenheim with
part of the army before that city, while he marched
^ with the reft into Thuringia, to attack the landgrave of
Magdeburg blcfle-Caflel and the eleclor of Saxony. After a moft
taken by " obftinate defence, Magdeburg fell into the hands of
ftahfcand ?aPPenheirn> who committed there all imaginable cruel-
the inhabi- t*es‘ Guftavus formed a plan of recovering the city;
tants cruel- brit was obliged to abandon it, by Pappenheim’s throw-
Jy ufed. ing himfelf into the place with his whole army, and by
64
Cuts off
2000
Swedes.
65
43 1 S W E
the progrefs which Tilly w-as making in Thuringia. Swedett.
Relinquifhing this enterprife, therefore, he ordered an"v——^
attack on Havelftmrg ; which was done wdth fuch refo- Ha'-elfbiu
lution, that the place was forced in a few hours, and ancTwer-^
all the garrifon made prifoners. Werben was next obli- ben re-
ged to lubmit after an obftinate confliC, in which manyduced> and
fell on both fides.—Thefe fuccefl'es obliged Count Tilly
to attempt in perfon to check the progiefs of the Swedes. per;aiift^
He detached the vanguard of his army, compofed of the defeated by
flower of the Imperial cavalry, within a few' miles of the Swfe des.
the Swedifh camp. An adhon enfued, in which Bern-
ftein the Imperial general was defeated and killed, with
1500 of his men. Guftavus, after this advantage, pla¬
ced himfelf in a fituation fo much fuperiorto his enemies,
that Count Tilly was fired with indignation, and
marched up to the Swediih lines to give him battle.
Guftavus kept within his works, and Tilly attacked his .
camp, though almoft impregnably fortified, keeping up
a moft terrible fire from a battery of 32 pieces of can¬
non ; which, however, produced no other effeft, than
obliging the Swedifti monarch to drawT up his army be¬
hind the walls of Werben. Tilly had placed his chiefccount^TiJ-
hopes in being able to fpike tbe enemy’s cannon, or fet ly defeated
fire to their camp ; after wfiich he propofed making hisby Guita-
grand attack. With this view he bribed fome prifon-vus‘
ers ; but they betrayed him, and told his defign to Gu¬
ftavus. The king ordered fires to be lighted in differ¬
ent parts of his camp, and his foldiers to imitate the
noife of a tumultuous diforderly rabble. This had the
defired effedf. The count led his army to the breach
made by the cannon ; where he w’as received with fuch
a volley of grape (hot as cut off the fir ft line, and put
the whole body in diforder, fo that they could never be
brought back to the charge. In this confufion the Im¬
perial army was attacked, and, after an obftinate com*
flidl, obliged to quit the field.
Soon after this adtion the queen arrived at the camp
with a reinforcement of 8000 men ; at the fame time a
treaty was concluded with Charles I. of England, byAb<xfyof
which that monarch alknved the marquis of Hamilton to Brftfth fol-
raife 6000 men for the fervice of Guftavus. Thefe auxi-diers torT:es
liaries were to be condudfed to the main army by a body t0 tne *
ot 4000 bw'edes ; and were m every thing to obey the Swedes,
king while he was perfonally prefent, but in his abfence
were to be fubjedl to the orders of the marquis. With
thefs troops the king had refolved to make a diverfion
in Bremen : but the marquis finding it impoffible to ef-
fedl a jundtion with the Swedifh army, refolved, with¬
out debarking his troops, to fleer his courfe for the
Oder, and land at Ufedom. Guftavus was very much
difpleafed at finding his projedt thus difconcerted ; but,
making the heft of the prefent circumftances. he com¬
manded the Britifh troops to adt on the Oder inftead of
the Wefer. 7'he number of this little army was mag¬
nified exceedingly by report, infomuch that Count Tilly
had fome thoughts of marching againft them with his
whole force ; but on the departure of the marquis for
Silefia, he reinforced the army in that country with a
large detachment, which was thought to contribute not
a little to tbe defeat he foon after received.
Since the late adlion Guftavus had kept within his
intrenchments, where his army was well provided with
every thing. Tilly made feveral attempts to furprife or
draw him to an engagement but finding all his endea¬
vours fruitlefs, he. marched into Saxony, and laid fiege
to
Sweden.
Saxony ra¬
vaged by
S W K i i44 1
to Leipfic. This precipitate meafure proved highly ad- his reputation,
vantageous to the Swedilh monarch. A treaty offenfive
and defenfive was immediately concluded with Guftavus :
and the ele&or willingly promifed every thing that was
required oi him. Tilly, in the mean time, earned fire
and fword into the eleftorate. At the head of ari army
vageci uy ana iwuia nitu tuv,   # ^
Count Til- ^ < 000 veterans, he lummoned the city ©f Leipfic to
ly, who
takes Leip¬
fic.
72 ,
Battle of
-Leipfic.
An. i6ti.
OL LL 4^. W W * 7 . .. .
furrender ; denouncing the fame vengeance againlt it as
had been executed on Magdeburg, in cafe of a refufal.
By this the governor was fo much intimidated, that he
inftantly fubmitted •, and alfo furrendered the caftle of
Paffenberg, which was in a condition to have flood out
till the arrival of the Swedifh army. I he ele&or, en¬
raged at the lofs of thefe valuable places, ordered his
army to join the SwTedes with all expedition, and preffed
the king fo warmly to engage, that at laft he yielded to
his defire. On the 7th of September 1631, Guftayus
led out his army in the finefl order, the Swedes forming
one column on the right, and the Saxons another on the
left-, each amounting to 15,000 men. Tilly drew up
his men in one vail column, probably with a view of
Surrounding the flanks of the king’s army. Guftayus
led on his troops againft that wing of the Impenalifts
commanded by Pappir.heim, whom 1m drove back to
a confiderable diftance. General Bannier in the mean
time cut in pieces the troops of Holftein, and mortally
wounded the duke who commanded them. Pappenheim
led on his troops feven times to the charge, but was as
often repulfed by the Swedes. Tilly all this while was
engaged with the Saxons •, but having at laft driven them
off the field, the whole ftrength of the Imperial army
was turned againft the Swedilh left wing. I he Swedes
fuftained the attack with the greateft firmnefs, until the
king detached the centre to afhll them. . I he Imperial-
ills then were no longer able to Hand their ground^ •, but
oave way everywhere except in the centre, which was
compofed of 18 regiments of veterans accuftomed to vic¬
tory, and deemed invincible. T hey made incredible ef-
namrs tie- forts to maintain their reputation j and, though inept
feated with oreat numbers by the Swedilh artillery, never
fhrunk ^or fell into confufion. Four regiments, after
their officers had been killed, formed themfelves, and
retired to the fkirt of a wood. Tilly retired at the head
of 600 men, and efcaped by the coming on of the night.
Seven thoufand Imperialifts lay dead on the field of bat¬
tle } 4000 were taken prifoners} a fine train of artilleiy
was loft, with upwards of 100 ftandards, enfigns, and
other military trophies. .
ConduA of Guftavus now determined to penetrate into hran-
Guftavus conia, where he reduced feveral places, especially the
cenfured. fbrtrefs of Workburg. Tilly having colletted his icat-
7C5 tered troops, which formed an army ftill fuperior in
SfaTut ™mber to that of Guftavus ntarched to the rdtef o
her of this place j but came too late. lie then directed his
towns, and march towards Rottenberg, where four regiments were
cut oft' four cut in pieces bv a Swedilh detachment. After thio t.>e
regiments . reduced Hanau, Franckfort on the Maine, and
of the ene-  ’.a r c^n;arf4c wbn had at-
73
The Impe-
rialifts de
-reat
daughter.
my.
Mentz; deftroying a body of Spaniards, who had at¬
tempted to ohftruft his paffage.
The court of Vienna was now thrown into the utmolt
confufion ; and fent everywhere heggmg affiftance, and
foliciting the Catholic princes to arm in defence of their
religion. The emperor was moft embarrafied in finding
cut~a general capable of oppofing Guftavus in the field ;
for the late misfortunes of Count Tilly had entirely funk
4
S W E
Walleftein, an old experienced officer, , Sweden. ^
was fele&ed j hut as he had formerly been difgraced, it ^
was apprehended that he would not accept of ^the com-\yaiieftein
mand of which he had once been deprived. This objec-chofen ge-
tion, however, was got over } and Walleftein not only neral by the
accepted of the command, but, at his own expence, emFror*
augmented the army to 40,000 men. 77
During the whole winter the Swedifh army kept the A great
field; and before the approach of fummer had reduced number of
a great number of places, while.the landgrave William a'e
made great progrefs inW eftphaha. Guftavus Horn tvas g‘vejes>
repulfed before Bamberg ; but foon had his revenge, by
entirely deftroying tw'o regiments of imperialifts. To
prevent the troops from being affe&ed by the lofs before
Bamberg, the king refolved to give battle to Tilly,
who was marching into Bavaria to prevent the Swedes
from gaining a footing in that ele&orate. He puilued
the Imperial general through a vaft tra& of country,
defeated his rear-guard, and, having reduced a variety
of towns and fortreffes on the Danube, penetiated as.ha
as Ulm. Advancing to the river Leek, Count Tilly Count Til-
pofted himfelf in a wood on the oppofite fide, to difputely defeated
his paffage. Guftavus endeavoured to diflodge him by and kinec.
a regular fire from 'jo pieces of cannon. I he fiaughter
was dreadful ; and Tilly himfelf, being wounded by a
cannon-ball in the knee, died a few days beiore he was
to have been fuperfeded by Walleftein. The following
night the Imperial army evacuated the poft. Guftavus
immediately croffed the river, and feized the towns of
Rain and Newburg, which the enemy had abandoned,
and Augfhurg next fubmitted.
From Augfhurg the Swedes advanced towards Ra.Ui-
bon ; but were difappointed in their defign of getting
poffeffion of that city, as the Bavarians had thrown a
numerous garrifon into the place.— In the mean time,
ambaffadors arrived from Denmark, offering the media¬
tion of that crown for obtaining a lafting peace betw een
the contending parties. This negociation, however,
failed of fuccefs, as the ambaffadors had not been mffruc- ^
ted to offer terms favourable to the Proteffants. Gufi.a-'j-'nree
vus now refolving to retort on themfelves the cruelties towns laid
which the Bavarians had infli&ed on the Proteftantspn by
laid the towns cf IVIorzbourg, Iriefengen, and -Land-
fliut, in a files. The inhabitants of Munich laved them¬
felves by fubmiflion •, Guftavus affo deieated the iorces
of the ele&or, who had been joined by a ccnfiderablc
bodv of militia.
While Guftavus was thus employed, Walleftein had
affembled a vaft army. He was ftrongly folicited by
the ele&or of Bavaria to come to his affiftance ; but, m
revenge of the ele&or’s having formerly obtained the
command for Count Tilly in preference to himfelf, he
drew off towards Bohemia to encounter the Saxons.
Arnheim, who commanded the Saxon forces in that
place, was an enemy to Guftavus, who had formerly g0
rallied him for his cowardice. Fie therefore permitted Hie Saxon
Walleftein to gain an eafy viftory, in hopes that ^troops de-
mafter, the ele&or of Saxony, a prince entirely devoted wdkftein>
to his pleafures, might be induced to rehnquffh the
friendfhip of fuch a reftlefs and warlike ally as.Guftavus *,
and indeed he ufed all the eloquence of which he was
mafter to detach him from the Swedilh caufe. Several
advantages, in the mean time, were gained by the Im¬
perialifts. Pappenheim defeated the archoiihop of Bre¬
men’s cavalry at Werden 5 and three Swedilh regiments
were
Sweden.
81
Guftavus
attacks his
camp, and
is repulfed
with lofs.
82
Battle of
Lutzen.
83
Guftavus
killed.
84
The Impe-
rialifts to¬
tally de-
fieated.
.85
Chriftina,
an infant,
proclaimed
queen of
Sweden.
85
Charles
Guftavus
appointed
heir to the
crown of
Sweden.
An. 1654.
S W E [I
were cut off near Kadingen. Pappenheim, however,
was forced to retire, and withdraw his forces from Stade ;
of which the Swedes took poffeflion. Waileftein and
the eleftor of Bavaria, who had now joined their forces,
threatened Guitavus with greatly fuperior numbers. At
laft, however, the king, being reinforced with 15,000
men, no longer declined the engagement 5 but Wallef-
tein was too vtife to truft the fate of the empire to a
fingle battle againft fuch an enemy as the king of Swe¬
den. Guftavus attacked his camp, but was repulfed
with the lofs of 2000 men. Several other misfortunes
happened to the Swxdes 5 and at laft, after various
manoeuvres, Waileftein bent his courfe towards Mifnia,
in order to oblige the elector of Saxony to declare againft;
the Swedes, and to draw them out of Bavaria, Gufta¬
vus, notwithftanding the inconftancy of Auguftus, im¬
mediately fet out to aflift him. With incredible dili¬
gence he marched to Mifnia, where the Imperialifts
were affembling their whole ftrength. Hearing that
the enemy were encamped at Wefenfells, and that Pap-
penheim had been detached with a ftrong corps, Gufta¬
vus refolved to engage them before they could effeft a
jundlion. With this view he marched to Lutzen, where
he attacked Waileftein with incredible fury. The Swe-
dilh infantry broke the Imperialifts in fpite of their ut-
moft efforts, and took all their artillery. The cavalry
not being able to pafs the river fo expeditioufly as the
king thought neceffary, he led the way, attended only by
a fingle regiment and the duke of Saxe-Lauwenburg.
Here, after charging impetuoufly, he was killed. The
news of his death was in an inftant fpread over both ar¬
mies. The courage of the Imperialifts revived, and they
now made themfelves fure of vittory. But the Swedes,
eager to revenge the death of their beloved monarch,
charged with fuch fury that nothing could refift them.
The Imperialifts were defeated a fecond time, juft as
Pappenheim, with his frefh corps, came up to their af-
fiftance. On this the battle was renewed, but the
Swedes were ftill irreliftible. Pappenheim was mortal¬
ly wounded, and his army finally routed, with the lofs
of 9000 killed in the field and in the purfuit.
This viftory proved more unfortunate to Sweden than
the greateft defeat. The crown devolved on Chriftina
the daughter of Guftavus, an infant of fix years old j
the nation was engaged in an expenfive foreign war,
without any perfon equal to the arduous talk of com¬
manding the armies, or regulating domeftic affairs, as
Guftavus had done. Chriltina was immediately pro¬
claimed queen. The regency devolved on the grand
bailiff, the marifchal, the high admiral, the chancellor,
and the treafurer of the crown. Oxenftiern was invef-
ted with the chief management of affairs, and conduced
himfelf with the greateft prudence. The reign and
charafter of Chriftina have been fully detailed under the
article Christina, to which we may refer our readers.
From the treaty of Weftphalia, Sweden enjoyed fome
years of repofe. Charles Guftavus, Count Palatine,
having gained the favour of Chriftina, was appointed
generaliflimo of the forces, and heir-apparent to the
crown. A marriage was propofed between them ; but
the queen would never liften to this or any other propo-
fal of the kind. In 1650, the ceremony of the queen’s
coronation was performed ; but in four years after, fire
refigned the crown in favour of Guftavus. (See the ar¬
ticle Christina).
Vol. XX. Part I.
+5
] S W E
The new king found himfelf involved in confiderable Swederr.
difficulties on his acceffion to the throne. The treafury ' 1 ■1
was quite exhaufted j great part of the revenue was ap-
pointed for the fupport of Chriftina’s houfehold ; the Sweden on
people were oppreffed with taxes j and the nation having the accef-
been difarmed for feveral years, began to lofe its re put a- ^
tion among foreigners. To remedy thefe evils, Charles ‘ '
propofed to refume all the crown-lands which had been
alienated by grants to favourites during the late reign j
to repeal a duty which had been laid on lall •, to put the
kingdom in a pofture of defence j and to enter on a war 88
with fome neighbouring ftate. Under a pretence that War with
Cafimir king of Poland had queftioned his title to the Poland re-
throne, he prepared to invade that kingdom. Severall0‘'cu
embaflies wrere fent from Poland to Stockholm 5 but
fome point of ceremony always difappointed them of an
audience of the king ; fo that they were obliged to re¬
turn without their errand. As foon as mattersWere in
readinefs, General Wittemberg made an irruption into
Poland from the fide of Pomerania. The Poles oppofed
him with an army of 15,000 men ; but inftead of fight¬
ing, they began to negociate, and in a Ihort time en¬
tirely difperfed. Charles himfelf foon followed with a
powerful army, and purfued his march without obftruc-
tion, all the cities throwing open their gates to him as
he approached. As he advanced to Cracow, Cafimir ^
refolved to make one effort to fave his capital. His The Poles
army amounted only to 10,000 men*, and thefe w7eredefeated,
unfortunately fuch as had never flood fire. After a tlie
feeble refiftance, they fled with precipitation, having loft
IOOO men killed and taken prifoners. A few days after
this Charles defeated the Poles a fecond time, about
eight leagues from Cracow j on which Cafimir fled with
his family to Oppelen in Silefia. The capital was then
invefted •, and though defended with the utmoft valour,
was in a ftrort time obliged to capitulate. Thus in lefs
than three months Charles apparently became mafter
of Poland $ but it w’as foon evident that the Poles had
no intention of abandoning their former fovereign.
In 1656 a wjar took place with the eledftor of Bran-War with
denburg. While Charles w7as employed in the con- the elector
queft of Poland, that prince had invaded Royal and Du-°^Janc*en‘
cal Pruflia, and reduced the moft confiderable towns Anfi65<5.
with little oppofition. The king of Sweden took um¬
brage at his progrefs ; and having marched againft
him, defeated his forces in feveral flight encounters, and
obliged him to acknowledge himfelf a vaflal of Sweden.
Thefe rapid conquefts alarmed all Europe ; and the
different powers fought for means of driving the Swedes
out of Poland, which they had fo unexpe&edly and un- pt
juftly feized. The Poles were no fooner affured that The Poles
they flrould be afiifted, than they everywhere revoltedreY0^*
and maffacred the Swedes. Cafimir returned from Sile¬
fia j and thofe very troops and generals who had before
fubmitted to Charles without oppofition, now ranged pa
themfelves under the banners of his antagonift. Charles Charles
immediately marched from Pruflia to chaftife the info- Sa“is a Sc¬
ience of the Poles, and totally defeated a body O^o^ln-ed to*
12,000 men. This did not hinder all the Poles incor-^ti^e.
porated with his troops to defert ; which confiderably
reduced his army •, and the campaign being performed
in the depth of wunter, he was at laft obliged to retreat
to Pruffia. In his march he was haraffed by the Poles;
and a body of 4000 Swredes was furprifed and defeated
by them at Warka. This lofs, however, was foon after
T recompenfed
S W E
[ 146 ]
S W E
93
Concliules
a treaty
Sweden, recompenfed by a complete vl£iory gained by Adolphus
’—v J the king’s brother and General Wrangel. In the mean
time the king was taking meafures for laying hege to
Dantzic *, but w^as prevented by the Dutch, who threat¬
ened to oppofe him, unlefs a proper regard veas paid
to their intereft. Charles accordingly granted them
advantageous terms) and afterwards gained over the
Ilrchand eleftor °* Brandenburg, by ceding to him the fovereign-
the eledlor ty of Pruffia, that he might be at liberty to turn his
of Branden-whole ftrength againft Poland.
burg- By the treaty juft concluded with the eleflor, the
latter was to affift Charles in his war with Poland j but
the elector had fo procraftinated matters, that the Poles,
having obtained affiftance from the lartars, haa reduced
the city of Warfaw. The two princes, however, now
inarched in concert againft their enemies, who were en¬
camped in a ftrong fituation in the neighbourhood of
the city above-mentioned, their camp being fronted by
the Viftula. The Poles were driven from their en-
The^Ies trenchments with prodigious (laughter. I he Poles and
and Tartars Tartars then laboured to break the alliance j with
defeated which view they entered Ducal Pruffia, and defeated
fhifht1^ [‘lc ele&oral army, taking many prifoners. The Swedes
<lUg 1 cr' foon had their revenge. General Steinboek attacked
the fame Polijli army at Philippowa, and overthrew it
with fuch (laughter as obliged the Poles for that feafon
to quit the field. A more formidable enemy than the
Poles now began to make their appearance. The Ruf¬
fians invaded the provinces of Carelia, Ingermania, and
Livonia ; while the ele&or of Brandenburg began to
waver in his fidelity. I o preferve this only ally at fuch
a critical juncture, Charles was obliged to give him
more advantageous terms than thofe already mentioned •,
'while the Ruffians were repulfed in the provinces of
Carelia and Ingermania. But in Livonia they had bet¬
ter fuccefs. See Russia. For feven months, however,
they battered the walls of Riga, without venturing to
pafs the ditch or ftorm the practicable breaches.
Charles, notwithftanding the number of his enemies,
was now become fo formidable by the valour and difci-
pline of his troops, that whole armies often fled on his
approach. At laft, in 1657, tlie Poles’ findin£ theV
could not refift him in the field, contented themfelves
with haraffing the Swedes on their march, and cutting
Charles en- off the foragers and convoys. I his proved much more
ters into deflruflive to the Swedes than their former method ; fo
an^UuuKe QV)ai-]es was obliged to enter into an alliance with
rctlki d" Bagotfki prince of Tranfylvania, by affigning him cer-
iprince of tain provinces in his neighbourhood, in order to furnifh
himfelf with irregular troops, who might fight the Poles
in their own way. This, however, proved of no real
advantage j for the confederates, after wafting a whole
campaign in Lithuania, were obliged to return without
accompliftiing more than the reduftion of a Angle for-
trefi ; on which Charles returned with the Swedifh army
to Pruffia.
Leopold, the young king of Hungary, having long
beheld the Swedes with a jealous eye, now refolved to
declare for Poland. The more effeClually to curb the
ambition of the Swedifli monarch, he folicited the king
of Denmark to come to a rupture with him. This was
inftantly complied with, and the Danes invaded Bre¬
men. Charles haftened to oppofe this new enemy j
which gave fuch offence to Ragotfki, that he neglefted
to take the proper” meafures for his own defence in the
95
The Ruf¬
fians in¬
vade the
Swedilh do
minions.
An. 1657.
96
Tranfyiva
nia.
97
Leopold
king of
Hungary
declares
againft
Sweden.
98
Ragctfki’s
army de-
ftroyed by
the Poles
and Tar¬
tars.
abfence of the Swedes, and fuffered his army to be de- 'Sweden,
ftroyed by the Poles and Tartars. At the fame time
the Turks invaded Tranfylvania, under pretence that
Ragotfki, being a vafl’al of the Grand Signior, had no 99
right to invade Poland without his leave. Ragotfki'op-Ife ls de-
pofed them in the field; where lie was defeated and^.^e^and
killed, leaving Charles deftitute of the only ally onthe Turks,
whom he could depend.
The king, however, not difmayed by this misfortune,
traverfed Pomerania and the duchy of Mecklenburg ;
after which he attacked Holflein, while General Wran¬
gel with another corps entered the duchy of Bremen.
The latter executed his meafures with the utmoft vi- Iao
gour. In 15 days he retook all the towns which the Bravery
enemy had reduced; defeated and drove the Danifii and fuccefs
army out of the country, killing 3000 of their heft fol-^,^11^31
diers. In Holftein the king reduced feveral fortreffes, ' 0
laid Itzehoe in allies, defeated a body of Danes, and
laid fiege to Frederic Udda, into which the Danes had
thrown a ftrong garrifon. The condufl of this fiege he
left to Wrangel, he himfelf retiring to Wifmar in order
to obferve the fituation of affairs in Poland ; but no
fooner was he gone than Wrangel attacked the place
with fuch fury, that he became mailer of it in two
hours. In the province of Halland the Swedes were
defeated ; but the enemy derived no advantage from
their viflory : at fea the fleets met, and maintained an
engagement for two days, without any confiderable ad- IrI
vantage on either fide. In Poland affairs were not better The houfe
conducted. The houfe of Auftria had now declared of Auftria
for Cafimir ; a German army entered Poland, and re-dec^ares
duced Cracow, though not without great lofs to them-
felves.
The king of Sweden was now furrounded by enemies.
The eleftor of Brandenburg had declared againft him ;
and he had befides to engage the armies of Auftria, io2
Poland, Ruffia, and Denmark. In this dangerous fitua-Charles in-
tion he refolved to attack Denmark, fo as to oblige v;K^_s Vcn-
that power to come to a fpeedy accommodation. His de- t
figns were forwarded by a very early froft, which enabled ^fs.
him to tranfport his troops without fhipping. Having
paffed over on the ice to the ifland of Funen, he cut in
pieces a body of 4000 Danifii foldiers and 500 peafants.
The whole ifland rvas reduced in a few days ; after
which he paffed to Langland, then to Laaland, after
that to Falftre, and laftly to Zealand. The Danes were
terrified at this unexpefted invafion, and were giving
tbemfelves up to defpair, when Charles offered to con- I0,
elude a peace on equitable terms. I he king of Den-Peace con-
mark gladly con fen ted ; intending to renewr the war ascludech
foon as he thought it could be done with fafety.
Charles was no fooner retired, than the king of Den¬
mark began to aft fecretly againft him ; on which, re-
folving to anticipate him in his defigns, he appeared un- I04
expeftedly with a fleet before Copenhagen. The Swe- The war
dilh monarch laid fiege to the capital, but with fo little renewed,
prudence that he made no progrefs, and was at length aral^0P^n~
compelled to turn the fiege into a blockade, which con-^ed. e'
tinued to the end of the war. Charles X. died of an
epidemic fever, and was fucceeded by his fon Charles
XL _ . 105
The new king Charles XL was a minor at the time Charles XI.
of his father’s death ; qnd as the kingdom was involved An- l66c-
in a dangerous war with fo many enemies, the regency
determined to conclude a peace, if it could be obtained
on
An. 1658.
S W E
[
106
Treaty of
Oliva.
107
War with
Branden¬
burg.
xoS
land and
fea.
An, i57<j.
1 109
Their af-
rhere go
to wreck.
Sweden, on reafonnbie term?. A treaty was accordingly con¬
cluded at Oliva ; by which Calimir renounced his pre-
tenfions to the -crown of Poland, and that republic gave
up all pretentious to Livonia. Bornholm and Dron-
theim were ceded to Denmark ; and an equivalent in
Schonen remained with Sweden. During the minority
of the king, nothing remarkable occurs in the hiliory of
Sweden. In 1672 he entered into alliance with Louis
XLV. which two years after involved him in a war with
the eledhor ot Brandenburg. At firft the Swedes car¬
ried all before them. Almoft all the towns in Bran¬
denburg were reduced, when the eledlor arrived with
The Swedes an army to the relief of his diitreiled fuhjedts. He re-
defeatedby t00k feVeral towns, defeated the Swedes in a general en¬
gagement, and foon after forced them to abandon all
their conquefls. In conjundlion with the Danes, he
then invaded the Swediih dominions ; many places of
importance were reduced-, and, in 1676, Sweden re¬
ceived a molt deftruftive blow by the deteat ot her fleet
in an engagement with the combined fleets of Denmark
and Holland. Soon after this the king took the go¬
vernment into his own hands, and in fome degree re-
flored the fortune of Sweden ; but though matters went
on in a more prosperous way where the king command¬
ed in peribn, the lame Ioffes and difgrace attended the
Swediih arms in every other quarter. In 1678, the
fairs every- Swe(]i{h fleet wxi defeated in two- engagements. At
Landfcroon a moft obflinate battle was fought from ten
in the morning till fix at night} when both parties were
obliged, by fatigue, to retire to their refpeftive camps.
At Oldeval in Norway, the Swedes were defeated ■,
and the Danes laid defolate the iflands of Oeland, Smaa-
land, Unno, and Kuno •, while the eleftoral troops and
Imperialifts reduced Count Konigimark to the utmoft
diftrefs in the neighbourhood of Stralfund.
In this deplorable fituation of affairs Count Konigf-
mark found an opportunity of attacking his enemies to
fuch advantage, that he obtained a complete vi&ory ;
after which he ravaged the duchy of Mecklenburg.
Notwitnftanding this fuccefs, he could not prevent the
elector from reducing Stralfund 5 after which he was
obliged to evacuate Pomerania and, to complete his
diftrefs, the fleet which tranfported the Swedifli army
from Pomerania was wrecked on the coaft oi Born¬
holm.
In this unprofperous fituation of affairs a peace was
concluded at St Germain’s between France and her ene¬
mies, by which the Swedes and Danes were left to de¬
cide their quarrel by themfelves. Denmark was by no
means a match for Sweden, even in the diflreffed fitua¬
tion to which fhe was reduced •, and therefore a treaty
was concluded, on terms much more favourable to Swe¬
den than could have been expected ; and the peace was
confirmed by a marriage between Charles and Ulrica
Eleonora, daughter to the king of Denmark. From
this time the Swedifti monarch applied himfelf to the re¬
formation of the ftate 5 and by artfully managing the
difputes between the nobility and peaiants, he obtained
a decree empowering him to alter the conftitution as he
pleafed. The proceedings of the king after this decree
were fuch as to exafperate the nobility, and produce vio¬
lent commotions. See Patkul.
On the 1 jth of April 1697, Charles XL leav¬
ing his crown to his fon, the celebrated Charles XII. at
no
Peace con¬
cluded.
in
diaries be¬
comes ab-
iblute.
47 ] S W E
that time a minor. On his acceflion he found himfelf Sweden,
under the tuition of his grandmother Eleonora, who had ^ ~J
governed the kingdom during the minority of the late clnarjes Xj
king. Though Charles was at that time only 15 years dies, and is
of age, he ftiowed a defire of taking the government fucceeded
into his own hands. His counfellors, Count Piper and 1011
Axel Spavre, fignified his defire to the queen-regent.
They were by her referred to the ftates j and there all IX^
were unanimous : fo that the queen, finding that oppo- He takes
fition would be vain, refigned her power with a good 1-ie g!Fern*
grace j and Charles was invefted w-ith abfolute authority jU‘^“7•’
in three days after he had expreifed his defire of reigning })ands at
alone. He was fcarcely leated on the throne wffen a the age of
powerful combination was formed againft him. Augu-G-
ftus king of Poland formed defigns on Livonia ; the king ^
of Denmark revived the difputes he had with the duke combirKi-1
of Holftein, as a prelude to a war with Sweden j and tion form-
Peter the Great of Ruflia began to form defigns on In-«1 againft
gria, formerly a province of Ruflia. In 1699 the king*um-
of Denmark marched an army into Holftein. Charles
fent a confiderable body of troops to the duke’s aflift- n-
ance ; but before their arrival the Danes had ravaged Holftein ra=-
the country, taken the caftle of Gottorp, and laid clofe vabrtJti -T
fiege to Tonningen. Here the king of Denmark com- ^'4
manded in perfon ; and was aflilled by the troops of
Saxony, Brandenburg, Wolfenbuttle, and Heffe Caffel.
England and Holland, as guarantees of the laft treaty
with Denmark, in concert with Sweden, joined Charles
againft this confederacy, and fent fleets to the Baltic.
They propofed a termination of the war on equitable
terms 5 but thefe were haughtily refufed by the Danifti
monarch, who defpifed the youth and inexperience of
Charles, and relied too much on the alliance he had
formed with Saxony, Brandenburg, Poland, and Ruflia. 116
Tonningen, however, refilled all his efforts 5 and when ^ hey are
he ordered the place to be ftormed, he had the raortifi-.7-
cation to fee his troops driven headlong from the walls 1‘-1■
by a handful of Swedes. ‘ 117
In the year 1700, Charles, having entrufted the af- Charles fets
fairs of the nation with a council chofen out of the fe-
nate, fet out on the 8th May from his capital, to which anci defeats
he never afterwards returned. He embaiked at Carlf-the fleet of
croon, and defeated the fleet of the allies. Having madeth13 allies,
a defeent on the ifiand of Zealand, he defeated a body of An‘ I7o0-
cavalry that oppofed his march, and then proceeded to
invell Copenhagen by fea and land. The king of Den¬
mark then faw the neceflity of either having his capital
deftroyed, or of doing juftice to the duke of Holftein. rig
He chofe the latter } and a treaty was concluded on Obliges the
much the fame terms as formerly. Charles, being thus D;iRes t0
at liberty to turn his arms againft the olher princes who inukr;
had confpired his deftrubfion, refolved to lead bis army" II9
againft Auguftus king of Poland. On the road, how Marches
ever, he received intelligence that the tzar of Ruflia wasagain^ the
on his march to oppofe him, and had laid fiege to Narva ivUia‘-ns*
with an army of 100,000 men. The conteft that enfued
between Charles and Peter, with the celebrated battles
of Narva and Pultava, have been already related under
Russia, fo that we (ball here confine ourfelves chiefly to
thofe events in which Peter the Great was not imme¬
diately concerned.
The Tzar Peter was the chief fupport of Auguftus, and
he took the moft a£tive meafures to oppofe the progrefs of
the S-wedifti monarch. His want of fuccefs, and the fub-
T 2 fequent
S W E
Sweden.
120
Charles
marches
againft the
Saxons
An. 1701.
[ 148 ]
S W E
121
and en¬
tirely de¬
feats them.
122
Forms a
fcheme for
dethroning
Auguftus.
123
Makes a fe-
cond appli¬
cation to no
purpofe.
124
War law ta¬
ken.
The Saxons
entirely de¬
feated.
126
Cracow ta¬
ken..
fequent contefts between him and Charles, till the deci-
live battle of Pultava are related in the article Rus¬
sia.
In 1701, as early as the feafon permitted, Charles,
having received a reinforcement from Sweden, took the
field, and appeared fuddenly on the banks of the Duna,
along which the Saxon army was ported to receive him.
The king of Poland being at that time fick, the army
tvas commanded by Ferdinand duke of Courland, Ma-
rifchal Stenau, and General Paykel, all officers of va¬
lour and experience. They had fortified certain iflands
in the mouth of the river, and taken every other pre¬
caution againft an attack ; the foldiers were hardy, well
difeiplined, and nearly equal to the Swedes in number ;
yet Charles, having paffed the river in boats wdth high
fides, to fereen the men from the fire of the enemy, at¬
tacked them with fuch fury, that they w’ere entirely de¬
feated with great lofs.
This victory was followTed by the furrender of all the
towrns and fortreffes in the duchy of Courland. Charles
then paffed into Lithuania, where every town opened its
gates to him. At Birfen, an army of 20,000 Ruffians re¬
tired with the utmoft precipitation on the new^s of his ap¬
proach. Here Charles, perceiving that the kingdom of
Poland was greatly difaffefled to Auguftus, began to pro-
jefl the fcheme of dethroning him by means of his own
fubjebls. This fcheme he executed with more policy
than he ever ffiowed on any other occafion.
Auguftus, in the mean time, finding his fcheme of
peace fruftrated, had recourfe to the fenate , but met
with fuch a rough anfwer from them, that he determin¬
ed to apply to Charles. To him therefore he fent his
chamberlain ; but a paflport being forgotten, the ambaf-
fador was arrefted. Charles continued his march to War-
fawq which furrendered on the firft fummons j but the
citadel held out for fome days. Auguftus, finding at laft:
that no dependence was to be placed on the Poles, deter¬
mined to truft his fortune wholly to the Saxon army and
the nobility of the palatinate of Cracow, who offered to
fupport him to the utmoft of their power. The Saxon
army was now advanced to the frontiers, and Auguftus
immediately put himfelf at its head. Being joined by
the nobility of Cracow', he found his forces to amount
to 30,000 men, all brave and w7ell-difeiplined. With
thele he marched in quell of his enemy ; who did not
decline the combat, though he had with him only 12,000
men. Though the Saxons were ftrongly polled, having
their front covered by a morafs, befides being fortified
with pallifadoes and chevaux de frife, they were attack¬
ed with irrefiftible impetuofity, and entirely defeated.
This viblory was folknved by the lofs of Cracow7 : after
which Charles fet out in purfuit of the flying army,
with a defign of preventing them from re-affembling ;
but his horfe falling under him, he had the misfortune
to break his thigh, by which he was confined fix weeks j
and thus Auguftus obtained fome refpite. He improved
this interval. Having convoked a diet firfl: at Marien-
burg, and then at Lublin, he obtained the following re-
folutions 5 that an army of 50,000 men ffiould be raifed
by the republic for the fervice of the prince ; that fix
weeks ffiould be allowed the Swedes to determine whe¬
ther they were for war or peace; and that the fame time
ffiould be granted to the turbulent and difeontented nobles
c.f Poland to make their conceffions. To counterabl the
effects of thefe refolutions, Charles affembled another
diet at Warfaw; and while the two affemblies difputed Sweden,
concerning their rights and privileges, he recovered from
his wound, received a ftrong reinforcement from Pome-rctt!.^1s 0f
rania, and utterly defeated and difperled the remains of the Saxon
the Saxon army. armyen-
The ill fortune of Auguftus continued ftill to prevailAreb' de-
In 1704 he was formally depofed by the diet, and the0
crow7n conferred by Charles on Staniflaus Lecfinlky pa- I2s
latine of Pofnania. Auguftus, however, did not yet Auguftus
tamely give up his kingdom. His adherents daily ffiffi-.. formally
mifhed with the Swedes; and Auguftus himfelf, being^d^tanif-
reinforced by 9000 Ruffians, retook Warfaw, and was “us raifof
near furprifing the new king, who lived in perfeft fe- to the
curity in the city w'hile Charles fought in his caufe. throne.
Count Horn, with 1500 Swedes, vigoroufly defended 129
the citadel; but at laft, finding it no longer tenable, he Warfaw re-
was obliged to furrender at diferetion. The reduftion ta^en
of Warfaw was among the laft advantages gained by Au^u^US‘
Auguftus in the courfe of this war. His troops were
now compofed of Saxon recruits and undifeiplined Poles,
who had no attachment to his perfon, and were ready
on all occafions to forfake him. Charles and Stanifiaus
advanced with the viftorious army ; the Saxons fled be¬
fore them, and the towns feveral miles round fent him r^0
their fubmiffions. The Poles and Saxons were under Excellent
the command of Schullemberg, a moft fagacious and ex- condudl of
perienced general, who ufed every expedient to check J.1!S, g^nera^
the progrefs of the Swedes. With all his conduct and em~
caution, he found himfelf outwitted, and Charles in the 6
neighbourhood of his camp ready to fall on him, while
he thought him at 50 leagues diftance. The Swediffi His en-
monarch attacked him with a fuperior army, but en- gagement
tirely compofed of horfe. Schullemberg had ported his^^1^6
men in fuch a manner as rendered it impoffible to fur- wec L '
round them. His firft rank being armed with pikes and
fufees, prefented a kind of rampart of bayonets; the fe-
cond line ftooping over the firft -who kneeled, fired over
their heads, while the third rank, who flood upon their
feet, kept up an inceffant fire, by which the Swediffi horfe
were exceedingly galled and put in diforder. Charles
loft the opportunity of cutting off the whole Saxon
army, by omitting to order his men to difmount. This
was almoft the firft time that infantry had been regu¬
larly oppofed to cavalry, and the fuperiority of the for-
mer was evident. After the engagement had continued His fine re-,
about three hours, the Saxons retreated in good order ; treat,
which no enemy had ever done before in any engage¬
ment with Charles. The Swedes purfued their enemies
towards the Oder, and forced them to retreat through
thick woods, almoft: impervious even to infantry. The
Swedilh horfe, however, pufhed their way, and at laft
inclofed Schullemberg between a wood and the river,
where Charles had no doubt of obliging him to furren¬
der at diferetion, or die fword in hand, as having neither
boats nor bridges ; but the genius of Schullemberg fup-
plied every defeeft. In the night he ordered planks and
floats of trees to be faftened together ; on which he car¬
ried over his troops, while the Swedes were employed
in diflodging 300 men, which he had placed in a wind¬
mill, for the purpofe of defending his flank and keep¬
ing the enemy in play. Charles fpoke of this retreat
with admiration, and faid he had been conquered by
Schullemberg. 133
No material advantage, however, refulted from this to Augultus
Auguftus; who was again obliged to leave Poland, and j^es ^
fortify
Sweden.
1.34
The Ruf¬
fians take
feveral
towns in
Livonia,
and invade
Poland.
S W E [ 149 ] S W
fortify tlie capital of his hereditary dominions, which he at that time refident at his court as
to lee inverted. In the mean
E
*3$
Aftoni idl¬
ing fuccefs
of Charles
againft
them.
136
Schullem-
berg en¬
tirely de¬
feated by
Renlchild.
137 .
Charles in¬
vades Saxo
ny.
I38
Auguftus
begs for
peace on
any terms.
*39
Charles’s
anfwer..
expefted every moment
time the Ruffians having recovered their fpirits, attack¬
ed the Swedes in Livonia with the utmoft fury. Narva,
Dorpt, and feveral other towns, were taken, and the in¬
habitants and garrifons treated with great barbarity.
Soon after, an army of 100,000 Ruffians entered Po¬
land. Sixty thoufand Coffacks under Mazeppa entered
the country at the fame time, and ravaged every thing
with the fury of barbarians. Schullemberg, too, per¬
haps more formidable than either, advanced with 14,000
Saxons and 7000 Ruffians, difciplined in Germany, and
reputed excellent foldiers. Could numbers have deter¬
mined the event of war, the Swedes muft certainly have
been at this time overpowered. Inftead of this, how¬
ever, Charles feemed to triumph over his enemies with
more eafe the more numerous they were. The Ruffians
were defeated fo fart, that they were all difperled before
one party had notice of the misfortunes of another. I he
defeating an army of 40,000 men fcarcely obftrufled the
march of the Swedes, while their aftonifhed enemies
looked on thefe adlions as the effeas of witchcraft, and
imagined that the king of Sweden had dealings with in¬
fernal fpirits. With thefe apprehenfions they fled be¬
yond the Dniepr, leaving the unhappy Auguilus to his
fate. Schullemberg, with all his Ikill and experience,
fucceeded no better. The Swedirti general Renfchild
engaged and defeated him in half an hour, though the
Swedes w^ere vaftly inferior in number, and their ene¬
mies ported in a moft advantageous fituation. Nothing
could be more complete than this vidlory. This extra¬
ordinary vidlory, indeed, is faid to have been owing to
a panic which feized the troops of Schullemberg : but it
was regarded ■with admiration, and thought to make the
renown of Renfchild equal to that of his fovereign.
Charles himfelf was jealous, and could not help ex¬
claiming, “ Surely Renfchild will not compare himfelf
with me !”
Soon after this vi&ory, which was gained on the 12th
of February, 1706, Charles entered Saxony at the head
of 24,000 men. The diet at Ratifbon declared him an
enemy to the empire if he crofted the Oder. But to
this declaration no regard was paid. Charles purfued
his march ; while Auguftus was reduced to the condi¬
tion of a vagrant in Poland, where he poflefled not a
Angle town except Cracow. Into this city he threw
himfelf with a few Saxon, Poliflr, and Ruffian regiments,
and began to eredl fome fortifications for its defence ;
but the approach of the Swedith general Meyerfeldt,
and the news of the invafion of Saxony, difconcerted all
his meafures, and threw him into defpaiv. The Ruffians
indeed were his faithful allies ; but he dreaded them al-
moft as much as the Swedes : fo that he was reduced to
the neceflity of writing a letter to Charles with his own
hand, begging for peace on whatever terms he thought
proper to grant. However, as he was then at the mer¬
cy of the Ruffians, this tranfaftion w^as concealed with
the greateft care. His emiffaries were introduced to the
Swedifh court in the night-time ; and being prefented to
Charles, received the following anfwer : lhat King
Auguftus Ihould for ever renounce the crown of Poland,
acknowledge Staniftaus, and promife never to reafcend
the throne, ftiould an opportunity offer ; that he fhould
releafe the princes Sobiefki, and all the Swedifh pri-
foners made in the courfe of the war ; furrender Patkul,
ambaffador for the Sweden,
tzar of Ruflia, and flop proceedings againft all who had v
paffed from his into the Swedifh fervice. Thefe articles,
Charles wrote with his own hand, and delivered to
Count Piper, ordering him to finifh them wfith the Saxon
ambaffadors.
After his defeat at Pultava by the Ruffians, Charles
fled in a mean calafh, attended by a little troop in¬
violably attached to his perfon, fome on foot, and iome
on horfeback. They were obliged to crofs a fandy de-
fert, where neither herb nor tree was to be feen, and
where the burning heat and want of water w^ere more
intolerable than the extremities of cold they had for- 140
merly fuffered. The whole had almoft perithed for Charles ar-
want of water, when a fpring was fortunately difcover-P.ve^in
ed } after which they reached Otchakoff, a town in the after his
Turkilh dominions, the bafhawT of which fupplied the defeat at
king with every neceffary. It was fome time, however, Pultava.
before boats could be got ready for tranfporting the
whole of the king’s attendants; by which accident 500
Swedes and Coffacks fell into the hands of the enemy.
This lofs affeffed him more than all his other misfor¬
tunes. He fhed tears at feeing, acrofs the river Bog,
the greater part of his few remaining friends carried into
captivity, without having it in his power to affift them.
The baihaw waited on him to apologife for the delay,
and was feverely reprimanded by Charles, as if he had
been his own fubjeft.
The king remained but a few days at Otchakoff,
when the ferafquier of Bender fent an aga to compli¬
ment him on his arrival in the Turkifh dominions, and I4I
to invite him to that city. Here he was treated with Is kindly
hofpitality : the Turks pradtifed to its full extent their receiv.ed>
generous maxim of regarding as facred the perfons of un- jUKl nL
fortunate princes who had taken flielter in their domi- conqUering
nions : and perhaps regarded him, notwithftanding his Ruflia be-
misfortunes, as an ally that might be ufeful to them- gfn t0 re"
felves againft the Ruffians. Every one, indeed, regardedvive’
him in his diftrefs. The French king offered him a fafe
paflage from the Levant to Marfeilles, from whence he
might eafily return to his own dominions. But Charles
was too obrtinate to receive advice. Puffed up with the
notion of imitating Alexander the Great, he difdained
to return except at the head of a numerous army ; and
he yet expected, by means of the Turks, to dethrone
his adversary the tzar. Negotiations for this purpofe
were carried on in the Turkilh divan ; and it was pro-
pofed to effort Charles with a numerous army to the 142
frontiers of Poland : but the revolution which took Augultus
place there, put an end to all fuch projedrts. Auguftus
thought himfelf no longer bound to obferve the treaty p0land.
which he had made, than while Charles was at hand to
compel him. After the battle of Pultava, he entered
Poland, and took every meafure, in concert with the
tzar, for the recovery of his kingdom. Staniflaus was
not able to ftand before fuch enemies, but was obliged
to leave his dominions and fly to Bender, in the difguife
of a Swredifti officer, in order to Ihare the fortune of
Charles.—It was not in Poland alone that the Swedifh
affairs began to fuffer in confequence of the defeat at I43
Pultava. The Danes invaded the province of Schonen iJ^neS
with an army of 13,000 foot and 2500 horfe. Only 4”^.
13,000 Swedifti forces remained to defend all the terri- ’
tories poffeffed by Charles in Germany 5 and of thefe
only a fmall part was allotted for the defence of Scho¬
nen. .
144
but are ut¬
terly de-
feated.’
S W E
Sweden, nfen. The regency of Sweden, however, exerted them-
* felves to the utfnolt to repel this ungenerous invafion 5
and having collefted an army of 12,000 militia and
8doo regulars, difpatched them under General Steen-
boek into Schonen. Some Saxon troops were incorpo¬
rated in this army j and among thefe a prodigious de-
fertion took place, which the general found it impoffible
to prevent ; and thus the Danes gained feveral advan¬
tages, and at laid took Chriftianftadt. Their infolence
on this fuccefs was fo great, that the Swedes demanded
to be inftantly led againtl them. Here the good for¬
tune of Sweden feemed once more to revive. The
Danes were driven from a very ftrong fituation, with
the lofs of 8000 killed and taken prifoners, belides a
vaft number wounded. The king received the intelli¬
gence of this victory with the greatetl exultation ; and
could not help exclaiming, “ My brave Swredes, flrould
it pleafe God that I once more join you, we flrall con¬
quer them all !”
In the mean time, Charles, by means of bis agents
the count Poniatoffski and the fieur Neugebar, ufed his
utmoft efforts to procure a rupture between the Porte
and Ruffia. For a long time the money beftowed by
The Turks Peter on the vizirs qnd janifaries prevailed ; but at laid,
declare war jn 171the grand fignior, influenced by his mother,
Ruffians"w^° was ftrongly in the intereid of Charles, and had
been ufed to call him her Hon, determined to fupport
his quarrel with Peter. He therefore gave orders to
the vizir to fall on the Ruffians with an army of 200,000
men. The vizir promifed obedience •, but at the lame
time profeffed his ignorance in the art of war, and diflike
to the prefent expedition. The khan of Grim Tartary,
who had been gained over by the reputation and pre-
fcnts of the king of Sweden, had orders to take the
field with 40,000 of his men, and had the liberty of
affembling his army at Bender, that Charles might fee
that the war was undertaken on his account. Sec
Russia, N° 119.
The treaty of the Pruth w-as mold violently oppofed
by Count Poniatoffski and the khan of Tartary. The
former had made the king acquainted with the fituation
of both armies; on which he inidantly fet out from Ben¬
der, filled with the hopes of fighting the Ruffians, and
taking ample vengeance. Having ridden 50 leagues
pofd, he arrived at the camp jutd as the tzar was drawT-
ing off his half-famifhed troops. He alighted at Ponia-
toffski’s tent ; and being informed of particulars, in¬
idantly flewr in a rage to the vizir, whom he loaded
with reproaches, and accufed of treachery. Recollect¬
ing himfelf, however, he propofed a method by which
the fault might be remedied } but finding his pro-
pofal rejected, he pofled back to Bender, after having
by the groffeft infults fliowed his contempt of the vizir.
The violent behaviour of Charles did not promote his
interefd. The vizir perceived that his flay in Turkey
might prove fatal to himfelf; and therefore determined
24S to get him out of the country as foon as poffible. Suc-
The grand ceeding vizirs adopted th& fame plan; and at laid the
fires Hiif'c Sran^ himfelf wrote a letter to Charles, in wdiich
depart. ' defired him to depart by next winter, promifing to
fupply him with a fufficient guard, with money, and
[ 150 ] S W E
every thing elfe neceffary for his journey. Charles gave Sweden,
an evafive anfwer, and determined to procrafdinate his ——
journey, as well to gratify his own fdubborn temper, as
becaufe he difcovered a correfpondence between Au-
guldus and the khan of Tartary, the objedd of which,
he had reafon to believe, wTas to betray him to the
Saxons. When he wras again preffed to fix the day of
his departure, he replied, that he could not think of
going before his debts were paid. Being allied how
much wras neceffary for this purpofe, he replied, loco uy
purfes (a). Twelve hundred purfes were inidantly lent Mean'and
to the ferafquier at Bender, with orders to deliver them unjuft t>e-
to the king of Sweden, but not before he Ihould have !Jt
begun his journey. By fair promiles, Charles perfuaded
him to part wdlh the money ; after which, inltead of
fetting out, he fquandered away his treafure in prefents
and gratifications, and then demanded 1000 purfes more
before he would fet out. The ferafquier was altonilhed
at this behaviour. He Ihed tears ; and, turning to the
king, told him, that his head would be the forfeit of
having obliged him with the money. The grand fig¬
nior, on being acquainted with the lhameful behaviour
of Charles, Hew into a rage, and called an extraordi¬
nary divan, where he himfelf Ipoke, a thing very un-
ufual for the Turkilh monarchs. It was unanimoully,
agreed that fuch a troublefome guelt ought to be re- ^3
moved by force, Ihould other means fail. Pofitive or- The Turks
ders were therefore fent to Charles to depart; and, in rei°lve to
cafe of refufal, to attack him in his quarters. Nothing^
could equal his obftinacy on this occalion : in Ipite of
the menaces of his enemies, in fpite of the intreaties of r ^
his friends, he perfilfed in his refolution ; and at laft His defpe-
determined to refill, with 300 Swedes, being all the rate reiblu-
attendants he had, an army of 20,000 janifaries vyellT®1110 re~
armed and furnilhed with cannon. At length he vv,asm '
attacked in good earneft ; though it muff be owned,
that even in this extremity, the Turks (bowed their re¬
gard to him, and were tender of his life, which the king
did not return at all in a fimilar manner. Moll of the
Swedes furrendered at once, perhaps as thinking it the
only method of faring the king’s life. This mifconduft,
however, had a quite contrary effect. Charles became
the more obftinate, the more defperate his affairs feemed 150
to be. With 40 menial fervants only, and the generals13 abando-
Hord and Dardorff, he determined to defend himfelf to j'-s f0po:.E
the laft extremity. Seeing his foldiers laydown their ers except
arms, he told the generals, “ We mult now defend the 40.
houfe. Come, (adds he with a fmile), let us fight pro
aru et focis” The houfe had been already forced by
the Tartars, all but a hall which was near the doer, and
where his domeftics had affembled. Cl aries forced his
way through the janifaries, attended by the generals
Fiord and Dardorff, joined his people, and then barri¬
caded the door. The moment he entered, the enemy,
who were in the hoiffe, threw down their booty, and
endeavoured to efcape at the windows. Charles pur¬
ified them from room to room with much bloodlhed, T ,r
and cleared the houfe in a few minutes. He then fired Fights tike
furioufly from the windows, killed 200 of the Turks in a madman,
a quarter of an hour, fo that the balhaw who command-bu.j.13 taken
ed them was at length forced to fet the houfe on fire-his
This followers.
(a) Each purfe contained 30 fequins.
Sweden.
. ys2
Begins to
think of
retuVning
to his do-
153
Sets out for
S iveden.
An. 17x4-
. lS4
Difmiffes
his retinue,
and pro¬
ceeds with
only one
attendant.
I5S
Arrives at
Stralfund, -
and is re¬
ceived v/ith
the utmoft
j°y-
. IS5
Diftrefled
fituation of
Sweden.
S W E [15
This was done by arrows with lighted matches fhot into
' the roof 5 but Charles, inftead ol quitting it, gave orders
for extinguilhing the fire, in which he hiinlelf affifted
with great diligence. All efforts, however, were vain :
the roof fell in and Charles, with his few faithful com¬
panions, was ready to be buried in the ruins. In this
extremity one called out, that there was a ncceflity for
furrendering. “ What a ffrange fellow ! (cries the
king), who would rather be a prifoner with the Turks
than mix his allies with thofe of his fovereign.” An¬
other had the prefence of mind to cry out, that the
chancery was but 50 paces off, had a Hone roof, and
was proof againft lire. Pleafed with the thoughts of
again coming to blows, the king exclaimed, “ A true
Swede ! Let us take ail the powder and ball we can
carry.” He then put himfelf at the head of his troops,
and fallied out with fuch fury, that the Turks retreated
50 paces; but falling down in the hurry, they ruthed
in upon him, and carried him by the legs and arms to
the bafhaw’s tent.
This extraordinary adventure, which favours not a
little of infanity, happened on the 12th of February
1713. He was now kept prifoner, with all his retinue j
and in this fituation he was vifxted by the unfortunate
Stan if ails.
Charles at lafl feemed inclined to fubmit to,his fate,
and began ferioufly to think of returning to his king¬
dom, now reduced to the moll deplorable fituation. His
habitation was now fixed at Demotica, a fmall town
about fix leagues from Adrianople. Here he was al¬
lowed provifions for his own table and thofe of his reti¬
nue but only 25 crowns a-day in money, inftead of
500 which he had received at Bender. During his re-
fidence here he received a deputation from Heffe Caffel,
fbliciting his confent to the marriage of the landgrave
with Eleonora, princefs royal of Sweden ^ to which he
readily agreed : a deputation was alfo fent him by the
regency of Sweden, requefting that he would prepare
for returning to his own dominions, which were ready
to fink under a ruinous war in his abfence.
On the 14th of Oftober 1714, Charles fet out for
Sweden. All the princes through vvhofe territories he
was to pafs, had given orders for his entertainment in
the moft magnificent manner ; but the king, perceiving
that thefe compliments only rendered his imprifonment
and other misfortunes more confpicuous, fuddenly dif-
miffed his Turkiih attendants, and affembling his own
people, bid them take no care about him, but make the
beft of their xvay to Stralfund. After this he fet out
poll, in the habit of a German officer, attended only by
Colonel During. Keeping the bye-roads through Hun¬
gary, Moravia, Auftria, Bavaria, Wirtemberg, the Pa¬
latinate, Weftphalia, and Mecklenburg, he arrived on
the 2xft of November at midnight before the gates of
Stralfund. Being unknown, he was admitted with dif¬
ficulty ; but being foon recognifed by the governor, the
greateft tokens of joy were ftiown all over the town. In
the midft of the tumult Charles went to bed.
Sweden was now in the greateft: diflrefs. On the
nexvs of the defeat at Pultava, the Danes had invaded
Schonen, but were defeated by General Steenboek.
This victory, however, did not put an end to the war.
On the contrary, the kings of Denmark and Poland,
with the tzar of lluffia, entered into ftricter bonds of
1 ] s w E
amity than ever. They dreaded the return of Charles
to his own dominions, and apprehended that numberlefs
victories would foon efface the remembrance of Pultava.
Swede*.
They determined, therefore, to make the beft ufe of
their time j and perhaps Charles never took a more im¬
prudent relblution than obftinately to remain fo long in
the Turkifti dominions. The return of Charles ieemed
to give new life to the whole nation, 'i hough the num¬
ber of inhabitants was vifibly diminiftied, the levies he
had ordered were completed in a few weeks : but the
hands left to cultivate the earth conftfted of the infirm,
aged, and decrepid ; lb that a famine was threatened in
confequence of the military rage which had feized all
the youth of the kingdom. I57 .
The prefence of Charles did not now produce thofe
confequences which the allies had feared. The king- retrjeve t}ie
dom was too much reduced to furnifti the neceffary fup- Swedifli af-
plics of men and money ; and though the king’s cou- fairs,
rage and military Ikill were not in the leaft diminiftied, An- I7IS*
the efforts he made, inftead of reftoring Sweden to its
fplendour, ferved more completely to ruin it. In I7i5j
Pruffia declared againft him, on account of his demand¬
ing back the town of Stetin, which that monarch had
feized. To complete his embarraffment, the debtor of
Hanover, George I. of Britain, alfo became his enemy. It;S.
The forces of Denmark, Pruffia, Saxony, and Hanover, is encorn-
joined to inveft Wifmar, while a body of 36,000 men palled on
formed the fiege of Stralfund j at the fame time thatali lK!e* by
the tzar, with a fleet of 20 large ftiips of war, and 150
tranfports, carrying 30,000 men, threw every part of
the Swedilh coaft into the greateft: confternation. The
b^roifm of Charles could not prevail againft fo many
enemies; yet he was flill fo much dreaded, that the *59
prince of Anhalt, with 12,000 brave troops, did not His dclPe-
think himfelf a match for this furious enemy when atrate'aour*
the head of only 2000, till he had entrenched his army
behind a ditch, defended by chevaux de frize. It ap¬
peared, indeed, that his precaution wras not unneceffary :
for in the night Charles with his rnen clambered up the
ditch, and attacked the enemy in his ufual manner.
Numbers, however, at laft prevailed j and Charles was
obliged to retire, after having feen his favourite Grot-
hufen, General Dardorff and During, the companions of
his exile, killed by his fide, he himlelf being wounded
in the breaft.. I^0
This rallx attempt was made in order to fave Rugen, straifunti
whence the town of Stralfund was luppiied with pro- belieged,
vifions. The place was well fortified, and garrifoned
with 9000 men, with Charles himfelf at their head j
But nothing could refift the efforts of the enemy. By
the 17 th of December it was propofed to give the
affault. The attack on the horn-work was delperate :
the enemy was twice repulfed ; but at laft, by dint of
numbers, effebted a lodgement. The next day, Charles
headed a fally, in, which he dealt terrible deftrubtion
among the befiegers, but was at length overpowered
and obliged to retreat into the town. At laft: his offi¬
cers, apprehending that he muft either fall into the
hands of the enemy, or be buried in the ruins of the I(-I
place, intreated him to retire. A retreat, however, was and taker,
now almoft as dangerous as to remain in the town, on in fpite of
account of the fleets of the enemy with which the fea tbe
was covered j and it is thought that this very circum-t/Aj
fiance induced the king to confent to it. Setting out,
therefore, *
S.. W E [I
, ^ue^en* i therefore, in a fmall boat with fails and oars, he pafled
r<5? ai^ ^le ^nemy’s Ihips and batteries, and arrived fafe at
Charles in- Yftedt in Schonen.
vades Nor- To revenge himfelf for thefe Ioffes, Charles invaded
way to no Norway with an army of 25,000 men. The Danes
piirpo e. were every where defeated and purfued with that vigour
for which the king of Sweden was fo remarkable j but
ftrong reinforcements arriving from Denmark, and pro-
vifions failing, he was at lail obliged to retire. Soon
affer this the Swedes loft Wilmar j but when every
thing feemed hopelefs, Baron Goertz the chief minifter
and favourite of Charles contrived to fet on foot a
163 treaty wdth the tzar of Ruflia, by which the moft for-
withThe mid.able Charles’s enemies wfas taken off. The
tzar of minifter found means to wTork on the inflexible temper
Mufcovy of Charles, by reprefenting to him that the ceflion of
projedted. certain provinces to Peter would induce him to affift him
in his projects of again dethroning Auguftus, and of
replacing James on the throne of Britain ; which laft
fcheme he had proje£ted out of revenge for the eleffor
of Hanover having feized on the duchies of Bremen and
Verden. In confequence of the conferences between
the tzar and Goertz, the former engaged to fend into
Poland an army of 80,000 men, in order to dethrone
that prince whom he had fo long defended. He enga¬
ged alfo to furnifh fhips for tranlporting 30,000 Swedes
to Germany and 10,000 into Denmark. This treaty,
however, was not ratified ; and the king’s death, wftiich
happened in 1718, put a final flop to all the great pro-
164 fpefts of Swreden.
Charles in- The king had refolved on the conqueft of Norway
way again” bef°re he dethyoned Auguftus j and as no difficulties
and lays ’ ever defended him, he marched his army into that cold
liege to and barren country in the month of Odlober, when the
Frederickf- ground was covered with froft and fnow\ With 18,000
haI1- men he formed the fiege of Frederickffiall, though the
feverity of the froft rendered it almoft impoffible to
break ground. Charles refolved to form trenches 5 and
his foldiers cheerfully obeyed, digging into the ground
wuth the fame labour as if they had been piercing a
rock. On the nth of December the iking vifited the
trenches in the midft of a terrible fire from the enemy,
tremeralh- lmagming that his men might be animated by his pre-
nefs, in con- ^erice. He took his poft in the moft dangerous ftation
iequence of he could choofe, ftanding on a gabion and leaning with
which he is his arm over the parapet, while the enemy were firing
An.' 8 chain ffiot at the very fpot where he flood. He was
‘ ‘ 7 ’ intreated to change his ftation j but he remained obfti-
nate. At laft; he was feen to fall on the parapet wuth
a deep groan, and foon afterwards expired, having been
mortally wounded, as is fuppofed, by a cannon ball.
^ See Charles XII.
Account of Charles XII. was fucceeded by his fifter the princefs
the Swedifh Ulrica Eleonora, wife to the hereditary prince of Heffe.
affairs from On this occafion the ftates took care to make a previous
Clfa^XII 0f^P-Ulati°n ^or tbe Pre^ervatj°n their liberties, and
to the year ob%ed tbe pnneefs to fign a paper to this purpofe be-
1771. f°re entering on the government. Their firft care w7as
to make a peace with Great Britain, which the late
king intended to have invaded. The Swedes then, to
prevent ffieir farther Ioffes by the progrefs of the Ruffian,
the Daniffi, the Saxon, and other arms, made many
great facrifices to obtain peace from thofe powers. The
French, however, about the year 1738, formed a dan¬
gerous party in the kingdom, which not only broke its
I
;2 J s w e
internal quite, but led it into a ruinous wuir with Ruffia, Sweden,
by which it loft the province of Finland. Their Sw7e-
difti majefties having no children, it w'as neceffary to
fettle the fucceffion j efpecially as the duke of Holitein
was delcended from the queen’s eldeft fifter, and was, at
the lame time, tae prefumptive heir to the empire of
Ruffia. Four competitors appeared j the duke of Hol-
ftein Gottorp, Prince Frederic of Heffe-Caffel nephew
to the king, the prince of Denmark, and the duke of
Deux-Pouts. 1 he duke of Holftein would have car¬
ried the eleflion, had he not embraced the Greek re¬
ligion, that he might mount the throne of Ruffia. The
tzarina interpofed, and offered to reftore all the con-
quefts (lie had made from Sweden, excepting a fmall
diftndl in I inland, if the Swedes would receive the
duke of Holftein’s uncle, Adolphus Frederic biffiop of
Lubec, as their hereditary prince and fucceffor to their
crown. T his was agreed to j and a peace concluded at
Abo, under the mediation of his Britannic majefty.
This peace was fo firmly adhered to by the emprefs of
Ruffia, tiiat his Danifti majefty thought proper to drop
all refentment for the indignity done his fon. The
prince-fucceffor married the princefs Ulrica, third fifter
to the king of Pruffia j and in 1751 entered into the
poffeffion of his new dignity, which proved to him a ^^S1*
crown of thorns. The French had acquired vaft in-Accelffon oi"
fluence in all the deliberations of the Swediffi fenate,-Adolphus
who of late had been little better than penfioners toFrederic*
that crown. The intrigues of the fenators forced A-
dolphus to take part in the war againft Pruffia: but as
that war was difagreeable not only to the people, but
alfo to the king of Sweden, the nation never made fo
mean an appearance 5 and on Ruffia’s making peace
with the king of Pruffia, the Swedes likewife made ^ ^---
peace. Adolphus died difpirited in 1771, after a tar- afcendTthe
bulent reign of twenty years j and was fucceeded by his throne,
fon Guftavus. The moft; remarkable tranfaftion of this An- D?1*
reign is the revolution which took place in the govern¬
ment in the year 1772, by which the king, from be¬
ing the moft limited became one of the moft defpotic
monarchs in Europe. Ever fince the death of Charles
XII. the whole power of the kingdom had been lodged
in the ftates j and this power they had much abufed.
Guftavus therefore determined either to feize on that^011"^of
power of which they made fiich a bad ufe, or periffi in !fon?n °
the attempt. The revolution was effefted in the fol-1772, by
lowing manner. On the morning of the 19th of Au-^^h116
guft 1772, a confiderable number of officers, as well asl,ecame
other perfons known to be attached to the royal caufe, °UC'
had been fummoned to attend his majefty. Before ten
he was on horfeback, and vifited the regiment of artil¬
lery. As he paffed through the ftreets he was more
than ufually courteous to all he met, bowing familiarly
to the lowed: of the people. On the king’s return to
his palace, the detachment which was to mount guard
that day. being drawn up together with that which was
to be relieved, his majefty retired with the officers into
the guard-room. He then addreffed them with all
that eloquence of which he is faid to have been a per-
feft mafter; and after infinuating to them that his life
was in danger, he expofed to them in the ftrongeft
colours the wretched ftate of the kingdom, the ffiackles
in which it ivas held by means of foreign gold, and the
diffenfions aad troubles arifing from the fame caufe
which had diftrafted the diet during the courfe of four.
tee«
*73.
Refolution
of a iiwedifh
officer.
S W E [ i
Sweden, teen months. He affured them that his only defign
—’'V""-”' was to put an end to thefe diforders } to baniih corrup¬
tion, reftore true liberty, and revive the ancient luftre
of the Swedifh name, which had been long tarnifhed
by a venality as notorious as it was difgraceful. Then
afluring them in the ftrongeft terms that he difclaimed
for ever all abfolute power, or what the Swedes call
fovereignty, be concluded with thefe words .* “ I am
obliged to defend my own liberty and that of the king¬
dom, againft the ariflocracy 'which reigns. Will you
be faithful to me, as your forefathers were to Guilavus
Vafa and Guflavus Adolphus ? I will then riik my life
lor your welfare and that of my country.”
The officers, moft of them young men, of whofe at¬
tachment the king had been long fecure, who did not
thoroughly perhaps fee into the nature of his majefty’s
requeft, were allowed no time to refled!, immediately
confented to every thing, and took an oath of fidelity
to him.*
Only three refuftd. One of thefe, Frederic Ceder-
ilrom, captain of a company of the guards, alleged he
had already, and very lately, taken an oath to be faith¬
ful to the ftates, and confequently could not take that
which his majefty then exsdled of him. The king,
looking at him iternly, anfwered, “ Think of what
you are doing.” “ I do, (replied Cederllrom) ; and
what I think to day, I fhall think to-morrow: and
were I capable of breaking the oath by which I am
already bound to the flates, I fliould be likewife capable
of breaking that which your majefty now requires me to
take.”
The king then ordered Cederftrom to deliver up his
fvvord, and put him in arreft.
His majefty, however, apprehenfive of the impreflion
which the proper and relolute conduft of Cederftrom
might make on the minds of the other officers, (liortly
afterwards foftened his tone j and again addrefling
himfelf to Cederflrom, told him, that as a proof of the
opinion he entertained of him, and the confidence he
placed in him, he wrould return him his fvvord without
infilling on his taking the oath, and would only defire
his attendance that day. Cederftrom continued firm ;
he anfwered, that his majefty could place no confidence
in him that day, and that he begged to be excufed from
the fervice.
While the king was Ihut up with the officers, Sena¬
tor Railing, to whom the command of the troops in
the town had been given two days before, came to the
door of the guard-room, and was told that he could not
be admitted. The fenator infifted on being prefent at
the diftribution of the orders, and fent to the king to
defire it; but was anfwered, he muft go to the fenate,
where his majefty would fpeak to him.
The officers then received their orders from the king;
the firft of which was, that the two regiments of guards
and of artillery ftiould be immediately affembled, and
that a detachment of 36 grenadiers Ihould be polled at
the door of the council-chamber to prevent any of the
fenators from coming out.
But before the orders could be carried into execution,
it was neceffary that the king Ihould addrefs himfelf to
the foldiers ; men wholly unacquainted with his defigns,
and accuftomed to pay obedience only to the orders of
the lenate, whom they had been taught to hold in the
bigheft reverence.
VOL. XX. Part I.
moreThe'ki»g
S3 ] S W E
As his majefty, followed by the officers, was advan- Sweden-,
cing from the guard room to the parade for this pur-
pofe, feme of them more cautious, or perhaps
timid than the reft, became, on a Ihort refleftion, ap- gains over
prehenfive of the confequences of the meafure in which the foldiws.
they were engaged : they began to exprefs their fears
to the king, that unlels lome perfons of greater weight
and influence than themfelves were to take a part in the
fame caufe, he could fcarcely hope to fucceed in his en~
terprife. The king flopped a while, and appeared to
hefitate. A ferjeant of the guards overheard their dii-
courfe, and cried aloud,—“ It fltall fucceed—-Long live
Gullavus!” His majefty immediately laid, “ Then I
will venture ;”—and Itepping forward to the loldiers,
he addreffed them in terms nearly fimilar to thofe
which he had exprefled to the officers, and with the
fame fuccefs. They anfwered him with loud acclama¬
tions : one voice only faid, No ; but it was not attend¬
ed to.
In the mean time fome of the king’s emiffaries had
fpread a report about the town that the king was ar-
refted. This drew the populace to the palace in great
numbers, where they arrived as his majefty had con¬
cluded his harangue to the guards. They teftified by
reiterated {bouts their joy at feeing him fafe ; a joy
which promifed the happieft conclufion to the bufinels
of the day. j-.
The fenators were now immediately fecured. They'Seeures the
had from the window of the council-chamber beheld fenators,
what was going forward on the parade before the pa- anc*l,e*
lace ; and, at a lofs to know the meaning of the (bouts^ 0f
they heard, were coming down to inquire into the caufe wh0le
of them, when 30 grenadiers, with their bayonets fix-power in
ed, infoimed them it was his rnajefty’s pleafure they'^ie king-
(hould continue where they were. They began to talk aom’
in a high tone, but were anf'wered only by having the
door ftiut and locked on them.
The moment the fecret committee heard that the fe¬
nate was arrefted, th y feparated of themfelves, each in¬
dividual providing tor his own fafety. The king then
mounting his horfe, followed by his cfficers with their
fwords drawn, a large body of foldiers, and numbers
of the populace, went to the other quarters of the town
where the foldiers he had ordered to be aflembled were
ported. He found them all equally willing to fupport
his caufe, and to take to him an oath of fidelity. As
he pafled through the ftreets, he declared to the people,
that he only meant to defend them, and fave his coun¬
try ; and that if they would not confide in him, he
would lay down his feeptre, and furrender up his king¬
dom. So much was the king beloved, that the people
(fome of whom even fell down on their knees) with
tears in their eyes implored his majefty not to abandon
them. r,^
The king proceeded in his courfe, and in lefs than an Summons
hour made himfelf mafter of all the military force in an aflem-
Stockholm. In the mean time the heralds, by prod a- °| t',ie
mation in the feveral quarters of the city, fummoned an 1 ’
affembly of the States for the enluing morning, and de¬
clared all members traitors to their country who fliould
not appear. Thither his majefty repaired in all the
pomp of royalty, furrounded by his guards, and holding
in his hand the filver feeptre of Guftavus Adolphus. In
a very forcible fpeech, he lamented the unhappy ftate to
which the country was reduced by the condudf of a
U > party
Sweden.
174
which ac-
vernraent.
175
The king
makes a
S W E [I
party ready to facrlfice every thing to its ambition, and
reproached the dates with adapting their actions to the
views of foreign courts, from which they received the
wages of perfidy. “ If any one dare contradict this,
let him rife and fpeak.”—Convi£tion, or fear, kept the
affembly filent, and the fecretary read the new form of
government, which the king fubmitted to the approba¬
tion of the dates. It confided of fifty-feven articles j
of which the five following were the chief.
I. The king has the entire power of convoking and
cepts a new diffolving the afiembly of the dates as often as he thinks
ProPer* 2. His majedy alone has the command of the
army, fleet, and finances, and the difpofal of all offices
civil and military. 3. In cafe of an invafion, or of any
preffing neceflity, the king may impofe taxes, without
waiting for the aflembly of the dates. 4. The diet can
deliberate on no other fubjedts than thofe propofed by
the king. 5. The king lhall not carry on an offenfive
war without the confent of the dates. When all the
articles were gone through, the king 4emanded if the
dates approved of them, and was anfwered by a general
acclamation. He then difmifled all the fenators from
their employments, adding, that in a few days he would
appoint others $ and concluded this extraordinary fcene
by drawing out of his pocket a fmali book of pfalms,
from which, after taking off the crown, he gave out
Te Deum. All the members very devoutly added their
voices to his, and the hall refounded with thankfgiving.
The power thus obtained was employed by the king
for the good of his fubjcdls. He took care that the law
good ufe of be adminiflered with impartiality to the riched
is power. nobie ancj tbe p00refl: peal'ant, making a fevere example
of fuch judges as were proved to have made judice ve¬
nal. He gave particular attention and encouragement
to commerce, was a liberal and enlightened patron of
learning and fcience, and laboured dremioufiy to intro¬
duce into his kingdom the mod valuable improvements
in agriculture that had been made in foreign countries.
But while thus afltive in promoting the arts of peace,
he w7as not inattentive to thofe of war. The deet,
which he found decayed and feeble, be in a few years
redored to a refpeftable footing, and, befides changing
the regulations of the navy, he raifed a new corps of
failors, and formed them to the fervice by continual ex-
ercife. The army, which, as well as the navy, had
been negle&ed during the aridocracy, was next to be
reformed. The king began by giving cloaks, tents,
and new arms to all the regiments. Afterwards, under
the diredfion of Field Marffial Count de Heffendein, a
new exercife was introduced, and feveral Camps were
formed, in which the foldiery were manoeuvred by the
king himfelf. The fale of military offices, 'which had
been permitted for many years, was entirely fuppreffed ;
and the king provided not only for the re-edablidiment
of difcipline and good order in the army, but for the
future welfare of the individuals which ccmpofed it.
Thefe warlike preparations were neceffary to a plan
which he had formed for entirely abolithing the power
of the aridocracy, and freeing Sweden from the fa&ions
which had long been formed in it by the court of St
Peterfburgh. The change which he had introduced
w'as very inimical to the intrigues of that court *, and
the Ruffian ambaffador exerted himfelf openly to bring
about a rupture between the king and the difcontented
nobles. Guftavus ordered him to quit the kingdom in
176
Reforms
the army
and navy.
54 ] S W E
eight days, and immediately prepared for war with Sweden.
Ruffia. To this apparently raffi enterprife he was in- u—-v——^
cited by the Ottoman Porte, at that time unable to op-
pofe the armies of the two empires $ and his own ambi¬
tion, together with the internal date of his kingdom,
powerfully concurred to make him lend every affidance
to his ancient ally. It is needlefs for us to enter into a
detail of the particulars of that war, the principal cir-His 177
cumdances of which have already been noticed under dua in "the
Russia, N0' 157. Suffice it to fay, that neither Guda- war with
vus Adolphus nor Charles XII. gave greater proofs ofRllffia*
undaunted courage and military conduiff in their long
and bloody wars than were given by Gudavus the III.
from the end of the year 1787 to 1790, when peace
was redored between the courts of St Peterfburgh and
Stockholm. When the court of Copenhagen was com¬
pelled, by the means of England and Pruffia, to with¬
draw its troops from the territories of Sweden, the king
attacked Ruffia with fuch vigour both by fea and land,
difplayed fuch addrefs in retrieving his affairs when ap¬
parently reduced to the lad extremity, and renewed his at¬
tacks with fuch pertinacious courage, that the emprefs
lowered the haughtinefs of her tone, and was glad to treat
with Gudavus as an equal and independent fovereign. IMg
The king of Sweden was now at liberty to cheridi Not an ar-
again the arts of peace, and to humble the haughty fpi-bitrary
rit of the nobles. For his attempting to deprive thofe
men of that power which they had for many years em-
ployed againd their country, he has been held up to the adtions art-
world as a defpot who trampled on the liberties of his ful and in-
fubje&s j as a man without fincerity or patriotifm j and,^ou5-
in one word, as a perjured tyrant, who overthrew the
conditution which he had fworn to maintain. That he
was not troubled with a fcrupulous confcience, when fo
artfully conducting the revolution ef 1772, mud be ac¬
knowledged ; nor can it be denied, that in his treaties
with other powers, he fometimes endeavoured to over
reach them 5 but if the neceffities of date could in any
cafe be an apology for falfehood, they would lufficiently
apologife for the duplicity of Gudavus. He was enga¬
ged in the arduous enterprife of freeing his fubje&s
from an aridocratic tyranny, fupported by a foreign
power the mod formidable in the north \ he had been
forced into a war with that power, and, as there is rea-
fon to believe, promifed affidance which he never recei¬
ved ; and it cannot excite wonder nor great indignation,
that, as foon as he could make an honourable peace, he
embraced the opportunity without paying much regard
to the intereds of an alliance, which tamely looked on
while he was druggling with difficulties apparently in-
furmountable. That the revolution which he effedfed in The re^a-
his own country was calculated to promote the generaUndon he-
good of the people is unquedionable ; and to gain fuch neficiaI*
an objett he might furely redore the crown to its ancient
fplendour, without bringing on his government the odions
epithet of defpotifm.
The nobles, however, continued difcontented, and a PrJ[u°es a
confpiracy was planned againd Gudavus under his own confpiracy
roof. He had entered into the alliance that was formed againft the
againd the revolutionary government of France ; and to^S’5 llte'
raife an army, which he was to lead in perfon to co-ope- Al“ I7S'2‘’
rate with the emperor and the king of Pruffia, he was
obliged to negociate large loans, and to impofe on his
fubjefts heavy taxes. The nobles took advantage of
that circumdance to prejudife the minds of many of the
people
S W E [ t
Sweden, people againfl: the fovereign who had laboured fo long
■-““'■v for their good. On the 16th of March 1792 he recei¬
ved an anonymous letter, warning him of his immediate
danger from a plot that was laid to take away his life,
requefting him to remain at home, and avoid balls for a
year ; and affuring him that, if he fhould go to the
mafquerade for which he was preparing, he would be af-
faffinated that very night. The king read the note with
contempt, and at a late hour entered the ball-room.
After fome time he fat down in a box with the compte
d’Eflen, and obferved that he was not deceived in his
contempt for the letter, fince had there been any defign
againft his life, no time could be more favourable than
that moment. He then mingled, without apprehenfion,
among the crowd 5 and juit as he was preparing to re¬
tire in company with the Pruffian ambaffador, he was
furrounded by feveral perfons in maiks, one of whom
1S1 fired a piftol at the back of the king, and lodged the
The king contents in his body. A fcene of dreadful confufion
fU u^ound" immediately enfued. The confpirators, amidft the gene¬
ral tumult and alarm, had time to retire to other parts
of the room ; but one of them had previoufly dropped
his pitlols and a dagger clofe by the wounded king. A
general order was given to all the company to unruafk,
and the doors were immediately clofed ; but no perfon
appeared with any particular diftinguifhing marks of
guilt. The king was immediately conveyed to his
apartment j and the furgeon, after extrafling a ball and
fome flugs, gave favourable hopes of his recovery.
The favourable reports of his medical attendants foon
appeared to be fallacious, and on the 28th of March a
An. 1792. notification was found to have taken place. He expi¬
red on the following day, and on opening his body there
were found within the ribs a fquare piece of lead and
two rufty nails.
The king had by his will appointed a council of re¬
gency ; but convinced by recent experience how little
dependence was to be placed on the attachment of his
nobles, and aware of the neceffity of a vigorous govern¬
ment in times of fuch difficulty and danger, he appointed
his brother, the duke of Sudermania, foie regent, till
his fon, then a minor, ffiould attain *he age of 18 years.
In his dying moments he defired that all the confpira-
tors, except the perpetrator of his murder, might be
pardoned.
Acceffion The young king, who was about 14 at his father’s
oKJuftavus death, was proclaimed by the name of Guflavus IV. The
regent foon took the mod vigorous and aflive meafures
to apprehend and puniffi the projeftors and perpetrators
of the murder of his brother. A nobleman of the name
of Ankerftrom confeffed himfelf the affaffin, and gloried
in the action, wffiich he called liberating' his country
from a monder and a tyrant. He was executed in a mod
cruel manner on the 17th of May. Two other noble¬
men, and two officers, alfo fuffered death •, but the red
of the confpirators were either pardoned, or puniffied
only by fine and imprifonment.
From the acceffion of Gudavus IV. till the revolu¬
tion which has been recently effedled in Sweden, few
tranfadlions of any importance have occurred. Soon af-
ed.
1S2
Death of
Guftavus
TIT
Sweden.
1S4
55 1 .S W E
ter the king had taken on himfelf the adminidration of
affairs, he engaged warmly in the war againd France,
and till the time of his depofition, continued a mod faith¬
ful ally of Britain. The efforts of the Swediffi monarch
towards humbling the power of Bonaparte, have been al¬
ready noticed under the articles Britain and France ;
and the war with Rudia, in which his alliance with
Britain had involved him, has been fufficiently touched
in the article Russia. This prince feems to have been
endowed with great and amiable qualities, but he was
certainly raffi and imprudent in a high degree. He thus
materially injured his kingdom, and alienated the affec¬
tions of his principal nobles, efpecially of his uncle the
duke of Sudermania.
In the beginning of March 1809, the plan which ap-Revolution
pears to have been concerted between the duke of Su- favour
dermania and the principal nobility, was carried into ef- Sud'-nn-^
fe£l. The king was arreded; the duke affirmed the reins n;a>
of government, and iffued the following proclamation. An. xScj*
“ We, Charles, by the grace of God, Hereditary
Prince of Sweden, the Goths, Vandals, &c. Duke of
Sudermania, Grand Admiral, &c. &c. do declare, that
under exiding circumdances, his majedy is incapable of
afling, or of conducing the important affairs of the
nation. We have therefore (being the neared and only
branch of the family of age)been induced, for the time
being, as adminidrator of the kingdom, to take the
reins of government into our hands, which, with the
help of the Almighty, we will condufl fo that the na¬
tion may regain peace, both at home and abroad, and
that trade and commerce may revive from their lan-
guidiing date.
“ Our inviolable intention is, to confult xvith the
dates on the means to be taken to render the future time
happy to the people of Sweden. We invite and com¬
mand, therefore, all the inhabitants of our nation, our
forces by fea and land, and alfo the civil officers of all
degrees, to obey us, as our real intention, and their
welfare demand.
“ We recommend you all to the protection of God
Almighty.
“ Done at Stockholm palace,
the 13th March, 1809.
Charles.
(Signed) ^ u c Laberlering.” lS5
Soon after Gudavus was prevailed on to abdicate theDepofition
government, and the duke of Sudermania was declared of Gufta_
king of Sweden, by the title of Charles XIII. acceffion
The new king foon made propofitions to the emperors0f Charles
of France and Rufiia for a ceffation of hodilities between XIII.
thefe powers and Sweden. Peace was fpeedily obtained,
but on terms the mod humiliating and difadvantageous
to Sweden, as die has been compelled to furrender to the
emperor Alexander all her territory to the eadward of
the gulf of Bothnia and the river Tornea. A new con-
ditution has been promulgated by King Charles; but
the particulars of this code, which, from the enfeebled
date of Sweden, reduced almod to the condition of a
Ruffian province, is not likely to be of long continu¬
ance, can fcarcely be intereding to cur readers (b).
U 2 The
^ (b) It is underdood that the health of the reigning monarch is in a declining date, fo that a new vacancv in the
tnrone of Sweden may be expeCled foon to take place. It is not impoffible, that on fuch an event, the ambitious
views
'Sweeten.
186
Population
of Sweden.
i*7
Govern¬
ment.
tSS
Revenues,
189
Military
itren^th.
r 90
Coins.
IP.i
R eligion.
S W E ft
The population of Sweden, even before the late
treaty, was very incordiderable, and is ufually fuppofed
not to have exceeded 3,000,000, of which number Swe-
diib Lapland fcarcely contained Pai'l* As Fin¬
land appears to have been among the moft populous di-
ftriffs, we may conjeffure that the lofs of that territory
muff have reduced the population by at leaf! 500,00c ;
fo that it is probable the preient population of the coun¬
tries fubjeff to the crown of Sweden does not exceed
2,500,000. The moft numerous part of this population
is of courfe formed by peafants, who have been compu¬
ted at -y of the whole. Of the reit the nobility was fap-
pofed to form T~ part, comprehending at lealt 2,500
families.
We have feen, that from the reign of Charles XII.
to the revolution under Guftavus III. in 1772, the go¬
vernment of Sweden was a limited monarchy, and that
fince that time, till the accellion of the prefent king
(Charles XII1.) the power of the monarchs has been
abfolute. The new conffitution aims at bringing affairs
back to their former ffate j but how far it will be pro-
dudfive of that effedt time alone can determine.
The revenue of Sweden, fince the unfortunate reign
of Charles XII. has been much reduced. Her gold
and filver fpecie, in the reign of Adolphus Frederick,
arofe chiefly from the king’s German dominions. For¬
merly the crown lands, poll-money, tithes, mines, and
other articles, are find to have produced i,ooo,oocl.
fterling, and probably the whole prefent revenue does
not amount to a million and a half. The national debt
of this country, due chiefly to the moneyed men in Ham¬
burgh, is fuppofed to amount to about 10,000,000 fler-
linS-
The Swedifh army is compofed of national troops,
and of foreign auxiliaries •, the latter being eftimated at
about 12.000, while the foimer do not amount to
40,000. The foldiers are of diftinguifhed valour, and
very hardy, and ftill retain the remembrance of the he¬
roic deeds of their anceftors.
Before the year 1792, the Swedifh fleet confided of
about 30 (hips of the line ; but at prefent it is reduced to
not more than one-half, and thefe but ill appointed.
The only gold coin in Sweden is the ducat, worth
about 9s. fterling. Of the filver currency, the crown is
valued at 4s. 6d. fterling; and the (helling at about 1 d.
of Engliih money. The copper coinage confifts chiefly
of half and quarter fhellings ; but formerly the copper
money confifted of heavy pieces nearly as large as tiles,
fo that a cart or barrow was fometimes required to carry
home a moderate fum that had been received in payment
for merchandife. Thefe large pieces are now rarely
feen.
Chriftianity was introduced into Sweden in the 9th
century. Their religion is Lutheran, which was propa¬
gated among them by Guftavus Vafa about the year
1523. The Swedes are furprinngly uniform and unre-
initting in religious matters *, and have fuch an averfion
to Popery, that if a Roman Catholic prieft be difeovered
in the country, he is treated with the greateft indignity.
56 ] S W E
The archbifliop of Upfal had a revenue of 4C0I. a year, Swtdea.
and had under him 13 fuffragans with moderate ftipends. ' v f
No clergyman had the leaft direction in the aft’.irs of
ftate. Their morals, and the fancthy of their lives,
were fuch as to endear them to the people. Their
churches are neat, and often ornamented. A body of
ecclefiaftical laws and canons diredl their religious eco¬
nomy. A converlion to Popery, or a long continuance
under excommunication, which cannot pals without the
king’s permiflion, was punifhment and exile. tqz
The language of Sweden is a dialect of the Gothic, ^an£liaSe
and nearly allied to thole of Denmark, Norway, and '
Iceland. In the two grand diviftons of the Gothic, con¬
fiding of the German and Scandinavian dialefts, the
latter is diltinguilhed by greater brevity and force of ex-
preflion. In the fouth of Sweden, which contains the
chief mafs of population, fome German and French
words have been adopted 5 while the Dalecarlian, in the
north-weft, is eiteemed a peculiar dialed!, perhaps only
becaufe it contains more of the ancient terms and idiom.
In the antiquity of literature, Sweden cannot pretend
to vie with Denmark, Norway, or Iceland 5 the moft
early native chronicle, or perhaps literary compofition,
being not more ancient than the 14th century. In re¬
turn, while the Danes feem occupied with internal po¬
licy and public regulation, the Swedes have, in modern
times, borne the palm of genius in many departments of
literature and philofophy.
But Swedifh literature can fcarcely be find to have
dawned till the middle of the 17th century, when f^ueen
Chrittina, finding the country immerfed in ignorance,
invited Grotius, Defeat les, and other celebrated men,
who, though they did not refide long in the kingdom,
fowed the feed of letters ,which gradually began to pro-
fper in the wife and beneficent reign of Charles XL In
the fucceeding or 18th century, the name of Linne
alone might diftinguifh the national literature : and it is
joined in natural hiltory with thofe of Scheele, Bergman,
Tilas, Wallerius, Quill, Cronftedt, and others. In hi-
ftory, Dalin and Lagerbring have diftinguilhed them-
felves by a precifion and force, which the Danes feem to
facrifice to antiquarian difeuftions. Sweden alio boafts
of native poets and orators •, and the progrefs of the fai¬
ences is fupported by the inftitution of numerous acade¬
mies. 193
The Swedes, fince the days of Charles XII. have Produce
been at incredible pair:.s to correft the nature and bar- an,cl aSn~
rennefs of their country, by erefting colleges of agri-'
culture, and in fome places with great fuccefs. Till of
late, they had not fufficient induftry to remedy or im¬
prove the disadvantages of their foil. The peaiants now
follow the agriculture of France and England ; and
fome late accounts fay, that they rear almoft as much
grain as maintains the natives. Gothland produces
wheat, rye, barley, oats, peafe, and beans ; and in cafes
of deficiency, the people are fupplied from Livonia and
the Baltic provinces. In fummer, the fields are ver¬
dant, and covered witlk flowers, and produce ftrawber-
ries, rafpbenies, currants, and other fmall fruits. The
common
culture.
views of the emperors of the north and fouth of Europe will ultimately deftroy the fmall remains of SwedifL hide
pendence.
S W £
Sereden. ~ common people know, as yet, little of the cultivation
* v—-'' of apricots, peaches^_ne6tannes, pine-apples, and other
high-flavoured fruits 5 but melons are brought to the
greateft perfeftion in dry feafons.
I94 The Swedifli commonalty fubfifts by agriculture,
Manufac- mining, hunting, grazing, and fiflving. Their mate-
tures and ria]^s fcr traffic are the bulky and ufeful commodities of
oonuneice< rn3{ps^ beams, and other kinds of timber for dripping ;
tar, pitch, bark of trees, potaflr, wooden utenfils, hides,
flax, hemp, peltry, furs, copper, lead, iron, cordage,
and fifh.
Even the manufaflurinn of iron was introduced into
O
Sweden fo late as the 16th century 5 for till then they
fold their own crude ore to the Hanfe towns, and bought
it back again manufa&ured into utenfils. About the
middle of the 17th century they fet up fome manu-
fa&ures of glafs, ftarch, tin, woollen, filk, foap, leather-
dreffing, and faw-mills. Bookfelling was at that time
unknown in Sweden. They have fince had fugar mak¬
ing, tobacco plantations, and manufa&ures of fail cloth,
cotton, fuftian, and other fluffs 5 alfo of linen, alum,
brimftone, paper-mills, and gunpowder-mills. The iron
mine of Dannemora is faid to yield 6olbs. of metal in
loolbs. of ore, and others about 3olbs. The iron ex-
trafted from this is known in Europe by the name of
Oregrund, which name is derived from a Seaport on the
Baltic. A large portion of it is employed by different
nations for making the bed flee]. The mine was dii-
covered in 1470. The unwrought ore was fivfl Ibid to
the merchants of Lubeclc. It is faid that the mine of
Dannemora yields 40,000 ftones of bar-iron per year,
which is fuppof: d to be -j^-th of the quantity produced
by all the iron-mines of Sweden. 01 this product of
400,000 ftones, 300,000 are annually ckported, and
the remainder is manufactured at home. It is computed
that not fewer than 23,600 men are employed in mining,
and the branches immediately conneCEd with it, viz.
4000 for breaking the rocks } 10,800 for hewing tim¬
ber and burning it into charcoal 5 2000 are employed
in fmelting ; 1800 in tranfporting the metal from the
furnaces to the forges-, 600 in tranfporting fand, fuel, &c.
4000 for tranfporting the charcoal, and 2400 at forges.
They have alfo founderies for cannon, manufactories for
fire-arms and anchors, armories, wire and flatting mills,
alfo mills for fulling, and for boring and ftamping; and
of late they have built many (hips for fale.
Certain towns in Sweden, 24 in number, are called
JIap/e-towns, where the merchants are allowed to import
alnd export commodities in their own (hips. Thofe towns
which have no foreign commerce, though lying near the
fea, are called la>:d-toivns. A third kind are termed
mine-towns, as belonging to mine diftricts. About the
year 1752, the Swedes bad greatly increafed their ex¬
ports, and diminifhed their imports, moll part of which
arrive or are fent off in Swediffi (hips; the Swedes hav¬
ing now a kind of navigation a£t like that of the Eng-
hfh. According to the t ’bles drawn up by Mr Coxe,
the Swedifli exports amounted, about 30 years ago, to
1,368,830!. while the imports amounted to 1,008,391].
leaving a balance in favour of Sweden of 360,000].
The imports are chiefly corn, hemp, tobacco, fugar, cof¬
fee, drugs, filk, wine, and brandy.
'J here is a great diverfity of charafters among the
people of Sweden ; and what is peculiarly remarkable
S W E
among them, they have been known to have different Swedeji,
charafters in different ages. At prefent, their peafants S^Ci.'en"
feem to be a heavy plodding race of men, ftrong and. . 1
hardy, but without any other ambition than that of 155
fubfilting themfelves and their families as well as they Charadler
can: they are honeft, fimple, and hofpitable j and the
mercantile claffes are much of the fame call; but great %
application Mid perfeverance is difeovered among them
all. One could form no idea that the modern Swedes
are the defendants of thofe who, under Charles XII.
and Guftavus Adolphus, carried terror in their names
through the moll dillant countries, and Ihook the foun¬
dations of the greatetl empires. The principal nobility
and gentry of Sweden are naturally brave, polite, and
hofpitable ; they have high and warm notions of hon¬
our, and are jealous of their national interefts. The-
drefs of the common people is aimofi: the lame with that
of Denmark : the better fort are infatuated with French'
modes and falhions. The common diverfions of the Swedes
are floating, running races in fledges, and lailing in yachts
upon the ice. They are not fond of marrying their daugh¬
ters when young, as they have little to ipare in their own,
life-time. The women go to plough, threth out the corn,
row upon the water, ferve the bricklayers, carry burdens,
and do all the common drudgeries in hulbandry.
SWEDENBORG, Emanuel, was born at Stock¬
holm in Sweden, in January 1689. His lather was
bilhop of Weft Gothland ; member of a fociety for the
propagation of the gofpel, formed on the plan of that
of England j and prelident of the Swediih church in
Pennfylvnnia and London. To this lall office he was
appointed by Charles XII. who feems to have had a
great regard for the bilhop, and to have continued that
regard to his fon.
Of the courfe of young Swedenborg’s education we
have procured no account j but from the character of
the father, it rmy be fuppoied to have been pious j and
by his appearing with reputation as an author, when but
20 years of age, it is proved to have been fuccefsfuh
His firll work wras publilhed in 1709 ; and the year
following he fent into the w-orld a colle<5iion of pieces
on different fubje£ts, in Latin verfe, under the title of
Ludus Heliconius, Jive Carmina Mifccilanea qiue varus
in locis cecinit. The fame year he began his travels,
firft into England, afterwards into Holland, France, and
Germany ; and returning to Stockholm in 1714, he
was two years afterwards appointed to the office of afi*
feffor in the Metallic College by Charles XII. who ho¬
noured him with frequent converfations, and bellowed
upon him a large (hare of his favour. At this period.
of his life Swedenborg devoted his attention principally
to phyfic and mathematical ftudies ; and in 17x8 he ac¬
companied the king to the fiege of Fredericklhall,
where he gave an eminent proof that he had not ftudied
in vain. Charles could not fend his heavy artillery to
Fredericklhall from the badnefs of the roads, which
were then rendered much worfe than ufual by being
deeply covered with fnow. In this extremity Sweden¬
borg brought the fciences to the aid of valour. By the
help of proper inftruments he cut through the moun¬
tains, and raifed the valleys which feparated Sweden
from Norway, and then fent to his mailer two galleys,
five large beats, and a iloop, loaded wath banering-
pieces, to be.employed in the fiege. The length of this-
caaal;
t ’57 1
1S W E
Sweden- canal was about two miles and a half.
borg‘ f of this great work, however, did not occupy all his
r v ' ' time. In 1716 he had begun to pablifli effays and ob-
fervations on the mathematical and phyfical fciences,
under the title of Dcedalus Hyperboreus ; and he found
leifure during the liege to complete his intended collec¬
tion, and alio in the fame year to publilh an introduc¬
tion to algebra, under the whimfical title t-* The Art of
the Rules.
At the fiege of Fredericklliall he loft his patron
Charles; but found another in Ulrica Eleonora, the
lifter and fuccefibr of that hero, by whom in 1719 he
was ennobled, and took of courfe his feat among the
fenators of the equeftrian order in the triennial aflernblies
of the ftates. His promotion did not leffen his ardour
for the fciences 5 for he publilhed in the fame year A
Method to fix the Value of Money, and to determine the
Swcdi/h Meafures in fuch a way as to fupprefs all the
FrnBions and facilitate the Calculations. About the
fame time he gave the public a treatife on the Pofition
and Courfe of the Planets ; with another on the Height
of the Tides, and Flux and Reflux of the Sea ; which,
from information gathered in different parts of Sweden,
appeared to have been greater formerly than when he
wrote.
As Swedenborg continued, under the new fovereign,
to hold the office of aflefTor to the Metallic College, he
thought it neceffary, for the difcharge of his duty, to
make a fecond journey into foreign countries, that he
might tumfelf examine their mines, particularly thofe of
Saxony and Harts. During thefe travels, which were
undertaken for the improvement of the manufaftures of
his native country, he printed at Amfterdam, 1. Pro-
17S7, July, dromus principiorum Naturalium, jive novorum tentami-
num, Chemiam et Phyficam experimentalem geometrice
exp/icandi. 2. Nova obfiervata et invent a circa Ferrurn
et Ignsm, preecipue naturam Ignis Elementarum, una
cum nova Camini inventione. 3. Methodus nova inveni-
endi Longitudines locorum terrce marique ope Lunev. 4.
Modus confiruendi receptacula navalia, vulgo en Suedois,
Dockyby nadder. 5. Nova confiruciio agger is aquatici.
6. Modus explorandi virtutes Navigiorum. And at
Leipfic and Hamburg, 7. Mifcellanea obfervata circa
res naturales, prafertim Mineralia, Ignem, et Montium
fir at a.
This journey was made, and thefe traefts publifhed, in
the compafs of a year and a half; and perhaps there
has not been another man, Linnaeus excepted, who has
done fo much in fo fhort a time. After his return in 1722,
Swedenborg divided "his time fo equally between the du¬
ties of his office and his private ftudies, that in 1733 he
finifhed his grand work, entitled Opera Philofophica ct
Mineralia, and had it printed under his own dire61 ion
in 1734, part at Drefden and part at Leipfic ; in which
year he alfo went to infpeft the mines of Auftria and
Hungary. This work is divided into three volumes fo¬
lio ; the title of the fivft is Principia rerum Naturalium
five novorum tentaminum. Phenomena Mundi elementa-
ris philofophice txplicandi. The fecond, Regnum Subter¬
ranean/ five Minerale de Ferro ; and the third, Regnum
Subterranean/ jive Minerale de Cupro, et Orichalco ; all
of them written with great ftrength of judgement, and
ornamented with plates, to facilitate the comprehenfion
of the text.
In the year 1729 he was enrolled among the members
4
Sweden*
borg.
European
Magasane,
[ 158 ] S W E
The execution of the Society of Sciences at Upfal, and was, probably
about the fame time, made a Fellow of the Royal Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Stockholm •, nor were ftrangers lefs
willing than his own countrymen to acknowledge the
greatnefs of his merit. Wolfius, with many other
learned foreigners, was eager to court his correfpond-
ence. I he Academy of St Peterfburg fent him, on
the 17LI1 of December 1734, a diploma of aflbeiation
as a correfpondent member ; and loon afterwards the
editors oi the Ada Eruditorutn at Leipfic found in
his works a valuable fupplement to their own collec¬
tion.
By many perfons the approbation of learned acade-
demies would have been highly valued j but by Baron
Swedenborg it was confidered as of very little impor¬
tance. “ Whatever of worldly honour and advantage
may appear to be in the things before mentioned, I More Ac-
hold them (fays he) but as matters of low eftimation,^”^
when compared to the honour of that holy office to notable
which the Lord himfelf hath called me, who was gra- E. Sv/e-
cioufly pleafed to manifeft himfelf to me, his unworthy denborg.
fervant, in a perfbnal appearance, in the year 1743, to
open in me a fight of the fpiritual world, and to enable
me to converfe with fpirits and angels; and this privilege
has continued with me to this day. From that time I
began to print and publiffi various unknown Arcana,
which have been either feen by me or revealed to me,
concerning heaven and hell, the ftate of men after death,
the true worfhip of God, the fpiritual fenle of the Scrip¬
tures, and many other important truths tending to fal-
vation and true wifdom.”
We {hall net affront the underftandings of our readers
by making upon this account of the Baron’s call fuch
refledHons as every perfon of a found mind will make
for himfelf j but it is rather remarkable, that a man
who had devoted the better part of his life to the ftudy
of fuch fciences as generally fortify the mind againft the
delufions of fanaticifm, and who had even excelled in
thefe fciences, fiiould have fallen into fuch a reverie as
this. After this extraordinary call, the Baron dedicat¬
ed himfelf wholly to the great work which, he fupppof-
ed, was afligned him, ftudying diligently the word of
God, and from time to time publifhing to his fellow-
creatures fuch important information as was made known
to him concerning another world. Among his various
difeoveries concerning the fpiritual world, one is, that it
exifts not in fpace. “ Of this (fays he) I was convin- Suueden-
ced, becaufe I could there fee Africans and Indians xeryho,^rs Un*'
near me, although they are fo many miles diftant here jW?/
on earth 5 nay, that 1 could be made prefent with thevol. i. p„ ’
inhabitants of other planets in cur fyftem, and alfo with 87.
the inhabitants of planets that are in other worlds, and
revolve about other funs. By virtue of fuch prefence
(i. e. without real fpace), not of place, I have converfed
with apoftles, departed popes, emperors, and kings j
with the late reformers of the church, Luther, Calvin,
and Melandlhon, and with others from diftant coun¬
tries.”
Notwithftanding the want of fpace in the fpiritual
world, he tells us, “ that after death a man is fo little
changed that he even does not know but he is living in
the prefent world •, that he eats and drinks, and even
enjoys conjugal delight as in this world ; that the re-
femblance between the two worlds is fo great, that in ^ ^34*
the fpiritual world there are cities, with palaces and
houfes,
Sweden¬
borg.
Short Ac¬
count, See.
p. ir.
and Har¬
ley's Pre¬
face to the
Treatife o?i
Influx.
Priejlley's
Letters to
the Neraj
fentfalem
Church,
p. 4, &c.
S ^ E [ j
houfes, and alfo writings and books, employments and
merchandifes $ that there is gold, filver, and precious
idones there. In a word (he fays), there is in the fpi-
ritual world all and every thing that there is in the na¬
tural world, but that in heaven fuch things are in an in¬
finitely more perfect ftate.”
Such was his zeal in the propagation of thefe whimfi-
cal and fometimes fenfual doftrines, that he frequently
left his native country to vilit diftant cities, particularly
London and Amfterdam, where all his theological
works were printed at a great expence, and with little
profpeft or probability of a reimburfement. “ Where-
ever he refided when on Ins travels, he was (fays one of
his admirers) a mere folitary, and almoft inacceflible,
though in his own country of a free and open beha¬
viour. He affe&ed no honour, but declined it ^ pur-
fued no worldly intereft, but fpent his time in travelling
and printing, in order to communicate inftrudtion and
benefit to mankind. He had nothing of the precife in
his manner, nothing of melancholy in his temper, and
nothing in the leaft bordering on enthufiafm in his con-
verfation or writings.” This is too much. We believe
he was an inoffenfive vifionary ; of his converfation we
cannot judge j but the fpecimens that we have given of
his writings are frantic enthufiafm. He died at Lon¬
don, March 29th, in the year 1772 j and after lying in
ftate, his remains were depofited in a vault at the Swe-
diih church, near Radcliff-Highway.
Though Baron Swedenborg’s followTers appear not to
have been numerous during his life, they have increafed
fince his death •, and a feft fubfifts at prefent in England
■which derives its origin from him, and is called the New
Jerufalem Church. The diferiminating tenets of this
fe£l feem to be the following : “ Holding the do&rine
of one God, they maintain that this one God is no other
than Jefus Chrift, and that he always exifted in a human
form ; that for the fake of redeeming the world, he took
upon himfelf a proper human or material body, but not
a human foul ; that this redemption confifts in bringing
the hells or evil fpirits into fubjeftion, and the heavens
into order and regulation, and thereby preparing the
■way for a new fpiritual church ; that without fuch re¬
demption no man could be faved, nor could the angels
retain their ftate of integrity ; that their redemption
was effe£Ied by means of trials, temptations, or conflifts
with evil fpirits •, and that the laft of them, by which
Chrift glorified his humanity, perfe&ing the union of
his divine wfith his human nature, w’as the paftion of
the crofs. Though they maintain that there is but one
God, and one divine perfon, they hold that in this per-
fon there is a real Trinity ; confifting of the divinity,
the humanity, and the operation of them both in the
Lord. Jefus; a Trinity which did not exift from all
eternity, but commenced at the incarnation. They be¬
lieve that the Scriptures are to be interpreted not only
in a literal but in a fpiritual fenfe, not known to the
world till it was revealed to B. Swedenborg ; and that
this fpiritual fenfe extends to every part of Scripture,
except the A&s of the Apoftles. ' They believe that
there are angels attending upon men, refiding, as B.
Swedenborg fays, in their affections; that temptation
confifts in a ftruggle between good and bad angels
within men 5 and that by this means God affifts men
in thefe temptations, fince of themfelves they could do
nothing. Indeed B. Swedenborg maintains, that there
59 1 s w 1
is an univerfal influx from God into the fouls of men, Sweden-
infpiring them efpecially with the belief of the divine b°jrS
unity. This efflux of divine light on the fpiritual world
he compares to the efflux of the light from the fun in ‘
the natural world.
“ There are (fays B. Swedenborg) twro worlds, the
natural and the fpiritual, entirely diftincl, though per-
feftly correfponding to each other 5 that at death a
man enters into the fpiritual wrorld, when his foul is
clothed with a body, which he terms fubjlantial, in op-
pofition to the prelent material body, which, he fays, is
never to rife out of the grave.”
SWEEP, in the fea-language, is that part of the
mould of a fhip w'here fhe begins to compafs in the
rung-heads j alfo when the haufer is dragged along the
bottom of the fea to recover any thing that is funk, they
call this a&ion fweeping for it.
SWEET, in the wine trade, denotes any vegetable
juice, wdiether obtained by means of fugar, raifins, or
other foreign or domeftic fruit, which is added to wines
with a defign to improve them.
SWEIN-mot. See Forest Courts.
SWERTIA, Marsh Gentian, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs pentandria, and in the natural fy-
ftem ranging under the 20th order, rotacece. See Bo¬
tany Index.
SWIETENTA, Mahogany, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs decandria, and in the natural fyftem
arranged under the 54th order, mifcellanece. See Bo¬
tany and Materia Medica Index.
The firft ufe to which mahogany was applied in Eng¬
land, was to make a box for holding candles. Dr Gib¬
bons, an eminent phyfician in the latter end of the 17th
and beginning of the 18th century, had a brother, a
Weft India captain, who brought over fome planks of
this wood as ballaft. As the Doftor was then building
a houfe in King-ftreet, Covent Garden, his brother
thought they might be of fervice to him. But the car¬
penters, finding the wood too hard for their tools, they
were laid afide for a time as ufelefs. Soon after, Mrs
Gibbons, wanting a candle-box, the DoClor called on
his cabinet-maker to make him one of fome wood that
lay in his garden. Wollafton, the cabinet-maker alfo
complained that it was too hard. The Doftor laid he
mull get ftronger tools. The candle-box was made and
approved $ infomuch, that the Doftor then infifted on
having a bureau made of the fame wood, which was
accordingly done ; and the fine colour, poliflr, &c. were
fo pleafing, that he invited all his friends to come and
fee it. Among them w?as the duchefs of Buckingham.
Her Grace begged fome of the fame wood of Dr Gib¬
bons, and employed Wollafton to make her a bureau
alfo j on which the fame of mahogany and Mr Wol¬
lafton was much raifed, and things of this fort became
general.
SWIFT, Dr Jonathan, fo univerfally admired as a
wit and claflical writer of the Englilh language, was
born in Dublin on November 30th 1667. His father
was an attorney, and of a good family 5 but dying
poor, the expence of his fon’s education was defrayed
by his friends. At the age of fix young Swift was fent
to the fchool of Kilkenny, whence he was removed in
his 15th year to Trinity College, Dublin.
In his academical ftudies (fays Dr Johnfon) he was
either not diligent or not happy. The truth appears to
be,
S W I r 160 ] S W I
Sv/ift. 'be, that bfe defpifed tbem as intricate and ufelefs. He
told Mr Sheridan, his lart biographer, that he had made
many efforts, upon his entering the college, to read
feme of the old treatifes on logic writ by Smeglefius,
Keckermannus, Burgerfdicius, &c. and that he never
had patience to go through three pages of any of them,
he was fo difgulted at the ftupidity of the work. When
he was urged by his tutor to make himfelf mailer of
this branch, then in high eftimation, and held effentially
neceffary to the taking of a degree, Swift alked him,
What it was he wras to learn from thofe books ? His
tutor told him, The art of reafoning. Swift laid, That
he found no want of any fuch art; that he could reafon
very wTell without it; and that, as far as he could ob-
ferve, they wdio had made the greateft proficiency in
logic had, inllead of the art of reafoning, acquired the
art of wnangling •, and inftead of clearing up obfeuri-
ties, had learned how to perplex matters that were clear
enough before. For his own part, he was contented
with that portion of reafon which God had given him y
and he would leave it to time and experience to ftrength-
en and diretfr it properly *, nor would he run the rifle of
having it warped or falfely biaffed by any fyftem of rules
laid down by fuch ftupid writers, of the bad effedls of
■which he had but too many examples before his eyes in
thofe reckoned the moil acute logicians. Accordingly,
he made a firm refolution, that he never would read any
of thofe books 5 which he fo pertinacioufiy adhered to,
that though his degree was refufed him the firft time of
fitting for it, on account of his not anfwering in that
branch, he went into the hall a fecond time as ill pre¬
pared as before •, and would alfo have been flopped a
fecond time, on the fame account, if the intereft of his
friends, who well knew the inflexibility of his temper,
had not flapped in, and obtained it for him ; though in
a manner little to his credit, as it was inferted in the
College Regiftry, that he obtained it fpeciali gratia,
“ by fpecial favour where it remains upon record.
But this circumllance is explained by others, that the
favour was in confequence of Shift’s diftinguifhed ta¬
lents.
“ He remained in the college near three years after
this, not through choice, but neceflity, little known or
regarded. By fcholars he was reckoned a blockhead \
and as the lownefs of his circumftances would not per¬
mit him to keep company with perfons of an equal rank
with himfelf, upon an equal footing, he fcorned to take
up with thofe of a lower clafs, 01 to be obliged to thofe
of a higher. He lived therefore much alone, and his
time -was employed in purfuing his courfe of reading in
hiftory and poetry, then very unfafhionable fludies for
an academic 5 or in gloomy meditations on his unhappy
circumftances. Yet, under this heavy preffure, the
force of his genius broke out, in the firft rude draught of
the Tale of a Tub, written by him at the age of 19,
though communicated to nobody but his chamber-fel¬
low Mr Waryng 5 who, after the publication of tjie
book, made no fcruple to declare, that he had read the
firft fketch of it in Swift’s hand writing when he was of
that age.”
In 1688, being, by the death of Godwin Swift his
uncle, who had chiefly fupported him, lefi without fnb-
fiftence, he went to confult his mother, who then lived
^ at Leicefter, about the future courfe of his life •, and, by
her dire&ion, folicited the advice and patronage of Sir
3
William Temple, whofe father had lived in great friend- Swift,
flrip with Godwin Swift. Temple received him with—y—
great kindnefs, and was fo much pleafed with his con-
verfation, that he detained him two years in his houfe,
and recommended him to King William, who offered
to make him a captain of horfe. This not fuiting his
difpofition, and Temple not having it quickly in his
power to provide for him other wife, Swift left his pa¬
tron (1694) in difeontent 5 having previoufly taken his
mailer’s degree at Oxford, by means of a tettimonial
from Dublin, in which the words of difgrace were omit¬
ted. He was refolved to enter into the church, where
his firtl preferment was only icol. a-year, being the
prebend of Kilroot in Conner; which fume time after¬
wards, upon Sir William Temple’s earneftly inviting
him back to his houfe at Moorpark, he refigned in
favour of a clergyman far advanced in years and bur¬
dened with a numerous family. For this man he lo’ii-
cited the prebend, to which he himfelf induiled him.
In 1699 Swift loft his patron Sir William Temple,
who left him a legacy in money, with the property of
his manuferipts ; and, on his death-bed, obtained for
him a promife from the king of the firil prebend that
ftiould become vacant at Weftminfter or Canterbury.
That this promife might not be forgotten, Swift dedi¬
cated to the king the pofthumous works w ith which he
was entrufted, and for a while attended the court ; but
foon found his folicitations hopelefs. He was then in¬
vited by the earl of Berkeley to accompany him into
Ireland, where, after fuflering fome cruel difappoint-
ments, he obtained the livings of Laracor and Rath-
beggin in the diocefe of Meath } and fooii afterwards
invited over the unfortunate Stella, a young woman of
the name of Johnfon, whofe life he contrived to embit¬
ter, and whofe days, though he certainly loved her, we
may confidently affirm, he Ihortened by his caprice.
This lady is generally believed to have been the
daughter of Sir William Temple’s fteward 5 but her
niece, a Mrs Hearn, affured Mr Berkeley, the editor
of a volume of letters intitled Literary Relics, that her
father was a merchant, and the youngeft brother of a
good family in Nottingham-fhire j that her mother was
the intimate friend of Lady Gifford, Sir William’s lif¬
ter ; and that the herfeif was educated in the family
with his niece, the late Mr Temple of Moorpark by*See//z-
Farnham *. This ftory would be intitled to the fulleftquvy into
credit, had not Mrs Hearn affirmed, in the fame letter, i\fe
that, before the death of Sir William Temple, Mrs
Johnfon’s little fortune had been greatly injured by the^^ 'to Li~
South fea bubbles, which are known to have injured no terary Re-
perfon till the year 1720: (See COMPANY, II. i.j./iVr, printed
When one part of a narrative is fo palpably falfe, the ^
remainder will always be received with hefitation. Butan(j ppay#
whether Mils Johnfon wTas the daughter of Temple’s
ftew^ard or of the friend of Lady Gifford, it is certain
that Sir William left her 1000I. ; and that, accom¬
panied by Mrs Dingley, whofe wffiole fortune amounted
to an annuity of 27I. for life, fhe went, in confequence
of Swift’s invitation, to Laracor. With thefe two ladies
he paffed his hours of relaxation, and to them he opened
his bofom •, but they never refided in the fame houfe,
nor did he fee either without a witnefs.
In 1701. Swift publiflied A' Difcourfe of the Contefs
on 1 Dijferfions in Athens and Rome. It was his firft
work, and indeed the only which he ever exprefsly ac¬
knowledged.
S W 1 [I
kncr.vledged. According to his conftant pra£lice he
had concealed his name 5 but after its appearance, pay¬
ing a vifit to fome Irifli bifhop, he was alked by him if
he had read that pamphlet, and what its reputation was
in London. Upon his replying that he believed it was
very well liked in London ; “ Very well liked !” faid
the bilhop with fome emotion. “ Yes, Sir, it is one of
the fineft trafts that ever was written, and Bilhop Bur¬
net is one of the beft writers in the world.” Swift, who
always hated Burnet with fomething more than politi¬
cal rancour, immediately queftioned his right to the
work, when he wms told by the bilhop that he was “ a
young man and Hill perfilling to doubt of the juftice
of Burnet’s claim, on account of the diffimilarity of the
flyle of the pamphlet from that of his other works, he
was told that he was “ a very pofitive young man,” as
no perfon in England but Bilhop Burnet was capable
of writing it. Upon which Swift replied, with fome in¬
dignation, I am to allure your lordlhip, however, that
Bilhop Burnet did not write the pamphlet, for I wrote
it myfelf. And thus was he forced in the heat of ar¬
gument to avow what otherwife he would have for ever
concealed.
Early in the enfuing fpring King William died } and
Swift, on his next vilit to London, found Queen Anne
upon the throne. It was generally thought, upon this
event, that the Tory party would have had the afcend-
ant; but, contrary to all expettation, the Whigs had
managed matters fo well as to get entirely into the
queen’s confidence, and to have the whole adminillra-
tion of affairs in their hands. Swift’s friends were now
in power 5 and the Whigs in general, knowing him to
be the author of the Difcourfe on the Contefts, &c.
which was written in defence of King William and his
minilters againft the violent proceedings of the houfe of
commons, confidered themfelves as much obliged to him,
and looked upon him as fall to their party. But Swift
thought with the Whigs only in the ftate for with re-
fpedt to the church his principles were always thofe of
a Tory. He therefore declined any intimate connexion
with the leaders of the party, who at that time profeffed
what was called /ow church principles. But what above
all (hocked him, fays Mr Sheridan, was their inviting
Deifts, Freethinkers, Atheifts, Jews, and Infidels, to be
of their party, under pretence of moderation, and allow¬
ing a general liberty of confcience. As Swift was in
his heart a man of true religion, he could not have borne,
even in his private charadter, to have mixed with fuch
a motley crew. But when we confider his principles in
his political capacity, that he looked upon the church
of England, as by law eftabliftied, to be the main pillar
of our newly eredted conftitution, he could not, confift-
ently with the charadler of a good citizen, join with
thofe who confidered it more as an ornament than a
fupport to the edifice; and could therefore look on with
compofure -while it was undermining, or could even open
the gate to a blind multitude, to try, like Sampfon, their
ftrength againft it, and confider it only as fport. With
fuch a party, neither his religious nor political principles
would fuffer him to join j and with regard to the Tories,
as is ufual in the violence of fadlions, they had run into
oppofite extremes, equally dangerous to the ftate. He
w as therefore during the earlier part of the queen’s reign
of no party, but employed himfelf in difcharging the
duties of his fundlion, and in publiftiing from time to
Vol. XX. Part I.
I ] S W I
time fuch tradls as he thought might be ufeful. In the Sv
year 1704 he publilhed the Tale of a J'ub, which, con- w’’“n
fidered merely as a work of genius, is unqueftionably tl e
greateft which he ever produced j but the levity with
which religion was thought to be there treated, railed
up enemies to him among all parties, and eventually pre¬
cluded him from a bifliopric. From that period till the
year 1708, he feems to have employed himfelf in foli-
tary ftudy ; but he then gave facceftively to the public
The Sentiments of a Church of England man, the ridicule
of aftrology under the name of Bickerfajf, the Argument
again/} abolifhing Chrjflianitij, and the defence of the
Sacramental Tejl.
Soon after began the bufy and important part of
Swift’s life. He was employed (1710) by the piimate
of Ireland to folicit the queen for a remiflion of the firlt
fruits and twentieth parts to the Irifti clergy. This in¬
troduced him to Mr Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford,
who, though a Whig himfelf, was at the head of the
Tory miniftry, and in great need of an auxiliary fo able
as Swift, by whofe pen he and the other minifters might
be fupported in pamphlets, poems, and periodical papers.
In the year 1710 was commenced the Examiner; of
which Swift wrote 33 papers, beginning his firft part of
it on the 10th of November 1711. The next year he
publiftied the ConduEl of the Allies ten days before the
parliament affembled j and foon afterwards, RefieBions
on the Barrier Treaty. The purpofe of thefe pamph¬
lets was to perfuade the nation to a peace, by (howing
that “ mines had been exhaufted and millions deftroyed”
to fecure the Dutch and aggrandize the emperor, with¬
out any advantage whatever to Great Britain. Though
thefe two publications, together with his Remarles on the
Bifhop of Sarurn's Introduciion to the third Volume of his
Hi/lory of the Reformation, certainly turned the tide of
popular opinion, and effe&ually promoted the defigns
of the miniftry, the beft preferment which his friends
could venture to give him was the deanery of St Pa¬
trick’s, wrhich he accepted in 1713. In the midft of
his power and his politics he kept a journal of his vifits,
his walks, his interviews wfith minifters, and quarrels
with his fervant, and tranfmitted it to Mrs Johnfon and
Mrs Dingley, to whom he knew that whatever befel
him was interefting : but in 1714 an end was put to
his power by the death of the queen, which broke dowm
at once the whole fyftem of Tory politics, and nothing
remained for him but to withdraw from perfecution to
his deanery.
In the triumph of the Whigs, Swift met with every
mortification that a fpirit like his could poflibly be ex-
pofed to. The people of Ireland were irritated againft;
him beyond meafure ; and every indignity was offered
him as he walked the ftreets of Dublin, Nor wras he
infulted by the rabble only •, for perfons of diftinguiftred
rank and charadler forgot the decorum of common ci¬
vility to give him a perfonal affront. While his pride
was hurt by fuch indignities, his more tender feelings
were alfo often wounded by bale ingratitude. In fuch
a fituation he found it in vain to ftruggle againft the tide
that oppofed him. He filently yielded to it, and retired
from the world to difcharge his duties as a clergyman,
and attend to the care of his deanery. That no part of
his time might lie heavy on his hands, he employed his
leifure hours on fome hiftorical attempts relating to the
change of the minifters and the conduit of the miniftry
X and
%
S W I [I
andf completed the hiftory of the four laft years of the
queen, which had been begun in her lifetime, but which
he never publifhed. Of the work which bears that title,
and is faid to be his, Dr Johnlbn doubts the genuine-
nefs; and it certainly is not fuch as we fhould have ex-
petted from a man of Swift’s fagacity and opportunities
of information.
In the year 1716 he was privately married to Mrs
Johnfon by Dr Alhe bifhop of Clogher ; but the mar¬
riage made no change in their lituation, and it would
be difficult to prove (fays Lord Orrery) that they were
ever afterwards together but in the prefence of a third
perfon. The dean of St Patrick’s lived in a private
manner, known and regarded only by his friends, till
about the year 1720 that he publiffied his firll poli¬
tical pamphlet relative to Ireland, intitled A Propofol
for the Univerfal Ufe of Irifh ManufaBures; which fo
roufed the indignation of the miniltry that they com¬
menced a profecution again!! the printer, and thus drew
the attention of the public to the pamphlet, and at once
made its author popular.
Whilft he was enjoying the laurels which this work
had wreathed for him, his felicity, as well as that of his
wife, was interrupted by the death of Mrs Van Homrigh,
and the publication of his poem called Cadenus and Va-
neffa, which brought upon him much merited obloquy.
With Mrs Van Homrigh he became acquainted in Lon¬
don during his attendance at court ; and finding her
poffeffed of genius and fond of literature, he took delight
in diretting her ftudies, till he got infenfibly poffeffion
of her heart. From being proud of his praife, fhe grew
fond of his perfon j and defpifing vulgar rellraints, ffie
made him fenfible that fhe was ready to receive him as
a hulband. She had wit, youth, beauty, and a compe¬
tent fortune to recommend her; and for a while Swift
feems to have been undetermined whether or not he
fhould comply with her wiffi. She had followed him
to Ireland, where ffie lived in a houfe about trvelve miles
diftant from Dublin 5 and he continued to vifit her oc-
Cafionally, and to dirett her ftudies as he had done in
London •, but with thefe attentions fhe was not fatisfied,
and at laft fent to him a letter written with great ardour
and tendernefs, infifting that he fliould immediately ac¬
cept or refufe her as a wife. His anfwer, which pro¬
bably contained the fecret of his marriage, he carried
himfelf •, and having indignantly thrown it on the lady’s
table, inftantly quitted the houfe, w^e believe without
fpeaking to her, and returned to Dublin to reflett on
the confequences of his owm condutt. Thefe w^ere
dreadful. Mrs Van Homrigh furvived her difappoint-
ment but a few weeks •, during which time fire cancelled
a will that fire had made in his favour, and ordered the
poem to be publifhed in which Cadenus had proclaimed
her excellence and confefTed his love.
His patriotifm again burft forth in 1724 to obftrutt
the currency of Wood’s halfpence ; and his zeal was
crowned with fuccefs. Wood had obtained a patent to
coin i8c,oool. in halfpence and farthings for the king¬
dom of Ireland ; and was about to turn his brafs into
gold, when Swift, finding that the metal was debafed to
an enormous degree, wrote letters under the name of
M. B. Drapier to fhow the folly of giving gold and
filver for coin not worth a third part of its nominal va¬
lue. A profecution was carried on again!! the printer ;
5a ] s w 1
and Lord Carteret, then lord-lieutenant, iffued a pro- Swift,
clamation, oft'ering 300I. for difeovering the author of V"~v~“
the fourth letter. The day after it was published there
was a full levee at the cattle. The lord-lieutenant was
going round the circle, when Swift abruptly entered the
chamber, and pulhing his way through the crowd, ne¬
ver flopped till he got within the circle ; where, with
marks of the higheft indignation in his countenance, he
addreffed the lord-lieutenant with the voice of a Sten-
tor, that re-echoed through the room, “ So, my lord-
lieutenant, this is a glorious exploit that you performed
yefterday, in iffuing a proclamation againit a poor fliop-
keeper, whofe only crime is an hone!! endeavour to fave
his country from ruin. You have given a noble fpeci-
men of what this devoted nation is to hope for from your
government. I fuppofe you expett a ftatue of copper
will be eretted to you for this fervice done to Wood.”
Fie then went on for a long time, inveighing in the bit-
tereft terms again!! the patent, and difplaying in the
ftrongeft colours all the fatal confequences of introducing
that execrable coin. The whole affemblv were ftruck
mute with wonder at this unprecedented feene. For
fome time a profound filence enfued. When Lord Car¬
teret, who had liftened with great compofure to the
whole fpeech, made this fine reply, in a line qf Virgil’s:
Res dura, et regni novitas me talia cogunt
Mo/in.
From this time Swift was known by the name of the
Dean, and was acknowledged by the populace as the
champion, patron, and inftruttor of Ireland.
In 1727 he returned to England j where, in con-
junttion with Pope, he colletted three volumes of roif-
cellanies *, and the fame year he fent into the world his
Gulliver's Travels, a produttion which was read by the
high and the low, and filled every reader with a mingled
emotion of merriment and amazement. Whilft he was
enjoying the reputation of this work, he was fuddenly
Called to a home of forrow. Poor Stella was finking
into the grave ; and after a languiffiing decay of about
two months, died in her 44th year, cn January 28.1728.
How much he wiflied her life is ftrown by his papers j
nor can it be doubted that he dreaded the death of her
whom he loved moft, aggravated by the ccnfcioufnefs
that himfelf had haftened it. With her vaniftied all his
domeftic enjoyments, and of courfe he turned his thoughts
more to public affairs j in the contemplation of which
he could fee nothing but what ferved to increafe the
malady. The advances of old age, with all its attend¬
ant infirmities ; the death of almoft all his old friends -7
the frequent returns of his moft difpiriting maladies,
deafnefs and giddinefs; and, above all, the dreadful ap-
prehenfions that he ffiould outlive his underftanding,,
made life fuch a burden to him, that he had no hope
left but a fpeedy diffolution, which was the objett of his
daily prayer to the Almighty.
The feverity of his temper increafing, he drove his
acquaintance from his table, and wondered why he was
delerted. In 1732, he complains, in a letter to Mr Gay,
that “ he had a large houfe, and ffiould hardly find one
vifitor if he was not able to hire him with a bottle of
wine and, in another to Mr Pope, “ that he was in
danger of dying poor and friendlefs, even his female
friends having forfaken him y which,” as he fays, “ vex¬
ed
S W I [ I
Swift, ed him moft.” Thefe complaints were afterwards re-
peated in a ilrain of yet greater icnixbility : “ All my
friends have forfaken me.
“ Vertiginofus, irtops^furdus, male gratus amicis.
“ Deaf, giddy, helplefs, left alone,
“ To all my friends a burden grown.”
The fits of giddinefs and deafnefs to which he had
been fubjedled from his boyiih years, and for which he
thought walking or riding the belt remedy, became
more frequent and violent as he grew old} and the pre-
fentiment which he had long entertained of that wretch-
ednefs which would inevitably overtake him towards the
clofe of life, clouded his mind with melancholy and
tinged every objeft around him. .How miferable he was
rendered by that gloomy profpeft, we may learn from
the following remarkable anecdote mentioned by Mr
Faulkner in his letter to Lord Chefterfield. “ One
time, in a journey from Drogheda to Navan, the dean
rode before the company, made a hidden flop, difmounted
from his horfe, fell on his knees, lifted up his hands, and
prayed in the moft devout manner. When his friends
came up, he defired and infilled on their alighting }
which they did, and alked him the meaning. “ Gentle¬
men,” faid he, “ pray join your hearts in fervent prayers
with mine, that I may never belike this oak-tree, wdiich
is decayed and withered at top, while the other parts are
found.” In 1736, while he was writing a fatire called
the Legion Club againft the Iriih parliament, hewasfeiz-
ed with fo dreadful a fit of his malady, that he left the
poem unfiniihed 5 and never after attempted a compofi-
tion that required a courfe of thinking. From this time
his memory gradually declined, his pafirons perverted his
underltanding, and, in 1741, he became utterly incap¬
able of converfation •, and it was found neceffary to ap¬
point legal guardians to his perfon and his fortune. He
now loft all fenfe of diftindlion. His meat w^as brought
to him cut into mouthfuls j but he would never touch
it while the fervant ftaid 5 and at laft, after it flood per¬
haps an hour, would eat it walking; for he continued
his old habit, and was on his feet ten hours a-day. Dur¬
ing next year a ftiort interval of reafon enfuing, gave
hopes of his recovery j but in a few days he funk into
lethargic ftupidity, motionlefs, heedlefs, and fpeechlefs.
After a year of total filence, however, w7hen his houfe-
keeper told him that the ufual illuminations w’ere pre¬
paring to celebrate his birth, he anfwered, “ It is all
folly ; they had better let it alone.” He at laft funk
into a perfect filence, which continued till the 29th of
Oftober 1745, when he expired without a ftruggle, in
Ins 78th year. The behaviour of the citizens on this
occafion gave the ftrongeft proof of the deep impreflion
he had made on their minds. Though he had been fo
many years to all intents and purpofes dead to the world,
and his departure from that ftate feemed a thing rather
to be wilhed than deplored, yet’ no fooner Was his death
announced, than they gathered from all quarters, and
forced their way in croxvds into the houfe, to pay the
laft tribute of grief to their departed benefactor. No¬
thing but lamentations were heard all around the quar¬
ter where he lived, as if he had been cut off in the vi¬
gour of his years. Haopy were they who firft got into
the chamber where he lay, to procure, by bribes to the
fervants, lock> of his hair, to be handed down as facred
.relics to their pofterity 5 and fo eager were numbers to
63 ] s w 1
obtain at any price this precious memorial, that in lefs
than an hour, his venerable head was entirely ftripped
of all its ftlver ornaments, fo that not a hair remained.
By his will, which was dated in May 1740, juft before
he ceafed to be a reafonable being, he left about 1200I.
in fpecific legacies j and the reft of his fortune, which
amounted to about ii.oool. to ereft and endow an hol-
pital for lunatics and idiots. He was buried in the moll
private manner, according to directions in his will, in
the great aifle.of St Patrick’s cathedral, and, by way ol
monument, a flab of black marble was placed againft
the wall, on which was engraved the following Latin
epitaph, written by himfelf:
Hie depofitum eft corpus
Jonathan Swift, S. T. P.
Hujus Ecclefioe Cathedralis
Decani : '
Ubi faeva indignatio
Ulterius cor lacerare nequit.
Abi, viator,
Et imitare, fi poteris,
Strenuum pro virili libertatis vindicem.
Obiit anno (1745)
Menffs (OCtobris) die (29.)
iEtatis anno 78.
Swift undoubtedly was a man of native genius. His
fancy was inexhauftible •, his conceptions were lively and
comprehenfive •, and he had the peculiar felicity of con¬
veying them in language equally correCt, free, and per-
fpicuous. His penetration was as quick as intuition} he
was indeed the critic of nature j and no man ever wrote
fo much, and borrowed fo little.
As his genius was of the firft clafs, fo were fome of
his virtues. The following anecdote will illuftrate his
filial piety. His mother died in 1710, as appears by a
memorandum in one of the account-books which Dr
Swift always made up yearly, and on each page entered
minutely all his receipts and expences in every month,
beginning his year from November 1. He obierved the
fame method all his lifetime till his laft illneis. At the
foot of that page which includes his expences of the
month of May 1710, at the glebe houfe of Laracor in
the county of Meath, where he was then refident, are
thefe remarkable words, which (how at the fame time
his filial piety, and the religious ufe which he thought it
his duty to make of that melancholy event. “ Afem. On
Wednefday, between feven and eight in the evening,
May 10. 1710, I received a letter in my chamber at
Laracor (Mr Percival and Jo. Beaumont being by)
from Mrs F—, dated May 9, with one inclofed, fent
by Mrs Worral at Leicefter to Mrs F—, giving an ac¬
count that my dear mother, Mrs Abigail Swift, died
that morning, Monday April 24 1710, about ten o’¬
clock, after a long ficknefs : being ill all winter, and
lame ; and extremely ill about a month or fix weeks be¬
fore her death. I have now loft my barrier between me
and death. God grant I may live to be as well prepar¬
ed for it as I confidently believe her to have been ! If
the way to heaven be through piety, truth, jufiice, and
charity, flie is there. J. S.” He always treated his mo¬
ther, during her life, with the utmoft duty and affec¬
tion ; and (lie fometimes came to Ireland to vifit him af¬
ter Ins fettlement at Laracor.
The liberality of the dean hath been a topic of juft
X 2 encomium
Swift
s W I [ 164. ] S W I
encomium with all his admirers j nor could his enemies
deny him this praife. In his domeftic affairs, he always
aded with Uriel economy. He kept the mod regular
accounts j and he Items to have done this chiclly with a
view to increal'e his power of being ufeful. “ His in¬
come, which was little more than 700I. per annum, he
endeavoured to divide into three parts, for the following
purpofes. Firff, to live upon one-third of it. Secondly,
to give another third in penfions and charities, according
to the manner in which perfons wdro received them had
lived : and the other third he laid by, to build an hofpi-
tal for the reception of idiots and lunatics.” “ What is
remarkable in this generous man, is this (fays Mr F.),
tnat wuen he lent money upon bond or mortgage, he
would not take the legal intereft, but one per cent, be-
low it.”
His charity appears to have been a fettled principle
of duty more than an irdtindlive effort of good nature :
but as it was thus founded and fupported, it had extra¬
ordinary merit, and feldom failed to exert itfelf in a
manner that contributed moll to render it beneficial. He
did not lavilh his money on the idle and the worthlefs.
Fie nicely diferiminated charadters, and was feldom the
dupe of impofition. Hence his generofity always turned
to an ufeful account j while it relieved diltrefs, it en¬
couraged induftry, and rewarded virtue. We dwell
with great pleafure on this truly excellent and diftin-
guifiring part of the dean’s charaaei : and for the fake
of his charity we can overlook his oddities, and almoft
forgive his faults. He was a very peculiar man in
every refpefl. Some have faid, “ What a man he
ter !” But perhaps the peculiarities complained of
v ere infeparable from his genius. X he vigour and fer¬
tility of the root could not fail now and then of throw¬
ing out fuperfluous fuckers. What produced thefe, pro¬
duced alfo the more beautiful branches, and gave the
fruit all its richnefs.
It muff be acknowledged, that the dean’s fancy hur¬
ried him into great abfurdities and inconfiftencies, for
w'hich nothing but his extraordinary talents and noble
virtues, difeovered in other inftances, could have atoned.
The rancour he difeovered on all occafions towards the
diffenters is totally unjuftifiable. No feft could have
merited it in the degree in which he always fhowed it to
them ; for, in fome inftances, it bordered on downright
perfecution. He doubtlefs had his reafons for expofing
them, principles to ridicule, and might perhaps have
fufticient grounds for fome of his accufations againft
their principal leaders in Ireland ; but nothing could
juftify his virulence againft the whole body. In a fhort
poem on one clafs of diffenters he bellowed a ftridlure
upon Bettefvvortb, a lawyer eminent for his infolence
to the clergy, which, from a very confiderable reputa¬
tion, brought him into immediate and univerfal con¬
tempt. Bettefworth, enraged at his difgrace and lofs,
went to the dean, and demanded whether he was the
author of that poem ? “ Mr Bettefworth (anfwered he),
/ was in my youth acquainted with great lawyers, who,
knowing my difpofition to fatire, advifed me, if any
fcoundrel or blockhead whom I had lampooned fhould
Hk, ‘ Are you the author of this paper ?’ to tell him
that I w.as not the author : and therefore, I tell you,
Mr Bettefworth, that I am not the author of thefe Swift,
lines.” l—y—
Swift has been accufed of irreligion and mifanthropy,
on account of his Tale of a Tub, and his Yahoos in
Gulliver’s Travels ; but both charges feem to be ill-
founded, or at leaft not fupported by that evidence.
1 he dale of a dub holds up to ridicule fuperftitious and
fanatical ablurdities ; but it never attacks the effentials
of religion : and in the ftory of the Yahoos, difgufting
we confefs, there appears to us as little evidence that
the author hated his own fpecies, as in the poems of
Strephon and Ch/oe, and the Ladies Dreffmg Room, that
he approved of groffnefs and filth in the female fcx. We
do not indeed, with his fondeft admirers, perceive the
moral tendency of the Voyage to the Houyhnhnms, or
confider it as a fatire admirably calculated to reform
mankind 5 but neither do we think that it can poflibly
corrupt them, or lead them to think meanly of their
rational nature. According to Sheridan, “ the defign
of this apologue is to place before the eyes of man a
pidlure of the two different parts of his frame, detached
from each other, in order that he may the better efti-
mate the true value of each, and fee the neceflity there
is that the one fhould have an abfolute command over
the other. In your merely animal capacity, fays he to
man, without reafon to guide you, and adluated only by
a blind inftindl, I will ftiow you that you would be de¬
graded below the beafts of the field. That very form,
that very body, you are now fo proud of, as giving you
fuch a fuperiority over all other animals, I will fhow
you, owe all their beauty, and all their greateft powers,
to their being actuated by a rational foul. Let that be
withdrawn, let the body be inhabited by the mind of a
brute, let it be prone as theirs are, and fuffered like
theirs to take its natural courfe, without any afliftance
from art, you would in that cafe be the moll deformed,
as to your external appearance, the moft deteftable of all
creatures. And with regard to your internal frame,
filled with all the evil difpofitions and malignant paflions
of mankind, you would be the moft miferable of beings,
living in a continued ftate of internal vexation, and of
hatred and warfare with each other.
“ On the other hand, I ivill fhow another pi£lure of
an animal endowed with a rational foul, and acting uni¬
formly up to the di&ates of right reafon. Here you
may fee collefled all the virtues, all the great qualities,
which dignify man’s nature, and conflitute the happi-
nefs of his life. What is the natural inference to be
drawn from thefe two different reprefentations i* Is it not
evidently a leffon to mankind, warning them not to fuf-
fer the animal part to be predominant in them, left they
referable the vile Yahoo, and fall into vice and mifery j
but to emulate the noble and generous Houyhnhnm, by
cultivating the rational faculty to the utmoft ; which
will lead them to a life of virtue and happinefs.”
Such may have been the author’s intention j but it is
not fufficiently obvious to produce the proper effeft, and
is indeed hardly confident with that incapability under
which he reprefents the Yahoos of ever acquiring, by
any culture, the virtues of the noble Houyhnhnms.
With refpefl to his religion, it is a fa6t unqueftion-
able, that while the power of fpeech remained, he conti¬
nued conftant in the performance of his private devo¬
tions 5 and in proportion as his memory failed, they
were
s w i r 165 ] s w 1
were gradually fliortened, till at j.alt lie could only re¬
peat the Lord’s prayer, which he continued to do till
the poA’er of utterance for ever ceafed. Such a habit as
this could not have been formed but by a man deeply
imp re fled with a conviclion of the truth and importance
of revelation.
The molt inexcufable part of Swift’s conduff is his
treatment of Stella and Vaneffa, for which no proper
apology can be made, and which the vain attempts of
his friends have only tended to aggravate. One attri¬
butes his Angular conduft to a peculiarity in his confti-
tution ; but if he knew that he was incapable of fulfill*
in a- the duties of the married ftate, how came he to tie one
of° the ladies to himfelf by the marriage ceremony, and
in the mold explicit terms to declare his paflion to the
other ? And what are we to think of the fenflbility of a
man who, ftrongly attached as he feems to have been to
both, could, without fpeaking, fling a paper on the
table of the one, which “ proved (as our author expref*
fes it) her death-warrant,” and could throw the other,
his beloved Stella, in her laft illnefs, into unfpeakable
agonies, and “ never fee her more, for only adjuring
him, by their friendihip, to let her have the fatisfadlion
of dying at leaft, though flie had not lived, his acknow¬
ledged wife ?” Another apologift infmuates, upon fome-
thlng like evidence, that Stella bore a fon to Swift, and
yet labours to excufe him for not declaring her his wife,
becaufe the had agreed at the marriage that it fhould re¬
main a fecret from all the world unlefs the difeovery
fhould be called for by urgent necejjity ; but what could
be meant by the term urgent neceJJitij, unlefs it alluded
to the birth of children, he confeffes that It would be
hard to fay. The truth we believe to be what has been
faid by Johnfon, that the man whom Stella had the mis¬
fortune to love was fond of Angularity, and defirous to
make a mode of happinefs for himfelf, different from the
general courfe of things and the order of Providence j
he wiihed for all the pleafures of perfect friendlhip, with¬
out the uneafinefs of conjugal reftraint. But with this
ftate poor Stella was not fatisfied (Ire never was treated
as a wife, and to the world Are had the appearance of a
miftrefs. She lived fullenly on, hoping that in time he
would own and receive her. This, we believe, he of¬
fered at laft to do, but not till the change of his man¬
ners and the depravation of his mind made her tell him,
that “ it was too late.”
The natural acrimony of Swift’s temper had been in-
creafed by repeated difappointments. This gave a fple-
netic timfture to his writings, and amidft the duties of
private and domeftic life it too frequently appeared to
ihade the luftre of his more eminent virtues.—The
dean hath been accufed of avarice, but with the fame
truth as he hath been accufed of infldelity. In detached
view's, no man wras more liable to be miftaken. Even
his genius and good fenfe might be queftioned, if we
w7ere only to read fome paffages of his wTritings. To
judge fairly and pronounce juftly of him as a man and
as an author, we fhould examine the uniform tenor of
his difpofition and conduft, and the general nature and
defign of his produftions. In the latter he wdll appear
great, and in the former good } notwithftanding the
puns and puerilities of the one, and the abfurdities and
inconflftencies of the other.
Swift, a fpecies of Aval low. See HiRUNDO, Orni*
Tjiology Index*
SWIMMING, the art of Appending one’s fdf on Swimming-
water, and at the fame time making a progreffive mo- -v—--’
tion through it. . 1 .
As fwimming is not natural to man, it is evident that^11^1"11’^,
at fome period it muft have been unknown among the to
human race. Neverthelefs there are no accounts of its
origin to be found in the hiftory of any nation ; nor are
there any nations fo barbarous but that the art of frvim-
ming is known among them, and that in greater perfec¬
tion than among civilized people. It is probable, there
fore, that the art, though not abfolutely natural, will al¬
ways be acquired by people in a lavage ftate from imita¬
ting the brute animals, moft of whom fwim naturally.
Indeed fo much does this appear to be the cafe, that very
expert fwimmers have recommended it to thole w ho wiih¬
ed to learn the art, to keep fome frogs in a tub of water
conftantly belide them, and to imitate the motions by
which they move through that element. 2
The theory of fwimming depends upon one very fim-Depends on
pie principle ; namely, that if a force be applied to any a funP^e
body, it w-ill always move towards that Ade where there131 niai ‘<
is the leaft refiftance. Thus, if a perfon Handing in a
boat puilies with a pole again!! the Ade or any other
part of the veffel in which he Hands, no motion will en-
fue ; for as much as he preltes in one diredlion wdth the
pole, juft fo much does the aftion of his feet, on which
the preflure of the pole muft ultimately reft, pulh the
veffel the other w7ay : but if, inftead of the Ade of the
veffel, he puilies the pole again!! the Ihore, then only
one force a£!s upon it, namely, that of the feet ; which
being reAfted only by the fluid w-ater, the boat begins to
move from the Ihore. Now the very fame thing takes
place in fwimming, whether the animal be man, qua¬
druped, bird, or fllh. If we confider the matter Amply,
we may fuppofe an animal in fuch a Atuation that it
could not poffibly Iwim : thus, if we cut oft' the Ans and
tail of a Afh, it will indeed float in confequence of be¬
ing fpeciAcally lighter than the water, but cannot make
any progreflive motion, or at leal! but very little, in
confequence of wniggling its body •, but if we allow it
to keep any of its Ans, by linking them again!! the w-a-
ter in any direftion, the body moves the contrary way,
juft as a boat moves the contrary way to that in which
the oars ftrike the water. It is true, that as the boat is
but partly immerged in the w^ater, the reAftance is com¬
paratively lefs than when a frog or even any other qua¬
druped fwims ; but a boat could certainly be rowed with
oars though it was totally immerged in w’ater, only wdth
lefs velocity than when it is not. When a man fwdms,
he in like manner llrikes the wTater with his hands, arms,
and feet ; in confequence of which the body moves in a
direflion contrary to the ftroke. Upon this principle, and
on this only, a man may either afeend, defeend, or move
obliquely in any poffible diredlion, in the wrater. One
would think, indeed, that as the ftrength of a man’s
arms and legs is but fmall, he could make but very
little way by any ftroke he could give the water, conft-
dering the fluidity of that element. Neverthelefs it is
incredible what expert fwimraers will perform in this
w-ay ; of wdiich Mr Forfter gives a moft remarkable Al¬
liance in the inhabitants of Otaheite } wdiofe agility, he _
tells us, was fuch, that when a nail was thrown over¬
board, they would jump after it into the fea, and never
fail to catch it before it reached to the bottom.
As to the practice of fwimming, there are but few
direilions
3
Obferva-
•ticns by
Dr Frank'
Hn.
S W I
dimming, directions which can be given. The great obltacle is
the natural dread which people have of being drowned j
and this it is impolfible to overcome by any thing but
accuftoming ourfelves to go into the water. With re¬
gard to the real danger of being drowned, it is but
little 5 and on innumerable occafions arifes entirely from
the terror above mentioned, as will appear from the iol-
lowing obfervations by Dr Franklin.
“ id, That though the legs, arms, and head, of a
human body, being folid parts, are fpecifkally fome-
what heavier than frelh whaler, yet the trunk, particu¬
larly the upper part, from its hollownefs, is lo much
lighter than water, as that the whole of the body, taken
together, is too light to fink w7holly under water, but
fome part will remain above until the lungs become
filled with water ; which happens from drawing water
into them inftead of air, when a perfon in the fright at¬
tempts breathing while the mouth and nolirils are under
water.
“ 2dly, That the legs and arms are fpecifically lighter
than fait water, and will be fupported by it ■, fo that a
human body would not link in fait water though the
lungs wrere filled as above, but from the greater fpecific
gravity of the head.
“ 3dly, That therefore a perfon throwing hxmfelf on
his back in fait water, and extending his arms, may
eafily lie fo as to keep his mouth and nolirils free for
breathing j and by a fmall motion of his hands may pre¬
vent turning, if he fhould perceive any tendency to it.
4thly, That in frelh water, if a man throws himfelf
on his back near the furface, he cannot long continue in
that fituation, but by a proper attion of his hands on
the water. If he ufes no fuch aftion, the legs and
lower part of the body will gradually fink till he comes
into an upright pofition ; in which he will continue fuf-
pended, the hollow7 of the breaft keeping the head up-
permoft.
5thly, But if in this ereft pofition the head is kept
upright above the (boulders, as when we Hand on the
ground, the immerfion will, by the weight of that part
cf the head that is out of the water, reach above the
mouth and noftrils, perhaps a little above the eyes; fo
that a man cannot long remain fufpended in water with
his head in that pofition.
“ 6thly, The body continued fufpended as before,
and upright, if the head be leaned quite back, fo that
the face looks upwards, all the back part of the head
being then under water, and its v/eight confequently
in a great meafure fupported by it, the face will re¬
main above water quite free for breathing, will rife an
inch higher every infpiration, and fink as much every
expiration, but never fo low as that the water may come
over the mouth.
“ ythly, If therefore a perfon unacquainted with
fwimming, and falling accidentally into the water, could
have prelence of mind fulKcient to avoid frruggling and
plunging, and to let the body take this natural pofition,
he might continue long fafe from drowning, till perhaps
help would come ; for as to the clothes, their addition¬
al weight while immerfed is very inconfiderable, the
water fupporting it j though when he comes out of the
water, he would find them very heavy indeed.”
The method of learning to fwtm is as follows: The
perfon mull walk into water fo deep that it will reach
to the bread:. He is then to lie down gently on the
[ 166 ]
s w i
His method
-of learning
to fwim.
belly, keeping the head and neck perfectly upright, the Swimming.
bread advancing forward, the thorax inflated, and the
back bent; then withdrawing the legs from the bottom,
and dretching them out, drike the arms forwards in uni-
Ion with the legs. Swimming on the back is fomewhat
limilar to that on the belly j but with this difference,
that although the legs are employed to move the body
forwards, the arms are generally unemployed, and the
progrcflive motion is derived from the movement of the
legs. In diving, a perfon mud clofe his hands together,
and, prefling his chin upon his bread, make an exertiort
to bend with force forwards. While in that pofition, he
mud continue to move with rapidity under the furface ;
and whenever he choofes to return to his former filua-
tion, he has nothing to do but behd back his head, and
he will immediately retum to the furface.
It is very common for novices in the art of fwimming
to make ufe of corks or bladders to affid in keeping the
body above water. Some have utterly condemned the
ufe of thefe ; however, Dr Franklin allows that they
may be of lervice For lupporting the body while one is
learning w hat is called the Jirohe, or that manner of
drawing in and driking out the hands and feet that is
neceflary to produce progreflive motion. “ But (fays
he) you will be no fwimmer till you can place confi¬
dence in the power of the water to fupport you: I
would therefore advife the acquiring that confidence in
the fird place, efpecially as I have known feveral who,
by a little of the practice neceffary for that purpefe,
have infenfibly acquired the droke, taught as it were by
nature.
“The praftice I mean is this: Choofing a place an(j r^- ac_
where the water deepens gradually, walk coolly into it quiringccn-
till it is up to your bread : then turn round your face hdence.
to the diore, and throw an egg into the rvater, be¬
tween you and the lliore ; it will fink to the bottom,
and be eafily feen there, if the water is clear. It mud
lie in the water fo deep as that you cannot reach it to
take it up but by diving for it. To encourage yourfelf
in order to do this, refleff that your progrefs will be
from deeper to lhallorwer water ; and that at any tune
you may, by bringing your legs under you, and Hand¬
ing on the bottom, raife your head far above the water :
then plunge under it with your eyes open, throwing
yourfelf towards the egg, and endeavouring, by the'ac¬
tion of your hands and feet againd the water, to get
forward till within reach of it. In this attempt you
will find that the water buoys you up againd your incli¬
nation ; that it is not fb eafy a thing to fink as you ima¬
gined ; that you cannot but by adtive force get down to
the egg. Thus you feel the power of the water to fup¬
port you, and learn to confide in that power ; while
your endeavours to overcome it, and to reach the egg,
teach you the manner of adting on the water with your
feet and hands; which adtion is aftenvards ufed in fwim¬
ming to fupport your head higher above water, or to go
forward through it.”
As fwimming is a healthy exercife and a pleafant Swimming
amufement, and as a dexterity in it may frequently put a pleafaht
it in a man’s power to fave his own life and the lives ofand ufeful
his fellow-creatures, perhaps of his deared friends, itexerc^e
can neither be ufelefs nor unintereding to confider a few
of the evolutions which a fwimmer mud be mader of,
that he move in any diredlion without difficulty, with¬
out danger, and without being unneceffarily fatigued.
There
S W I
r 167 ]
s w I
turn to
riglit or-
left.
S
How to
turn from
Swimming. There are feveral different ways of turning one’s felf
u—v—' in fwimming. You may do it in this way : Turn the
7 palm of the right hand outwards, extend the arm in the
H°W ^the ^ame manner, and make a contrary movement with the
left hand and left arm ; then, by a gradual motion, in¬
cline your head and whole body to the left fide, and the
evolution will be finifhed. There is another way which
is eafier Hill : Bend your head and body toward that
fide to which you are going to turn. If you wifh to
turn to the left, incline the thumb and the right hand
toward the bottom, bend the fingers of the right hand,
flretch it out, and ufe it for driving away the water fide-
wife, or, which is the fame thing, for pufhing yourfelf
the contrary way. At the fame time, with your left
hand, the fingers being clofe, pufh the water behind
you, and all at once turn your body and your face to the
left, and the manoeuvre will be accomplifhed. If you
wifh to turn to the right, you mu ft do with your right
hand what you did with your left, and with your left
what you did with your right. You muft be careful
when turning yourfelf never to ftretch out your legs,
and be fare that the water be fo deep that you be in no
danger of hurting yourfelf.
When you are fwimming on your belly, and wifh to
turn on your back, draw your feet in quickly, and
the belly to tftrow them before you ; ftretch out your hands behind
the back. y0u^ ancj j-eep y0ur ^0(jy £rm ancj fteacjy. When you
wifh to turn from fwimming on your back, fold your
feet at once under your body as if you were throwing
them to the bottom, and at the fame inftant dart your
body forwards, that you may fall upon your belly.
In fwimming, the eyes ought to be turned towards
heaven. This is a moft important rule, and to the ne-
gle£l of it many of the accidents which befal fwimmers
are owing. For when they bend their eyes downwards,
they infenfibly bend their Jiead too, and thus the mouth
being too deep in the water, may admit a quantity, of it
in breaking ; befides, the more the body is llretched, it
covers a greater part of the.furface of the water, and con-
fequently its fpecific gravity is lefs. Any perfon who
will make the experiment will find it impoffible to dive
while he keeps his head ere£t and his eyes fixed on the
heavens (a).
The eafieft pofture in fwimming is lying on the back.
When you wrfh to fwim in this pofture, lay yourfelf
foftly on your back, and raife your breaft to the fv.rface
of the water, keeping youi body extended in the fame
line. Put your hands eafily over the upper part of your
thighs, and throw out your legs and draw them in alter¬
nately, keeping them within two feet of the furface. In
this way you may advance in any direftion you pleafe.
You may perhaps cot like having fo much of your head
under water 5 there is, however, no way of fwimming
fo eafy, fo fafe, and fo little fatiguing. If you wifh to
9
The eyes
ought to
be turned
towards
heaven.
to
HoW to
fwim on
the back,
fwim with great rapidity, you may ufe your arms as well Swimming*
as your feet •, and you will find this the eafieft way ofv—
breaking the force of the waves. It
In fwimming on the back, one may advance forward and ad-
as well as backward. For this purpofe the body muft vance f°r"
be kept ftraight and extended j the breaft inflated, fowa^s‘
that the hollow of the back may affume a femieircular
form. The hands muft recline over the upper parts of
the thighs. It is alfo neceflary to raife the legs one af¬
ter another, and draw them in ftrongly towards the
hams, and then leave them fufpended in the water..
This way of fwimming is not only pleafant, but may
ferve to reft you when fatigued. 12
When you are tired with fwimming on your back and ^ow to
belly, you may fwim on one fide. When you wifh to
do this, fink a little your left fide and raife your right}
you will immediately find yourfelf on your left fide.
Move then your left hand without either railing or fink¬
ing it; you have only to ftretch it and draw it back, as
in a ftraight line, on the furface of the water. Indepen¬
dent of the pleafure which this kind of motion wall give
you, you will have the fatisfa£tion of feeing both fides of
the river.
It is pofiible to fwim on the belly without the aflift- How to
ance of the hands. For this purpofe you muft keep your^m on ''
breaft ereft, your neck ftraight, and fix your hands be-
hind your head, or upon your back, while you move the affilt-
fortvard by employing your feet. This way is not with- ance of die
out its advantages. It is an excellent refource wdien thefiau^s“
arms are feized with a cramp, or with any indifpofition
which makes it painful to exert them. This in fome
cafes may be preferable to fwimming on the back ; for
while in that attitude, one cannot fee before them with¬
out turning every inftant. If one of your legs be feized
with a cramp, take hold of it with the hand oppofite to
it, and ufe the other hand and leg to advance or fupport
yourfelf. r
A very ancient and graceful mode of fwimming, is Hov/fo
that of fwimming with the hands joined. When you fwim with
wilh to put this in practice, join your hands, keeping d\e hands.-
the thumbs and fingers towards heaven, fo that theyvl0ineu'"
may appear above the water ; then draw them back and
pufh them forwards alternately from your breaft. This
method of fwimming may be ufeful in feveral circum-
ftances, but above all if you are entangled with grafs
or weeds. Your hands will then open a palTage for
y°u- . , r-
As a perfon may fometimes have occafion to carrythe•
fomething in his hand in fwimming, which he is anxious hands ele-
to preferve from the water, he may fwim eafily with vated;
one hand and hold a parcel in the other, as Csefar fwam
with his Commentaries at Alexandria ; or one may fwim
with both hands elevated. To perform this well, the
fwimmer muft raife his breaft, and keep it as much inflated
as
(a) An interelting queftion occurs here, which deferves to be confidered. Since the body, when fpread upon
the furface, can be fupported with fo little exertion, and frequently without any at all, as in fwimming on the
back, how comes it to pafs that a perfon when drowned finks and frequently rifes again fome time afterwards ? The
reafon is this : In the aft of drowning, the lungs are filled with water, and confcquently the body, being fpecifi-
cally heavier, finks. It is well known that the human body contains a great quantity of air : this air is at fiift
compreffed by the water; and while this is the cafe the body remains at the bottom : but as foon as the air by its
elafticity endeavours to difengage itfelf from the ccmprefTion, the body is fwelled and expanded, becomes fpecifi-
cally lighter- than the water, and confequently rifes to the top.
Swimming
16
How to rife
to the fur-
face after
diving.
Situation.
S W I [ 168
as he can, at the fame time that he fupports the arms
above the water. It mull not be concealed, that this
method of fwimming is attended with fome danger to
one who is not dexterous at the art; for if one fhould
imprudently draw in his bread, when his arms are rai-
fed, he wrould immediately link to the bottom.
When a man plunges into the water, and has reached
the bottom, he has only to give a fmall ftroke with his
foot againft the ground, in order to rife; but an experien¬
ced fwimmer, if he miffes the ground, has recourfe to an¬
other expedient, which is very pretty, and which has not
been much confidered. Suppofe him at a confiderable
depth, when he perceives that he cannot reach the bottom.
In fuch a cafe, he fii ft puts his hands before his face, at the
height of his forehead, with the palms turned outward¬
ly ; then holding the fore part of his arm vertically, he
makes them move backwards and forwards from right to
left; that is to fay, thefe two parts of his arms, having
the elbow as a kind of pivot, defcribe very quickly,
both the hands being open, and the fingers joined, two
fmall portions of a circle before the forehead, as if he
would make the water retire, which he in faff does ;
and from thefe ftrokes given to the water, there refults
an oblique force, one part of which carries the fwimmer
upwards.
There are many artificial methods of fupporting one’s
felf in water, but we have not room to defcribe them.—
Thofe who with to fee a full account of them may con-
fult the Encyclopedic Methodique.
SWIMMING of Fijh. A great proportion of the in¬
habitants of the waters have an air-bladder, by which
they poife themfelves. Their movements chiefly depend
upon their tail. See Anatomy, Part II. j and Ich¬
thyology.
SWINDLER, a word which has been lately adopted
into the Englilh language, derived from the German
word fchwindel, “ to cheat.” Swindling has now be¬
come fo common in feveral of the great towns of this
country, that it is unfortunately too well known to re¬
quire any defcription.
SWINE. See Sus, Mammalia Index.
SwiNE-Stone. See Mineralogy Index.
SWINGING, a kind of exercife ftrongly recom¬
mended to perfons in confumption by fome phyficians,
and difapproved of by others. See Medicine Index.
SWING-TREE of a waggon, is the bar faftened acrofs
the fore-guide, to which the traces of the horfes are faft¬
ened.
SJVING-Wheel, in a royal pendulum, that wheel
which drives the pendulum. In a watch or balance
clock it is called the crown-wheel.
SWINGLE, in the fireworks in England, the wood¬
en fpoke which is fixed to the barrel that draws the
wire, and which, by its being forced back by the cogs
of the wheel, is the occafion of the force wdth which the
barrel is pulled.
SWITZ, or Schweits, the capital of one of the
cantons of Switzerland, to which it gives name, feated
on the eaft fide of the lake Lucerne, in N. Lat. 46. 55.
E. Long. 8. 30.
SWISSERLAND, or Switzerland, a mountain¬
ous diftrift of the fouth of Europe, which at the latter
end of the 18th century, formed a republic compofed of
feveral independent ftates or cantons, but which may
now be regarded as a province of France.
Switzer¬
land.
] S W I
Switzerland is bounded on the north and eaft by Ger¬
many, on the fouth by Italy, and on the weft by the de- (
partments of the Higher and Lower Alps, and the ^
mouths of the Rhone. Its extent from eaft to weft is Boundaries
computed at about 200 Britilh miles, and its breadth and extent,
from north to fouth at about 130 Britilh miles. Its con¬
tents in Iquare miles are eftimated at 14,960.
Before it was reduced to the condition of a French
province, Switzerland contained 13 independant cantons,
and a number of fmall diftrifrs, which were dependent
on the cantons. The independent cantons were, 1. Berne,
including the Pays de Vaud; 2. Friburg ; 3. Basil j 4.
Soleure j 5. Schaffhausen j 6. Zurich j 7. Appen-
zel j 8. Lucerne ; 9. Zug j to. Schweitz j 11. Un-
derwalden ; 12. Uri j 13. Glaris. The diftrifts
dependent on thefe cantons were, the principality of
Neufchatel; the bifliopric of Bafl) county of Baden;
the free Baillage?; Turgovia ; Tokenburg ; the Bhcin-
thal; lands of the Abbey of St Gal; country of the
Grifons; Valteline ; Italian Bail/ages ; the Val/ais. Since
its fubje&ion to France, the country has been divided
into the following 19 cantons ; viz. Appenzel, Argo-
via, Bafil, Friburg, Glaris, Grifons, Lucerne, St Gal,
Schaffhaufen, .Schweitz, Soleure, Teffin, Thurgovia,
Underwald, Uri, Vaud, Zug, and Zurich. An account
of the moft important of thefe cantons, and of their ca¬
pitals, will be found under their proper heads in this
work. ^
With refpeft to the air, foil, and produce, that part Air, toil,
of the canton of Berne to the eaft of the lake of Ge- produce,
neva, together with the cantons of Uri, Schweitz, Un- &c-
derwalden, Glaris, and Appenzel, and part of the can¬
ton of Lucerne, confift of ftupendsus mountains, whofe
fummits are faid to be from 9000 to 12000 feet above
the level of the fea, confifting of inacceflible rocks, of
which fome are quite bare, while others are always co¬
vered with ice and fnow. Among the mountains are
many excellent medicinal and other fprings, cold and
warm baths, water-falls, precipices, deep narrow valleys,
and caverns. The higheft are thofe in the canton of
Uri. Many of the valleys are covered with lakes, or
watered by brooks and rivers.
In fome of them are towns, villages, wmeds, vine¬
yards, and corn-lands. Both on the mountains and in the
valleys the air is extremely cold in winter ; but in fum-
mer it is very pleafant, cool, and refrefhing in the former,
but exceffively hot in the latter. Sometimes it is win¬
ter on the north fide of a mountain when it is fummer
on the other j nay, flowers may be gathered fometimes
with one hand and fnow with the other. Prodigious
mafles of ice and fnow often fall from them in winter,
and do a great deal of damage ; and moft of the ftreams
and rivers take their rife from the thawing of the ice
and fnow on their fides and tops. From the rifing or
defcending of the clouds, with which they are common¬
ly enveloped, the inhabitants can, for the moft part,
pretty exattly foretel the changes of the weather j fo
that they ferve them inftead of weather glaffes.
The other and lower parts of Switzerland are Very
pleafant and fertile, being diverfifiedwith vineyards,corn¬
fields, meadows, and pafiure-grounds. The mountains
in thefe are but mole-hills in comparifon of the others;
there is neither fnow nor ice on them in fummer 5 and
they frequently afford not only good pafturage, but ar¬
able ground. Many pelrifa&ions are found both among
fand«
Language,
religion,
&cc.
Manufac¬
tures and
trade.
Character
of the
Swils.
S W I [ i
tlieie and tlie others, with a variety of foflils. The
fands of the rivers yield gold daft, particularly tliofe of
the Rhine, the Emmet, and the Aar, the Reufs, the
Arve, and the Inn.
The metals of this country being generally found to
be brittle, the only mines that are worked are a few
of iron. In the lower parts of Switzerland they fow
rye, oats, barley, fpelt, flax, hemp. Wines of various
forts are alfo produced in fome of them, with a variety
of fruits. Of wood for fuel and other ufes there is ge¬
nerally plenty j in fome places, however, they are
obliged to burn Iheep’s dung, and in others a kind of
heath and fmall ftmibs. In the valleys they cultivate
faffron with fuccefs. The Swifs derive their principal
fubfiftence from their flocks and herds of cattle, which
in fummer graze on the mountains. Their cheefe is
much efteemed, efpecially that of Berne and Griers in
the canton of Friburg. Great numbers of horfes are
alfo bred here, and bought up for the French cavalry.
Befldes the above-mentioned rivers, the Rhone and the
Tefin have their fources in this country. The lakes are
very numerous j but the chief are thofe of Geneva,
Neufchatel, Biel, Zurich, Thun, Brien, Conftance, and
Lucerne. Both rivers and lakes abound with filh,
and afford a cheap water carriage. Switzerland is not
fo populous as many other countries in Europe 5 and
the Popifli cantons lefs fo than the Proteftant. The to¬
tal number of the inhabitants is computed at 2,000,000.
I he language generally fpoken here is the German,
in which alfo public affairs are tranfa&ed; but in thofe
parts ©f the country that border on Italy or France, a
corrupt French or Italian prevails. The two predo¬
minant religions are Calvinifm and Popery. Of the
former are the cantons of Zurich and Berne, the towns of
St Gal, Geneva, Muhlhaufen, and Biel, the principality
of Neufchatel, the greater part of Bafle, Schaff haufen,
the country of the Grifons, the Thurgau, Toggen-
burg, Claris, and the Rhine valley j the frontiers of Ap-
penzel, with a fmall part of Solothurn, and fome places
in the mountains of Baden and Sargans. The reft of
the Swifs cantons, allies, and dependents, are Popifh.
For the education of youth there is an univerfity at
Bafle, and academies at Zurich, Berne, Laufanne, and
Geneva ; befides gymnafiums and fcholte illuftres, both
in the Popifh and Proteftant cantons. There are alfo
focieties among them for the improvement of the Ger¬
man language, and the fciences.
The principal manufactures are fnuff and tobacco,
linen of feveral forts, lace, thread, filk, and worfted
ftockings, neckcloths, cotton fluffs, gloves, handker¬
chiefs, filks of feveral forts, gold and filver brocades, a
variety of woollen manufactures, hats, paper, leather of
all forts, earthen wares, porcelain, toys, watches, clocks,
and other hardwares, &c. The trade of Switzerland
is generally promoted by many navigable lakes and
rivers. In fome of the above manufactures, and in
cheefe, butter, fheep, 'horfes, black cattle, hides, and
ikins, the exports are confiderable $ and as the imports
are chiefly gram and fait, with fome American and Afi-
atic goods, there is probably a large balance in their
favour. In fome parts of Switzerland drefs is reftrained
by fumptuary laws.
I he Swifs are a brave, honeft, hofpitable, hardy
people; very true to their engagements, friendly and
humane. In fhort, there is not a people in Europe
Vol. XX. Part I.
69 ] 3 W I
whofe national character is better. In their perfons Switzer-
they are generally tall, robuft, and well-made j but, land‘ ,
their complexions are none of the belt, and thofe that v
live in the neighbourhood of the mountains are fubjeft
to wens. The women are faid to be generally hand-
fome and well-fhaped, fenfible, and modeft, yet frank,
eafy, and agreeable in converfation. Few of the pea-
fants are miferably poor j many of them are rich, efpe¬
cially in the Proteftant cantons, and that of Berne in
particular. 9
In the very confined limits to which we are now re- Outline of
duced, we cannot give more than a faint outline of the1 •<*or^
hiftory of Switzerland. In the firft century before theianciW1 Ze
Chriftian era, we find the natives involved in frequent
wars with the Romans, by whom the Helvetii and the
Rhaetii, two of the moft powerful tribes, w'ere entirely
fubjugated. In the beginning of the 4th century of the
Chriftian era, the Allemanni, a German tribe, made an
irruption into Switzerland, occupied the country, and,
as is fuppofed, extirpated the Helvetii. Soon after we
find the weftern part of Switzerland, as far as the Reufs,
occupied by the Franks, by whom it wTas annexed to
Burgundy, while the eaftern part, or the Grifons, was
fubjeCt to Theodoric the Goth, and other Italian
princes. In the beginning of the 7th century, Chrifti-
anity was introduced, chiefly by two Iriftr monks, Co-
lumbanus and Gallus. In the beginning of the 10th
century, that part of Switzerland which was occupied
by the Allemanni, was invaded by the Huns or Ugurs,
w?ho in particular ravaged the abbey of St Gal, at that
time famous for its power and its literature. The
Huns were defeated by Conrad king of Burgundy,
about the year 928. Soon after the commencement of
the nth century, the diftridls of Switzerland began to
be regarded as a part of the German empire, and in the
twro following centuries they gradually became fubjeft
to the houfe of Haplburgh. In 1307 commenced the
ftruggles of the Swifs with the houfe of Auflria, thofe
glorious ftruggles which finally terminated in the com¬
plete emancipation of that brave people, and in the
formation of a confederacy v’hich continued to be the
admiration of Europe for nearly five centuries. The
tranfaftions which mark this conteft between the inha¬
bitants of a fmall diftrift and a mighty monarch, and
in particular the heroifm of their great champion
William Tell, are familiar to moft of our readers. We
fhall therefore only give a fhort account of the govern¬
ment and inftitutions of the Swifs cantons, as they exift-
ed previous to the late revolution, and fhall conclude
this article with a brief narrative of the proceedings of
the French, when they entered Switzerland in 1797. 10
With refpeft to the ^government and cohftitution ofConftim-
the Swifs cantons, it muft be remarked that fome oftion of the
them wyere ariftocracies and fome democracies. In the f^^before
former, both the legiflative and executive power w7ere the late re¬
lodged in the burghers or citizens of the capital of each volution,
canton ; and of thofe there were feven, viz. Zurich,
Berne, Bafle, Friburg, Soleure, and Schaff haufen $ an ac¬
count of the moft important of which may be feen under
their refpeftive names. In the others, the legiflative
power w7as lodged in the whole body of the people, and
every male above 16, whether mailer or fervant, had a
vote in making law s and in the choice of magiftrates.
For what concerned the whole Helvetic body, there
were diets ordinary and extraordinary j the former were
Y ' held
Switzer¬
land.
S W 1 [I
held annually, and the others on particular emergen-
^ciesj and both were fummoned by the city of Zurich,
which appointed the time and place of their meetings.
Befides the general diets fince the Reformation, there
were particular diets of the two religions, at which all
public affairs of confequence that regarded the two
parties were treated feparately j for though a fenfe of
their common intereft obliged them to ftudy the main¬
taining the league and union, yet it is certain that the
mutual confidence between the cantons was in fome
meafure loft through the zeal of each party for their
particular opinions, efpecially of the Roman Catholics.
The annual general diets were held always at Frauen-
field or Baden, principally to regulate the affairs of the
common baillages. Lucerne took the lead of the Ro¬
man Catholic cantons, being the moft powerful of that
denomination j but Zurich, though lefs powerful than
that of Berne, took the precedence of all the other can¬
tons, both Proteftant and Popifti. Thefe cantons did
not make one commonwealth, but were fo many inde¬
pendent ftates, united together by ftridt alliances for
their mutual defence. The extraordinary diets or con-
greffes were held at Aldorf. Each canton ufually deputed
two envoys, both to the ordinary and extraordinary,
to which alfo the abbot and the town of St Gal, and
the town of Biel, fent reprefentatives. To the 13 can¬
tons belonged in common 21 baillages, 2 towns, and
2 lordfhips. I he allies, as they were called, were the
abbot and town of St Gall, the three Grifon leagues,
the republic of the Valais, the towns of Muhlhaufen and
Biel, the principality of Neuenburg, Geneva, and the
bhhop of Balle. Of thefe, the abbot and town of St
Gal, and the town of Biel, were regarded as members
of the Helvetic body, but the reft only as allies.
.1 he public revenues were in general very mcon-
fiderable, though they have been computed at about
1,000,00ol. fterling, arifing chiefly from the ufual re¬
galia, appropriated every where to the fovereign, the
demefnes, and public granaries, voluntary contributions,
the fale of lalt, and a land-tax j in the Proteftant can¬
tons, from the church lands alfo that were feized at the
reformation. Except in Zurich, Berne, Bade, and
Schaffhaufen, where the people are more induftrious,
have a greater trade, and are richer than in the others,
they defrayed only the ordinary charges.
i he cantons never kept any (landing troops except
for a few garrifons ; but their militia was reckoned to
be the bell regulated of any in Europe. Every male
from 16 to 60 was enrolled, and about one-third of
them formed into regiments. They were all obliged to
provide themfelves with arms, clothing, accoutrements,
and to appear on the Hated days for exercife } and the
feveral cantons and diftri&s were obliged to furnifh
themfelves with a fufficient train of artillery, and all the
other implements of war. The Swifs of the feveral
cantons were allowed to engage in the fervice of fuch
roreign princes and ftates as were in alliance with thofe
cantons, or with whom they had made a previous agree¬
ment. Such ftates paying an annual fubfidy to the re-
fpecuve cantons, were allowed to make levies. Every
man enluted voluntarily, for what number of years he
pleafed, at the expiration ot which he was at liberty to
return home. Many thus always returning from foreign
fervice, Switzerland was never unprovided with able
and experienced officers and foldiers.
7° ] s w 1
It: was fcarcely to be expefled that a country fo lonu Switzer-
and lo intimately connected with France, by its pofidon *anff
by perpetual alliance, by commerce, and partly by' v“' J
language Ihould efcape the influence of the principles OriJn of
of its revolution, when ftates far more remote and di-the difputes
Itinct were ftrongly imbued with their fpirit. But^etween
previous to the epoch of the French revolution, various thet c?ntons
parts of the Swifs confederation had been the feat ofFrenchrea
civil difcord, and popular murmurs. In fome cantons public,
the indignant fpmt of the fubjeft had led him to revolt
agamft what he deemed the oppreffive adminiftration
or tne ruler j m others, the diftindlions which exift in
jociety, and which form the different claffes of privi¬
leged and unprivileged individuals, were ftrangely and
inverfely dillributed. I he French revolution, declar¬
ing the principle of equality, found a wide predifpofi-
tion among the fubjefts of the Swifs confederacy to
embrace the caufe, and as flrong a refiftance on the
part of the governors, who were deeply interefted in
oppofing the progrefs of opinions fo immediately fub-
verfive of authority. Confcious that with fuch a fyftem
no brotherhood could be cherilhed, many of the lead¬
ing cantons kept themfelves in a ftate of watchfulnefs
bordering on hoftility, again!! the principles eftabliftied
by the French national affembly. But with fo power¬
ful a fandlion, the frowns of power were ineffeftual to
calm the murmurs of difcontent; and claims, which
fear or policy had hitherto Unit up in filence, were now
produced, with confidence that they would be admitted
from the fentiment of fear, if not of juftice.
Among thofe who w^ere moft acftive in demanding a
review of their grievances were the inhabitants of the
tench part of the canton of Berne, known by the
name of the pays-de-Vaud. The nobles and the high¬
er claffes of this province had long tranfmitted to their
children a hereditary hatred of the government of
Berne. This difaffeftion was not concealed ; nor is
it Angular that the defire of change ftiould operate on
the titled and the rich, while they faw their political
exiftence depending on the will of a felf-elefted fove¬
reign, and their provinces fubje&ed to the adminiftra¬
tion of an emiffary of thofe whom they confidered as
ufurpers of their rights.
But however ftrcngly the fenfibility of the fubjefl in¬
habitants of the Pays-de-Vaud was excited by this poli¬
tical degradation, they were compelled to fubmit, or
brood ov^r their grievances in filence. They were" in¬
capable of procuring redrefs by fsrce; and the fovereign
burghers of Berne were too firmly feated to regard the
remonflranees of impotent claimants, or to liften to the
murmurs of difeontent. Partial infurredtions again!! the
governments of certain cantons had often taken place in
Switzerland. Thefe diforders had fometimes been fup-
preffed and puniffied with the interpofition of the neigh¬
bouring cantons, where, the danger was not exceffive 5
but when thefe infurreftions wore the ferious charafters
of rebellion or revolt, the whole confederation marched
again!! the confpirators. France before the revolution
had even lent its aid lo the fuppreffion of thofe domeftic
quarreis, and had become the inftrument of vengeance
to the infulted fovereign; fo that, whatever was the de¬
gree of oppreflion, or whatever the defire of refiftance,
redrefs was become hopelefs, and change impoftible.
It was chiefly among the claffes of burghers and arti-
zans who inhabited the towns, that difeontent again!!
the
S W I
Switzer- the ruling power prevailed. The peafants, lefs oppref-
land. becaufe more ignorant of their rights and privileges,
not only did not themfelves oppofe the aggreflions of the
chief men in power, but even aflifted them in quelling
infurreftions which arofe among their rival claffes.
All writers agree in the exiftence of vexatious and
oppreflive abufes among all the governments of the Swifs
cantons, at the time of which we are now writing. The
defpotifm of their inftitutions} the abufes of eleftion to
fovereign councils j the daily and encroaching fpirit of
authority $ the overgrown influence of patrician fami¬
lies 5 the linking inequality which prevailed, even on
this balls, of aritlocratical power ; the monopoly of places
of profit to the exclufion of worth and talent; the unde¬
fined limits of proconfular adminiftration ; the want of
encouragement to the arts and fciences ; the negleft of
education among thofe who were deltined to rule, the
void of which was filled up by' idlenefs, arrogance, igno¬
rance, and dilfipation,—are fo many features prefented by
writers of different chara£lers and difeordant fentiments,
to fill up the pi6lure of this vaunted region of happinefs
and liberty.
The feverity exercifed by the government of Berne
over thofe inhabitants of the Pays-de-Vaud who had af-
fembled on the 14th of July 1791, to commemorate the
taking of the Ballile at Paris, and exprefs their appro¬
bation of the French revolution, had created in the
minds of the French people fenfations of jealoufy to¬
wards their Swifs neighbours j while the dilbanding and
difmilfal of the Swifs regiments in the fervice of France,
had contributed to exafperate the government of the
cantons againft the new republic.
All the cantons, except that of Berne, appeared for a
long time difpofed to preferve a neutrality towards revo¬
lutionary France ; but that canton, under pretence of
lupporting the people of Geneva againft the aggreffions
of the French, firft difplayed an avowed hoftility, and
marched a body of 15,000 troops towards the frontiers
of the French republic. The true caufe of this move¬
ment in the canton of Berne, has been by others Hated
to be the hopes entertained by fome individuals of that
government, of lharing in the plans of emolument and
preferment which were expelled to arife on the re-eftab-
liihment of monarchy in France. The mutual jealoufy
fubfifting between the Swifs cantons and the ruling
power in France, was heightened by the proteftion gi¬
ven by fome of the cantons to the French emigrants,
and by the correfpondence which others of the cantons
had held with the bloody tribunal of Robefpierre. Af¬
ter the retreat of the allied armies from the frontiers of
France, the Swifs found it politic to make at leaft a
fhow of amity towards the viflorious republic j and ac¬
cordingly recognifed the exifting government of the
republic, and openly received M. Barthelemy as its
charge d'affaires. Still, however, the fincerity of the
cantons was jurtly doubted by the French direftory,
who appear to have long formed defigns againft the in-
I4 dependence of Switzerland.
The Pays The directory, confirmed in power, and relieved from
de Valid the controul of a popular legifiature, haftened, towards
-cXed the clofe of the year 1797, to putin force their pro-
French fubjugating the Swifs republics. The firft hof-
anno 179S. tile movement on the part of the French, was to take
poffeffion of the Helvetic part of the biftiopricr of Bafle,
under fome frivolous pretence, and contrary to an ex-
s w 1
prefs treaty concluded with the Swifs in the year 1792. Switzer-
Either too weak or too prudent to refent this infraction ,
of their rights, the Helvetic body ftill flattered them¬
felves with an amicable termination of their difference
with France j when an infurredlion, which broke out in
the Pays-de Vattd, probably through French mitiga¬
tion, or at leaft; through the influence of French prin¬
ciples, afforded a fuller pretext for the overthrow of the
government. In the month of December, the French
directory thought proper to interfere in this domeftic
difpute, and demanded from the government of Berne,
what they termed the reftoralion of the rights of that
people, and the aflembling of the Hates of the Pays-de-
Vaud in their ancient form. This demand they imme¬
diately prepared to enforce by arms j and General Me¬
nard was ordered to march, with a body of 15,000
men, to fupport the claims of the petitioning party in
the Pays-de-Vaud. The defigns of the French were
for the moment fruftrated by the timidity or generofity
of the fupreme council of Berne. On the 5th of Janua¬
ry, 1798, they iffued a proclamation, enjoining the ci¬
tizens of the Pays-de-Vaud to affemble in arms, to re¬
new the oath of allegiance, to proceed immediately to
the reform of every abufe in the government, and to
aflert and re-eftabliih all their ancient rights. A com-
miflion had been previoufly appointed at Laufanne, for
determining on the claims of the petitioners, and for
reinftating the country in its former tranquillity. From
what caufes it happened, we have not as yet been cor¬
rectly informed, but the proceedings of the commiflion
feemed involved altogether in embar-affment and delay.
The people became impatient, and the infurreCtion at
once broke out into aCtual hoftility. The caftle of
Chillon was feized by the infurgents $ and the commo¬
tions which took place in the fouthern diftriCts of the
province appeared no lefs formidable. The government
of Berne now determined to reduce the infurgents by
force j and a body of 20,000 troops, under the com¬
mand of Colonel Weifs, was difpatched to dilperfe
them. Whether the lenient meafures purfued by this
general, were confiftent with found policy or not, it is
impoflible, from the materials which have hitherto fal¬
len under our infpeCtion, to determine. Suffice it to
fay, that though it is not certain that more precipitate
movements would have faved the country, yet his inac¬
tivity undoubtedly ferved to increafe at once the power
and the audacity of the infurgents. Thus fituated, the
approach of the French decided the conteft. On paf-
fing the boundary, Menard difpatched an aide-de-camp,
attended by two huffars, to General Weifs, at Yverdun;
on their return, a fatal affray took place at the village
of Thierens, in which one of the huflars was killed.
Who were the aggreflors in this unfortunate bufinefs is
not corredtly afeertained, but it was regarded by Me¬
nard as a declaration of vrar. His troops immediately
advanced, while thofe of Weifs retreated, and the
whole of the Pays-de-Vaud was, by the beginning of
February, in the poffeflion of the French.
The government of Berne ftill hoped, it appears, to
avert the deftru£tion which now feemed to await them;
the centinels who had killed the huflar at Thierens
were delivered up, and frefh negotiations were entered
on. In the mean time, however, new infurreftions
were planned in different parts, and the revolutionary-
mania appeared to increafe. In the feditious affemblages
Y 2 on
[ 171 1
S W I
Svvitzer- on thefe occafions, the French envoy, Mengaud, was
, ' t , obferved to take a decided part 5 and, on the 2d of
January, he formally reclaimed fome perfons who had
been arrefted for treafonable practices by the govern¬
ment of Herne, as the friends and allies ®f the French
republic. To this reclamation the government of Berne
paid little attention ; and the ftandard of revolt having
been eredfed at Arau, they determined on effedlive
meafures for its fuppreffion and their own defence. The
Argovian militia marched to Arau 3 the town and pro¬
vince were immediately reduced, and the leaders of the
13 infurredlion were taken into cuftody.
Prepara- War now appeared inevitable. To conciliate the
waTon'the m’nc*s ^ People, and induce them more freely to
part of the ^enc^ their afliftance, the government of Berne decreed,
cantons. that 52 deputies from the principal towns and communes
fliould be added to the fupreme council 3 and, on the
2d of February, thefe new deputies took their feats.
A general reform of all the abufes of the government
was the firft refolution agreed on in their deliberations;
and the example of Berne was followed by the cantons
of Lucerne, Fribourg, Soleure, Schaffhaufen, and Zu¬
rich.
While, in this date of things, frelh negotiations were
commenced with the French direftory, a defenfive force
of about 20,000 men was collefted. The other Swifs
cantons difpatched their quotas to the defence of Berne,
which amounted to about 5,500 men. A truce had
been concluded with the French general in the Pays-de-
Vaud, where an officer of the name of Brune had fuc-
ceeded Menard in the command. The truce was to
have expired on the ill of March ; but General d’Er-
lach, fearful led the fpint of his troops ffiould flacken,
demanded, on the 26th of February, positive orders to
put his army in motion, and the council immediately
made a decree to that effodt. The plan of the campaign
was now arranged by M. d’Erlach, and notice had
been given to the pods that hodilities were to com¬
mence on the evening of the id of March 3 when the
movements of the Swifs general were frudrated by the
repeal of the decree which had been fo hadily paffed,
and the negotiation was renewed with the French com¬
mander.
M. Mallet du Pan aflerts, that the French general
Brune, had agreed to prolong the truce for 30 hours 3
ut, on the 2d March, the cadle of Dornach, at the
northern extremity of the canton of Soleure, was at¬
tacked and carried by the French 3 and at the fame
time, 13,000 men were marched under the walls of So¬
leure, which capitulated to General Schawenbourg on
the fird fummons. Fribourg was immediately after re¬
duced by General Brune, and the Swifs army was forced
to retreat.
While difaffe&ion prevailed in the army of General
d’Erlach, the inhabitants of Berne faw the rapid ap¬
proach of the victorious army. On the 3d of March,
the levy of the Landjlhurm, or the rifmg of the people
in a mafs, was proclaimed. The expedient did not fuc-
ceed in favour of the magidrates 3 the people were no
fooner affembled in arms, than they of themfelves dif-
folved the government 3 a provitional regency was ele£t-
ed for the occafion 3 the event was notified to General
Brune 3 and to facilitate a pacification, an order was
iffued to difmifs the army, on condition that the French
would keep the pods they at prefent occupied. 4
S W I
Unfatisfied with this conceffion, the French general Switzer-
infided on the town receiving a French garrifon. In land,
the mean time all was confufion, both in Berne and in “~v—
the army 3 the left divifion of which had mutinied, de-
ferted their pods, and put to death fome of their offi¬
cers. By defertion, the Swifs army was now reduced
to 14,000, to which might be added the undifciplined
rabble which the Landdhurm had called forth. About
8000 of the regular forces were dationed at Neweneg,
and 6400 held the pofition of Frauenbrun, againd which
General Schawenbourg advanced from Soleure, at the
head of 18,000 men. On the morning of the 5th
March, both pods were attacked by the French, and a
momentary fuccefs feemed to crown the valorous ef¬
forts of the divifion at Neweneg 3 but thofe dationed at
Frauenbrun were, after a vigorous refidance, obliged to
retreat 5 M. d’Erlach rallied his men at Uteren, where
a fecond engagement took place, but with no better
fuccefs on the part of the Swifs.* At Grouholtz, howe¬
ver, they again made a dand, whence they were driven
to the gates of the capital, where they were completely
routed. rIhe Swifs, in this engagement, lod 2000 in
killed and wounded 3 while the lofs of the French was
about 1800.
On the evening of the 5th, General Brune entered Berne en-
the city of Berne by capitulation. The divifions of thetere(l by
Swifs army dationed at Neweneg and Guminen retreat-t^ie ^'rcnc^1'
ed 3 the foldiers of this lad column, in defpair, put
their officers to death 3 and the unfortunate d’Erlach, in
flying from the field of battle, was murdered by his coun¬
trymen and foldiers.
The fubmidion of nearly the whole of Switzerland
followed the defeat of the Bernefe. The democratic
republics, however, dill made a glorious dand, defeat¬
ed General Schawenbourg, and forced him to retire with
the lofs of 3000 men. r,
The Swifs confederacy, after this revolution, changed Helvetic
its conditution, and even its name. Provifional govern-republic
ments, under the direftion of the French generals, were formed•
edablilhed in the different didritffs, and the whole af-
fumed the name of the Helvetic republic. Contribu¬
tions were levied as ufual, by the French commiffion-
ers 3 and fome diocking enormities are reported to have * See v^...
been committed^ chiefly by the army of the Rhine 3 for Annual R?.
the divifions which belonged to the army of Italy arefor
faid to have conduiffed themfelves with fuperior humani- 1798 ami
ty and judice *. 1199-
In the beginning of 1802, a new conditution was Conftitu-
framed for the Helvetic republic, under the direction oftion of
Bonaparte. Its leading features are as follows. iSoa.
The Helvetic republic is one. Every citizen has a
right of fettling in any canton of the republic, and of
exercifing all the civil and political rights in the fame
manner as the citizens of the canton.
Berne is the capital of Helvetia. The Helvetic ter¬
ritory is divided into 21 cantons. The ecclefiadical
property, in general, can be employed only for eda-
blifhments of religious inftruddion, or of charity.
There is a central adminidration of the republic for
the exercife of the national fovereignty, and an admini¬
dration of the cantons. The adminidration of the
cantons is compofed of a diet and a fenate. The diet
is formed by the union of reprefentatives from all the
cantons, in the following proportions.—Berne, fix 3 Zu¬
rich, two 3 Lucerne, fivej Uri, one 3 Schweitz, three 3
Underwalden,
[ 172 1
land
I!
Sword.
S W O [I
Switzer- Undenvalden. one-, ^ug, one; Claris, one; Soleure,t\vo;
Fribourg,three ; Bafle, two; Schaffhaufen, one; Appen-
zel, one; St Gal, four; Turgovia, two ; Argovia, two ;
j Baden, two; Vaud, four; Grifons, one; Teffin, three;
Valais, two. The members of the diet remain five years
in office. The diet is to affemble regularly every year
on the ift of March. It ffiall be extraordinarily con¬
voked by the fenate when the majority of the cantons
require it, or when itfelf (hall judge that meafure necef-
fary. The prefident of the diet lhall be the landamt-
man who is not in office. He has a calling vote, in cafe
the votes lhall be equally divided. A deputation of
four members from the fenate lhall affift at the diet, and
lhall take part in its deliberations, but without having a
right to vote.
The fenate is compofed of two landamtmans, two
fladtholders or lieutenants, and 26 counfellors. Each
canton mult have at lealt one member in it. The fe¬
nate forms the projects of laws and regulations, and fub-
mits them to the fanftion of the cantons. The two
landamtmans and their lieutenants have the direction
of foreign affairs. The fenate names and recalls diplo¬
matic agents, on a propofition from the landamtmans.
The landamtman in office is to receive a falary of
16,000 livres, Swifs currency; the fecond landamt¬
man, his two lieutenants, and the members of the petty
council, 6000 livres; thofe of the fenate 4000. The
fenate may adjourn for three months. During this
interval, the petty council exercifes the executive
power.
SWIVELS, a kind of ring made to turn round in a
fiaple, or other ring. Thefe are ufed when a Ihip lies
at her moorings ; alfo in tedders for cattle, that they
may turn round without unwarping the tedder.
S TVIVEL-Cannon, is a fmall piece of artillery be¬
longing to a Ihip of war, which carries a Ihot of half a
pound, and is fixed in a focket on the top of the Ihip’s
fide, Hern, or bow, and alfo in her tops. The trun¬
nions of this piece are contained in a fort of iron crotch,
of which the lower end terminates in a cylindrical pivot
reding in the focket, fo as to fupport the weight of the
cannon. The focket is bored in a ftrong piece of oak,
reinforced with iron hoops, in order to enable it to fuf-
tain the recoil. By means of this frame, which is cal¬
led the fwivcf, and an iron handle on its cafcable, the
gun may be diredled by the hand to any object. It is
therefore very neceffary in the tops, particularly when
loaded with mulket-balls, to fire down on the upper
decks of the adverfary in a£Hon.
SWOONING. See Medicine, N° 274.
SWORD, an offenfive weapon worn at the fide, and
ferving either to cut or dab. Its parts are, the handle,
guard, and blade ; to which may be added the bow,
fcabbard, pummel, &c.
SlVORD of State, which is borne before the king,
lords, and governors of counties, cities, or boroughs,
&c, For or before the king, it ought to be carried up¬
right ; the hilt as low as the bearer’s waid, the blade
up between his eyes. For or before a duke, the blade
mud decline from the head, and be carried between
the neck and the right fhoulder. For or before an
earl, the blade is to be carried between the point of the
dioulder and the elbow : and for or before a baron, the
Blade is to be borne in the bend of the arm. This ce-
Syene.
73 1 S YE
remcnial form no lefs denotes the dignity of a governor Sword-Fiih
than the coronet fet on his coat of arms.
SWORD-FiJh. See XlPHIAS, ICHTHYOLOGY Index. ^
SWORN brothers (fratres jurati), perfons who,
by mutual oath, covenanted to thare each others for¬
tune. Formerly, in any notable expedition to invade
and conquer an enemy’s country, it was the cudom for
the more eminent foldiers to engage themfelves by re¬
ciprocal oaths to ffiare the rewards of their fervice.
This pradlice gave occafion to the proverb 0$/worn bro¬
thers or brethren in iniquity, becaufe of their dividing
plunder and fpoil.
SYCAMORE-tree. See Acer, Botany Index.
SYCOPHANT, an appellation given by the an¬
cient Athenians to thofe who informed of the exporta¬
tion of figs contrary to law ; and hence it is dill ufed
in general for all informers, parafites, datterers, cheats,
&c.
SYDENHAM, Dr Thomas, an excellent Englilh
phyfician, was the fon of William Sydenham of Win-
ford Eagle in Dorfetthire, and wras born there about the
year 1624. He dudied at Magdalen-hall, Oxford ;
but left that univerfity when Oxford was garrifoned for
King Charles I. and went to London : where, becom¬
ing acquainted with Dr Thomas Cox, an eminent phy¬
fician, that gentleman perfuaded him to apply himfelf
to the dudy of phyfic ; accordingly, after the garriion
was delivered up to the parliament, he retired again to
Magdalen-hall, entered on the dudy of medicine, and
in 1648 was created bachelor of phyfic. Soon after,
he was made a fellow- of All-Souls college, and conti¬
nued there feveral years: when, leaving the univerfity,
he fettled at Wedminder, became doftor of his faculty
at Cambridge; grew famous for his praftice ; and was
the chief phyfician in London from the year 1660 to
1670 ; at which period he began to be difabled by the
gout. He died in 1689. His wrorks are highly edeem-
ed both at home and abroad. He was famous for his
cool regimen in the fmall-pox ; for giving the bark af¬
ter the paroxyfm in agues; and for his ufe of lauda¬
num. He regulated his praftice more by his owm ob-
fervations and inquiries, than by the method either of
his predeceffors or contemporaries.
SYENE, an ancient city of Egypt, fituated, accord¬
ing to Mr Bruce, in north latitude 240 o' 45". Pliny
and Strabo both fay that it lay diredtly under the tro¬
pic of Cancer. Whether Mr Bruce’s authority be fuf-
ficient to overturn the evidence ot Pliny and Strabo, we
drall leave to others to determine.
Syene is remarkable for being the place where the
find attempt was made to meafute the circumference of
the earth. This was done by Eratodhenes, whom
Ptolemy Euergetes had invited from Athens to Alexan¬
dria. In this attempt tv-o pofitions were affumed, viz.
that Alexandria and Syene were exactly 5000 dadia dif-
tant from each other, and that they were precifely un¬
der the fame meridian ; but both thefe are denied by Mr
Bruce, who has made many obfervations on the fub-
ject, which our limits will not allow us to take notice
of at prefent. He tells us, that there is at Afum an
obelifk erefted by Ptolemy Euergetes, the patron of
Eratodhenes, without hieroglyphics, dire&ly facing
the fouth, wTith its top fird cut into a narrow neck,
then fprcad out like a fan into a femicircular form,
with
S Y L [ 174 ] S Y L
flrUli pavements curioudy levelled to receive die fliade,
and make the feparation of the true fiiadow from the
penumbra as diftindf as poffible. This is fuppofed by
Mr Bruce to have been conftrufted with a delign to
vary the experiment of Eratofthenes with a larger ra¬
dius 5 and the inquiry concerning the dimenfions of the
earth, in our author’s opinion, was the occafion of many
obelilks being erected in this kingdom ; a demonftration
of which is, that the figure of the top is varied ; being
fometimes very fharp, and fometimes a portion of a cir¬
cle, in order to get rid of the great impediment arifing
from the penumbra, which makes it difficult to deter¬
mine the length of the fiiadow with precifion. It is
nowr called Affouan.
SYLLA, Lucius Cornelius, was defcended from
the illuftrious family of the Scipios. His behaviour in
his younger years by no means correfponded with the
excellent education which he had received. But de¬
bauchery, inftead of bringing along with it infamy and
ruin, its ufual attendants, ferved only to increafe the
W’ealth of this fortunate Roman ; for Nicopolis, a rich
courtezan, whofe affe&ions he had gained, left him heir
to her great eftate.—He learned the art of war under-
Marius, wffiom he attended to Numidia in quality of
queftor. Though hitherto unaccuftomed to arms, he
became in a fhort time the molt Ikilful loldier in the ar¬
my, w-hile by his polite and obliging behaviour he gain¬
ed the love and efieem of every body. His courage and
dexterity contributed a great deal towards the fuccefs
of the war j it was his eloquence in particular that per-
fuaded Bocchus to deliver up Jugurtha. He ferved af¬
terwards in the Social war, where his aftions entirely
eclipfed thofe of every other commander. As a re¬
ward for this conduct he wTas raifed to the praetorlhip.
It is pretended by fome that Syiia purchafed this digni¬
ty and that when he threatened one day to make ufe
of the pow-ers of his office againft Strabo the father of
Pompey, that Roman replied with a fmile, “ You are
in the right to fay fo 5 your office is certainly yonrsy
fince you purchafed it.” Be this as it may, after the
conclufion of the Social wrar he was made conful, and
foon after declared general of the army which was to
be fent againft Mithridates king ofPontus. Marius, at
that time the mofi: renow-ned of the Roman generals, ex¬
pected that the management of this war would have
been committed to him, and was therefore much exaf-
perated at the difappointment. The people were per-
iuaded by his intrigues to reverfe the former decree, and
fubftitute him in place of Sylla. Upon this he fent
down officers to take the command of the army ) but
Sylla by this time had gained over the foldiers; who,
inftead of obeying the decree of the people, flewr Ma¬
rius’s officers, and intreated Sylla to lead them inftantly
to Rome. Accordingly he entered the city fvvord in
hand, flew Sulpicius the conful, obliged Marius to flee,
new-modelled the law-s, and afterwards marched into the
Eaft, and immediately laid fiege to Athens; for that
city, together with the reft of Greece, had fallen into
the power of Mithridates. He w^rote to the Amphyc-
tyons, who were aflembled at Delphi, to fend him all
the gold which was depofited in the temple of Apollo,
becaufe he ftood in need of money ; promifing, at the
fame time, to reftore it again at the end of the war.
When he received this treafure, he obferved, with an
.air of raillery, that he now no longer defpaired of vic¬
4
tory, fince the gods themfelves furnilhed him with mo¬
ney to pay his troops. Famine foon obiiged the Athe¬
nians to think of a furrender. Their ambaffadors wait¬
ed on Sylla, and began to harangue about Thefeus and
Codrus, and Marathon and Salamis,—when he inter¬
rupted them, and exclaimed, “ Go, repeat thefe fine
orations in your fchools j I have come hither, not to
learn your hiftory, but to chaftife rebels.” Athens
was at laft taken by aflault, and Sylla was upon the
point of deftroying it, when he recollefted its ancient
glory, and fpared (as he faid) the living for the fake
of the dead. After burning the Piraeus, he gained two
decifive victories over the generals of Mithridates. In
the fecond battle, which was fought at Orchomenus, he
w-as almoft defeated ; his troops began to flee, when,
leaping from his horfe, he fnatched up a ftandard, and
advanced againft the enemy, crying out, “ I will die
here glorioufly ; and, foldiers, when you are alked
where you abandoned your general, anfwer, At Orcho¬
menus.” This reproach recalled the courage of the
Romans} they followed him to the charge, and gain¬
ed a complete victory. Mithridates, humbled by thefe
difafters, fent ambaTadors to fue for peace.
Mean time Cinna had declared againft Sylla in Italy j
and Marius returning from banilhment, had taken the
moft fevere vengeance on all his enemies. Sylla was
declared a traitor ; his laws were reverfed, his friends
murdered, and the government new-modelled. The
news of thefe tranfaftions induced Sylla to conclude a
treaty with Mithridates, and march direftly to Rome.
His approach terrified the Romans. Marius and Cinna
were both dead } but the confuls made vigorous prepa¬
rations to oppofe him. A civil war w-as begun j but
Sylla in the end fubdued all his enemies, and entirely
ruined the Marian fa&ion. He entered Rome at the
head of his victorious army, and publicly affumed the
furname of Happy. Happy, indeed, had he ceafed to
live when he cealed to conquer. The remainder of his
life contains nothing elfe but a catalogue of the moft;
abominable cruelties. He declared that every one who
expeCted a pardon for their late offences, muft gain it by
deftroying the enemies of the ftate, ft he fword of the
affaffin was thus unlheathed, and murder encouraged as
the path to power and diftinCtion. ft’he nobleft of the
Romans were everywhere maffacred j flaves were re¬
warded for cutting off their mafters; children w ere
feen dragging their parents to execution ; and brothers
claiming a recompenfe for the murder of brothers. Syl¬
la ordered 8oco wretches, who had thrown themfelves
upon his clemency, to be butchered in the Campus
Martius. In the mean time he entered the fenate-houfe,
and began to talk with great coolnefs about his exploits.
The fenate, alarmed at the horrid outcries of the fuf-
ferers, at firft thought that the city was given up to be
plundered •, but Sylla informed them, with anunembar-
raffed air, that it w-as only fome criminals punilhing by
his orders, and that they needed not be apprehenfive a-
bout their own fate.
To carry on thefe cruelties with 'the appearance of
juftice, he commanded the people to eleCt him diftator.
He kept this office for more than two years 3 and then,
to the amazement of all, laid it down, and offered to
ftand his trial before the people. Soon afterwards he
retired into the country, and plunged headlong into
every kind of debauchery. Nor did he relinquilh his
cruelty
S Y L [I
cruelty together with his power : His wife falling ill in
the midft of a fumptuous feall, he divorced her imme¬
diately ; and ordered her to be carried away, lell her
death fhould interrupt the feftivity of his houfe.
He died of the morbus pedicularis, in the 6oth year
of his age. . His body, according to his orders, was
burnt. A little before his death he wrote his epitaph ;
the tenor of which was, that no man had ever exceed¬
ed him in doing good to his friends or injury to his ene¬
mies.
His perfon was elegant, his air noble, his manners
eafy and apparently fincere. He was fond of pleafure,
but fonder of glory 3 indulging without fcruple in fen-
fual delights, but never fuffering them to interrupt his
ferious bufinefs : He was eloquent, liberal, crafty, infi¬
rmating 3 a profound mafter of difiimulation 3 he fpoke
of himfelf with modefty, while he laviflied praifes on
every other perfon : He fiooped even to an acquaintance
with the meanelt: foldier, and conftantly adapted himfelf
to the humours, purfuits, and opinions, of thofe with
whom he converfed. Such was his chara&er during the
earlier part of his life 3 but when fuccefs had raifed" him
above the necefiity of difiimulation, he difplayed a hi¬
deous train of vices, which his ambition had formerly
taught him to conceal.—It was Sylla who recovered the
works of Arifiotle at the taking of Athens.
SYLLABLE, in Grammar, one or more letters
pronounced by a fingle impulfe of the voice, forming a
complete found, and confiituting a word or a part of a
word. No fingle letter can form a fyllable except a
vowel. The longeft fyllable in the Englilh language is
the word Jlrength.
1 he moft natural rvay of dividing words into fylla-
bles is, to feparate all the fimple founds of w'hich any
w ord confifts, lo as not to divide thole letters which are
joined clofe together according to the mofl: accurate pro¬
nunciation.
. SALE A BUB, a kind of compound drink, mofi: ufed
m the fummer feafon 3 ordinarily made of white wine,
Kigar, and nutmeg, into wdrich is mrlked a quantity of
new milk from the cow. Sometimes it is made of canary
in place of white wine 3 in which cafe the fugar is fpar-
ea. and a little lemon and nutmeg are added inftead of
it. To prepare it the belt way, the wine and other
ingredients, except the milk, are to be mixed over
mght, and the milk or cream added in the morning.
A he proportion is, a pint of wine to three of milk
For
Syixabub, whipt, to half a pint of white wine or
Rhemfh is put a pint of cream, wuth th^whites of three
eggs. This they feafon with fugar, and beat wuth bir-
chen rods, or work with a fyringe. The froth is taken
off as it nfes, and put into a pot ; where, after ftandino-
to lettle twm or three hours, it is fit to eat.
SYLLABUS, in matters of literature, denotes a ta-
■de of contents, or an index of the chief heads of a book
or dilcourfe.
S f LLOGISM, in Logic, an argument or term of
reaiomng, confifting of three propofitions ; the twofirft
or which are called premifes; the laft, the cmclufion.
bee Logic, Part III.
SYLVIA, a genus of birds, belonging to the order
of pafferes, formed by Dr Latham by limiting the mo-
tacilla to the wagtail, and arranging the other fpecies,
-ormerly c.alTed under that genus, under the fylvia. He
75 1 s Y M
makes 13 fpecies of tne motacilla, and lyq. fpecies of Symbol
tho&a- ree Motacilla, Ornithology Index. II
SYMBOL, a fign or reprefentation of fomething,3ympathy,l
moral, by the figures or properties of natural things. ''
Hence fymbols are of various kinds 3 as hieroglyphics
types, enigmas, parables, fables, &c. ’
SYMMACHUS, a citizen and fenator of ancient
Rome, and conful in the year 391, has left us ten books
ot epiltles 3 from which, as well as from other things
w7e collecl, that he w7as a warm oppofer of the Chriftian
religion. He was banifiied Rom Rome by Valentinian
or fome account or other, but afterwards recalled and
received into favour by Theodofius. Ammianus Mar-
cellinus fpeaks of him as a man of great learning and
modefiy. Scioppius, Pareus, and other learned" men
have written notes upon the epiftles of Symmachus: we
know of no later edition of them than that of Frankfort
1642, 8vo. Ambrofe bifiiop of Milan wrote againft
Symmachus, and fo did the Chriftian poet Pruden-
tius.
Si MMET RY, the juft proportion of the feveral parts
of any thing, fo at to compofe a beautiful whole.
Symmetry, in Paiming. See Painting, Part I.
Sect. III.
SYMONDSBOROUGH, a remarkable large bar-
row of Flints, near Wellington in Devonftiire, in the
northern extremity of Hemyock. The common people
have a notion that a king called Symon was buried here,
ihe tradiUon of the country plainly ftiows that it was
the burial-place of fome perfon or perlbns of eminence.
SYMPATHETIC, fomething that adts or is adted
upon by fympathy. Ihus we fay, fympathetic difeafes,
inks, &c.
Sympathetic Inks. See Sympathetic Ink.
SYMPATHY, an agreement of affe&ions and in¬
clinations, or a conformity of natural qualities, humours,
tempeiaments, wdiich make two perfons delighted and
pleafed with each other.
Sympathy, alfo denotes the quality of being affeaed
by the affeaion of another ; and may fubfift either be¬
tween different perfons or bodies, or' between different
parts of the fame body. It is either fimilar or diftimi-
lar 3 fimilar, when the affedtion or aaicm in the fympa-
thuer is fimilar to the affeaion or aaion in the fympa-
thant 3 and diflimilar, when thofe are different—Sym¬
pathy too, is often an imitative faculty, fometimes in¬
voluntary, frequently without confcioufnefs : thus we
yawn when we fee others yawn, and are made to laugh
by the laughing of another.
Sympathy, according to Dr Jackfon *, relates to the * T ,-r
operations of the affeaions of the mind, to the opera- on Sympt
tions of the imagination, and to the affedlions of the ex- thy.
ternal fenfes.
W The paffions and affeaions of the mind produce in
the body different fenfations and impreffions, and, as
sympathies of confcioufnefs, determine in general the
fpirits to thofe parts which labour moft, or are moft apt
to be affeaed. Thus fear and anger determine to the
heart ; luft to the eyes &c. ; joy, pity, wonder, and
the Lke, to the head. See Passion, page 14.
The affeaions of the mind of one perfon will often
work upon the fpirits of many. Thus whole companies
are fometimes difpofed to be fad and melancholy or
merry and jovial, when any one is prefent much inclin¬
ed to either of thofe Rates of mind 3 and it has been
obferved;
S Y M [ 176 ] S Y
Sympathy, obferved, that old people, who have loved the company ten gives energy to our a&ions.
of the young, and have been converfant continually with
them, have generally lived long. But young peopl
M
young
mult not conclude from this, that the company and con-
verfation of the grave and old will operate upon the liv¬
ing and fenfitive principle, through the affections of their
mind, and difpofe them to be Ihort-lived. On the con¬
trary, by thus improving their underftanding, they will
be more enabled to fortify their conftitution and refill
the ravages of youthful indulgence.
It may alfo be further obferved, that thofe tender
fympathetic affedfions which lay hold of the mind, at
the reprefentation of theatrical performances, originate
from the fame principle, while they are to be confidered
as the furelt tell of juft execution in the adtor, and of
the expreffive language of the author. Indeed all Itage
effedt depends on fympathy.
It has been faid, that the paffions of the mind are
occafionally infedtious, particularly fome of them. Thus
fear and fame are fometimes very fuddenly fo. We
frequently may have occafion to fee, that the Halting of
one will make another ready to Hart. Again, when
one man is out of countenance in company, others will
often blulh in his behalf. However, the ferious paffions
may furely be fo under the controul of reafon as to relilt
infedlion, whatever may be the cafe of temporary, mul-
cular, or nervous attradtion.
2. Our author is inclined to think, that a connedtion
between the affedtions and fenfations of the female mind
and uterus, is very materially concerned in the procefs
of generation, and probably can alone give efficacy to
thofe adtions and impreffions fubfervient to conception,
through the fympathizing affedtions of the mind. But
this is a fubjedt of which we know fo little, that the
fpeculations of even the molt diflinguifhed philofophers
refpedting it have been nothing but the wild ravings of
imagination.
With refpedt to the depravity and force of the ima¬
gination in the produdtion of fympathies, they always
operate molt upon “ weak minds and fpirits, and there¬
fore molt on women, fuperltitious and fearful perfons,
lick people, children, and young creatures.” Their ef-
fedts, however, fometimes fail to appear, beeaufe they
are encountered and overcome by the mind and fpirit
before they work any manifelt effedts.”
Such effects are obviated upon the fame principle
which eltabliffies the prevention of bodily difeafe : “ for
in infedtion and contagion from body to body (as, for
example, during the plague), the miafma may be re¬
ceived •, but from the llrength and good difpolition of
the body, it is expelled and wrought out before it has
had fufficient time to form the difeafe.”
It has been faid, and many are of the opinion, that
the force of imagination doth often forward the end
propofed. Thus, for inftance, it has been put as a
queltion, “ Whether a man, when he conflantly and
Itrongly believes that fuch a thing lhall be (as that fuch
a one will love him, and the like), helps any thing to
the effedting the thing delired ?” Certainly not in the
manner which has been advanced, namely, “ by a fe-
cret operation on the fpirit of another.” If he fucceeds,
it is either becaufe he perfevered, or becaufe his perfeve-
rance and earneftnefs (and not any occult operation)
makes him at length be attended to.
There is not a doubt but the force of imagination of-
4
It may, however, un- Sympathy,
lefs we are much on our guard, eafily delude us afide ''1" v
from reafon. It has been the tree which has yielded the
fruits of fuperltition in former times, and which has of¬
ten fed the human mind with the molt extravagant no¬
tions of fympathy. Sympathies of this kind, fuch as
the power of charms, and the like, are now pretty ge¬
nerally exploded.
3. The five fenfes, hearing, tafing, fmelling, feeling,
and feeing, are confcious of a fympathetic impreffion
from odious objedts. “ 1. A difagreeable found will
fet the teeth on edge, and make all the body ffiiver.
2. The fwallowing of a naufeous medicine will be
attended with a lhaking of the head and neck. 3. Dif¬
agreeable fmells produce nearly the fame effedt, which
are lefs perceived, becaufe there is a remedy at hand by
Hopping the nofe. 4. If you come fuddenly out of
the fun into the fhade, the fenfe of feeling is diflur-
bed by a cbillnefs or Havering of the whole body.
5. And even Hidden darknefs produces a propenfity to
Ihivering.
There is a very apparent reafon why a fympathy
ffiould take place between the eyes. Hence their mo¬
tions are fynchronous. It may be faid, that cuHom and
habit difpofe the eyes to move one and the lame way j
“ for when one moveth towards the nofe, the other eye
moveth from the nofe.”
Though the eyes are by nature prone to move in
concert, cuflom will, however, deflroy this natural con¬
cert, and produce the contrary effedt. Thus fome peo¬
ple can fquint when they will. Our author therefore
gives this caution to mothers and nurfes : “ Let them
not fuffer infants to lit with a candle placed behind
them) for both their eyes will be difpofed to move out¬
wards, as affedting to fee the light of the candle, which
may bring on the habit of fquinting.”
It appears as a quality in the fenfes of hearing and
feeing, “ that the inflrument of each feparate fenfe
has a fympathy and fimilitude to that which giveth the
refledtion.” Thus it has been obferved, “ that the eye
will fympathize with a cry Hal glafs or water, and the
ear with caves and fuch hollow places as are fuited to
report echo.”
Sympathies have been compared to unifons of
found in mufic. Unifons of found produce agreeable
fympathetic feelings ; the reverfe produce difagveeable
feelings. “ All concords and difeords of mufic are (no
doubt) fympathies and antipathies of found.” More¬
over, “ they are faid to work as well by report of found
as by motion.”
The mod agreeable as well as odious objedts Operate
in a fecondary way, in producing thofe fympathetic im¬
preffions and adtions which they commonly give rife to.
An increafed fecretion of faliva often takes place at the
fight of a favourite diffi •, and the running of water from
a bottle, or otherwife, will fometimes affedt individuals
of a particular temperature, with an involuntary propen¬
fity to void urine.
Many have attempted to account for the remarkable
fympathy which takes place between parts of the body
feemingly unconnedted with each other 5 but as thefe
attempts are merely conjedtures, without any folid prin¬
ciples to refi on, we pafs them over as the dreams of in¬
genious men. It would be fortunate for fcience, if men
would confine themfelves to thofe fubjedts which can be
known.
Synagogue.
S Y N [ I
Symphonia known, and never draw conclufions till they have efta-
bliihed principles. See PHYSIOLOGY, chap. ii.
_ SYMPHONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of monadelphia. See Botany Index.
SYMPHONY, in Mujic, properly denotes a confo-
nance or concert of feveral founds agreeable to the ear,
whether vocal or inftrumental, called alfo harmony. See
Harmony.
SYMPHYSIS, in Anatomy, one of the kinds of
junctures or articulations of the bones. See Anatomy,
n° 2.
Cutting the Stmphtsis of the Pubes. See Mid¬
wifery, N° 136.
SYMPHYTUM, Comfrey, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs pentandria ; and in the natural fyf-
tem ranging under the 41 ft order afperifolite. See Botany
Index.
SYMPLOCE, o-vf&TrXeKYi, in Rhetoric, a figure,
where the fame word is tepeated feveral times in the be¬
ginning and end of a fentence, including the ana¬
phora and epitrophe : thus, ^uis legem tulit ? Rullus.
^uis majorem populi partem fujfragiis privavit ? Ru/lus.
^uis comitiis prcefiil ? Idem Rullus.
SYMPLOCOS, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs polydelphia. See Botany Index.
SYMPOSIARCH, in antiquity, the direttor or ma¬
nager of an entertainment. This office was fometimes
performed by the perfon at whofe charge the entertain¬
ment rvas provided ; fometimes by another named by
him; and at other times, efpecially in entertainments
provided at the common expence, he was ele&ed by lot,
or by the fuffrages of the guefts.
SYMPTOM, in Medicine, any circumftance which
indicates the exiftence, nature, or ftage of a difeafe.
Pain, waking, drowfinefs, convulfions, fuppreffion of
urine, difficulty of breathing and fwallowing, coughs,
diftaftes, naufeas, thirfts, fwoonings, faintings, loofenefs,
coftivenefs, drynefs and blacknefs of the tongue, are the
principal fymptoms of difeafes. See Medicine, n° 41.
and 58.
SYMPT. OMATICAL, in Medicine, is a term of¬
ten ufed to denote the difference between the primary
and fecondary caufes in difeafes : thus a fever from
pain is faid to be fymptomatical, becaufes it rifes from
pain only.
SYNiERESIS, Contraction, in Grammar, a figure
whereby two fyRabies are united in one $ as vetnens for
•vehemens.
SYNAGOGUE, among the Jews, is a place where
that people met to worffiip God. Authors are not
agreed about the time when the Jews firft began to have
fynagogues:—Some fuppofe them as old as the cere¬
monial law, and others fix their beginning to the times
after the Babyloniffi captivity. They erected fynagogues
not only in towns and cities, but alfo in the country,
efpecially near rivers, that they might have water for
their purifications and ceremonious waihings. No fyna-
gogue was built in any town, unlefs there were ten per-
fons of leifure in it; but there might be many in one
town, or in one quarter of a town, provided it was very
populous. Jerufalem is faid to have contained 480. The
chief things belonging to a fynagogue were, 1. The ark
or cheft, made after the model of the ark of the cove¬
nant, containing the Pentateuch. 2. The pulpit and
ddk in the middle of the fynagogue. in which he that was
VOL. XX. Part I.
tion.
WiforCs
Arch ecolo¬
gical Dic¬
tionary.
77 ] S Y N
to read or expound the law flood. 3. The feats or pews Synagogue
for the people. 4. The lamps to give light at evening If
fervice, and the feaft of dedication. 5. Rooms or apart- S>'nc0Pa“
ments for the utenfils and alms chefts. The fynagogue
was governed by a council or affembly, over whom was
a prelident, called The Ruler of the Synagogue. Thefe
are fometimes called Chiefs of the Jews, The Rulers,
The Priejls or Elders, The Governors, The Overfeers,
The Fathers of the Synagogue. Their buftnefs was to
puniffi the difobedient, by cenfures, by excommunication,
or by penalties, fuch as fines and fcourging 5 to take
care of the alms, which are frequently called by the
name of righteoulnefs. The chief ruler, or one of the
rulers, gave leave to have the law read and expounded,
and appointed who fhould do it. In every fynagogue,
there were feveral minifters who had different offices af-
figned to them. Service was performed three times a day.
viz. in the morning, in the afternoon, and at night*, at the
time of morning facrifice, evening facrifice, and after the
evening facrifice on Mondays, Thurfdays, and Saturdays,
there was a more forcible obligation upon the people to
attend than upon the other days. There are fynagogues at
London, Amllerdam, Rotterdam, Avignon, Metz, &.c.
SYNALOEPHA, in Grammar, a contraftion of
fyllables, performed principally, by fuppreffing fome
vowel or diphthong at the end of a word, on account
of another vowel or diphthong at the beginning of the
next. As, ill' ego, for ille ego, &c.
Conticuer' omnes intentiqu' ora tenebant. Virg.
It is called by the Latins collifio.
SYNARTHROSIS, 7 c A
SYNCHONDROSIS, See Anatomy» N 2-
S\ NCELLUS, or Sincellus, an ancient officer in
the family of the patriarchs, and other prelates of the
eaftern church. i he word, in the corrupt Greek,
rvyxjiAAof, fignifies a perfon who lies in the chamber
with another ; a chamber fellow, or chum. The fyn-
cellus was an ecclefiaftic, who lived with the patriarch
of Conftantinople, to be a witnefs of his conduct j
whence it is, that the fyncellus was alfo called the pa¬
triarch's eye, becaufe his bufinefs wras to obferve and
wratch. The other prelates had alfo their fyncelli,
who were clerks living in the houfe with them, and
even lying in the fame chamber, to be witneffes of the
purity of their manners. Afterwards the office dege¬
nerated into a mere dignity ; and there were made fyn¬
celli of churches.—At laft it became a title of honour,
and was beftowed by the emperor on the prelates them-
felves ; whom they called pontificalfyncelli, and fyncelli
jJuguflales.
SYNCHRONISM denotes the happening of feveral
things at the fame time. See Chronology.
SYNCOPATION, in Mufic, denotes a ftriking or
beating of time, whereby the diftin&ion of the feveral
times or parts of the meafure is interrupted. However
it is more properly ufed for the conne&ing the laft note
of any meafure, or bar, with the firft of the following
meafure, fo as only to make one note of both. A fyn-
cope is fometimes alfo made in the middle of a meafure.
Syncopation is alfo ufed when a note of one part ends
or terminates on the middle of a note of the other part.
This is otherwife denominated binding. It is likewife
ufed for a driving note ; that is, when fome ffiorter note
at the beginning of a meafure, or half meafure, is fol-
2 lowed
Syncopa¬
tion
Synodals.
S Y N [ 178 ] SYR
lowed by two, three, or more longer notes before ano¬
ther fliort note occurs, equal to that which occafioned
the driving, to make the number even, e. gr. when an
1 odd crotchet comes before two or three minims, or an
odd quaver before two, three, or more crotchets. In
iyncopated or driving notes, the hand or foot is taken
up, or put down, while the note is founding.
SYNCOPE, Fainting j a deep and hidden fwoon-
ing during which the vital fundlions are fufpended. See
Medicine, N° 98. and 272.
Syncope, in Grammar, an elifion or retrenchment of
a letter or fyllable out of the middle of a word, as ca/dus
for calidus.
SYNDIC, in government and commerce, an officer,
in divers countries, intruded with the affairs of a city or
other community, wdio calls meetings, makes reprefenta-
tions and folicitations to the miniftry, magidracy, &c.
according to the exigency of the cafe.
SYNECDOCHE, in Rhetoric, a kind of trope fie*
quent among orators and poets. See ORATORY, N° 56.
SYNECPHONESIS, in Grammar, a coalition,
whereby two fyllables are pronounced as one being
much the fame as Synaloepha and Syndesis.
SYNEUROSIS. See Anatomy, N° 2.
SYNGENESIA, (<™v and ysvs^s, “ congeneration),”
the name of the 19th clafs in Lmneeus’s artificial lyftem.
See ClaJJiJication, Botany Index.
SYNGNATHUS, Pipe-fish, a genus of fithes be¬
longing to the cartilaginous order. See Ichthyology,
page 104.
SYNOCHA, and Synochus, in Medicine, the names
of two fpecies of continued fever. See Medicine,
N° 164.
SYNOD, in AJlronomy, a conjunction or concourfe
of two or more liars or planets, in the fame optical
place of the heavens.
Synod fignifies alfo a meeting or affembly of eccle-
fiaftical perfons to confult on matters of religion.
Of thefe there are four kinds, viz. 1. General, or
(ecumenical, where biffiops, &c. meet from all nations.
Thefe were firft called by the emperors, afterwards by
Chridian princes; till in later ages the pope ufurped to
himfelf the greated lhare in this bufinefs, and by his
legates prefided in them when called. 2. National,
where thofe of one nation only come together, to de¬
termine any point of doftrine or difeipline. The fird
of this fiprt which we read of in England, w^as that of
Hetudford or Hertford, in 673, and the lad was that
held by Cardinal Pole, in 1555. 3. Provincial, where
thofe only of one province meet, now called the con¬
vocation. 4. Diocefan, where thofe of but one diocefe-
meet, to enforce canons made by general councils, or
national and provincial fynods, and to confult and agree
upon rules of difeipline for themfelves. Thefe were not
wholly laid afide, till by the aCl of fubmiffion, 25 Hen.
VIII. c. 19. it was made unlawful for any fynod to
meet, but by royal authority. See Council and Con¬
vocation.
Synods, Provincial, in the Government of the Church
of Scotland. See Presbyterians, N° 14.
SYNOD ALS, or Synodies, were pecuniary rents
(commonly of turn dullings), paid to the biffiop, or
archdeacon, at the time of their eader vifitation, by
every pariffi pried. They were thus called, becaufe
ufually paid in fynods: becaufe anciently biffiops ufed
to vilit and hold their diocefan fynods once.—-For the Syr.otfica!
fame realbn, they are fometimes alfo denominated fyno- ^ f
dalien ; but more ufually, procurations. ■ } ■
SYNODICAL, fomething belonging to a fynod.
Thus, fynodical epillles are circular letters written by
the fynods to the abfent prelates and churches j or even
thofe general ones direfted to all the faithful, to inform
them of what had paffed in the fynod.
SYNOECIA, in Grecian antiquity, a fead cele¬
brated at Athens in memory of Thefeus’s having uni¬
ted ail the petty communities of Attica into one Angle
commonwealth j the feat whereof was at Athens, where
all the affemblies wTere to be held. This fead was de¬
dicated to Minerva ; and, according to- the fcholiad
on Thucydides, it was held in the month Metagitnion.
SYNONYMOUS, is applied to a word or term that
has the fame import or fignification with another.
Several works have been compofed for the ex-
prefs purpofe of explaining fynonymous W'ords. In 1777
a work was publidied on the Latin fynonyma at Paris
by M. Gardin Dumefnil. The abbe Girard publilhed
one on the fynonymous terms of the French language
many years ago. Another was publifhed on the lame
fubjeft in the year 1785 by the abbe Roubaud. An
account of the Engliffi fynonyma wras publiflied by an
anonymous author in 1766 5 wdnch is a clofe imitation,
and in fome parts a literal tranflation, of the abbe Gi¬
rard’s Synonymes Franfois. Mrs Piozzi has written
fome effays on the fame fufejedl.
SYNOVIA, in Medicine, a term ufed by Paracelfus
and his fchool for the nutritious juice proper and pecu¬
liar to each pari. Thus they talk of the fynovia of thei
joints, of the brain, &c.
SYNTAX, in Grammar, the proper condruftion or
due difpofition of the words of a language into fentences
and phrafes. See Grammar and Language.
SYNTHESIS, in Logic, denotes- a branch of me¬
thod, oppofite to analyfis.
In the fynthefis or fynthetic method, we purfue the
truth by reafons drawn from principles before edablilhed
or affumed, and propofitions formerly proved: thus pro¬
ceeding by a regular chain, till we come to the conclu-
fion. Such is the method in Euclid’s Elements, and
mod demondrations of the ancient mathematicians,
which proceed from definitions and axioms, to prove
propofitions, &c. and from thofe propofilions proved to
prove others. This method we alfo call compoftion, in '
in oppofition to analyfs or refolution. See Analysis.
SYPHILIS. See Medicine, N° 350.
SYPHON. See Hydrodynamics. Some uncom¬
mon phenomena in nature may be accounted for upon
the principles^ of the fyphon *, as, for indance, that of
reciprocating fprings. See Pneumatics, N® 373. 1
SYRACUSE, a celebrated city of Sicily, and once At-what
the capital of the illand. It w’as built, according to^1116 bullt*
Thucydides and Strabo, by Archias, one of the Hera-
clidre, who came from Corinth into Sicily in the fecond
year of the nth Olympiad, and derived its name from
a neighbouring marlh named Syraco. What form of
government fird prevailed in the city is not known.
Many have fuppofed it originally to have been governed
by kings : but if this were the cafe, the monarchical
government continued only for a very fhort time ; fince
Aridotle, Diodorus Siculus, and Judin, mention it as
‘ being very earlyv[ubject to a democracy. The hidory
is
SviTiCUfe.
Gelon fei-
7.cs on the
fevereignty
Defeats tlu
Carthagi¬
nians, and
takes the
title of
king.
.4
His excel
lent reign.
o .
Gelon dies,
and is fuc-
ceeded by
Hiero.
An. 471.
B. C.
6
Thrafybu
lus, a ty¬
rant.
'An 459.
B. C.
7
The Siculi
fubdued.
8
Syracufe in¬
vaded by
the Athe¬
nians with¬
out fuccefs.
SYR [1
is obfcure and unimportant till the time of Gelon, when
1 Syracufe firft began to make a confpicuous figure.
Gelon was born in the city of Gela in Sicily, of the
family of Telines, who had been created prieft of the
.infernal gods. He fignalized himfelf in a war carried
on againft the Syracufans, by Hippocrates tyrant of Gela,
whom he defeated in a pitched battle. Having thus
become very powerful among his countrymen, he foon
found means to feize on the lovereignty for himfelf. In
a Ihort time, having put himfelf at the head ol fome
Syracufan exiles, he marched towards that place, where
he wTas received with loud acclamations and obtained
poffeiTion of the city.
Gelon, in order to people the capital of his new
dominions, firft demolilhed the neighbouring city of
Camarina, and tranfplanted the inhabitants to Syracufe.
Soon after, entering into a war wdth the Megareans, he
defeated them, took and rafed their cities, and in like
manner tranfplanted the people. Syracufe thus became
powerful, and full of inhabitants ; and the friendlhip
of Gelon wTas courted both by Athens and Lacedaemon
at the time of the Perfian invafion. In the mean time
the Carthaginians had entered into a treaty with the
Perfians ; by which it was agreed, that the former
fhould attack thofe of the Greek name in Sicily and
Italy, in order to divert them from allifting each other.
Sicily was accordingly invaded by the Carthaginians
with a vaft army ; but they were utterly overthrown by
Gelon, as is related under the article Carthage, N°
7—9. After this victory, the people out of gratitude
obliged him to affume the title of king ; which till that
time he had refufed. A decree alfo paffed by which the
crown was fettled on his two brothers Hiero and Thrafy-
bulus after his death.
The new king, initead of keeping his fubje&s in
greater awe, fludied to make them happy, and was the
firft man who became more virtuous by being raifed to a
throne. He was particularly famous for his honefty,
truth, and fincerity ; is faid never to have wronged the
meaneft of his fubje&s, and never to have promifed a
thing which he did not perform.
Gelon died in the year 471 B. C. after having reigned
three or four years 5 and was fucceeded by his brother
Hiero, whofe character is differently drawn by different
hiftorians. He is highly celebrated in the odes of Pin¬
dar ; and it is certain that his court was the refort of
men of wit and learning, to whom he behaved in the
moft courteous manner and with the greateft liberality.
In 459 B. C. Hiero was fucceeded by Thrafybulus j
who proving a tyrant, was in ten months driven out, and
a popular government reftored j which continued for the
fpace of 55 years.
About this time the Syracufans entered into a war
with the Siculi, which terminated in the total fubjeftion
of the latter ; after which Syracufe became fo powerful,
that it in a manner gave law to the whole ifland. The
Greek cities indeed enjoyed a perfeft liberty j but they
all acknowledged Syracufe as their metropolis : by de¬
grees, however, the latter began to affume fuch an
authority over them as was totally incon/iftent with li¬
berty ; and this occafioned many wars, which involved
them in much diftrefs and danger. They began with
the Leontines, whofe territory they laid waftc, and re¬
duced their city to great ftraits. Leontini was an
Athenian colony : and this furnilhed the Athenians,
79 3 s f 11 _
who had already meditated the conqueft of Sicily, with Syracufe.
a pretence to attac the Syracufans with their whol' " v—
force. Under colour of affifting their countrymen
therefote, they fent a fleet of 250 fail to Sicily ; but
the Leontines, fenflble that their pretended allies aimed
at nothing leis than the conqueft of the whole ifland,
concluded a peace with Syracule ; and the ddappointed
Athenians vented their rage on thofe who had adviied
and conducted the expedition.
During the continuance of the popular government,
the Syracufans took part in the long war between A-
thens and Sparta. The circumftances which took place
in this conteft are fufficiently detailed under Attica,
N° 126—150. 9
This war was fcarcely ended, when a new and for-New inva-
midable invafion by the Carthaginians took place ; but |ion |yv the
the event of that expedition was as unfortunate to thej^^
Carthaginians as the former had been, as has been par¬
ticularly related under the article Carthage, N° i 2.
etfeq.
In the mean time, a confiderable revolution had hap¬
pened in Syracufe, The city of Agrigentum had been
taken by the Carthaginians, and of the few inhabitants
who efcaped, fome fled to Syracufe, where they accufed
the Syracufan commanders of having betrayed the city I3
into the hands of the enemy. Dionyfius, a man of great Rqe cf
valour and addrefs, but who had become very obnoxious Diony -us,
to the populace, took this opportunity of attempting to
retrieve his credit. He therefore fupported the accufa-
tions brought againft his countrymen by the Agrigen-
tines, and even impeached the magiftrates as having a
fecret intelligence with the enemy, and attempting to
introduce an oligarchy. As his fpeech was entirely le¬
velled againft the more wealthy citizens, it was very a-
greeable to the lower clafs : the commanders wrere in-
ftantly degraded j and others, among wrhom was Diony¬
fius, were appointed. Having once gained this point,
he began to confider how he might get all his colleagues
turned out. For this purpofe he never joined in any
council of war with the other commanders, nor impart¬
ed to them his refolutions, giving out that he could not
truft them, and that they had more regard for their own
intereft than the welfare, of their country. But while he
was proceeding in this manner, the more prudent part
of the citizens, perceiving what he aimed at, complain¬
ed of him to the fenate and magiftrates, and - fined him
as a diflurber of the public peace. According to the
laws, the fine was to be paid before he could fpeak in
public, and the circumftances of Dionyfius did not al¬
low him to difcharge it. In this dilemma he was afiifled
by Philiftus the hiftorian, a man of great wealth, who
not only paid this fine for him, but encouraged him to
fpeak his mind freely, as it became a zealous citizen to
do, promifing to pay all the fines that (hould be laid up¬
on him.
Being extiicated out of this difficulty, Dionyfius next
proceeded to inveigh, with all the eloquence of which he
was mafter, againft thofe who by means of their power or
intereft were able to oppofe his defigns, and by degree;
brought them into diferedit. His next Fcheme was to
get thofe exiles recalled whom the nobility had banifh-
ed at different times 5 as thinking that they would fup-
port him with all their power, as well out of gratitude
as out of hatred to the oppofite party. Having gained
this point alfo, he next found means to ingratiate him-
Z 2 felf
SYR
[ 180 ]
SYR
who be¬
comes king
of Syracufe.
An, 404.
£. C.
Dionylius
II.
An. 366.
B. C.
Syracufe. felf with the foldiery to fuch a degree, that, under pre-
tence of taking proper meafures for refitting the Cartha¬
ginians, he was chofen commander in chief, with abfo-
lute and unlimited power. This was no fooner done,
than, pretending his life was in danger, he chofe out
1000 men for his guard, whom he attached to his in-
tereft by great promifes. As no perfon durft now op-
pofe him, he poffefled himfelf of the citadel, where all
the arms and provifions were kept j after which he pub¬
licly took the title of king of Sy^acufe in the year
404 B. C.
The Syracufans did not tamely fubmit to their new
mailer: but Dionyfms managed matters fo well, that
their frequent revolts anfwered no other purpofe than
more certainly to entail flavery on themfelves $ and he
was allowed to poffefs the throne without much oppoli-
tion till his death, which happened in the year 366
B. C.
On the death of Dionyfius, he was fucceeded by his
fon, called alfo Dionyfius. He was naturally of a mild
•and peaceable temper, averfe to cruelty, and inclined to
learning 5 but his father, to whom all merit, even in
his own children, gave umbrage, ftifled as far as poffible
his good qualities by a mean and obfcure education. He
no fooner afcended the throne, than Dion, brother to
Ariltomache the other wife of Dionyfius the Elder, un¬
dertook to correft the faults of his education, and to in-
13 fpire him with thoughts fuitable to the high Ration in
Put under which he was placed. For this purpofe he fent for the
the care of philofopher Plato, under whofe care he immediately put
the young king. This inftantly produced a reformation
on Dionyfius j but the courtiers, dreading the effe&s of
the philofopher’s inftru6lions, prevailed on him to ba-
nilh Dion, and to keep Plato himfelf in a kind of impri-
fonment in the citadel. At laft, however, he fet him
at liberty $ upon which Plato returned to his own coun¬
try.
Dion, in the mean time, vifited feveral of the Gre¬
cian cities, and at laft took up his refidence in Athens j
but the honours which were everywhere paid him, raif-
ed fuch jealoufies in the -breaft of the tyrant, that he
flopped his revenue, and caufed it to be paid into his
own treafury. In a ftrort time Dionyfius again fent for
Plato 5 but finding it impoflible to diffolve the friendlhip
between him and Dion, difgraced, and placed him in a
very dangerous fituation, in the midft of aflaflins wrho
hated him. Not daring, however, to offer him any vio¬
lence, he allowed him foon after to depart 5 revenging
himfelf on Dion, whofe eftate he fold, and gave his
wife Arete in marriage to Timocrates one of his own
flatterers.
Dion now refolved to revenge himfelf on the tyrant
for the many injuries he had fuftained, and at once to
14 deliver his country from the oppreflion under w-hich it
Dion raifes groaned, fie began with raifing foreign troops pri-
troops for vately, by proper agents, for the better execution of his
dethroning <jef1gn( Many Syracufans of diftinftion entered into his
t e tyrant. pc^errie^ ancj gave intelligence of what paffed in the
city ; but of the exiles, of w7hom there were upwards of
1000 difperfed up and down Greece, only 25 joined
him ; fo much were they awed by the dread of the ty¬
rant. The troops were affembled at the ifland of Zacyn-
thus, in number only about 800 5 but who had all been
tried on many occafions, were ■well difeiplined, and cap-
fcble of animating by their example the forces which
Plato by
his uncle
Dion,
whom he
banilhes.
Dion hoped to find in Sicily. When they were about Syracufe.
to fail, Dion acquainted them with his defign, the bold-v'—*—*
nefs of which at firft occafioned among them no fmall
confternation ; but Dion foon removed their fears, by
telling them that he did not lead them as foldiers, but
as officers, to put them at the head of the Syracufans
and all the people of Sicily, who were ready to receive
them with open arms. Having then embarked in
two fmall trading veffels, they arrived in 12 days at
Cape Pachynum near Syracufe. At laft they arrived
at the port of Minoa, not far from Agrigentum. Here
they received intelligence that Dionyfius had fet fail for
Italy, attended by a fleet of 80 galleys. On this Dion
refolved to take advantage of the tyrant’s abfence, and
immediately fet fail for Syracufe. On his march he pre¬
vailed on the inhabitants of Agrigentum, Gela, Ca- IS
marina, and other cities, to join him. As foon as he Enters Sy-
entered the territories of Syracufe, multitudes flockedracufe
to him; and as nobody appeared to oppofe him, he °^oppo ’
boldly entered the city, where he quickly found himfelf
at the head of 50,000 men. As foon as he had landed
in Sicily, Timocrates, to whom his wife Arete had been
given by Dionyfius, and to whom the care of the city
had been left, difpatched a courier to let the tyrant
know the danger in which he was. Dionyfius was, how¬
ever, accidentally prevented from receiving a timely ac¬
count of Dion’s arrival $ fo that when he entered the ci¬
tadel by fea, feven days after Dion’s arrival, he found l6
his affairs in a defperate fituation. Upon this he had re-Dionyfius
courfe to artifice ; and having amufed the Syracufans by arrives, but
a feigned negotiation, until he obferved that they kept
a negligent guard, he attacked them all at once with e ea e *
fuch fury, that he had almoft taken the city. But Dion
encouraged the foldiers by his example fo much, that he
at laft obtained a complete vi&ory 5 for which they pre-
fented him with a crown of gold. ^
It was not long, however, before the ungrateful Sy- ingratitude
racufans began to think of conferring quite different re- of the Syra-
wards on their benefa&or. Dionyfius had the addrefs cufans
to render him fufpefted by the multitude ; at the fame 10n‘
time that Heraclides, an excellent officer, but a fecret
enemy to Dion, did all that lay in his power to fink his
credit. Dionyfius was foon obliged to fly into Italy,
but left Heraclides to oppofe Dion.
At length Dion got poffcffion of the city, Heraclides
fubmitted to him, and was received into favour $ but as r8
his feditious and turbulent behaviour ftill continued, Dion be-
Dion at laft gave orders to put him to death. This ac- comes mo¬
tion, however neceffary, fo affected the mind of Dion, lai^0ty>
that he became melancholy; and ever after imagined ^re£mur“
himfelf haunted by a frightful fpeftre, refembling a wo¬
man of gigantic ftature, with the haggard looks and air
of a fury. In a ffiort time after he loft his life, through
the bafe treachery of Calippus, or Gylippus, who pre¬
tended to be his intimate friend, and who immediately
after caufed his wife and filler to be carried to prifom
Calippus having removed Dion, foon made him¬
felf mafter of Syracufe, where he committed all manner
of cruelties; but was driven out, and forced to fly to
Rhegium, where he was murdered with the fame dagger
which had killed Dion. In 350 B. C. Dionyfius again
made himfelf mafter of Syracufe •, and being exafperated 19
by bis paft misfortunes, tyrannized worfe than ever. The Dionyfius
Syracufans firft had recourfe to Icetas tyrant of Leonti-re ore
ni) but as the Carthaginians took this opportunity to in¬
vade
20
Surrenders
to Timo-
leon, and
keeps a
fchool at
Corinth.
Timoleon.
SYR [i
Syrarufe. vade them with a powerful fleet and army, they were
“■"~v obliged to apply to the Corinthians. By them Timo¬
leon, a celebrated commander, was fent to the afliltance
of the Syracufans, whom he found in a very dittrefled fl-
tuation j Icetas being mailer of the city, the Carthagi¬
nians of the harbour, and Dionyfius of the citadel. As
all parties were equally the enemies of Dionyfius, he
found it impoflible to hold out, and therefore furrender-
ed himfelf to Timoleon, by whom he was fent to Co¬
rinth •, where at laft he was reduced to the neceflity of
teaching a fchool for his fupport.
After the expullion of the tyrant, Timoleon with¬
drew to Catana, leaving only 400 Corinthians, under
the command of an experienced officer named Leon, to
guard the citadel. Thefe were immediately befieged by
Icetas and the Carthaginians, but Timoleon found means
to relieve them in fpite of all oppofition *, and having dif-
perfed emiffaries through the army of Mago the Cartha-
21 ginian general, exhorting the mercenary Greeks to for-
Cowardice fake him, he was fo much intimidated, that in fpite of
of the Car- all the remonftrances Icetas could make, he fet fail for
thaginians. Africa, leaving his colleague to carry on the war in the
bell manner he could.
The day after the departure of Mago, Timoleon af-
faulted the city fo brilkly, that the troops of Icetas
were driven from the walls, and the Corinthians became
22 mailers of the place. Timoleon, by found of trumpet,
Citadel of ;nvited the inhabitants to come and affilt in demolilhing
andother t^le cdac^e^ and other caftles, which he called the nejls of
forts demo- tyrants; after which he caufed edifices to be eredted in
lilhedby the place where the citadel had Hood, for the admini-
llration of jultice. He found the city in a moll miferable
fituation: for many having perilhed in the wars and fe-
ditions, and others having fled to avoid the oppreffion of
tyrants, Syracufe, once fo wealthy and populous, was
now become almoft a defert j infomuch that the horfes
were fed on the grafs which grew on the market-place.
Timoleon fupplied the city with inhabitants from Co¬
rinth and other cities of Greece, at the fame time that
great multitudes from Italy and the other parts of Sicily
reforted thither. Timoleon diltributed the lands among
them gratis; but fold the houfes, and with the money
a riling from the fale eftablilhed a fund for the fupport of
the poor. Having thus reltored Syracufe, he in like
manner delivered all the Greek cities of Sicily from the
tyrants who had taken poffeffion of them, all of whom
he put to death. After this he refigned his authority,
and led a retired life, honoured in the highell degree by
the Syracufans, and by all the cities in Sicily. After
his death he was honoured as a god j the expence of his
Dies, and is,funeral was defrayed by the public •, fports^ with horfe-
aTod*^ ^raCeS anC* gymnaftic exerches, were held annually on
the day of his death ; and it was decreed, that whenever
the Syracufans were at war with the barbarians, they
Ihould fend to Corinth for a general.
For 20 years the Syracufans enjoyed the fruits of
Timoleon’s vi&ories ; but new difturbances arifing, in a
ffiort time another tyrant ftarted up, who exceeded all
that had gone before him in cruelty and other vices.
'I his was the celebrated Agathocles, of whofe exploits
again!! the Carthaginians a full account is given under
the article Carthage, N° 33—53. He was poifoned
by one Moenon in the year 289 B. C. after having reign¬
ed 28 years, and lived 95.—A fucceffion of tyrants fol¬
lowed, till at laft the city, being held by two rivals,.
23
He repeo¬
ples the
city.
a god.
25
Syracufe
again falls
under the
power of
tyrants.
81 ] SYR
Toenion and Sofiftratus, who made war within the very Syracufe.
walls, Pyrrhus king of Epirus tvas invited into Sicily,1 v '
in order to put an end to thefe diftraftions. He wil- p JJlL
lingly complied with the invitation ; and was everywhere king 0f
received with loud acclamations, as the deliverer not on- Epirus in¬
ly of Syracufe, but of all Sicily. As he had a fine army vi^d ^
of 30,000 foot and 5000 horfe, with a fleet of 200 fail,Slcily'
he drove the Carthaginians from place to place, till he
left them only the two ftrong pofts of Eryx and Lily-
baeum. The former of thefe he took by affault, and
was himfelf the firft man who mounted the walls, after
having killed a great number of Africans with his own
hand. Ihe Mamertines likewife, who had conquered
a confiderable part of the illand, were everywhere de¬
feated and driven out, till at laft they were Ihut up in
the city of Meflana. The Carthaginians, alarmed at
the rapidity of his conquefts, fent ambaffadors with pro-
pofals of peace upon very advantageous terms j but
Pyrrhus, puffed up with the expeftation of reducing the
whole illand, refufed to hearken to any terms unlefs
they would inftantly abandon it. So firm was he in the
belief of this, that he caufed his fon to affume the
title of king of Sicily ; but in the mean time, having dif-
pleafed the Sicilians by his arbitrary behaviour, they
deferted from him in fuch numbers that he was glad to
fet out for Italy, for which retreat the embaffies he re¬
ceived from the Samnites, Tarentines, and other Ita¬
lians, furnilhed him with an honourable pretext. He
embarked in the Ihips which he had brought with him
from Italy 5 but was met at fea by the Carthaginians^
who funk 70 of his velfels, and difperfed or took the
reft j fo that he faved himfelf in Italy only with 12 27
velfels, the poor remains of a fleet of 200 fail. NoSyracule
fooner were the Mamertines apprifed of his departure, harafl'ed
than they difpatched a body of 18,000 men to harafs ^e^IameT"
him after his landing. Thefe, having palfed the ftraits
before him, polled themfelves in the road ivhich Pyrrhus
mull take in marching by land to Tarentum ; and con¬
cealing themfelves among woods and rocks, attacked
him unexpectedly, and with great refolution. But
Pyrrhus behaved on this occafion with his ufual bravery.
The attack being made on his rear, he haftened thither,
and made a dreadful ftaughter of the enemy, till a wound
on his head obliged him to retire. 2g
After the departure of Pyrrhus, Hiero the fon ofHier°cho-
Hierocles, a defcendant of Gelon, the firft king of Sy-fen general
racufe, was chofen general of the forces, along with ^£ forl^
another named Artemidorus. The two generals hadces.
nothing more at heart than to put an end to the con-
fufion and diforder which reigned in the city j for which
reafon they entered it at the head of their forces. On
this occafion Hiero difcovered extraordinary talents for
government. By mere dint of infinuation and addrefs,
without ffiedding blood, or hurting a fingle citizen, he
calmed the minds of the people j reconciled the fac¬
tions ; and fo gained the affeCtions of all, that he was
invefted with the whole civil as well as military power
in the ftate. Soon after this, he married the daughter
of one of the firft citizens; and having diftinguilhed
himfelf by his exploits again!! the Mamertines, was is elecfted
unanimoully defied king of Syracufe, in the year 265 king of i>y .
B. C. racufe.
Some time after Hiero’s acceffion to the throne, he^V^'
again defeated tire Mamertines, and reduced them to
'fuch ftraitsl that they were, obliged to call in the Pm-
maws-
/
Syracufe.
~ . 3°
Hlerony-
mus allies
with the
Carthagi¬
nians.
* See Car¬
thage, N°
123.
3i
Syracufe
invdled.
32
i ncrechble
eftedls of
the ma¬
chines of
Archime¬
des.
S Y R [ 38
mans to their afliftance. The confequences of this have
been fully related under the articles Rome and Car-
THage. Hiero, who had allied himfelf with the Cartha¬
ginians, being himfelf defeated by the Romans, and find¬
ing his allies unable to protect him againft the power of
that republic, concluded an alliance with them •, and
continued faithful to them even in the time of the fe-
cond Punic war, when they were in the greateft diltrefs.
In his reign flourilhed the celebrated mathematician
Archimedes, whole genius he employed in fortifying the
city of Syracufe, by innumerable machines, in fuch a
manner as rendered it abfolulely impregnable to every
method of attack knowm at that time.
_ Hiero died about 211 B. C. and was fucceeded by
his grandfon Hieronymus : but he imprudently forfook
the counfels of his grandfather, and entered into an al¬
liance with the Carthaginians. Soon after this he was
murdered, in confequence of his tyranny and cruelty,
and the greateft diforders took place in the city ; which
Hannibal, though then in Italy, found means to foment,
in hopes of keeping the Syracufans in his intereft. This
indeed he effeSed $ but as his own affairs in Italy began
to decline *, he could not prevent Marcellus from land¬
ing in Sicily with a formidable army, which the Sicili¬
ans could by no means refift. Syracufe was foon in-
vefted ; but the machines invented by Archimedes baf¬
fled all attempts to take it by affault. The immenfe
preparations which the conful had made for taking the
city by ftorm, could not have failed to accomplifh his
purpofe, had the place been otherwife defended than by
the contrivance of Archimedes. The Roman fleet con-
lifted of 60 quinqueremes, befides a far greater number
of other ftiips. The decks were covered with foldiers "
armed with darts, flings, and bows, to drive the befieg-
ed from the ramparts, which on one fide were wafhed by
the fea, and to facilitate the approach to the walls. But a
machine of Marcellus's own invention, called a fambuca,
was what he chiefly depended on. The conful’s defign
was to bring his fambuca to the foot of the walls of
Acradina ; but, w'hile it was at a confiderable diftance
‘ and it advanced very flow, being moved only by two
ranks of nwers), Archimedes difcharged from one of
Ins engines a vaft ftone, weighing, according to Plu¬
tarch’s account, 1250 pounds, then a fecond, and imme¬
diately after a third j all which, falling upon the fam¬
buca with a dreadful noife, broke its fupports, and gave
the galleys upon which it flood fuch a violent (hock
that they parted, and the machine which Marcellus had
raifed upon them at a vaft trouble and expence was bat¬
tered to pieces. At the fame time, feveral other ma¬
chines, which were not vifible without the walls, and
confequently did not leffen the confidence of the Ro¬
mans in the affault, played inceffantly upon their fhips,
and overwhelmed them with fhowers of ftones, rafters,
and beams pointed with iron ; infomuch that Marcellus,
being at a lofs what to do, retired with all pofiible hafte,
and fent orders to his land-forces to do the fame ; for
the attack on the land-fide was attended with no better
luccefs, the ranks being broken and thrown into the ut-
moft confufion by the ftones and darts, which flew with
fuch noife, force, and rapidity, that they ftruck the Ro¬
mans with terror, and dafhed all to pieces before them.
Marcellus, furprifed, though not difcouraged, at this
artificial ftorm, which he did not expeft, held a council
of war, in which it was refolved, the next day before
2
2 ] S Y R
funrife, to come up clofe under the wall, and keep
tnere. I hey were in hopes by this means to fecure
themfelves againft the terrible ftorm of ftones and darts
which fell on the (hips when at a diftance. But Ar¬
chimedes had prepared engines which were adapted to
all diitances. V/hen the Romans therefore had brought
theii Ihips clofe under the wall, and thought themfelves
well covered, they were unexpectedly overwhelmed with
a new fhower of darts and ftones, which fell perpendi¬
cularly on their heads, and obliged them to retire with
great precipitation. But they were no fooner got at
fome diftance, than a new fhower of darts overtook
them, which made a dreadful havock of the men, while
ftones of an immenfe weight, difcharged from other ma¬
chines, either difabled or broke in pieces moft of their
galleys. This lofs they fuftained, without being able
to revenge it in the leaft on the enemy. For Archi¬
medes had placed moft of his engines behind the walls,
and not only out oi the reach, but even out of the fight,
of the enemy ; fo that the Romans were repulfed with a
dreadiul flaughter, without feeing the hand that occa-
fioned it. \Vhat moft haraffed the Romans in the at¬
tack by fea, was a fort of crow with iron claws, faften-
ed to a long chain, which was let down by a kin i of
lever. The weight of the iron made it fall with great
violence, and drove it into the planks of the galleys.
1 hen the befieged, by a great weight of lead at the
other end of the lever, weighed it down, and confe¬
quently raifed up the iron of the crow in proportion,
'and with it the prow of the galley to which it was fas¬
tened, finking the poop at the fame time into the water.
After this the crow letting go its hold all of a hidden,
the prow of the galley fell with fuch force into the fea,
that the wftiole veffel was filled with water, and funk.
At other times, the machines, dragging ftiips to the
fhore by hooks, dafhed them to pieces againft the points
of the rocks which projected under the walls. Other
veffels were quite lifted up into the air, there whirled
about with incredible rapidity, and then let fall into the
fea, and funk, with all that were in them. How thefe
ftupendous works were effe&ed, few, if any, have hither¬
to been able to comprehend.
I he troops under the command of Appius fuffered no
lefs in this lecond attack than the fleet. In the whole
Space of ground which the army, when formed, took up,
tne laft files as well as the firft wrere overwhelmed with
fhowers of darts and flints, againft which they could not
poffibly defend themfdves. When they had with in¬
finite trouble brought the mantelets and covered gal¬
leries, under which they were to work the rams, near
the foot of the wall, Archimedes difcharged fuch large
beams and ftones upon them as crufhcd them to pieces.
If any brave Roman ventured to draw too near the wall,
iron hooks were immediately let down from above,
which, taking hold of his clothes or fome part of his
body, lifted him up in the air and dallied out his brains
with the fall. Marcellus, though at a lofs what to do,
could not however forbear expreffmg himfelf with plea-
fantry : Shall we perfift, faid he to his workmen, in ma¬
king war upon this Briareus, upon this giant with an
hundred hands ? But the foldiers were fo terrified, that
if they faw upon the walls only a fmall cord, or the leaft
piece of wood, they immediately turned their backs and
fled, crying out, that Archimedes was going to difeharge
fome dreadful machine upon them.
Syracufe.
The
modes kil¬
led.
3<*
Syracufe
dsftroyed
S Y R [ I
Syracufe. XKe confals, finding themfelves thus defeated in every
*—attempt, turned the liege into a blockade, reduced molt
The "liege t^le ot^cr places in the ifland, and defeated the forces
turned mto which were fent againft them*, and at lalt Marcellus
a blockade, made himfelf mailer of Syracufe itfelf. He took the
34 opportunity of a feftival, when the foldiers and citizens
tiiTcakin^ ^run'i plentifully, to make a detachment fcale the
oi byracule. waHs ofTyche, in that part of it which was neareft to
Epipolae, and which was ill guarded. He prefently af¬
ter poffefied himfelf of Epipolae *, whereupon the inha¬
bitants of Neapolis, as well as Tyche, fent deputies to
him, and fubmitted. Marcellus granted life and liberty
to all of free condition, but gave up thofe quarters of
The city the city to be plundered. The foldiers had orders to
plundered, fpare the lives of the citizens 5 but they were cruel in
an<l-A-r^1‘ their avarice, flew many of them, and among the reft
" the incomparable Archimedes. He was very intent on
a demonftration in geometry, and calmly drawing his
lines, when a loldier entered the room, and clapped a
fword to his throat. “ Hold ! (faid Archimedes) one
moment, and my demonftration will be finiftied.” But
the foldier, equally regardlefs of his prayer and his de¬
monftration, killed him inftantly. There are different
accounts of the manner of his death ; but all agree that
Marcellus regretted it extremely, and Ihowed a lingular
favour to his relations for his fake.
The city of Syracufe continued fubjeft to the weftern
^ - empire till its-declenfion, when the illand of Sicily, be-
raceaT Sa" raVag£d by different barbarians, the capital alfo un¬
derwent various revolutions; till at laft, in the 9th cen¬
tury, it was fo-deftroyed by the Saracens, that very few
traces of its ancient grandeur are now to be feen. “ The
ancient city of Syracufe was of a triangular form, and
confided of five parts or towns. The circuit, accord¬
ing to Strabo, amounted to 180 ftadia, or 22 Englifti
miles, and four furlongs. An account which Mr Swin¬
burne once fufpedled of exaggeration ; but, after fpend-
ing two days in tracing the ruins, and making reafon-
able allowances for the encroachments of the fea, he was
convinced of the exa&nefs of Strabo’s meafurement.
At prefent it is ftrongly fortified towards the land,
and the ditches of the baftions form the communications
between the two havens. It is very weak towards the
fea, but the Ihelves render it hazardous to debark on
that fide. The garrifon is one of the beft appointed in the
kingdom, but the heights of Acradina command the works.
About eighteen thoufand inhabitants are now con¬
tained in it. The dwellings are far from being memo¬
rials of ancient Syracufan architeflure or opulence. In
any other fituation they might be thought tolerable j
but to obfervers who rexle£t on the ftyle of thofe build¬
ings that probably once covered the fame ground, the
prefent edifices muft have a mean appearance. The
ancient temple of Minerva is now turned into a cathe¬
dral. The walls of the cella are thrown down, and on¬
ly as much left in pillars as is neceffary to fnpport the
roof^ the intercolumniations of the periftyle are walled
up. This temple is built in the old Doric proportions
ufed in the reft of Sicily j its exterior dimenfions are
185 leet in length and 75 in breadth. There are alfo
fome remains of Diana’s temple, but now fcarcely dif-
cernible. Befides thefe, there are few ruins in the ifland *,
and one is furprifed that any Ihould exift in a place
which had been fo often laid wafte by enemies, and fo
33 ] SYR
often ftiaken by earthquakes. E. Long. 25. 27. N. Lat. Syria.
37-3- . . _ v v '
SYRIA, a very ancient kingdom of Alia, lying be¬
tween the Mediterranean on the weft, the Euphrates on
the eaft, and Arabia Deferta, Phoenicia and Paleftine,
on the louth. j
In ancient times this country was called Aram, pro-Names, di-
bably from Aram the youngcft fon of Shem. At firftvif.ons,
it was parcelled out into feveral petty ftates; all ofofa.ncient
which feem afterwards to have been reduced under fub-Syna’
jeblion to the four principal ones, Zobah, Damafcus,
Hamath, and Gelhur. Afterwards the whole country
was divided into two parts only, viz. Ccelefyria and Phoe¬
nicia *, though the Phoenicians, Idumeans, Jews, Gazites,
and Azotites, or the whole country of the Philiftines,
was included. After the death of Alexander, Syria, in
the great extent of the word, was divided, according to
Strabo, into Comagene, Seleucis of Syria, Ccelefyria,
Phoenice on the fea coaft, and Judea in the midland.
Ptolemy, however, fubdivides thefe \ and in the Proper
Syria reckons only Comagene, Pieria, Cyrrhiftica or
Cyrrheltica, Seleucis, Cafiiotis or Cafiotis, Chalybonitis,
Chalcidice or Chalcidene, Apamene, Laodicene, Phoe¬
nicia Mediterranea, Ccelefyria and Palmyrene.
The hiftory of the ancient Syrians, till the time of
their being carried away by the kings of Affyria, is to¬
tally unknown, excepting a few particulars which may
be gathered from Scripture, and which it is needlefs
here to repeat. During the continuance of the Affy-
rian, Babylonian, and Perfian monarchies, the hiftory of
this country affords nothing remarkable ; but after the
death of Alexander, it gave name to a very confider-
able empire, which makes a confpicuous figure in an¬
cient hiftory. At this time, however, it was not con¬
fined to Syria properly fo called, but comprehended all
thofe vaft provinces of the Upper Afia which formed"
the Perfian empire j being, in its full extent, bounded
by the Mediterranean upon one fide, and the river In- 2
dus on the other. The firft king was Seleucus, one ofSeleucus
the generals of Alexander the Great j who, after thethefirk
death of that conqueror, being made governor of Baby-J:jn? oi,.
Ion, was tempted, by the example of Alexander’s other Alexarder
captains, to let up for himfelf. Eumenes, who had fin- the Great,
cerely at heart the intereft of x^lexander’s family, Soli¬
cited his affiftance againft Antigonus, who bad openly
revolted 5 but Seleucus not only refufed this afflitance,
but attempted to deftroy Eumenes himfelf with his
whole army. Eumenes, however, found means to ef-
cape the danger without the lofs of a man. On this
Seleucus endeavoured to gain over his troops : but find¬
ing that impoflible, he made a truce with Eumenes, and
granted him a fafe paffage through his province ; but
at the fame time fent an exprefs to Antigonus, defiring
him to fall upon him, before he was joined by the go¬
vernors of Upper Afia. Antigonus did not fail to fol¬
low his advice 5 but having prevailed againft Eumenes
through treachery, be next thought of bringing Seleu- 3
cus himfelf under fubje&ion. On his return to Baby- Obliged by;
Ion, therefore, after having been feafted with his whole Antig?1,us
army by Seleucus, Jie demanded of him .an account ofj> fiyintc>
the revenues of his province. Receiving an unfavourable E£yP ’
anfwer to this requifition, Antigonus was fo much exafpe-
rated, that Seleucus, rot thinking himfelf a match for
him at that time, thought proper to fly into Egypt
By
SYR
Syria.
C t
4
JBecomes
mafter of
.'Babylon,
An. 312,
3. C.
By the flight of Seleucus, Antigonus was left mafter
of all his provinces; but his fon Demetrius being after¬
wards defeated by Ptolemy at Gaza, Seleucus began to
think of recovering what he had loft. Having received
from Ptolemy a very flender force, he fet out towards
Babylon, and procured reinforcements as he proceeded.
As he approached the city, thofe who favoured Anti¬
gonus retired into the citadel, but were foon obliged to
lurrender 5 and in that fortrefs Seleucus found his child¬
ren, friends, and domeftics, whom Antigonus had kept
prifoners ever fince his flight into Egypt.
Seleucus having made himfelf mafter of Babylon, in
the year 312 B. C. began to prepare for encountering
^ Antigonus, who he knew would foon attack him with
Defeats all his force. Nicanor, governor of Media under An-
JNicanor, tigonus, firft advanced againft him at the head of 10,000
Wedia^ancT anc^ 7000 horfe; but Seleucus, with only 3000
Sufi ana. ^o0*; an<^ 4°° horfe, having drawn him into an ambufti,
cut off almoft the whole of his army, and fuch of the
foldiers as had efcaped the flaughter willingly enlifted
under his banner.
The confequence of this vi&ory w7as the fubmiflion
of all Media and Sufiana ; but during his abfence from
the capital, Demetrius advanced towards it, and made
himfelf mafter of it.
On the return of Seleucus to Babylon, he eafily drove
out the troops left by Demetrius, recovered the caftle
which he had garrifoned, and fettled his authority on
fuch a firm foundation, that it could never afterwards
be moved. Having then marched again into Media,
he defeated and killed with his own hand Nicanor or
Nicator, whom Antigonus had fent againft him ; after
which, having fettled the affairs of Media, he reduced
all Perfia, Baftria, and Hyrcania, fubjefting to his new
empire thefe and all the other provinces on this fide the
Indus which had been conquered.
Seleucus being now mafter of all the countries which
Tie between the Euphrates and the Indus, took the title
of king of Babylon and Media. But, not fatisfied with
thefe poffeflions, ample as they were, he croffed the In¬
dus, in order to conquer thofe regions which had fub-
mitted to Alexander beyond that river. In this expe¬
dition, however, he was unfuccefsful j but returning
weftward againft his old enemy Antigonus, he defeated
and killed him at Ipfus, and reduced his fon Demetrius
to a very dependent ftate. Seleucus now betook him-
felf to the building of a city, which he called Seleucza,
and w’hich flood on the place where the city of Bagdad
now ftands. Befides thefe, he built a great many others;
16 of wftiich he called Antioch, from the name of his
brother Antiochus 5 nine Seleucia, from his own name j
three Apamea, from Apama his firft wife ; one Stratoni-
cea, from his fecond wife Stratonice j and fix Laodicea,
from his mother Laodice.
In 284 Seleucus entered into a war with Lyfimachus,
with whom he had hitherto lived in ftrift amity. Out
°f 36 general officers left by Alexander the Great, they
two furvived, and both were upwards of 70 years old.
Neverthelefs they were both filled with the ambition
and animofity of young men. The two armies met at
6 a place called Curopedion in Phrygia, where an obftinate
defeats and engagement took place. Viflory was long doubtful:
kills Lyfi- but at laft: Lyfimachus was run through with a fpear,
tuachus. and died on the fpot j on which his troops betook them-
felves to flight. This victory added to the poffeflions
Sj-fia.
4 ] SYR
of Seleucus all thofe provinces which had formerly been
fubjeft to Lyfimachus, and from this viiftory he is ge¬
nerally called AVca/or. or the conqueror. His triumph, Is
however, on this occafion, but was but fhort-lived j for,treacher-
feven months after, as he was marching towards Alace-oufly mut-
don to take poffeflion of that kingdom, he was treach-4erc<l*
eroufly murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, on whom he
had conferred innumerable favours. g
Seleucus was lucceeded by his fon Antiochus Soter, Antiochus
W'ho held the empire 19 years. He refigned to Anti-Soter-
gonus Gonatus all pretenfions to the crown of Macedon ;
and having engaged in a war with Eumenes king of
Pergamus, he was defeated by him, and obliged to yield
up part of his dominions. He died in 261 B. C. and Antiochus
was fucceeded by his fon Antiochus Theos •, who ha- Theos.
ving engaged in a war with Ptolemy Philadelphus king An»
of Egypt, the Parthians and Baftrians took that oppor-B‘
tunity to revolt, and could never aftenvards be reduced.
In 246 B. C. he was poifoned by his wrife Laodice, who
raifed to the throne her own fon, named Seleucus Cal- IO
linicus. He was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Seleucus Seleucus
Ceraunus, a weak prince, who was poifoned by a con-Caliinkus.
fpiracy of two of his officers, when he had reigned one^n^,246*
year ; after which his brother Antiochus, furnamed the D'
Great, afeended the throne in 225 B. C. XI
In the very beginning of his reign, two of his generals, Antiochus
Alexander and Molo, rebelled againft; him. The for-1*16 Great,
mer had been appointed governor of Perfia, and the
ter of Media. Antiochus marched againft the rebels,
whom he defeated in a pitched battle j on which their 12
chiefs laid violent hands on themfelves. On his return Supprefies
he received the fubmiffion of the Atropatii, a barbarous ®ne
people in Media j and put to death his prime minifler embarrafled
Hermias, whom he had found hatching treacherous de-ty another
figns againft him. During his lifetime, however, the
traitor, by accufing Achaeus of treafon, had obliged him
to revolt in his own defence j fo that the king had ftill
two important wars on his hands, viz. one with Ptole«
my king of Egypt, and the other againft Achaeusi
After fome deliberation, he refolved to march firft againft
the king of Egypt •, and was at firft very fuccefsful, re¬
ducing many cities in Ccelefyria and Paleftine, and de¬
feating the Egyptians in a pitched battle j but in the
year 217 B. C. being worfted in the battle of Raphia,
he was obliged to abandon all his conquefts j of which
Ptolemy immediately took poffeffion, and Antiochus
was obliged to cede them to him, that he might be at
leifure to purfue the war againft Achaeus.
Antiochus having made vaft preparations for his ex¬
pedition, foon reduced Achaeus to fuch diftrefs, that he
was obliged to ffiut himfelf up in the city of Sardis,
which he defended for fome time with great bravery j
till at laft, being betrayed by two Cretans, he was de¬
livered up to the king, and by his order put to death. 13
Antiochus then undertook an expedition againft the His fuceef-
Parthians, whom he obliged to conclude a peace on
very advantageous terms. He then turned his arms
againft the king of Bactria, whom he alfo compelled to
agree to his terms. He then croffed Mount Caucafus,
and entered India ; where he renewed his alliance with
the king of that country. From India he marched into
Arachofia, Drangiana, and Carmania, eftabliftring or¬
der and difeipline in all thofe countries : then paffing
through Perfia, Babylonia, and Mefopotamia, he re¬
turned to Antioch, after an abfence of feven years.
In
fes in the
eaft.
king of
Egypt.
An. 204.
B. C.
15
His con-
quefts
SYR [I
Syria. In the year 204 B. C. Antiochus entered into a
league with Philip of Macedon, on purpofe to deprive
Enters into Ptolemy Epiphanes, the infant king of Egypt, of all
a league his dominions. He defeated the Egyptian general, re-
with Philip covered all Paleltine and Coelefyria 5 after which he in-
of Macedon va(jecj Minor, in hopes of reducing it alfo, and
againfl the reftorjnpr the Syrian empire to the fame extent it had in
•finer OI ^ o J * _ . . *
the time of Seleucus Nicator. The free cities in Alia
Minor immediately had recourfe to the Romans, who
fent an embaffy to Antiochus on the occafion 5 but as
both parties put on thole haughty and impepous airs to
which they thought the greatnefs of their power gave
checked by them a right, no fatisfaftion was given, but every thing
the Ro- tended to an open rupture. While matters were in this
rnans^ fituation, Hannibal the Great being obliged to leave
Hannibal his own country, fled to Antiochus : from whom he
flees to him met with a gracious reception. As Hannibal had,
for protec- while a child, fworn perpetual enmity againft the Ro-
tion. mans, he ufed all his eloquence to perfuade Antiochus
to make war with them j and as the many viftories
which he had gained over them left no room to doubt
of his capacity, Antiochus doubted nothing of being
able, by his afliftance, to conquer that haughty people.
Several embaflies pafled between the two nations ; but
chiefly with a defign, on the part of Antiochus, to gain
time. Hannibal endeavoured to draw his countrymen
^ into the confederacy againft Rome, but without effeft.
Antiochus Antiochus having ftrengthened himfelf by feveral al-
negledts the liances, at laft refolved to begin the war in earneft. The
king imprudently became the aggreffor, by falling on a
body of 500 Romans before war had been declared.
He alfo made King Philip his enemy, by entertaining the
regent of Athamania, who was a pretender to the crown
of Macedon. To complete all, he himfelf fell in love,
though above 50 years of age, with a beautiful young
woman of Chalcis, whom he married; and became fo
great a flave to this paflion, that he entirely neglected
his affairs ; the army gave themfelves up entirely to dif-
fipation and debauchery, and every trace of military di-
fcipline vanifhed.
In the year 191 B. C. Antiochus was raifed from his
By the Ro- lethargy by a declaration of war againft him at Rome,
Thermo- y- an^ ^et out ^or H1S army at this time amount-
iaj, 1 ed to no more than 10,000 foot and 500 horfe. He
had been made to believe that he would receive a vaft
reinforcement in Aitolia : but when he came to make
the experiment, he foon found his miftake 5 all the
troops he could raife there amounted to no more than
4000 men, With this fo»'e, fo exceedingly inadequate
to the purpofe, he was obliged to oppofe the Roman ar¬
my, who were advancing in conjunftion with the Ma¬
cedonians, and had already made furpriflng progrefs.
Antiochus feized the ftraits of Thermopylae ; but was
driven from them by the Romans, the king himfelf be¬
ing the firft that fled. Almoft his whole army was de-
ftroyed in the battle or in the purfuit, and Antiochus
returned with difgrace into Afia.
Soon after his return, Antiochus equipped a fleet of
2CO fail ; on which he immediately embarked for the
f hracian Cherfonefus, now Grim Tartary. He for¬
tified the cities of Eyfimachia, Seftus, and Abydos,
with others in that neighbourhood, to prevent the Ro¬
mans from crofting the Hellefpont. In the mean time
Polyxenidas the Syrian admiral fent intelligence to the
king that the Roman fleet had appeared off Delos; upon
Vol. XX. Part f.
advice of
Hannibal.
18
His fliame-
ful beha-
Viour.
19
Is defeated
An. xp 1
B. C.
85 ] SYR
which he defired him to feek them out and engage them Syria,
at all events. He did fo, and was defeated with the 1 " v J
lofs of 40 fhips taken or funk in the engagement. Tnis^j.
was foon after revenged by the deftrudtion of the Rho- defeated by
dian fleet by the artifice of Polyxenidas ; but in the end that of the
the king’s affairs went everywhere to wreck. Having ^omans-
laid fiege to the city of Pergamus, he was obliged to
raife it with lofs; the Phoenician fleet commanded by
Hannibal was defeated by the Rhodians ; and foon after ^
the Syrian fleet under Polyxenidas was utterly defeated two other
by the Romans. Antiochus was fo much difheartened defeats, and
by thefe repeated defeats, that he appeared like one in- becomes
fatuated. Inftead of fortifying more llrongly thofe cities
which lay on the frontiers of his kingdom, he entirely
deferted them : and thus Lyfimachia and Abydos, the
two keys to Alia, fell into the hands of the Romans with¬
out the leaft refiftance.
The arrival of the Romans in Afia ftruck Antiochus
with fuch terror, that he inlfantly iued for peace. The
terms he offered were indeed very advantageous, but
by no means agreeable to the expe&ations of the Ro- 22
mans. They therefore gave him this final anfwer : Sues for
I. That fince he had drawn upon himfelf the war, hePeace>bu*
fhould defray the whole expence of it; 2. That he^sre^e<**
fliould reftore liberty in general to all the Greek
cities in Afia ; and, 3. That to prevent future hofti-
lities, he fliould relinquilh all Afia on this fide Mount
Taurus. Thefe terms, however, ftill appeared to him
fo intolerable, that he refolved to continue the war ;
and determined alfo to take the molt imprudent me¬
thod of carrying it on, namely, by hazarding all on
the event of a general engagement. The king en¬
camped near Magnefia, and ftrongly fortified his camp.
The Romans infulted him in his trenches, and propoled
to attack his fortifications if he continued to decline an
engagement. At laft the king, thinking it would be
fliameful for him longer to refufe an engagement, being
at the head of an army far more numerous than that of
the enemy, in a friend’s country, and in the midft of
his allies, refolved at all events to accept the challenge,
and accordingly prepared for a decifive battle.
On the day of the battle the weather proved verv Battkfof
favourable to the Romans ; for a thick fog rifing in the Magnetic
morning, the day was almoft turned into night, fo that
the Syrian commanders could not have all the corps
under their command in view, on account of their great
extent, nor fend them proper orders in time ; whereas
the fog was not thick enough to prevent the Roman ge¬
nerals from feeing their feveral bodies at the greateft
diftance, as they took up but little ground. Befidcs,
the damp which was occafioned by the fog flackened
the firings of the enemy’s bows, fo that the Afiatics
who ufed them could (hoot their darts and arrows but
faintly. The whole dependence of Antiochus in the
firft attack was on his armed chariots, which were to
cut their way into the Roman army. But Eumenes, king
of Pergamus, undertook to render them ufelefs, and even
fatal, to the enemy. After this advantage, the Roman
cavalry advanced, and fell on thofe whom the chariots i4
had put in diforder. The Syrians being already intimf-The Sy-
dated, after a faint refiftance gave way ; and the Romansrians de-
made a great flaughter of their men and horfes, bothfeate<1*
being borne down with the weight of their heavy ar¬
mour. Eumenes charged the left-wing, in which Seleucus
commanded, with- fuch vigour, that he put it to flight
A a and
Syria.
a5 .
And their
camp
tajcen.
26
Antiochv.s
obtains
peace 0n
very hani
terms.
SYR [1
and the fugitives flying to the phalanx for protection,
put that body likewife in dii'order: which Domitius ob-
ferving, advanced againft it at the head of his legion¬
aries, but could not break it till he ordered his men to
attack the elephants, which the Syrians had placed
in the fpaces between the companies. The Homans
had learned, in their wars with Pyrrhus and Han¬
nibal, not to fear thofe monfters which were once fo
terrible to them. They attacked them, therefore, with
great refolution ■, and driving them againft the pha¬
lanx, put that body into diforder, by means of thofe
very animals which had been polled there for its de¬
fence.
After a long and bloody conteft, the Syrians were
totally routed, and the Romans walking over heaps of
dead bodies, marched up to the Syrian camp, attacked,
and plundered it. The riches they found in it are not
to be deferibed j but the taking of it coft the Romans a
new battle, which proved more fatal to the Syrians
than that in the field ; for the Romans having, in fpite
of a moll defperate refiftance, forced the intrenchments,
gave no quarter, but put all to the fword without diftinc-
tion. There fell this day in the battle, in the purfuit,
and in the plunder of the camp, 50,000 foot and 4000
horfe ; 1500 were taken prifoners, and 15 elephants.
In the confular army there were but 300 foot killed
and 25 horfe. Eumenes had only 15 of his mdn kill¬
ed ; fo that this viflory, as we are told by the ancients,
feemed a prodigy to all nations both of the call and
weft.
Antiochus retired to Sardis with as many of his
forces that had efcaped the flaughter as he could draw
together. From Sardis he foon marched to rejoin his
fon Seleucus, who had fled to Apamea. As for the
conful, he took advantage of the king's defeat and
flight, making hirafelf mailer of all the neighbouring
countries. Deputies haftened to him from all parts ;
the cities of Thyatira, Magnefia, Trallis, Magnefia in
Carla, all Lydia, and Ephefus itfelf, though highly
favoured by Antiochus, declared for the Romans. Po-
lyxenidas, upon the news of the king’s defeat, left the
port of Ephefus, and failed to Patara, where he landed
with a very fmall guard, and returned by land into
Syria. The conful took the road to Sardis, which
opened its gates to him.
Antiochus finding his affairs in a bad lituation both
by fea and land, and not daring to appear before the
confular army in the field, fent Antipater his brother’s
fon, and Zeuxis, who had been governor of Lydia and
Phrygia, to fue for a peace. They were ordered to
treat chiefly with the elder Scipio, of whole clemency
and good nature Antiochus entertained a high opinion.
Accordingly, on their arrival at Sardis, where the con¬
ful then was with his brother, they addreffed the latter,
and were by him prefented to the conful. Their fpeech
was very fubmiffive, and fuch as became a vanquiftied
people.
Hereupon a council was fummoned, and after long
debates the ambaffadors were called in j and Scipio A-
fricanus propofed terms that were very humiliating.
The ambaffadors of Antiochus had been ordered to
refufe no terms 5 and therefore thefe were accepted, and
the whole affair concluded. So that the Syrian ambaf¬
fadors now prepared to fet out for Rome, to get the con¬
ditions of peace propofed by Scipio ratified there. L.
86 ]
SYR
*7
His deatli.
Aurelius Cotta was fent with the ambaffadors to Rome, Syria,
to acquaint the fenate with the particulars of the treaty.
When they appeared before the confcript fathers, they
fpoke with great fubmiflion, and only defired them to
ratify the articles which the Scipios had offered to their
mailer. The fenate, after examining them, ordered
that a treaty of peace Ihould be concluded with Antio¬
chus, and the articles of it engraved on brafs, and fixed
up in the Capitol. They only added one claufe, which
was, That the Syrians fhould change every year all
their hoftages, except the fon of King Antiochus, who
Ihould continue at Rome as long as the republic thought
fit. The peace being thus ratified, and all Alia on this
fide Mount Taurus delivered into the hands of the Ro¬
mans, the Greek cities were by them reftored to their
liberty, the provinces of Caria and Lydia given to the
Rhodians, and all the reft that had belonged to Antio-
chus beftowed upon Eumenes.
Antiochus did not long furvive his misfortune at
Magnefia. He died in 187, and with him fell the glory of An. 187.
the Syrian empire. The Romans now gave laws to the B. C.
kings of Syria, infomuch, that when Antiochus Epi-
phanes the grandfon of Antiochus the Great hclitated
at obeying the commands of the fenate, one of the am¬
baffadors drew a circle round him \ejth a rod on the
floor, andvtold him that he fhould not go out of that
fpot before he had told him what he was to do-. The 28
moft remarkable tranfa&ions of this prince are his wars ^yr*a be"
with the Jews, and perfecutions of them \ of which a
full account is given under the article Jews. After a province,
variety of ufurpers and tyrants, the kingdom of Syria
fell under Tigranes king of Armenia in the year 83
B. C.; and upon his overthrow by the Romans, it be¬
came a province of the dominions of the republic. From
them it was taken by the Saracens in the reign of the
caliph Omar, and is now a province of Turkey in Afia.
See Acre. ^
Syria is in fome meafure only a chain of mountains, Climate,
varying in their levels, fituation, and appearances. The foil, &.c. of
part of the country, however, next the fea is in general cou”-
low, and befides this there are feveral extenfive valleys. tr*‘
T he climate on the fea-coaft and in thefe valleys is very
hot, but in the higher parts of the country it bears a
good deal of refemblance to that of France. Syria is
exceedingly fertile, and tire variety of its produ&ions is
very great. Befides wheat, rye, barley, beans, and the
cotton plant, which is cultivated everywhere, Paleftine
abounds in fefamum, from which oil is procured, and
doura as good as that of Egypt. Maize thrives in the
light foil of Balbec, and even rice is cultivated with
fuccefs on the borders of the marftiy country of Havula.
They have lately begun to plant fugarcanes in the gar¬
dens of Saide and of Bairout, and they find them equal
to thofe of the Delta. Indigo grows without cultivat¬
ing on the banks of the Jordan, in the country of Bifan,
and only requires care to make it of an excellent quali-
ty. The hill-fides of Latakia produce tobacco. Gaza volnev'i
produces dates like Mecca, and pomegranates like Al- Trawls,
giers; Tripoli affords oranges equal to thofe of Malta ;v°h »•
Bairout figs like thofe of Marfeilles, and bananas not
inferior to thofe of St Domingo; Aleppo enjoys the ex-
clufive advantage of producing piftachios j and Damaf-
cus juftly boafts of poffefling all the fruits known in
France. Its ftony foil fuits equally the apples of Nor¬
mandy, the plums of Touraine, and the peaches of
Paris.
SYS
[ 187 ]
TAB
Syria Paris. Twenty forts of apricots are reckoned there,
I! the done of one of which contains a kernel highly valued
Sy(tfcfn- through all Turkey. The cochineal plant, which grows
' on all that coall, contains perhaps that precious infeft in
as high perfeftion as it is found in Mexico and St Do¬
mingo.
The inhabitants may be divided into three principal
clafles: the defeendants of the Greeks of the Lower
Empire; the Arabs, their conquerors; and the Turks,
the prefent ruling power : and thefe again, the firft in¬
to three, the fecond into four, claffes; befides three
wandering tribes of Turkomans, Curds, and Bedouin
Arabs. The ancient inhabitants before the Greeks
under Alexander are entirely loll. The inhabitants are
in general of a middling llature, and the eyes of the
women almoft everywhere beautiful, and their ftrape cor¬
rect and well proportioned. The general language is
Arabic.
SYRINGA, the Lilac, a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs diandria, and in the natural fyftem ranging
under the 44th order, Sepiari<x. See Botany Index.
SYRINGE, a well-known inftrument, ferving to
imbibe or fuck in a quantity of fluid, and to fquirt or
expel the fame with violence. The word is formed
from the Greek ovgog, or the Latin fyrinx “ a pipe.”
-—A fyringe is only a Angle pump, and the wTater af-
cends in it on the fame principle as in the common fuck¬
ing-pump. See Hydrodynamics.
SYRUP, in Pharmacy, a faturated folution of fugar,
made in vegetable decoctions or infufions. See Mate¬
ria Medica.
SYSTEM, in general, denotes an affetnblage or
chain of principles and conclufions, or the whole of SyPcm
any doCtrine, the leveral parts whereof are bound to- ^ i(.
gether, and follow or depend on each other ; in which " '‘'' J
lenfe we fay a fijstem of philofophy,fy stem of divinity, <hrc.
The word is formed trom the Greek c-vs-jjjMas “ compo-
fltion, compages.”
System, in the animal economy, the vafcular, the ner¬
vous, and the cellular. See Anatomy.
System, in Mufc, an affemblage of the rules for har¬
mony, deduced from fome common principle by which
they are reunited; by which their conne&ion one with
another is formed ; from whence, as from their genuine
fource, they natively flowr; and to which, if we would
account for them, we muft have recourfe. See the ar¬
ticles Chromatic, Diatonic, Enharmonic, Har¬
mony, Interval, and Music.
System, in Botany. See Botany.
System, in Astronomy. See Astronomy.
SYSTOLE, in Anatomy, the contraction of the
heart, whereby the blood is drawn off its ventricles into
the arteries; the oppofite Hate to which is called the
diqftole, or dilatation of the heart. See Anatomy In¬
dex.
SYSTYLE, in Architecture, that manner of placing
columns where the fpace between the two lhafts confilts
of two diameters or four modules.
SYZYGY, Syzygia, in Astronomy, a term equally
ufed for the conjunction and oppofition of a planet with
the fun. The word is formed from the Greek
which properly flgnifies conjunflio. On the phenomena
and circumftances of the fy/.ygies a great part of the
lunar theory depends. See Astronomy.
Tor t, the 19th letter and 16th confonant of our al-
9 phabet; the found whereof is formed by a llrong
expulfion of the breath through the mouth, upon a hid¬
den drawing back of the tongue from the fore-part of
the palate, with the lips at the fame time open. The
proper found of t is expreffed in moft words beginning
or ending with that letter ; as in take, tell, hot,pul. Ti
before a vowel has the found of Ji, or rather of fhi, as
In creation, except when f precedes, as in quefhon ; and
in derivatives from words ending in ty, as mighty, migh¬
tier. Th has two founds; the one foft, as thou, father ;
the other hard, as thing, think. The found is foft in
thefe words, then, thence, and there, W'ith their deriva¬
tives and compounds; and in the words that, this, thus,
thy, they, though ; and in all words in which th comes
between two vowels, as, whether, rather ; and between
Y and a vowel, as burthen.
In abbreviations, amongfl. the Roman writers, T.
Hands for Titus, Titius, &c. ; Tab. for Tabularius;
Tab. P. H. C. Tabuhirius Pr ovine ue Ilf panne Citerio-
ris; Tar. Tarquinius; Ti. Tiberius; Ti. F. Tiberii
filius ; Ti. L. Tiberii libertus : Ti. N. Tiberii Nepos ;
T. J. A. V. P. V. D. tempore judicem arbitrumve po-
Jlulat ut det; T. M. P. terminum pofuit; T. M. D. D.
terminum dcdicavit; Tr. trans, tribunus; Tr. M. or
Mil. tribunus mihtum ; TR. PL. DES. tribunus plebis
dejignatus ; TR. AER. tribunus ccrarii; TRY. CAP.
triumviri capitales ; T. P. or TRIB. POT. tribunicia
poteflate ; Tul. H. Tullus Hojlilius.
Amongft the ancients, T, as a numeral, flood for one
hundred and Jixty ; and with a dafh at top, thus, t, it
fignified one hundred and fixty thoufand. In mufle, T
Hands for tutti, “ all, or altogether.”
TAB ANUS, the Breeze-fly ; a genus of infeft^
belonging to the order of diptera. See Entomology
Index.
TABARCA, a fmall illand lying oppofite to a town
of the fame name, which divides the maritime coafts of
Tunis and Algiers, in Africa. It is two miles from the
land, and is in poffeflion of the noble family of the La-
xnellini of Genoa, who have here a governor and a gar-
rifon of 200 men to proted the coral filhery. N. Lat,
36. 50. E. Long. 9. 16.
TABASHEER, a Perfian word, fignifying a hard
fubftance found in the cavities of the bamboo or Indian
reed, and .highly valued as a medicine in the Eaft Indies.
A a 2 Though
TAB [ i
Tabaflieer. Though feme account was given of the tabaiheer by
^ "J the Arabian phyficians, no accurate knowledge of it
vyas obtained till Dr Ruffel favoured the public with his
obfervations on it.
The tabaflieer is produced from the female bamboo,
w inch is diflinguiflied from the male by a larger cavity*
The bamboos containing it, make a rattling noife when
fliaken. Dr Ruffe! having examined a bamboo brought
from Vellore, confilting of fix joints, found no tabaflieer
in two of them: all the reft contained fome, but of various
quality and quantity j the whole amounting to about
zy grains. 1 he beft was of a bluifli white refembling
fmall fragments of ftiells, harder alfo than the reft, but
which might be eafily crumbled between the fingers in¬
to a gritty powder j and when applied to the tongue
and palate, had a flight faline and teftaceous tafte ; the
weight not exceeding four grains. The colour of the
reft was cineritious, rough on the furface, and more fri¬
able ; having fome particles of a larger fize intermixed,
but light, fpongy, and fomewhat refembling pumice
ftones; which appearance, our author fuppofes, led the
Arabians to think that fire was concerned in the pro-
duftion. I he two middle joints were of a pure white
colour within, and lined with a thin film. In thefe the
tabaflieer was principally found. The other joints, par¬
ticularly the two upper ones, were difcoloured within •,
and in fome parts of the cavity was found a blackifti
fubftance in grains or in powder, adhering to the fides,
the film being there obliterated. In two or three of
the joints a fmall round hole was found at top and bot¬
tom, which feemed to have been perforated by fome in-
feft.
Garzius informs us, that it is not found in all bam¬
boos, or in all the branches indiferiminately, but only in
thofe growing about Bifnagur, Batecala, and one part
of the Malabar coaft. Dr Ruffel was informed by a
letter from a medical gentleman attending the embaffy
to the Tsnzam, that though tabaftieer bears a high price
at Hydrabad, it is never brought thither from Bifnagur ;
and that fome of what is fold in the markets comes from
the pafs of Atcour in Canoul j and fome from Emna-
bad, at the diftance of about 80 miles to the north-weft ;
but that the moft part comes from Mafulipatam. That
fold in the markets is of two kinds ; one the rate of a
rupee per dram, but the other only half jhat price 5 the
latter, however, is fuppofed to be faftitious, and made
up moftly of burnt teeth and bones. Dr Ruffel himfelf
alfo, is perfuaded that the tabaflieer met with in com¬
merce is greatly adulterated. The above-mentioned
gentleman likewife informed the doftor that tabaftieer
was produced in great quantities at Sylbat, where it is
fold by the pound, from one rupee to one and an half;
forming a confiderable article of trade from Bengal to
Perfia and Arabia. There is, however, a third kind,
much fuperior in quality, being whiter, purer, and alfo
harder and heavier.
Dr Ruffel fuppofes that the tabaflieer is the juice of
the bamboo thickened and hardened. The following
obfervations on its medical effefls wTere taken from a
Perfian work, intitled the “ Tofut ul Monein of Ma-
hommed Monein Hofeiny,” by Mr Williams, a furgeon
in the fervice of the Eaft India company. The taba¬
ftieer puts a ftop to bilious vomitings and to the bloody
hux. It is alfo of fervice in cafes of palpitation of the
heart, in faintings, and for ftrengthening thofe members
88 ] , TAB
of the body that are weakened by heat. It is ufeful al- Tabaflieer
fo for the piles, and for acute or burning fevers, and for II
puflules in the mouth (thrufli) j arid, given with oxy- Tabernae-
mel, is of fervice againft reftleffnefs, melancholy, and , mon^-i:i‘'1-1
hypochondriacal affedfions. The habitual internal ufe
of it is prejudicial to the virile powers. It is alfo faid
to be prejudicial fo the lungs. Its corredfives are the
gum of the pine and honey. The dofe of it is to the
weight of two d’herems, or feven mafhas.
TABBY, in Commerce, a kind of rich filk which
has undergone the operation of tabbying.
TABBYING, the paffmg a filk or fluff under a Cal¬
lender, the rolls of which are made of iron or copper
varioufly engraven, which bearing unequally on the fluff
renders the furface thereof unequal, fo as to refledf the
rays of light differently, making the reprefentation of
wraves thereon.
1ABELLIO, in the Roman law, an officer or feri-
vener, much the fame with our notaries public, who are
often called tabelliones.
TABERNACLE, among the Hebrews, a kind of
building, in the form of a tent, fet up, by exprefs com¬
mand ot God, for the performance of religious worfhip,
facrifices, &c. during the journeying of the Ifraelites in
the wildernefs : and, after their fettlement in the land
of Canaan, made ufe of for the fame purpofe till the
building of the temple of Jeiufalem. It was divided
into two parts $ the one covered, and properly called
the tabernacle ; and the other open, called the court.
The curtains which covered the tabernacle were made
of linen, of feveral colours, embroidered. There were
ten curtains, 28 cubits long and four in breadth. Five
curtains faftened together made up two coverings, which
covered up all the tabernacle. Over thefe there were
two other coverings; the one of goat’s hair, the other
of fheep’s fkins. The holy of holies w7as parted from
the reft of the tabernacle by a curtain made faft to four
pillars, Handing ten cubits from the end. The length
of the whole tabernacle was 32 cubits, that is, about 50
feet; and the breadth 12 cubits or 19 feet. The court
was a fpot of ground ico cubits long, and 50 in breadth,
enclofed by 20 columns, each 20 cubits high and 10 in
breadth, covered with filver, and Handing on copper
bafes, five cubits diftant from one another ; between
which there were curtains drawn, and faftened with
hooks. At the eaft end was an entrance, 20 cubits
wide, covered with a curtain hanging loofe.
Feajl of Tabernacles, a folemn feftival of the He¬
brews, obferved after harveft, on the 15th day of the
month Tifri, inftituted to commemoi'ate the goodnefs of
God, who protefted the Ifraelites in the wildernefs, and
made them dwell in booths, wThen they came out of
Egypt. On the firft day of the feaft, they began to
ere ft booths of the boughs of trees, and in thefe they
were obliged to continue feven days. The booths w^ere
placed in the open air, and were not to be covered with
cloths, nor made too clofe by the thicknefs of the^boughs 5
but fo loofe that the fun and the ftars might be feen, and
the rain defeend through them. For further particulars
of the celebration of this feftival, fee Levit. ch. xxiii.
T A BERN/E, in Ancient Geography. See Tres
Tabernce.
TABERNiEMONTANA, in Botany, a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and order of
monogynia 3 and in the natural fyftem arranged unde?
the
TAB
Table the 30th order, Contortcv. There are two horizontal
I !! follicles, and the feeds are immerfed in pulp. There
. ‘-‘'or' ^ are eigl]t fpecies, all of foreign growth.
TABLE, a moveable piece of furniture, ufually made
of wood or done, and fupported on pillars or the like,
for the commodious reception of things placed thereon.
Table is alfo ufed for the fare or entertainment fer-
ved up.
Table, in Mathematics, fyftems of numbers calcu*
lated to be ready at hand for the expediting ailronomi-
cal, geometrical, and other operations.
TABLE-Book. See WRITING.
TABLE-Moimtain, a mountain of Africa, being the
molt wefterly cape or promontory in that part of the
world, and near the Cape of Good Hope. The bay
which is formed thereby is called the Table-bay.
Laws of the Twelve TABLES, xvere the fird: fet of
laws of the Romans ; thus called either becaufe the Ro¬
mans then wrote with a dyle on thin wooden tablets co¬
vered with wax j or rather, becaufe they were engraved
on tables or plates of copper, to be expofed in the mod
noted part of the public forum. After the expullion of
the kings, as the Romans were then without any fixed
or certain fyftem of law, at lead had none ample enough
to take in the various cafes that might fall between par¬
ticular perfons, it was refolved to adopt the bed and
wifed laws of the Greeks. One Hermodorus was fird
appointed to tranflate them, and the decemviri after¬
wards compiled and reduced them into ten tables. Af¬
ter a world of care and application, they were at length
enacted and confirmed by the fenate and an aflfembly of
the people, in the year of Rome 303. The following
year they found fomething wanting therein, wdiich they
fupplied from the laws of the former kings of Rome,
and from certain cudoms which long ufe had authorif-
ed : all thefe being engraven on two other tables, made
the law of the twelve tables, fo famous in the Roman
jurifprudence, the fource and foundation of the civil or
Roman law.
TABLES of the Law, in Jewilh antiquity, two tables
on which were written the decalogue, or ten command¬
ments, given by God to Mofes on Mount Sinai.
TABOO, a word ufed by the South fea idanders,
nearly of the fame import as prohibited or interdifted.
It applies equally to perfons and things, and is alfo ex-
predive of any thing facred, devoted, or eminent.
TABOR, a mountain of Galilee, about 12 miles from
the city of Tiberias. It rifes in the form of a fugar loaf,
in the midd of an extenfive plain, to the height of 30
ftadia, according to Jofephus. The afcent is fo eafy,
that one may afcend on horfeback. On the top there
is a plain two miles in circumference.
The fituation of Mount Tabor is mod delightful.
Rifing amidd the plains of Galilee, it exhibits to the
enchanted eye a charming variety of profpefts. On
one fide there are lakes, rivers, and a part of the Me¬
diterranean •, and on the other a chain of little hills,
with fmall valleys, diaded by natural groves, and en¬
riched by the hands of the hulbandman with a great
number of ufeful produflions. Here you behold an im-
Mariti's menfity of plains interfperfed with hamlets, fortrefles,
and heaps of ruins ; and there the eye delights to wan¬
der over the fields of Jezrael or Mageddon, named
by the Arabs Ebn-Aamer, which fignifies “ the field of
the. fons of Aamer.” A little farther you didinguilh
TAB
the mountains of Hermon, Gilboa, Samaria, and Arabia Tabor
the Stony. In diort, you experience all thofe fenfations jaJtus
which are produced by a mixture and rapid fuccedion 1 ‘ t ' 1
of rural, gay, gloomy, and majedic objedts.
It was upon this enchanting mount that the apodle
Peter faid to Chrid, “ It is good for us to be here : and
let us make three tabernacles j one for thee, and one for
Mofes, and one for Elias.”
Flavian Jofephus, governor of Galilee, caufed the
fummit of this mountain, for the fpace of two miles and^
a half, to be furrounded with walls. The inhabitants
of Tabor long braved the power of the Roman armies j
but being deprived of water in confequence of the great
heats, they were forced to furrender at difcretion to
Placidus, the general of Vefpafian.
Several churches were built upon this mountain by
St Helen, who founded here alfo fome monaderies. Of
the two mod remarkable, one was dedicated to Mofes,
and inhabited by Cenobites of the order of St Benedict,
who followed the Latin rites : the other was dedicated
to the prophet Elias by monks of the order of St Bafil,
attached to the Greek rites. The kings of Hungary
erefted here alfo a pretty fpacious convent for fome
monks belonging to that nation, of the order of St Paul
the fird hermit. Tabor was alfo the feat of a bifliop,.
dependant on the patriarchate of Jerufalem.
When Godfrey of Bouillon feized on this mountain^,
he, repaired the ancient churches, which were beginning
to fall into ruins. Under Baldwin I. in 1113, the Sa¬
racen troops retook Tabor 5 and their fanguinary fury
gained as many vhdories as there were prieds and Ceno¬
bites. This mountain again fell into the hands of the
Chridians j but the Catholic dandard was not long dif-
played on it. Saladin pulled it down the year follow¬
ing, and dedroyed all the churches. The Chridians
retook it once more in 1253 ; and their zeal made them
rebuild all the facred places. At this time Rome being
accudomed to give away empires, Pope Alexander IV.
granted Tabor to the Templars, who fortified it again.
At length, in the courfe of the year 1290, the fultan
of Egypt dedroyed and laid wade the buildings of this
mountain, which could never be repaired afterwards j
fo that at prefent it is uninhabited.
T AC AM AH AC A, in Pharmacy, a gum refin, ob¬
tained from the Fagara oflandra and populus balfamifera j..
and having a fragrant fmell, a bitterifh naufeous tade,
and fuppofed to be dimulant and tonic in its effects.
TACCA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs
dodecandria. See Botany Index.
TACHYGRAPHY, from rxy^i, floort, and yeaQa,.
Twrite, or the art of writing diort-hand. See Steno¬
graphy.
TACITUS, Caius Cornelius, a celebrated Roman
hidorian, and one of the greated men of his time, ap¬
pears to have been born about the year of Rome 809 or
810, and applied himfelf early to the labours of the
bar, in which he gained very confiderable reputation. Murphy's
Having married the daughter of Agricola, the road to Tranfation
public honours was laid open to him in the reign oi°f *ac*tus'
Vefpadan ; but during the fanguinary and capricious
tyranny of Domitian, he, as well as his friend Pliny,
appears to have retired from the theatre of public af¬
fairs. The reign of Nerva redored thefe luminaries of
Roman literature to the metropolis, and we find Taci¬
tus engaged, in A. U. C. 85c, to pronounce the funeral
oration,
r 189 ]
Tacitus.
biographi¬
cal Di&ion-
ary.
Saillet Vie
£e Det
Cartes,
tom. ii.
Study of
HJlory.
Letter v.
T A G [ 190 ]
oration of tlie venerable Virginius Rufus, the colleague which he
of the emperor in the confullhip, and afterwards iuc-
ceeding him as conful for the remainder of the year.
The time of his death is not mentioned by any ancient
author, but it is probable that he died in the reign of
Trajan.
His works which Hill remain are, 1. Five books of
his Hiftory. 2. His Annals. 3. ATreatife on the dif¬
ferent Nations which in his time inhabited Germany :
and, 4. The Life of Agricola his father-in-law. There
is alfo attributed to him a Treatife on Eloquence, which
others have afcribed to Quintilian. The Treadle on the
Manners of the Germans was publilhed in 851.—In the
year 853, Pliny and Tacitus were appointed by the fe-
nate to plead the caufe of the oppreffed Africans againft
Marius Priicus, a corrupt proconful, who was convi&ed
before the fathers ; and the patriot orators were honour¬
ed with a declaration that they had executed their truft
to the entire fatisfaftion of the houfe. The exa6l time
when Tacitus publifhed his hiftory is uncertain, but it
was in fome period of Trajan’s reign, who died fudden-
ly, A. U. C. 870, A. D. 117 The hiftory comprifes
a period of 27 years, from the acceffion of Galba, 822,
to the death of Domitian, 849. The hiftory being fi-
niftied, he did not think he had completed the tablature
of flavery ; he went back to the time of Tiberius : and
the fecond work, which, however, comes firft in the
order of chronology, includes a period of 54 years, from
the acceflion of Tiberius, 767, to the death of Nero,
821 : this work is his “ Annals.”
It is remarkable, that princes and politicians have
always held the works of Tacitus in the higheft efteem j
which looks as if they either found their account in
reading them, or were pleafed to find courts, and the
people who live in them, fo exaftly defcribed after the
life as they are in his writings. Part of what is extant
was found in Germany by a receiver of Pope Leo X.
and publilhed by Beroaldus at Rome in 1515. Leo was
fo much charmed with Tacitus, that he gave the recei¬
ver a reward of 500 crowns^ and promifed not only in¬
dulgences, but money alfo and honour, to any one who
ftrould find the other part; which it is faid was after¬
wards brought to him. Pope Paul III. as Muretus re¬
lates, wore out his Tacitus by much reading it ; and
Cofmo de Medicis, who was the firft great duke of
Tufcany, and formed for governing, accounted the
reading of him his greateft pleafure. Muretus adds,
that ieveral princes, and privy-counfellors to princes,
read him with great application, and regarded him as a
fort of oracle in politics. A certain author relates, that
Queen Chriftina of Sweden, though extremely fond of
the Greek tongue, which Ihe made “ the diverfton of
her leifure hours, wras not reftrained by that from her
ferious ftudies ; fo fire called among others Tacitus’s
Hiftory, fome pages of which Ihe read conftantly every
day.” Laftly, Lord Bolingbroke, an authority furely
of no mean rank, calls him, “ a favourite author,” and
gives him manifeftly the preference to all the Greek and
Roman hiftorians.
No author has obtained a more fplendid reputation
than Tacitus. He has been accounted, and with good
reafon, the mod; cultivated genius of antiquity ; and wre
muft not feek for his parallel in modern times. It is
smpoflible not to admire and recommend his intimate
knowledge of the human heart, the fpirit of liberty
2
Tacitus,
Tack.
T A C
breathes, and the force and vivacity with
which he perpetually expreftes himfelf. The reader of
tafte is ftruck by the greatnefs of his thoughts and the v
dignity of his narration j the philofopher by the com-
prehenfive powers of his mind ; and the politician by the
fagacity with which he unfolds the fprings of the moft
fecret tranfaftions. Civil liberty and the rights of
mankind never met with a bolder or a more able after-
tor : fervitude, debafement, and tyranny, appear not
in the writings of any other author in jufter or more
odious colours. He has been cenfured as obfcure ; and
indeed nothing can be more certain than that he did not
write for the common mafs of men. But to thofe who
are judges of his compofitions, it is no matter of regret
that his manner is his own, and peculiar. Never were
defcription and fentiment fo wonderfully and fo beauti¬
fully blended ; and never were the actions and charac¬
ters of men delineated with fo much ftrength and pre-
cifion. He has all the merits of other hiftorians, with¬
out their defe&s. He poffeftfes the diftinflnefs of Xe¬
nophon without his uniformity ; he is more eloquent
than Livy, and is free from his fuperftition j and he
has more knowledge and judgment than Polybius,
without his affedlation of reafoning on every occafion.
One of the beft editions of the works of Tacitus was
publilhed at Paris by Brotier, in 4 vols. 410. There
have been four tranflations of his works into Englilh j
the firft by Greenway and Sir Henry Saville, in the
reign of Elizabeth ; the fecond by Dryden and others $
the third by Gordon, which is remarkable for affecta¬
tion of ftylc, though fome think it bears a ftriking re-
femblance to the original; and the fourth and beft by
Murphy, in 1793, in 4 vols. 4to.
TACK, a rope ufed to confine the foremoft lower
corners of the courfes and Hay-fails in a fixed polition,
when the wind croffes the fhip’s courfe obliquely. The
fame name is alfo given to the rope employed to pull
out the lower corner of a ftudding-fail or driver to the
extremity of its boom.
The main-fail and fore-fail of a fhip are furnifhed
with a tack on each fide, which is formed of a thick
rope tapering to the end, and having a knot wrought
upon the largeft end, by which it is firmly retained in
the clue of the fail. By this means one tack is always
faftened to windward, at the fame time that the ftieet ex¬
tends the fail to the leeward.
TaCK, is alfo applied, by analogy, to that part of any
fail to which the tack is ufually faftened.
A ftiip is faid to be on the ftarboard or larboard tack,
when Ihe is clofe hauled, with the wind upon the ftar¬
board or larboard fide ; and in this fenfe the diftance
which (he fails in that pofition isconfidered as the length
of the tack j although this is more frequently called
board. See that article.
To TACK, to change the courfe from one board to
another, or turn the fhip about from the ftarboard to
the larboard tack, in a contrary wind. Thus a fhip
being clofe-hauled on the larboard tack, and turning
her prow fuddenly to windward, receives the impreflion
of the wind on her head-fails, by which fhe falls off up¬
on the line of the ftarboard-tack. Tacking is alfo ufed Falconer'1
in a more enlarged fenfe, to imply that manoeuvre in bdanne
navigation by which a fhip makes an oblique progreftion
to the windtvard, in a zig-zag direftion This, how¬
ever, is more ufually called beating, or turning to wind¬
ward.
TAG [ 191 1 T A I
Tack mard. See Navigation, Sailing, and Naval Tac-
II tics, under War.
Tagara. Xack, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxvii.
v TACKLE, among feamen, denotes all the ropes or
cordage of a C ip uied in managing the fails, &.c.
TACKSMAN. See Tenure.
TACTICS, in the art of war, is the method of dif-
pofmg forces to the heft advantage in order of battle,
and of performing the feveral military motions and evo-
lutions. See War.
TADCASTER, a town in the weft riding of York-
fhire, noted for the great plenty of limeftone dug up near
it; and for being one of the fh'ft places in which a
building was erefted for Sunday fchools. It is nine
miles from York, and 188 from London.
TADMOR. See Palmyra.
TADPOLE, a young nog before it has difengaged
itfelf from the membranes that envelope it in its firft
ftage of life. See Erpetology, p. 281.
T/ENIA, a genus of animals belonging to the clafs
of vermes. See Helminthology, N° 29, 30.
TAFFETY, or Taffeta, in Commerce, a fine
fmooth filken fluff, remarkably gloffy. There are taf-
feties of all colours, fome plain, and others ftriped with
gold, filver, &c. others chequered, others flowered, &c.
according to the fancy of the wmrkmen.
TAGANROK, or Taganrog, a fea-port towm fi-
tuated at the head of the fea of Azof, and forming one
of the principal ports of the Ruffian empire. It Hands
on a fmall promontory, at the extremity of which is a
fortrefs of confiderable ftrength, and capable of accom¬
modating a numerous garrifon. The ftreets are wide
but unpaved, and from the lightnefs of the foil, are ei¬
ther intolerably dufty, or ankle deep in mud. The
houfes, which do not exceed a thoufand, are fmall, built
chiefly of wood, plaiftered with mud, and roofed with
bark. It is in north latitude 46°.
Taganrok is remarkable only as a place of trade, but
in this view is highly iefpe£table. When Mr M'Gill
viflted it in 1805, he found there upwards of 200 veffels
of various fizes, waiting for cargoes. From its advan¬
tageous fituation, at the head of the fea of Azof, and
near the mouths of the rivers Don and Volga, and from
its being in the vicinity of a very fertile country, it has
become the centre of commerce for many ftaple articles.
Hither are brought, for exportation, vaft quantities of
grain, wool, hides, butter, tallow, bees-wax and ho¬
ney from the fouthern provinces of Ruffia j iron, tim¬
ber, pitch, and tar from Siberia ; caviar to the amount
of 50,000 puds annually from the Don and the Vol¬
ga j hemp and flax from the neighbouring diftricis. Cor¬
dage and canvas are manufaftured here, and form a
confiderable article of traffic. The trade is carried on
chiefly by Ragufan and Greek fupercargoes, who re¬
main only till their commodities are collefted and fhip-
ped. For the beft accounts of this place, fee Pallas’s
Travels in the Ruffian Empire, and M‘GiH‘s Travels in
Turkey, Italy, and RuJJia.
TAGARA, a city of ancient India, the metropolis
of a large diftricl called Ariaca, which comprehended
the greateft part of the Subah of Aurungabad, and the
fouthern part of Concan. Arrian fays, that it was fitu-
ated about ten days journey to the eaftward of Pulta-
nah ; which, according to the rate of travelling in that
country with loaded carts, might be about ico Britifh
miles. This fixes its fituation at Deoghir, a place of Tagstes
great antiquity, and famous through all India on ac- }l.
count of the pagodas of Eloufa. It is now called Don-, lal.,l
let ■ aba d.
TAGETES, Marygold, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clals fyngeneiia; and in the natural fyftem
ranging under the 49th order, Coinpojitce. See Botanv
Index.
TAGUS, the largeft river of Spain j which, taking
its rife on the confines of Arragon, runs fouth-welt
through the provinces of New Caftile and Eftremadura;
and paffing by the cities of Aranjutz, Toledo, and
Alcantara, and then crofling Portugal, forms the har¬
bour of Lifbon, at which city it is about three miles 0-
ver j and about eight or ten miles below this it falls in¬
to the Atlantic ocean.
TAHOEREWA, one of the Sandwich ifiands, is
fmall, deftkute of wood, the foil fandy and unfertile ; is
fituated in north latitude 20° 38', in eaft longitude 203°
27/
TAHOORA, one of the Sandwnch iflands in the
South Sea. It is uninhabited, and lies in north latitude
2i° 43'. and in eaft longitude 1990 36'. See SAND-
IVICH-Ijlands.
TAJACU, or Peccary, in Ecology, a fpecies of
hog. See Sus, Mammalia Index.
TAI-ouan, the Chinefe name of the ifland of For-
mofa. See Formosa.—Tai-ouan is alfo the name of
the capital of the ifland.
TAIL, the train of a beaft, bird, or filh; which in
land animals, it is faid, ferves to drive away flies, &c.
and in birds and fifties to direft their courfe, and affift
them in afeending or defeending in the air or water.
But the tail in all animals is of great ufe in diredfing
their motions.
Tail, or Fee-tail, in Law, is a conditional eftate
or fee, oppofed to fee Jimple. See Fee.
A conditional fee, at the common law, was a fee re-
ftrained to fome particular heirs exclufive of others j as
to the heirs of a man’s body, by which only his lineal
defeendants were admitted, in exclufion of collateral
heirs; or to the heirs male of his body, in exclufion
both of collaterals and lineal females alfo. It was cal¬
led a conditional fee, by reafon of the condition expref-
fed or implied in the donation of it, that if the donee
died without fuch particular heirs, the land Ihould re¬
vert to the donor. For this was a condition annexed by
law to all grants whatfoever, that on failure of the heirs
fpecified in the grant, the grant Ihould be at an end,
and the land return to its ancient proprietor. Such con¬
ditional fees were ftri&ly agreeable to the nature of
feuds, when they firft ceafed to be mere eftates ol life,
and were not yet arrived to be abfolute eftates in fee-
fimple.
With regard to the condition annexed to thefe fees-
by the common law, it was held, that fuch a gilt (to a-
man and the heirs of his body) was a gift upon condi¬
tion that it Ihould revert to the donor if the donee had
no heirs of his body ; but if he had, it fhould then re¬
main to the donee. They therefore called it a fee jini-
p!e on condition that he had iffue. Now we muft ob-
ferve, that when any condition is performed, it is thence¬
forth entirely gone ; and the thing to which it was be¬
fore annexed becomes abfolute and wholly uncondition-
ai. So that as foon as the grantee had any iffue born,.
TAT [ 192 ] T A I
Tail- ^us eftate was fuppofed to become abfolute by the per-
formance of the condition j at leaft for thefe three pur-
pofes : I. To enable the tenant to alienate the land, and
and thereby to bar not only his own iiTue, but alfo the
donor, of his interelt in the reverfion. 2. To fubjedl
him to forfeit it for treafon : which he could not do till
iflue born longer than for his own life, left thereby the
the inheritance of the iffue and reverfion of the donor
might have been defeated. 3. To empower him to
charge the land with rents, commons, and certain other
encumbrances, fo as to bind his iffue. And this was
thought the more reafonable, becaufe, by the birth of
iffue, the poflibility of the donor’s reverfion was render¬
ed more diftant and precarious: and his intereft feems
to have been the only one which the law, as it then
flood, was felicitous to protedl, without much regard
to the right of fucceflion intended to be veiled in the
iffue. However, if the tenant did not in faft alienate
the land, the courfe of defeent was not altered by this
performance of the condition : for if the iffue had after¬
wards died, and then the tenant or original grantee had
died, without making any alienation, the land, by the
terms of the donation, could defeend to none but the
heirs of his body 5 and therefore, in default of them,
mull have reverted to the donor. For which reafon, in
order to fubjefl the lands to the ordinary courfe of de-
icent, the donees of thefe conditional fee-fimples took
care to alienate as foon as they had performed the con¬
dition by having iffue ; and afterwards reputchafed the
lands, which gave them a fee fimple abfolute, that
would defeend to the heirs general, according to the
courfe of the common law. And thus flood the old law
with regard to conditional fees : which things, fays Sir
Edward Coke, though they feem ancient, are yet necef-
fary to be known, as well for the declaring how the
common law flood in fuch cafes, as for the fake of an¬
nuities, and fuch-like inheritances, as are not within the
llatutes of entail, and therefore remain as the common
law. The inconveniences which attended thefe limited
and fettered inheritances were probably what induced
the judges to give way to this fubtle fineffe (for fuch it
undoubtedly was), in order to fhorten the duration of
thefe conditional eftates. But, on the other hand, the
nobility, who w^ere willing to perpetuate their poffef-
fions in their own families, to put a flop to this prac¬
tice, procured the ftatute of Weftminfter the fecond
(commonly called the ftatute de donis conditionalibus')
to be made ; which paid a greater regard to the private
will and intentions of the donor, than to the propriety
of fuch intentions, or any public confiderations whatfo-
«ver. This flatute revived in fome fort the ancient feo-
dal reftraints which were originally laid on alienations,
by enacting, that from thenceforth the will of the do¬
nor be obferved; and that the tenements fo given (to a
man and the heirs of his body) fhould at all events go
.to the iffue, if there were any 5 or if none, ftiould revert
to the donor. ,
Upon the conftruftion of this aft of parliament, the
judges determined that the donee had no longer a con¬
ditional fee-fimple, which became abfolute and at his
own difpofal the inftant any iffue was born j but they
divided the eftate into two parts, leaving in the donee a
new kind of particular eftate, which they denominated
Si fee-tail 5 and veiling in the donor the ultimate fee-
fimple of the land, expectant on the failure of iffue j
I
which expeftant eftate is what we now call a reverjion. Tail.
And hence it is that Littleton tells us, that tenant in "-\r“
fee-tail is by virtue of the flatute of Weftminfter thfi
fecond. The expreflion fee-tail, or feodum talliatum,
was borrowed from the feudiits (fee Crag. /. r. t. 10.
§ 24, 25.), among whom it fignified any mutilated or
truncated inheritance, from which the heirs general
were cut oft ; being derived from the barbarous verb
taliare, to cut 5 from which the French tailler and the
Italian tagliare are formed, (Spelm. Glojf. 531.).
Having thus drown the original of eftates tail, we now
proceed to confider wdrat things may or may not be en¬
tailed under the ftatute de donis. Tenements is the on¬
ly word ufed in the ftatute : and this Sir Edward Coke
expounds to comprehend all corporeal hereditaments
whatfoever: and alfo all incorporeal hereditaments
which favour of the reality, that is, which iffue out of
corporeal ones, or which concern or are annexed to or
may be exercifed within the fame ; as rents, eftovers,
commons, and the like. Alfo offices and dignities,
which concern lands, or have relation to fixed and cer¬
tain places, may be entailed. But mere perfonal chat¬
tels, which favour not at all of the reality, cannot be
entailed. Neither can an office, which merely relates
to fuch perfonal chattels j nor an annuity, which char¬
ges only the perfon, and not the lands of the granter.
But in thefe laft, if granted to a man and the heirs of
his body, the grantee hath ftill a fee conditional at com¬
mon law as before the ftatute, and by his alienation
may bar the heir or reverfioner. An eftate to a man
and his heirs for another’s life cannot be entailed ; for
this is ftriftly no eftate of inheritance, and therefore not
within the ftatute de donis. Neither can a copyhold
eftate be entailed by virtue of the ftatute •, for that
would tend to encroach upon and reftrain the will of
the lord ; but, by the fpecial cuftom of the manor, a
copyhold may be limited to the heirs of the body ; for
here the cuftom afeertaihs and interprets the lord’s
will.
As to the feveral fpecies of eftates-tail, and how they
are refpe&ively created •, they are either general or fpe¬
cial. Tail-general is where lands and tenements are gi¬
ven to one, and the heirs of his body begotten : which
is called tail-general; becaufe, how often foever fuch
donee in tail be married, his iffue in general, by all and
every fuch marriage, is, in fucceffive order, capable of
inheriting the eftate-tail per formam dotii. Tenant in
tail-fpecial is where the gift is reftrained to certain heirs
of the donee’s body, and does not go to all of them in
general. And this may happen feveral w’ays. We
fliall inftance in only one} as where lands and tene¬
ments are given to a man and the heirs of his body, on
Mary his now wife to be begotten. Here no iffue can
inherit but fuch fpecial iffue as is engendered between
them two \ not fuch as the hufband may have by ano¬
ther wife ; and therefore it is called fpecial tail. And
here wrc may obferve, that the words of inheritance (to
him and his heirs) give him an eftate in fee ; but they
being heirs to be by him begotten, this makes it a fee
tail 5 and the perfon being alfo limited, on whom fuch
heirs (hall be begotten (viz. Mary his prefent wife),
this makes it a fee-tail fpecial.
Eftates in general and fpecial tail are farther diver-
fified by the diftinftion of fexes in fuch entails ; for both
of them may either be in tail male or tail female. As
if
T A 1 [ ,
Tail. if lands be given to a man, and Ills lieirs-male of his
—v—"1 body begotten, this is an eftate in tail male general ; but
if to a man, and the heirs-female of his body on his pre-
fent wife begotten, this is an ellate in tail female fpe-
cial. And in cafe of an entail male, the heirs-female
(hall never inherit, nor any derived from them nor, e
converfo, the heirs-male in cafe of a gift in tail female.
Thus, if the donee in tail male hath a daughter, who
dies leaving a fon, fuch grandfon in this cafe cannot in¬
herit the eilate-tail ; for he cannot deduce his defcent
wholly by heirs-male. And as the heir-male muft con¬
vey his defcent wholly by males, fo muff the heir-female
wholly by females. And therefore if a man hath two
eftates-tail, the one in tail male and the other in tail fe¬
male, and he hath iffue a daughter, which daughter
hath iffue a fon j this grandfon can fucceed to neither
of the eftates, for he cannot convey his defcent wholly
either in the male or female line.
As the word heirs is neceffary to create a fee, fo, in
farther imitation of the ftri&nefs of the feodal donation,
the word body, or fome other words of procreation, are
neceffary to make it a fee-tail, and afcertain to what
heirs in particular the fee is limited. If, therefore, ei¬
ther the words of inheritance or words of procreation be
omitted, albeit the others are infcrted in the grant, this
will not make an eftate-tail. As if the grant be to a
man and the iffue of his body, to a man and his feed, to
a man and his children or offspring all thefe ate only
eftates for life, there wanting the words of inheritance,
“ his heirs.” So, on the other hand, a gift to a man,
and his heirs male or female, is an eftate in fee-fimple
and not in fee-tail; for there are no words to afcertain
the body out of which they (hall iffue. Indeed, in laft
wills and teftaments, wherein greater indulgence is al¬
lowed, an eftate-tail may be created by a devife to a
man and his feed, or to a man and his heirs-male, or by
other irregular modes of expreftion.
There is ftill another fpecies of entailed eftates, now
indeed grown out of ufe, yet ftill capable of fubfifting
in law 5 which are eftates in libero mar it agio, or Frank-
Marriage. See that article.
The incidents to a tenancy in tail, under the ftatute
Weftminfter 2. are chiefly thefe : i. That a tenant in
tail may commit wafte on the eftate-tail, by felling tim¬
ber, pulling down houfes, or the like, without being im¬
peached or called to account for the fame. 2. That the
wife of the tenant in tail fliall have her dower, or thirds,
of the eftate-tail. 3. That the hufband of a female te¬
nant in tail may be tenant by the curtefy of the eftate-
tail. 4. That an eftate-tail may be barred, or deftroyed,
by a fine, by a common recovery, or by lineal warranty
defcending with affets to the heir. See Assets.
Thus much for the nature of eftates-tail : the efta-
bliftunent of which family-law (as it is properly fly led by
Pigott) occafioned infinite difficulties and difputes. Chil¬
dren grew difobedient when they knew they could not
be fet afide : farmers were oufted of their leafes made by
tenants in tail ; for if fuch leafes had been valid, then,
under colour of long leafes, the iffue might have been
virtually difinherited : creditors were defrauded of their
debts 5 for, if a tenant in tail could have charged his
eftate wuth their payment, he might alfo have defeated
his iffue, by mortgaging it for as much as it was worth ;
innumerable latent entails were produced to deprive pur-
chafers of the lands they had fairly brought; of fuits in
You XX. Part I,
93 ] TAI
confequence of which, our ancient books are full: and Tad.
treafons were encouraged, as eftates-tail were not liable
to forfeiture longer than for the tenant’s life. So that
they were juftly branded as the fource of new contentions
and mifchiefs unknowm to the common law j and almoft
univerfally confidered as the common grievance of the
realm. But as the nobility were always fond of this fta¬
tute, becaufe it preferved their family-eftates from for¬
feiture, there was little hope of procuring a repeal by
the legiflature ; and therefore, by the connivance of an
adlive and politic prince, a method was deviled to e-
vade it.
About 200 years intervened betweed the making of
the ftatute de donis, and the application of common re¬
coveries to this intent, in the 12th year of Edward IV. j
which were then openly declared by the judges to be a
fufficient bar of an eftate-tail. For though the courts
had, fo long before as the reign of Edward III. very
frequently hinted their opinion that a bar might be ef-
feiffed upon thefe principles, yet it was never carried in¬
to execution ; till Edward IV. obferving (in the difputes
between the houfes of York and Lancafter) how little
effedl attainders for treafon had on families whofe eftates
were protefted by the famftuaiy of entails, gave his coun¬
tenance to this proceeding, and fuffered Taltarum’s cafe
to be brought before the court : wherein, in confequence
of the principles then laid down, it was in effedf deter¬
mined, that a common recovery fuffered by tenant in tail
flrouid be an effedfual deftruftion thereof. Thefe com¬
mon recoveries are fidlitious proceedings, introduced by
a kind of pia fraus, to elude the ftatute de donis, wffiich
w-as found fo intolerably mifchievous, and wffiich yet one
branch of the legiflature would not then confent to re¬
peal ; and that thefe recoveries, however clandeftinely
begun, are now become by long ufe and acquiefcence a
moft common affurance of lands; and are looked upon
as the legal mode of conveyance, by which 4 tenant in
tail may difpofe of his lands and tenements : fo that no
court will fuffer them to be fhaken or reflefled on, and
even a<fts of parliament have by a lide-wind countenan¬
ced and eftabliflied them.
This expedient having greatly abridged eftates-tail
with regard to their duration, others were foon invented
to ftrip them of other privileges. The next that was
attacked was their freedom from forfeitures for treafon.
For, notwithftanding the large advances made by re¬
coveries, in the compafs of about threefcore years, to¬
wards unfettering thefe inheritances, and thereby fub-
jedfing the lands to forfeiture, the rapacious prince
then reigning, finding them frequently refettled in a fi-
milar manner to fuit the convenience of families, had
addrefs enough to procure a ftatute, whereby all eftates
of inheritance (under which general words eftates-tail
were covertly inclujled) are declared to be forfeited to
the king upon any convi&ion of high-treafon.
The next attack which they fuffered, in order of time,
wras by the llatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 28. whereby cer¬
tain leafes made by tenants in tail, which do not tend to
the prejudice of the iffue, were allowed to be good in
law, and to bind the iffue in tail. But they received a
more violent blow in the fame feffion of parliament, by
the conftrucftion put upon the ftatute of fines, by the
ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 36. which declares a fine duly
levied by tenant in tail to be a complete bar to him
and his heirs, and all other perfons claiming under fuch
B b entail.
T A L
entail. This was evidently agreeable to the intention
of Henry VII. whofe policy it was (before common re¬
coveries had obtained their full ftrength and authority)
to lay the road as open as poflible to the alienation of
landed property, in order to weaken the overgrown
power of his nobles. But as they, from the oppofite
Jeafons, were not ealily brought to confent to fuch a
provifion, it was therefore couched, in his aft, under
covert and obfcure expreflions. And the judges, though
willing to conitrue that ftatute as favourably as poflible
for the defeating of entailed eftates, yet hefitated at giv¬
ing fines fo extenfive a power by mere implication, when
the ftatute de doms had exprefsly declared that they
Ihould not be a bar to eftates-tail. But the ftatute of
Henry VIII. when the doftrine of alienation was better
received, and the will of the prince more implicitly
obeyed than before, avowed and eftabliflied that inten¬
tion. Yet, in order to preferve the property of the
crown from any danger of infringement, all eftates-tail
created by the crown, and of which the crown has the
reverfion, are excepted out of this ftatute. And the
fame was done with regard to common recoveries, by
the ftatute 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. c. 20. which enafts,
that no feigned recovery had againft tenants in tail,
where the eftate was created by the crown, and the re¬
mainder or reverfion continues ftill in the crown, fhall
be of any force and effeft. Which is allowing, indi-
reftly and collaterally, their full force and effeft with
refpeft to ordinary eftates-tail, where the royal preroga¬
tive is not concerned.
Laftly, by a ftatute of the fucceeding yeur, all eftates-
tail are rendered liable to be charged for payment of
debts due to the king by record or fpecial contraft j as
fince, by the bankrupt-laws, they are alfo fubjefted to
be fold for the debts contrafted by a bankrupt. And,
by the conftruftion put on the ftatute 43 Eliz. c. 4. an
appointm' i.t by tenant in tail of the lands entailed to a
charitable ufe is good without fine or recovery.
Eftates-tail being thus by degrees unfettered, are
now reduced again to almoft the fame ftate, even before
iffue born, as conditional fees were in at common law’,
after the condition was performed by the birth of iffue.
for, firft, the tenant in tail is now enabled to alienate
his lands and tenements by fine, by recovery, or by cer¬
tain other means; and thereby to defeat the intereft as
well of his own iffue, though unborn, as alfo of the re-
verfioner, except in the cafe of the crown : fecondly, he
is now liable to forfeit them for high treafon : and, laftly,
he may charge them wdth reafonable leafes, and alfo with
fuch of his debts as are due to the crown on fpeciallies,
or have been contrafted with his fellow-fubjefts in a
courfe of extenfive commerce.
TAILZIE, in Scots Law, the fame with Tail. See
Law, N° clxxx. 9.
TALAPOINS or Talopins, priefts of Siam.—
They enjoy great privileges, but are enjoined celibacy
and aufterity of life, I hey live in monafteries contigu¬
ous to the temples : and what is fingular, any one may
enter into the priefthood, and after a certain age may
quit it to marry, and return to fociety. There are tala-
poineffes too, or nuns, who live in the fame convents,
but are not admitted till they have paffed their fortieth
year. 1 he talapoins educate children 5 and at every
new and full moon explain the precepts of their religion
in their temples j and during the rainy feafon they
T A L
preach from fix in the morning till noon, and from one Talapoins
in the afternoon till five in the evening. They drefs in . ,11
a very mean garb, go bareheaded and barefooted j and ,
no perfon is admitted among them who is not well fkil-
led in the Baly language.
They believe that the univerfe is eternal j but admit
that certain parts of it, as this world, may be deftroyed
and again regenerated. They believe in a univerfal per¬
vading fpirit, and in the immortality and tranfmigration
of the foul 5 but they extend this laft doftrine, not only
to all animals, but to vegetables and rocks. They have
their good and evil genii, and particular deities, who
prefide over forefts and rivers, and interfere in all fublu-
nary affairs.
For the honour of human nature, we are happy to
find fb pure a fyftem of morality prevail among thefe
people : It not only forbids its followers to do ill, but
enjoins the neceflity of doing good, and of flifiing every
improper thought or criminal defire,
Thofe who wilh to perufe a more particular account
of the talapoins, may confult Voyage de M. de la Lou-
bere ; and Sketches relating to the Hiflory, &c. of the
Hindoos.
TALC, a fpecies of mineral arranged under the mag-
nefian earths. See Mineralogy Index.
TALENT, fignifies both a weight and a coin very
common among the ancients, but very different among
different nations.
The common Attic talent of weight contains 60 At¬
tic minae, or 6000 Attic drachmae ; and weighed, ac¬
cording to Dr Arbuthnot, 59 lbs. 11 oz. Eng-
lifh troy weight. There was another Attic talent, by
feme faid to confift of 80, by others of ico minae. The
Egyptian talent was 80 minae •, the Antiochian alfo 80 *,
the Ptolemaic of Cleopatra 86-| \ that of Alexandria
96 j and the Infular talent 120. In the valuation of
money, the Grecian talent, according to Dr Arbuth¬
not, was equal to 60 minte, or, reckoning the mina at
3I. 4s. ^d. equal to 193I. 15s. The Syrian talent in
this valuation confifled of 15 Attic minae ; the Ptole¬
maic of 20 ; the Antiochian of 60 5 the Euboic of 60 j
the Babylonic of 70 ; the Greater Attic of 80 ; the
Tyrian of 80 ; the Eginean of 100 j the Rhodian of
100} and the Egyptian of 80 rninae.
There is another talent much more ancient, which
Dr Arbuthnot calls the Homeric talent of gold, which
feems to have weighed fix Attic drachms or three darics,
a daric weighing very little more than a guinea. Ac¬
cording to this talent, fome reckon the treafure of King
David, particularly that mentioned 1 Chron. xxii. 14.
which, according to the common reckoning, would a-
mount in gold talents to the value of 547,500,000!. and
the filver to above 342,000,000!.} or, reckoning accord¬
ing to the decuple proportion of gold to filver, the txvo
fums would be equal. As David reigned in Judaea after
the fiege of Troy, it is not improbable but Hcmer and
he might ufe the fame numeral talent of gold.
Among the Romans there w’ere two kinds of talents,
the little and the great talent: the little w’as the com¬
mon talent} and whenever they fay fimply talcntum,
they are to be underftood of this. The little talent was
60 minae or Roman pounds} the mina or pound efti-
mated at 100 drachmae or denarii : it was alfo eftimated
at 24 great lefterces, which amounted to 60 pounds.
The great talent exceeded the lefs by one-third part.
Bud ecus
[ 194 ]
Talent
II
Tally.
T A L [i
Budaeus computes, that the little talent of filver was
worth 75I. fterling, and the greater 99I. 6s. 8d. fterling.
The greater of gold was worth 1125I. fterling.
Talent, as a fpecies or money, among the Hebrews,
was fometimes ufed for a gold coin, the fame with the
fliekel of gold, called alfo flater, and weighing only four
drachms. The Hebrews reckoned by thefe talents as we
do by pounds, &c. Thus a million of gold, or million
of talents of gold, among them, was a million of Ihekels
or nummi ; the nummus of gold being the fame weight
with the (hekel, viz. four drachms.
But the Hebrew talent weight of filver, which they
called dear, was equivalent to that of 3000 Ihekels, or
113 lb. 10 oz. x dwt. 104 gr. Englilh Troy weight, ac¬
cording to Arbuthnot’s computation.
TALIACOTHJS, Caspar, chief furgeon to the
great duke of Tufcany, was born at Bononia in Itaxy in
1553. He wrote a Latin treatife intitled Chirurgia Not a
de Curtis Membris, in which he teaches the art of en¬
grafting nofes, ears, lips, &c. giving reprefentations of
the inftruments and proper bandages; many, however,
are of opinion that he never put his art in pra£tice. But
his doftrine is not fingular ; for Alexander Benedi&us,
a famous chirurgical writer, has deferibed a fimilar ope¬
ration.
TALLIO (/ex ta/ionis), a fpecies of puniftiment in
the Mofaic law, whereby an evil is returned fimilar to
that committed againft us by another ; hence that ex-
prefiion, “ Eye for eye, tooth for tooth.” This law
was at firft "inferted in the 1 2 tables amongft the Ro¬
mans ; but afterwards fet afide, and a power given to
the praetor to fix upon a fum of mouey for the damage
done.
TALISMANS, magical figures cut or engraved
with fuperftitious obfervations on the charafterifms and
configurations of the heavens, to which fome aftrologers
have attributed wonderful virtues, particularly that of
calling down celeftial influences, ihe talifmahs of Sa-
mothrace, fo famous of old, were pieces of\ iron formed
into certain images, and fet in rings-, thefe were efteemed
prefervatives againft all "kinds of evils. There were like-
wife talifmans taken from vegetables, and others from
minerals.
TALLAGE (tal/agiurn), from the French taille, is
metaphorically ufed for a part or fhare of a man’s fub-
ftance carved out of the whole, paid by way of tribute,
toll, or tax.
TALLOW, in Commerce, the fat of certain animals
melted and clarified. It is procured from moft animals,
but chiefly from bullocks, fiieep, hogs, and bears. Some
kinds of tallow are ufed as unguents in medicine, fome
for making foap and drefling leather, and fome for mak¬
ing candles. See Fat, Chemistry Index.
Tallow Tree. See Croton, Botany Index.
TALLY, is a flick cut in two parts, on each where¬
of is marked, with notches or otherwife, what is due be¬
tween debtor and creditor, as now ufed by brewers, &c.
And this was the ancient way of keeping all accounts,
one part being kept by the creditor, the other by the
debtor, &c. Hence the tallier of the exchequer, whom
we now call the teller. But there are two kinds of tal¬
lies mentioned in our ftatutes to have been long ufed in
the exchequer. The one is termed tallies of debt, which
are in the nature of an acquittance for debts paid to the
king, on the payment whereof thefe tallies are delivered
95 1 T A L
to the debtors, who carrying them to the clerk of the
pipe-office, have there an acquittance in parchment for
their full difeharge. The other are tallies of reward or ^
allowance, being made to flieiifFs of counties as a re-
compence for fuch matters as they have performed to
their charge, or fuch money as is call upon them in their
accounts of courfe, but not leviable, See. In the exche¬
quer there is a tally-court, where attend the two deputy-
chamberlains of the exchequer and the tally-cutter : and
a tally is generally the king’s acquittance for money paid
or lent, and has written on it words proper to exprefs on
what occafion the money is received.
TALLT-Man, a perfon that fells or lets goods, clothes,
&.c. to be paid by fo much a-week.
TALMUD, a colle£fion of Jewifh traditions. There
are twro works which bear this name, the Talmud of Je-
rufalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. Each of thefe is
compofed of two parts ; the Milhna, which is the text,
and is common to both, and the Gemara or commentary.
See Mishna and Gemara.
The Milhna, which comprehends all the laws, infti-
tutions, and rules of life which, befide the ancient He¬
brew feripture, the Jews thought themfelves bound to ob-
ferve, was compofed, according to the unanimous tefti-
mony of the Jews, about the clofe of the fecond century.
It was the work of Rabbi Jehuda (or Juda) Hakkadofh,
who wras the ornament of the fchool at Tiberias, and is
faid to have occupied him forty years. The commen¬
taries and additions which fucceeding Rabbis made were
collefled by Rabbi Jochanan Ben Eliezer, fome fay in
the 5th, others fay in the 6th, and others in the 7th
century, under the name of Gemara, that is, completion ;
becaufe it completed the Talmud. A fimilar additicn
was made to the Milhna by the Babylonilh doflors in
the beginning of the 6th century according to Enfield,
and in the 7th according to others.
The Milhna is divided into fix parts, of which every
one which is intitled order is formed of treatifes, every
treatife is divided into chapters, and every chapter into
milhnas or aphorifms. In the firjl part is difeuffed what¬
ever relates to feeds, fruits, and trees : in the fecond
fealls: in the third women, their duties, their diforders,
marriages, divorces, contra&s, and nuptials : in the
fourth are treated the damages or Ioffes fuftained by
beafts or men, of things found, depofits, ufuries, rents,
farms, partnerlhips in commerce, inheritance, fales and
purchafes, oaths, witneffes, arrefts, idolatry j and here are
named thofe by wdiom the oral law- w-as received and
preferved : in the fifth part are noticed what regards
facrifices and holy things : and the fixth treats on purifi¬
cations, veffels, furniture, clothes, houfes, leprofy, baths,
and numerous other articles. All this forms the Milhna.
As the learned reader may wifh to obtain fome notion
of rabbinical compofition and judgement, we (hall grati¬
fy his curiofity fufficiently by the following fpecimen :
“ Adam’s bodij wras made of the earth of Babylon, his
head of the land of Ifrael, his1 other members of other
parts of the world. R. Meir thought he w-as compaft of
the earth gathered out of the whole earth ; as it is writ¬
ten, thine eyes didfee my fubfiance. Now it is elfewhere
written, the eyes of the Lord are over all the earth. R.
Aha exprefsly marks the tvyelve hours in which his vari¬
ous parts were formed. His ftature was from one end ot
the world to the other; and it was for his tranfgreftion
that the Creator, laying his hand in anger on him, lef-
B b 2 fened
Tally
II ,
Talmud.
TAM [ 196 ] TAM
Talmud fened him j for before (fays R. Eleazar), ‘ with his hand
,11 . he reached the firmament.’ R. Jehuda thinks his fin
ambounn. was jierejy . but ifaac ^inks that ‘ it was nourifhing
his forefkin.”
The Talmud of Babylon is moft Valued by the Jews*,
and this is the book which they mean to exprefs when
they talk of the Talmud in general. An abridgement
of it was made by Maimonides in the 1 2th century, in
which he rejefted fome of its greateft abfurdities. The
Gemara is Huffed with dreams and chimeras, with many
ignorant and impertinent queftions, and the ftyle very
coarfe. The Miffma is written in a ilyle comparatively
pure, and may be very ufeful in explaining paffi.ges of
the New Teffament where the phrafeology is fimilar.
This is indeed the only ufe to which Chriftians can ap¬
ply it j but this renders it valuable. Lightfoot had ju-
dicioufiy availed himfelf of fuch information as he could
derive from it. Some of the popes, with a barbarous
zeal, and a timidity of fpirit for the fuccefs of the Chri-
ftian religion, which the belief of its divinity can never
excufe, ordered great numbers of the Talmud to be
burned. Gregory IX. burned about 20 cart-loads, and
Paul IV. ordered 1 2,000 copies of the Talmud to be
deilroyed.
The laft edition of the Talmud of Babylon, printed
at Amflerdam, is in 12 vols folio. The Talmud of
Jerufalem is in one large folio.
TALPA, the Mole j a genus of quadrupeds be¬
longing to the order offcrcv. See Mammalia Index.
TAMANDAU. See Myrmecophaga, Mamma¬
lia Index.
TAMARINDUS, the Tamarind-tree j a genus
of plants •, according to Linnaeus belonging to the clafs
of triandria j but Woodville, Schreber, and other bota-
niffs, have arranged it under the clafs of monodelphia.
See Botany Index.
TAMARIX, the Tamarisc, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs pentandvia ; and in the natural fy-
ftem ranging under the 13th order, Succulents. See
Botany Index.
TAMBOUR, in Archite&ure, a term applied to the Co¬
rinthian and Compofite capitals, as bearing fome refem-
blance to a drum, which the French call Some
choofe to call it the vafe, and others £■£«/>«/?<7 or the bell.
Tambour is alfo ufed for a little box of timber work,
covered with a ceiling, vvithinfide the porch of certain
churches ; both to prevent the view of perfons paffing
by, and to keep off the wind, &c. by means of folding-
doors, &c.
Tambour, alfo denotes a round courfe of fione, fe-
veral whereof form the ihaft of a column, not fo high as
a diameter.
Tambour, in the arts, is a fpecies of embroidery. The
tambour is an inftrument of a fpherical form, upon which
is ft retched, by means of a firing and buckle, or other
fuitable appendage, a piece of linen or thin filken fluff j
which is wrought with a needle of a particular form,
and by means of filken or gold and filver threads, into
leaves, flowers, or other figures.
TAMBOURIN, is the name of a dance performed
on the French ftage. The air is lively, and the move¬
ments are quick.
The fame name is applied to a mufical inftrument, form¬
ed of a hoop, over which is ftretched a piece of parchment
or vellum, while bells and hollow hemifpheres of brafs
are loofely hung in holes cut in the hoop. The tambourih Tamerlane
is ufed only as an accompaniment to other inffruments. II
TAMERLANE, or Timur Bek, a celebrated prince , ra^lUS- t
and conqueror. At the age of 25 he attained the highefl:
dignities, with furprifing courage, and an ambition affo-
nithing to all the w'orld. Endeavouring to perfeft the
great talents which he had received from nature, he fpent
nine years in different countries ; where his great lenfe
and elevated genius appeared in councils and affemblies,
while his intrepidity and valour, whether in perfonal
combats or pitched battles, drew upon him the admira¬
tion of all mankind. He made himfelf mafter of the
three empires of Jagatay Khan, Tulhi Khan, and Hula-
ku Khan ; fo that his power, riches, and magnificence,
were immenfe. There remain valt monuments of his
grandeur in the cities, towns, caftles, and w’alls, which
he built: in the rivers and canals which he dug, as well
as the bridges, gardens, palaces, hofpitals, mofques, and
monafleries, which he erected in divers parts of Afia in
fo great a number, that a king might be accounted very
powerful and magnificent, who fliould have employed 36
years only in building the great edifices which Timur,
caufed to be founded.
Timur, according to the hiftorian Arab (Mb, was in
his perfon very corpulent and tall. He had a large fore¬
head and big head. His countenance was agreeable,
and his complexion fair. He wore a large beard, was
very ftrong, and well limbed •> had broad fliouiders, thick
fingers, and long legs. His conflitution was amazingly
vigorous *, but he was maimed in one hand and lame of
the right fide. His eyes appeared full of fire 5 his voice
was loud and piercing •, he feared nothing •, and when
far advanced in years, his underftanding was found and
perfeft, his body vigorous and robuft, his mind conftant
and unfhaken like a rock.
He did not like raillery, and could not bear a lie.
There was no joking or fooling before him ; for he lov¬
ed the naked truth, even although it was to his own dif-
advantage. He neither grieved if he mifearried in any
attempt, nor appeared overjoyed on any great fuccefs.
The device of his feal was, “ I am fincere and plain.”
He had a clear and folid underftanding, was furprifingly
happy in his conjeftures j vigilant, aftive, and unfhaken
in his refolutions. He took great delight in reading hi-
ftory, and was well verfed in the ftate of countries, pro¬
vinces, and cities. He was penetrating, fubtle, clofe, and
diffembling ; juft by inclination, liberal from difpofition j
but ambition had in a great meafure extinguifhed his hu¬
manity •, war had familiarized him to blood ; and his
religious zeal had infpired him with the moft cruel, im¬
placable, and pernicious fanaticifm.
He died on the ift of April 1405, in the 71ft year
of Iris age and 36th of his reign. When he found death
approaching, he fent for his principal officers, declared
his grandfon his heir, and made them fwear to execute
his will. Having recommended brotherly love and con¬
cord to the princes his children, he ordered one of the
doftors to read the Koran at his bed’s head, and often
repeat the unity of God. At night he feveral times
made profeffion of his belief, “ That there is no other
God than God,” and then expired. See Moguls, N®
15, &c.
TAMTAM, a flat drum ufed by the Hindoos, re-
fembling a tabor, but it is larger, and founds louder.
TAMUS, Black Briony, a genus of plants belong¬
ing
TAN [ 197 ] TAN
ing to the clafs dioecia ; and in the natural fyftem rank¬
ing under the nth order, Sarmentncece. See Botany
Index.
TAN, the bark of the oak after it has been ground
and ufed by the tanner. The fmalleft fort is generally
made up in little fquare cakes called turf, and fold for
firing. The coarl'er fort is fometimes dried in the fun,
and ufed by bakers for heating their ovens, &c. but its
chief ufe is for making hot-beds to raife pine-apples and
other plants.—William III. introduced the ufe of it from
Holland, for the purpofe of raifing orange trees j after
which it was difcontinued for many years: but about
1719, when ananas were firft brought into England, it
came into general ufe, and has ever fince been in great
elfimation with gardeners for all the purpofes of forcing,
&c. on account of its flrong and lading fermentation.
The fmaller the tan the quicker it heats 5 but the larger
fort acquires heat more gradually and retains it longer :
the fkilful gardener therefore ufes the one or the other,
or a mixture of both, according to the time and purpofe
for which it is wanted. It is fome time after the tan
comes out of the tanner’s pit before it begins to heat,
and therefore it is not fit for immediate ufe ; but having
lain a week or two, it enters into a Hate of fermenta¬
tion, and if put into hot-beds properly prepared, will re¬
tain a moderate heat for three or four months. When
it becomes ufelefs for the hot-houfe, it is faid by Miller
and others to be an excellent manure for fome kinds of
land.
The word tan is fometimes, though improperly, ufed
for the bark itfelf, which is the chief ingredient in tire
tanning of leather. Oak bark, on account of its great
aftringency and gummy-refinous properties, is preferred
to all other fubftances for the purpofe of tanning, as it
not only preferves the leather from rotting, but alfo, by
condenfing the pores, renders it impervious to water.
See'Tanning.
For an account of tan or tannin, confidered as a che¬
mical principle, fee CHEMISTRY, N° 2504-
TAN ACETUM, Tansy, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs fyngenefia 5 and in the natural fyflem
ranging under the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany
Index.
TANALCIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 25th order, Putamineee. See Botany Index.
TANAGR A, TanAger, a genus of birds belonging
to the order of pajjeres. See Ornithology Index.
TANAIS, or Don. See Don.
TANGENT of an Arch, is a right line drawn per¬
pendicularly from the end of a diameter, palling to one
extremity of the arch, and terminated by a right line
drawn from the centre through the other end of that
arch, and called theyectffl/. See Geometry.
TANGIER, a port-town of Africa, in the empire of
Morocco and kingdom of Fez, fituated at the entrance
of the flraits of Gibraltar, in W. Long. 5. 50. N, Lat.
38. 49. In 1662, this place belonged to the Portu-
guefe, and was given to King Charles II. upon his mar¬
riage with the Infanta of Portugal 5 but, he growing
weary of the charge of keeping it, caufed it to be blown
up and deftroyed in 1684 ; ever fince which time it has
been only a poor fifhing town. Anciently it was called
Tingir, and gave name to the province of Mauritania
Tingitana.
TikNK, in the language of ludoftan, a place inclof- Tank
ed for receiving and retaining rain water. During the . II.
periodical rains the tanks are filled, and thus in the dry, Tanmng.
feafon furnifh water for the rice fields and cattle. Some
of them are of great extent, meafuring 300 or 400 feet
on the fide 5 they are of a quadrangular form, and lined
with granite, defcending in regular Heps from the mar¬
gin to the bottom.
TANNER, one who drefles hides by tanning them.
See Tanning.
Tanner, Dr Thomas, an Englilh prelate and cele¬
brated antiquarian, born in 1674. He was admitted of
Queen’s college Oxford, where a fimilarity of taHe for
antiquities produced a clofe friendlhip between him and
Edmund Gibfon afterwards biflrop of London. In 1697,
he wtis chofen fellow of his college ; and having already
publiflied fome fpecimens of his antiquarian refearches j
foon after became known to Dr Moore bifhop of Nor-1
wich, who made him chancellor of his diocefe. In
1722, he was made archdeacon of Norwich, and in
1731 bifhop of St Afaph. Pie died at Oxford in 1735 j
and after bis death was publithed an elaborate work, in
which he is faid to have been employed for 40 years, un¬
der this title, Bibliotheca Britannica Hibernica, five de
Scriptoribus qui in Anglia, Scotia, et Hibernia, adfecculi
XVII. initium floruerunt, &c.
TANNING, the art of converting hides and fkins
into leather. This art has been praftifed for many cen¬
turies in Britain ; but fome improvements have been
made on it, efpecially in France, fuggeHed by the dif-
coveries of modern chemiHry. Theie improvements we
Hiall briefly notice after having deferibed the method
lately praffifed in the neighbourhood of London, where
the bell Britifh leather is manufaffured. The general
principles on which the improvements are founded, will
naturally come to be confidered, after deferibing the
proceffes themfelves. *
The leather tanned in England is generally divided Phferent-
by the manufaflurers into three kinds, butts or backs,ot
hides, and fkins. Butts, are made from the Houtefl and La ^ ^
heaviefl ox hides, and are ufed chiefly for the foies of
flout fhoes and boots. Hides, or crop-hides, are made
from cow hides, or the lighter ox hides, and are employ¬
ed for ordinary foies. The term fkins is applied to all
the other kinds of leather* comprehending that made
from the fkins of calves, feals, dogs, kids. &c. «,
Butts arc tanned as follows. After the horns are Method of*
taken off, the hides are laid fmooth in heaps for two daystaiining
in fummer, and five or fix in winter ; they are then hung'Jutts‘
on poles in a clofe room, called a fmoke-houle, in which
is kept a fmouldering fire of wet tan ; this occafions a
fmall degree of putrefadlion, by which means the hair
more eafily comes off, by fpreading the hide on a fort of
wooden horfe or beam, and feraping it with a crooked
knife. The hair being taken off, the hide is thrown
into a pool of water, to cleanfe it from the dirt, &c,
which being done, it is again fpread on the tvooden
beam, and the greafe, loofe fleflv, extraneous filth, &c,
carefully taken off: the hides are then put into a pit of
ftrong liquor, called oo%e, prepared in pits kept for the
purpofe, by infufing ground oak bark in water, which
is termed colouring. The hides are then removed into
another pit, called a fcouring, which confifls of water
ffrongly impregnated with vitriolic or fulphuric acid, or
a vegetable acid prepared from rye or barley. This
operation
TAN [ 198 ] TAN
Tanning, operation is called raijiftg. The hides are then taken
v ' out of the fcouring, and i’pread fmooth in a pit ufualiy
filled with water, called a binder, with a quantity of
ground bark fire wed between each. After lying a
month Of fix weeks, they are taken up, and the decay¬
ed bark and liquor being drawn out of the pit, it is
again filled with ftrong ooze, when they are put in as
before, with bark between each hide. They now lie
two or three months, at the expiration of which the
fame operation is repeated ; they then remain four or
five months, when they again undergo the fame pro-
cefs, and after being three months in the laid pit, are
completely tanned, unlefs the hides are fo remarkably
flout as to require an additional pit or layer. The
w'hole procefs requires from 11 to 18 months, and
fometimes two years, according to the fubftance of the
hide, and diferetion of the tanner. When taken out
of the pit to be dried, they are hung on poles *, and af¬
ter being compreffed by a fteel pin, and beaten out
3 fmobth by wooden beetles, the operation is completed.
Of tanning Hides are thus managed. After the horns are taken
hides. anc[ t]le [s Wafhed, they are put into a pit of
water, faturated with lime, and having mixed with it a
quantity of the fame fubftance, where they remain a
few days, when they are taken out, and the hair feraped
off on a wooden beam, as before deferibed •, they are
then w'afhed in a pit or pool of water, and the loofe
flefh, &c. being taken off, they are removed into a pit
of weak ooze, where they are taken up and put down
two or three times a day, for the firft: week 5 every fe-
cond or third day they are fhifted into a pit of frefh
ooze, fomewhat ftronger than the former, till at the
end of a month or fix weeks they are put into a ftrong
ooze, in which they are handled once or twice a w-eek
wdth frefh bark for two or three months. They are
then removed into another pit, called a /ayer, in which
they are laid fmooth, with bark ground very fine, ftrew-
ed above each hide. After remaining here two or
three months, they are generally taken up, when the
ooze is withdrawn, and the hides put in again with frefii
ooze and frefli bark, where, after lying two or three
months more, they are completely tanned ; except a
very few ftout hides which may require an extra layer.
They are then taken out, and hung on poles, and being
fmoothed by a fteel pin, are, when dry, ready for
4 ^e’
Of tanning Skins are to be w'afhed in water, Sec. and put into
(kins. lime pits as before mentioned, where they are taken up
and put down every third or fourth day for two or
three weeks, in order to deftroy the fcarf-fkin. The
hair is then feraped off, and the excrefcences being re¬
moved, they are put into a pit of water impregnated
with pigeons dung, called a grainer, which in a week
or xo days foaking out the lime, greafe, and fapona-
ceous matter, foftens the fkins, and prepares them for
the reception of the ooze. They are then put into a
pit of weak ooze, in the fame manner as the hides, and
being frequently handled, are by degrees removed into
a ftronger, and ftill ftronger liquor, for a month or fix
•weeks, when they are put into a very ftrong ooze, with
frefh bark ground very fine, and at the end of two or
three months, according to their fubftances, are fuffi-
ciently tanned } when they are taken out, hung on poles,
and dried.
The lighter forts of hides, called drejjuig hides, as
4
well as horfe hides, are managed nearly in the fame Tanning,
manner as fkins, and are ufed for coach work, harnefs' v
wmrk, &c. '
The principal objeflions to this: old method of tan- objedtions
ning are, that it is extremely tedious, and very expen-to the old
five. Various means have been fuggefted for introdu-me,;'10^s''
cing a cheaper and more expeditious method of tanning.
Among the earlieft: of thefe we may notice that of Dr ' 5
Macbride. This method confifts chiefly in the ufe ofDr Mac-
fulphuric inftead of acetous acid, for raifing or diftend- br^e 3 im'
ing the pores of the leather, and in fubftituting lime1'’
water, or a folution of lime, for what has been called
the milk of lime, or a confiderable quantity of lime dif-
fufed in water. According to a report made to the
committee of commerce of the Dublin fociety, it ap¬
peared that Dr Macbride’s method produced a faving
of more than 20 per cent, to the manufa&urer, while
the hides were completely tanned in a much fhorter
time. It does not appear, however, that this method
ever came into general ufe.
The experiments of M. Seguin, made in the end of
the 18th century, on the nature of the tanning princi->
pie, led him to fuggeft: a method of tanning which is
certainly much more expeditious than the old method,-
It has been adopted in England by Mr William Def-
mond, and by his diredlions has been praftifed with
confiderable fuccefs, by fome of the principal tanners in
Warwickthire, Staffordftiire, and fome of the neighbour¬
ing counties. The following direftions, communicated
by Mr Defmond to the editor of the Philofophical Ma¬
gazine, will fufficiently explain this new procefs. 6
Provide five veffels, called digejlers, of any conveni- Mr Det¬
ent materials and dimenfions, with an aperture at the ^on^’s me_
bottom of each. Let them be placed near each other,100'
and elevated on ftillages or otherwife *, fo that a fmall
veffel may be placed under them. Fill the digefters
with tan, viz. the bark of certain trees, fuch as of oak,
cut fmall, or ground to a coarfe powder. Pour water
on the tan in the firft digefter, where it may Hand fome
time, or be immediately drawn off. This liquor is to
be poured on the tan in the fecond digefter j from that
to the third, and fo on, until it comes through the tan
in the laft digefter. The liquor is then highly colour¬
ed, and marks from 6° to 8° on the hydrometer for
falls. This liquor is to be ufed for tanning the thickeft
hides, and may be called the tanning lixivium. If you
take a fmall quantity of it in a glafs, and pour on it a
few drops of a folution of animal glue, the clear liquor
becomes turbid, and a whitiftr fubftance falls to the bot¬
tom. The precipitate thus obtained, is a fare indica¬
tion that the liquor contains the tanning principle ; for
this reafon, that glue being of the fame nature with the
ikins or hides of which it is made, whatever fubftance
unites itfelf indiffolubly with the former, will do fo
likewrfe with the latter.
This folutron is made by diffolving a little common
glue in water over a moderate fire by means of it, not
only oak bark, but alfo the bark of feveral other trees,
as well as different ftmibs, and plants, all which may be
called tan, are found to contain the tanning principle ;
and by employing the folution as before, it will be al¬
ways eafy to afeertain whether any given fubftance con¬
tains this principle.
In the courfe of thefe lixiviations it may be obferved,
I. That the liquor running from the firft digefter, at
length
TAN t i
Tanning, length lofes its colour. If in this date a little of it be
put into a glafs, and the former experiment be repeated,
the liquof no longer becomes turbid, but remains clear,
which ffyews that it contains no more of the tanning
principle 5 but if a few drops of a folution of fulphate of
iron he poured into the fame glafs, the liquor becomes
thick and black, which is not to be poured on the tan
in the fecond digeiler, but afterwards ufed for taking off
the hair or wool. It is known by the name of gallic
lixivium, as it appears to contain the fame principles
with galls.
The liquid fulphate of iron is obtained by diffolving a
fmall quantity of iron in diluted fulphuric acid, or by
diffolving green copperas in water. This folution ferves
to afcertain fuch fubftances as contain the gallic prin¬
ciple. Lime water will alfo produce this effeft.
When the liquor ceafes to grow black by the mixture
of the fulphate of iron, it will be in vain to pour any
more water on the tan in the firft digefter. This tan
being thus exhaufted, muff be removed, and new tan
put in its place.
The liquor, after running through all the digeffers,
at laft grows weak. All the liquor that marks from 6°
to 8° on the hydrometer, muft be added to the dock of
tanning lixivium. What proceeds afterwards from the
laft digefter is to be poured on the new tan in the fir ft.
Then the frefh wrater is to be conveyed on the tan in
the fecond digefter, and the liquor of the firft fet afide,
while it marks 6° or 8° on the hydrometer, and added
to the tanning lixivium, which muft: always be carefully
feparated from the gallic. In this manner, the tan in
all the digefters may be renewed, and the lixiviations
continued.
The number of thefe lixiviations, as well as the mode
of making them, may be varied at pleafure 5 the eflen-
tial point is to repeat them fo as to give the liquor a fuf-
ficient degree of concentration, which may be deter¬
mined by the hydrometer, and proportioned to the
quicknefs required in the operation, and the thicknefs
of the hides and Ikins to be tanned ; all which experi¬
ence will foon teach. As all kinds of tan are not
equally good, it wall fometimes happen that fix or more
filtrations will be neceffary to obtain a lixivium of 6° or
8°, in which cafe the number of digefters muft be in-
creafed, and the fame method purfued as above ; and
when a weaker lixivium is wanted, three or four filtra¬
tions will be fufficient.
The perfon direfting thefe lixiviations fhould be pro¬
vided with the folution of glue and fulphate of iron, al¬
ready defcribed, in order to afcertain the qualities of the
different lixivia, as w7ell as with a hydrometer properly
graduated, to determine their degree of concentration or
fpecific gravity.
In tanning cow and ox hides with this lixivium, they
^ ftiould firft be waftied in running water, wrell cleaned,
and flelhed in the ufual way. For removing the hair,
the hides are to be fteeped for two or three days in a
vat filled with the gallic lixivium, and a mixture of ful¬
phuric acid, marking 66° on the hydrometer for acids,
and in the proportion of one t® a thoufand, or one pint
to 125 gallons. During this fteeping, the hair is fepa¬
rated from the hides in fuch a manner, that it may be
eafily known when they are to be taken out of the vat,
that is, when the hair is quite loofe. It is to be fcraped
off with a round knife on the horfe or beam.
99 ] TAN
When raifing is neceffary, the hides are immerfed for Tanning.
10 or 12 hours in a vat filled with water, and of
its volume of mineral acid, of the fame quality with the
former, and the operation of raifing is finiftied. The
hides are repeatedly waflred, and the round knife i&
ufed, after which they are prepared for tanning.
The reft of the procefs confifts in tanning, properly
fo called ; for which purpofe, the hides are to be fteep¬
ed fome hours in a weak lixivium of only I® or 2° ; to
obtain which, that is to be taken which runs from the
fecond digefter,. or fome already ufed for tanning. They
are next put into a ftronger lixivium, where in a few
days they w7ill be brought to the fame degree of fatura-
tion with the liquor in which they are immerfed. The
ftrength of the liquor being then much diminithed, it
muft be renewed j and when the hides are completely
faturated, or fully tanned, which is known by cutting
off a bit of the edge, remove the leather, and let it dry
flowly in a fhady place.
For calf Ikins, goat Ikins, &c. thefe are firft flefhed
with the knife, and worked in running water like the
others. They are then fteeped in lime water, in which
there flrould be more lime than the water can diffolve at
once. What is not diffolved will fubfide, but muff
be mixed with the w7ater, by ftirring it feveral times a-
day. In twm or three days the fkins are to be removed 5
when the hair is found quite loofe, it is fcraped off on
the horfe. They are then wafhed and preffed well, till
the water running from them is perfeftly clear, and the
lime totally extracled. They are firft fteeped in a weak
lixivium, then tanned as above ; but the tanning lixi¬
vium muft not be nearly fo ftrong as that for hides.
Lime is ufed for thefe foft Ikins inftead of a mixture
of gallic lixivium and fulphuric acid, becaufe the acid
always fwells the leather more or lels, and becaufe the
lime may be more eafily extrafted from them, by waffl¬
ing and compreffing them, than from the thick hides,
which, when limed, are harfti and apt to crack, if the
lime be not wholly extracted before they are tanned.
Among the different methods of immerfion which
may be pra&ifed in the courfe of thefe operations, the
beft -way feems to be that of fufpending the hides and
Ikins vertically in the lixivia, by means of tranfverfe rods
or bars, and at fuch a diftance afunder as not to touch
each other in any one point. If they are laid out the
one over the other, they will require frequent handling^
in order that all the parts may be equally faturated,
and to prevent the folds or plaits that would otherwife.
be formed in them. In fome cafes it will be found ex¬
pedient to mix frefli tan from time to time with the lixi¬
vium, which will depend on the ftate and quality of the
hides and Ikins to be tanned, as well as on the purpofes
for which they are intended. All thefe confiderations
muft be left to the judgement of the manufacturer 5 but
they do not change the principle on which this mode of
tanning is founded.
Mr Defmond afferts, that befides the very great fav-
ings in point of time and labour, the leather tanned ac¬
cording to the above method being more completely fa¬
turated, will be found to weigh heavier, to wear better, *
and to be lefs fufceptible of moifture, than the leather
tanned in the ufual way *. xi. 20-
In explaining the principles on which the feveral 7
parts of the tanning procefs depend, we muft firft re_ Principles
mark, that the principal objeCl: of tanning is, to com-of tannir!5'
bine
'fanning.
1 A N £ 200
bine the gelatinous part of the hides with the tanning
principle of aftringent vegetables as intimately as pofli*
ble, and thus produce that compound which we call
leather, and which is infoluble in water. The chief
part of the procefs therefore confifts in fteeping the hides
m a folution of tannin till they are fufficiently impreg¬
nated with the tanning principle ; and to this operation
the others are fubfervient, only as they prepare the
hides to be more eafily a&ed on by the tanning prin¬
ciple.
1 he infuCons of oak bark, when chemically exami¬
ned, are found to contain two principal fubfiances, one
precipitable by folution of gelatine made from glue or
iunglafs, and this gives a denfe black, wuth folution of
common fulphate of iron j the other not precipitable
by lolution of gelatine, but precipitating the falts of iron
of a brownhli black, and the falts of tin of a fawn co¬
lour. '
I he former of thefe is the tanning principle, or the
tannm of Seguin j it is efi’ential to the converlion of
fkin into leather. rlhe latter is the colouring or extrac¬
tive matter j it is capable of entering into union with
Ikin, and it gives to it a brown colour j but it does not
render it infoluble in boiling water.
It has been generally fuppofed that the infufion of
oak bark contains a peculiar acid, called gallic acid ;
but fome late experiments render this opinion doubtful ;
and this principle, if it exifts in oak bark, is in intimate
combination with the extra61ive or colouring matter.
In the common procefs of tanning, the Ikin, which
is chiefly compofed of gelatine, flowly combines in its
organized form with the tannin and extractive matter
of the infufions of bark ; the greater proportion of its
increafe of weight, however, is owing to tannin, and
from this fubflance the leather derives its characteristic
properties; but its colour, and the degree of its flexibi¬
lity, appear to be influenced by the quantity of colour¬
ing matter that it contains. When fkin, in large quan¬
tity, is fuffered to exert its full aCtion on a fmall portion
of infufion of bark, containing tannin and extractive
matter, the fluid is found colourlefs. It gives no preci¬
pitate to folution of gelatine, and produces very little
effeCt on the falts of iron or of tin. The tanning prin¬
ciple of oak bark is more foluble in water than the ex¬
tractive matter *, and the relative proportion of tannin
to extractive matter is much greater in ftrong infufions
of oak bark than in wTeak ones ; and when ftrong infu¬
fions are ufed for tanning, a larger proportion of tannin
is combined wfith the matter of fkin.
The ftate of the fkin with regard to its impregnation
with tannin may be eafily afeertained by cutting it tranf-
Verfely with a fliarp knife, as the tanned part will appear
of a nutmeg colour, while the unimpreguated part retains
its whitenefs. Though the impregnation of the fkins wdth
tannin be an effential part of the procefs, fomething
more is required to give the leather its proper degree of
ftrength and pliability. The infufions of oak bark, ef-
pecially the weaker infufions, contain, befides tannin,
more or lefs of extraCHve matter, which is abrorbed by
]
TAN
the fkins during the tanning procefs. Hence it appears,
that a folution of tannin alone wmuld not convert the
fkins into leather j and that as concentrated infufions of
oak bark contain a lefs proportional quantity of extrac¬
tive matter, they are not fo w7ell calculated for the pur-
pofes of tanning as the weaker infufions. This Is an im-
3
portant conclufion, as it fhews that the vulgar opinion Tanning,
of tanners refpefting the propriety of the old methods,i——v"—^
and what they caW feeding the leather, is founded on ra¬
tional principles. In faCt it appears that, though, in
the quick method, recommended by Seguin and Def-
mond, the leather may be more expeditioufly, and per¬
haps more completely impregnated with tannin, it is de¬
ficient in ftrength and pliability, from the want of its
due proportion of extractive matter.
Having thus explained the principles on which the
material part of the tanning procefs depends, we mult
briefly notice the rationale of the preliminary opera¬
tions.
Chaptal has {hewn, that when fkin is immerfed in a
tanning liquor, without having been previoufly freed
from its cuticle or fcarf-fkin, the impregnation of tannin
takes place only on the flefh fide. This fhew's the ne-
ceflity, efpecially in the thicker hides or butts, of remo¬
ving the cuticle, before fteeping the hides in the tanning
liquor. The fmall degree of putrefaCrion to which the
butts are fubje&ed, has this effeCI, and the fteeping of
the hides and fkins in lime water contributes to the fame
end ; for though lime does not feem to be capable of
difiblving the cuticle, it renders it friable, fo that it is
eafily removed by the inftruments employed for feraping
off the hair. Not only the cuticle, but likewife the
foft matter of the extremity of the hair is aCted on by
lime ; and this effeCt muft confiderably tend to facilitate
the procefs of depilation. The fame fubflance mixing
with the fat on the flefhy fide of the fkins, forms a foapy
compound, which, with other extraneous matter, is re¬
moved by the fubfequent vvafliings.
It has been fuppofed that the acids in which the fkins
are fteeped, previous to their immerfion in tanning li¬
quors, have the effeCI of opening their pores, and thus
rendering them more eafily penetrable by the tanning
principle and extraftive matter. We believe that this
opinion is erroneous, as we cannot fee how acids, the
obvious effect of which feems to be that of contradting
animal matter, can enlarge the pores of the fkins. It
is probable that they produce fome other advantageous
effedt not yet fufficiently underftood, in preparing the
fkins for being more perfectly adted on by the tanning
liquors.
The principal effedt of the grainer, or the pigeons
dung employed in the thinner fkins, feems to be that of
promoting putrefadlion, and rendering the fkins lefs
elaftic, though the alkali evolved during the fermenta¬
tion of the dung, may aflift in removing the fat on the
flefh fide of the fkins. g
As from the prefent great demand, and confequent Subftitute*
fcarcity of oak timber, oak bark has become a very ex-f°r oak
penfive article, it may be proper to enumerate a few of^ar^*
the principal vegetable fubftances, efpecially thofe indi¬
genous to Great Britain, that may be fubftituted for it.
Of thefe the bark of the Scotch fir appears to be moft
deferving of attention, and wras fome years ago employ¬
ed by a gentleman in Ireland with great fuccefs. Se¬
veral fpecies of wdllow afford a good fubftitute for oak
bark, particularly the Leicefter willow, of which the
entire bark produces a greater quantity of folid extradl
than the entire bark of oak. Next to thefe may be
mentioned the bark of the common elm, the root of tor-
mentil (tormentilla vulgaris, Lin.) which has been long
employed in the north of Scotland as an article of do-
meftic
T A O [201] TAP
Tanning meftic tanning. To thefe may be added the herb avens
H . {geum urbanum, Lin.), feveral fpecies of cinquefoil,
Taormina.^ common ladies mantle (alcliemiila vulga¬
ris'), and the root of the common water-flag (iris pfeu-
dacorus, Lin.). Of plants not indigenous to Britain,
but generally cultivated here, we may particularly no¬
tice the horfe-chefnut, the bark of which is a ftrong
aftringent, and might be employed, we think, with
great advantage in tanning. The molt powerful tan¬
ning fubftance, however, writh which we are acquainted,
is the juice or extract of the mimofa catechu, commonly
called Japan earth, one pound of which will tan as much
leather as feven or eight pounds of oak bark.
• Our limits will not permit us to extend this article,
by defcribing the proceffes for tanning employed in
other countries. On the method purfued in Ruflia, our
readers may confult Tooke’s View of the RuJJian Em¬
pire; and of the French method of tanning, an ample
account has been given in a publication by De Lalande.
Another on the fame fubjeft may foon be expefted from
Ohaptal. The moft complete wmrk on Britifh tanning,
and on other proceffes to which leather is fubjefled,
with which we are acquainted, is a fmall volume entit¬
led The Art of Tanning and Currying Leather, publifh-
ed by the Dublin Society in 1780. Several ufeful pa¬
pers on this fubjeft may alfo be found in Nicholfon’s
Phi/ofophical Journal, and Tilloch’s Philofophical Maga¬
zine.
For an account of other procefles connected with the
leather manufacture, fee Leather and Currying.
TANTALIUM, a new metal which has been de¬
tected in two minerals. See MINERALOGY, p. 250.
TANTALUS, in fabulous hiftory, king of Phrygia
and Paphlagonia, was the fon of Jupiter and the nymph
Plota. He one day entertained the gods at his table $
when, to prove their divinity, he ferved up his fon Pe-
lops cut in pieces. All the deities, except Ceres, per¬
ceived his cruelty and impiety, and wmuld not touch his
provifions. That goddefs, whofe thoughts were folely
employed about her daughter Proferpine, inadvertently
ate a part of his left fhoulder. Pelops, however, was
reftored to life; and an ivory (boulder given him in the
room of that which had been eaten ; while Tantalus
xvas thrown into Tartarus, where he was puniflied with
perpetual hunger and third. He was chained in a
lake j the water of which reached up to his chin, but
retired when he attempted to drink. The branch of a
tree loaded with fruit hung down even to his lips, but
on his attempting to pluck the fruit the branch fprung
upwards.
Tantalus, a genus of birds belonging to the order
of grallae. See Ornithology Index.
Tantalus’1 s Cup. See Science, Amufements of
N° 33-
TANZY, or Tansy. See Tanacetum, Botany
Index.
TAORMINA, a town in Sicily, which is fituated
on a high rock, and is 88 miles fouth of Medina. Of
its origin little is known. A colony from the Hie of
Naxos fettled at the foot of Etna, at no great didance
from the fhore, and at about a league or a league and a
half from the prefent fituation of Taormina. Dionyfius
the Tyrant attacked this colony, and either took or fet
fire to their city. The inhabitants retired to the rocks
cf Mount Taurus; among which they found a traCl of
Vol. XX. Part I.
ground fufficiently level and fecure, and of fufficient ex- Taormina
tent. Here, therefore, they built a city *, which, after M
the mountain, they named Tauromenium. It was at. 1 ’ 1
length raifed to a very fiouridiing date by trade, and
became celebrated as a feat of the arts, the remains of
which diow that the fine arts mud have been once fuc-
cefsfully cultivated at Tauromenium.
Among other remains are dill to be feen a fpacious
theatre, a tomb, and a large natural grotto, which ap¬
pears to have been anciently adorned within with artifi¬
cial ornaments. After the inhabitants of Taormina em¬
braced Chridianity, they dill continued to vifit this
grotto with devout veneration. Indead of the Pagan
divinities to whom it had before been facred, they fub-
dituted a faint, the venerable St Leonard. But St Leo¬
nard did not long draw crowds to this grotto 5 and the
Chridians have either defaced its Pagan decorations, or
fuftered them to fall into decay by the injuries of time.
It is now black and fmoky j and it is with difficulty
that any remains of the Greek paintings with which it
was once ornamented can be didinguiffied.
TAPE-worm. See 'Tenia, Helminthology
Index.
TAPER, Tapering, is underftood of a piece of
timber, or the like, when thick at one end, and gra¬
dually diminidiing to the other $ as is the cafe in pyra¬
mids, cones, &c.
To meafure TAPER-Timber, &c. See SLIDING
Rule.
TAPER-Bored, is applied to a piece of ordnance
when it is wider at the mouth than towards the breech.
Taper, alfo denotes a kind of tall wax candle, pla¬
ced in a candledick, and burnt at funeral proceffions,
and in other church folemnities.
Tapers are made of different fizes ; in fome places, as
Italy, &c. they are cylindrical j but in mod other
countries, as England, France, &c. they are conical or
taper j whence podibly the name 5 unlefs w'e rather
choofe to derive taper, in the adje&ive fenfe from the
fubdantive taper, in the Saxon tapen or tapon, cereus,
“ wax-candle.” Both kinds are pierced at bottom for a
pin in the candledick to enter.—There are two ways of
making tapers, the fird vrith the ladle, the fecond by
hand j for which, fee Candle.
Pafchal TAPER, among the Romanids, is a large ta¬
per, whereon the deacon applies five bits of frankincenfe,
in holes made for the purpofe in form of a crofs ; and
which he. lights with new fire in the ceremony of Eader
' Saturday.
The Pontifical makes Pope Zofimus the author of
this ufage ; but Baronius will have it more ancient, and
quotes a hymn of Prudentius to prove it. That pope
he (iippofes to have only edabliflied the ufe thereof in
parilh-churches, which, till then, had been redrained
to greater churches.
F. Papebroch explains the original of the pafchal ta¬
per more didinclly, in his Conatus Chronico-Hifloricus,
&c. It feems, though the council of Nice regulated
the day whereon Eader was to be celebrated, it laid it
on the patriarch of Alexandria to make a yearly canon
thereof, and to fend it to the pope. As all the other
moveable feads were to be regulated by that ©f Eader,
a catalogue of them was made every year 5 and this was
rvritten on a taper, cereus, which was bieffed in the
church with much folemnity.
C c
This
TAP [20
tTT, This taper, according to the a"bbot Chaflelain, was
a e ry'. not a wax-candle made to be burnt; it had no wick,
nor wTas it any thing more than a kind of column of
wax, made on purpofe to write the lift of moveable
feafts on ; and which would fuffice to hold that lift for
the fpace of a year.
For among the ancients, when any thing was to be
written to lalt for ever, they engraved it on marble or
fleel ; when it was to laft a long while, they wrote it
on Egyptian paper •, and when it was only to lafl a
fhort time, they contented themfelves to write it on wax.
In procefs of time they came to write the moveable
feafts on paper, but they ftill faftened it to the pafchai
taper. Such is the original of the benedi&ion of the
pafchai taper.
TAPESTRY, a kind of cloth made of wrool and
filk, adorned with figures of different animals, &c. and
formerly ufed for lining the walls of rooms, churches,
&c.
The art of weaving tapeftry is fuppofed to have been
borrowed from the Saracens; accordingly the workmen
employed in this manutadfure in France were formerly
called SaraxiriT or Sara%inois. Guicciardini afcribes
the invention of tapeftry hangings to the inhabitants of
the Netherlands j but he has not mentioned at what time
the difcovery was made. This art was brought into
England by William Sheldon, near the end of Henry
VlII.’s reign. In 1619 a manufacture was eftablilhed
at Mortlake in Surry by Sir Francis Crane, wTho recei¬
ved 200bl. from King James to encourage the defign.
The firft manufacture of tapeftry at Paris was fet up un
der Henry IV. in 1606 or 1607, by feveral artifts
whom that monarch invited from Fianders. Under
Louis XIV. the manufacture of the Gobelins was infti-
tuted, which has introduced very beautiful cloths, re¬
markable for ftrength, for elegance of defign, and a
happy choice of colours. The fineft paintings are co¬
pied, and eminent painters have been employed in mak¬
ing defigns for the work.
Tapeftry-work is diftinguiftied by the wmrkmen into
two kinds, viz. that of high and that of low warp ;
though the difference is rather in the manner of work¬
ing than in the work itfelf j wrhich is in effeCt the fame
in both : only the looms, and confequently the warps,
are differently fituated ; thofe of the low warp being
placed flat and parallel to the horizon, and thofe of the
high warp ereCfed perpendicularly. The Englifti an¬
ciently excelled all the world in the tapeftry of the high
warp j and they ftill retain their former reputation,
though with fome little change : their low warps are
ftill admired ; but as for the h'gh ones, they are quite
laid afide by the French. The French, before the re-
_ volution, bad three confiderable tapeftry manufaftures
befides that of the Gobelins *, the firft: at xVubuffon in
Auvergne, the fecond at Felletin in the Upper Marche,
and the third at Beauvais. They were all equally efta-
bliftied for the high and the )owT warp •, but they had
all laid afide the high warp excepting the Gobelins.
There were admirable low warps likewife in Flanders,
generally exceeding thofe of France 5 the chief and al-
moft only Flemifh manufactures were at Bruffels, Ant¬
werp, Oudenard, Lifle, Tournay, Bruges, and Valen¬
ciennes •, but of the ftate of thefe manufactures now we
are ignorant.
2 ] TAP
mciai vv j
three ells Paris meafure.
'Ihe Manufacture of Tapcfnj of the High Warp.—.
The loom on which it is wrought is placed perpendicu¬
larly : it confifts of four principal pieces 5 two long
planks or cheeks of wood, and two thick rollers or
beams. The planks are fet upright, and the beams
acrofs them, one at the top and the other at the bottom,
or about a foot diftance from the ground. They have
each their trunnions, by which they are fuipended on
the planks, and are turned with bars. In each x'oller is
a groove, from one end to the other, capable of contain¬
ing a long round piece of wood, faftened therein with
hooks. The ufe of it is to lie the ends of the warp to.
The warp, which is a kind of worfted, or twilled wool¬
len thread, is wound on the upper roller ; and the work,
as faft as wove, is wound on the lower. Withinfide
the planks, which are feven or eight feet high, fourteen
or fifteen inches broad, and three or four thick, are
holes pierced from top to bottom, in which are put
thick pieces of iron, with hooks at one end ferving to fu-
ftain the coat-ftave : thefe pieces of iron have alfo holes
pierced, by putting a pin in which the Have is drawn
nearer or fet farther off; and thus the coats or threads
are ftretched or loofened at pleafure. The coat-ftave is
about three inches diameter, and runs all the length of
the loom \ on this are fixed the coats or threads, which
make the threads of the warp crois each other. It has
much the fame effedl here as the fpring-ftave and tred-
dles have in the common looms. The coats are little
threads faftened to each thread of the warp with a kind
of Aiding knot, which forms a fort of mafli or ring.
They ferve to keep the warp open for the paffage of
broaches wound with filks, woollens, or other matters
ufed in the piece of tapeftry. In the laft: place, there
are a number of little flicks of different lengths, but all
about an inch in diameter, which the workman keeps
by him in bafkets, to ferve to make the threads of the
warp crofs each other, by pafling them acrofs ; and,
that the threads thus croffed may retain their proper fi-
tuatron, a packthread is run among the threads above
the flick.
The loom being thus formed, and mounted with its
warp, ti e firft thing the workman does is to draw on
the threads of this warp the principal lines and ftrokes
of the defign to be reprefented on the piece of tapeftry $
which is done by applying cartoons made from the
painting he intends to copy to the fide that is to be the
wrong fide of the piece, and then, with a black lead
pencil, following and tracing out the contours thereof
on the thread of the right fide ; fo that the flrokes ap¬
pear equally both before and behind.
As for the original defign the work is to be finifhed
by, it is bung up behind the rvorkmen, and wound on
a long fluff, from which a piece is unrolled from time
to time as the work proceeds.
Befides the loom, &c. here defcribed, there are three
other principal inflruments required for working the
filk or the wool of the woof within the threads of the
warp *, thefe are a broach, a reed, and an iron needle.
The broach is made of a hard wood, feven or eight
inches long, and two-thirds of an inch thick, ending in
a point with a little handle. This ferves as a (buttle j
the filks, woollens, gold, or filver, to be ufed in the
work
TAP [ 203 ] TAR
Tapeftry. work being wound on it. The reed or comb is alfo of
“ 1 wood, eight or nine inches long, and an inch thick on
the back, whence it grows lefs and lefs to the extremity
of the teeth, which are more or lefs apart, according to
the greater or lefs degree of finenefs of the intended
work. Laftly, the needle is made in form of the com¬
mon needle, only bigger and longer. Its ufe is to prefs
clofe the wool and filks when there is any line or colour
that does not fit well.
All things being prepared for the work, and the work¬
man ready to begin, he places himfelf on the wTrong fide
of the piece, with his back towards the defign : fo that
he works as it were blindfold, feeing nothing of wdiat
he does, and being obliged to quit his port, and go to
the other fide of the loom whenever he would view and
examine the piece, to correct it with his preffing-needle.
To put filk, &c. in the wrarp, he firft turns and looks
at the defign ; then, taking a broach full of the proper
colour, he places it among the threads of the wrarp,
which he brings cvofs each other wTith his fingers, by
means of the coats or threads faftened to the Haft'; this
he repeats every time he is to change his colour. Ha¬
ving placed the filk or wool, he beats it with his reed
or comb; and when he has thus wrought in feveral
rows over each other, he goes to fee the effects they
have, in order to reform the contours with his needle,
if there be occafion. As the work advances, it is rolled
upon the lower beam, and they unroll as much warp
from the upper beam as fuffices them to continue the
the piece : the like they do of the defign behind them.
When the pieces are wide, feveral workmen may be em¬
ployed at once.
We have but twro things to add : the firft is, that the
high warp tapeftry goes on much more flowly than the
low warp, and lakes up almoft twice the time and trouble.
The fecond is, that all the difference that the eye can
perceive between the two kinds, confifts in this, that in
the low warp there is a red fillet, about one-twelfth of
an inch broad, running on each fide from top to bottom,
which is wanting in the high warp.
Maim fa Bure of Tapefirij of the Low Warp.—The
loom or frame, whereon the low w’arp is wrought, is
much like that of the weavers •, the principal parts there¬
of are two ftrong pieces of wood forming the fidesof the
loom, and bearing a beam or roller at each end : they
are fuftained at bottom with other ftrong pieces of wood
in manner of treftes ; and, to keep them the firmer, they
are likewife faftened to the floor with a kind of but-
treffes, which prevent any fliaking, though there are
fometimes four or five workmen leaning on the fore-beam
at once.
The rollers have each their trunnions, by which they
are fuftained : fhey are turned bv large iron pins three
feet long. Along each beam runs a groove, wherein is
placed the wich, a piece of wood of about two inches
diameter, and ahnoft of the length of the roller : this
piece fills the groove entirely, and is faftened therein,
from fpace to fpace, by wooden pins. To the two
wiches are faftened the two extremities of the warp,
w’hich is wound on the farther roller, and the work, as
it advances, on the nearer.
Acrofs the two fides, almoft in the middle of the loom,
pafles a wooden bar, which fuftains little pieces of wood,
not unlike the beam cf a balance : to thefe pieces are
faftened firings, which bear certain fpring ftaves, where¬
with the workman, by means of two treddles under the Tapeftry
loom whereon he fets his feet, gives a motion to the
coats, and makes the threads of the warp rife and fall , ’ ,
alternately. Each loom has more or fewer of thefe
fpring-flaves, and each ftaff more or fewer coals, as the
tapeftry confifts of more or fewer threads.
The defign or painting the tapeftry-man is to follow
is placed underneath the warp j where it is fullauied
from fpace to fpace with firings, by means of which the
defign is brought nearer the warp.
The loom being mounted, there are two inflruments
ufed in working it, viz. the reed and the ftute. The flute
does the office of the weaver’s fliuttle 3 it is made of
an hard poliihed xvood, three or four lines thick at the
ends, and fomewhat more in the middle, and three or
fouv inches long. On it are wound the filks or other
matters to be ufed as the woof of the taptftry. The
comb or reed is of wood or ivory ; it has ufually teeth
on both fides 5 it is about an inch thick in the middle,
but diminiflies each way to the extremity of the teeth :
it ferves to beat the threads of the woof clofe to each
other, as fall as the workman has paiTed and placed
them with his flute among the threads of the wTarp.
The workman is feated on a bench before the loom,
with his breaft againft the beam, only a cufliion or pil¬
low between them •, and, in this pofture, feparating, with
his fingers, the threads of the warp, that he may fee the
design underneath, and taking a flute, mounted with a
proper colour, he paffes it among the thieads, after ha¬
ving raifed or lowered them, by means of the treddles
moving the fpring-ftaves and coats.
Laftly, To prefs and clofe the threads of the filk or
yarn, &c. thus placed, he ftrikes each courfe (5. e. what
the flute leaves in its paffing and coming back again)
with the reed.
TAPIOCA, a fpecies of ftarch, which the Brazileans
make from the roots of the caffada plant. See Jatro-
pha, Botany Index.
TAPIR, a quadruped of the order of belluae, refem-
bling the hippopotamus. See Mammalia Index.
TAPPING, in general, the aft of piercing a hole in
a veflel, and applying a tube or canula in the aperture,
for the commodious drawing off the liquor contained
therein.
Tapping, in Surgery. See Paracentesis, Sur¬
gery Index.
TAPROBANA, the ancient name of the ifland of
Ceylon. See Ceylon, and Geography, N° 28.
TAR, a thick, black, unftuous fubftance, obtained
chiefly from old p’mes and fir-trees by burning them with
a clofe fmothering heat. It is prepared in great quan¬
tities in Norway, Sweden, Geimany, Iluflia, and North
America, and in other countries where the pine and fir
abound.
Becher, the celebrated chemift, firft propofed to make
tar from pit-coal. Manufactures for this purpofe have
been eftabliftied many years ago in the bifhopric of
Liege, and in feveral parts of England. In the year
1781, the earl of Dundonald obtained a patent for ex¬
tracting tar from pit-coal by a new procefs of diftillation.
Great hopes were entertained of the value of this difeo-
very, but we have not heard that it has anfwered expec¬
tation.
Tar, which is well known for its economical ufes, is
properly an empyreumatic oil of turpentine, and has been '•
C c 2 much
T A R [ 204 1 TAR
'jfaraiito much ufed as a medicine both internally and externally.
Tar-water, or w'ater impregnated with the more loluble
1 _ 4   parts or tar, was rormeriy a very popular remedy.
TARANTO, the ancient Tarentum, a fea-port
town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the
Terra de Otranto. It is a ftrong and populous place,
with an archbifhop’s fee, and the title of a principality.
It is feated on a peninfula, and is defended by a lirong
callle but the harbour is choaked up. E. Long. 17.
29. N. Lat. 40. 35.
TARANTULA, a fpeciss of aranea, fo called from
Taranto, the place where it is faid to abound. See
Aranea, Entomology Index.
TARASCON, an ancient and populous town of
France, in the department of the Mouths of the Rhone, and
late province of Provence, with a well-built caftle, feated
on the river Rhone, oppofite Beaucaire, with which it
(Communicates by a bridge of boats. Its commerce conlifts
in oil, brandy, ftarch, and fluffs that are much worn,
one fort being of c.oarfe filk, and the other of the fame
material and wool. Jt is 10 miles north of Arles, and
375 fouth by eaft of Pa;is. E. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat.
43; 46. . , , .
TARAZONA, a flrong town of Spain, m the king¬
dom of Arragon, and on the frontiers of OJd Caitile,
with a bilhop’s fee. It is feated partly on a rock, and
partly in a fertile plain, on the river Chiles, xl was
taken from the Moors in mo. W. Long. 1. £6.
N. Lat. 42. 10.
TARCHONANTHUS, Flea-bane, a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs fyngenefia \ and in the na¬
tural fyflem ranging under the 49th order, Compqfitce.
See Botany Index.
TARE, is an allowance for the outfide package that
contains fuch goods as cannot be unpacked without de¬
triment } or for the papers, threads, bands, &c. that in-
clofe or bind any goods imported loofe ; or though im¬
ported in calks ; chefts, &c. yet cannot be unpacked
and weighed neat.
Tare, or Vetch. See Vicia, Botany Index.
TARGE T, a kind of fhield or weapon of defence
made ule of by the ancients.
TARGIONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of cryptogamia, and natural order of Algce. See
Botany Index.
TARGUM, a name given to the Chaldee para-
phrafes of the books of the Old Teftament. They are
called paraphrafes or expojitions, becaufe they are rather
comments and explications than literal tranflations of
the text. They are written in the Chaldee tongue,
which became familiar to the Jews after the time of
their captivity in Babylon, and was more known to them
than the Hebrew itfelf. So that when the Hebrew text
was read in the fynagogue, or in the temple, they ge¬
nerally added to it an explication in the Chaldee tongue
for the fervice of the people, who had but a very im¬
perfect knowledge of the Hebrew tongue. It is probable,
that even from the time of Ezra this cullom began,
ffnce this learned fciibe, reading the law to the people
in the temple, explained it, with the other priefts that
were with him, to make it underflood by the people
(Nehem. viii. 7—9.).
But though the cullom of making thefe forts of ex-
pafitions in the Chaldee language be very ancient among
the Hebrews, yet have they no written paraphrafes or
targums before the era of Onkelos and Jonathan, who Targum.
lived about the time of our Saviour. Jonathan is placed —y"—"
about 30 years before Chrilt, under the reign of Herod
the Great. Onkelos is fomething more modern. The
Targum of Onkelos is the moll of all elteemed, and
and copies are to be found in which it is inferted verfe
for verle with the Hebrew. It is fo Ihort and fo limple,
that it cannot be fufpefted of being corrupted. This
paraphralt wrote only upon the books of Mofes 5 and
his Ityle approaches nearly to the purity of the Chaldee,
as it is found in Daniel and Ezra. This targum is
quoted in the Mifna, but was not known either to Eufe-
bius, St Jerome, or Origen.
The Targum of Jonathan fon of Uziel is upon the
greater and leffer prophets. He is much more diffufe
than Onkelos, and efpecially upon the leffer prophets,
where he takes great liberties, and runs on in allegories.
His Ityle is pure enough, and approaches pretty near to
the Chaldee of Onkelos. It is thought that the Jewilh
doftors who lived above 700 years after him made fome
additions to him.
The Targum of Jofeph the Blind is upon the Hagio-
grapha. This author is much more modern, and lefs
elteemed than thofe w’e have now mentioned. He has
written upon the Pfalms, Job, the Proverbs, the Can¬
ticles, Ecclefialtes, Ruth, and Either. His llyle is a
very corrupt Chaldee, with a great mixture of words
from foreign languages.
The Targum of Jerufalem is only upon the Pentateuch j
nor is that entire or perfeCl. There are whole verfes
w.anting, others tranfpofed, others mutilated ; which has
maUe many of opinion that this only is a fragment of fome
ancient paraphrafe that is now loll. There is no tar¬
gum up.on Daniel, or upon the books of Ezra and Ne«
hemiah.
Thefe targums are of great ufe for the better under-
Itanding not only of the Old Tellament, on which they
are written, but alfo of the New’. As to the Old Tella¬
ment, they ferve to vindicate the genuinenefs of the pre-
fent Hebrew text, by proving it to be the fame that was
in ufe when thefe targums were made, contrary to the
opinion of thofe who think the Jew’s corrupted it after
our Saviour’s time. They help to explain many words
and phrafes in the Hebrew original, and they hand
down to us many of the ancient culloms of the Jews.
And fome of them, with the phrafeologies, idioms, and
peculiar forms of fpeech, which we find in them, do in
many inllances help as much for the better illullration
and better underltanding of the New Tellament as of
the Old ; the Jerufalem Chaldee dialed, in which they
are written, being the vulgar language of the Jews in
our Saviour’s time. They alfo very much ferve the
Chriflian caufe again!! the Jew’S, by interpreting many
of the prophecies of the Mefliah in the Old Teilament
in the fame manner as the Chriftians do. Many in¬
llances are produced to this purpofe by Dr Prideaux in
his ConneEi. of the Hifl. of the Old and New Tellament,
vol. iv. p. 777, &c.
Thefe targums are publilhed in the fecond edition of
the great Hebrew Bible fet forth at Balil by Buxtorf
the father, anno 1610 j for he has redified the Chaldee
text, and reformed the vowel pointings in it; the tar¬
gums having at firlt been written without vowel points,
which were afterwards added very erroneoully by fome
Jews.
TARIT'j
TAR
Tarif
Tartary.
TARIF, a table containing the names of different
forts of merchandife, with the duties to be paid as fettled
among trading nations.
TARPA, Spukius Mecius, a Latin critic in the
time of Julius Caefar and Auguftus. He had his tri¬
bunal in the temple of Apollo, where, with four aflift-
ants, he paffed fentcnce on the works of the poets. Ci¬
cero and Horace make honourable mention of this critic.
TARPAULIN, a piece of canvas, well tarred over,
to keep off, the rain from any place. The term is alfo
often applied in a burlefque fenfe to a perfon that has
been all his life bred to the fea.
TAR PE IAN, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given to a fteep rock in Rome j whence, by the law
of the twelve tables, thofe guilty of certain crimes were
precipitated. It took its name from Tarpeia, a veffal
virgin, who was killed by the Sabines, as related under
the article Rome, N° 24.
TARQUIN the Elder, king of Rome, fucceeded
Ancus Martius 615 B. C. See Rome, N°35—40.
Tarquin the Proud, a tyrant and ufurper. See
Rome, N° 49—51, &c.
TARRAGON, or Dragon-wort. See Botany
Index.
TARROCK, a fpecies of lorus. See Ornithology
Index.
TARSHISH, a town frequently mentioned by an¬
cient authors, the fituation of which it is difficult to af-
certain. See Ophir.
TARTAN, in fea language, a fmall coafting veffel
navigated in the Mediterranean, with only one mart
and a bowfprit, the principal fail, which is very large,
being extended by a lateen-yard. When tartans put up
a fquare fail, it is called a fail offortune.
TARTAR, a hard folid fubftance which feparates
from wine after complete fermentation, and adheres to
the top and fides of the talks. It is an impure tartrate of
potaffi with the acid in excefs. See Chemistry, ^999.
TARTARIC acid. See Chemistry, p. 529.
TART ARY, a name given by geographers and hi-
ftorians to a confiderable extent of territory in Alia, ly¬
ing between Ruffia and China, and including a great
variety of nations, now chiefly dependent on thefe two
empires. The whole country is ufually divided' into
Weflern Tartary, and Eajlern or Chinefe Tartary, of
which the former includes Weffern Turkiftan, Kha-
rifm, and Great Bucharia; while the latter comprehends
the country of the Monguls and the Mandjhurs, now
both fubjeft to Ruffia, and Little Bucharia. The geo¬
graphy of feveral parts of this extenlive traft has already
been confidered under the articles Bucharia, China,
and Russia, and we lhall here confine ourfelves to that
which is now commonly known by the name of Inde¬
pendent Tartary, by which we underftand that extent
of country now poffeffed by the Kirghifes, and the Uf-
beck Tartars, including the Kharifm, and Great and
Little Bucharia.
Extent, Sec. Independent Tartary thus defined, extends from the
Cafpian fea on the weft to the mountains of Belur on
theeaft, a fpace of about 870 Britilh miles, and from
the mountains of Gaur in the fouth, to the fouthem
boundaries of the Ruffian empire on the north, including
nearly 1 500 Britiffi miles. About half of this extent
is occupied by the Kirghifes to the north, and the Uf-
becks to the fouth.
r 205 ]
TAR
Divifions.
f Inde¬
pendent
Tartary.
The country of the Kirghifes is feparated from Si- Tartary.
beria by the great fteppe or defert of Iffim, an exten- ^
five plain interfered by a river of the fame name, and Kqr!rhifesf.
abounding with lakes of fait and bitter waters. Even
the foil of this fteppe is in many places impregnated
with fait and nitre, though in feveral fpots the foil is
by no means unfruitful. There are no towns, as the
inhabitants dwell wholly in tents.
The Kirghifes have been long divided into three
principal hordes, called the great, middle, and lejfer. Of
thefe, the two latter are now regarded as fubjefts of the
Ruffian empire, though they feem by no means to be
dependent on that power. The great horde, defended
by mountains on the fouth and eaft, are properly inde¬
pendent. This laft horde is fuppofed to contain about
60,000 families, while the leffer and middle hordes are
faid to comprehend each about half that_number. The
whole population is computed at about 500,000.
The Kirghifes have gradually moved from the eaft
towards the weft. Their manners are deferibed at con¬
fiderable length by Pallas. Their tents are of a fort
of felt j their drink kumifs, made of acidulated mares
milk. The great horde is confidered as the fource of
the other two. Being fettled near the mountains of
Alak, or Ala Tau, this horde has been called the Ala-
tanian Kirghifes. They lead a wandering life, from
the borders of the Upper Sirr, near Taffikund, to the
fteppe of Iffim. Each horde has its particular khan $
but the middle horde, when Pallas vifited this country,
was contented with a prince, who feemed to acknow¬
ledge the khan of the leffer horde j and in 1777, this
khan was called Nur Hali, an equitable prince. Their
features are Tartaric, with flat nofe and fmall eyes, but
not oblique like thofe of the Monguls and Chinefe.
They have horfes, camels, cattle, ffieep, and goats.
Some individuals of the middle horde, it is faid, had
10,000 horfes, 300 camels, 4000 cattle, 20,000 ffieep,
and upwards of 2000 goats j while in the leffer horde
were proprietors of 5000 horfes, and a proportional
number of the other animals. Their dromedaries fur-
nifli a confiderable quantity of woolly hair, fold to the
Ruffians and Bucharians, being annually clipped like
that of ffieep. Their chief food is mutton ; and the
lamb is fo exquifite, that it is fent from Orenburg to St
Peterffiurg for the tables of the palace. The lamb
Ikins are the moft celebrated next to thofe of Bucharia ;
but the wool of the ffieep is coarfe, and ufed only for
domeftic purpofes, for felts and thick cloths. The fteppes
fupply them with objefts of the chace, wolves, foxes,
marmots, antelopes, &c. In the fouthern and eaftern
mountains are found wild ffieep, the ox of Tibet, which
feems to delight in fnowy alps y with chacals, tigers,
and wild affes.
As the Kirghifians regard each other as brethren,
they are obliged to employ flaves who are captives taken
in their incurfions. Their drefs confifts of clofe vefts,
large trowfers and pointed boots. The ladies adorn
their heads with the necks of herons, difpofed like horns.
They appear to be Mahometans, but have a more re¬
laxed creed.
The Kirghifians carry on feme trade with Ruffia.
The chief traffic is at Orenburg, and wholly by ex¬
change ; but the middle horde proceed to Omlk. About;
150,000 ffieep are annually brought to Orenburg, with.
horfes, cattle, lamb Ikins, camels wool, and fometimes
fiavesi.
TAR r 2cS 1
In return they take manufactured articles, chief- height of a man
4
Ufbeks.
Town of
Khiva.
Tartary. flaveS.
" v ly clothes and furniture. From Bucharia, Khiva, and
Tafhkund, they receive arms and coats-of-mail, which
Ruflia refufes, in return for camels and cattle. They
are extremely fond of the Kalmuk women, who long
retain their charms} and often marry them if they will
adopt the Mahometan religion. They have an annual
fellival in honour of the dead. About the beginning of
the 17th century this people, who were formerly Sha-
manians, became children of circumcifron, by the exer¬
tions of the prietts of Turkiftan.
The country of the Ufbek Tartars includes Kharifm
and part of Great Bucharia. The former of thefe ex¬
tends from the river Gihon to the Cafpian fea, and is
bounded on the north and eaft by vail; deferts. Its
length is about 400 Britifh miles, and its breadth rather
lefs than 3 50. The chief town is Khiva, befides which
there are five walled cities or towns, within half a day’s
journey of each other. The khan is abfolute, and inde¬
pendent of any but the high pried, or lama, by whom
he is controlled. The Kievinlki Tartars differ litile
from the Kirghifes, but furpafs even them in treachery.
Their manners are nearly the fame, except that the
Kirghifes live in tents, while the others inhabit cities and
villages. Their only trade is with Bokhara and Perfiaj
whither they carry cattle, furs, and hides, which they
procure from the Kirghifes and Turkoman Tartars.
The place itfelf produces little more than cotton, lamb
furs, of a bad quaiity, and fome raw filk; part of
which they manufafture. The town of Khiva Hands on
a rifing ground, with three gales, and a ffrong thick
wall of earth much higher than the houfes, with turrets
at fmall didances, and a broad deep ditch full of water.
It occupies a large fpace, and commands a pleafant pro-
fpeft } but the houfes are built with mud, having flat
roofs covered with earth. It is 17 days journey from
the Cafpian fea, and 33 from Orenburg, allowing 40
verfts to the day’s journey.
The people of Khiva bring to Orenburg large quan¬
tities of raw cotton; but the coafts of the Cafpian are
held by fome remains of Turkomans in the north, and
by Ufbeks in the fouth. A confidcrable trade is car¬
ried on with Mangufhlak. As the merchants of Khiva
brought gold and gems to Aftrakan, probably from the
two Bucharias, it was fuggefted to Peter the Great
that thefe produ&s wrere found in Kharifm, in confe-
quence of which he attempted a fettlement. Rut the
Ruffians, to the number of 3000, were cut off by the
Ufbeks.
Great Bucharia, by far the moft important part of
Independent Tartary, extends for about 700 Britiffi
miles in length from north to fouth, by a medial breadth
of about 3 50, being bounded on the north by the
mountains of Argun, and divided from Kharifm and
Corazan by the river Amu, and extenfive deferts, while
on the fouth and eaft it has for its boundaries the moun¬
tains of Gaur and of Beber.
The chief city of Great Bucharia is S AM ARC AND, 6n
the fouthern bank of the river Sogd. The other places
of note are Bokhara on the fame river, Balk on the
river Dehalh, Zouf, and Kotlan.
The face of the country prefents a great variety,
abounding with rivers, hills, and mountains, but being
in general deficient in wood. Near the rivers the foil
is very productive, the grafs fometimes exceeding the
T A R
and in fome parts much induftry is Taitary.
Great Buc¬
haria.
ffiown in the cultivation of rice and other grain,
Ihe rivers are, the Amu and Sirr. Bciides the fea
of Aral, already deferibed under that head, there are
feveral conliderable lakes, particularly that of Palkati,
J sngis, or Balcafh, being about 140 miles long by 70
broad.
“ In all the regions of the earth, (fays Sir William
Oufeley) there is not a more flourilhing or a more de¬
lightful country than this, efpecially the diftrict of Bok¬
hara. If a perfon Hand on the Kohendis (or ancient
caftle) of Bokhara, and call: his eyes around, he lhall
not fee any thing but beautiful and luxuriant verdure
on every fide of the country j fo that he would imagine
the green of the earth and the azure of the heavens
were united j and as there are green fields in every
quarter, fo there are villas interfperfed among the green
fields. The Sogd, for eight days journey, is all de¬
lightful country, affording fine profpefts, and full of
gardens, and orchards, and villages, corn fields, and vil¬
las, running ftreams, refervoirs, and fountains, both on
the right hand and on the left. You pals from corn
fields into rich meadows and pafture lands; and the
ftraits of Sogd are the fined in the world ” ^
The religion of the Ufbeks and Bucharians is the R-eligion of
Mahometan of the Sunni feft, and the government oFl16 Tartars,
the khans is defpotic. There are no accounts to be
met with of the ftate of the population, but it is be¬
lieved that on any emergency they could mufter an
army of 100,000. The revenue of thele fertile pro¬
vinces is not certainly known, though that of Corafan
is faid to amount to half a million fterling annually, and
it is probable that the revenue of Great Bucharia is at
leaft equal to that of Corafan. 3
Befides the caravans to Perlia, Hindoftan, and China,Trade,
fome trade is carried on with the Ruffians; the Bucha-
rian merchants not only furniftiing their own produdds,
but others from the caftern countries to which they
trade.
The manners and cuftoms of the Ufbeks are fimilar]yianfers>
to thofe of the other Tartars; but they are fuppofed to
be the moft fpirited and induftrious of thefe barbarians.
Though many refide in tents in the dimmer, yet in
winter they inhabit the towns and villages. They are
accuftomed to make fudden inroads into the Perfian
provinces. The native Bucharians are comparatively
fair, and correfpond in form and features with thofe of
Little Bucharia. The Buchanans never bear arms.
The Uzbeks, on the contrary, are no ftrangers to the
ufe of the mufket, and it is laid that even their women
are not averfe to warfare. The language is Turkifh,
but that of the Bucharians has never been inveftigated,
though it be probably a dialeft of the Perfian. Their
literature would furnifh an ample theme, Samarcard
having been a celebrated fchool of oriental fcience, cul¬
tivated even by monarchs, as Ulug Beg and others.
“ Such are the generofity and liberality of-the inha¬
bitants, that no one (fays Sir William Oufeley) turns
afide from the rites of hofpitality; fo that a perfon con¬
templating them in this light, would imagine that all
the families of the land were but one houfe. When a
traveller arrives there, every perfon endeavours to at¬
tract him to himfelf, that he may have opportunities of
performing kind offices for the ftranger ; and the belt
proof of their hofpitable and generous difpofition is that
T A S [ 207 ] T A S
.Tartary every peafant, though pofleffing hut a bare fufficiency,
11^ allots a portion of his cottage for the reception of a
, gueit. On the arrival of a ftranger they contend one
with another for the pleafuve of taking him to their
home, and entertaining him. Thus, in a6f:s of hofpita-
lity, they exceed their incomes. I happened once to
be in Sogd, and there I faw a certain palace, or great
building, the doors of which were fattened back with
nails againft the wails. I alked the reafon of this, and
they informed me that it was a hundred years and more
fince thole doors had been (hut, all that time they had
continued open day and night ; ftrangers might arrive
there at the mofr unfeafonable hours, or in any num¬
bers, for the matter of the houfe had provided every
thing neceflary both for the men and for their bealts;
and he appeared with a delighted and joyful countenance
when the guetts tarried a while.”
For a more particular account of the manners and
cuftoms of the Tartars, fee the articles Rukharla and
Kalmuks ; Pallas’s Travels in the Southern Provinces
of the RuJJian Empire, and Tooke’s View of the Rufian
Empire. An account of the Bafchkirs, alfo a tribe of
waadering Tartars, and of the Tartars of the Krimea,
has been given under Russia.
We cannot here enter on the hiilory of Tartarv.
The moll interefting parts of it will be found under the
articles China and Mogul, and we may refer thole
who wilh for a more detailed account to the 4th volume
of the Modern Univerfal Hi/lonj, and to the fjiatic Re-
fearches.
Krim TartarY. See Crimea.
TAR PRATES, in Chemi/lry, are faline bodies, com-
pofed of an alkaline, earthy, or metallic bafe, and tar¬
taric acid.
TASSEL, a pendant ornament at the corners of a
cufhion, &c. In building, taffels denote thofe pieces
ef board that lie under the ends of the mantlet trees.
TASSO, Torquato, a celebrated Italian poet,
was born at Sorrento in the kingdom of Naples, in
1544. Fie was the fon of Bernardo Taffo, and of Por¬
tia de Roffi, a lady of an illuftrious family of Naples.
At three years of age Taffo was committed by his
father to the care of Angeluzza, a man of great learn¬
ing, who at this tender age, it is faid, began to teach
him grammar ; at four he was fent to the Jefuits col¬
lege, and at feven was well acquainted with Latin and
Greek. At the age of 1 2 he went from Rome to Man¬
tua, where his father had entered into the fervice of the
duke Guglielmo Gonzaga 5 he had then completed his
knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages 5 he was
well acquainted with rhetoric and poetry, and mafter of
Ariftotle’s Ethics. He was foon after lent to the uni-
verfity of Padua ; and at 18, publillied his Rinaldo, a
poem on the plan of Homer’s Odyffey. This extended
his fame through all Italy ; but his father went to
Padua, to remonftrate again!! his apparent purpofe of
giving himfelf up to pbilofophy and poetry, and made
ufe of many harlh expreffions, which Taffo heard with
great patience. “ Of what ufe is that philofophy on
which you value yourfelf fo much ?” “ It has enabled
me (replied Taffo j to endure the harflmefs of your re¬
proofs.”
He foon after went to Bologna, by the invitation of
the city and college ; but in a fhort time he returned to
Padua at the urgent delire of Scipio Gonzaga; who had
been elefled prince of the academy eftablifhed in that
city under the name of the /Etherei. In this retreat he
formed the defign oi his 'JerufaJem Delivered, invented
the fable, dd’poied the parts, and determined to dedi¬
cate it to the houfe of Elte •, and being preffed to rtlide
at Ferrara, he gave his confent. The duke of Ferrara
gave him an apartment in his palace, where he lived in
peace and affluence, and profecuted his work, which he
determined to dedicate to the duke, and which was
pubiiihed book by book, as he finifhed them.
At the age of 30 he finilhed his Jerufalem, and the
whole was reprinted and publithed together, the fuccefs of
which was ailonifhing. It was tranflated into Latin, French,
Spanilh, and even the oriental languages, almoit as loon
as it appeared. Soon after the publication of his Jeru¬
falem he loit his father, who had been appointed go¬
vernor of Oilia on the Po by the duke of Mantua ;
and a pretended friend to Taffc, belonging to Ferrara,
to whom he had incautioully committed fome tranfac-
tions of a very delicate nature concerning his patron
the duke, had the perfidy to betray him. This com¬
ing to the ears of the duke, he IhuL up Taffo in prifon,
from which, however, he found means to efcape, after
a year’s confinement, and retired to Turin, being then
about 34 years of age, and was recommended to the
duke ot Savoy, who ihowed him many marks of efleem
and regard. Fearing, however, that he might be de¬
livered up to the duke of Mantua, he fecretly retired to
Rome, and went diredlly to his friend Mauritio Cata-
neo, by whom he was received with great kindnefs,
and his prefence made the whole city rejoice. Here
he endeavoured to make his peace with the duke, and
was fortunate enough to fucceed.
After this he lived at Mantua about a year, in great
favour with the prince j but growing rveary of a Rate
of dependence, he refolved to go to Naples, and en¬
deavour to recover his mother’s jointure, which had
been feized by her relations; but as this law fuit had
no appearance of being foon determined, be went from
Naples to Rome, where he continued about a year, in
high favour with Pope Sextus Quintus, and then went
to Florence, at the earneft defire of Ferdinando, grand
duke of Tufcany, who had been cardinal at Rome when
Taffo firi! refided there.
Having fpent another year at Florence, he returned
to Naples, where he correfted his Jerufalem Delivered.
Cardinal Cynthio, who was a great patron of learn¬
ing and genius, and knew Taffo when he firll refided
at Rome, prevailed with him once more to leave his
retreat at Naples and live with him in that city, where
he continued till he was 50, and then returned to
Naples to profecute his law fuit, from which place,
however, he was foon recalled ; and being introduced
to the pope, his holinefs faid, “ that his merit would
confer as much honour on the laurel he was about
to receive, as the laurel had formerly conferred on
others.”
It happened that while they waited for fair weather,
for the purpofe of celebrating the folemnity of Taffo’s
coronation with laurel, that great poet took his lalt
illnefs, and died on the 15th day of his ficknefs, aged
51. His poems have acquired him an immortal repu¬
tation, the chief of which are, 1. Jerufalem Delivered.
2. Jerufalem Conquered. 3. Rinaldo. 4. The Seven
Days of the Creation. 5. The Tragedy of Torimond.
6*;
Taffb.
T A S [ 208 ] T A S
6. Aminta, &c. All his works were printed together
at Florence in 1724, in 6 vols. folio, with the pieces
for and againft his Jerufalem Delivered.
TASTE, a certain fenfation excited in the mind by-
certain bodies, which are called fapid, applied to the
tongue and palate, and moiftened with laliva. This is
the original and proper meaning of the word tajle (fee
Metaphysics, N°46.)j but as the qualities of bodies
which produce thefe fenfations are unknown, they have
got the names of the fenfations themfelves, by fubilitu-
ling the caufe for the effedl. Taftes have been divided
into fimple and compound, and philofophers have en¬
deavoured to afcertain the number of each fpecies. At¬
tempts have likewife been made to determine from their
taftes the effefts of different fubftances on the human
body, taken into the ftomach as food or phyfic 5 but by
dating the refults of fuch inquiries, we'ftiould be more
likely to miflead than to communicate ufeful informa¬
tion.
Taste is likewife ufed in a figurative fenfe, to denote
that faculty by which we perceive whatever is beautiful
or fublime in the wrorks of nature or of art. This fa¬
culty relifties fume things, is difgufted with others, and
to many is indifferent. It has alfo been called an in¬
ternal fenfe, and by one philofopher, a reflex fenfe,
while others have confidered it as the joint exertion of
perception and judgement in fome cafes, and as a play
of'the imagination in others.
To decide among thefe different opinions, it will be
neceffary to afcertain, if wTe can, what are the obje&s
of this faculty. Scarlet, blue, green, and yellow, are all
beautiful colours, and a cube and a fphere are beautiful
figures \ but it does not appear to us, that a man could
be faid to have either a good or a bad tafte for reliihing
the perception of a fcarlet more than that of a yellow
colour, or a fpherical more than a cubical figure.
With refpeft to the objedts of the external fenfe, we
are fo conftituted by nature as to reliftt thofe kinds of
food which are moft wholefome, and fuch a tafte is juft-
ly faid to be found and uncorrupted. It is in the high-
eft perfection too at firft, for it depends not on culture
of any kind, and is incapable of improvement. The
reverfe is the cafe with refpett to internal tafte. Every
voice, it is true, unites in applauding elegance, fimpli-
city, fpirit in writing, and in blaming affedtation, or a
falfe brilliancy; but when critics come to particulars,
this feeming unanimity vaniihes. Perhaps no man ever
beheld the rifing or fetting fun without feeling emotions
of pleafure j yet it is certain that the emotions of the
clown are not the fame, at leaft in degree, with thofe
of the philofopher. Any beautiful objedl prefented to
the eye, gives a pleafing fenfation to the mind j and it
appears to us that the clown feels nothing more than a
mere fenfation from the view of the rifing fun, fimilar
to what he would feel from a blazing heath. In poetry
and painting the vulgar are always delighted with the
melody of the verfe, and the brilliancy of the colours,
and think of nothing elfe as beauties.
If this be fo, the pleafures which the vulgar derive
from wrhat are called objedts of tafte, are mere gratifi¬
cations of the fenfes *, but very different is the pleafure
wdiich the man of cultivated tafte derives from the beau¬
ties of nature or of art. The mere fenfation of the
clown is followed by a train of ideas which hurries him
beyond the objedl before him to its beneficent effedls
and its Almighty Creator.
The nature of any perfon’s tafte, therefore, is gene¬
rally determined fiom the charadler of his imagination
and the foundnefs of his judgement. The fimple per¬
ception of the objedl we find is infufficient to excite
thefe emotions, unlefs it is accompanied with this ope¬
ration of mind. Thus, when we feel the beauty or
fublimity of natural fcenery, we are confcious of a va¬
riety of images in our minds, very different from thofe
which the objedts themfelves can prefent to the eye.
If the mind is in fuch a ftate as to prevent this free¬
dom of imagination, the emotion is not perceived. In
fo far as the beauties of nature or art affedt the external
fenfes, their effedt is the fame on every man who is in
poffeflion of thefe fenfes. But to a man in pain or in
grie , the fame fcene wdll not produce any feeling of
admiration, which at other times would have produced
it in perfedlion.
There are many objedls of tafte which produce not
their full effedt on the imagination, but through the
medium of the judgement. The beauty of the Farmefe
Hercules is one kind of beauty j that of the gladiators
in the palace of Chighi, another ; and that of the Apol¬
lo Belvidere a third. Each of thefe figures is acknow7-
ledged to be perfedt in its kind} but according to Sir
Joftiua Reynolds, the higheft perfedlion of the human
figure is not to be found but in that form which might
be taken from them all, and which would partake of
the adlivity of the gladiator, of the delicacy of the A-
pollo, and of the mufcular ftrength of the Hercules.
In this view the perfedlion of thefe ftatues confifts in
fomething wdiich being perceived by the eye, is refer¬
red by the underftanding to what we know of the cha-
radlers of Hercules, Apollo, and the gladiator, and
which we fuppofe it was the intention of the ftatuaries
to exprefs. There are befides, objedls of which tafte is
fometimes faid to judge, though they have little or no
effedt whatever on the imagination. A book of ab-
ftradt fcience, written in a “prolix and intricate ftile,
may be faid to be in a bad tafte 5 and had Swift, in his
clear and fimple ftile, written an Effay on the Human
Underflanding, his work, fuppofing him mailer of the
fubjedt, would undoubtedly have difplayed more tafte
than Locke’s, in which the terms are fometimes vague,
and the period often encumbered. This is the cafe of
Berkeley, who is admitted by all to have been a writer
of good tafte, though neither the Principles of Human
Knowledge, the Dialogues on Matter, nor the Minute
Philofopher, is capable of affording pleafure, either to
the fenfes or the imagination. His beauty confifts
merely in the perfpicuity of his ftile, of which the un¬
derftanding alone is the judge. The metaphyfical work¬
ings of Dr Reid poffefs in an eminent degree the fame
beauty j and no man of true tafte can read them with¬
out admiring the elegant fimplicity of the compofition
as much as the ftrength of the reafoning, and feeling
from the whole a pleafure which the poetical ftyle of
Shaftelbury cannot communicate.
If this be a juft account of the pleafures of tafte, that
faculty cannot be properly confidered as a mere internal
fenfe, fince to its enjoyments a well-ftored fancy is ne¬
ceffary in fome cafes, and the reafoning power in all •,
and the poet and the painter who wifhed to excel in
their
Tafte.
T A S
Academy,
Dec. 14
I77°*
Tafte. ttieir refpeclive profeffions, muft not COiitdnt tliemfelves,
the one with filling the ear of the reader with melliflu¬
ous founds, and the other with dazzling or deceiving
the eye of the fpeftator by the brilliancy of his Colours,
but both muft ftrive for fame by captivating the imagi¬
nation j whilft the architeft, who afpires to a fimilar
celebrity, mufi: make the purpofe of his ornaments ob¬
vious to every perfon capable of judging. The land-
fcapes of Claude Lorrain, the mufic of Handel, and poe¬
try of Milton, excite feeble emotions in our minds,
when our attention is confined to the qualities they
prefent to our fenfes, or when it is to fuch qualities of
their compofition that wTe turn our regard. It is then
only we feel the fublimity or beauty of their produc¬
tions, when our imaginations are kindled by their power,
when we lofe ourfelves amid the number of images
that pafs before our minds, and when we waken at laft
from this play of fancy as from the charm of a romantic
dream.
Difcoitrfe It is well obferved by Sir Joflma Reynolds * that
deliveredat tafte is fometimes praifed in fuch terms by orators and
the Royal p0ets> -who call it infpiration, and a gift from heaven,
that though a ftudent by fuch praife may have his at¬
tention roufed, and a defire excited of obtaining this
gift, he is more likely to be deterred than encouraged
in the purfuit of his objeft. “ He examines his own
mind, and perceives there nothing of that divine infpi¬
ration with which he is told fo many others have been
favoured. He never travelled to heaven to gather new
ideas; and he finds himfelf poffeffed of no other quali¬
fications than what mere common oblervation and a
plain underftanding are able to confer. Thus he be¬
comes gloomy amidfi: the fplendour of figurative decla¬
mation, and thinks it hopelefs to purfue an object which
he fuppofes out of the reach of human induftry. But
on this, as on many other occafions, we ought to di-
ftinguilb how much is to be given to enthufiafm, and
how much to common fenfe 5 taking care not to lofe
in terms of vague admiration that folidity and truth of
principle upon wdrich alone we can reafon.” Whoever
poffeffes the ordinary powers of perception, fenfibility of
heart, good fenfe, and an imagination capable of being
roufed by the ftriking objects of nature and of art, may,
without infpiration, become, by mere experience, a man
of fine tafte in the objects of which he afpires to be a
critical judge.
This being the cafe, we may eafily account for the
variety of taftes which prevail among men, not only as
individuals but as nations. We have already mention¬
ed the difference in one inftance between the European
tafte and the African refpedfting female beauty ; and
we may now affirm, as wre hope to prove our affirma¬
tion, that the one tafte is equally correft with the
other. The charms of female beauty exift not in the
mere external form and colour confidered by themfelves
(for then the inanimate ftatue of the Venus de Medicis
would give more delight to the European beholder than
the fineft woman that ever lived) ; but we affociate ex
ternal beauty with fweetnefs of difpofition, and with
all the train of endearments which take place in the
union of the fexes; and it is this affociation which de¬
lights the manmf tafte, as giving refinement to an ap¬
petite which itfelf is grofs and fenfual. A fimilar affo¬
ciation muft be formed in the breaft of the African
who has any tafte j and as he never knew feminine foft-
Vol. XX. Part I.
[ 209 1
T A S
nefs, or any of the endearing qualities of the fex, but as Tafte..
united with thick lips, a flat nofe, a black fkiu, and y——
woolly hair—-a fable beauty of that defeription muft
excite in his breaft the fame emotions that are excited in
the breaft of an European by the fair woman with Gre¬
cian features.
But is there not an ideal or perfef! beauty of the hu¬
man form ? There certainly is, as of every other natu¬
ral objedft ; but it cannot be the fame in Europe as in
Africa, unlefs to a Being who is acquainted with all the
peculiarities of form, national and individual, that are
to be found among the inhabitants of the whole earth.
It has been fuppofed, and we think completely proved,
by one of the bell writers that wre have on the philofo-
phy of tafte*, that the fublimity or beauty of formsT/i«
arifes altogether from the affociations w'e connefl withyo”*
them, or the qualities of which they are expreffive to
us. The qualities expreffed by ths male and female
forms are very different •, and w'e would by no means'
think the wmman beautiful who fliould have the form of
the Farnefe Hercules, or admire the ftiapes of the hero
who ftiould be formed like the Venus de Medicis; be-
caufe the proportions of fuch a woman would indicate
ftrength and intrepidity, where we wifh to find only
gentlenefs and delicacy ; and the delicate form of the
hero wTould indicate foftnefs and effeminacy, where the
oppofite qualities only can be efteemed. As we affoci¬
ate wdth the female form many defirable qualities, every
woman is efteemed more or lefs beautiful as her figure
and features indicate a greater or fmaller number of
thefe qualities j and the fame is the cafe with refpeft to
the qualities which adorn the male chdradter, and the
form and features by which they are expreffed. Upon
comparing a number of human beings with one another,
w-e find, that with refpeft to every feature and limb,
there is one central form to which nature always tends,
though (he be continually deviating from it on the right
hand and on the left : (See Nose). This form there¬
fore is confidered as the moft perfedft form of the fpecies,
and moft expreflive of the qualities for which that fpe¬
cies is valued j but in Africa, the central form, with
refpeft to the proportions of the human body and the
features of the human face, is very different from what
it is in Europe j and therefore the ideal or perfect
beauty of the human form and features cannot be the
fame in both countries. No doubt, if a man could ex¬
amine the limbs and features of every individual of the
human race, he would difeover one central form belong¬
ing to the whole, and be led to efteem it the ftandard
of beauty ; but as this is obvioufly impoflible, the com¬
mon idea or central form belonging to each great clafs
of mankind muft be efteemed the ftandard of beauty in
that clafs, as indicating moft completely the qualities
for which individuals are efteemed. Thus there is a
common form in childhood and a common form in age ;
each of which is the more perfedf as it is the more
remote from peculiarities : but though age and child¬
hood have fomething in common, we ftiould not deem
the child beautiful who wras formed exactly Tke the
moft handfome man, nor the man handfome who was
formed .exactly like the moft beautiful child. This
dodlrine is well illuftrated by Sir jofliua Reynolds,
who has applied it to every objeft efteemed beautiful in
nature ; and proved, that the fuperiority of Claude
Lorrain over the landfcape painters of the Dutch and
D d Fleir.ifli
\
T A S [2
FlemiHi fchools, arife chiefly from his having generali-
zed his conceptions, and formed his pictures by com¬
pounding together the various draughts which he had
previoufly made from various beautiful fcenes and pro-
fpefts. “ On the w'hole (fays he), it feems to me that
there is but one prefiding principle w^hich regulates and
gives liability to every art. The works, whether of
poets, painters, moralilts, or hiftorians, which are built
upon general nature, live for ever; while thofe which
depend for their exiftence on particular cuftoms and
habits, a particular view of nature, or the fluctuation of
falhion, can only be coeval with that which firlt raifed
them from obfcurity. All the individual objefts which
are exhibited to our view by nature, upon clofe exami¬
nation, will be found to have their blemiflies and de¬
fects. The molt beautiful forms have fomething about
them like weaknefs, minutenefs, or imperfection. But
it is not every eye that perceives thefe blemilhes : It
mult be an eye long ufed to the contemplation and com-
parifon of thefe forms j which alone can difcern what
any fet of objeCts of the fame kind has in common, and
what each wants in particular.”
From thefe reafonings the fame great artilt concludes,
that the man who is ambitious of the character of pof-
feffing a correCt tafte, ought to acquire a “ habit of
comparing and digelting his notions. He ought not to
be wholly unacquainted with that part of philofophy
which gives him an infight into human nature, and re¬
lates to the manners, characters, paflions, and alfeCtions.
He ought to know fomething concerning mindy as well
as a great deal concerning the body, and the various ex¬
ternal works of nature and of art 5 for it is only the
power of diltinguilhing right from wrong that is pro¬
perly denominated tafe.
“ Genius and talte, in the common acceptation, ap¬
pear to be very nearly related ; the difference lies only
in this, that genius has fuperadded to it a habit or power
of execution. Or we may fay, that tafte, when this
power is added, changes its name, and is called genius.
They both, in the popular opinion, pretend to an entire
exemption from the reftraint of rules. It is fuppofed
that their powers are intuitive; that under the name of
genius great works are produced, and under the name
of tafe an exaCt judgement is given, without our know¬
ing why, and without being under the leaft obligation
to reafon, precept, or experience.
“ One can fcarce ftate thefe opinions without expo-
ling their abfurdity ; yet they are conftantly in the
mouths of men, and particularly of illiterate and affeCt-
ed connoiffeurs. The natural appetite, or tafte of the
human mind, is for truth; whether that truth refults
from the real agreement or equality of original ideas
among themfelves, from the agreement of the reprefen-
tation of any objeCf wuth the thing reprefented, or from
the ccrrefpondence of the feveral parts of any arrange¬
ment with each other. It is the very fame tafte which
lelifties a demonftration in geometry, that is pleafed with
the refemblap.ee of a picture to an original, and touched
W7ith the harmony of mufic.
“ But befides real, there is alfo apparent truth, or
opinion, or prejudice. With regard to real truth, when
it is known, the tafte which conforms to it is and muft
be uniform. With regard to the fecond fort of truth,
wh ch may be called truth upon fufferance, or truth by
courtefy, it is not fixed but variable. However, whilft
o ] T A S
thefe opinions and prejudices on which it is founded Tafte.
continue, they operate as truth j and the art, whofe of-v —
fice it is to pleafe the mind as wTell as inftruCt it, muft
direft itfelf according to opinion, or it will not attain its
end. In proportion as thele prejudices are known to be
generally diffufed or long received, the tafte which con¬
forms to them approaches nearer to certainty, and to a
fort of refemblance to real fcience, even where opinions
are found to be no better than prejudices. And fince
they deferve, on account of their duration and extent,
to be confidered as really true, they become capable of
no fmall degree of liability and determination by their
permanent and uniform nature.
“ Of the judgement which we make on the wmrks of
art, and the preference that we give to one clafs of art
over another, if a reafon be demanded, the queftion is
perhaps evaded by anfwering, I judge from my tafte $
but it does not follow that a better anfwer cannot be
given, though for common gazers this may be fufficient.
Every man is not obliged to inveitigale the caufes of his
approbation or diflike. The arts would lie open for
ever to caprice and cafualty, if thofe who are to judge
of their excellencies had no fettled principles by which
they are to regulate their deciftons, and the merit cr de-
fed of performances were to be determined by unguidtd
fancy. And indeed wre may venture to affert, that
whatever fpeculative knowledge is neceffary to the ar-
tift, is equally and indifpenfably neceffary to the critic
and the connoiffeur.
“ The firft idea that occurs in the confideration of
what is fixed in art or in tafte, is that prefiding principle
which w'e have already mentioned, the general idea of
nature. The beginning, the middle, and the end of
every thing that is valuable in tafte, is comprifed in the
knowledge of what is truly nature j for whatever ideas
are not conformable to thofe of nature or univerfal opi¬
nion, muft be confidered as more or lefs capricious •, the
idea of nature comprehending not only the forms which
nature produces, but alio the nature and internal fabric
and organization, as I may call it, of the human mind
and imagination. General ideas, beauty, or nature, are
but different ways of expreffing the fame thing, whether
we apply thefe terms to ftatues, poetry, or pifture. De¬
formity is not nature, but an accidental deviation from
her accuftomed praftice. This general idea therefore
ought to be called nature: and nothing elfe, corre&ly
fpeaking, has a right to that name. Hence it plainly
appears, that as a work is conduced under the influ¬
ence of general ideas, or partial, it is principally to
be confidered as the effedl of a good or a bad tafte.”
Upon the w'hole, w'e may conclude that the real fub-
ftance, as it may be called, of what goes under the name
of tafe, is fixed and eftablifhed in the nature of things ;
that there are certain and regular caufes by which the
imagination and paflions of men are affefted ; and that
the knowledge of thefe caufes is acquired by a laborious
and diligent inveftigation of nature, and by the fame
flow progrefs as wifdom or knowledge of every kind,
however inftantaneous its operations may appear when
thus acquired. A man of real tafle is always a man of
judgement in other refpefts \ and thofe inventions which
either difdain or flirink from reafon, are generally more
like the dreams of a diftempered brain than the exalted
enthufiafm of a found and true genius. In the midft of
the higheft flights of fancy or imagination, reafon ought
to
T A V t 2
Tafte to prefide from firft to laft j and he who {hall decide on
II . the beauties of any one of the fine arts by an imaginary
ravemien jnnate fenfe or feeling, will make as ridiculous an ap-
pearance as the connoiffeur mentioned by Dr Moore,
who praifed as a work of the divine Raphael the wretch¬
ed daubing by a Swifs copyift. The reader who wifiies
for further inftruftion in the philofophy of tafte, may
confult Gerard’s Effay on Tafte, with the differtations.
of Voltaire, d’Alembert, and Montefquieu \ Dr Blair’s
Leftures on the Belles Lettres 5 Dr Reid’s Effays on
the Intelledlual Powers of Man } Alifon’s Effays on the
Nature and Principles of Tafte j and Sir Joftma Rey¬
nold’s Difcourfes delivered in the Royal Academy.
TATE, Nahum, an Englifti poet, born in Ireland
about the middle of the reign of Charles II. where he re¬
ceived his education. He wTas made poet-laureat to King
William upon the death of Shadwell, and held that
place until the reign of George I. whofe firft; birth day
ode he lived to wTrite, and executed it with unufual fpirit.
He died in the Mint in 1716. He was the author of
nine dramatic performances, a great number of poems,
and a verfion of the Pfalms in conjundtion wTith Dr
Brady.
TATI AN, a writer of the primitive church in the
fecond century. He was born in Aflyria, and trained
up in the heathen religion and learning. Coming over
to Chriftianity, he became the difciple of Juftin Martyr,
whom he attended to Rome. While Juttin lived, he
continued fteadily orthodox : but after Juftin’s death he
made a fchifm, and became the author of a new fed!,
condemning marriage, enjoining abftinence from wine
and animal food, and fuffering only water to be ufed in
the holy myfteries; whence his followers were called
Encratitce and HijdroparaJlatce. None of his works are
now extant but his piece againft the Gentiles j or, as it
is ufually entitled, his Oration to the Greeks.
TATIUS, Achili.ES, a native of Alexandria, was
the author of a book on the fphere, which Father Pe-
tau tranftated into Latin. There is alfo attributed to
him a Greek romance on the loves of Leucippe and
Clitophon, of which Salmafius has given a beautiful
edition in Greek and Latin, with notes. Suidas fays,
that this Achilles Tatius was a Pagan, but that he
afterwards embraced the Chriftian religion, and be¬
came a bhhop. Photius mentions him in his Biblio¬
theca.
TATONNEUR. See Lemur, Mammalia In¬
dex.
TATTOOING, or Tattowing, an operation in
ufe among the iflanders in the South fea for marking
their bodies with figures of various kinds w'hich they
confider as ornamental. It is performed by pundlurirsg
the {kin, and rubbing a black colour into the wounds.
The inftrument ufed fomevvhat refembles a comb, the
teeth of which are repeatedly ftruck into the {kin by
means of a fmall mallet. It is very painful ; but
the children are forced by their relations to fubmit
to it.
TATTOU, a beat of a drum at night to adverlife
the foldiers to retreat, or repair to their quarters in the
garrifon, or to their tents in a camp.
TAVERNIER, John Baptist, a French traveller,
was born in 1605. In the courfe of 40 years he tra¬
velled fix times to Turkey, Perfia, and the Eaft Indies,
and vifited all the countries in Europe, travelling moftly
i ] TAW
<5n foot. His travels have been frequently reprinted In Tavir*
fix volumes 12mo. He died on his feventh journey to ^ I
the eaft, at Mofcow, in 1686. .1 LlV^nff' f
TAVIRA, or T A VILA, a confiderable town of Por¬
tugal, and capital of the province of Algarve, with a
handfome caftle, and one of the belt harbours in the
kingdom, defended by a fort. It is feated in a fertile
country, at the mouth of the river Gilaon, between
Cape Vincent and the ftrait of Gibraltar, 100 miles
weft by north of Cadiz. W. Long. 7. 46. N. Lat. 37.
18.
TAVISTOCK, a town of Devonfhire in England,
fituated on the river Tavey or Tave. W. Long. 4. 12.
N. Lat. 50. 37. It fends two members to parliament,
and gives the title of marquis to the noble family of
Ruflel duke of Bedford.
TAUNTON, a large, elegant, and well built town
of Somerfetfliire, 146 miles from London. It confifts
principally of four itreets paved and lighted } the mar¬
ket-place is fpacious, and has a handfome market-houfe,
with a town hall over it, which was finiftied in 1773.
It has an extenfive woollen manufactory 5 and in 1780
a filk manufactory was introduced. Its caftle, the ruins
of which remain, was in 1645 defended for the parlia¬
ment by Colonel Blake againit an army of 10,000 men
under Lord Goring, but was difmantled by Charles II.
In 1685 the duke of Monmouth made this place his
head-quarters. Its church, which is large and beauti¬
ful, is a fine fpecimen of the florid Gothic ftyle of ar¬
chitecture. The tower, which is lofty, is of excellent
workmanftiip, crowned at the top with four {lately pin¬
nacles, 32 feet high. The whole perhaps is not equal¬
led in the kingdom. Taunton is pleafantly feated on
the river Tone, which is navigable to Bridgewater ; is
reckoned the beft town in the county *, and fends twm
members to parliament. W. Long. 3. 17. N. Lat. 50.
59;
TAURIS, or Tebris, a town of Perfia, and capital
of Aderbeitzan. It was formerly the capital of Perfia,
and is now the moft confiderable next to Ifpahan $ for
it contains 15,000 houfes, befides many feparate {hops,
and about 200,000 inhabitants. It is about five miles
in circumference, and carries on a prodigious trade in
cotton, cloth, filks, gold and filver brocades, fine tur¬
bans, and {hagreen leather. There are 300 caravanfe- /
ras, and 250 mofques. Some travellers fuppofe it to be
the ancient Ecbatana j but of this there is no certain¬
ty. It is feated in a delightful plain, furrounded
with mountains, from whence a ftream iffues, which
runs through the city. E. Long. 47. 50. N. Lat. 38.
18.
TAURUS, a great chain of mountains in Alia, which
begin at the eaftern part of Little Carimania, and extend
very far into India. In different places they have dif¬
ferent names.
Taurus, in AJlronomy, one of the I2figns of the
zodiac.
TAUTOLOGY, a needlefs repeating of the fame
thing in different words.
TAWING, the art of drefling fkins in W’hite, fa
as to be fit for divers manufaftures, particularly gloves,
&c.
All fkins may be tawed ; but thofe chiefly ufed for
this purpofe are lamb, flreep, kid, and goat fldns.
The method of tawing is this: Having cleared the
D d 2 {kins
TAW [ arz ] TAX
fkins of wool or hair by means of lime, they are laid in
a large vatt of wood or ftone, fet on the ground, full of
water, in which quicklime has been flaked; wherein
they are allowed to lie a month or fix weeks, accord¬
ing as the weather is more or lefs hot, or as the fkins
are required to be more or lefs foft and pliant.
While they are in the vatt, the water and lime are
changed Iwfice, and the Ikins are taken out and put in
again every day : and when they are taken out for the
lait time, they are laid all night to foak in a running
water, to get out the greatefl part of the lime j and in
the morning are laid together by fixes one upon another,
upon a wooden leg, and are icraped ftoutly one after ano¬
ther, to get the flefh off from the flefhy fide, with a cut¬
ting two-handled inftrument called a knife; and then
they cut off the legs (if they are not cut off before) and
other fuperfluous parts about the extremes. Then they
are laid in a vatt or pit with a little water, where they
are fulled with wooden pedles for the fpace of a quarter
of an hour} and then the vatt is filled up with water,
and they are rinfed in it.
In the next place, they are thrown on a clean pave¬
ment to drain, and afterwards caff into a frefh pit of
water, out of which they rinfe them well, and are laid
again on the -wooden leg, fix at a time, wfith the hair
fide outermoft : after which they rub a kind of whet-
ftone very brifkly, to foften and fit them to receive four
or five more preparations, given them on the leg both
on the flefh fide and the hair-fide, with the knife, after
the manner above mentioned.
After this they are put into a pit of water and wheat-
en bran, and ftirred about in it with wooden poles, till
the bran is perceived to flick to them, and then they
are left : as they rife of themfelves to the top of the
water by a kind of fermentation, they are plunged down
again to the bottom ; and at the fame time fire is fet to
the liquor, which burns as eafily as if it were brandy,
but goes out the moment the fkins are all covered.
They repeat this operation as often as the fkins rife
above the water j and when they have done rifing they
take them out, lay them on the -wooden leg, the flefhy
fide outwards, and pals the knife over them to fcrape off
the bran.
Having thus cleared them of the bran, they lay the
fkins in a large bafket, and load them with huge flones
to promote their draining : and when they have drained
fufficiently, they give them their feeding , which is per¬
formed after the manner following :
For loo of large fheep fkins, and for fmaller in pro¬
portion, they take eight pounds of alum and three of
fea fait, and melt the w’hole with water in a veffel over
the fire, pouring the folution out, while yet lukewarm,
into a kind of trough, in which is trventy pounds of
the finell wheat-flower, with the yolks of eight dozen
/ v>f eggs } ef all which is formed a kind of pafle, a
little thicker than children’s pap ; which, when done, is
put into another veffel, to be ufed in the following man¬
ner.
They pour a quantity of hot w'ater into the troughTn
which the pafle was prepared, mixing two fpoonfuls of
the pnfte rvith it; to do which they ufe a rvooden fpoon,
vrhich contains juft as much as is required for a dozen of
ikins: and when the wFole is well diluted, two dozen of
the fkins are plunged into it but they take care that the
water be not too hot, which would fpoil the pafte and Tawing,
burn the fkins. Taxation.
After they have lain fome time in the trough they ' v 
take them out, one after another, with the hand, and
ftretch them out j this they do twice: and after they
have given them all their pafie, they put them into tubs,
and there full them afrefli wfith wooden peftles.
They then put them into a vatt, where they are fuf-
fered to lie for five or fix days, or more j then they take
them out in fair weather, and hang them to dry on cords
or racks: and the quicker they are dried the better 5 for
if they be too long a drying, the fait and alum within
them are apt to make them rife in a grain, which is an
effential fault in this kind of drefling.
When the fkins are dry, they are made up into bun¬
dles, and juft dipt in fair water, and taken out and
drained : they are then thrown into an empty tub •, and
after having lain fome time are taken out and trampled
under foot.
They then draw them over a flat iron inftrument, the
top of which is round like a battledore, and the bottom
fixed into a wooden block, to ftretch and open them ;
and having been opened, they are hung in the air
upon cords to-dry j and being dry, they are opened a
fecond time, by paffing them again over the fame inlliu-
ment.
In the laft place, they are laid on a table, pulled out,
and laid fmooth, and are then fit for fale.
TAXATION. Eefides thofe expences which are
neceffary to the exiftence, or conducive to the comfort
and enjoyment of private individuals, there are others
of which the benefit is direftly applicable to the whole
fociety. Thefe benefits indeed arc chiefly of a negative
kind, but they are not therefore the lefs effential. They
confiit in the prefervation of perfon and property from
that violence both internal and external, to which the
irregular pafiions of human nature continually expofe
them. The regular adminiftraticn of juflice, and de¬
fence againft foreign enemies, are fo effential to the
well-being of a people, that they can with no propriety
hefitate, when neceffary, to part even with a large por¬
tion of their income in order to provide for the proper
accomplifliment of thefe obje&s. A certain pomp and
magnificence too, in thofe who are to take the lead in
thefe departments, have been deemed both ornamental to
the fociety, and neceffary for fecuring refpe& and obe¬
dience from the body of the people. If, befides thefe
grand and indifpenfable advantages of foreign and inter¬
nal fecurity, public funds can be applied to any other
purpofes, evidently tending to promote the national
well-being, yet beyond the reach of private exertions,—
to canals, high roads, or public inftitutions of any de-
fcription,—there can be no doubt furely as to the pro¬
priety of fuch an application.
It is evident, therefore, that the money which is ne¬
ceffary for the above purpofes, forms a perfectly necef¬
fary and proper part of national expenditure. The go¬
vernment of the country, indeed may, as elfewhere ob-
ferved (Political Economy), economically fpeaking,
be confidered as part of its fixed capital, effential to the
advantageous employment of the reft. Without the fe¬
curity which the labourer thence derives, of reaping the
fruits of his induftry, he would have little motive to
a£lion 5 every thing would be the prey of the ftrongeft,
T A t 2
Taxation, and all impulfe to aflivlty ceafing, univerfal poverty
 ‘ would enfue. At the fame time we may obferVe with
regard to this as toother fixed capitals, that the expence
is expedient only fo far as it is neceffary, and that if the
fame funftions can be performed at a imaller cod, a de¬
cided gain arifes to the public. It becomes therefore
an important objed to inquire, in what manner the of¬
fices of government may be adequately performed, with
the lead burden on the people.
We have formerly, under the head of Political. E-
CONOMY, (lightly illudrated fome leading principles re-
fpe&ing public revenue. .But as the fubjedl is important,
•we Ojall confider it here in fomewhat greater detail.
Taxes may be arranged in the following manner.
1. AJfeJjed taxes, or thofe which the fubjech is required
to pay diredtly into the hands of the fovereign or com¬
monwealth. Under this title are comprehended all the
taxes which bear the above name ; all income or capi¬
tation taxes, and every fpecies of land taxes. 1 hefe
taxes are almod always intended to fall upon income.
2. Taxes upon commodities, which are paid, in the fird
indance, not by the confumer, but by the producer, or
importer. Thefe taxes fall upon coniumption ; the man
who does not ufe the articles, pays no tax. I hey ope¬
rate thus partly as fources of revenue, and partly as
fumptuary laws. q. Stamp duties, or duties upon thofe
deeds which regulate the transference of property. Thefe
duties fall chiefly upon capital.
i, AJfeJJ'ed Taxes.—Afieffed taxes, according to the
above definition, fcem to be the mod fimple and direft
mode of raifing a revenue. The money comes at once
from the pockets of the people into thofe of the fove¬
reign. No tax is fo certain of yielding a revenue. I he
money is demanded, and mud be paid. Where pro¬
perly ^ar ranged alfo, they may probably be made to fall
more equally than any other, upon the different claffes,
according to their ability. In abfolute governments,
therefore, and in governments little (killed in the fcience
of finance, thefe taxes are commonly preferred, as thofe
which can be levied with the lead trouble. Ihey have
likewife this merit that they cod little in the colleftion,
and confequently nearly their whole amount is brought
into the treafury.
Affeffed taxes, however, are liable to many objec¬
tions. None are fo heavily felt. In other cafes the
tax is concealed under the price of the commodity with
. which it confounds itfelf; but here the money is paid
direcfly without any thing in return. It mud generally
too be paid in a confiderable fum at once, a circum-
dance which mud often be produdllve of ferious incon¬
venience, while the fame fum, broken down into fmall
portions, might have been paid without difficulty. For
thefe reafons, much greater difcontent is excited by
thefe taxes than by taxes upon commodities. A double
revenue perhaps, may, in the latter v/ay, be raifed with
lefs murmuring. In popular governments, therefore,
and in thofe where finance has been re I iced to a fydem,
the objeft has generally been to avoid direft affeffment
as much as poffible. In this country, the greater part,
by far, of the revenue had been raifed by taxes upon
commodities, till, within thefe lad twenty years, the
preffure cf public wants made it neceffary to have re-
courfe to every mode of raifing money which promifed
to be effeddual, and thus the affeffed taxes have been raifed
to a very great amount. The mod important of thefe
13 1 r> tax
taxes may be included under land tax, capitation taxes, Taxation.
Kolife tax, and income tax. v ""
Land Tax.—There is no clafs of men who may with
more propriety be burthened with an extraordinary ira-
pofition, than the proprietors of land. They enjoy
commonly a liberal income, without care or trouble of
their own. Their property, being of permanent value,
is much preferable to any fource of income which ex¬
pires wTith its poffeffor. From being local and immove¬
able, it is peculiarly dependent on the protefting indu-
ence of government, and may therefore be reaionably
called upon to contribute fomething more than the com¬
mon diare to its fupport. In almod all countries, there¬
fore, the landholders, befides being liable to the fame
burdens with the red of the fociety, are fubjedt to a pe¬
culiar tax, called land tax.
In India and other great oriental empires, the princi¬
pal revenue of the fovareign is derived from land. It
atifes, however, not properly in the way of tax, but of
rent. The fovereign, in thefe abiolute governments, is
judged to be the foie proprietor of all the land in his
dominions, which are let out by him or his deputy, to
the farmers. This is alfo the principal fource of the
revenue which we derive from our Ead Indian poffef-
fions. It is otherwife, however, in all the European
countries. There, almod all the land is private pro¬
perty, and the contribution which government draws
from it is therefore a tax.
The adherents of the economical fydem have propo-
fed to fubditute a land tax in the room of every ocher.
They maintain that all taxes mud finally fall upon the
produce of land, fince it alone affords that furplus reve¬
nue, out of which public contributions can be drawn.
W ere this doflrine true, much trouble and expence
would doubtlefs be laved, exchanging the prefent com¬
plicated and laborious fydem of taxation, for one fo fim¬
ple and eafy. But we have already endeavoured to
(how, under the head of Political Economy, that
the principles of this feid have no folid foundation ;
that manufactures and commerce are fources of wealth,
as well as agriculture, though in a fomewhat inferior
degree. It will follow, therefore, that they are equal- .
ly liable to be affeCted by taxation. It is in vain to ..
urge that the merchant mud have his profit, and the
labourer his hire, and that otherwife they will not em¬
ploy their capital and labour. Were a tax to be impo-
fed upon any one branch of induftry, leaving the rell
untouched, there is no doubt, that wages and profit in
that branch mud rife, till the merchant or labourer is
placed on a level with the red of the community, other-
wife he will transfer his capital and indudry to fome
other branch. But where the impofition falls indiferi-
minatcly upon the different employments of labour and
dork, there is no fuch refuge ; the labourer and mer¬
chant mud fuffer a diminution of income ; nor is there
any procefs by which he cam throw this diminution upon
the landlord. «
Other perfons of a much lefs informed charafler, are
often heard urging, that we have only to lay the impo¬
fition upon the landlords j and that they will not be
long of indemnifying themfelves by raifing the rent of
their lands. Such arguments will make little impref-
fion upon thofe who have at all attended to the true
principles of political economy. The value of lands, as
of every other article, is detexmined by the demand and .
the- .
TAX [ 2
tlie fupply. A tax upon the rent of land would have
no tendency, either to increafe the one, or to diminith
the other, confequently no tendency to raife the value
of land. Indeed, were we to fuppol'e, according to this
hypothefis, that proprietors have an unlimited power of
railing their lands, whenever they are fo inclined, it is
quite contrary to common fenfe to fuppofe that they
Should not exert that power, without waiting for the
ftimulus of a tax.
I1 or thefe reafons, land cannot, wTith any propriety,
be made the foie fubjeft of taxation j but it is very fair,
as above obferved, that it thould pay fomewhat more
than other fources of revenue. A difficulty, however,
arifes from the variations to which its value is fubjedt,
fometimes on the decreafing, but more commonly on
the increafing fide. The rate wdiich, at one time, is
equitable, becomes quite otherwife at another. An at¬
tempt, on the part of government, to keep up a conti¬
nual furvey of all the lands in the kingdom, would be
attended with very heavy expence, and would, after
all, be probably fruitlefs. Befides, fuch a meafure
wmuld operate as a difcouragement to the improvement
of land, when fo large a lhare would go out of the
hands of the improver. Thefe objedtions have weighed
fo ftrongly with the legiflature of this country, that they
have not raifed this tax, fince its firfi impofition in the
reign of King William. It was then meant to be at
the rate of four {hillings in the pound, though in fadt,
it was by no means fo much. It wras alfo very un¬
equally difiributed, even at the beginning 5 a ferious
evil, which however, it might have required very great
trouble to avoid. Since that time, a great and general
life has taken place in the value of land, wdiich has
made this tax much higher ftill, than when it rvas ori¬
ginally impofed. It has alfo rendered it, however, ftill
more unequal. Although almoft all the land in Great
Britain has improved j yet this improvement has taken
place in very different proportions, according as each
diftridl differed in natural advantages, and in the induf-
try of the inhabitants, flhe land tax accordingly is, at
the prefent moment, moft exceedingly unequal 5 but as
it fortunately happens, that there is fcarcely a diftridl
in Great Britain which has not improved more or lefs,
the general moderation of the tax has rendered its in¬
equality lefs grievous.
A method has been propofed of obviating this difad-
vantage, by keeping a regifter, in which the landlord
and tenant (hall be jointly obliged to enter the rent wdiich
the land bears, a new entry being made at every varia¬
tion. . A valuation may be made of the lands which the
proprietor keeps in his own pofieflion. Something of
this kind, it is faid, aftLially takes place in the Vene¬
tian territory. The difcouragement to improvement in¬
deed ftill remains, but even this might be obviated by
an equitable, and even liberal allowance being made,
for any fums which the landlord may fatisfaftorily
prove to have been expended in this way. The chief
obje£Hon to the plan feems to be the danger of collu-
fion between the farmer and landlord, wTho would have
a mutual intereft in reprefenting the rent as lefs than it
really was. The agreement indeed might, bv law, be
made obligatory on the farmer only to the'extent of
the fum regiftered ; but it may be doubtful, whether
even this regulation wrould always be an adequate fecu-
4 ] TAX
rily againft fraud. The valuations wrould neceflarily Taxation,
depend a good deal upon the difcretion of the revenue —v—^
officer j which, in an arbitrary government at leaft,
might become a ferious objection. The additional
expence of fuch a plan would be confiderable; but,
provided it could be made to anfwer the purpofe, this
ought not to deter from its adoption.
Frederick of Pruflia impofed a higher tax upon lands
held by a noble, than upon thofe held by a bale tenure.
He conceived that the privileges and flattering advan¬
tages of nobility were fuch as to compenfate for this
additional charge. We are rather difpofed to confider
this proceeding as fevere. A nobleman, with the fame
income, is poorer than a commoner, becaufe he has a
greater rank to fupport •, and in the prefent ftate of
Europe, a great proportion of the nobility are extreme¬
ly poor. This extreme, however, is much better than
that of France before the revolution, of the Auftrian
ffates, and of moft of the old governments of Europe.
There the nobility, poffefling the chief influence in the
adminiftration, had obtained for themfelves liberal ex¬
emptions, and thrown the principal weight of this, as
of other taxes, upon the inferior orders. In Sardinia,
and in fome provinces of France, lands held by a noble
tenure paid nothing whatever.
Some taxes upon land are proportioned, not to its
rent, but to its produce. This is the cafe in the Afiatic
countries. In China, a tenth, and in India, a fifth of
the whole produce of the land, are claimed by govern¬
ment. In England and Ireland, the church is fupport-
ed by a tax of this kind, w-hich is called tithe.
Fhefe taxes are liable to two very great objeflions.
They are, in the firft place, unequal. It is rent only
that can be the proper fubjeft of taxation $ that part of
the produce which is neceffary to pay the expence of cul¬
tivation, ought to remain untouched. But this expenee
is far greater in poor than in rich lands. In the
former, perhaps, the produce may be little more than
fufficient to pay the expences incurred; while in rich
lands, not only the neceflity of labour is lefs, but the
produce greater. If, by well employed capital, and coft-
ly cultivation, the farmer fucceeds in extrafting toler¬
able crops from an ungrateful foil, it is both cruel and
unjuft that he ftiould be obliged to pay as much as if he
had no fuch obftacle to ftruggle w’ith.
But if this tax be objeftionable on the ground of
equity, it it is ftill more fo, on that of expediency.
The firft; excitement to labour and improvements of eve¬
ry kind, muft undoubtedly be the profpedf of enjoying
their fruits. Where the rate of taxation is fixed, this
profpedt remains unimpaired ; for whatever addition the
proprietor or farmer can, by fuch means, make to the
produce of his land, is all his own. But the cafe is
very different, when it muft be fo deeply {hared in by
perfons who have done nothing to forward this increafe
of produce. A fovereign prince indeed may derive,
from fuch an arrangement, fome motive to encourage
agriculture, and improve the means of communication,
fo as to raife the value of its produce. But this advan¬
tage, which will fcarcely ever counterbalance the at¬
tendant evils, difappears altogether, rvhen this impofi¬
tion is to be paid for the fupport of an ecclefiaftical
body. Thefe, being only life-renters, and feldom pof-
feffed of much capital, cannot be expedled to co-operate
in
TAX [2
Taxation, in any meafure for the improvement of the lands. The
 v'™ 1 ’ jarrings too, which are likely to take place between
the paftor and his flock, form a moral argument againft
this mode of fupport.
It muff not be concealed, however, that a permanent
commutation of tithes would be a meafure little favour¬
able to the intereifs of the clergy. It feems both juft
to themfelves, and advantageous to the public, that
when the country is in a ftate of improvement, this bo¬
dy fliould not be left behind $ it fhould be able to
keep pace with the other members of the fociety. This
it can never do, if it has merely a certain fixed fum al¬
lotted for its maintenance, without the poflibility of
augmentation. This evil has, in faft, been ferioufiy
felt in the church of Scotland, the income of whofe
members, notwithftanding all that has been done for
their relief, is ftill very inferior to what it was thirty or
forty years ago. A fource of income, which rifes or
falls with the value of land, feems the moft effeflual
mode of maintaining this proportion between the in¬
come of the clergy, and of the reft of the fociety $ we
need not, therefore wnnder, that the clergy (hould be
fo tenacious of it.
To reconcile thefe contrarieties, would certainly be
attended with difficulty ; yet it does not feem to be ab-
folutely impoffible. The firft objeft would be, to trans¬
fer the tax from the produce to the rent. This might
be done by forming a correct eftimate, on an average of
a few years, of the value of the tithe ; and then affign-
ing a claim to fuch a proportion of the rent, as would
be equal to that value. This would remove all difcou-
ragements to the exertion of the cultivator. Thofe
which prefs againft the exertions of the landlord would
indeed remain in full force, though without any increafe.
In moft cafes, thefe exertions would be of very fmall
importance, when compared with thofe of the former.
But, befides, a fcheme might probably be contrived fi-
milar to that above fuggefted, by which the landlord
might receive an adequate allowance for any improve¬
ments he might make.
The ground-rent of houfes forms part of the rent of
land. In remote country fituations, it is often no more
than the fame land would yield, if employed for the
purpofes of agriculture. But in the vicinity, and ftill
more in the heart of a great town, competition, and
the value attached by convenience or faftiion to fome
particular fituations, raife this rent to a very extrava¬
gant height.
Ground-rent feems to be a ftill more proper fubjeft
of taxation than that of common land. It arifes com¬
monly from circumftances entirely independent of any
care or attention on the part of the proprietor. Yet
ground rents have never been confidered as a feparate
fubjeft of taxation. This has probably been from the
difficulty of diftinguifhing them from the building rent.
In every tax upon houfes, however, part muft fall up¬
on the ground rent, provided that be able to bear it.
By diminiftiing the demand for houfes, it will diminiffi
alfo the demand for ground to build them on.
Capitation or Po// Taxes,—afford one of the eafieft
and moft obvious modes of taxation. To lay an affeff-
ment upon every individual without exception, feems
the moft effectual mode of preventing all trouble, and
leaving no room for evafion. In moft of (he abfolute
governments, where the fovereign does not claim the
is 3 - TAX
foie property of the lands, as in Turkey and Ruflia, poll Taxation,
taxes are impofed in lieu of land tax. v-_^-
The rudeft form of this impofition is, when it is
laid equally upon every individual. An equality of
this kind is the moft grievous inequality. To make the
pooreft fubjett pay as much as the richeft, is palpably
unjuft. The only cafe, where fuch a tax can be pro¬
per, is where it falls upon flaves. In this cafe, it is
paid, not by the Have, but by the mafter. The num¬
ber of flaves forms the moft accurate teft of the value of
his property $ and accordingly, in Ruffia, an eftate is
defcribed, not by the number of acres, but by the
number of Haves which it contains. This tax has alfo
the good property of encouraging manumiffion. In
all other cafes, fuch a tax can only be rendered toler¬
able by its extreme moderation.
Nations were not long of perceiving the prepofterous
nature of this arrangement, and of feeking to fubftitute
fome more equitable one in its place. Fortune was evi¬
dently the moft correct ftandard to proceed upon $ but
a dole inquifition into private concerns was conceived to
be burdenfome and oppreffive. If each individual were
to report his own fortune, could the report be trufted
to ? If, on the other hand, the affeffment were to be
regulated by the officers of government, according to
what they fuppofed to be his wealth, a door was opened
to vexatious and arbitrary proceedings. In order to a-
void thefe oppofite dangers, it has been common to re¬
gulate the contribution according to the rank of the con¬
tributor, which it is fuppofed will bear at leaft a certain
proportion to his fortune. This was the cafe with the
different poll taxes impofed in this country during the
reign of King William. It was the cafe alfo in France
with regard to that part of the taillc which fell upon the
nobility. It is extremely unequal; for many men of
rank have no fortune correfponding j and where it fo
happens, their rank impoverilhes them, by the expence
which is requifite for its fupport. Yet, as rank affords
a certain approximation to fortune, it is certainly better
to fix it according to that ftandard, than to leave it to
the arbitrary appointment of the officers of government.
Inequality is a lefs evil than uncertainty.
In that part of the taille which fell upon the inferior
orders, the latter mode was adopted. This tax was the
fubjeft perhaps of more grievous difcontent, than any
other which yielded an equal revenue. It cannot be
fuppofed that the intendant ftiould not be often fwayed
by motives of favouritifm, private intereft, or private re-
fentment j and the very uncertainty to which the people
were expofed, formed a fevere hardffiip. They were
tempted to conceal their wealth, and even to employ in¬
adequate inftruments of trade or agriculture, in order to
deceive the watchful eye of the intendant.
Houfe Tax.—In order to avoid the defeats incident to
the above modes of affeffment, rent of houfes has been
fixed upon as affording the beft criterion of the amount
of a man’s income. It certainly affords a tolerable cri¬
terion of his expenditure \ and though this may often
differ confiderably from his means, yet as it is rather the
objetl of government to difcouiage profufe expenditure,
there may be no harm in fuch an inequality.
The moft equitable mode of taxing houfes, would
evidently be in the proportion of their rent. In this
country, accordingly, part of the land tax is made to
fall upon the rent of houfes. This branch of the land
tax
TAX [2
Taxation. taS is fubje£l to the fame inequalities> both original and
acquired, as the other branches. The affefTment, not
upon each houfe, but upon each diftrift, continues inva¬
riably the fame. In general, it is (till higher than upon
land. The value of houles, however, has not rifen fo
invariably as that of land } hence, in fome diftrifts
where the population has decreafed, the tax falls with
confiderable weight. Since that time another tax has
been impofed upon houfes which is in proportion to the
rent, and varies with it. The heavieft tax upon houfes,
however, is now that which is regulated by the number
of windows.
At the time of the original impolition of the houfe
tax, it feems to have been conlidered difficult or impof-
lible to afcertain and follow the flufluations of the rent.
Some obvious and undeniable circumftance, connefted
with the very form and con{tru6tion of the houfe, was
therefore feleited. The muff ancient is the number of
hearths. Hearth money is a very ancient duty-, and
feems to have exitted even before the Conqueft. Under
Charles II. a tax of two (hillings on all hearths was
granted to the crown for ever. This tax was grievous
to the people, on account of the domiciliary vifits to
which it neceffarily fubjefts them. It had befides the
worft kind of inequality, preffing harder on the poor
than the rich. A man of 20I. a-year may have two
hearths j a man of 200I. not above four or five. A man
of 1000I. will fcarcely have ten. Hearth money, there¬
fore, was abolilhed at the Revolution. In its (lead was
afterwards fubftituted the window tax, which could be
afcertained without entering the houfe of the contribu¬
tor. It was foon found, however, to be liable to the
fame inequality as hearth money. In confideration of
this, the rate was greatly increafed with the increafe of
the number of windows, and houfes having lefs than fix
were entirely exempted. If, however, as would rather
appear, the rent can be afcertained in a fatisfaclory
manner, it would feem better to lay the whole of the
houfe tax upon it directly, rather than by any circuitous
and doubtful mode.
There are two parts of houfe rent 5 the ground rent,
or that which is given for the ufe of the ground on
which the houfe (lands ; and the building rent, which
is paid to the builder, as a remuneration for his trouble
and expence. The ground rent, as above obferved,
mud pay a (hare of the tax ; but the building rent can¬
not be afFe&ed by it. The builder mud have his profit,
otherwife be would turn his capital and induftry in ano¬
ther diredfion. This rule, however, is fomewhat modi¬
fied by the very durable nature of the fubjedl. When
the tax is fird impofed, it is very probable that the fup-
ply of houfes may continue for fome time nearly ade¬
quate to the demand 5 in which cafe the proprietor mud
lower his price in order fo get his houfes let. As the
old houfes decay, however, new ones are wanted, which
will not be built without an adequate remuneration j
and thus the general law wTill again operate.
Income Tax.—The objedl of all the different affeffed
taxes is to make the fubjeft contribute an equitable pro¬
portion of his income to the expences of the dale. But
thofe which we have above enumerated, though they
may procure an approximation to this point, can never
attain it with perfedl precifion. If therefore an income
tax, edablidied on jud principles, could be colledfed
without any farther grievances, than the always una-
6 ] TAX
voidable payment of the contribution, it would certainly Tax
be the mod equitable affeffment of any, and might with v"“’~
propriety fuperfede all other taxes of this defcription.
Serious, however, are the difficulties which attend it.
The correClnefs of the edimate mult always depend, in t
a great meafure, on the honour of the contributors} but
all men are not honed ;■ and the cheating of the king,
is, according to the popular code, fo venial an offence,
that accurate returns cannot, in all cafes, be expe&ed.
If, on the other hand, the colle&ors, as in the French
taille, take upon themfelves to farm this edimate, a door
is opened to arbitrary and oppredive exaflions. The
imuoffiibility alfo of efcaping the tax by any fpecies of
privation makes its rveight more fenfibly felt, than irr
thofe which are in any degree voluntary. For all thefe
reafons, an income tax has hitherto been among the lad
refources to which a nation has had recourfe in its ex-
tremed neceflity.
Mod of the capitation taxes, as formerly obfervedy
partook more or lefs of the nature of the income tax.
The fublidies, fo frequent in our early finance, were,
like the taille, compofed, partly according to rank, and
partly according to fortune. Among the nobility, aliena¬
tion of edates was yet rare, and the difproportion be¬
tween rank and wealth, much greater than in fublequent
times. The edimate of income feems to have been
made by the colle&ors. Such impofitions, however,
were ill btooked by a free and turbulent people ; the
fubfidies became more and more unproduftive ; and at
lad were entirely given up. The fird was impofed un¬
der Richard II. in 1370 j the lad under Charles II. in
^11-
In fome fmall republican dates, a tax of this kind is
levied, the amount of w'hich is entirely regulated by the
good faith of the contributor. At Hamburgh every ci¬
tizen is faid to have placed in the public coffers a fum,
which is declared upon oath to be one fourth per cent,
of his whole property, which, reckoning intered at five
per cent, would be one twentieth of his income. It was
not fuppofed that this mode of colleflion gave occafion
to any fraud. The good faith of the people and their
confidence in their government, fupplied the place of
compulfory laws. The fecrecy was confidered neceffary
by a mercantile date ; but in fome of the fmall Swils
republics, every citizen declared publicly upon oath the
amount of his income, and was affeffed accordingly. Such
unfofpefted good faith could only exid in thefe fmall
dates, where patriotifm was ardent, and the confidence
of the people in their government entire.
Since the difcontinuance of fubfidies, nothing of this
kind had been attempted in Britain, till the year 179 ,
when the accumulating weight of public debt fuggeded
to Mr Pitt the necedity of railing ai large portion of the
fupplies within the year. For this purpofe, there ap¬
peared a neceflity for having recourfe to an income tax ;
and fo drong a fenfe wras entertained by the nation of
the preding nature of the exigency, that it was fubmit-
ted to with lefs reluftance than might have been ex-
pe£fed.
An attempt was at fird made to conneff this imrofi-
tion with the former affeffed taxes. Thefe were to be
tripled ; but if any perfon was able to prove, that this
charge amounted to more than a tenth of his income,
he was relieved from all which exceeded that propor¬
tion. At the fame time, a voluntary fubfcription was
opened ^
TAX [2
Taxation, opened ; but the produce, though honourable to na-
1 tional patriotifm, afforded but a {lender fupply to public
wants. Thefe irregular and uncertain approximations
towards an income tax were foon given up, and their
place fupplied by the tax itfelf, in its own ihape.
To obviate the inconveniences of difclofure or arbi¬
trary alfeffment, meafures have been adopted, as effec¬
tual probably as any that could be devifed. The com-
miffioners of income tax are chofen by the freeholders of
the county, or by the eleftors in a borough, in the fame
manner as a member of parliament, excepting that a
fmaller qualification is requifite. To the office of thefe
commiffioners, public opinion attaches a certain dignity,
which makes it be performed gratuitoufly, and by the
moft diftinguilhed perfons in the diftridt. Thefe are,
by oath, bound to fecrecy. The ftatements are given,
in the firft inftance, by the contributor j but if the
commiffioners are not fatisfied with his return, they can
require from him fatisfaftory explanations. According
to the fources of income, the perfon is affeffed at the a-
mount of one year, or at an average of three years. The
refult of thefe regulations feems to have been fuch as to
obviate, almoft entirely, the chief inconveniences attach¬
ed to this mode of taxation. The fimple payment of
the income tax indeed, is moil grievoufly complained of 5
but the acceffories of difclofure, or arbitrary affeffment,
which were confidered as prefenting unfurmountable ob-
ftacles to this meafure, fcarcely feem to be complained
of at all.
The moft important confideration in fuch a tax relates
to the proportion in which it ffiould be paid by the dif¬
ferent members of the community. That the loweft or¬
ders, wffio fubfift by the labour of their hands, ought to
be exempted, feems univerfally agreed. This would
produce the fame effefl as a tax upon the neceffaries of
life, the effefts of which we ffiall difcufs hereafter. But
independent of this clafs, an equal impofition upon the
higher and middling claffes of the community would be
extreme inequality. The larger the income, the lefs of
it muft be fpent upon neceffaries or common convenien¬
ces, and the more upon objects of mere (how and often-
tation. Thefe laft can certainly admit more eafily of re¬
trenchment j and as the opulent have a greater ftake in
the country, it feems reafonable that they ffiould contri¬
bute fomewhat more in a feafon of public exigency. A
gradation continually augmenting, fuch as takes place
in moft of. the other affeffed taxes, feems to be ftrongly
called for in this. The full proportion of ten per cent,
was, from the firft, impofed upon incomes of 200I. a-
year, and though this was infinitely too 1owt, yet at a
fubfequent period (in 1806) it w^as brought down to
150I. This fum, according to the prefent rate of ex-
pe.ice, is the very loweft at which any family in the
middling rank can poffibly be fupported. The whole of
this clafs, therefore, a clafs which has fo many claims to
the favour of the legiflature, is affeffed to the very fame
amount as the higheft claffes. The firft conveniences of
hie are taxed at the fame rate as its moft fuperfiuous
luxuries.. Certainly loool. a-year ought to be the firft
mcome liable to the very heavy charge of 10 per cent.;
and the deficiency hence arifing might be very fairly
fupplied by an increafe, gradually augmenting, upon in¬
comes above that amount. Fifteen per cent, perhaps,
ought to be the utmoft that it ever rofe to ; but this
coarge mig-ht doubtlefs be more eafily fupported by an
Vql. XX. Part I.
7 1 TAX
income of I0,00ol. a-year, than half of it by one of Taxatiorr.
200I. or 300I. _
Modifications ought alfo to take place, according to
the fource from wdiich the income is derived. That which
arifes from capital is undoubtedly of greater value than
mere profeffional income. It does not expire with its
poffeffor 5 it relieves him from the care and anxiety of
laying up a provifion for his family, and allows him to
fpend his whole income, when, to another perfon, it
would be the moft culpable imprudence. Of all fpecies
of capital, land feems to be the moft valuable and dur¬
able. It Hands alfo moft in need of the protection of
the ftate. It generally, too, comes to its poffeffor by
inheritance, and is not the fruit of his owm induftry.
With regard to money, although its value is ftill much
fuperior to falaries or proleffional profits, yet it feems ra¬
ther to be the policy of government to favour its accumu¬
lation, which a very great addition of charge might dif-
courage. Money befides is a more moveable fpecies of
property than land, or even than profeffional income. If
heavily taxed, the proprietor might withdraw into ano¬
ther country, and his capital, with the induftry which it
fupported, be thus loft to the community.
The prefent tax makes no diftinttion between income
which dies with its pgffeffor, and income arifing fiom
land or capital. Yet fuch a diftindlion, if it appeared
eligible, might eafily be made under the prefent fyftem
of collection, which demands a ftatement, not only of
the amount of income, but of the fource from which
it arifes. The propriety, however, of fuch a charge de¬
mands fome confideration. Land, it is true, is well able
to bear a confiderable (hare of the public burthens. But
land, in this country, and in almoft every other, is the
fubjeCt of a peculiar tax, over and above what is paid
by income arifing from other fources. If therefore it
were alfo to pay a greater proportion of the income tax,
the preffure might become unjuftly fevere. The land
tax in this country amounts to about two millions.
Were we to fuppofe the (hare of the income paid by
land to amount to 5,coo,oool. (a large allowance), land
would then pay fourteen per cent, which feems as
much as can reafonably be exafted. No fuch burden,
at leaft in any fenfible degree, falls upon ftock; but for
the reafons above ftated, the propriety of taxing it hea¬
vily feems fomewhat equivocal.
According to the original bill, as propofed by Mr
Pitt, very liberal exemptions were granted on account
of children. To encourage marriage and the rearing
of families, has been generally confidered by legiftators
as an important objeft. From fome recent fpeculations,
however, it has appeared doubtful whether it be defir-
able to remove the obftacles to marriage which arife
from the difficulty of fubfiftence. Whether from thefe
views, or from the mere wiffi of rendering the tax more
productive, this exemption has been gradually circum-
fcribed. The laft regulation made refpeCting it fee ms
to be of a very, capricious nature. An allowance of
four per cent, is given, but only for the number of
children exceeding two. This allowance befides is
given, not out of the income tax itfelf, but out of the
affeffed taxes. It is difficult to conceive any motive for
this laft regulation 5 and, efpecially in the cafe of the
middling claffes, it may fome times render the exemption
nugatory.
Other AJJejJed Taxes,—-& confiderable revenue is raifed
E e in
TAX [
carriages, dogs, &c. Thefe are all luxuries, the ufe of
which is confined to the moft opulent claffes ; they form,
therefore, extremely proper fubjefls of taxation. The
income tax indeed, modified as above flated, might per¬
haps come inftead of all fuch taxes; but while that tax
favours the higher above the middling claffes, thefe in
queftion tend to remedy that inequality. One affeff-
xnent, however, is of a different nature j that upon la¬
bouring horfes. It is not likely, and certainly could
never be intended, that this tax fhould reftrain the ufe
of thefe indifpenfable inftruments of agriculture. Nei¬
ther can the duty fall upon the farmer, who, in all cafes,
muff have his profits. To fecure this, he muff pay the
lefs rent, in proportion as he pays the more tax j and
this duty will finally operate as a land tax. It does
not feem, however, to have any advantages above a di-
re6! affeffment of the fame nature. It wall bear hard
upon the farmer who is in the middle of his leafe at
the time of its being impofed. If at all heavy, it may
have fome tendency to limit the ufe of fuch horfes, and
to encourage inferior fubftitutes. The tax was firff
laid at 2 s. and was juftified only by its extreme light-
nefs. It was then gradually raifed to 14s.; but a pro-
pofal to raife it frill higher was thrown out by parlia¬
ment, and has never been again revived.
2. Taxes upon Commodities.—The experience of the
difcontent excited by dire£! affeffments, and of the dif¬
ficulty of proportioning them equally, led to the impo-
fition of taxes on confumable commodities. Thefe be¬
ing laid in the fiift inffance on the commodity at the
time of its production or importation, are finally paid
by the confumer in the increafed price of his goods.
No taxes are fo little felt, or excite fo little difcontent.
The duty, mingling with the price of the goods, is con¬
founded with it *, and unlefs when the tax is firff im¬
pofed, and a hidden rife in confequence takes place, the
great mafs of the people are even ignorant, how much
of what they pay goes to government, and how much
conffitutes the mere price of the goods. The payment
is alfo made in the moft convenient manner, and may
be divided into the fmalleft portions. The power of
not paying by ceafing to confume the article taxed, goes
a great wray in fuppreffing murmurs. Thus, indeed,
thofe whofe expence does not keep pace with their for¬
tunes, pay an unequal fhare of the common contribu¬
tion. But as the law is generally difpofed to recom¬
mend economy, it will not perhaps confider this as a
ferious obje&ion.
For thefe reafons, the modern fyftem of finance, par¬
ticularly in this country where it is fo much an obj Cl
to avoid difcontent, has fhewn a decided favour to this
mode of railing a revenue. And perhaps, upon the
whole, they are the beft of any ; yet the evils with
which they are attended are by no means inconfiderable.
1. Thefe taxes take more out of the pocket of the
people, in proportion to what they put in that of the
public, than any other. This arifes from the extenfive
and minute fuperintendence which is neceffary for their
proper collection. For this purpofe, a number of officers
muff be kept, whofe falaries form a ferious deduction
from the produce. In Smith’s time, this expence amount¬
ed to above 54 per cent, on the duties of excife, and
above io per cent. or. thofe of cuftoms. The great
18 ] , TAX
augmentation of revenue which has taken place fince Taxation,
that time, has been produced more by an increafe of
duty on articles formerly taxed, than by the introduc¬
tion of new fubjeCts of taxation. The expence of col¬
lection, however, bears ftill a larger proportion to the
amount collected, than either in the ftamps or affeffed
taxes.
There is another way, in which the burden of thefe
taxes is rendered heavier on the public. The merchant
or producer advances the tax, often a confiderable time
before he can difpofe of the article. He muff therefore
have not only indemnification to the amount of the duty,
but alfo profit on the advance which he has made.
It is univerfally obferved, that when a new tax is im¬
pofed, the article rifes more than in proportion to it. The
public commonly murmur, and complain that the mer¬
chant has merely made the tax a pretence for this dif-
proportionate increafe in the price of his article. The
truth is, however, that the merchant has a reafonable
claim to receive the fame profit on that part of his ca¬
pital, which he has employed in advancing the tax, as
upon that which he employed in the original purchafe
of the commodity.
2. Though the colleflion of thefe taxes is lefs griev¬
ous to the great mafs of the people, yet it falls heavier
on certain claffes. Thefe are the dealers in excileable
commodities. As evafion is much eafier here than in
affeffed taxes, a more grinding fyftem of fuperintendance
becomes requifite. The tax-gatherer muff have con¬
tinual accefs to every part, not only of the workffiop,
but even of the private houfe, of the dealer in them.
No time, no place, can be exempt from his vifits. The
powder with which he is invefted may alfo, if he be fo
difpofed, give occafion to infolence at leaft, if not to op-
preffion. Now, as the dealers in thefe a mmodities
form a part, and even a pretty numerous part o the focie-
ty, any hardfhip falling upon them muff be a confiderable
evil. It is felt, befides, though not direftly, by the reft
of the fociety. It has already been obferved, under the
head of Politicai. Economy, that every difagreeable
circumftance attendant on any profeffion, neceffarily
railes the rate of wages and profit in that proftffion. It
cannot be fuppofed, that the dealers in thefe commodi¬
ties will fubmit to the hardfhips we have noticed, with¬
out claiming fome indemnification in the price of their
goods. Thus the firft inconvenience will be augment¬
ed, and ftill more will be taken from the people, with¬
out any addition to the revenue of the public.
3. Thefe taxes give birth to the trade of fmuggling,
a trade at once injurious to the public, and ruinous to
the individual. Unfortunately the lax ftate of public
morals, in regard to this point, offers a ftrong temptation
to grafp at the extraordinary profits which fmuggling
affords j and from the fame caufe, the produce of fuch
traffic, when fuccefsful, is always fure of a ready fale.
This trade, however, in the end, generally ruins not on¬
ly the fortune, but alfo the morals of him by wffiom it
is purfued. It trains to the pra&ice of falfehood, per¬
jury, and other vices, without which it cannot be car¬
ried on with any chance of fuccefs.
4. Such taxes always alter more or lefs, the natural,
and confequently the moft advantageous direftion of na¬
tional induftry. The tax upon wine muft diminifh the
confumption of that article, and confequently the in-
dufiry
TAX
Taxation, duftry employed in producing it. Wine indeed is not
"““’V-—’ a commodity of Britiih production j but it muft be pur-
chafed with Britiih commodities, and if the merchant
cannot import it, neither can he afford a market tor
thefe Britifh articles which were to be given in exchange
for it. Dr Smith feems to imagine, that thefe taxes
produce an abfolute defalcation in the amount of na¬
tional produce j a fuppofition in which we are inclined
to differ from him. Although there is a diminution
in the demand for this particular article; yet as the fum
levied is not withdrawn from the national expenditure,
but is merely transferred from one clafs of perfons to
another, it muff flill fupport a demand, if not for the
fame, at leaft for fome other fpecies of commodities.
Thus the public will buffer chiefly from the inconve¬
niences attendant on the change. Other reflraints, how¬
ever, for w’hich there is no fuch compenfation, are ne-
ceffarily attendant on the colledtion of fuch duties. In
order to render this efficacious, regulations muft often
be made, as to the manner in which the trade is to be
carried on ; and it is always to be apprehended, that
governments will be more attentive to the fecurity of
the revenue, than to the eafe of the public. In arbi¬
trary and unenlightened governments, this propenfity
becomes often fo powerful, as to throw the moft formid¬
able obftacles in the way of that free circulation of com¬
modities on which the profperity of trade, and of all in-
duftry, effentially depends.
The commodities on which thefe duties are impofed,
may be either the neceffaries or the luxuries of life. Be¬
tween thefe two divifions the line is not eafily drawn,
Neceffaries, ftri£tly fpeaking, are confined to thofe things,
without which life cannot be fupported or health pre-
ferved. Yet, though the philofopher may reafon thus,
the fovereign cannot confine his people within fuch ftridl
limits. In regard to food indeed, which is entirely a
domeftic arrangement, this definition may hold ; but in
clothing and lodging, the arrangements of which are in
the eye of the public, long cuftom may impofe obliga¬
tions of decency and propriety, which fall little ftiort
of abfolute neceffity. Every thing, in this refpeft, muft
be confidered as neceffary, which a common labouring
perfon of the low-eft clafs cannot wrant, without incurring
the reproach, or exciting the commiferation, of others in
ihe fame ftation.
Taxes upon the neceflaries of life have the fame effe£l
with taxes upon the wages of labour. Dr Smith, and
moft other writers, feem to conceive that the immediate
effect of fuch taxes is to raife the w-ages of labour. But
we do not fee that fuch can be the cafe. Nothing can
raife the wages of labour, except an augmentation of the
funds deftined for its fupport. But thefe funds, far from
being railed by fuch taxes, are fomewhat diminiffied.
The employers of the poor, being themfelves affe&ed
by them, will be lefs able to pay wages than before. It
is quite a fallacy to urge, that the labourer, if he does
not get fufficient wages, will refufe to work. This
might be, if the tax affedted only a certain clafs of la¬
bourers, and left the reft free. The labourer, if he could
not, over and above the tax, obtain the regular ftandard
rate, w-ould w-ithdraw to other employments. The
confequence would be, a rife in the wages of the taxed
labour, with a flight fall in thofe of every other, propor¬
tioned to the additional number who would thus be
thrown upon it. But where the tax falls equally upon
TAX
labour of every defeription, as taxes upon the neceffaries
of life muft do, there is no new quarter to which the
labourer can turn ; there is nothing either to raife or to
lower wages; the fupply of and demand for labour con¬
tinue the fame. The effect of the tax is merely to di-
minilh the fubfiftence of the labourer in proportion to
its amount.
This, how-ever, is merely the firft effecl; for the di-
minilhed fubfiftence will loon begin to a£t upon the po¬
pulation, which furnilhes the fupply of labour. W ere
wages at the time fo low as to furnilh merely the ne-
ceifaries of life according to the firft definition, that is,
fuch neceffaries as it could not lubfift without, the ine¬
vitable confequence feems to be, that part of the labour¬
ing poor muft perifh for want. Such a calamitous ef¬
fect feems actually to refult, in the crowded population
of fome eaftern empires, when a deficient crop produces
a fcarcity of fubfiftence. Happily, however, the la¬
bouring poor are feldom fo wholly w ithout relburce. In
general the wages are fufficient to allow them a portion
of the other defeription of neceffaries, and even of lux¬
uries, by retrenching which, they can, in the event of
fuch a tax, preferve themfelves from abfolute ftarvation.
In the end, however, the difeouragement to marriage,
and difficulty of rearing children, will reduce the po¬
pulation. This reduftion, diminifhing the fupply of la¬
bour, will increafe w-ages, till they cover the amount of
the tax. The fame fum, divided among a fmaller num¬
ber will make more to each.
High w'ages operate as a complete tax upon every
fpecies of manufactured produce. The manufacturer
muft charge upon the price of his goods the whole fum
which he has paid to his workmen with a profit. In
the market of the world, therefore, he muft, ceterispa~
ribusy be underfold by the manufacturer who refides in
a country w-here labour is cheaper. Wrhen thefe high
prices however, are the refult of national profperity,
when they improve the fubfiftence of the labourer, and
lay a foundation for increafed population, this difadvan-
tage will w-eigh very light in the balance. But where
they are the refult of diminilhed population, and attend¬
ed with no improvement in the condition of the labour¬
ing poor, they form one of the greateft evils with which
a nation can be affiiCted.
For thefe reafons, taxes upon the neceffaries of life,
though certainly produCHve, have always been found to
be oppreffive and ruinous to the profperity of a ftate.
Luxuries, therefore, form the proper objeCls of taxation.
As every one, if unable to purchafe his ufual quantity,
can either diminifti it or abftain altogether, the rife of
the article has no tendency to induce fuch a degree of
want, as to check population, and thus caufe a rife to
the wages of labour. This power of abftinence may
indeed lead to a certain inequality ; but as this inequa¬
lity is altogether voluntary, it can neither excite mur¬
muring, nor be confidered as a ferious hardfliip. The
greateft irregularity is in the cafe of abfentees, by whom
fuch taxes are evaded altogether.
It is not, however, we muft obferve, from the mere
luxuries of {hew and oftentation that any important or
permanent revenue is to be drawn. Thefe are confined
chiefly to perfons of large fortune, who are few in num¬
ber, and are always fubjeft to the influence of faffiion,
fo that little dependence can be placed on their regular
confumption. The luxuries from which alone a great
E e 2 revenue
t 219 1
Taxation.
TAX [ 220 ] TAX
Taxation, revenue can be drawn are thofe which, among the higher
-"-v   and middling claffes, have come to be confidered almoft
as necelTaries, and which are extenfively ufed by fuch as
are in eaty circumitances, even among the lower orders.
The only drink neceffary for fupporting the human
conftitution in perfeft health, feems to be pure water.
Men, however, have an univerfal propenfity for fome-
thing more, both to gratify their tafte, and to exhilarate
their fpirits. Fermented and fpirituous liquors, tea,
coffee, &c. are had recourfe to with this view, and are
habitually ufed in various forms and degrees, by almoft
every inhabitant of this country. Such articles form
therefore the grand bafis of this fyftem of taxation.
Of all fuperiluities, tea feerr& to be one of the greateft.
It affords neither nourifhment nor flrength, and is ge¬
nerally confidered by phyficians as injurious to the hu¬
man conilitution. Being imported befides from a re¬
mote country, the intercourfe with which was, by the
mercantile fyffem, fligmatized as injurious, it was con¬
fidered as every way a fair fubje£t of taxation. Very
high duties w7ere accordingly accumulated upon it,
which, in 1783 amounted to nearly 30 per cent, on the
value, befides an excife of 1 s. on every pound. It was
found that fo high a duty opened a wide door to the
fmuggling of a commodity of fo fmall bulk, and which
was then imported in large quantities by all the neigh¬
bouring countries. It was calculated, that though duty
was paid on five or fix millions of pounds, the confump-
tion of Great Britain amounted to more than double
that quantity. A plan was therefore brought forward
by Mr Pitt to fubfritute in its room an additional tax
on windows. Smuggling was no doubt checked, and
the people wrere, on the -whole, gainers; yet the new
tax, being affeffed, was more heavily felt by the public
than its predeceffor, which wras only a duty on confump-
tion. Since that time, the exigency of the times has made
it again neceffary to have recourfe to this article } and
the tax upon tea has been raifed even higher than
it was previous to the commutation tax. The diminu¬
tion, however, of the Indian trade carried on by the
other powers, joined to the ftrifter precautions againft
fmuggling, has prevented its renewal to nearly the fame
extent as formerly. Tobacco is a Hill more complete
fuperfluity than tea, yet its ufe is very extenfive. It has
therefore been juftly confidered as one of the propereft
of all fubjefts of taxation, and duties have been laid up¬
on it, amounting to five or fix times the original value
of the article.
Wine is the wholefomefl of all fermented liquors,
and is even pretty extenfively ufed as a medicine. Thefe
circumftances might feem to entitle it to fome favour,
which, however, it has not experienced. Being entire¬
ly a foreign commodity, and being particularly cultiva¬
ted by a nation long the objeft of our commercial jea-
loufy, it has incurred the decided hoftility of the mer¬
cantile fyftem. Duties have been impofed, confiderably
exceeding the original value. A preference has alfo
been (hewn to the wines of Portugal and Spain, (though
inferior in quality), wdiich has rendered them the com¬
mon drink of this country.
Spirits are an article extenfively confumed in this
country, and on which a high duty may, with the
greateft propriety, be impofed, for the purpofes not on¬
ly of revenue, but of moral regulation. They afford no
uourifhmer.t, and are in the higheft degree liable to
abufe. They are affefted by the general tax on malt j Taxation,
but pay, befides, a confiderable one when manufa&u-v~“
red. in order to obviate the fmuggling which was car¬
ried to a great extent in the making of fpirits, it has
been found advifable to lay the duty on the ftill, in pro¬
portion to its contents. It is paid by the month ; and
the diftiller, when he choofes at any time to intermit
his operations for that period, may, by giving due no¬
tice to the officers of revenue, avoid being charged.
When this plan was firft adopted, the duty was com¬
paratively very low. But Mr Pitt foon found him-
felf completely deceived as to the produftivenefs of
this rate of duty. It was raifed therefore fucceflively
to 162I. its prefent rate. This fyftem lays the diftiller
under a temptation to work very rapidly, which is fup-
pofed to be injurious to the quality of the fpirits. It
obliges them alfo to work without intermiffron, which
they did at firft without even the exception of Sunday,
till that praftice was prohibited by the legiflature. It
may be proper to notice, that this mode of impofition
is confined to Scotland, and that in England it is laid
upon the wort or wafh.
Fermented liquors from malt are much more ufeful.
They are the moft nutritive perhaps of any fpecies of
drink, and are on that account well fuited to thofe who
are engaged in hard labour. Neither do they offer the
fame temptations to excefs j yet their extenfive ufe, and
the neceflity of raifing a revenue, have led the legifla¬
ture to confider them as a ftaple fubjeft of taxation, and
they are now charged with a duty of nearly 100 per
cent. Dr Smith advifes the transference of the whole tax
on beer to the malt tax. The latter appears to be lefs
liable to fmuggling, and it obviates the prefent exemp¬
tion enjoyed by private brewers, which is evidently un-
reafbnable and unequal. The only objeftion feems to
be, that, being impofed at an earlier period of the ma-
nufa&ure, it obliges the manufa&urer to lie longer out
of his advance, and confequently to demand a greater
profit •, though this might perhaps be obviated by al¬
lowing him a longer credit. The additional taxes,
however, impofed upon this article, have been all laid
upon beer or porter. In general, it would appear that
conliderable unneceffary trouble is occafioned by taxing
fucceflively different ftages of a manufa&ure. By lay¬
ing the whole either upon malt, or upon beer, a confi¬
derable expence of calle&ion might be faved, without
any diminution of the produce.
There are many fpecies of food which cannot, ftri&Iy
fpeaking, be confidered as neceffaries of life, fince their
place can be fupplied by fome lefs expenfive fubftitute.
Butcher meat can be fupplied by eggs, butter, and
other produfts of milk ; wheaten bread by other bread
of inferior grains. It may be obferved, however, that
the impofition of a tax on the fuperior article would
produce an increafed demand for the inferior; and con¬
fequently raife its price. Accordingly, both butcher
meat and wheaten bread are univerfally numbered
among the neceffaries of life; nor do we recoiled!, in
the Britifti fyftem of taxation, any inflance of folid food
liable to duty. This is not the cafe in other countries,
particularly in Holland. Heavy taxes are there impo¬
fed upon both articles. All butcher meat pays a duty
of more than 7 per cent, of its value. All cattle, be¬
fides, pay about 5s. per annum. The tax upon ground
corn is alfo very heavy and undiftinguifhing. Wheat
pays
Taxation
TAX [
• pays IQ4 florins (nearly 9I.) per laft. Nor are the in-
^ ferior grains entirely exempted. Rye pays 42 florins
(about 3I. 1 os.); bailey, beans, and oats, about 2I.
Smith is not difpofed to cenfure thefe heavy impofitions,
as they may have been rendered neceffary by the long
wars in which this people were engaged for the fupport
of their independence ; and when proper fubjetfls of tax¬
ation are exhaufted, recourfe mufl: be had to improper
ones. Upon examining the lift, however, of Dutch
taxes, we do not find that the taxes upon articles of
luxury are fo very high, as to have reduced the legifla-
tors of that country to fuch an extremity. The excife
upon the anm of wane, equal to 40 Englifh gallons, is
only 14 florins, or about il. 5s. Tobacco, fo fair an
article of taxation, and fo much ufed in Holland, is
taxed only by a flight licence, eftimated at little more
than a halfpenny a pound. Beer and fpirits are taxed
ftill more moderately than wine. Befides, even fuppo-
fing all the articles of luxury to be exhaufted, we fhould
conceive it more advifable to have recourfe to aiTeifinents
upon income to the neceflary extent, than to duties up¬
on articles of neceflity. Accordingly, in this country^
a larger revenue in proportion to the population, is now
raifed than ever was raifed in Holland, without having
recourfe to thefe ruinous refources.
Clothes and furniture are, to a certain extent, as
much neceflaries of life as food. The quantity of
them, however, which comes under this defcription, is
much lefs; by far the greater part of the expence which
is laid out in this way being for the purpofe of conveni¬
ence at moft, if not of mere fhew and oftentation.
There feems therefore no reafon for fparing any, beyond
thofe plaineft articles which decency demands from the
loweft of the people. This clafs of commodities, how¬
ever, has met with peculiar indulgence, in confequence
of the favour entertained by the mercantile fyftem for
manufactures of every kind. Woollens and hardwares,
the two ftaples of England, have been completely ex¬
empted. The fame favour has been ftiewn to linen,
the ftaple of the After kingdoms. Yet, provided a cor-
refponding drawback were allowed on exportation, there
does not appear any good reafon why the finer forts of
all thefe fabrics Ihould not be made a fubjeft of reve-
Printed linens and cottons, which have recently
nue.
been fo abundantly produced both in England and Scot¬
land, have been made to pay a confiderable tax.
But though the legiflature of this country has been
thus laudably attentive to avoid touching on the firft ne-
celfaries of life, there are ftill feveral particulars in
which it has failed. One of the moft important of thefe
is coal, an article of the firft utility, the univerfal fuel
of this country, and the material of many of its moft;
important manufactures. It is the lefs able to bear any
duty, becaufe from its local and bulky nature, the ex¬
pence of tranfport is often very heavy. London is fup-
plied with coal from Newcaftle, which is 300 miles di-
ftant. If a bounty could in any cafe be advifable, it
would be in fuch a cafe. The legiflature, however, has
judged otherwife, and has impofed upon every ton of
fea-borne coal, a duty of 3s. 6d. Coals carried by land
or inland navigation are duty free. Through the exer¬
tion of Lord Melville, Scotland, to the north of St
Abb’s Head, has been freed from this duty; a circum-
ftance which has materially contributed to her rapid
profperity.
221 ] tax
Salt, though it may not be requifite for the fupport Taxation,
of life, has yet, by immemorial ufage among civilized v—‘“,
nations, been conftituted a neceflary of life. Notwith-
ftanding this, the fmall quantity ufed by each individual,
and the minute portions in which it is purchafed, make
a tax upon it be levied with lefs murmuring than moft
other taxes. Governments, taking advantage of this
circumftance, have almott univerfally made it a fource
of revenue.
In this country the tax on this article prefles
with the greater feverity, as fait is eflential to the
fiftiery, one of the moft important fources of national
wealth. It is true, the duty is drawn back, when fait
is fo employed ; but the facility of fmugglmg by means
of this drawback, produces the neceflity of ftriCt regula¬
tions, which ciamp extremely this branch of induftry,
efpecially when carried on in that fmall fcale which is
peculiarly fuited to it.
Leather, foap, and candles, are alfo neceflaries of
life taxed in this country. But though thefe articles
are to a certain extent neceflary, by far the greateft
confumption of them is for purpofes of luxury. Al¬
though therefore thefe taxes do prefs upon the poor,
their weight is not very fevere. It might feem eafy
enough, at lead in the firft and laft of them, to exempt
thofe coarfer forms of the commodity, which are ufed
by the lower clafles, and thus the deficiency of revenue
might be compenfated by an increafe on the more ex-
penlive forms.
Taxes may be impofed either upon exportation or
importation. The duties of cuftoms were at firft levied
on both indifcriminately; but as the mercantile fyftem
gained ground, and an anxious defire prevailed to en¬
courage exportation and check importation, in the hope
of increafing the fpecie in the country, all the newr du¬
ties wrere laid upon the latter, while the former was
more and more exempted. Although this fyftem may
not have taken its rife from the moft enlightened views,
yet no reafonable exception can be taken to it. The
taxes impofed by any government ought to fall upon
the confumption of its own people, not upon that of
others; and as this is a maxim of juftice, fo it is equally
recommended by policy. Were a government to tax
its own exported commodities, thefe commodities would
alfo have to pay the taxes of the country into which
they were imported. Loaded with this double bur¬
den, they could not advantageoufly come into competi¬
tion with fimilar articles, either the produce of that
country, or imported from another which followed a
more liberal policy. It is only therefore upon goods
imported or produced for home confumption, that thefe
taxes can with propriety fall. From fimilar views, the
materials of manufafture have been generally exempted
from duty. We have already obferved, that, provided
thefe manufafturcs be objefls of luxury, there is no
good reafon why they Ihould not pay a tax. But there
is an evident advantage in levying the duty after, ra¬
ther than before, the manufacturing procefs. In the
latter cafe, the merchant, being obliged to advance it
fo early, muft have a profit on his advance, proportion¬
ed to the length of time which elapfes till the commo¬
dity is fit for fale ; and this profit muft be paid by the
confumer in the price of the goods.
Should we fuppofe indeed a nation to poflefs a mono¬
poly of any particular commodity, fuch a nation might
impels
TAX
[ 222 J
T A X
Taxation. Impofe a tax on its export, without danger of its mer-
chants being fupplanted in the foreign market. Still
this could not but be confidered as a ibmewhat illiberal
fyftem; and it would alfo bear hard upon the producer,
who would ftill probably have a double fyftem of duties
to pay, fince it cannot be fuppofed that the foreign
country ftiould regard thefe monopolized commodities
with peculiar favour.
With the view’ of following up the principles of the
mercantile fyftem, importation duties have often been
laid upon goods, fo heavy as to amount to a prohibition.
Such duties are not intended to produce any revenue,
but to favour fome home manufacture, or to injure that
of fome foreign nation, which is an objeCt of commer¬
cial jealtmfy. In the fame manner, bounties are given
to fonvard the growth of fome branch of induftry, w'hich
is the objeCt of peculiar favour. In both cafes, the re¬
venue is facrificed, without any real advantage accruing
to the public. The induftry and capital of the nation are
thus turned from their natural direction into one w’hich
is lefs advantageous, and the public is injured inftead of
being benefited.
It is an undoubted principle, that whether the tax
be paid at the time of importation, or at manufacture,
it ought to be paid only once. Some governments,
profoundly ignorant of the true principles of political
economy, have repeated the impofition at every fuccef-
five fale of the property. This is obvioufly unequal.
The value of property, and the frequency of its trans¬
ference, are twro things altogether diftinCt. One fpecies
of goods may thus come to pay ten or twelve times as
much as another of the fame value. Eut great as is its
inequality, its impolicy is ftill more glaring. It forms
the moft powerful check to that free interchange of
commodities which is the very foul of all induftry. It
tends to confine the confumption of every article to the
place of its production, and thus to exclude all thofe
benefits which arife from the extenfion of the market.
Of this ruinous nature is the Spanifti alcava/a, which
confifts in an impofition, originally of 10, but now only
of 6 per cent, on every fale w ithout exception, whatever
be the nature of the property, or however frequenter
repeated. The mere undiftinguifhing nature of fuch a
tax muft be a great evil ; but it is rendered far more
pernicious by the obftruCHon which it thus throws in the
way of every fpecies of commercial intercourfe.
It may be eftabliftied as a principle in regard to thefe
taxes, that they ought to be as uniform as pofiible, and
not to vary in different parts of the country. Such va¬
riations neceffarily lead to reftraints on the free circula¬
tion of commodities. Each province becomes as an in¬
dependent kingdom, the frontier of which is guarded by
cuftomhoufes and by chains of officers, through which
whoever paffes muft fubmit not only to the payment of
duties, but to the inconvenience and delay of having
his goods fearched. Such w’as the cafe both in France
and in Spain, w’here each province having formerly
been feparate and independent, retained ftill its diftinft
fyftem of taxation. The tranfporting of goods from one
province to another was like exporting them to a foreign
country ; the fame barriers of cuftomhoufes, duties, and
revenue officers, obftrufled their paffage. One of the
circumftances which has moft contributed to the profpe-
rity of Great Britain is the uniformity of taxation
throughout, and confequently the entire freedom of
commerce from one part of the ifland to the other. Taxation.
This was the principal advantage which Scotland de¬
rived from the union j and it has been fuch as fully to
compenfate for the increaled burdens to w hich that mea-
fure fubje&ed her.
Duties upon confumption, inftead of being levied up¬
on the trader, may be levied upon the perion confuming,
W’ho may be made to pay a certain fum as a licence to
ufe the commodity. Such a mode of levy has fome of
the advantages of affeffed taxes, in regard to the facility
and cheapnefs of colle&ion. It is ftill alfo in fome de¬
gree fpontaneous ■, but it muft obvioufly be, in mort
cafes, very unequal. Of two per Tons, w’ho (hould pay
the fame lum for a licence to ufe wine, one might con-
fume twenty times the quantity of the other. A licence
has befides the difadvantage of being paid all at once,
and of being more fenfibly felt than taxes which con¬
found themfelves with the price of the commodity. In
general, therefore, it is a much lefs eligible form.
There are a few inftances, however, of very coftly and
durable goods, fuch as coaches, plate, &c. where it is
found to be the moft convenient. Wine and other li¬
quors, when confumed in taverns, may, it is fuppofed,
be fairly required to pay more than when confumed in
private houfes. An attempt, however, to proportion
this addition to the quantity confumed, wrould be at¬
tended with unfurmountable difficulties. A licence is
therefore required to be taken out by innkeepers who
deal in thefe articles. This tax falls with equal weight
upon the great and fmall dealers •, but it may be rather
confidered as defirable to check the multiplication of the
laft.
3. Stamp Duties.*—Under the title of ftamp duties,
we would include all thofe which fall upon the deeds
which regulate the transference of property.
The firft of thefe duties, of which we find any men¬
tion, are thofe upon teftamentary donations. A law of
Auguftus impofed the ’uicejuna hereditatum, or twen¬
tieth penny, upon all inheritances. It was in Holland,
how’ever, which was preffed by the fevered neceffity of
raifing a revenue, and not very diferiminating in the
mode of doing it, that the fyftem of Jiamp duties firft
originated, and was carried to a formidable extent.
Such were the difficulties of that ftatf, that they are
faid to have publicly propofed a reward to any one who
ftiould fuggeft a new fource of revenue. This plan was
propofed and approved. From Holland it was, in 1671,
imported into this country, and has fince become one of
the great fources of public income. In other countries,
deeds regarding the transference of property are requi¬
red to be entered in a public regifter, and the tax laid
on the regiftration. A confiderable revenue was thus
raifed in France. Auffion duties upon the fale of pro¬
perty, both moveable and immoveable, though forre-
what different in point of form, coincide exactly with
thefe taxes in their effence and tendency.
Taxes of this nature are attended with confiderable
conveniencies to the contributors. From the nature o
the tranfadlion, there muft always be money in hand
with w'hich the tax can be paid ; and the time of pay¬
ment is thus the moft convenient of any. In many cafes,
the fum to be paid at a time is fmall. It is only part
of the fociety which is liable to them to any great ex¬
tent, and thefe only occafionally *, they are not felt as
intrenching on daily and habitual comforts 5 nor do
they
TAX [2
Taxation, tliey excite that general murmur, which is alone formi-
v " ' dable to government. It is not to be wondered at,
therefore, if the latter rtiould avail themfelves of this
paflive difpofuion in the people for the extenfion of this
fource of fupply. The truth is, however, that in all
elTential refpecfs, thefe taxes are among the moft impro¬
per of any.
1. They are unequal, inafmuch as the value of any
property is altogether unconnefted with the frequency
of its transference. This inequality would fubfift, even
though the damp duty were always in exatl proportion
to the value of the property. But this is, in general,
far from being ftridtly the cafe. It may be nodced,
however, that in the recent additions made to the damp
duties in this country, the principle of equality has been
more attended to.
2. The greater part of fuch taxes fall not upon the
income, but upon the capital of the country ; not upon
that fund which may be properly and fafely expended,
but upon that, the expenditure of which mud be ulti¬
mately ruinous. This circumdance is peculiar to thefe
duties; for though others, when very fevere, may
oblige the contributor to encroach on his capital, they
alone fall direftly and immediately upon that fund. An
obje&ion of this nature would alone be fufficient to dif-
fuade their adoption.
3. Such taxes, when they fall upon moveable goods,
have a diredl tendency to check commerce, and through
it every kind of indudry. They are then a complete
alcavala, differing from that ruinous impod only by be¬
ing more moderate.
Thus we find, that the facility of colleflion, and the
avoiding of difcontent, which have tempted modern go¬
vernments to extend fo much this fource of revenue, are
altogether fallacious advantages, and bear no proportion
to the ill confequences with which fuch taxes are necef-
farily attended. It would therefore be much better
that the duties upon the transference of moveable goods
fhould be laid upon their original production. They
would thus pay only once, and no impediment would
be thrown in the way of their free circulation. Duties
upon the fale of land and other immoveable goods,
ought to be converted into affeffed taxes, payable on
their yearly ufe. In the prefent circumdances of this
country indeed, it is perhaps too much to expeft that
taxes, which are paid without much murmuring, fliould
be taken off; but the condderations now dated ought
certainly to deter from any farther addition to them.
Legacies from any didant relation are a fort of acci-
, dental and unexpected advantage, and it is therefore to
be fuppofed, that the perfon receiving will have fecured
a regular fource of fubfidence independent of them. He
will not therefore, it is likely, be difpofed to complain
very grievoufly, if this extrinfic fburce of wealth be
fomewhat diminifhed by a duty to government. In this
country, accordingly, fuch legacies are chargeable with
a duty of 10 per cent. This tax feems one of the mod
unexceptionable of the kind, and only liable to the ob¬
jection of falling upon capital. It is otherwife with
money left by a father or other very near relation. The
death of fuch perfons commonly diminilhes, indead of
increafing, the wealth of the family ; and the fum left
forms often the foie dependance of a great part of it.
Accordingly, in Great Britain, the duty on legacies to
Tay.
23 ] TAX
the neared relations is very dight, and gradually in- Taxation
creafes as the confanguinity becomes more remote.
Receipt damps, though they are formally paid by the (,
feller, fall really upon the purchafer. The merchant,
who mult have his profit, will calculate the expence
which he is likely to be at in damps, and will lay a
correfponding augmentation on the price of his goads.
Such taxes, unlefs very heavy, will fall upon income
only, not upon capital.
Bills of exchange, and policies of infurance, being
neceffary initruments of trade, feem as improper fubjeCts
of taxation as can well be. The only thing tolerable
in thefe taxes, as impoied in this country, is their mode¬
ration.
AuClion duties feem liable to every objection which
can be dated againd taxes of this defcription. They
are the more fevere, as they mud fall often upon unfor¬
tunate perfons who are reduced to the neceffity of difpo-
fing, in this manner, of their property.
Stamps upon law proceedings tend to increafe the ex¬
pence of obtaining judice, which is already complained
of in general as too heavy. They may indeed be fup-
pofed to be of fome ufe in checking a litigious fpirit}
but this feems already to be done pretty effectually
by the other expences attendant on judicial proceed-
iugs.
Taxes upon indentures, or upon the entrance to any
profeffion, produce a monopoly to the perfons exercifing
that profedion. They thus tend at once to raife the
price of their labour and of its fruits, and to duninifh
the neceffity of qualifying themfelves for its perform¬
ance. The chief weight of thele taxes falls upon the
perfons exercifing the profeffion of the law. The pub¬
lic are apt to regard fuch perfons with a degree of hodi-
lity, which has probably induced government to believe
it might tax them without danger of exciting any gene¬
ral murmur. The truth is, however, that thefe taxes
fall not on the practitioners themfelves, but on thofe
who complain of them, on the perfons engaged in liti¬
gation 5 fo that their effeCt is precifely the fame with that
of taxes on law proceedings. It differs from them only
as a licence differs from a duty upon commodities, and is
lefs eligible, as falling more unequally. The perfons
who pay the fame fum at entrance, carry on their pro¬
fedion with very different degrees of fuccefs.
Some impofitions, which affume the form of damp
duties, are in reality taxes upon commodities. Such
are the game duty, the duty on cards, hats, plate, &c. ^
But mod of thefe feem to be unexceptionable fub¬
jeCts.
TAXUS, the Yew-tree, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs dicecia, and in the natural fydem ran¬
ging under the 51ft order, ConiferSee Botany In*
dex.
TAY, in Latin Tavus, or Taus, the larged river in
Scotland, riles in Braidalbane, on the frontiers of Lorn ;
and having in the paffage of a few miles augmented its
dream by the acceffion of feveral fmall rills, fpreads it-
felf into the lake called Loch Dochart; out of which
having run but a little fpace, it expands itfelf again.
Leaving this fecond lake, it rolls fome miles with a con-
fiderable body of water, and then diffufes itielf in the
fpacious Loch Tay ; which, reckoning from the fources
of the river, is 24 miles in length, though, dridly
fpeaking,
T A Y r 224 1 T A Y
fay, fpeaking, the lake is but 13 : almoft as foon as it iflues
Taylor. from hence, it receives the river Lyon, coming out of
Loch Lyon, and running through Glen Lyon; which,
having travelled in a manner parallel to it, from its
fource, for a fpace of 25 miles, at length joins the Tay
as it enters Athol, which it next traverfes, and, direft-
ing its courfe in a manner due eaft, receives almoft all
the waters of that country. Bending then to the fouth,
at the diftance of fix miles, it reaches Dunkeld 5 which,
in the language of our anceftors, lignifies “ the hill of
hazels,” was the very centre of the old Caledonia, and
is at prefent efteemed the heart of the Highlands. The
river is very broad here, infomuch that there is a ferry¬
boat over it at each end t^f the town. Declining ftill
to the fouth-eaft, with a winding courfe, for above 12
miles, the Tay receives a large fupply of waters from
the county of Angus •, and then running fouth-weft for
eight miles more, is joined in that fpace by feveral ri¬
vers, the moft confiderable of which is the Almond.
Turning then to the fouth-eaft, at the diftance of about
three miles, this copious river comes with a fwelling
ftream to Perth.
The Tay, continuing ftill a fouth-eaft courfe, re¬
ceives, a few miles below Perth, the river Erne j which,
iffuing from a loch of the fame name, traverfes the
county of Strathern, and paffes by Abernethy, once the
capital of the Phftilh kingdom. Swelled by the waters
of this laft river, the Tay, running next dire£Uy eaft,
enlarges itfclf till it becomes about three miles broad j
but contradts again before the town of Dundee j foon
after which it opens into the German ocean. At the
entrance of the frith, there are fands both on the north
and on the fouth fide j the former ftyled Goa, the latter
Jiberlay and Drutnlan; and before thefe, in the very
mouth of the frith, tliofe which are called the Crofs
Sands. At Butlonnefs, which is the northern promon¬
tory, there are two light-houfes. The fpace between
the north and the fouth fands may be near a mile, with
about three fathoms water ; but being within the frith,
it grows deeper, and in the road of Dundee is full fix
fathoms. The frith of Tay is not indeed fo large or fo
commodious as that of Forth, but from Buttonnefs to
Perth it is not lefs than 40 miles; and the whole may
be, without any great impropriety, ftyled a harbour,
which has Fife on one fide, and the (hires of Perth and
Angus on the other, both very fertile and pleafant coun¬
tries.
TAYLOR, Dr Jeremy, biftiop of Down and Con¬
nor in Ireland, was the fon of a barber at Cambridge,
where he was educated. Upon entering into orders, he
became divinity letturer of St Paul’s in London j and
was, by the intereft of Archbiftiop Laud, elefted fellow
of All fouls college, Cambridge, in 1636. Two years
after he became one of the chaplains of the archbiftiop,
who beftowed on him the re£tory of Uppingham in Rut-
landlhire. In 1642, he was chaplain to the king j and
frequent preacher before him and the court at Oxford.
He afterward attended in the king’s army in the condi¬
tion of a chaplain. Upon the declining of his majefty’s
caufe, he retired into Wales, where he was permitted
to officiate as minifter, and to keep a fchool, in order
to maintain himfelf and his children. In this retirement
he wrote feveral of his works. Having fpent feveral
years there, his family was vifited with ficknefs; and
he loft three fons of great hopes within the fpace of
two or three months. This affliction touched him fo Taylor,
fenfibly, that it made him defirous to leave the country •,y——
and, going to London, he for a time officiated in a pri¬
vate congregation of loyalifts to his great hazard. At
length meeting with Edward lord Conway, that noble¬
man carried him over with him into Ireland, and fettled
him at Portmore, wfflere he wrote his DuSior Dubitan-
tium. Upon the Reftoration he returned to England.
Soon after, he was advanced to the biffiopric of Down
and Connor in Ireland j and had the adminiftration of
the fee of Dromore granted to him. He was likewife
made privy-counfellor and vice-chancellor of the univer-
fity of Dublin 3 which place he held till his death. He
died of a fever at Lifnegarvy in 1667, and w^as interred
in a chapel which he himfelf had built on the ruins of
the old cathedral of Dromore.
Taylor, Dr Brook, was born at Edmonton, Au-
guft 18th 1685. He was the fon of John Taylor, Efq.
of Bifrons-houfe in Kent, by Olivia, daughter of Sir
Nicholas Tempeft, of Durham, Baronet. His grand¬
father, Nathaniel Taylor, wras one of thofe puritans
whom “ Cromwrell thought fit to eledf by a letter, dated
June 14th 1653, to reprefent the county of Bedford in
parliament.” The character of his father partook in no
fmall degree of the aufterity that had been tranfmitted
to him in the line of his anceftors, and by the fpirit of
the times in wrhich they lived 3 and to this caufe may be
afcribed the difaffe&ion which fometimes fubfifted be¬
tween the father and even fuch a fon as is the fubjedl
of this article. The old gentleman’s morofe temper,
however, yielded to the powers of mufic 3 and the moft
eminent profeffors of the art in that period were hofpi-
tably welcomed in his houfe. His fon Brook was in¬
duced, by his natural genius, and by the difpofition of
his father, which he wiffled by all the means in his
powrer to conciliate, to direft his particular attention to
mufic 3 and he became in very early life a diftinguilhed
proficient in it—“ In a large family piece, he is re-
prefented at the age of 13 fitting in the centre of his
brothers and fifters 3 the two elder of wrhom, Olivia and
Mary, crown him with laurel, bearing the infignia of
harmony.”
To mufic he added another accomplifliment, in which
he equally excelled. “ His drawings and paintings, of
which fome are ftill preferved, require not thofe allow¬
ances for error or imperfe&ion with which we fcan the
performances of even the fuperior dilettanti;—they will
bear the teft of fcrutiny and criticifm from artifts them-
felves, and thofe of the firft genius and profeffional abi¬
lities.” Though he was eminent in the culture and
praftice both of mufic and drawing in his early youth,
his whole attention was not occupied by thefe fafcinat-
ing arts. His claffical education wras conduced at home
under a private tutor 3 and his proficiency in the ordina¬
ry branches of the languages and the mathematics was
fo great, that he was deemed qualified for the univerfity
at the early age of 15.
In 1701 he was entered a fellow commoner of St
John’s College, Cambridge. At that period mathema¬
tics engaged more particularly the attention of the uni¬
verfity 3 and the examples of eminence in the learned
world, derived from that branch of fcience, attrafled
the notice and roufed the emulation of every youth pof.
feffed of talents and of application. We may prefume,
that Brook Taylor, from the very hour of his admiffion
at
T A Y [ :
at college, adopted the courfe of (ludy which a Machin,
a Keil, and, above all, a Newton, bad opened to the
mind of man, as leading to difcoveries of the celeftial
fyftem.—That he applied early to thefe ftudies, and
w-ithout remiflxon, is to be inferred from the early notice
and kind attention with which he was honoured by thofe
eminent perfons, and from the extraordinary progrefs
which he made in their favourite fcience.”
In 1708 he wrote his treatife On the Centre of Ofcil-
lation, which was not publilhed in the Philofophical
Tranfaclions till fome years afterwards. In 1709, he
took his degree of Bachelor of Law's. In 1712, he was
choten a Fellow of the Royal Society. During the in¬
terval between thefe two periods, he correfponded with
Profeffor Keil on feveral of the moft abftrufe fubje<fts of
mathematical difquifition. Sir William Young informs
us, that he has in his poffeilion a letter, dated in 1712,
addreffed to Mr Machin, which contains at length a
folution of Kepler’s problem, and marking the ufe to be
derived from that folution. In this year he prefented to
the Royal Society three different papers: one On the
Afcent of Water between two Glafs Planes; a fecond,
On the Centre of Ofcillation ; and a third, On the Mo¬
tion of a ftretched String. It appears from his corre-
fpondence with Keil, that in 1713 he prefented a paper
on his favourite fubjedt of Mulic ; but this is not prefer-
ved in the Tranfadlions.
His diftinguiihed proficiency in thofe branches of fci¬
ence, which engaged the particular attention of the
Royal Society at this period, and w'hich embroiled them
in contefts with foreign academies, recommended him
to the notice of its moft illuftrious members ; and in
1714 he was eledted to the office of fecretary. In this
year he took at Cambridge his degree of Dodtor of
Laws : and at this time he tranffnitted, in a letter to
Sir Hans Sloane, An Account of fome curious Experi¬
ments relative to Magnetifm ; which, however, was not
delivered to the Society till many years afterward, w?hen
it w'as printed in the Tranfaclions. His application to
thofe ftudies to which his genius inclined wTas indefati¬
gable ; for wTe find that in 1715 he publilhed in Latin
his Methodus Incrementorum ; alfo a curious effay pre-
ferved in the Philofophical Tranfadtions, entitled An
Account of an Experiment for the Difcovery of the
Laws of Magnetic AttradHon ; likewife a treatife well
known to mathematicians, and highly valued by the
beft judges, On the Principles of Linear PerfpedHve.
In the fame year (fuch w'ere his admirable talents, and
fo capable were they of being diredted to various fub-
jedts), he condudted a controverfial correfpondence with
the Count Raymond de Montmort, on the Tenets
of Malebranche ; w'hich occafioned his being parti¬
cularly noticed in the eulogium pronounced by the
French academy on the deceafe of that eminent meta-
phyfician.
The new philofophy of Newton (as it was then cal¬
led) engaged the attention of mathematicians and phi-
lofophers both at home and abroad. At Paris it was in
high eftimation ; and the men of fcience in that city
were defirous of obtaining a perfonal acquaintance with
the learned fecretary of the Royal Society, whofe repu¬
tation was fo generally acknowledged, and who had
particularly diftinguifhed himfelf in the Leibnitzian or
German controverfy, as wre may denominate it, of that
period. In confequence of manv urgent invitations, he
Vol. XX. Part I.
25 ] T A Y
determined to vifit his friends at Paris in the year 1716.
He was received with every poffible tbken of affedlion
and refpeft ; and had an opportunity of difplaying ma¬
ny traits of chara&er, which mark the general fcholar
and accompliftied gentleman, as well as the profound
mathematician. His company was courted by all “ who
had temper to enjoy, or talents to improve, the charms
of facial intercourfe.” Befides the mathematicians, to
wdtom he had always free accefs, he was here introduced
to Lord Bolingbroke, the Count de Caylus, and Biftiop
Boffuet.
Early in 171 7 he returned to London, and compofed
three treatifes, which were prefented to the Royal So¬
ciety, and publithed in the 30th volume of the Tranfac-
tions. About this time his intenfe application had im¬
paired his health to a confiderable degree ; and he was
under the neceflity of repairing, for relaxation and re¬
lief, to Aix-la-Chapelle. Having likewife a defire of
dire&ing his attention to fubjedfs of moral and religious
fpeculation, he refigned his office of fecretary to the
Royal Society in 1718.
After his return to England in 1719, he applied to
fubjefts of a very different kind from thole that had em¬
ployed the thoughts and labours of his more early life.
Among his papers of this date, Sir William Young has
found detached parts of A Treatife on the Jewilh Sacri¬
fices, and a differtation of confiderable length On the
Lawfulnefs of eating Blood. He did not, however,
wholly negledl his former fubjefts of ftudy, but employ¬
ed his leifure hours in combining fcience and art; with
this view he revifed and improved his treatife on Linear
Perfpeflive. Drawing continued to be his favourite
amufement to his lateft hour ; and it is not improbable,
that his valuable life was Ihortened by the fedentary ha¬
bits w'hich this amufement, fucceeding his feverer ftudies,
occafioned. “ He drew figures wdth extraordinary pre-
cifion and beauty of pencil. Landfcape was yet his
favourite branch of defign. His original landfcapes are
moftly painted in water colours, but with all the rich-
nefs and (Length of oils. They have a force of colour,
a freedom of touch, a varied difpofition of planes of
diftance, and a learned ufe of aerial as well as linear
perfpeftive, which all profeffional men who have feen
thefe paintings have admired.
The work of Dr Brook Taylor in linear perfpedlive
was cenfured by Bernoulli, in a treatife publifhed in the
A£ts of Leipfic, as “ abftrufe to all, and as unintelligi¬
ble to artifts for whom it was more efpecially w'ritten.”
It muft be acknowledged that this excellent work, for
fo it deferves to* be called, was not level to the appre-
henfions of praftitioners in the art of drawing and de¬
fign ; but it w’as much efteemed by mathematicians.
Three editions of it have been publifhed ; and as it is
now fcarce, a republication of it in its moft improved
and perfedft ftate would be very acceptable. Mr Kir¬
by, however, has made it more plain and popular, in
his treatife entitled “ Brook Taylor’s Perfpeftive made
eafy and this book, detailing and illuftrating the
principles of the original work, has been the vade me-
cum of artifts. Dr Brook Taylor was incenfed by the
invidious attacks of Bernoulli ; and he publifhed An
Apology againft J. Bernoulli’s Objeftions, which may
be feen in the 30th volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
a&ions. Bernoulli, with his ufual envy of Britifti ma¬
thematicians, had difputed our author’s right to his own
F f work.
T A Y [2
2;:vl°r- , work. We have no reafon to doubt £>r Taylor’s claims
% to the undecided difcovery of the method which he de-
Icribes, though he is not an original inventor. This
method was long before publifhed by Guido Ubaldi, in
his Perfpedlive, printed at Pefaro in i6co : where it is
delivered very clearly, and confirmed by moft elegant
demonftrations ^ and where it is actually applied to the
art of delineating the fcenes of a theatre.
Toward the end of the year 1720, Dr Brook Taylor
accepted the invitation of Lord Kolinbroke to fpend
/ome time at La Source, a country-feat near Orleans,
which he held in right of his wife, the widow of the
Marquis de Villette, nephew of Madame de Maintenon.
In the next year he returned to England, and publifhed
the laft paper which appears rvith his name in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfattions, entitled, An Experiment made
to afcertain the Proportion of Expanfion of Liquor
m the Thermometer, with regard to the degree of
Heat.
In 1721, Dr Brook Taylor married Mifs Bridges of
M allington in the county of Surry, a young lady of
good family, but of fmall fortune ; and this marriage
occafioned a rupture with his father, whofe confent he
had never obtained. The death of this lady in 1725,
and that of an infant fon, whom the parents regarded as
the prefage and pledge of reconciliation with the fa¬
ther, and who aiftually proved fuch, deeply affefted the
fenfibilrty of Dr Taylor. However, during the two
fucceeding years he refided with his father at Bifrons,
where “ the mufical parties, fo agreeable to his taile
and early proficiency, and the affectionate attentions of
a numerous family welcoming an amiable brother, fo
long eftranged by paternal refentment, not only foothed
his forrows, but ultimately engaged him to a fcene of
country retirement, and domefticated and fixed his ha¬
bits of life. He could no more recur to the defultory
refources and cold folace of fociety, which cafual vi-
fits, flight acquaintance, and diftant friendfhips, af¬
ford the mar.—who hath none to make, and cheer a
conf}ant home.'1''
In 1725 he formed a new7 connexion ; and with the
full approbation of bis father and family, married Sa-
betta, daughter of John Sawbridge, Efq. of Olantigh,
in Kent. In 1729, on the death of his father, he fuc-
ceeded to the family eflate of Bifrons. In the fol¬
lowing year he loft his wife in childbed. The daugh¬
ter rvhofe birth occafioned this melancholy event furvi-
ved, and became the mother of Sir William Young, to
whom we owe thefe memoirs of his grandfather.
In the interval that elapfed between the years 1721
and 1730, no prodmftion by Brook Taylor appears in
the Philofophical Tranfadfions; nor did he publifh in
the courfe of that time any work. His biographer has
found no traces of his learned labour, excepting a Trea-
tife of Logarithms, which was committed to his friend
Lord Pailley (afterward Abercorn), in order to be pre¬
pared for the prefs ; but which probably never was print¬
ed. His health was now much impaired j relaxation
became neceffary, and he was diverted by new connec¬
tions from the habit of fevere ftudy, which had diftin-
guiftied the early period of his life, and which had con¬
tributed to contraft the duration of it. Happy in the
focial circle of domeftic enjoyment, and devoting his
attention to bufinefs or amufement as they occurred, his
application and his literary emulation feem to have de-
26 ] TEA
dined. He did not long furvive the lofs of h’s fecond Taylor,
wne ; and his remaining days were days of increafing I63-
imbecillity and forrow. ’ *
u I be effay entitled Cmtemplatio Phi/ofaphica, pub-
3:ftied by Sir William Young, 1793, appears to have
been written about this time, and probably with a view
to abftraft his mind from painful recolledtions and re¬
gret. It was the effort of a ftrong mind, and is a moft
lemarkable example of the clofe logic of the mathema¬
tician applied to metaphyfics. But the blow7 was too
deep at heart for ftudy to afford more than temporary
relief. The very refource was hurtful, and intenfe ftu¬
dy but accelerated the decline of his health. His friends
offered every comfort; in particular Lord Bolinbroke
preffed his confolation, and fought to call his mind from
regret of domeftic endearments to focial friendfiiip at
Dawley.
The attention and kindnefs of his friends, however,
could not ward off the approaches of diffolution. “ Ha-
ving furvived his fecond wife little more than a year,
Dr Br . k Taylor died of a decline in the 46th year of
his age, December the 29th 1731, and was buried in
the church-yard of St Ann’s, Soho, I am fpared (fays
his defcendant) the neceffity of clofing this biographi¬
cal fketch with a prolix detail of his charafter : in the
heft acceptation of duties relative to each fituatien
of life in which he was engaged, his own writings, and
the writings of thofe who heft knew7 him, prove him
to have been the fimfhed Chriftian, gentleman, and fcho-
lar.”
TaTLOR-Bird. See MoTACILLA, Ornithology
Index.
TEA, the dried leaves of the tea plant.—A com¬
modity with which we are fo well acquainted, which af¬
fords a beverage fo generally ufed and fo generally a-
greeable, and which forms fo confiderable an article of
commerce, muft excite curiofity to know fomething of
its hiftory, and of the nature of the plant from which it
is obtained.
'The tea plant is a native of Japan, China, and Ton.
quin, and has not, as far as we can learn, been found
growing ipontaneoufiy in any other parts of the world.
Linnaeus arranged it under the clafs of polyandria, and
order of monogynia, and Thunberg, one of the moft
diftinguiftied pupils of that illuftrious bolanift, who re-
fided 16 months in Batavia and Japan, has claffed it in
the fame manner as his mafter. Several of the Britifh
botanifts, on the other band, refer it to the order of
trigynia ; deriving their authority from a plant in the
duke of Northumberland’s garden at Sion-houfe, which
had three ftyles.
Linnaeus fays that there are two fpecies of the tea
plant ; the hohea, the corolla of which has fix petals j
and the viridis or green tea, which has nine petals.
Thunberg makes only one fpecies, the bohea, confifting
of two varieties ; the one with broad and the other with
narrow leaves.
The tea plant, which is an evergreen, grows to the
height of five or fix feet; Le Compte fays ten or twelve.
The leaves, which are the only valuable part of it, are
about an inch and a half long, narrow, indented, and
tapering to a point, like thofe of the fweet briar, and of
a dark green colour. The root is like that of the
peach tree, and its flowers refemble thofe of the white
wild rofe. The ftem fpreads into many irregular
branches.
TEA [ 227 ] TEA
Tea. branches. The wood is hard, of a whitiih green co-
"'V——' lour, and the bark is of a greenifh colour, with a bitter,
naufeous, and aftringent talle. The fruit is fmall, and
contains feveral round blackith feeds, about the bignefs
of a bean or large pea.
This plant delights in valleys, is frequent on the Hop¬
ing lides of mountains and the banks of rivers, where it
enjoys a fouthern expofure. It tlourifhes in the northern
latitudes of Pekin as well as round Canton, but attains
the greatell perfection in the mild temperate regions of
Nankin. It is faid only to be found between the 30th
and 45th degree of north latitude. In Japan it is plant¬
ed round the borders of fields, without regard to the
foil •, but as it is an important article of commerce with
the Chinefe, whole fields are covered with it, it is by
them cultivated with care. The Abbe Rochen fays, it
^grows equally well in a poor as in a rich foil 5 but that
there are certain places where it is of a better quality.
The tea which grows in rocky ground is fuperior to that
which grows in a light foil ; and the world kind is that
which is produced in a clay foil. It is propagated by
feeds ; from fix to twelve are put into a hole about five
inches deep, at certain diflances from each other. The
re a ion why fo many feeds are fown in the fame hole is
faid to be, that only a fifth part vegetate. Being thus
fown, they grow without any other care. Some, how¬
ever, manure the land, and remove the weeds; for the
Chinefe are as fond of good tea, and take as much pains
to procure it of an excellent quality, as the Europeans
do to procure excellent wine.
The leaves are not fit for being plucked till the fiirub
be of three years growth. In feven years it rifes to a
man’s height; but as it then bears but few leaves, it is
cut down to the ftem, and this produces a new crop of
frelh fhoots the following fummer. We are informed
by Koempfer, that there are three feafons in which the
leaves are collefled in the ifies of Japan, from which
the tea derives different degrees of perfeflion.
The firlt gathering commences at the end of Fe¬
bruary or beginning of March. The leaves are then
fmall, tender, and unfolded, and not above three or
four days old : thefe are called jicii-tfiaa, or “ tea in
powder,” becaufe it is pulverifed ; it is alfo called im¬
perial tea, being generally referved for the court and
people of rank ; and fometimes alfo it is named bloom
tea. It is fold in China for 2od. or 2 s. per pound.
The labourers employed in collefting it do not pull the
leaves by handfuls, but pick them one by one, and take
every precaution that they may not break them. How¬
ever long and tedious this labour may appear, they ga¬
ther from 4 to 10 or 15 pounds a-day.
The fecond crop is gathered about the end of March
or beginning of April. At this feafon part of their
leaves have attained their full growth, and the reft are
not above half their fize. This difference does not,
however, prevent them from being all gathered indif-
criminately. They are afterwards picked and afforted
into different parcels, accoiding to their age and fize.
The youngeft, which are carefully feparated from the
reft, are often fold for leaves of the firft crop, or for
imperial tea. Tea gathered at this feafon is called too-
tjiaa, or “ Chinefe tea,” becaufe the people of Japan in-
fufe it, and drink it after the Chinefe manner.
I he third crop is gathered in the end of May or in
the month of June. The leaves are then very numer¬
ous and thick, and have acquired their full growth. Tea,
This kind of tea, which is called ben-Jtaa, is the
coarfeft of all, and is referved for the common people.
Some of the Japanefe colledf their tea only at two fea-
lons of the year, which correfpond to the fecond and
third already mentioned ; others confine thcmfelves to
one general gathering of their crop, towards the month
of June: however, they always form afterwards differ¬
ent affortments of their leaves.
The fineft and moft celebrated tea of japan is that
which grows near Ud-fi, a fmall village fituated clcfe
to the fea, and not far diftant from Meaco. In the
diftridf of this village is a delightful mountain, having
the fame name, the climate of which is faid to be ex¬
tremely favourable to the culture of tea ; it is therefore
inclofed by a hedge, and furrounded with wide ditches,
which prevent all accefs to it. The tea ilirubs that
grow on this mountain are planted in regular order, and
are divided by different avenues and alleys.
The care of this place is entrufted to people who are
ordered to guard the leaves from duft, and to defend
them from the inclemency of the weather. The la¬
bourers who are appointed to cclleft the tea abftairi
from every kind of grofs food for fome weeks before
they begin, that their breath and perfpiration may not
in the leaft injure the leaves. They gather them with
the moft fcrupulous nicety, and never touch them but
with very fine gloves. When this choice tea has under¬
gone the proceis neceffary for its preparation, it is efcort-
ed by the fuperintendant of the mountain and a ftrong
guard to the emperor’s court, and referved for the ufe of
the imperial family.
As the tea fhrub grows often on the rugged banks of
fteep mountains, accefs to which is dangerous, and fome¬
times imprafticable, the Chinefe, in order to come at
the leaves, are faid to ufe a fingular ftratagem : Thefe
fteep places are generally frequented by great numbers
of monkeys, which being irritated and provoked, to re¬
venge themfelves tear off the branches, and (bower them
down upon thofe who have infulted them. The Chinefe
immediately collecf thefe branches, and ftrip them of
their leaves.
When the tea leaves have been collected, they are
expofed to the (team of boiling water ; after which they
are put upon plates of copper, and held over the fire
until they become dry and (brivelled, and appear fuch
as we have them in Europe. According to the tefti-
mony of Koempfer, tea is prepared in the fame manner
in the ifies of Japan. “ There are to be feen there
(lays this traveller) public buildings erected for the pur-
pofe of preparing the frelh gathered tea. Every private
perfon who has not fuitable conveniences, or who is un¬
acquainted with the operation, may carry his leaves
thither as they dry. Thefe buildings contain a great
number of fmall ftoves raifed about three feet high, eacli
of which has a broad plate of iron fixed over its mouth.
The workmen are feated round a large table covered
with mats, and are employed in rolling the tea leaves
which are fpread out upon them. When the iron
plates are heated to a certain degree by the fire, they
cover them with a few pounds of frefh gathered leaves,
which being green and full of fap, crackle as foon as
they touch the plate. It is then the bufinefs of the
workman to ftir them with his naked hands as quickly
as pofiible, until they become fo warm that he cannot
T f 3 eafily
TEA [2
^ea- eafily endure the heat. He then takes off the leaves
v—'""y"""”' with a kind of fhovel, and lays them upon mats. The
people who are employed in mixing them, take a fmall
quantity at a time, roll them in their hands always in
the fame direction ; while othrrs keep continually ftir-
ring them, in order that they may cool fooner, and pre-
ferve their fhrivelled figure the longer. This procefs is
repeated two or three times, and even oftener, before
the tea is depofited in the warehoufes. Thefe precau¬
tions are neceffary to extradl all the moifture from the
leaves.”
The people of Japan and China generally keep their
tea a year before ufing it, becaufe, when quite frelh and
newly gathered, it poffeffes a narcotic quality which
hurts the brain. Imperial tea is generally preferved
in porcelain vafes, or in leaden or tin canifters covered
with fine mats made of bamboo. Common tea is kept
in narrow-mouthed earthen pots 5 and coarfe tea, the
flavour of which is not fo eafily injured, is packed up in
bafkets of ftraw.
An infufion of tea is the common drink of the Chi-
nefe ; and indeed when we confider one circumflance in
their fituation, we muft acknowledge that Providence
has difplayed much goodnefs in fcattering this plant
with fo much profufion in the empire of China. The
water is faid to be umvholefome and naufeous, and would
therefore perhaps, without fome correftive, be unfit for
the purpofes of life. The Chinefe pour boiling water
over their tea, and leave it to infufe, as we do in Eu¬
rope ; but they drink it without any mixture, and even
without fugar. The people of Japan reduce theirs to a
fine powder, which they dilute with warm water until
it has acquired the confiftence of thin foup. Their
manner of ferving tea is as follows : They place before
the company the tea equipage, and the box in which
this powder is contained ; they fill the cups with warm
whaler, and taking from the box as much powder as the
point of a knife can contain, throw it into each of the
cups, and ftir it with a tooth-pick until the liquor be¬
gins to foam ; it is then prefented to the company, who
fip it while it is warm. According to F. du Halde,
this method is not peculiar to the Japanefe; it is alfo
ufed in fome of the provinces of China.
The firft European writer who mentions tea is Gio¬
vanni Rotero, an eminent Italian author, wEo publilhed
a treatife about the year 1590, Of the Caufes of the
Magnificence and Greatnefs of Cities. He does not in¬
deed mention its name, but defcribes it in fuch a man¬
ner that it is impoflible to milfake it. “ The Chinefe
(fays he) have an herb out of which they prefs a deli¬
cate juice, which ferves them for drink imtead of wine :
it alfo preferves their health, and frees them from all
thofe evils which the immoderate ufe of wine produces
* Ander- among us *•”
Jon's Com- Tea wTas introduced into Europe in the year 1610
merce, vol. by the Dutch Eaft India Company. It is generally
y. p. 138. faid, that it was firft imported from Holland into Eng¬
land, in 1666, by the lords Arlington and Offory, who
brought it into faftii m among people of quality. But
it was ufed in coffee-houfes before this period, as ap¬
pears from an aft of parliament made in 1660, in which
a duty of 8d. was laid on every gallon of the infufion
fold in thefe places. In 1666 it was fold in London
for 60s. per pound, though it did not coft more than
2 s. 6d. or 3 s. 6 d. at Batavia. It continued at this
28 ] TEA
price till 1707. In 1715 green tea began to be ufed j Tea.
and as great quantities weie then imported, the price ‘—~y ■" ’
was leffened, and the praftice of drinking tea defcended
to the lowTer ranksf. In 1720 the French began toip^ ,,
fend it to us by a clandeftine commerce. Since tii&tjournal^ ^
period the demand has been increafing yearly, and it
has become almort a neceffary of life in feveral parts of
Europe, and among the loweft as well as the higheft
ranks.
i he following table will give an idea of the quantity
of tea imported annually into Great Britain and Ireland
fince 1717:
From 1717 to 1726
J732 to
1755 near
1766
1785 about
1794 from
700,000 lbs.
1,200,000
4,000,000
6,000,000
12,000,000
16 to 20,000,000
Befides thefe immenfe quantities imported into Bri¬
tain and Ireland, much has been brought to Europe by-
other nations. In 1766 the whole tea imported into
Europe from China amounted to 17 millions of pounds j
in 1785 it was computed to be about 19 millions of
pounds J.
Several refearches have been made in Europe to de- tohYand
termine whether the tea plant grows fpontaneoufly ; but Robertfon's
thefe refeaches have been hitherto in vain. When
Captain Cook vifited Teneriffe in his laft voyage, Mr
Anderfon his furgeon was informed by a gentleman of
acknowledged veracity, that a ftirub is common near
Santa Cruz which agrees exadtly with the defeription
given of the tea-plant by Linnaeus. It is confidered as
a weed, and large quantities are rooted out of the vine¬
yards every year : But the Spaniards who inhabit the
ifland fometimes make ufe of it, and aferibe to it all the
qualities of the tea imported from China.
Many attempts have been made to introduce this va¬
luable plant into Europe 5 but from want of proper pre¬
cautions moft of thefe attempts have mifearried. The
feeds, being of an oily nature, are apt to grow rancid
during a long voyage, unlefs proper care is taken to pre-
ferve them. There are two methods of preferving thefe
feeds: The firft is, to inclofe them in wrax after they
have been dried in the fun ; the fecond is, to leave them
in their hulks, and Ihut them up clofely in a box made
of tin : but neither of thefe methods has been attended
with general fuccefs, whatever care has been taken to
obtain frelh feeds, or to preferve them. The beft me¬
thod would be, to fow frelh feeds in fine light earth im¬
mediately on leaving Canton, and to cover them with
wire to fecure them from rats and other animals that
might attack them. The boxes ought not to be too
much expofed to the air, nor to that kind of dew which
rifes from the fea. The earth in the boxes muft neither
be hard nor dry, and Ihould from time to time be gent¬
ly watered with frelh or rain water ; and when the
ftioots begin to appear, they ought to be kept in a
flight moiflure, and Iheltered from the fun. The tea-
plants to be found in England have been procured by
thefe means only ; and though feveral of the young ri-
fing Ihoots perilhed, the laft method propofed is pro¬
bably that which may be followed with greateft fuc¬
cefs.
The fineft tea-plant known in England was raifed in
Kew
TEA [ 229 ] TEA
Tea- Kew gardens *, it was carried thither by Sir J. Ellis,
—V" ■' who brought it from feed : but the firft that ever
O #
flourilhed in Europe was one belonging to the duke of
Northumberland at Sion, from a drawing of which our
engraving is taken. The plants which are cultivated in
the gardens near London thrive well in the green-houfe
during winter, and fome Hand that feafon in the open
air. Linnaeus, who obtained this Ihrub in its growing
ftate, contrived to preferve it in the open air in the
northern latitude of Sweden. France has alio procured
fome plants. There can be no doubt but they would
fucceed in many countries of Europe, if proper care
were paid to their cultivation till they became inured to
the climate. It will be a great advantage if we can
rear that plant, which can never fuffer fo much from
change of foil as from growing mufty during the long
voyage from China. Befides, the demand for tea is
now become fo great, that the Chinefe find it neceffary,
or at leaft profitable, to adulterate it. Bad tea is now
become an univerfal complaint. The abbe Grofier
tells us, that there is a kind of mofs which grows in
the neighbourhood of the little city of Mang-ing-hien,
which is fold as a delicate fpecies of tea. If this deli¬
cious commodity is adulterated in China, can we flatter
ourfelves that none comes to us but what is pure and
unmixed ? How would our fine ladies like to be told,
that infiead of tea they drink nothing but the infufion of
mofs from the rocks of Mang-ing-hien (f) ?
Of the chemical qualities and eflfefts of tea on the
conftitution, many various and oppofite opinions have
been formed. About a century ago, Bontikoe, a Dutch
phyfician, bellowed extravagant encomiums on the be¬
nefits of tea. With him it was good for every thing;
and any quantity might be drunk, even to the amount
of 200 dilhes in a day. Whether Bontikoe in this cafe
afted as a phyfician, or, being a Dutchman, was eager
to encourage the fale of an important article of his
country’s commerce, is not eafy to fay. On the other
hand, the pernicious effefls of tea upon the nervous
fyllem have been often repeated, and very oppofite
eftefts have been afcribed to it. Some affirm that green
tea is mildly aftringent; others fay it is relaxing : Some
fay it is narcotic, and procures fleep ; while others con¬
tend, that taken before bed-time it affuredly prevents
it.
Dr Lettfom, who has written the Natural Hiilory of Tea.
the Tea Tree, made feveral experiments to determine its
chemical qualities. He found an infufion of it preferved
beef freffi ; it is therefore antifeptic : and from its link¬
ing a purple colour with the fait (fulphate) of iron, he
he juilly concludes that it is aftringent. He concludes
alfo, that the effential qualities of tea refide in its fra¬
grant and volatile parts.
We have heard much of the bad effefls of tea, but
we have neither felt nor obferved it. If it were fo per¬
nicious as it has been reprefented by fome, its effects
mull certainly be evident in China, where it is drunk by
all ranks ; yet fo far from being thought hurtful in that
country, it is in high eftimation. The prefent emperor
has compofed a kind of eloge on the virtues of tea. We
are told by thofe who have written the hillory of China,
that inflammatory difeafe are lefs frequent there than in
many other countries, which is afcribed folely to the li¬
beral ufe of tea. It mull be obferved by all, that tea is
an antidote again!! intemperance, and that he who re-
liffies the one feldom runs into the other. Raynal fays,
that tea has contributed more to the fobriety of this na¬
tion than the fevereft laws, the moll eloquent harangues
of Chriftian orators, or the belt treatifes of morality.
We have no doubt but it may be hurtful to fome con-
ftitutions in particular circumftances ; but we fufpedl
that the nervous diforders fo often attributed to tea,
are rather owing to hereditary difeafes, to want of exer-
cife, and to irregularity in food or fleep, than to tea.
“ Weak tea drunk too hot (fays Dr Leake) wall ener¬
vate, and if very ftrong, may prove equally pernicious
by affedling the head or ftomach. But when it is
drunk in moderation, and not too warm, ■with a large
addition of milk, I believe it will feldom prove hurtful,
but, on the contrary, falutary. After lludy or fatigue
it is a mod refreihing and grateful repaft ; it quenches
thirft, and cheers the fpirits, without heating the blood ;
and the pleafing fociety, in which wTe fo often partake of
it is no inconfiderable addition to its value ; for what¬
ever affords rational pleafure to the mind, will always
contribute to bodily health.
In this country teas are generally divided into three
kinds of green, and five of bohea : The former are, 1.
Imperial or bloom tea, with a large loofe leaf, light
green
(f) There is very good reafon to believe, that the adulteration of tea is not confined to China. It is praflifed,
and often with too much fuccefs, among ourfelves. Mr Twining, a confiderable tea dealer in London, publiffied a
pamphlet fome years ago, in which he has expofed this infamous traffic. The information (he fays) was obtained
from a gentleman who had made very accurate inquiries into this fubjedl.
The fmouch for mixing with black teas is made of the leaves of the affi. When gathered, they are firft dried
in the fun, then baked : they are next put upon a floor, and trod upon until the leaves are fmall, then lifted and
fteeped in copperas with fheep’s dung ; after which, being dried on a floor, they are fit for ufe. There is alfo ano¬
ther mode : When the leaves are gathered, they are boiled in a copper with copperas and ffieep’s dung; wdren the
liquor is ftrained off, they are baked and trod upon, until the leaves are fmall, after which they are fit for ufe.
ihe quantity manufaflured at a fmall village, and within eight or ten miles thereof, cannot be afcertained, but is
fuppofed to be about 20 tons in a year. One man acknowledges to have made 600 weight in every week for fix
months together. The fine is fold at 4k 4s. per cwt. equal to qd. per lb. The coarfe is fold at 2I. 2s. per cwt.
equal to 44d. per lb. Elder buds are manufaflured in fome places to reprefent fine teas.
For the honour of human nature, we hope fuch a traffic as this is not very common ; but if it be, thofe con¬
cerned in it deferve exemplary puniffiment. The only way (Mr Twining fays) to efcape this adulterated tea, is
never to purchafe from thofe who offer their teas to fale at lower prices than genuine teas can be afforded ; but £0
purchafe them only from perfons of charafler.
TEA [2
Tea, green colour, and a faint delicate fmell. 2. Hyfon, fo
leachers. ca]ie(j from the name of the merchant who finl imported
v " it j the leaves of which are clofely curled and fmall, of
a green colour, verging to a blue : And, 3. Singlo
tea, from the name of the place where it is cultivated.
The boheas are, 1. Souchong, which imparts a yellow
green colour by infufion. 2. Cambo, lo called from
the place where it is made j a fragrant tea, with a vio¬
let fmell; its infufion pale. 3. Congo, which has a
larger leaf than the following, and its infufion fomew'hat
deeper, refembling common bohea in the colour of the
leaf. 4. Pekoe tea; this is known by the appearance
of fmall white flowers mixed with it. 5. Common bo¬
hea, whofe leaves are of one colour. There are other
varieties, particularly a kind of green tea, done up in
roundifh balls, called gunpowder tea.
TEA-Trce of New Zealand, is a fpecies of myrtle,
of wrhich an infufion was drunk by Captain Cook’s peo¬
ple in their voyages round the world. Its leaves were
finely aromatic, allringent, and had a particular pleafant
flavour at the firft infufion $ but this went off at the next
filling up of the tea-pot, and a great degree of bitternefs
was then extradled •, for which reafon it was never fuf-
fered to be twuce infufed. In a fine foil in thick forefts
this tree grows to a confiderable fize ; fometimes 30 or
40 feet in height, and one foot in diameter. On a hilly
and dry expofure it degenerates into a fhrub of five or
fix inches} but its ufual fize is about eight or ten feet
high, and three inches in diameter. In that cafe its
ftem is irregular and unequal, dividing very foon into
branches, which arife at acute angles, and only bear
leaves and flowers at top. The flowers are white, and
very ornamental to the whole plant.
Mr White, in his Journal of a Voyage to New South
Wales, mentions a fhrub which he calls a tea-tree, mere¬
ly from its being ufed by the convidls as a fuccedaneum
for tea; for he had not feen the flower, nor did he
know to what genus it belonged. It is a creeping kind
of a vine, running to a great extent along the ground j
the ftalk (lender; the leaf not fo large as the common
bay leaf j the talfe fweet, exactly like the liquorice root
of the fliops.
TEACHERS, perfons employed in conducting the
education of the young.
We will venture to fay, that there is no clafs of men
to whom a nation is fo much indebted as to thofe em¬
ployed in inftrudting the young : For if it be education
that forms the only diltinffion between the civilized and
the favage, much certainly is due to thofe who devote
themfelves to the office of inffrudfion. It muff be the
duty therefore of every Rate to take care that proper
encouragement be given to thofe who undertake this of¬
fice. There ought to be fuch a falary as would ren ii r
it an objedl of ambition to men of abilities and learn¬
ing, or at lead as would keep the teacher refpedlable.
In Scotland, the office of a fchoolmafler was formerly
much more lucrative than at prefent, and moft of that
clafs had received liberal education j and this is the rea¬
fon why the common people in Scotland have been fa¬
mous even to a proverb, for their learning. But at pre¬
fent the falary of a country fchoolmalfer, independent
of fees for fcholars, is not greater than a ploughman can
earn, being feldom more than 81. 6s. 8cl. the confe-
quence of which is that this, which is in fact an honour-
30 ] T E
able, became an ufeful profefficn, is now finking into Teachers
contempt. It is no longer an objedt to a man of learn-,,
ing j and we mufi foon be fatisfied with fchoolmaftcrs ,re I)uui’'
that can read, write, and caff accounts, a little better
than the lovveft of the people, or who from fome natural
deformity are unable to exercile a trade. And what in
this cafe muff become of the minds of the common peo¬
ple ? They muff be totally uncultivated.
We have obferved a great difference between the cul¬
tivation of the common people in one part of Scotland
compared with another j and we have found, that where¬
ver a fchoolmaller is looked upon as a mean profeffion
there is fcarcely a duly qualified pevfon to be found to
undertake the office ; and in thofe places the common
people are lamentably ignorant. In other places again,
where the fchoolmaffer is confidered as one of the prin¬
cipal perfons in the parifh, there men of a liberal educa¬
tion, young divines, and preachers, do not think them¬
felves difgtaced by exercifing this profeffion ; and there
the common people fhow a degree of acutenefs, know¬
ledge, and obfervation, and poffefs fuch pojifhed man¬
ners, as raife them very high above thofe of their own
rank in other parts of the country.
Many and keen have been the debates about a reform
of government of late yeartf; but little attention has
been paid to the formation of the minds of the common
people, who conftitute the greater part of the nation j
of courfe they are ready to join the ffandavd of every
feditious demagogue who founds the alarm of opprel-
fion ; and fhould they at length be roofed, their cruelly
and barbarity, like the common people of France, would
be exaflly in proportion to their ignorance and want of
principle.
We are willing to hope, then, that the government
and the moneyed men of the nation, who alone have pro¬
perty to lofe and money to beftow, will at length find it
to be their intereft to patronize fchoolmaffers.
TEAL. See Anas, Ornithology Index.
TEARS, a lymph or aqueous humor, which is lim¬
pid, and a little faltifh : it is feparated from the arterial
blood by the lachrymal glands and fmall glandulous
grains on the infide of the eyelids.
TEASELS, a plant cultivated in the weff of Eng¬
land for the ufe of clothiers. See Dipsacus, Botany
Index.
TEBETH, the tenth month of the Jewiffi ecclefia-
ftical year, and fourth of the civil. It anfwers to our
month of December.
TECLENBURG, a town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Wefiphalia, capital of a county of the fame name,
with a caftle built on a hill. It was bought by the king
of Pruffia in 1707. E. Long. 8. 2. N. Lat, 52. 20.
TECHNICAL, expreffes fomewhat relating to arts
or fciences : in this fenfe eve fay technical terms. It is
alfo particularly applied to a kind of verfes wherein are
contained the rules or precepts of any art, thus digefted
to help the memory to retain them ; an example where¬
of may be feen in the article Memory.
TECTONA, Teak-wood, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs pentandria. See Botany, p. 139.
TE DEUM, the name of a celebrated hymn, ufed in
the Chriffian church, and fo called becaufe it begins
with thefe words, Te Deum laudatnus, We praife thee,
O God. It is fung in the Romifii church with great
jpomp
3
T E F [ 231 ] ■ T E F
Tees pomp and foiemnity upon the gaining of a vi&ory, or
t, ||. other happy event j and is believed to be the compofi-
i tion of St Ambrose bifhop of Milan.
TEES, a river which rifes on the confines of Cum-/
berland, and running ealtward, divides the county of
Durham from Yorkfhire, and falls into the Geynan fea
below Stockton.
T EETH, the bones placed in the jaws for chewing
food, that it may be the more eafdy digelled in the fto-
CJach. The anatomical ftru6lure of the teeth has al¬
ready been defcribed under Anatomy. The difeafes
to which they are liable, as well as the molt fuccefsful
remedies for removing them, are fully detailed under
Medicine and Surgery.
Much atten'ion has been paid to the beauty and pre-
fervation of the teeth among mod nations. The Romans
rubbed and walhed them with great care; and when they
loft them, fupplied their place with artificial teeth made
of ivory ; and fometimes, when loofe, bound them with
gold. Ligatures of wire have been found to hurt the
natural teeth with which the artificial are connefled :
whereas filken twift cannot afte£t them to any confider-
able degree for feveral years.
Gudleman gives us the compofilion cf a pafte for
makuig artificial teeth, which {hall never grow yellow :
the compofuion is white wax granulated, and melted
with a little gum elemi, adding powder of white ma-
ft’ch, coral, and pearl.
When feveral teeth are out in the fame place, it is
beft to make a fet, or the number wanted, out of one
piece, all adhering together, which may be fattened to
the trvo next of the found or natural teeth. And even
a whole let of artificial teeth may be made for one or
both jaws, fo well fitted to admit of the neceffary mo¬
tions, and fo conveniently retained in the proper fiitua-
tion by means of fprings, that they will anfwer every
purpofe of natural teeth, and may be taken out, cleaned,
and replaced, by the patient himfelf with great eafe.
The common trick of mountebanks and other fuch
praftitioners, is to ufe various wafties for teeth, the hid¬
den effedfts of which, in cleaning and whitening the
teeth, furprife and pleafe people \ but the effefls are
very pernicious. All the ftrong acid fpirits will do this.
As good a mixture as any thing can be, on this occa-
fion, is the following : take plantane-water an ounce,
honey of rofes two drams, muriatic acid ten drops } mix
the whole together, and rub the teeth with a piece of
linen rag dipped in this every day till they are whitened.
The mouth ought to be well wafhed with cold water af¬
ter the ufe of this or any other acid liquor 5 and indeed
the beft of all teeth wafhes is cold water, with or with¬
out a little fait ; the conftant ufe of this will keep them
clean and white, and prevent them from aching.
After all the numerous cures which have been propof-
ed for preventing the toothach, we will venture* to re¬
commend the keeping the teeth clean as the moft effica¬
cious, and avoiding every kind of hot food, efpecially
hot liquids, as tea, See. They who are conftantly ufing
pow’ders generally deftroy their teeth altogether, as the
valetudinarian docs his health.
TEE IH1NG in children. See Medicine.
1 EFE, a. kind of grain, fown all over Abyffinia,
from which is made the bread commonly ufed through¬
out the country. W e have no defeription of this plant
but from Mr Bruce, who fays that it is herbaceous 5 and
that from a number of weak leaves furrounding the root TefF.
proceeds a ftalk of about 28 inches in length, not per-
fe&ly ftraight, fmooth, but jointed or knotted at parti¬
cular diftances. This ftalk is not much thicker than
that of a carnation or julyflower. About eight inches
from the top, a head is formed of a number of fmall
branches, upon which it carries the fruit and flowers j
the latter of which is fmall, of a crimfon colour, and
fcarcely perceptible by the naked eye but from the op-
pofition of that colour. The piftil is divided into two,
feemingly attached to the germ of the fruit, and has at
each end fmall capillaments forming a brufh. The fta-
mina are three in number j two on the lower fide of the
piftil, and one on the upper. Thefe are each of them
crowned with two oval ftigmata, at firft green, but after
crimfon. The fruit is formed in a capfula, confifting of
two conical hollow leaves, which, when clofed, feems
to compofe a fmall conical pod, pointed at the top. The
fruit or feed is oblong, and is not fo large as the head
of the fmalleft pin ; yet it is very prolific, and produces
thefe feeds in fuch quantity as to yield a very abundant
crop in the quantity of meal.
Our author, from the fimilarity of the names, conjec¬
tures it to be the tipha mentioned, but not defcribed, by
Pliny ; but this conjefture, which he acknowledges to
be unfupported, is of very little importance.
There are three kinds of meal made from teff, of
which the beft (he fays) is as white as flour, exceed-
ingly light, and eafily digefted ; the fecond is of a,
browner colour ; and the laft, which is the food of fol-
diers and fervants, is nearly black. This variety he
imagines to ariie entirely from the difference of foils in
which the feeds are fown, and the different degrees of
moifture to which the plant is expofed when growing,
i he manner o: making the meal or flour into bread is
by taking a broad earthen jar, and having made a lump
of it with water, they put it into an earthen jar at fome
diftance from the fire, where it remains till it begins to
ferment or turn four 5 they then bake it into cakes of a
circular form, and about two feet in diameter : it is of a
fpungy foft quality, and not a difagreeable fourifti tafte.
Two of thefe cakes a-day, and a coarfe cotton cloth once
a-year, are the wages of a common fervant.
At their banquets of raw meat, the flelh being cut in
fmall bits, is wrapt up in pieces of this bread, with a
proportion of foffil fait and Cayenne pepper. Before
the company fits down to eat, a number of thefe cakes
or different qualities are placed one upon the other, in
the fame manner as our plates, and the principal people
fitting firft down, eat the white teff} the fecond orcoar-
fer fort ferves the fecond rate people that fucceed them,
and the third is for the fervants. Every man, when he
is done, dries or wipes his fingers upon the bread which
he is to leave for his fucceffor, for they have no towels}
and this is one of the moft beaftly cuftoms among them.
Of this teff bread the natives make a liquor, by a pro-
cefs which our author deferibes in the following words :
The bread, when well toafted, is broken into fmall
pieces, which are put into a large jar, and have warm
water poured upon them. It is then fet by the fire, and
frequently ftirred for feveral days, the mouth of the jar
being clofe covered. After being allowed to fettle three
or four days, it acquires a fourifh tafte, and is what they
call bouza, or the common beer of the country. The
bouza in Atbara is made in the fame manner/only in-
TEG [ 232 1 TEL
» ftead of teff, cakes of barley meal are employed. Both
lly', are very bad liquors, but the worft is that made of bar¬
ley.
TEFFLIS, or J ifflis, a town of Alia, in Georgia,
one of the leven nations between the Black fea and the
Cafpian. It is the capital of that country, the place of
relidence of its fovereign, and is called by the inhabit¬
ants T/ii/is-Cabar, “ warm town,” from the warm baths
in its neighbourhood. Though its circumference does
not exceed two Englifh miles, it contains 20,000 inha¬
bitants, of which more than half are Armenians; the
remainder are principally Georgians, with fome Tartars.
According to Major Rennel, it has 20 Armenian and
15 Greek churches, and three meifheds. But Mr Coxe,
on the authority of Profeffbr Guldenftaedt, hates the
places of worlhip to be one Roman Catholic, 13 Greek,
and ieven Armenian churches. There are fome magni¬
ficent caravanferas, bazars, and palaces in the city, but
no mofques; for the Georgians, though living under a
Mohammedan government, have always rifen up in arms
as often as any attempts have been made to erect fuch
places of Mohammedan worfhip. Many of the Romifh
miffionaries live here in difguife under the denomination
of phyficians, furgeons, and' chemifts; and the great
cures which they perform procure them much efteem,
though they are fomelimes expofed to the infults of the
people when they attempt to make any profelytes to
their church. All the houfes are of ftone, with flat
roofs, which ferve, according to the cuftoms of the Eaft,
as walks for the Women. They are neatly built j the
rooms are wainfcotted, and the floors fpread with car¬
pets. The ftreets feldom exceed feven feet in breadth;
and fome are fo narrow as fcarcely to allow room for a
man on horfeback : they are confequently very filthy.
Tefflis is a place of confiderable trade, efpecially in
. furs, which are conveyed hence to Conflantinople by
the way of Erzerum. As for the filks of this country,
they are bought up on the fpot by the Armenians, and
conveyed to Smyrna and other ports of the P^Iediterra-
nean ; but the greateft part is firit fent to Erzerum to be
manufadtured, the Georgians being very ignorant and
unfkilful in that refpeft. From hence, likewife, great
quantities of a root called boya is fent to Erzerum and
Indollan for the ufe of the linen dyers. Here is likewife
a foundery, at which are caft a few cannon, mortars, and
balls, all of which are very inferior to thofe of the
Turks.. The gunpow'der made here is very good. The
Armenians have likewife eftablifhed in this town all the
manufattures carried on by their countrymen in Perfia :
the moft flourifhing is that of printed linens. Tefflis is
feated on the river Kur, at the foot of a mountain 5 and
on the fouth fide of it hands a large caftle or fortrefs,
built by the Turks in 1576, when they made themfelves
mailers of the city and country, under the command of
the famous Muhapha Pacha. It is 125 miles weft of
Terki. E. Long. 63. 3. N. Lat. 41. 59.
TEGERHY, a principal town in Fezzan, in Africa,
about. 80 miles fouth-weft of the capital. It colledls
from its lands.little other produce than dates and Indian
corn. In this, as in every town in Fezzan, a market
foi butchei-meat, corn, iruit, and vegetables, is regu¬
larly held. Mutton and goats flelh are fold by the quar¬
ter without weighing •, the ufual price is from 32 to 40
grains of goM-duft, or four or five fflillings Engliffl mo-
-I he flelh of the camel, which is much more highly
4
valued, is commonly fold at a dearer rate, and is divid- Tegument
ed into fmaller lots. Agriculture and pafturage feem to , II
be the principal occupations. Telegraph.
1 EGUMENT, any thing that furrounds or covers v
another.
TEIND, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxx.
CommiJJion of Teinds. See Commission.
j EINIS, and Semiteints, in Fainting, denote the
feveral colours ufed in a piifture, confidered as more or
lei's high, bright, deep, thin, or weakened and diminifti-
ed, &c. to give the proper relievo, foftnefs, or diftance,
&c. ot the leveral objedls.
TELEGRAPH (derived from r»iX6 and yev.tyca), is
the name very properly given to an inltrument, by
means of which information may be almoft inftantane-
oully conveyed to a confiderable diftance.
The telegraph, though it has been generally known
and ufed by the moderns only for a few years, is by no
means a modern invention. There is reaibn to believe
that amonglt the Greeks there was fome fort of tele¬
graph in ufe. The burning of Troy was certainly
known in Greece very foon after it happened, and be¬
fore any perfon had returned from thence. Now that
was altogether fo tedious a piece of bufinefs, that con¬
jecture never could have fupplied the place of informa¬
tion. A Greek play begins with a Icene, in which a
watchman defcends from the top of a tower in Greece,
and gives the information that Troy was taken. “ I
have been looking out thefe ten years (fays he) to fee
when that would happen, and this night it is done.”
Of the antiquity of a mode of conveying intelligence
quickly to a great diftance, this is certainly a proof.
1 he Chinefe, when they fend couriers on the great
canal, or when any great man travels there, make3 fig-
nals by fire from one day’s journey to another, to have
every thing prepared 5 and molt of the barbarous na¬
tions ufed formerly to give the alarm of war by fires
lighted on the hills or rifing grounds.
Polybius calls the different inftruments ufed by the
ancients for communicating information piji'Jtce,
becaufe the fignals were always made by means of fire.
At firft they communicated information of events merely
by torches 5 but this method was of little ufe, becaufe it
was neceffary before-hand -to fix the meaning of every
particular fignal. Now as events are exceedingly various,
it was impoffible to exprefs the greater number of them
by any premeditated contrivance. It was eafy, for
inftance, to exprefs by fignals that a fleet had arrived
at fuch a place, becaule this had been foreleen, and fig¬
nals accordingly had been agreed upon to denote it j but
an unexpected revolt, a murder, and fuch accidents, as
happen but too often, and require an immediate remedy,
could not be communicated by fuch fignals j becaufe to
fore fee them was impofflble.
Atneas, a contemporary of Ariftoile, who wrote a potybins,
trealife on the duties of a general, endeavoured to cor-book x. '
reCt thofe imperfedtions, but by no means fucceeded. ^P-d0-
“ Thofe (fays he) who would give fignals to one ano¬
ther upon affairs of importance, muft firft prepare two
veffels of earth, exaCtly equal in breadth and depth 5 and
they need be but four feet and a half deep, and a foot
and a half wide. They then muft take pieces of cork,
propoitioned to the mouth of thefe veffels, but not quite
lo wide, tnat they may be let down with eafe to the
bottom of thefe veffels. They next fix in the middle of
this
Tla.teDlXX.ViH
TEL [ 233 ] T E L
cork a flick, which muft be of equal fize in both are pointed out to him.
Telegraph, thj
thefe veffels. This flick muft be divided exaftly and
diftimflly, by fuaces of three inches each, in order that
fuch events as generally happen in war may be written
on them. For example, on one of thefe fpaces the follow¬
ing words may be written : ‘ A BODY OF HORSE ARE
MARCHED INTO THE COUNTRY.’ On another, ‘ A BODY
OF INFANTRY, heavily armed, are arrived hither’. On
a third, ‘ Infantry lightly armed. On a fourth,
‘ Horse and foot.’ On another, ‘ Ships j’ then ‘ Pro¬
visions j’ and fo on till all the events which may prob¬
ably happen in the war that is carrying on are marked
in thefe intervals.
This being done, each of the two vefiels muft have a
little tube or cock of equal bignefs, to let out the water
in equal proportion. Then the two veffels muft be filled
with water $ the pieces of cork, with their flicks thruft
through them, muft: be laid upon them, and the cocks
muft be opened. Now, it is plain, that as thefe veffels
are equal, the corks will fink, and the flicks defcend
lower in the veffels, in proportion as they empty them-
felves. But to be more certain of this exadlnefs, it will
be proper to make the experiment firft, and to examine
whether all things correfpond and agree together, by an
uniform execution on both fides. When they are well
affured of this, the two veffels muft be carried to the
two places where the fignals are to be made and obferv-
ed : water is poured in, and the corks and flicks are put
in the veffels. When any of the events which are writ¬
ten on the flicks fhall happen, a torch or other light is
raifed, which muft be held aloft till fuch time as ano¬
ther is raifed by the party to whom it is dire&ed. (This
firft fignal is only to give notice that both parties are
ready and attentive). Then the torch or other light
muft be taken away, and the cocks fet open. When
the interval, that is that part of the flick where the
event of which notice is to be given or written, fliall be
fallen to a level with the veffels, then the man who
gives the fignal lifts up his torch 5 and on the other
fide, the correfpondent fignal-maker immediately turns
the cock of his veffel, and looks at what is writ on that
part of the flick which touches the mouth of the veffel :
on which occafion, if every thing has been executed ex¬
actly and equally on both fides, both wall read the fame
thing.”
This method was defeftive, becaufe it could not con¬
vey any other intelligence except what rvas written on
the flicks, and even that not particularly enough. With
regard to all unforefeen events, it was quite ufelefs.
A new method was invented by Cleoxenus (others
fay by Democlitus), and very much improved by Poly¬
bius, as he himfelf informs us. He defcribes this me¬
thod as follows : Take the letters of the (Greek) alpha¬
bet, and divide them into five parts, each of which will
confift of five letters, except the laft divifion, which will
have only four. Let thefe be fixed on a board in five
columns. The man who is to give the fignals is then
to begin by holding up two torches, which he is to keep
aloft till the other party has alfo fliown two. This is
only to (how that both fides are ready. Thefe firft
torches are then withdrawn. Both parties are provided
with boards, on which the letters are difpofed as for¬
merly deferibed. 1 he perfon who then gives the fignal
is to hold up torches on the left to point out to the other
party from what column he lhall take the letters as thev
Vol. XX. Part I.
Polybius,
Ibid.
If it is to be from the firft co-Telegraph
lumn, he holds up one torch ; if from the fecond, two ;
and fo on for the others. He is then to hold up torches
on the right, to denote the particular letter of the co¬
lumn that is to be taken. All this muft: have been agreed
on before-hand. The man who gives the fignals muft
have an inftrument (htTSTgav), confifting of two tubes,
and fo placed as that, by looking through one of them,
he can fee only the right fide, and through the other
only the left, of him who is to anfwer. The board
muft be fet up near this inftrument ’y and the ftation on
the right and left muft: be furrounded with a wall
(7rct£tx,7n(p£a%8ca') ten feet broad, and about the height of
a man, that the torches raifed above it may give a clear
and ftrong light, and that when taken down they may
be completely concealed. Let us now fuppofe that this
information is to be communicated.—A7 number cf the
auxiliaries, about a hundred, have, gone over to the enemy.
In the firft place, words muft: be chofen that will con¬
vey the information in the feweft letters poflible ; as, A
hundred Cretans have deferted, Uctlev xO’ r,yuv
r,vh»/*6\nrxy. Having written down this fentence, it is
conveyed in this manner. The firft letter is a K, which
is in the fecond column ; two torches are therefore to be
raifed on the left hand to inform the perfon who receives
the fignals to look into that particular column. Then
five torches are to be held up on the right, to mark the
letter k, which is the laft in the column. Then four
torches are to be held up on the left to point out the £
(r), which is in the fourth column, and two on the
right to fhow that it is the fecond letter of that column.
The other letters are pointed out in the fame manner.
—Such was the pyrjia or telegraph recommended by
Polybius.
But neither this nor any other method mentioned by
the ancients feems ever to have been brought into gene¬
ral ufe \ nor does it appear that the moderns had thought
of fuch a machine as a telegraph till the year 1663,
when the Marquis of Worceftei, in his Century OF
Inventions, affirmed that he had difeovered “ a method
by wffiich, at a window, as far as eye can difeover black
from white, a man may hold difeourfe with his corre¬
fpondent, without noife made or notice taken ; being ac¬
cording to occafion given, or means afforded, ex re na~
ta, and no need of provifion before hand •, though much
better if forefeen, and courfe taken by mutual confent
of parties.” This could be done only by means of a
telegraph, which in the next fentence is declared to have
been rendered fo perfeft, that by means of it the corre-
fpondence could be carried on “ by night as rvell as by
day, though as dark as pitch is black.”
About 40 years afterwards M. Amontons propofed a
new telegraph. His method was this : Let there be
people placed in feveral ftations, at fuch a diftance from
one another, that by the help of a telefcope a man in one
ftation may fee a fignal made in the next before him ; he
muft immediately make the fame fignal, that it may be
feen by perfons in the ftation next after him, who are to
communicate it to thofe in the following ftation, and fo
on. Thefe fignals may be as letters of the alphabet, or
as a cipher, underftood only by the two perfons who are
in the diftant places, and not by thofe who make the
fignals. 1 he perfon in the fecond ftation making the
fignal to the perfon in the third the very moment he fees
it in the firft, the news may be carried to the greateft
G g diftance
TEL
[ 2
Telegraph, diftance in as little time as is neceffary to make the fig-
nai;, in £rft Nation. The diltance of the feveral fta-
tions, which muft be as few as poffible, is meafured by
the reach of a telefcope. Amontons tried this method
in a fmail tra£f of land before feveral perfons of the
highelt rank at the court of France.
It was not, however, till the French revolution that
the telegraph xvas applied to ufeful purpofes. Whether
M. Chappe, who is faid to have invented the telegraph
firit ufed by the French about the end of 1793, knew
any thing of Amontcns’s invention or rot, it is impol-
fible to fay } but his telegraph was conftrutbed on princi¬
ples nearly fimilar. The manner of ufmg this telegraph
was as follows : At the firft flation, which was on the
roof of the palace of the Louvre at Paris, M. Chappe,
the inventor, received in writing, from the committee of
public welfare, the words to be fent to Lifle, near which
the French army at that time was. An upright poll
was eredted on the Louvre, at the top of which were
two tranfverfe arms, moveable in all diieftions by a tin¬
gle piece of mechanilm, and wkb inconceivable rapidi¬
ty. He invented a number of pofitions for thele arms,
which flood as figns for the letters of the alphabet; and
thefe, for the greater celerity and fimplicity, he reduced
in number as much as poffible. The grammarian will
ealily conceive that fixteen figns may amply fupply all
the letters of the alphabet, fince fome letters may be
omitted not only without detriment but with advantage.
Thefe figns, as they were arbitrary, could be changed
every week ; fo that the fign of B for one day might be
the fign of M the next •, and it was only neceffary that
the perfons at the extremity fhould know the key. The
intermediate operators wTere only inftrucled generally in
thefe fixteen fignals; which were fo dillinft, fo marked,
fp different the one from the other, that they were eafily
remembered. The conftruftion -of the machine w’as
fuch, that each fignal was uniformly given in precifely
the fame manner at all times : It did not depend on the
operator’s manual fkill j and the pofiticn of the arm
could never, for any one fignal, be a degree higher
or a degree lower, its movement being regulated mecha¬
nically.
M. Chappe having received at the Louvre the fen-
tence to be conveyed, gave a knowm fignal to the fecond
flation, which was Mont Martre, to prepare. At each
flation there was a watch tower, where telefcopes were
fixed, and the perfon on watch gave the fignal of prepa¬
ration which he had received, and this communicated
fucceffively through all the line, which brought them all
into a ftate of readinefs. The perfbn at Mont Martre
then received, letter by letter, the fentence from the
Louvre, wffiich he repeated with his own machine ; and
this was again repeated from the next height, with in¬
conceivable rapidity, to the final ftation at Lifle.
The firft defeription of the telegraph w’as brought
from Paris to Frankfort on the Maine, by a former mem¬
ber of the parliament of Bourdeaux, who had feen that
which was erebled on the mountain of Belville. As gi¬
ven by Dr Hutton from fome of the Englifh papers, it
is as follows. AA is a beam or mart of wTood placed
upright on a riling ground (fig. 1.), which is about 15 or
16 feet high. BB is a beam or balance moving upon
the centre AA. This balance-beam may be placed
vertically or horizontally, or any how inclined, by
means of ftrong cords, which are fixed to the wheel D,
Inglijb
Review,
Jusae 1796.
Plate
DXXVIII.
Fig. x.
34 ] TEL
on the edge of which is a double groove to receive the Telegraph,
two cords. This balance is about 11 or 12 feet long,' v
and nine inches broad, having at the ends two pieces of
wood CC, which likewife turn upon angles by means of
four other cords that pafs through the axis of^the main
balance, otherwife the balance would derange the cords ;
the pieces C are each about three feet long, and may be
placed either to the right or left, ftraight or fquare,
with the balance-beam. By means of thefe three the
combination or movement is very extenfive, remarkably
fimple, and eafily performed. Below is a Imall wooden
gouge or hut, in which a perfon is employed to obferve
the movements of the machine. In the mountain nearetl
to this another perlon is to repeat thefe movements, and
a third to write them down. The time taken up for
each movement is 20 feconds; of which the motion
alone is four feconds, the other 16 the machine is fta-
tionary. Two working models of this inftrument were
executed at Frankfort, and fent by Mr W. Playfair to
the duke of York 5 and hence the plan and alphabet of
the machine came to England.
Various experiments were in confequence tried upon
telegraphs in this country } and one was foon after fet
up by government in a chain of ftations from the admi¬
ralty.office to the lea coaft. It confifts of fix oftagon
boards, each of which is poifed upon an axis in a frame,
in fuch a manner that it can be either placed vertically,
fo as to appear with its full fize to the obferver at the
neareft ftation, as in fig. 2. or it becomes invifible to him
by being placed horizontally, as in fig. 3. fo that the Fig. 2.
narrow edge alone is expofed, which narrow edge is from
a diftance invifible. Fig. 2. is a reprefentation of this
telegraph, with the parts all (hut, and the machine ready
to work. T, in the officer’s cabin, is the telefcope
pointed to the next ftatico. Fig. 3. is a reprefentation F)S- >
of the machine not at wmrk, and with the ports all
open. The opening of the firft port (fig. 2.) expreffes
a, the fecond b, the third c, the fourth d, the fifth e,
the fixth/ &c.
Six boards make 36 changes, by the moft plain and
fimple mode of working •, and they will make many
more if more were neceffary : but as the real fuperiority
of the telegraph over all ether modes of making fig¬
nals confifts in its making letters, wTe do not think that
more changes than the letters of the alphabet, and the
ten arithmetical ciphers, are neceffary ; but, on the
contrary, that thofe who work the telegraphs ffiould
avoid communicating by words or figns agreed upon to
exprefs fentences 5 for that is the lure method never to
become expert at fending unexpefted intelligence accu¬
rately.
This telegraph is without doubt made up of the beft
number of combinations poffible ; five boards would be
infufficient, and feven would be ufelefs. It has been ob-
jefted to it, however, that its form is too clumfy to ad¬
mit of its being raifed to any confiderable height above
the building on which it ftands •, and that it cannot be
made to change its dire&ion, and confequently cannot
be feen but from one particular point.
Several other telegraphs have been propofed to remedy
thefe defefts, and perhaps others to which the inftru¬
ment is ftill liable. The dial-plate of a clock would
make an excellent telegraph, as it might exhibit 144
figns fo as to be vifible at a great diftance. A telegraph
on this principle, with only fix divifions infiead of
twelve,
TEL [ 235 1 T E L
Telegraphy twelve, would be fimple and cheap, and might be raifed
20 or 30 feet high above the building without any dif¬
ficulty : it might be fapported on one poll:, and therefore
turn round, and the contrail of colours w’ould always be
the fame.
Supplement A very ingenious improvement of the telegraph has
for X794. been propofed in the Gentleman’s Magazine. Itconfills
of a femicircle, to be properly elevated, and fixed per¬
pendicularly on a ftrong Hand. The radius 12 feet j the
femicircle confequently fomewhat more than 36. This
to be divided into 24 parts. Each of thefe will there¬
fore comprife a fpace of 18 inches, and an arch of 70 30'
on the circumference. Thefe 24 divifions to be occu¬
pied by as many circular apertures of fix inches diame¬
ter 5 which will leave a clear fpace of fix inches on each
fide between the apertures. Thefe apertures, beginning
from the left, to denote the letters of the alphabet,
omitting K, J confonant, V, X, and (£, as ufelefs for
this purpofe. There are then 21 letters. The four other
fpaces are referved for fignals. The inlirument to have
an index moveable by a windlafs on the centre of the
femicircle, and having two tops, according as it is to be
ufed in the day or night; one, a circular top of lac¬
quered iron or copper, of equal diameter with the aper¬
tures- (and which confequently will eclipfe any of them
againft which it refts) •, the other, a fpear or arrow-
fhaped top, black and highly polilhed, which, in {land¬
ing before any of the apertures in the day-time, will be di-
ftimftly vifible. In the night, the apertures to be redu¬
ced by a diaphragm fitting clofe to each, fo as to leave
an aperture of not more than two inches diameter. The
diaphragm to be of well-polilhed tin j the inner rim lac¬
quered Hack half an inch. All the apertures to be
illuminated, when the inftrument is ufed in the night-
time, by fmall lamps •, to which, if neceffary, according
to circumftances, convex lenfes may be added, fitted into
each diaphragm, by which the light may be powerfully
concentrated and increafed. Over each aperture one of
the five prifmatic colours leaft likely to be millaken (the
remaining two being lefs diftinguilhable, and not want¬
ed, are bed omitted) to be painted •, and, in their natural
order, on a width of eighteen inches and a depth of
four, red, orange, yellow, green, blue j or, ftill to heighten
the contrail, and render immediately fucceflive apertures
more didinguilhable, red, green, orange, blue, yellow.
The xvhole inner circle beneath and between the aper¬
tures to be painted black.
When the inftrument is to be ufed, the index to be fet
to the fignal apertures on the right. All the apertures
to be covered or dark when it begins t© be ufed, except
that which is to give the fignal. A fignal gun to
be fired to apprife the obferver. If the index is fet to
the firft aperture, it will denote that words are to be ex-
preffed •, if to the fecond, that figures j if to the third,
that the figures ceafe ; and that the intelligence is car¬
ried on in words. When figures are to be expreffed, the
alternate apertures from the left are taken in their order,
to denote from 1 to 10 inclufively j the fecond from the
right denotes 100 ; the fifth 1000. This order, and
thefe intervals, are taken to prevent any confufion in fo
peculiarly important an article of the intelligence to be Telegraph,
conveyed. '
Perhaps, however, none of the telegraphs hitherto of¬
fered to the public exceeds the following, either in fim-
plicity, cheapnefs, or facility in working, and it might
perhaps, with a few trifling additions, be made exceed¬
ingly diilindl. It is thus deferibed in the Repertory of
Arts and Manufactures : For a nofturnal telegraph, let*•
there be four large patent refleftors, lying on the famep‘ 3 2‘
plane, parallel to the horizon, placed on the top of an
obfervatory. Let each of thefe refleCtors be capable, by
means of two winches, either of elevation or depreflion
to a certain degree. By elevating or deprefting one or
two of the reflectors, eighteen very diftinft arrange¬
ments may be produced, as the following fcheme will
explain (a).
phabet j but alterations may be made at will, and a
greater number of changes produced, without any addi¬
tion to the refleClors. In the firft obfervatory there need
only be a fet of Jingle refie&ors ; but in the others each
refleCtor Ihould be double, fo as to face both the pre¬
ceding and fubfequent obfervatory ; and each obferva¬
tory fhould be fumilhed with two telefcopes. The pro¬
per diameter of the refleCtors, and their diftance from
each other, will be afeertained by experience.
To convert this machine into a diurnal telegraph, no¬
thing more is neceffary than to infert, in the place of the
refleCtors, gilt balls, or any other confpicuous bodies.
Were telegraphs brought to fo great a degree of per¬
fection, that they could convey information Speedily and
diftinCtly ; were they fo much Amplified, that they could
be conftruCted and maintained at little expence—the ad¬
vantages which would refult from their ufe are almoft
inconceivable. Not to fpeak of the fpeed with which
information could be communicated and orders given in
time of war, by means of which misfortunes might be
prevented or inftantly repaired, difficulties removed, and
difputes precluded, and by means of which the whole
kingdom could be prepared in an inftant to oppofe an
G g 2 invading
(a) Each refleCtor, after every arrangement, muft be reftored to its place.
TEL [ 2
rxde,M-’ mvad!ns enemy > !* m'Sht be “r<;‘1 by commercial men
thus. convey a cornrniffion cheaper and ipeadier than an ex-
ly—— Pie^s c^n travel. the capitals of diilant nations might
be united by chains of polls, and the fettling of thofe
dilputes which at prelent take up months or years might
then be accomplilhed in as many hours. An eltablilh-
ment of telegraphs might then be made like that of the
pod 5 and inilead of being an expence, it would produce
<> revenue. Until telegraphs are employed to convey in¬
formation that occurs very frequently, the perfons who
aie icationcd to work them will never become expert,
and confequently will neither be expeditious nor accu¬
rate, though, with pradfice, there is no doubt but they
will attain both in a degree of perfeAion of which we
can as yet have but little conception.
Various other improvements of the telegraph might
have been mentioned, but our limits do not permit us to
dwell longer on the fubjedt.
I E L EMACH US, the fon of Ulyfles and Penelope,
was dill in the cradle when his father went with the red
of the Greeks to the Trojan war. At the end of this
celebrated war, Telemachus, anxious to fee his father,
went to feek him j and as the place of his reddence,
and the caule of his long abfence, were then unknown,
he vifited the court of Menelaus and Nedor to obtain
information. He afterwards returned to Ithaca, where
the fuitors of his mother Penelope had confpired to mur¬
der him, but he avoided their fnares; and by means of
Minerva he difeovered his father, who had” arrived in
the ifland two days before him, and was then in the
houfe of Eumaeus. With this faithful fervant and Ulyf-
fes Telemachus concerted how to deliver his mother
from the importunities of her fuitors, and it was effe&ed
with great fuccefs. After the death of his father, Te-
lemachus went to the iltand of Aiaea, where he married
Circe, or, according to others, Caffiphone the daughter
of Circe, by whom he had a fon called Latinus. ° He
fome time after had the misfortune to kill his mother-
in-law Circe, and fled to Italy, where he founded Clu-
fium. Telemachus was accompanied in his vifit to Nef-
tor and Menelaus by the goddefs of wifdom under the
form of Mentor. It is faid that^ when a child, Tele¬
machus fell into the fea, and that a dolphin brought him
fafe to fliore, after he had remained fome time under
water. From this circumflance Ulyfles had the figure
of a dolphin engraved on the feal which he wore on his
ring.
from thefe ftories, collefled from Homer and the
other poets of antiquity, the celebrated Fenelon, arch-
bifliop of Cambray, took the idea of his well-known
Adventures of Telemachus ; which, though not com-
pofed in verfe, is juftly intitled to be efteemed a poem.
£Tor!c0nU T,116 plan of the WOrk (%s Dr Mair) is in general
and the well contrived 5 and is deficient neither in epic grandeur
Helles noy unity of objefl. 1 he author has entered with much
■litres. felicity into the fpirit and ideas of the ancient poets, par¬
ticularly into the ancient mythology, which retains more
dignity, and makes a better figure in his hands than in
thofe of any other modern poet. His deferiptions are
rich and beautiful ; efpecially of the fofter and calmer
»cenes, lor winch the genius of Fenelon was belt luited :
1'uch as the incidents of paftoral life, the pleafures of vir¬
tue, or a country flourilhing in peace. There is an in¬
imitable fweetnefs and tendernefs in feveral of the pic¬
tures of this kind which he has given 3” and his mea-
36 ] TEL
fured profe, which is remarkably harmonious, gives the Teltma-
Ityle nearly as much elevation as the French language chus
is capable ol fapporting even in regular verfe. ^ ) II
According to the lame eminent critic, “ the heft exe- ,Tc;dccPe,f
cuted part ol the work is the firit fix books, in which
Telemachus recounts his adventures to Calyplb. The
narration throughout them is lively and interefling.
Afterwards, efpecially in the laft 1 2 books, it becomes
mote tedious and languid 3 and in the warlike adven¬
tures which are attempted, there is a great deleft of vi¬
gour. ^ l he chief objection againfl this work bein** clafi-
fed with epic poems, arifes from the minute details of
virtuous policy, into which the author in fome places
enters 3 and from the difeourfes and inftrudions of Men¬
tor, which recur upon us too often, and too much in the
ftrain of common-place morality. Though thefe were
well fuited to die main defign of the author, which was
to form the mind ol a young prince, yet they feem not
congruous to the nature of epic poetry; the objeff of
which is to improve us by means of addons, charaders,
and fentiments, rather than by delivering profeffed and*
formal inftrudion.”
TELEPHIUM, True Orpine, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs pentandria 3 and in the natural
lyftem ranging under the 54th order, Mifcellanece. See
Botany Index.
TELESCOPE, an optical inftrument for viewing
diilant objeds 3 fo named by compounding the Greek
words tjsAji far off, and e-xomu / look at or contemplate.
This name is commonly appropriated to the larger fizes
ol the inftrument, while the fmaller are called perspec¬
tive-glasses, SPY-GLASSES, opera-glasses. A par¬
ticular kind, which is thought to be much brighter than
the reft, is called a night-glass.
i 0 what has been faid already with refped to the in¬
ventor of this raoft noble and ufeful inftrument in the
article Optics, we may add the two following claims.
Mr Leonhard Digges, a gentleman of the 17th cen-
tuiy of great and various knowledge, politively afiertsin
his Stratioticos, and in another work, that his father, a
military gentleman, had an inftrument which he ufed’in
the field, by which he could bring diftant objeds near,
and could know a man at the diftance of three miles.
He fays, that when his father was at home he had often
looked through it, and could diftinguilh the waving of
the trees on the oppofite fide of the Severn. Mr Digges
refided in the neighbourhood of Briftol.
Francis Fontana, in his Celeftal Obfervations, pub-
liftied at Naples in 1646, fays, that he was allured by a
Mr Flardy, advocate of the parliament of Paris, a per-
fon of great learning and undoubted integrity, that ®n
the death of his father, there was found among his
tilings an old tube, by which diftant objeds were di-
ftiiidly feen ; and that it was of a date long prior to
the telefcope lately invented, and had been kept by him
as a fecret.
It is not at all improbable, that curious people, handl¬
ing fpedacle glaffes, of which there were by this time
great varieties, both convex and concave, and amufing
themfelves with their magnifying power and the fingu-
lai eifieds which they produced in the appearances of
things, might fometimes chance fo to place them as to
pioducc diftind and enlarged vifion. We know' per-
fedly, horn the table and Icheme which Sirturus has
given us of the tools or difties in which the Ipedacle-
makers
TEL t
makers fafhioned their glaffes, that they had convex
lenfes formed to fpheres of 24 inches diameter, and of
11 inferior fixes. He has given us a fcheme of a let
which he got leave to meafuve, belonging to a fpeftacle-
maker of the name of Rogetie at Corunna in Spain ) and
he fays that this man had tools of the fame fixes for con¬
cave glaffes. It alfo appears, that it was a general prac¬
tice (of which we do not know the precife purpofe) to
ufe a convex and concave glafs together. If any per-
fon thould chance to put together a 24-inch convex and
a 12-inch concave (wrought on both fides) at the di-
llance of fix inches, he would have diftinfl vifion, and
the obje£t would appear of double fize. Concaves of
fix inches were not uncommon, and one fuch combined
with the convex of 24, at the diftance of nine inches,
would have diilin£t vifion, and objects would be qua¬
drupled in diameter. When fuch a thing occurred, it
was natural to keep it as a curiofity, although the ra¬
tionale of its operation was not in the lead underfiood.
We doubt not but that this happened much oftener than
in thefe two inftances. The chief wonder is, that it was
not frequent, and taken notice of by fome writer. It is
pretty plain that Galileo’s firft telefcope was of this kind,
made up of fuch fpe£tacle-glaffes as he could procure j
for it magnified only three times in diameter 5 a thing
eafily procured by fuch glalfes as he could find with
every fpeflacle-maker. And he could not but obferve,
in his trials of their glades, that the deeper concaves and
flatter convexes he employed, he produced the greater
amplification ; and then he would find himfelf obliged
to provide a tool not ufed by the fpettacle-makers, viz.
either a much flatter tool for a convex furface, or a much
fmaller fphere for a concave •, and, notwithftanding his
telling us that it was by reflefting on the nature of re-
fradtion, and without any inftrudtion, we are perfuaded
that he proceeded in this very way. His next telef¬
cope magnified but five times. Now the flighteft ac¬
quaintance with the obvious laws of refradtion would
have diredled him at once to a very ftnall and deep con¬
cave, which would been much eafier made, and have
magnified more. But he groped his way with fuch
fpedtacle-glaffes as he could get, till he at laft made
tools for very flat objedl-glaffes and very deep eye-glaffes,
and produced a telefcope which magnified about 25
times. Sirturus faw it, and took the meafures of it.
He afterwards fa’w a fcheme of it which Galileo had
lent to a German prince at Infpruck, who had it drawn
(that is, the circles for the tools) on a table in his gal¬
lery. The objedl-glafs was a plano-convex, a portion
of a fphere, of 24 inches diameter 5 the eye-glafs was a
double concave of two inches diameter •, the focal di-
flances were therefore 24inche- and one inch nearly.
This muft have been a very lucky operation, for Sirtu¬
rus fays it was the beft telefcope he had feen : and we
know that it requires the very beft work to produce this
magnifying power with fuch fmall fpheres. Telefcopes
continued to be made in this way for many years ; and
Galileo, though keenly engaged in the obfervation of
Jupiter’s fatellites, being candidate for the prize held
out by the Dutch for the difcovery of the longitude,
and therefore much interefted in the advantage which a
convex eye-glafs would have given him, never made
them of any other form. Kepler publiftied his Diop¬
trics in 1611 ; in which he tells us, all that he or others
had difcovered of the law' of refraftion, viz. that in very
237 3 TEL
fmall obliquities of incidence, the angle of refraction Telefcope-
was nearly one-third of the angle of incidence. This " " v
was indeed enough to have pointed out, with fuflicient
exadtnefs, the conftruftion of every optical inftiument
that we are even now poffeffed of j for this proportiona¬
lity of the angles of incidence and refraction is aflumed
in the conftruCtion of the optical figure for all of them j
and the deviation from it is {till confidered as the re¬
finement of the art, and was not brought to any rule till
50 years after by Huyghens, and called by him aber¬
ration. Yet even the fagacious Kepler feems not to
have feen the advantage of any other conftruCtion of
the telefcope 5 he juft feems to acknowledge the poflr-
bility of it : and w'e are furpriled to fee writers giving
him as the author of the aftronomical telefcope, or even
as hinting at its conftruftion. It is true, in the laft;
propofition he ftiow'S how a telefcope may be made ap¬
parently with a convex eye-glafs : but this is only a
frivolous fancy \ for the eye-glals is directed to be made
convex externally, and a very deep concave on the in-
fide; fo that it is, in fad, a menifeus with the concavi¬
ty prevalent. In the 86th propofition, he indeed (hows
that it is poflible fo to place a convex glafs behind ano¬
ther convex glafs, that an eye fhall fee objefts diftind,
magnified, and inverted ; and he fpeaks very fagaciouf-
ly on the fubjeft. After having faid that an eye placed
behind the point of union of the firft glafs will fee an
objeCl inverted, he (hows that a fmall part only will be
feen ; and then he fhows that a convex glafs, duly pro¬
portioned and properly placed, will (how more of it.
But in ftiowing this, he fpeaks in a way which fhows
evidently that he had formed no diflinCl notions of the
manner in which this effeCl would be produced, only-
faying vaguely that the convergency of the fecond glafs
would counteraft the divergency beyond the focus of
the firft. Had he conceived the matter with any toler¬
able diftinCtnefs, after feeing the great advantage of ta¬
king in a field greater in almoft any proportion, he
would have eagerly catched at the thought, and enlar¬
ged on the immenfe improvement. Had he but drawn
one figure of the progrefs of the rays through two con¬
vex glaffes, the whole would have been open to his
This ftep, fo eafy and fo important, was referved for
Father Scheiner, as has been already obferved in the
article Optics ; and the conftruCtion of this author, to¬
gether with that of Janfen, are the models on which all
refrafting telefcopes are now conftruCted •, and in all
that relates to their magnifying power, brightnefs, and
field of vifion, they may be conftruCted on Kepler’s prin¬
ciple, that the angles of refraCtion are in a certain given
proportion to the angles of incidence.
But after Huyghens had applied his elegant geometry
to the difcoveiy of Snellius, viz. the proportionality, not
of the angles, but of the fines, and had afeertained the
aberrations from the foci of infinitely {lender pencils,
the reafons were clearly pointed out why there were
fuch narrow limits affixed by nature to the performance
of optical inftruments, in confequence of the indiftinCt-
nefs of vifion which refulted from conftruCtions where
the magnifying power, the quantity of light, or the field
of vifion, were extended beyond certain moderate bounds.
The theory of aberrations, which that moft excellent
geometer eftabliftied, has enabled us to diminilh this in-
diflinCtnefs arifing from any of thefe caufes; and this-
diminution
T E L [ 2
Telefcope. diminution is the foie aim of all the different conftruc-
tions which have been contrived fince the days of Gali¬
leo and Scheiner.
.The defcription which has been already given of the
various conftruftions ot telefcopes in the article Optics,
is lufficient for inftrufting the reader in the general prin¬
ciples of their conftruftion, and with moderate attention
will tliow the manner in which the rays of light pro¬
ceed, in order to enfure the different circumftances of
amplification, brightnefs, and extent of field, and even
dittindmefs ot vifion, in as far as this depends on the
proper intervals between the glaffes. But it is infufficient
for giving us a knowledge of the improvements which
are aimed at in the different departures from the original
conftrudtions of Galileo and Scheiner, the advantage of
the double eye-glafs of Huyghens, and the quintuple
eye-glafs of Dollond : ftill more is it infufficient for ffiow-
ing us why the highelt degrees of amplification and moil
extenfive field cannot be obtained by the mere propor¬
tion of the focal diftances of the glafles, as Kepler had
taught. In ftiort, without the Huyghenian dodlrine of
aberrations, neither can the curious reader learn the li¬
mits of their performance, nor the artiff learn why one
telefcope is better than another, or in what manner to
proceed to make a telefcope differing in any particular
from thofe which he fervilely copies.
Although all the improvements in the conftrufffon of
telefcopes fince the publication of Huyghens’s Dioptrics
have been the produdions of this ifland, and although
Dr Smith of Cambridge has given the moft elegant and
perfpicuous account of this fcience that has yet appear¬
ed, we do not recoiled a performance in the Englith
language (except the Optics of Emerfon) which will
carry the reader beyond the mere fchoolboy elements of
the fcience, or enable a perfon of mathematical fkill to
underftand or improve the conffrudion of optical inftru-
inents. i he lalt work on this fubjed of any extent
(Dr Prieftley’s Hiftory of Vifion) is merely a parlour
book for the amufement of half-taught dilettanti, but is
totally deficient in the mathematical part, although it
is here that the fcience of optics has her chief claim to
pre-eminence, and to the name of a disciplina accura-
ta. But this would have been u//ra crepidam ; and
the author w'ould in all probability have made as poor a
figure here as he has done in his attempts to degrade
his fpecies in his Commentaries on the Vibratiunculce of
Hartley ; motions which neither the author nor his am-
plificator w^ere able to underftand or explain. We truft
that our readers, jealous as w7e are of every thing that
finks us in the icale of nature’s works, will pardon this
tranfient ejaculation of fpleen, when our thoughts are
called to a fyftem which, of al’folute and unavoidable ne-
CfJJity, makes the DIVINE MIND nothing but a quivering
oi that tnatter of which it is the author and unerring
Director. Sed miffum faciamus.
\\ e think therefore that wre {hall do the public feme
fervice, by giving fuch an account of this higher branch
ot optical fcience as will at leaft tend to the complete un-
derffanding of this noble inftrument, by which our con¬
ceptions of the extent of almighty power, and wifdom,
and beneficence,. are fo wonderfully enlarged. In the
profecution of this we hope that many general rules will
emerge, by which artifts who are not mathematicians
may be enabled to conftrud optical inftruments with
2
33
TEL
intelligence, and avoid the many blunders and defers Tclefcope.
which refult from mere fervile imitation. y——'
ihe general aim in the conftrudfion of a telefcope is,
to form, by means of mirrors or lenfes, an image of the
diftant objeft, as large, as bright, and as extenfive as is
pofiible, confidently with ditfinefnefs j and then to view
the image with a magnifying glafs in any convenient
manner. Inis gives us an arrangement of our fubjeff.
We (hall firft thow the principles of conftruction of the
objecf-glafs or mirror, fo as that it fhall form an image
of the diftant objeft with theie qualities 5 and then (how
how to conftrucf the magnifying glafs or eye-piece, fo
as to preferve them unimpaired.
This indiftinftnefs which we wifh to avoid arifes from
two caufes j the fpherical figures of the refrafting and
reflefting lurfaces, and the different refrangibility of
the differently coloured rays of light. The firft may be
called the spherical and the fecond the chromatic
indiftin£fnefs; and the deviations from the foci, deter¬
mined by an elementary theorem, given under Optics,
may be called the spherical and the chromatic aber¬
rations.
Ehe limits of a Work like this wfill not permit us to
give any more of the do&rine of aberrations than is ab-
folutely neceffary for the conftrudfion of achromatic te*
leicopes; and we muft refer the reader for a general
view of the whole to Euler’s Dioptrics, and other works
of that kind. Dr Smith has given as much as was ne¬
ceffary for tfie comparifon of the merits of different
glaffes ©f fimilar conftruftion, and this in a very plain
and elegant manner.
.We ftall begin with the aberration of colour, becaufe
it is the moft fimple.
Let white or compounded light fall perpendicularly piate
on the flat fide (fig. 1.) of a plano-convex lensDXXVIII*
whofe axis is CV and vertex V. The white Fig- 1*
ray p P falling on the extremity of the lens is dilperfed
by reflation at the point P of the fpherical furface, and
the red ray goes to the point r of the axis, and the vio¬
let ray to the point v. In like manner the white ray
7 0. is difperfed by refra&ion at Q, the red ray going
to r, and the violet to v. The red' ray P r croffes the
violet ray in a point D, and £) r croffes P v in a
point E •, and the whole light refrafted and difperfed
by the circumference whofe diameter is PQ, psffes
through the circular area, whofe diameter is DE. Sup-
pofing that the lens is of fuch a form that it would col¬
led! red rays, refradfed by its whole furface in the point
ri and violet in the point ; then it is evident that the
whole light which occupies the furface of the lens will
pafs through this little circle, whole diameter is DE.
Therefore white light ’ffuing from a point fo diftant that
the rays may be confidered as parallel, will not be
colledfed in another point or focus, but will be difperfed
over the furface of that little circle ; which is therefore
called the circle of chromatic difperfion ; and the radi- /
ant point will be reprefented by this circle. The neigh¬
bouring points are in like manner reprefented by circles ;
and thefe circles encroaching on and mixing with each
other, muft occafion hazinefs or confufion, and render
the pidfure indiftindL This indiftinanefs will be greater
in the proportion of the number of circles which are in
this manner mixed together. This will be in the pro¬
portion of the room that is for them j that is, in propor¬
tion to the area of the circle, or in the duplicate propor¬
tion
Telefcope. tion of its diameter. Our fivlt budoefs therefore is, to
^ """v " 1 ubtain meafures of this diameter, ana to mark the con¬
nexion between it and the aperture and focal dittance
of the lens.
Let i be to r as the fine of incidence in glafs to the
fine of refradion of the red rays ; and let i be to v as
the fine of incidence to the fine of refraXion of the vio¬
let rays. Then we fay, that when the aperture P£> is
moderate, v—r : ‘u+r—2f = DE : PQ, very nearly.
For let DE, which is evidently perpendicular to V r,
meet the parallel incident rays in K and L and the radii
of the fpherical iurface in G and H. It is plain that
GPK is equal to the angle of incidence on the pollerior
or fpherical furface of the lens j and GP r and GP v
are the angles of the refraXion of the red and the violet
rays ; and that GK, GD, and GE, are very nearly as
the fines of thofe angles, becaufe the angles are fuppoled
to be fmall. We may therefore inftitute this proportion
DE : KD=-Z’—r : r—i; then, by doubling the con-
fequents DE : 2 KDcrr-n—f t 2 r—2 i. Alfo DE .
2 KD + DE = v—r : 2 r—2 /+ v—r, = v—r : r +
 2 i. But 2KD-j-DE is equal to KL or PQ.
Therefore we have DE : PC^—ft—r : rv 2i.
^E.D.
Cor. i. Sir Ifaac Newton, by moll accurate obferya-
tion, found, that in common glafs the fines of refraXion
of the red and violet rays were 77 and 78 where the
fine of incidence was 50. Hence it follows, that v r
is to zt-f-r—2i as 1 to 55 ; and that the diameter of
the fmalleft circle of dilperfion is y-j-th part of that of
the lens.
2. In like manner may be determined the circle of
difperfion that will comprehend the rays of any particu¬
lar colour or fet ot colours. I hus all the orange and
yellow will pafs through a circle whofe diameter is
^.|__th of that of the lens.
eq. In different furfaces, or plano-convex lenfes, the
angles of aberration r P v are as the breadth P^) di-
reXly, and as the focal dillance VF inverfely •, becaufe
any angle DPE is as its fubtenfe DE direXly and ra¬
dius DP inverfely. N. B. We call VF the focal di-
ffance, becaufe at this diftance, or at the point F, the
light is moil of all conftipated. If we examine the fo¬
cal diftance by holding the lens to the fun, we judge it
to be where the light is drawn into the fmalleft fpot.
When we refleX that a lens of 5^ inches in diameter
has a circle of difperfion -^ih of an inch in diameter,
we are furprifed that it produces any piXure of an ob-
jeX that can be diftinguiihed. We ihould not expeX
greater diftinXnefs from fuch a lens than would be produ¬
ced in a camera obfcura without a lens, by fimply ad¬
mitting the light through a hole of T^th of an inch in
diameter. This, we know, would be very hazy and
confufed. But when we remark the fuperior vivacity
of the yellow and orange light in comparifon with the
reft, we may believe that the effeX produced by the
confufion of the other colours will be much lefs fenfible.
But a ftronger reafon is, that the light is much denfer
in the middle of the circle of difperfion, and is exceed¬
ingly faint towards the margin. This, however, muft
not be taken for granted ; and we muft know diftinXly
the manner in which the light of different colours is
diftributed over the circle of chromatic difperfion, be¬
fore wre pretend to pronounce on the immenfe difference
between the indiftinXnefs arifing from colour and that
arifing from the fpherical figure. We think this the TXefcope^
more neceffary, becaufe the iluftrious difeoverer of the
chromatic aberration has made a great miftake in the
companion, becaufe he did not confider the diftribution
of the light in the circle of fpherical difperfion. It is
therefore proper to iiiveftigate the chromatic dittrihu-
tion of the light with the fame care that w'e bellow¬
ed on the fpherical difperfion in Optics, and we {hall
then fee that the fuperioxity of the refleXing tele¬
fcope is incomparably lefs than Newton imagined it to
be.
Therefore let EB (fig. 2.) reprefent a piano-con vex Fig. 2.
lens, of which C is the centre and C r the axis. Let
us fuppofe it to have no fpherical aberration, but to col-
leX rays occupying its w’hole furface to fingle points in
the axis. Let a beam of white or compounded light
fall perpendicularly on its plane furface. ine rays will
be fo refraXed by its curved furface, that the extreme
red rays will be colleXed at r, the extreme violent rays
at zu, and thofe of intermediate refrangibdity at inter¬
mediate points, 0, y, g, b,p, v, of the line rw, which
is nearly of r C. The extreme red and violet
rays will crofs each other at A and D j and AD will
be a feXion or diameter of the circle of chromatic dif¬
perfion, and will be about EB. We may fup-
poie iv r to be bifeXed in by becaufe w b is to b r
very nearly in the ratio of equality (for r b : r C —
b A :'c E, =zb A : cB, — wb : w C). The line rw
will be a kind of prifmatic fpeXrum, red from r to 0,
orange-coloured from 0 toy, yellow from y to^, green
from g to b, blue from b to p, purple from p to v, and
violet from z> to zu.
The light in its compound ftate muft be fuppofed uni¬
formly denfe as it falls upon the lens j and the fame
muft be faid of the rays of any particular colour. New¬
ton fuppofes alfo, that when a white ray, fuch as e E,.
is difperfed into its component coloured rays by refrac¬
tion at E, it is uniformly fpread over the angle DEA.
This fuppofition is indeed gratuitous; but we have no
argument to the contrary, and may therelore confidei it
as juft. The confequence is, that each point w, v, p, b,
&c. of the fpeXrum is not only equally luminous, but
alfo illuminates uniformly its correfponding portion of
AD : that is to fay, the coating (fo to term it) of any
particular colour, fuch as purple, from the point p, is
uniformly denfe in every part of AD on which it falls.
In like manner, the colouring of yellow, intercepted by
a part of AD in its paffage to the point y, is uniform¬
ly denfe in all its parts. But the denfity of the differ¬
ent colours in AD is extremely differentfor fince the
radiation in w is equally denfe with that in p, the den¬
fity of the violet colouring, which radiates from w, and
is fpread over the whole of AD, muft be much lefs than
the denfity of the purple colouring, which radiates from
p, and occupies only a part of AD round the circle b...
Thefe denfities muft be very nearly in the inverfe pro¬
portion of wb* to p b*.
Hence we fee, that the central point b will be very
intenfely illuminated by the blue radiating from p b and
the green intercepted from b g. It will be more faintly
illuminated by the purple radiating from vp, and the
yellow intercepted from gy; and Hill more faintly by
the violet from wv, and the orange and ted intercepted
from y r. The whole colouring will be a white, tend¬
ing- a little to yellownefs. The accurate proportion of
6 J thefs.
TEL [ 240 ] TEL
Telefcope. tlifcfe colourings may be computed from our knowledge
0f the pofition of the points 0, y, g, &c. But this is of
little moment. It is of more confequence to be able to
determine the proportion of the total intenlity of the
light in b to its intenfity in any other point I.
For this purpofe draw r IR, I w W, meeting the lens
in R and W. The point I receives none of the light
which paffes through the fpace RW : for it is evident
that b l : CR = Z» A : CE, = 1 : 55, and that CR =
CW j and therefore, lince all the light incident on EB
paffes through AB, all the light incident on RW paffes
through I i {b i being made =:£ I). Draw 0 10, y IY,
£ IG, I/>P, I-dV. It is plain, that I receives red
light from RO, orange from OY, yellow from YG,
green from GE, a little blue from BP, purple from
PV, and violet from VW. It therefore wants fome of
the green and of the blue.
That we may judge of the intenfity of thefe colours
at I, fuppofe the lens covered with paper pierced with a
irnall hole at G. The green light only will pafs through
I $ the other colours will pafs between I and £, or be¬
tween I and A, according as they are more or lefs re¬
frangible than the particular green at I. This particu¬
lar colour converges to gy and therefore will illuminate
a fmall fpot round I, where it will be as much denfer
than it is at G as this fpot is fmaller than the hole at G.
The natural denfity at G, therefore, wnll be to the in-
creafed denfity at I, as £ F to ^ G1, or as g hi* io g C*,
or as b I* to CG\ In like manner, the natural denfity
of the purple coming to I through an equal hole at P
will be to the increafed denfity at I as £ I* to CP*.
And thus it appears, that the intenfity of the differently
coloured illuminations of any point of the circle of dif-
perfion, is inverfely proportional to the fquare of the di-
Itance from the centre of the lens to the point of its fur-
face through which the colouring light comes to this
point of the circle of difperfion. This circumftance will
gives us a very eafy, and, we think, an elegant folution
of the queftion.
Bifedt CE in F, and draw FL perpendicular to CE,
making it equal to CF. Through the point L defcribe
the hyperbola KLN of the fecond order, that is, having
the ordinates EK, FL, RN, &c. inverfely proportional
to the fquares of the abfciffae CE, CF, CR, &c. > fo
that FL : or = CR* : CF*, &c. It
is evident that thefe ordinates are proportional to the
denfities of the feverally coloured lights which go from
them to any points whatever of the circle of difper¬
fion.
Now the total denfity of the light at I depends both
on the denfity of each particular colour and on the num¬
ber of colours which fall on it. The ordinates of this
hyperbola determine the firft j and the fpace ER mea-
fures the number of colours which fall on I, becaufe it
receives light from the whole of ER, and of its equal
B W. Therefore, if ordinates be drawn from any point
of ER, their fum will be as the whole light which goes
to I •, that is, the total denfity of the light at I will be
proportional to the area NREK. Now it is known that
CE x EK is equal to the infinitely extended area lying
beyond EK j and CRxRN is equal to the infinitely
extended area lying beyond RN. Therefore the area
NREK is equal to CR x RN—CE x EK. But RN
1 t? tt- r CL- 1 1 CT3 , CF3 Tdefcope.
and -Lh. are reipethvely equal to and — —. There-1 ^  »
(CR
CR* —
CE
CEJ
— CF3X
)’=CF!x(i^-^e).=
CF3x
CE—CR
ER
CE X CR’:
CF3 ER
CE xCR *
But becaufe CF
C',TT3
is * of CE, is :
CL
CF3 CF*
—7^7;, — a conltant quan-
2 Cl 2 ^
tity. Therefore the denfity of the light at I is propor¬
tional to or to becaufe the points R and I are
CR b i
fimilarly fituated in EC and A b.
Farther, if the femiaperture CE of the lens be called
Cp • x j j r x ■ AI
I, IS =r I, and the denfity at I is = g-jy-
Here it is proper to obferve, that fince the point R
has the fame fituation in the diameter EB that the point
I has in the diameter AD of ihe circle of difperfion, the
circle defcribed on EB may be conceived as the magni¬
fied reprefentation of the circle of difperfion. The point
F, for inftance, reprefents the point f in the circle of
difperfion, which bifefts the radius b A j and f receives
no light from any part of the lens which is nearer the
centre than F, being illuminated only by the light which
comes through EF and its oppofite BF'. The fame may
be faid of every other point.
In like manner, the denfity of the light in f the
EF
middle between b and A, is meafured by 7^-, which is
CF
EF
= yy, or i. This makes the denfity at this point a
proper ftandard of comparifon. The denfity there is to
AI
the denfity at I as 1 to yy, or as bl to AI j and this
is the fimpleft mode of comparifon. The denfity half
way from the centre of the circle of difperfion is to the
denfity at any point I as £ I to I A.
Laftly, through L defcribe the common reftangular
hyperbola £L«, meeting the ordinates of the former in
kt L, and n : and draw k h parallel to EC, cutting the
ordinates in g,f r, &c. Then CR : CE = E £ : R w,
and CR : CE—CR == E£ : R «—E k, or CR : RE —
E£ : r«, and b 1 : IA=E h \ r n. And thus w^e have
a very fimple expreffion of the denfity in any point of
the circle of difperfion. Let the point be anywhere, as
at I. Divide the lens in R as AD is divided in I, and
then r n is as the denfity in I.
Thefe two meafures w^ere given by Newton 5 the firft
in his Treatife de Mundi Systernate, and the laft in his
Optics ; but both without demonftration.
If the hyperbola k h ti be made to revolve round the
axis CQ, it will generate a folid fpindle, which will
meafure the whole quantity of light which paffes through
different portions of the circle of difperfion. Thus the
folid produced by the revolution of L ^ will meafure
all the light which occupies the outer part of the circle
of difperfion lying without the middle of the radius.
This fpace is |ths of the whole circle ; but the quantity
of light is but ^th of the whole.
A
TEL [24
Tdefcope. A ftill more fimple expreflion of the whole quantity
1   'of light palling through different portions of the circle
of chromatic dilperfion may now be obtained as fol¬
lows :
It has been demonflrated, that the denfity of the light
at I is as or Suppofe the figure to turn
round the axis. I or R defcribe circumferences of circles j
and the whole light pafling through this circumference is as
the circumference, or as the radius, and as the denfity joint*
ER
ly. It is therefore as -^-xCR^hat is, as ER. Draw any
ftraight line E w, cutting RN in s, and any other, ordi¬
nate FL in « R J. The whole light which illuminates
the circumference defcribed by I is to the whole light
which illuminates the centre b as ER to EC, or as Rj1
to Cm. In like manner, the whole light which illu¬
minates the circumference defcribed by the point f in
the circle of difperfion is to the whole light which illu¬
minates the centre b, as Fa; to Cm. i he lines Cm,
RS, Er, are therefore proportional to the whole light
which illuminates the correfponding circumferences in
the circle of difperiion. Therefore'' the whole light
wdiich falls on the circle whofe radius is bl, will be
reprefented by the trapezium in CRS and the whole
light which falls on the ring defcribed by 1A., will be
reprefented by the triangle E j R } and fo of any other
portions.
By confidering the figure, we fee that the diftribu-
tion of the light is exceedingly unequal. Round the
margin it has no fenfible denfity ■, while its denfity in
the very centre is incomparably greater than in any
other point, being expreffed by the afymptote of a hy¬
perbola. Alfo the circle defcribed with the radius
contains -l-ths of the whole light. No wonder then that
the confufion caufed by the mixture of thefe circles of
difperfion is lefs than one (hould expeft ; befides, it is
evident that the moft lively or imprelfive colours oc¬
cupy the middle of the fpeftrum, and are there much
denfer than the reft. The margin is covered with an
illumination of deep red and violet, neither of which co¬
lours are brilliant. The margin will be of a dark claret
colour. The centre revives all the colours, but in a pro¬
portion of intenfity greatly different from that in the
common prifmatic fpefrrum, becaufe the radiant points
L, p,b,g, &c. by which it is illuminated, are at fuch
different diftances from it. It will be white j but we
apprehend not a pure white, being greatly overcharged
%vith the middle colours.
Thefe confiderations (how that the coloured fringes,
which are obferved to border very luminous obje&s feen
on a dark ground through optical inftruments, do not
proceed from the objeft-glafs of a telefcope or micro-
fcope, but from an improper conftrudlion of the eye-
glaffes. The chromatic difperfibn would produce
fringes of a different colour, wrhen they produce any at
all, and the colours would be differently difpofed. But
this difperfion by the objeft-glafs can hardly produce
any fringes: its effeft is a general and almoft uniform
mixture of circles all over the field, which produces an
Uniform hazinefs, as if the objeft were viewed at an im¬
proper diftance, or out of its focus, as we vulgarly ex>-
prefs it.
Vol. XX. Part I.
1 ] TEL
We may at prefent form a good guefs at the limit Telrfcop*
which this caufe puts to the performance of a tele- y
fcope. A point of a very dittant objedl is reprefent¬
ed, in the pidture formed by the objedf-glafs, by a
little circle, whofe diameter is at leaft -y-Jo'th of the aper¬
ture of the objedt-glafs, making a very full allow¬
ance for the fuperior brilliancy and denfity of the cen¬
tral light. We look at this pifture with a magnifying
eye-glafs. This magnifies the pidlure of the point. If
it amplify it to Inch a degree as to make it an objedt
individually diftinguifhable, the confufion is then fen¬
fible. Now this can be computed. An objedt fub-
tending one minute of a degree is diftinguifhed by the
dulleft eye, even although it be a dark objedl on a
bright ground. Let us therefore fuppofe a telefcope,
the objedl-glafs of which is of fix feet focal diftance,
and one inch aperture. The diameter of the circle ot
chromatic difperfion will be of an incn, which
fubtends at the centre of the objedl-glafs an angle of
about 94- feconds. This, when magnified fix times by
an eye-glafs, would become a diftinguiihable objedl j and.
a telefcope of this length would be indiftindl if it mag¬
nified more than fix times, if a point were thus fpread
out into a fpot of uniform intenfity. But the fpot is
much lefs intenfe about its margin. It is found expe¬
rimentally that a piece of engraving, having fine crofs
hatches, is not fenfibly indiftindl till brought fo far
from the limits of perfedlly diftindl vifion, that this
indiftindlnefs amounts to 6' or 3' in breadth.— Ihere-
fore fuch a telefcope will be fenfibly diftindl when it
magnifies 36 times 5 and this is very agreeable to ex¬
perience.
We come, in the fecond place, to the more arduous
tafk of afcertaining the error arifing from the fpherical
figure of the furfaces employed in optical inilruments.
—Suffice it to fay, before we begin, that although geo¬
meters have exhibited other forms of lenfes which are
totally exempt from this error, they cannot be executed
by the artifl; and we are therefore reftridled to the em¬
ployment of fpherical furfaces.
Of all the determinations which have been given of
fpherical aberration, that by Dr Smith, in his Optics,
which is an improvement of the fundamental theorem
of that moft elegant geometer Huyghens, is the molt
perfpicuous and palpable. Some others are more con-
cife, and much better fitted for after ufe, and will there¬
fore be employed by us in the profecution of this article.
But they do not keep in view the optical fadls, giving
the mind a pidlure of the progrefs of the rays, which it
can contemplate and difcover amidft many modifying
circumfiances. By ingenious fubftitutions of analytical
fymbols, the inveftigation is rendered expeditious, con-
cife, and certain ; but thefe are not immediate fymools
of things, but of operations of the mind j objedls fuffi-
ciently fubtile of themfelves, and having no need of fub¬
ftitutions to make us lofe fight of the real fubjedl; and
thus our occupation degenerates into a procefs almoft
without ideas. We {hall therefore fet out with Dr
Smith’s fundamental Theorem,
1. In RejleBiont.
Let AVB (fig. 3.) be a concave fpherical mirror, ofp;gt
which C is the centre, V the vertex, CV the axis, and
F the focus of an infinitely (lender pencil of parallel rays
H h pafling
TEL [ 242
Telefcope. paffing through the centre. Let the ray a A, parallel
tpe axjs^ {^g reflefted ;n croffmg the central
ray CV in f. Let AP be the fine of the femi-aperture
AV, AD its tangent, and CD its fecant.
The aberration Fy'from the principal focus of central
rays is equal to -§- of the excefs VD of the fecant above
the radius, or very near equal to of VP, the verfed
fine of the femi-aperture.
For becaufe AD is perpendicular to CA, the points
C, A, D, are in a circle, of which CD is the diameter j
and becaufe A/is equal to C f by reafon of the equali¬
ty of the angles /AC,/CA, and CA a, f is the cen¬
tre of the circle through C, A, D, and J Y) is rr CD.
.But FC is rz: -J- CV. Therefore Yf is ~ of VD.
But becaufe DV : VP = DC : VC, and DC is very
little greater than VC when the aperture AB is mode¬
rate, DV is very little greater than VP, and F,/ is very
nearly equal to -§• of VP.
AV2
Cor. 1. The longitudinal aberration is — for
PV is very nearly —
4CV
AVJ
Cor. 2. The lateral aberration FG is = --V - . For
2CV1
FG : Yf — AP : Vf, — AV : ~ CV nearly, and there-
, _ AVJ 2 AV3
~0re ” 4CV X CV “ 2CV1'
2. In Refra£lions.
Fig. 4. or 5. AVB (fig. 4. or 5.) be a fpherical furface fepa-
rating two reflating fubftances, C the centre, V the
vertex, AV the ferau-aperture, AP its fine, PV its
verfed fine, and F the focus of parallel rays infinitely
near to the axis. Let the extreme ray a A, parallel to
the axis, be refracted into AG, eroding CF in f which
is therefore the focus of extreme parallel rays.
7 he reel angle of the fine of incidence, by the differ¬
ence of the fnes of incidence and ref rail ion, is to the
fquare of the fnc of refraction, as the verfed fine of the
femi-aperture is to the longitudinal aberration of the ex¬
treme rays.
Call the fine of incidence i, the fine of refraction r,
and their difference d.
Join CA, and about the centre f deferibe the arch
AD.
i he angle ACV is equal to the angle of incidence,
and CAjf is the angle of refraftion. Then, fince the
fine of incidence is to the fine of refraction as VF to CF,
or as Ay to Cf that is, as Dj to Cf, wc have
CF : FV ~ Cf: /D
by converfion CF : CV — Cf CD
altern. conver. CF—Cf: CV—CD—CF : CV
or - Yf -. VDzzrCF : CV, — r\d.
,T AP2 AP- AP2
Now PV = =r —nearly, and PD—'
■CP+CV’~2CV
AP2 1 AP2
nearly, — —nearly.
"/P+/V
Therefore PV : PD
2V v’ ~2FV
zr FV : CV, and DV : PV-CF : FV nearly.
We had above Yf: VD— r : d;
and now - VD : PV—CF : FV — r
therefore - F/: PVzr/-2 \ d if ’
and Yf — ~,x PV. E. D,
] TEL
I he aberration will be different according as the re-
fradtion is made towards or from the perpendicular;'
that is, according as r is lefs or greater than i. They
r2 i*
are in the ratio of -7—. to —, or of r^ to D. The ab-
d 1 d r
erration therefore is always much diminifhed when the
renadtion is made from a rare into a denfe medium.
1 ne proportion of the fines for air and glafs is nearly
that of 3 to 2, When the light is refradted into the
glafs, the aberration is nearly -y of PV j and when the
light paffes out of glafs into air, it is about £ of PV.
Cor. 1. Yf—
X
AP2
d
•AP2
X —, a ; nearly, and it is alfo =: —-
2CV J ’ d%
AP2
2FV
CV.
Cor. 2. Becaufe fY
or FV
2CV
PA —Yf -. FG
*AV—Fy*: FG nearly,
we have FG, the lateral aberration, — Fy'x
AV3
2FVl!
AV5
2C V2 *
AV
FV’
Cor. 3. Becaufe the angle F‘A fit, proportional to
very nearly, we have the angular aberration FAy=r
AV3
2FV3
= ^5 X
AV»
2CV3,
In general, the longitudinal aberrations from the fo¬
cus of central parallel rays are as the fquares of the a-
pertures diredlly, and as the focal difiances inverfely j
and the lateral aberrations are as the cubes of the aper¬
tures diredlly, and the fquares of the focal diffances in¬
verfely ; and the angular aberrations are as the cubes of
the aperture diredlly, and the cubes of the focal diflances
invetfely.
The reader muff have obferved, that to fimplify the
invefligation, fome fmall errors are admitted. PV and
PD are not* in the exadf proportion that we affumed
them, nor is Yif equal to FV. But in the fmall aper¬
tures which fuffice for optical inflruments, thefe errors
may be difregarded.
7 his fpherical aberration produces an indifiindlnefs
of vifion, in the fame manner as the chromatic aberra¬
tion does, viz. by fpreadmg out every mathematical
point of the objeef into a little fpot in its pidture j
which fpots, by mixing with each other, confufe the
whole. We muff now determine the diameter of the
circle of diffufion, as we did in the cafe of chromatic dif-
perfion.
Let a ray /3 u, (fig. 6.) be refraefed on the other fide
of the axis, into *H>, cutting A/G in H, and draw
the perpendicular EH. Call AM a, cM*, V/(or VF,
or V<p, which in this comparifon may be taken as equal)
—f Yf—b, and fY—Qx.
AV2 : «V2 = F/: Ftp (already demonffrated) and Ftp
= ^ F/-F?, (or/?) =b-fb,
Telefcope.
becaufe PV — —— nearly, and i \ d— FV
FG
Plate
DXXTX-
Fig. <J.
= Ti X
~cd, —X 0 -j-x X a-
Alfo P/: PA
-fE
TEL
[
Tekfcope.
=: J'E : EH, oxf:a — x\ —, = EH. And Ptt : Pip
. ax ax „
EPI : Ep, or « .f——- : —, = Ep. Therefore
J *■
f* =
-j- x, —
b
(i cc ys x
- X « -j- *. Therefore —
X — X tf-f* X
, x b
and -=—
a a1
X a — tty
and x
X ot, {a—x). Therefore x is greateft when
u X «—« is greatefl:; that is, when xz=.\a. Therefore
EH is greateft when P tt is equal to the half of AP.
When this is the cafe, we have at the fame time ~ X «
(a—and x~| b^ or EH—^FG. That
is, the diameter of the circle of aberration through which
the whole of the refrafted light muft pafs, is ^ of the
diameter of the circle of aberration at the focus of pa¬
rallel central rays. In the chromatic aberration it was
4 ; fo that in this refpe6l the fpherical aberration does
not create fo great confufion as the chromatic.
We are now able to compare them, fince we have
now the meafure of both the circles of aberration.
It has not been found poftihle to give more than four
inches of aperture to an objeft glafs of loo feet focal
diftance, fo as to preferve fufficient diftinftnefs. If we
compute the diameter of the circle EH correfponding
to this aperture, we (hall find it not much to exceed
   of an inch. If we reftrift the circle of chro-
I 20,000
matic difperfion to -^^-o °f aperture, which is hardly
the fifth part of the whole difperfion in it, it is
of an inch, and is about 1900 times greater than the
other.
The circle of fpherical aberration of a plano-convex
lens, rvith the plane fide next the diftant objeft, is equal
to the circle of chromatic difperfion when the femi-aper-
For we faw formerly that EH is 4
r* AP3
FG is =r-r ——and therefore
i* 2 AC*
AP
EG~4- X A/W-. This being made rr , gives us
ture is about I j" :
of FG, and that
AP3
AP
8 AC*
S^AC?
55 ’
55
which is nearly
AC
and corre-
fponds to an aperture of 30° diameter, if r be to i as
3 to 2.
Sir Ifaac Newton was therefore well entitled to fay,
that it 'was quite needlefs to attempt figures which
Ihould have lefs aberration than fpherical ones, while
the confufion produced by the chromatic difperfion re¬
mained uncoirefted. Since the indiftin&nefs is as the
fquares of the diameters of the circles of aberration, the
difproportion is quite beyond our imagination, even
when Newton has made fuch a liberal allowance to the
chromatic difperfion. But it muft be acknowledged,
that he has not attended to the diftribution of the light
in the circle of fpherical aberration, and has haftily fup-
pofed it to be like the diftribution of the coloured
light, indefinitely rare in the margin, and denfer in the
centre.
43 1
T E L
We are indebted to Father Bofcovich for the elegant Telefcope.
determination of this diftribution, which we have given ' v—-d
in the article Optics. From this it appears, that the
light in the margin of the circle of fpherical aberra¬
tion, inftead of being incomparably rarer than in the
fpaces between it and the centre, is incomparably denfer.
The indiftinflnefs therefore produced by the interfec-
tion of thefe luminous circumferences is vattly great,
and increafes the whole indiftinftnefs exceedingly. By
a grofs calculation which we made, it appears to be in-
creafed at leaft 500 times. The proportional indiftiruft-
nefs therefore, inftead of being 19.0* to 1, is only
or nearly 7220 to 1 j a proportion ftill fufti-
ciently great to warrant Newton’s preference of the re-
flefting telefcope of his invention. And we may now
obferve, that the reflefting telefcope has i-ven a great
advantage over a refracting one of the fame focal di¬
ftance, with refpedt to its fpherical aberration : For
we have feen (Cor. 2.) that the lateral aberration is
p* AV3
~ 2CV*"* This for a plano-convex glafs is nearly
9 AV3
 And the diameter of the circle of aberration
4 2CV*
9 AV3
is one-fourth of this, or X -rrrrr* In like manner,
16 2G v*
AV3
the lateral aberration of a concave mirror is ; and
2CV“
AV3
the diameter of the circle of difperfion is ; and
80 V*
therefore if the furfaces were portions of the fame fphere,
the diameter of the circle of aberration of refraCled rays
would be to that of the circle of aberration of reflected
rays as ^ to 4? or as 9 to 4» But when the refraCting
and reflecting furfaces, in the pofition here confidered,
have the fame focal diftance, the radius of the refraCting
furface is four times that of the reflecting furface. The
proportion of the diameters of the circles of fpherical
aberration is that of 9 X 4* to 4, or of 144 to 4, or 36
to 1. The diltinCtnefs therefore of the refleCtor is
36x36, or 1296 times greater than that of a plano¬
convex lens (placed with the plane fide next the diftant
objeCt) of the fame breadth and focal diftance, and will
therefore admit of a much greater magnifying power.
This comparifon is indeed made in circumftances molt
favourable to the refleCtor, becaufe this is the very worft
pofition of a plano-convex lens. But we have not as
yet learned the aberration in any other pofition. In
another pofition the refraCtion and confequent aberration
of both furfaces are complicated.
Before xve proceed to the confideration of this very
difficult fubjeCt, we may deduce from what has been al¬
ready demonftrated feveral general rules and maxims in
the conftruCtion of telefcopes, which will explain (to
fuch readers as do not with to enter more deeply into
the fubjeCl), and juftify the proportion which long prac¬
tice of the belt artills has fanCtioned.
IndiftinCtnefs proceeds from the commixture of the
circles of aberration on the retina of the eye : For any¬
one fenjible point of the retina, being the centre of a cir¬
cle of aberration, will at once be affeCled by the ad¬
mixture of the rays of as many different pencils of light
as there are fenfible points in the area of that circle, and
will convey to the mind a mixed fenfation of as many
H h a vifibls
TEL [ 244 ] TEL
Telefcope. vifible points of the objedf. This number will be as the
y area of the circle of aberrations, whatever be the fize of
a fenfible point of the retina. Now in vifion with tele-
fcopes, the diameter of the circle of aberration on the
retina is as the apparent magnitude of the diameter of
the correfponding circle in the focus of the eye-glafs j
that is, as the angle fubtended by this diameter at the
centre of the eye-glafs; that is, as the diameter itfelf
diredfly, and as the focal diftance of the eye-glafs in-
verfely. And the area of that circle on the retina is as
the area of the circle in the focus of the eye-glafs diredl-
ly, and as the fquare of the focal diftance of the eye-
glafs inverfely. And this is the meafure of the apparent
indiftindtnefs.
Cor. In all forts of telefcopes, and alfo in compound
microfcopes, an objedl is feen equally diftindl when the
focal diftances of the eye-glafies are proportional to the
diameters of the circles of aberration in the focus of the
objedt-glafs.
Here we do not conftder the trifling alteration which
well conftrudted eye-glafles may add to the indiftindtnefs
of the firft image.
In refradling telefcopes, the apparent indiftindlnefs is
as the area of the objedl-glafs diredlly, and as the
Iquare of the focal diftance of the eye-glafs inverfely.
For it has been fhown, that the area of the circle of
difperfion is as the area of the objedl-glafs, and that the
fpherical aberration is inlignificant when compared with
this.
Therefore, to make refledling telefcopes equally di-
ftinft, the diameter of the objedf-glafs muft be propor¬
tional to the focal diftance of the eye-glafs.
But in reflecting telefcopes, the indiftin&nefs is as the
fixth power of the aperture of the objefl-glafs dire&ly,
and as the fourth power of the focal diftance of the ob-
jed-glafs and fquare of the focal diftance of the eye-
glafs inverfely. This is evident from the dimenfions of
the circle of aberration, which was found proportional
AY*
t0 CV3 ‘
Therefore, to have them equally diftinft, the cubes
of the apertures muft be proportional to the fquares of
the focal diftance multiplied by the focal diftance of the
eye-glafs.
By thefe rules, and a ftandard telefcope of approved
goodnefs, an artift can always proportion the parts of any
inftrument he wilhes to conftruft. Mr Huyghens made
one, of which the obje6t-glafs had 30 feet focal diftance
and three inches diameter. The eye-glafs had 3.3
inches focal diftance. And its performance was found
fuperior to any which he had feen 5 nor did this appear
owing to any chance goodnefs of the ohjeft-glafs, be-
caufe he found others equally good which were con-
ftru&ed on ftmilar proportions. This has therefore been
adopted as a ftandard.
It does not at firft appear how there can be any diffi¬
culty in this matter, becaufe we can always diminifh the
aperture of the objeft-glafs or fpeculum till the circle of
aberration is as fmall as wTe pleafe. But by diminifhing
this aperture, we diminifh the light in the duplicate
ratio of the aperture. Whatever be the aperture, the
hrightnefs is diminifhed by the magnifying powder, which
fpreads the light over a greater furface in the bottom of
the eye. The apparent brightnefs muft be as the fquare
of the aperture of the telefcope direftly, and the fquare
of the amplification of the diameter of an obje£l inverfe- Telefcepe.
iy. Ohjedls therefore will be feen equally bright if the v—-y—^
apertures of the telefcopes be as the focal diftances of
the objedt-glaffes direbtly, and the focal diftances of the
fingle eye-glafs (or eye-glafs equivalent to the eye-piece)
inverfely. Therefore, to have telefcopes equally diftindl
and equally bright, wTe muft combine theie proportions
with the former. It is needlefs to go farther into this
fubjedf, becaufe the conftruftion of refra&ing telefcopes
has been fo materially changed by the corredtion of the
chromatic aberration, that there can hardly be given
any proportion between the objedt-glafs and eye-glaffes.
Every thing now depends on the degree in which we
can corredt the aberrations of the objedt-glafs. We
have been able fo far to diminifti the chromatic aberra¬
tion, that we can give very great apertures without its
becoming fenfible. But this is attended writh fo great an
increafe of the aberration of figure, that this laft be¬
comes a fenfible quality. A lens w'hich has 30° for its
femi-aperture, has a circle of aberration equal to its chro¬
matic aberration. Fortunately we can derive from the
very method of contrary refradtions, which we employ
for removing the chromatic aberration, a corredlion of
the other. We are indebted for this contrivance alfo to
the illuftrious Newton.
We call this Newton’s contrivance, becaufe he was
the firft who propofed a conftrudtion of an objedt-glafs
in which the aberration was corredted by the contrary
aberrations of glafs and water.
Huyghens had indeed fuppofed, that our all-wife
Creator had employed in the eyes of animals many re¬
fradtions in place of one, in order to make the vifion
more diftindt j and the invidious detradtors from New¬
ton’s fame have catched at this vague conjedture as an
indication of his knowledge of the poflibility of deftroy-
ing the aberration of figure by contrary refradtions. But
this is very ill-founded. Huyghens has acquired fuffi-
cient reputation by his theory of aberrations. The fcope
of his writing in the paffage alluded to, is to flrow that,
by dividing any intended refradtion into parts, and pro¬
ducing a certain convergence to or divergence from the
axis of an optical inftrument by means of two or three
lenfes inftead of one, we diminifti the aberrations four or
nine times. This conjedture about the eye was therefore
in the natural train of his thoughts. But he did not
think of deftroying the aberration altogether by oppofite
refradtions. Newton, in 1669, ^ays> that opticians need
not trouble themfelves about giving figures to their
glaffes other than fpherical. If this figure were all the
obftacle to the improvement of telefcopes, he could Ihow
them a conftrudtion of an objedt-glafs having fpherical
furfaces where the aberration is deftroyed ; and accord-
ingly gives the conftrudtion of one compofed of glafs and
water, in which this is done completely by means of con¬
trary refradtions.
The general principle is this: When the radiant
point R (fig. 7.), or focus of incident rays, and its con- Fig. 7.
jugate focus F of refradted central rays, are on oppofite
fides of the refradting furface or lens V, the conjugate
focus y"of marginal rays is nearer to R than F is. But
when the focus of incident rays R' lies on the fame fide
with its conjugate focus F' for central rays, R'/' is
greater than R' F'.
Now fig. 8. reprefents the contrivance for deftroy- Fig. 8.
ing the colour produced at F, the principal focus of the
convex
Tip 9.
to
TEL [245
Telefcope. convex lens V, of crown glafs, by means of the con-
  trary refraftion of the concave lens v of tlint glals. Ihe
incident parallel rays are made to converge to F by the
firtt lens. This convergence is diminifhed, but not en¬
tirely deftroyed, by the concave lens v, and the focus is
formed in F. F and F therefore are conjugate foci of
the concave lens. If F be the focus of V for central
rays, the marginal rays will be colledted at fome pointy
nearer to the lens. If F be now confidered as the focus
of light incident on the centre of v, and F' be the con¬
jugate focus, the marginal ray p F would be refrafted
to^lbme pointy' lying beyond F'. Therefore the mar¬
ginal ray pf may be refra&ed to F, if the aberration
of the concave be properly adjufted to that of the
convex. . r r u
This brings us to the mofl difficult part of our iub-
je£l, the compounded aberrations of different lurfaces.
"Our limits will not give us room for treating this in the
fame elementary and perfpicuous manner that we em¬
ployed for a Angle furface. We muft try to do it in a
compendious way, which will admit at once the different
furfaces and the different refractive powers of different
fubftances. This muft naturally render the procefs more
complicated ; but we hope to treat the fubjeCt in a way
eafily comprehended by any perfon moderately acquaint¬
ed with common algebra ; and we truft that our attempt
will be favourably received by an indulgent public, as
it is (as far as we know) the only differtation in our lan¬
guage on the conftruCtion of achromatic inftruments.
We^cannot but exprefs our furprife at this indifference
about an invention which has done fo much honour to
our country, and which now conftitutes a very lucrative
branch of its manufaClure. Our artifts infinitely furpafs
all the performances of foreigners in this branch, and
fupply the markets of Europe without any competition ;
yet it is from the writings on the continent that they
derive their fcientific inftruftion, and particularly fiom
the differtations of Clairaut, who has wonderfully fim-
plified the analyfis of optical propofitions. We (hall
freely borrow from him, and from the writings of Abbe
Bofcovich, who has confiderably improved the firft
views of Clairaut. We recommend the originals to the
curious reader. ClairauFs differtations are to be found
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Paris, 17 5^’ ^■c" ’
thofe of Bofcovich in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Bologna, and in his five volumes of Opufcula, pubhihed
at Baffano in 1785. To thefe may be added D’Alem¬
bert and Euler. The only thing in our language is the
tranflation of a very imperfe6l work by Schaerfer.
]
is nearly equal to
MX
MX*
2XH
2XG
TEL
-XG, and MH is nearly equal
Telefcope.
-fXH.
Prop. I. Let the ray m M, incident on the fpherical
furface AM, converge to G j that is, let G be the focus
of incident rays. It is required to find the focus F of
refra£led rays ?
Let m exprefs the ratio of the fine of incidence and
refraction ; that is, let m be to I as the fine of inci¬
dence to the fine of refra&ion in the fubftance of the
fphere.
Then - MG : GS=fin. MSH : fin. SMG,
and / - m : 1 =rfin. SMG : fin. SMH-,
therefore z/zxMG : GS^fin. MSH 1 fin. SMH.
Now S, MSH : S, SMHnrMH : HS. Therefore, finally,
m MG : GS=MH : HS.
Now let MS, the radius of the refracting furface, be
called a. Let AG, the diftance of the focus of incident
rays from the furface, be called v. And let AH, the
focal diltance of refraCted rays, be called x. Laftly, let
the fine MX of the femi-aperture be called e. Ob-
ferve, too, that a, r, x, are to be confidered as pofitive
quantities, when AS, AG, AH, lie from the furface in
the direction in which the light is fuppofed to move.
If therefore the refraCting furface be concave, that is,,
having the centre on that fide from which the light
comes •, or if the incident rays are divergent, or the re-
fraCted rays are divergent} then a, r, x, are negative
quantities.
It is plain that HSctat—a; GS~r—a; alfo AX
— — nearly. HX~a • G X ~r . Now add
2« 2a 2a
to HX and to GX their differences from MH and MG,
e* e*
which (by the Lemma) are — and —. We get MH
e
— + »
2a 2X
2x
and MG—r-
2 r
e* e*
2«^~ 2r
In order to
This will make
(horten our notation, make  
a
ke*
MG —r .
2
Now fubftitute thefe values in the final analogy at
the top of this column, viz. MH : HSir/w.MG : GS >
mk e7,
x—a—m r : r—a (or
it becomes x [ 
2a 2X
a r £), becaufe £=
a r
and a r k—r—a. Now mul-
Lemtna 1. In the right-angled triangle MXS (fig. 9.),
of which one fide MX is very fmall in comparifon of
either of the others : the excels of the hypothenufe MS,
, MX*
above the fide XS, is very nearly equal to 2^/jg or to
For if about the centre S, with the radius SM,
2XS
we deferibe the femicircle AMO, wre have AXxXO
=MX*. Now AXrzMS—SX, and XO, is nearly
equal to 2MS or 2XS-, on the other hand, MS is
MX*
nearly equal to XS+i and in lilie manner
tiply the extreme and mean terms of this analogy. It
is evident that it muft give us an equation which will
give us a value of x or AH, the quantity fought.
But this equation is quadratic. We may avoid the
folution by an approximation v/hich is fufficiently accu-
?
rate, by fubftituting for x in the fraction — (which is
very fmall in all cafes of optical inftruments), an ap¬
proximate very eafily obtained, and very near the truth.
This is the focal diftance of an infinitely (lender pencil
of rays converging to G. This we know by the com-
. 1 am r 1 •
mon optical theorem to be ——- ■.  . Let this be
m-
■ I r:
called
TEL
Telefcope. _ x
v~-" ■' called <p j if we fubftitute b in place of -
a
of <p becomes
a m
[ 246 ] T E L
.1 • 1 'i here Foie the aberration is exprefled by the fecond term, Telefcope,
which we muft endeavour to Amplify.
If we now perform the multiplication indicated by 
(w r—a r X (m k a ), it is plain that — m r
m )
tn—a k *
This gives us, by the by, an ealily remembered ex- ™ /
preflion (and beautifully Ample) of the refrafted focus ")(. fn k a deftroys the Arft term m r ay^m k of the nu-
of an infinitely (lender pencil, correfponding to any di- merator of our fmail fraction, and there remains of this
fiance r of the radiant point. For fince 0= —numerator (ni a1 r k*—a rl k1 cLf which is
m—a h ni ) ‘ 5
k    1 . .2 , (r k* r1 k* r3 k
l „ . m—a k
— mutt be — 
a k
« f v h* v*4 />* \
... We equal to  +
<P am a m a m a m \ m ma m}J
may even exprefs it more (imply, by expanding and
it becomes - = —   L..
<P
The denominator was r1 (m — ak)\ and the fraction
^ , m1 a* / k* p £3 \
now becomes — j Ji ez ^p.vu
m, / fc* fa* \ £*•
is evidently rr<p* (  —— Now recol-
\m r trr a ml l 2
logy employed above. The firft term of the analogy , , , 1 1 rT,, ^ ^3 / x t \
<?* e3 1 e3 hr* that k— . Therefore -—=r •— | - ) —
becomes x -j , or at . The ana- a r tn' m' \a r)
2a .2m 2m h* k' . « , - h' . — k'
tn a mr
Now put this value of — in place of the - in the ana-
ip x
logy now becomes x : x a —mr-
2 m
Hence we obtain the linear equation m r x
a r h e%
m h e3
ark.
 —. Therefore, inftead of , write
m3 a m3 r m3 a
k3 . f fr
■, and we get the fradlion (p*
m
m r
m k a e3
— m r a -i~ — ——a r k x
2
we finally deduce
m r a—i make3
x
2 m
a r k3 c3
2 m
j from which
F-
V w3
i!
Th3
e* \e2__ j/^3 m i3 mk3 /n3iz\e3
+ wh!ch !
t ,1—m(., nik3\ex
qual to 9  — J- and finally to-_<p
tr3 r
is e-
m— 1
/,, mk3\ e3
\ r / 2 *
Therefore the focal diftance of refrafled rays is x ~ <p
ttt r mSr aS. ^ 11 ™ ^ f . J nereiore me local dittani
We may Amplify this greatly by attending to the m j / mk3\ e3
-elementary theorem in fluxions, that the fraflion — <p3  —(^3 j —
, * mi \ r J 2.
.T-I-DC
— differs from the fraflion - by the quantity
y+y . y y 1 .
j this being the fluxion of - . Therefore
y y V A-V - ' ' s n
^ ' J ariflng from the fpherical figure of the refrading fur
face.
This confifts of two parts. The firft ;p is the focal di-
(lance of an infinitely flender pencil of central rays, and
m—1/._ mk3'
, ,m—i/,, mk3\e3 .
the other <p ~~~i — ~r~)~2 18 a^erraf3on
ar yx—xy
y y%
Now the preceding formula is near
.■y in this fituation. It may be written thus j
, , , , a r k3 e3\
tn r a (— ~m a k e3 — J
2 m
tn r—a r k —m k e3
Our formula has thus at lafl put on a very fimple
form, and is vaitly preferable to Dr Smith’s for prac¬
tice.
, '-This aberration is evidently proportional to the fquare
■> when the laft terms of the femi-aperture, and to the fquare of the dillance •
of the numerator and denominator are very fmall in b“l m 01 d“’° °t.ta'n'J?.15 rimPhc!t/' fevera> quantities
comparifon with the firft, and may be confidered as the werV'egle‘fted- Ihe aflnmptron of the equality of AX
x and y, while m r a is the -r, and m r — a r k is the y.
Treating it in this way, it may be dated thus :
mr a
+
to — is the fird fource of error. A much more ac¬
curate value of it would have been
2 a e3
m r — ark
/\ a3 e3
for it
(» r a)imt r-a r t) (In, i a e>+ reall>' = T^Tax' If for AX ''“bftitute its ap.
     2m J _
r3 {ni — a k)3
tn r a
r {m—flf)
proximated value —, we (hould have AX —
2 a
+
iiti r a~) mk — (zrc r — a r k~) (ymk a --r
.  m i
2 a e*
2a—~ —
2a
4 a3
The fird term
r3 {tn— a k)3
mr a tn a
X^e3
T^T)’or ,s ev,d£n1^
To have ufed this value wmuld not have
much complicated the calculus ; but it did not occur to
us till we had finidied the invedigation, and it would
have required the whole to be changed. The operation
in page 246. col. 1. par. 3. is another fource of error.
f , i^S1- J anoiner lource or error.
$>, t e local di.tance of an infinitely flender pencil. But thefe errors are very inconfiderable when the aper-
2 ture
TEL [ 247 ]
Telrfcope. ture is moderate. They increafe for the moft part with from N.f).
an increafe of aperture, but not in the proportion of
any regular funftion of it ; fo that we cannot improve
the formula by any manageable procefs, and mull be
contented with it. The errors are precifely the fame
with thofe of Dr Smith’s theorem, and indeed with thofe
of any that we have feen, which are not vaftly more
complicated.
As this is to be frequently combined with fubfequent
operations, we ihorten the expreffion by putting 0 for
m—x / .. m k*
TEL
Alfa let <4 be the tlucknefs of the lens. Telefrope-
Then obfcrve, that the focal diltance of the rays re-
frafted by the find furface, (neglefling the thicknefs of
the lens and the aberration of the fird furface), is the
didance of the ladiant point for the fecond refraction,or
is the focal didance of rays incident on the fecond fur¬
face. In place of r therefore we mud take <p ; and as
we made k ~ , in order to abbreviate the cal.
Fir
-(
)t
Then 6 will exprefs the
m’ \ r / 2
aberration of the fil'd refradtion from the focal didance
of an infinitely flender pencil 5 and now the focal dif-
tance of refrafted rays is/'— <p — 0.
If the incident rays are parallel, r becomes infinite, and
cuius, let us now7 make /:
m 7
m-
But in this cafe k becomes rr —, and
a
<?
m a
-r
•, and ip =r-
and 6 becomes
X
x —, = ■
(m—i)
This is the ab-
ni3 «3 2 2 m— \ )ma
erration of extreme parallel rays.
We mud now add the refra&ion of another furface.
Lemma 2. If the focal didance AG be changed by
a fmall quantity G/, the focal didance AH will alfo
be changed by a fmall quantity H //, and we diall have
rn • AG1: AH1 -Qg-.YLh.
Draw7 M g, M h, and the perpendiculars G H k.
Then, becaufe the fines of the angles of incidence are in
a condant ratio to the fines of the angles of refraftion,
and the increments of thefe fmall angles are proportion¬
al to the increments of the fines, thefe increments of the
angles are in the fame condant ratio. Therefore,
We have the angle CMg to HM h as m to x.
Now G §• : G z =r AG : AM,
and G i : h k — m' A.G : HA,
and h k : Wt = M A : AH :
therefore Gj- : H/z — wAG2 : AH2.
The eafied and mod perfpicuous method for obtain¬
ing the aberration of rays twice redrafted, will be to
confider the fird refraftion as not having any aberration,
and determine the aberration of the fecond refraftion.
Then conceive the focus of the fird refraftion as diifted
by the aberration. This will produce a change in the
focal diilance of the fecond refraftion, which may be
determined by this Lemma.
pRor. II. Let AM, BN (fig. 10.) be two fpherical
furfaces, including a redrafting fubdance, and having,
their centres C and c in the line AG. Let the ray a A.
pafs through the centres, which it will do without re¬
fraftion. Let another ray tn M, tending to G, be re¬
drafted by the fird furface into M H, cutting the fe¬
cond furface in N, where it is farther retrafted into
NI. It is required to determine the focal didance BI ?
It is plain that the fine of incidence on the fecond
furface is to the fine of refraftion into the furrounding
air as 1 to m. Alfo BI may be determined in relation
to BH, by means of BH, N.v, Be, and —, in the fame
— ml. as we made ——
m k
and make —
 . Ladly, in place of 8
u m
■ 1 /. mk'\ex . , / I \ .
\ m(p I 2 ?n \ tp / 2
Thus -we have got an expreflion fimilar to the other -y.
and the focal didance BI, after two refraftions, becomes
BI -f—f* (L
Bat this is on the fuppofition that B H is equal to <p,
whereas it is really <p—©2 8 — This mud occafion a
change in the value jud now obtained of BI. The
fource of the change is twofold, id, Becaule in the
value 4- — — , we mud put 4 v , and
b <p r b <p — 1
<p ' 1 b <p — <p:
becaufe we mud do the fame in the fraftion
/2
In
<P .
the fecond place, when the value of BH is diminifned
by the quantity <p2 0 -j- BI wall differ a change in the
proportion determined by the 2d Lemma. The fird
difference may fafely be neglefted, becaufe the value of
• , c* •
6 is very fmall, by reafon of the coefficient — being ve¬
ry fmall, and alfo becaufe the variation bears a very
fmali ratio to the quantity itfelf, when the true value of
<p differs but little from that of the quantity for wdxich it
is employed. The chief change in BI is that which is
determined by the Lemma. Therefore take from BI
?n
the variation of BH, multiplied by ——, which is very
nearly —
8 -f
w/s
r
mf2
BH2
The produft of this multiplication is
r
for the value of BI/^
This being taken from f, leaves us
f2 m co
9l
■f2 {m 6 -f- 8’).
In this value f is the focal didance of an infinitely
flender pencil of rays twice refrafted by a lens having
no thicknefs, « - is the fliortening cccafioned by the
thicknefs, and f2 (?n $ -j- 8’) is the effeft of the two
aberrations arifing from the aperture.
It wall be convenient, for ieveral collateral purpofes,
to exterminate from thefe formulae the quantities kf /
and cp. For this ptxrpofe make -=r-—-4 We have
nab
relation to AG, by already £
way that AH was determined in
means of AG, MX, AC, and m.
Let the radius of the fecond furface be b, and let e
fl ill exprefs the femi-aperture, becaufe it hardly differs
and-:
a r <p
and / —
:+
Now for—- write-
b a
and
TEL
Telefcope,
[ 248 ]
and we get /= — —
Therefore —
m a tn r n J b
m l (by conftru&ion, page 347. Prop. II.) becomes rz
1 l ( l ( m   m ( I 1 in—1 i 1
V’ =
m 1
-j 
n r
m—1 . 1
—, is the
r
fimpleft that can be imagined, and makes « as a fubfti-
tute for ——- j a molt ufeful fymbol, as we fhall fre¬
quently find in the fequel. It alfo gives a very fimple
cxpreflion of the focal diftance of parallel rays, which
we may call the principal focal diftance of the lens, and
diftingmlh it in future by the fymbol p ; for the expref-
„ 1 m
lion —
J n
- 4- becomes —:
r p
when the inci¬
dent light is parallel. And this gives us another very
fimple and ufeful meafure of f; for 4 becomes ~ —
f P
I ^ rpi n *1 Tfl"" - X I I j
+ inele equations - rz —, -zz  , and
r ^ f n ' r p n
ill
~z— --I—, deferve therefore to be made very familiar
f p r J
to the mind.
We may alfo take notice of another property of fl¬
it is half the radius of an ifofceles lens, which is equi¬
valent to the lens wdiofe radii are a and b : for fuppofe
the lens to be ifofceles, that is a—b ; then «=
a a
Now the fecond a is negative if the firft be pofitive, or
pofitive if the firft be negative. Therefore - — ~—
a b
i + b a + a 2 j 1 2 , a XT , r ,
—— ——— and— — — and n~~. Now the local
az c? a n a 2
. m— 1
diftance of this lens is  , and fo is that of the other,
and they are equivalent.
But, to proceed with our inveftigation, recollect that
1 1 . m—1 /, mlPX?
we had 0 — r f — 1 —. Therefore m 6 —
m’ \ r / 2
k' \ e* A , ?fl—1 /
And 6'was = -^- {—in' l'
in lz \ e%
4—^-y—• Therefore w 0-j-the aberration (ne-
t?7 r i b2
gledlmg the thicknefs of the lens is f*  ( — —
m \ in r
— in3 +  J —•
^ ) 2
If we now write for k, /, and <p, their values as de¬
termined above, performing all the neceffary multipli¬
cations^ and arrange the terms in fuch a manner as to
colleft in one fum the coefficients of a, n, and r, we (hall
find 4 terms for the value of tn 0, and 10 for the value
of 0'. The 4 are deftroyed by as many with contrary
figns in the value of 0', and there remain 6 terms to ex-
prefs the value of »20-}-0', which we fhall exprefs by one
iymbol 9 j and the equation Hands thus:
<7 =
/«—1
tin-
TEL
2 in* -j- m in -f- 2 3 np -g in Telefcope.
4 CT + 4 . 3 m\-2
a n*
+
aP n
n J 2 ‘
r t?
This laft value ot ~ (the reciprocal of the focus of a
flender pencil twice refradded), viz,
a r n ' rz..
1 he focal diftance therefore of rays twice refradled,
reckoned from the laft furface, or BI, corredfed for
aberration, and for the thicknefs of the lens, is j—f
in ct,
-fiT—f1?, confifting of three parts, viz./ the focal
diftance of central rays 5 /* -, the corre£tion for the
thicknefs of the lens \ and f1 q, the aberration.
I he formula at the top of this column appears very
complex, but is of very eafy management, requiring
only the preparation of the fimple numbers which form
the numerators of the fradlions included in the parenthe-
fis. When the incident rays are parallel, the terms va-
niftr which have r in the denominator, fo that only the
three firft terms are ufed.
We might here point out the cafes which seduce the
aberration exprefled in the formula laft referred to, to
nothing ; but as they can fcarcely occur in the objeft-
glafs of a telefcope, w-e omit it for the prefent, and pro¬
ceed to the combination of two or more lenfes.
Lemma 3. If AG be changed by a fmall quantity
G^, BI fuffers a change If, and G^ : I frrAG* :
BP. For it is well known that the fmall angles GM£
and IN i are equal 5 and therefore their fubtenfes G hy
I n are proportional to MG, NI, or to AG, AI nearly,
when the aperture is moderate. Therefore we have
(nearly)
G £ : I « : AG : BI
I« : If— AM : BI
G^ :G£— AG:AM
Therefore G ^ : I f = AG* : BP
Prop. III. To determine the focal diftance of rays
refratfted by two lenfes placed near to each other on a
common axis.
Let AM, BN (fig. 11.) be the furfaces of the firft Fig. ir.
lenfe, and CO, DP be the furfaces of the fecond, and
let /3 be the thicknefs of the fecond lens, and 5 the in¬
terval between them. Let the radius of the anterior
furface of the fecond lens be a1, and the radius of its
pofterior furface be b'. Let m> be to 1 as the fine of in¬
cidence to the fine of refra&ion in the fubftance of the
fecond lens. Laftly, let p' be the principal focal di¬
ftance of the fecond lens. Let the extreme or marginal
ray meet the axis in L after palling through both lenfes,
fo that DL is the ultimate focal diftance, reckoned from
the laft furface.
It is plain that DL may be determined by means of
a\ br, m\p\ and Cl, in the fame manner that BI was
determined by means of a, b, m, />, and AG.
The value of BI is f— m ot -— —- fz n.
(p1 ^ 1
Take from
this the interval and we have Clz=f~m 3 
fZ
/* q. Let the fmall part — mx— — £ /* q be ne-
glefted for the prefent, and let Cl be fuppofed = /.
As we formed p,/ and 7, by means of*, b, m, n, and
I
TEL r
Teletcopc. let us n0\v form and (f, for the fecond lens,
by means of a\ tn\ n', and r\ <p' will
be the focal diltance of a (lender pencil refra&ed by the
firft furface, /'will be the focal diftance of this pencil
after two refradlions, and c[ will be the coefficient of
the aberration, negletting the thicknefs and interval of
the lenfes.
• • • . /**
Proceeding in this way, DL will be —f — m
quantity m x
But becaufe Cl is really lefs thanyj by the
y', we muft (by Lemma 3.)
fubtraft the produdl of this quantity, multiplied by -^t-*
Bl*
(which is nearlyfrom f—tf.
By this procefs we (hall have
DL=/'_/"(^+73i+^)_/. (?+/)■
The firft term f of this value of DI is the focal di¬
ftance of a (lender pencil of central rays refradled by
both lenfes, negle&ing their thicknefs and diftance j the
i* 1 a ^ \ ,
iecond term, —f* (  —- J is the correftion
\ <P* /’ r <p,a )
neceflary for thefe circumftances j and the third term,
—-f* {q -j- el,)y *s t^e correftion for the aperture 2 e.
And it is evident that q' is a formula precifely fimilar to
q, containing the fame number of terms, and differing
only by the tn\ a', and r', employed in place of m, a,
«, and r.
It is alfo evident, that if there be a third lens, we
(hall obtain its focal diftance by a procefs precifely fimi¬
lar to that by which we obtained DL j and fo on for
any number of lenfes.
Thus have we obtained formulae by which the foci
of rays are determined in the moft general terms j and
in fuch a manner as (hall point out the connexion of
the curvatures, thickneffes and diftances of the lenfes,
with their fpherical aberrations, and with the final aber¬
ration of the compound lens, and give the aberrations in
feparate fymbols, fo that we can treat them by them-
ielves, and fubjeft them to any conditions which may
enable us to correft one of them by another.
We alfo fee'in general, that the corre&ions for the
thicknefs and diftance of the lenfes are exhibited in
terms which involve only the focal diftances of central
rays, and have very little influence on the aberrations,
and Kill lefs on the ratio of the aberrations of the dif¬
ferent lenfes. This is a moft convenient circumftance ;
for we may negleft them while we are determining q
and q\ and in determining the ratio of the focal di¬
ftances of the feveral lenfes, on which the corredlion of
the chromatic aberration chiefly depends. Therefore,
in the conftruftion of a compound lens for uniting the
different colours, we may negleft this correftion for the
thicknefs and diftance till the end of the procefs. When
vve apply it, we dial] find that, it chiefly affe&s the final
local diftance, making it fomewhat longer, but has
hardly any influence either on the chromatic or fpherical
aberration. We do not hefitate to fay, that the final
formula; here given are abundantly accurate, while they
Vgl. XX. Part I.
249 1 TEL
are vaftly more manageable than thofe employed by Telefco ?e
Euler or D’Alembert. We have calculated trigono- 1 »111
metrically the progrefs of the rays through one of the
glaffes, which will be given as an example, giving it a
very extravagant aperture, that the errors of the formu¬
las might be very remarkable. We found the real aber¬
ration exceed the aberration afligned by the formula by
no more than -y-^th part, a difference which is quite in¬
fig nificant. The procefs here given derives its (implici-
ty from the frequent occurrence of harmonic proportions
in all optical theorems. This enabled Mr Clairaut to
employ the reciprocals of the radii and diftances with i®
much (implicity and generality.
We confider it as another advantage of Mr Clairaut’s
method, that it gives, by the way, formulae for the
more ordinary queftions in optics, which are of wonder¬
ful fimplicity, and moft eafily remembered. The chief
problems in the elementary conftrudlion of optical in-
ftruments relate to the focal diftances of central rays.
This determines the focal diftances and arrangement of
the glaffes. All the reft may be called the refinement
of optics j teaching us how to avoid or corredt the in-
diftindtnefs, the colours, and the diftortions, which are
produced in the images formed by thefe Ample conftruc-
tions. We (hall mention a few of thefe formulae which
occur in our procefs, and tend greatly to abbreviate it
when managed by an experienced analyft.
Let tn be to 1 as the fine of incidence to the fine of
refradlion let a and b be the radii of the anterior and
pofterior furfaces of a lens ; let r be the diftance of the
radiant point, or the focus of incident central rays, and
jfthe diftance of the conjugate focus j and let / be the
principal focal diftance of the lens, or the focal diftance
of parallel rays. Make - equal to-—y; let the fame
n a b
letters a', b\ r', See. exprefs the fame things for a fecond
lens; and a", b'\ r", &c. exprefs them for a third j and
, I m—1 1 1 m'—1
on. 1 hen we have - — J— ; - — U
J n r J 1
1 . 1 _ , 1 c.
j-,, — — 4'~» otc*
r'
Therefore w7hen the incident .light is parallel, and r
. - . . I rn—1 1 m'—1 1
infinite, we have — =: ; — — : — —
/> n 7 p' n' 1 />"
rn”—x gtc
And when feveral lenfes are contiguous, fo that their
intervals may be neglefted, and therefore , belong¬
ing to the firftjens, becomes p belonging to the fecond,
we have
1  1  
m—1 111
in ^ r* /> r’
w'—1 ( m—1 _ I I.i.i
T"- ~+~ + r'~ ^ V+7
n" n n r’ p" ’/>''/> r
Nothing can be more eafily remembered than thefe
formulae, how numerous fo ever the glaffes may be.
Having thus obtained the neceffary analyfis and for-
I i mula,
TEL [ 25
Telefcope. mula, it now remains to apply them to the conftruftion
0£ &c]irornatic lenfes • in which it fortunately happens,
that the employment of feveral furfaces, in order to
produce the union of the differently refrangible rays, en¬
ables us at the fame time to employ them for correcting
each other’s fpherical aberration.
In the article Optics we gave a general notion of the
principle on which we may proceed in our endeavours
to unite the differently refrangible rays. A white or
compounded ray is feparated by refraClion into its com¬
ponent coloured rays, and they are diffufed over a fmall
angular fpace. Thus it appears, that the glafs ufed by
Sir Ifaac Newton in his experiments diffufed a white
ray, which was incident on its poiterior furface in an
angle of 30°, in fuch a manner that the extreme red
ray emerged into air, making an angle of 50° 21^' with
the perpendicular j the extreme violent ray emerged in
an angle of3 i°i5|-/5 and the ray which was in the
confines of green and blue, emerged in an angle of 50°
481'. If the fine of the angle 30° of incidence be call¬
ed 0.5, which it really is, the fine of the emergence of
the red ray tvill be 0.77 j that of the violet ray will be
0.78 j and that of the intermediate ray will be 0.77^,
an exact mean between the two extremes. This ray
may therefore be called the mean refrangible ray, and
the ratio of 77-J to 5c, or of 1.55 to 1, will very pro¬
perly exprefs the mean refraftion of this glafs ; and we
have for this glafs 772—1.5 tf. The fine of refraftion,
being meafured on a fcale, of which the fine of incidence
occupies 100 parts, wTill be 154 for the red ray, 1 95
for the mean ray, and 156 for the violet ray. This
number, or its ratio to unity, is commonly taken to re-
prefent the refra&ive power of the glafs. There is
fome impropriety in this, unlefs we confider ratios as
meafured by their logarithms: for if rri be 1, the fub-
ftance does not refratl at all. The refraftive power
can be properly meafured only by the reflation which
it produces; that is, by the change which it makes in
the direftion of the light, or the angle contained be¬
tween the incident and refrafted rays. If two fubftances
produce fuch deviations always in one proportion, we
fhould then fay that their relraftive powers are in that
proportion. This is not true in any fubftances •, but
the fines of the angles, contained between the refracted
ray and the perpendicular, are always in one propor¬
tion when the angle of incidence in both fubftances
is the fame. This being a cognifahle funtftion of the
real refraftion, has therefore been affumed as the only
convenient meafure of the refiaftive powers. Although
it is not ftriftly juft, it anfwers extremely well in the
moft ufual cafes in optical inftruments : the refraflions
are moderate ; and the fines are very nearly as the
angles contained between the rays and the perpendicu¬
lar } and the real angles of refraction, or deflections of
the rays, are almoft exactly proportional to tn—1. The
moft natural and obvious meafure of the refractive
powers would therefore be tn—1. But this would em-
barrafs fome very frequent calculations j and we there-
Jore find it beft, on the whole, to take m itfelf for the
meafure of the refractive power.
I he feparation of the red', violet, and intervening
rays, has been called difperjion ; and although this arifes
merely from a difference of the refractive power in re-
fpect of the different rays, it is convenient to diftmguifh
this particular modification of the refractive power by a
o ] TEL
name, and we call it the Dispersive Power of the re- Telefcope.
fracting fubftance. u—y—~
It is fufceptible of degrees; for a piece of flint-glafs
will refract the light, lo that when the fine of retrac¬
tion of the red ray is 77, the fine of the refraction of
the violet ray is nearly 78^; or if the fine of refraction of
the red ray, meafured on a particular fcale, is 1.54, the
fine of reflation of the violet ray is 1.57. The difper-
fion of this fubftance, being meafured by the difference
of the extreme fines of refration, is greater than the dif-
perfion of the other glafs, in the proportion of 3 to 2.
But this alone is not a fufficient meafure of the abfo-
lute difperfive power of a fubftance. Although the ratio
of 1.54 to 1.56 remains conftant, whatever the real mag¬
nitude of the refraftions of common glafs may be, and
though we therefore fay that its difperfive power is con¬
ftant, we know, that by increafiirg the incidence and
the refra&ion, the abfolute difperfion is alio increaled.
Another fubftance fhows the fame properties, and in a
particular cafe may produce the fame difperfion ; yet it
has not for this foie reafon the fame difperfive power.
If'indeed the incidence and the refradfion of the mean
ray be alfo the fame, the difperfive power cannot be laid
to differ; but if the incidence and the refraftion of the
mean ray be lefs, the difperfive power muft be confider-
ed as greater, though the adfrial difperfion be the fame ;
becaufe if we increaie the incidence till it becomes equal
to that in the common glafs, the difperfion will now be
increafed. The proper way of conceiving the difpeifion
therefore is, to confider it as a portion of the whole re¬
fraction ; and if we find a fubftance making the fame
difperfion with half the general refraction, we muft lay
that the difperfive quality is double ; becaufe by ma¬
king the refraction equal, the difperfion will really be
double.
If therefore we take 772 as a fymbol of the feparation
771
of the extreme rays from the middle rav, — is the na-
' m— 1
tural meafure of the difperfive power. We lhall exprefs
this in the Leibnitzian notation, thus - - - -- that we
m—1
may avoid the indiftinctnefs which the Newtonian no¬
tation would occafion when m is changed for m' or ttJ'.
It is not unufual for optical writers to take the whole
feparation of the red and violent rays for the meafure of
the difperfive power, and to compare this with the re¬
fracting power with refpeft to one of the extreme rays.
But it is furely better to confider the mean refration as
the meafure of the refrating power: and the deviation
of either of the extremes from this mean is a proper
enough mealure of the difpeifion, being always half of
it. It is attended with this convenience, that being in¬
troduced into our computations as a quantity infinitely
fmall, and treated as fuch for the eafe of computation,
while it is really a quantity of fenfible magnitude ; the
errors arifing from this fuppofition are diminilhed great¬
ly, by taking one half of the deviation and comparing
it with the mean refra61ion. This method has, how¬
ever, this inconvenience, that it does not exhibit at once
the refraefrive power in all fubftances refpeefting any
particular colour of light ; for it is not the ray of any
particular colour that fuffers the mean refraefrion. In
common glafs it is the ray which is in the confines of
the yellow and blue; in flint-glafs it is nearly the mid¬
dle
T E L [25
Te!er<iopc. Jle blue ray 5 and in other fubftances it is a difl'erent
ray. Thefe circumAances appear plainly in the different
proportions of the colours of the prifmatic fpe&rtam ex¬
hibited by different fubftances. This will be confidered
afterwards, being a great bar to the perfeftion of achro¬
matic inftruments.
The way in which an achromatic lens is conftiufted
is, to make ufe of a contrary refradlion of a fecond lens
to deftroy the difperfion or fpherical aberration of the
firft.
The firft purpofe will be anfwered if be equal to
— —For, in order that the different coloured rays
n
may be collefled into one point by two lenfes, it is only
neceffary that the reciprocal of the focal diftance
i] TEL
4. The radii of the furfaces a, b; a’, b'; a", b". Tel
The principal focal diftances, or the focal
diftances of parallel central rays, -
6. The focal diftance of the compound lens P.
7. The diftance of the radiant point, or of
the focus of incident rays on each lens r, r/ r".
8. The focal diftance of the rays refrafted
by each lens - - - f, fif¬
ty. The focal diftance of rays refracted by
the compound lens - - F.
10. The half breadth of the lens e. >
Alfo the following fublidiary values :
2.q
m—I /m'3
771 \ «3
I I
Za~b>'
277l1-\-771
ari1
7/z4-2
+ f~
1
3 7771 -f- 771
of rays refrafted by both, may be the fame for the "'”7—+ And ^ and q” muft be formed
extreme and mean rays, that is, that
771 d m — x
iri'-X-dtri'—1 1
—Z L -
7i' ' r
be of the fame value with
+
77/-
1
dm
r
dm'
, . , . , .. dfn d 771'
which muft happen it 1 — be—o, or
71 1 7V
This may be feen in another way, more
71 71
comprehenfible by fuch as are not verfant in thefe dif-
cuflions. In‘order that the extreme colours which are
feparated by the firft lens may be rendered parallel by
the fecond •, we have fhown already that 71 and 7/ are
proportional to the radii of the equivalent ifofceles
lenfes, being the halves of thefe radii. They are there¬
fore (in thefe fmall refractions) inverfely proportional to
the angles formed by the furfaces at the edges of the
lenfes. n' may therefore be taken for the angle of the
firft lens, and n for that of the fecond. Now the fmall
refraction by a prifm, whofe angle (alfo fmall) is is
tn—1 y,n. The difperfive power being now fubftituted
for the refraftive power, we have for this refraftion of
the prifm d 7ny. n'. This muft be deftroyed bv the op-
pofite refraction of the other prifm d /;/ x n. Therefore
cttz X n'—d771! x or —- cr — In like manner,
n n'
this effect will be produced by three lenfes if -4-
n tv
+ ^ be = °’ &C*
Laftly, the errors arifing from the fpherical figure,
which we expreffed by —R1 (y-J-y') will be corrected
if q-\-q' be rro. We are therefore to difcover the ad-
juftments of the quantities employed in the preceding
formulae, which will infure thefe conditions. It will
render the procefs more perfpicuous if we colledt into
one view the fignifications of our various fymbols, and
the principal equations which we are to employ.
1. The ratios to unity of the fines of mean
incidence in the different media are - /;z, 7n\ tti"
2. The ratio of the differences of the fines
of the extremes - . — u
dm1' ~ U'
3. The ratio
m—1
in the fame manner from m\ a\ tj j and from 7n!\ a!\
n", 7'", as y is formed from m, a, n, r.
3. Alfo, becaufe in the cafe of an objefl-glafs, r is in¬
finitely great, the laft term ^ in all the values j,i
~, -L, will vanifti, and we fhall alfo have F—P.
J
Therefore in a double objedl-glafs —=—f--
— --f -.
/* />'
• • I
And in a triple objeft-glafs — cr —
- +
771 1   I II
— '—p + p' + p'
Alfo., in a double object-glafs, the correction of fphe-
rical aberration requires q-\-q’—v.
And a triple objedt-glafs requires qJ^q’^^' — v.
For the whole error is multiplied by Fa, and by 4 j
and therefore the equation which correfts this error
may be divided by F* 4
This equation in the fourteenth line from the top
of the column, giving the value of y, y', q", may be
much fimplified as follows: In the firft place, they may
be divided by m, m\ or m", by applying them properly
to the terms within the parenthefis, and expunging them
from the denominator of the general fa&ors ^——-
m m'
m11— 1
 —. This does not alter the values of y, y', and q".
m'
In the fecond place the whole equations may be after¬
wards divided by m'—1. This will give the values of
q q' . y"
and
, which will ftill be equal to
771 1 772' I 772'—1
nothing if q-\-i -\-q" be equal to nothing.
This divifion reduces the general faftor
nr—1
772'
of y' to
And in the equation for q we obtain, in place of
m 1 , - „ 772 1
— the general factor
, the fa&or
or c. This
772 772' 1'
■will alfo be the faftor of the value of y" when the third
lens is of the fame fubftance with the firft, as is general-
I i 2 ly
TEL [ 252
relefrope^ ]y tfog cafe. And, in the third place, fince the rays in-
~ cident on the firft lens are parallel, all the terms vanifh
from the value of q in which - is found, and there re-
V
main only the three firft, viz.
n1 ar?
Performing thefe operations, we have
q __ tm* 2m-}-1 m-}-2\e*
ri—1 ~ V «3 an* m a* n J~2
q’ _ (m'1 2tn,-}-l
n‘—1 a'n'2 m'a'^n' r'n'* m'a'r’n'
rn'r'^n' J 2
q" =c(m'-2m+X , 2 , 3™ +1 _l 4("I+I)
v'—i W'3 a"?!"* //zV'V'"*- r",i
3m +
m" r"*
1)
n"J
m,'a"rt'n'
c(m + 2)
—li* m'1
a mo*
u(vi’ -*r 2)
?/ (3 w'-f-2) (m—i)*
z/*(2 /w'-j-i)
o'
4//(«'+i)(^z—1)
:0.
Arrange thefe terms in order, according as they are
1 1 1
*~7> or independent quanti-
faflors of-
ties. It puts on this form
c(m-\-2')
X ~r —^(2«+i)x i_2Ux
" am' o'*
1 OO—i) \ 1
\ (2'”+l)   — L)x-,+cm'+u>
(3«'-M) (k—0_„J m'*—1
] TEL
Let A be the coefficient of B that of A C that
a* a
°f D that of and E the fum of the independent
quantity ; that is, let A be — c(w + 2), 2=c(2 m4-i\
m ‘
D=a,(2m 4»K+0 (^-1)
m' \ \ j , f
and E rzcw*-f a* (3 i) —j)
« (3 w'-f-2) (w—1)*
■ u3 m'1 —
■ -p E—0.
Let us now apply this invelligation to the conftruc-
tion of an objedt-glafs j and we fhall begin with a
double lens. J & b
ConJlruBion of a Double Achromatic ObjeB-glafs.
Here we have to determine four radii a, b, a', and b\
Make «— 1. This greatly fimplifies the calculus, by
exterminating it from all the denominators. This gives
c . ^ . dm dm' , , (ln,i
for the equation the equation dmJ^. ■—-
ti n 1 fli
j dni , 1 dm
-O’ or dm = - rf-- and S' =-^' =-“• Alfo
we have r', the focal diflance of the light incident on the
lecond lens, the fame wdth the principal focal diftance p
of the firft lens, (neglecting the interval, if any). Now
I m—1
» w^ich in the prefent cafe is ~?n—1. Alfo
1 . r 1
is —and _ — —u^n{—
Make thefe fubftitutions in the values of —^— and
m—1
q'
—;—-> and w’e obtain the following equation :
Our final equation becomes
A^ B C D
a* a a'x a'
The coefficients of this equation and the independent
quantity are all known, from our knowledge of w,
m dm, dm! \ and wTe are to find the values of a and
a', and from them and n—\. to find the values of b
and b'.
But it is evidently an indeterminate equation, be-
caufe there are tw’o unknown quantities ; fo that there
may be an infinity of folutions. It muft be rendered
determinate by means of fome other conditions to which
it may be fubjeCled. Thefe conditions muft depend
on fome other circumftances which may direCl our
choice.
One circumftance occurs to us wdiich we think of
very great confequence. In the paffage of light from
one fubftance to another, there is alw’ays a confiderable
portion reflefted from the pofterior furface of the firft
and from the anterior furface of the laft $ and this re¬
flection is more copious in proportion to the refraCtion.
This lofs of light will therefore be diminifhed by mak¬
ing the internal furfaces of the lenfes to coincide ; that
is, by making bz=.a'. This will be attended with ano¬
ther advantage. If we put between the glafles a fub¬
ftance of nearly the fame refrafting power, w’e fhall not
only completely prevent this lofs of light, but w’e fhall
greatly diminifh the errors which arife from an imper-
feCl polifh of the furfaces.' We have tried this, and find
the effeCt very furprifing. The lens being polifhed im¬
mediately after the figure has been given it, and while
it was almoft impervious to light by reafon of its rough-
nefs, which w’as ftill fenfible to the naked eye, perform¬
ed as well as when finifhed in the fineft manner.
N. B. This condition, by taking aw7ay one refrac¬
tion, obliges us to increafe thofe which remain, and
therefore increafes the fpherical aberrations. And fince
our formulae do not fully remove thofe (by reafon of the
fmall quantities negleCted in the procefs), it is uncertain
whether this condition be the moft eligible. We have,
however, no direft argument to the contrary.
Let us fee what determination this gives us.
In this cafe-A rr 7-, =r-—1. For becaufe -
n' h a n
■ -^and «m, we have
Therefore —
a*
2
-- +1.
a
1 A 1 1
and - ■=. r.
a b a
Therefore, in our final
1 2 . . ,
equation, put  f-1 in P^ce of
and -
-i in
place
Telefcope.
Telefcope.
place of
T E
and it becomes
L
A-
[ 253 ] TEL
B-i-D—2C arch (that is, an arch of many degrees) is employed. Telefcope *
No radius ihould be admitted which is much lefs than 1
■i of the focal diftarice.
All this procefs will be made plain and eafy by an
a' ’ ~ ” '
4-E + D—C=o.
Thus have we arrived at a common affe£led quadratic example. # .
j Very careful experiments have lliown, that in corn-
equation, where - is the unknown quantity. It has the mon Crown-glafs the fine of incidence is to the fine of
a refraction as 1.526 is to I, and that in the generality of
dm ,
fiint-glafs it is as 1.604 to I* -^-^0 tliat =0.6054
—u. Therefore m — I rr 0.526 ; m! — 1 — 0.604 i
e— —= 0.87086. By thefe numbers we can com-
ml—i'
pute the coefficients of our final equation. We ffiall
find them as follows :
A~2.0I 2
£=3.529
C =1.360
13=—0.526
£=1.8659
The general equation (p. 252.col. 2.1in. 8.), when fub-
jefted to the affumed coincidence of the internal furfaces, is
common form p x* -^-q x-l^r—o, where p is =A—C,
q is equal to 2 C—B—D, r is equal to E-f D—C, and
x is equal to —.
a
f q r
Divide the equation by /», and we have «*+
P P
= 0. Make s— - and /=-, and w7e have
P P
Jf. t — O. This gives us finally -, or x~—^sz±=.
This value of - is taken from a fcale of which the
a
unit is half the radius of the ifofceles lens which is equi¬
valent to the firft lens, or has the fame focal diftance
with it. We muft then find (on the fame fcale) the
A—C E+D—2C
+ £ + I>—C=o. A—C is
value of £, viz. -—1, which is alfo the value of a'. =0.652 j B-f-D—2C is =0.283 ; and^ E-j-D—C is
= 0.020; and the equation with numerical coefficients
Having obtained a\ we muft find b' by means of the
equation -^ = -L__-I, and therefore i = 1 —-L
But Therefore — = —-+«—1.
Thus is our objeCl-glafs conftrufted ; and we muft
determine its focal diftance, or its reciprocal 4r. This
is =m—1—u (rn'—1).
0.652 0.283
-0.020=0, which correfponds to
is
a* a
the equation p x*-\-q x-\-rz=.o. We muft now make
q 0.283 , r 0.02
s—-. — ——0.434, and t—-, =—-—, =0.0307.
/>’ 0.652’ w p 0.652’ 0 1
1 0.434
P‘
a
This gives us the final quadratic equation — —
 0.0307=0. To folve this, we have—4^=0.217,
and ^ r1—0.0471. From this take /, which is =—0.0307
(that is, to 0.0471 add 0.0307), and we obtain 0.0778,
the fquare root of which is =0.2789. Therefore,
All thefe radii and diftances are meafured on a fcale
of which n is the unit. But it is more convenient to
meafure every thing by the focal diftance of the com- - =o.2170^^0.2789, which is either 0.4959
pound objeft-glafs. This gives us the proportion which a
" ~ ’ or—0.06x9. It is plain that the firft muft be preferred,
becaufe the fecond gives a negative radius, or makes the
firft furface of the crown-glafs concave. Now as the
convergence of the rays is to be produced by the crown-
glafs, the other furface muft become very convex, and
occafion great errors in the computed aberration. We
therefore retain 0.4959 for the value of and a is
all the diftances bear to it. Therefore, calling P unity,
in order to obtain — on this fcale, we have only to ftate
a
and A is
the analogy m—1—u (m'—1) : i=~ : -=,
the radius of our firft furface meafured on a fcale of
which P is the unit.
If, in the formula which ex'preftes the final equation
for the value of t ffiould be pofitive, and greater than
a
l- p, the equation has imaginary roots ; and it is not
poffible with the glaiTes employed, and the conditions
alliimed, to correft both the chromatic and fpherical
aberrations.
If t is negative and equal to | P, the radical part of
the value is =0, and ^=—•§■ j. But if it be negative
or pofilive, but lefs than s*, the equation has two real
roots, which will give two conftru<ftions. That is to
be preferred which gives the fmalleft curvature of the
iurfaces ; becaufe, fince in our formulae which deter¬
mine the fpherical aberration fome quantities are ne-
glefled, thefe quantities are always greater when a large
—   , =2.0166.
0.4959
To obtain b, ufe the equation £- = “ —E which gives
1 = 0.5041, and therefore a convex furface. b is
therefore =
0.5041
-=1.9837.
a’ is the fame with £, and —=—0.5041.
To obtain b', ufe the equation ^= Now v=
0.6054, and-=—0:5041. The furn of thefe Is-
0.10134-
/
TEL [ 254 3 TEL
Teiefcope. 0.1013 ; and fince it is pofitive, the furface is concave.
b'--
-9.872.
.1013
Laftly,—I—u{ni—1) =0.1603, and P=
 \—, =0.2383.
0.1603 0 D
Now to obtain all the meafures in terms of the focal
diftance P, we have only to divide the meafures already
found by 6.2383, and the quotients are the meafures
wanted.
Therefore
 2.0166
a~ 6.2383
£=i_9837
6.2383
«'= - *
■=0.32325
=—0.31798
=—0.31798
9-87
6.2383
1.5825
If it be intended that the focal diflance of the objeft-
glafs (hall be any number n of inches or feet, we have
only to multiply each of the above radii by «, and we
have their lengths in inches or feet.
Thus we have completed the inveftigation of the con-
ftru£tion of a double objeft-glafs. Although this was
intricate, the final refult is abundantly fimple for prac¬
tice, efpecially with the affiftance of logarithms. The
only troublefome thing is the preparation of the nume¬
rical coefficients A, B, C, D, E of the final equation.
Strift attention muft alfo be paid to the pofitive and ne¬
gative figns of the quantities employed.
We might propofc other conditions. Thus it is natu¬
ral to prefer for the firft or crown-glafs lens fuch a form
as {hall give it the fmalleft poffible aberration. This
will require a fmall aberration of the flint-glafs to cor-
re£t it. But a little refle&ion will convince us that this
form will not be good. The focal diftanee of the
crown-glafs muft not exceed one-third of that of the
compound glafs; thefe two being nearly in the propor¬
tion of dm'—dm to dm!. Therefore if this form be
adopted, and a be made about -£th of b, it will not ex¬
ceed ^-th of P. Therefore, although we may produce
a moft accurate union of the central and marginal rays
by oppofite aberrations, there will be a confiderable
aberration of fome rays which are between the centre
and the margin.
It is abfolutely impoffible to colleft into one point
the whole rays (though the very remoteft rays are united
with the central rays), except in a very particular cafe,
which cannot obtain in an objeft-glafs ; and the fmall
quantities which are negle&ed in the formula which we
have given for the fpherical aberration, produce errors
which do not follow any proportion of the aperture
which can be expreffed by an equation of a manageable
form. When the aperture is very large, it is better
not to correft the aberration for the whole aperture, but
for about -|ths of it. When the rays correfponding to
this diftance are made to coincide with the central rays
by means of appofite aberrations, the rays which are be¬
yond this diftance will be united with fome of thofe
which are nearer to the centre, and the whole diffufion
will be confiderably diminifhed. Dr Smith has illuftrated
this in a very perfpicuous manner in his theory of his Teiefcope.
Catoptric Microfcope. v——y—
But although we cannot adopt this form of an ob-
jeft-glafs, there may be other confiderations which
may lead us to prefer feme particular form of the crown-
glafs, or of the flint-glafs. We {hall therefore adapt
, . A B C D „
our general equation —   --j-E = o to
a* a an a
this condition.
Therefore let h exprefs this fele&ed ratio of the two
radii of the crown-glafs, making ^-=^ (remembering al¬
ways that a is pofitive and b negative in the cafe of a
double convex, and h is a negative number).
With this condition we have ~= -. But when we
b a
make n the unit of our formula of aberration,
Therefore 1= , and - =
1 — fi
Now fubftitute
this for - in the general equation, and change all the
figns (which ftill preferves it =0), and we obtain
A B
~+ 5.—E-
/2/z 1 n'
By this equation we are to find or the radius of
the anterior furface of the flint-glafs. The equation is
of this form a?-}-r=o, and we muft again make
j= - and /= -. Therefore s~ ^, and /= -^r X
p p C C
(-*L- A —e). Then, finally,
\i—/i (1—/o* /
It may be worth while to take a particular cafe of
this condition. Suppofe the crown-glafs to be of equal
convexities on both tides. This has fome advantages :
We can tell with precifion whether the curvatures are
precifely equal, by meafuring the focal diftance of rays
reflefted back from its pofterior furface. Thefe diftances
will be precifely equal. Now it is of the utmoft im¬
portance in the conftruftion of an objeft-glafs which is
to corredt the fpherical aberration, that the forms be
precifely fuch as are required by our formulas.
In this cafe of a lens equally convex on both fides
- is =— = -. Subflitute this value for - in the
a b 2 a |
, . A B C A _
general equation —   — — ^ +E = o, and
then —=A- A. becomes —. Now change all the
a* 4 7 2
. , C . D ,, A B
figns, and we have — -4 7 — E 4 =0, by
6 ’ a'% a' 4 2
which we are to find a'. This in numbers is ■—r"—
a'1
0.526.
E L
Telefcope
—O.C26
Then s= >—,
1.36°
[ 25
= 0.3867,
and 0.4444. Then —i^o.1933;
1.36°
|j*=0.0374 5 and x/ i S1—/=:
:o.694i j fo that
=o.1933=^:0.6941. This gives two real roots, viz.
0.8874, and —0.5008. If we take the firft, we (hall
have a convex anterior furface for the fiint-glafs, and
confequently a very deep concave for the polierior fur-
face. We therefore take the fecond or negative root
—o. coo8.
1 , • 1 1 .
We find as before, by the equation -
O.1046, which will give a large value of
We
had
a 2
and
and -p- is the fame as in the former cafe, viz, 0.1603.
Having all thefe reciprocals, we may find a, b, a\ b',
and P j and then dividing them by P, we obtain finally
a — 0.3206
b ——0.3206
a'——0.3201
b'= 1-533
P— 1.
By comparing this objea-glafs with the former, we
may remark, that diminiftiing a a little increafes by and
in this refpeft improves the lens. It indeed has dimi-
nilhed b', but this being already confiderable, no incon¬
venience attends this diminution. But we learn, at the
fame time, that the advantage mujl be very fmall \ for
we cannot diminidi a much more, without making it as
fmall as the fmalleft radius of the objeft-glafs. This
proportion is therefore very near the maximum, or belt
poflible 5 and we know that in fuch cafes, even con¬
fiderable changes in the radii will make but fmall
changes in the refult: for thefe reafons we are difpofed
to give a ftrong preference to the firlt conltruftion, on
account of the other advantages which we fiiowed to at¬
tend it.
As another example, we may take a cafe which is
very nearly the general practice of the London artilts.
The radius of curvature for the anterior furface of the
convex crown-glafs is -^ths of the radius of the poftenor
furface, fo that =i This being introduced into the
determinate equation, gives
a — 0.2938 a' — — ° 3443
b — —O.3526 b — 1.1474
As another condition, we may fuppofe that the fecond
or fiint-glafs is of a determined form.
This cafe is folved much in the fame manner as the
former. Taking h to reprefent the ratio of a' and b\ we
have —/=r 7.
a 1—h
. A B C D , „
general equation --———-r— — °> glveS us
o 1 a a a 2 a
This value being fubftituted in the
B v C
T+ ^ (i—^):
D
-=0. This gives for
5 ] TEL
the final equation x ^ -f- r *-f. t =0, s :
B , I Telefcope.
A-and'=A'-V—’
x(e_-
D
(1-/01
and - =   0 -t
a 2
We might here take the particular cafe of the fiint-
glafs being equally concave on • both lides. Then be-
caufe  u, and in the cafe of equal concavities
it is fufficient to
put — - « for
A BCa1
This being done, the equation becomes —— -f.
Du
. . B
-f-E — o. This gives jr: —, and t —
A
X
(aDu 2C« 1 \
~+E>
We imagine that thefe cafes are fufficient for {bow¬
ing the management of the general equation 5 and the
example of the numerical folution of the firil cafe affords
inftances of the only niceties which occur in the procefs,
viz. the proper employment oi the pofitive and negative
quantities.
We have oftener than once obferved, that the formu¬
la is not pevfedlly accurate, and that in very large aper¬
tures errors will remain. It is proper therefore, when
we have obtained the form of a compound objeft-glafs,
to calculate trigonometrically the progrefs of the light
through it } and if we find a confiderable aberration,
either chromatic or fpherical, remaining, ive muff make
fuch changes in the curvatures as will correct them.
We have done this for the firft example j and we find,
that if the focal diffance of the compound objedbglafs
be 100 inches, there remains of the fpherical aberration
nearly -j-th of an inch, and the aberration of colour is
over corre&ed above -gth of an inch. The firft aberra¬
tion has been diminhhed about 6 times, and the other
about 30 times. Both of the remaining errors will be
diminiihed by increafing the radius of the inner furfaces.
This will diminilh the aberration of the crown glafs, and
will diminilh the difperfion of the flint more than that of
the crown. But indeed the remaining error is hardly
worth our notice.
It is evident to any perfon converfant with optical
difeuffions, that we lhall improve the correftion of the
fpherical aberration by diminilhing the refra&ions. If we
employ ttvo lenles for producing the convergency of the
rays to a real focus, we lhall reduce the aberration to
^th. Therefore a better achromatic glafs will be form¬
ed of three lenfes, two of which are convex and of crown-
glafs. The refraftion being thus divided between them,
the aberrations are leflened. There is no occafion to
employ two concave lenfes of fiint-glafs j there is even
an advantage in ufing one. The aberration being con¬
fiderable, lefs of it will ferve for correfting the aberra¬
tion of the crown-glafs, and therefore fuch a form may
be felefted as has little aberration. Some light is in¬
deed loft by thefe two additional furfaces j but this is
much more than compenfated by the greater apertures
which we can venture to give when the curvature of the
furface is fo much diminiihed. We proceed therefore to
The Conftru&ion of a Triple Achromatic Objefi-glafs.
It is plain that there are more conditions to be af- -
fumed
TEL
C 256 ]
TEL
Telefcope. fumed before we can render this a determinate problem,
and that the inveftigation mu ft be more intricate. At
the fame time, it muft give us a much greater variety of
conftruftions, in confequence of our having more con¬
ditions neceffary for giving the equation this determi¬
nate form. Our limits will not allow us to give a full
account of all that may be done in this method. We
(hall therefore content ourfelves with giving one cafe,
which wdll fufficiently point out the method of proceed¬
ing. We {hall then give the refults in fome other eligi¬
ble cafes, as rules to artifts by which they may conftruft
fuch glaffes.
Let the firft and fecond glaffes be of equal curva¬
tures on both fides •, the firft being a double convex
of crown-glafs, and the fecond a double concave of flint-
glafs.
Still making n the unit of our calculus, we have in the
firft place a — — rr—a\ = b'. Therefore —,—7,——
G-J)'
I  I 
n' n
dm' dt
o becomes u •
Therefore the equation
u 1
i + —-= o, or —
r= 1. Let us call this value u'.
u
We have m—15 —zz — lm'—1) j — u'
p 1 p' K p"
— (m — 1).
And if we make m' — m — C, we {hall have L= — C,
+ a'(«2 = r). Alfo -p- ~ m — 1 j —• ~ m — 1 —
— m — — — C'.
The equality of the two curvatures of each lens gives
-=-L. Therefore - ——4 j — ,1 —4 =§ J and
a zn a b a' bt
J__ J 1 l ,
W ~ a" n" ’ ~ a" “ *
Subftituting thefe values in the equation (p. 252.col. 2.
par. 1.), we obtain the three formulae.
r ( ra -f- 2)
I.
c m*-— 4 c (2 r« -J-1) +
4 m
  m’ 2 + 4 (2 ?n'+1) — +
4 m
2(»/+i) (w—1) (3wz' + 2) (m—1)*
m' m'
C?/*(2W+I) C«,(»j+2) . „
3. C u> 3 ^ —C*U
. .N , 4cc'«'O + 0 , cd'u'tem+i) _
13 m +1 i-i    — o.
r y* 1 ma" 1 m
Now arrange thefe quantities according as they are co¬
efficients of and of -L, or independent quantities. Let
the coefficient of ~ be A, that of 4r be B, and the
a"* a"
independent quantity be C, we have
A c[) M
m v 1 m
c( tn -4-
3ndC = ffn‘+ l__J+4(2 m' + i) + (3 w' + 1)
z' . »» . . cc/I ^ (3 W+2)
(w — 1) + c d* rnx-\ ^— -—-
tfi’2 2(?w' + l)(w—l)
4^(2 W+l)
(3ffl+2) (ffl—l)*
m'
B , r
—-{-C=o.
Telcfcope.
4 m m
— ccr u" (3 W + x).
Out equation now becomes
am
This reduced to numbers, by computing the values
. , „ . . 1.312 1.207
of the coefficients, is -  °-3257 = o.
This, divided by 1.312, gives x =r — 0.92 j and/=z  
O.2482J —^sz=o.^6-, 4 j*= 0.2116; and ;
: z±i 0.6781.
And, finally,
— zro.46riro.678r.
This has two roots, viz. 0.2181 and — 1.1381.
The laft would give a fmall radius, and is therefore re-
jefted.
Now, proceeding with this value of and the ~, wTe
get the other radius and then, by means of u1, we get
the other radius which is common to the four furfaces.
, c’, we get the value of P.
Then, by — L,
’ y P —p"
The radii being all on the fcale of which u is the
unit, they muft be divided by P to obtain their value on
the fcale wdiich has P for its unit. This will give us
a — —by rr _ = V, — 0.530
a"— 1*215
b"—  0.3046
Prz 1.
This is not a very good form, becaufe the laft furface
has too great curvature.
We thought it worth while to compute the curvatures
for a cafe where the internal furfaces of the lenfes coin¬
cide, in order to obtain the advantages mentioned on a
former occafion. The form is as follows :
The middle lens is a double concave of flint-glafs j
the laft lens is of crown-glafs, and has equal curvatures
on both fides. The following table contains the
dimenfions of the glaffes for a variety of focal di-
ftances. The firft column contains the focal diftances
in inches j the fecond contains the radii of the firft; fur-
face in inches j the third contains the radii of the pofte-
rior furface of the firft lens and anterior furface of the
fecond; and the fourth column has the radii of the
three remaining furfaces.
P
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
a
9.25
i8-33
27-33
36.42
45-42
54-5
63-5
72.6
81.7
90.7
Z>, a!
6.17
I 2.2 C
18.25
24-33
3°-33
36.42
42-5
48-5
54-58
60.58
b\ a", b"
25-5
S8-1?
50.92
63.58
76.33
89.
10I-75
114.42
127.17
We have had an opportunity of trying glaffes of this
conftru&ion, and found them equal to any of the fame
length, although executed by an artift by no means ex¬
cellent in his profeflion as a glafs-grinder. This very
circumftance
TEL [25
Telfecope. drcumftance gave us the opportunky of leeing the good
effects of interpolxng a tranfparent fubftance between the
glaffes. We put iome clear turpentine varnUh between
them, which completely prevented all retie ft ion from
the internal furfaces. Accordingly thefe telefcopes
were furprifingly bright 5 and although the roughnefs
left by the firtt grinding was very perceptible by the na¬
ked eye before the glades were put together, yet when
joined in this manner it entirely dilappeared, even when
the glafies were viewed with a deep magnifier.
The aperture of an objeft-glafs of tills conitruciion
of 30 inches local diitance was inches, which is
confiderably more than any of Mr Dollond’s that we
have feen.
If we Ihoul J think it of advantage to make all the three
lenles ifolceles, that is, equally curved on both furfaces,
the general equation will give the following radii :
# =-}-0.639 a'——O.52B5 +0.6413
b— — 0.639 £'= + 0.5285, £" = —0.6413
This feems a good form, having large radii.
Should we choo'e to have the two crown-glafs lenfes
ifofceles and equal, we tuuft make
« =+ 0.6412 a' — — 0.5227 d"= +0.6412
£ = —-0.6412 £'=+0.5367 £" = —0.6412
This form hardly differs from the laft.
Our readers will recolleft that all thefe forms proceed
on certain meafures of the refraftive and difperuve powers
of the fubllances employed, which are exprefled by /«, m ,
dand dm': and we may be allured that the iormulae
are fufficiently exact, by the comparifon (wnich we have
made in one of the cafes) of the refult of the formula
and the trigonometrical calculation of the progrefs of
the rays. The error was but -^th of the whole, ten
times lefs than another error, which unavoidably re¬
mains, and will be confidered prefendy. Ihefe mea¬
fures of refraftion and difperfion were carefully taken 5
but there is great diverfity, particularly in the flint-
olafs. We are well informed that the manufafture of
this article has confiderably changed of late years, and
that it is in general lefs refraftive and lefs difperfiye
than formerly. This muff evidently make a change in
the forms of achromatic glaffes. The proportion of the
focal dillance of the crown-glaffes to that ol the llint
mull be increafed, and this will occafion a change in the
curvatures, which {hall correft the fpherical aberration.
We examined with great care a parcel of flint-glafs
which an artift of this city got lately for the purpofe of
making achromatic objeft-glaffes, and alfo feme very
white crown glafs made in Teith j and we obtained the
follo wing meafures
= 1.529
d
d m'
142
219'
: O.6484T.
We computed fome forms for triple objeft glaffes
made of thefe glafiV s, which we lhall fubjoin as a fpe-
cimen of the variations which this change of data will
occafion.
If all the three lenfes are made ifofceles, we have
o — •+ 0.796
£ = — 0.796
£'
= + 0.502
£" =
•O. C02
— O.474
+ °-474
Or
«' = — O.475
£'= . 0.475
If the middle lens be ifofceles, the two crown-glafs
Vol. XX. Part I.
a =
£ =
0.504
■ 0.504
a" = + O.793
b" — — 0.793
7 ] TEL
ler.fes may be made of the fame form and focal dillance, Telefcope-^
and placed the fame way. This will give us
a — + 0.705 a'= — 0.475 <7"= +0.705
£ = — 0.547 £' = + C147 5 £" = — 0.547
N. B. This conftruftion allows a much better form,
if the meafure* of refraftion and dilperlion are the fame
that we ufed formerly. For we fpall have
a— +0.628 a' = —0.579 fl"= +0.628
£ = — 0749 £'= + 0.579 £" = —0.749
And this is pretty near the praftice of the London op¬
ticians.
We may here obferve, upon the whole, that an ama¬
teur has little chance of fucceeding in thefe attempts.
The diverfity of glaffes, and the uncertainty ot the
workman’s producing the very curvatures which he in¬
tends, is fo great, that the objeft-glafs turns out different
from our expeftation. The artiff who makes great
numbers acquires a pretty certain guefs at tne remain-^
ing error ; and having many lenfes, intended to be of
one form, but unavoidably differing a little from it, he
tries feveral of them with the other two, and finding
one better than the reft, he makes ufe of it to complete
the fet.
The great difficulty in the conftruftion is to find the
exaft proportion of the difpei'Lve powers of the crown
and flint-glafs. The crown is pretty conftant; but
there are hardly two pots of flint-glafs which have the
fame difperfive power. Even if conftant, it is difficult
to meafure it accurately; and an error in this greatly
affefts the inftrument, becaufe the focal diftances of the
lenfes muft be nearly as their difperfive powers. The
method of examining this circumftance, which we found
moft accurate, was as follows :
The fun’s light, or that of a brilliant lamp, paffed
through a fmall hole in a board, and fell on another
board pierced alfo with a fmall hole. Behind this was
placed a fine prifm A (fig. 14.), which formed a fpec- Fig. 14.
trum ROV on a fereen pierced with a fmall hole. Be¬
hind this was placed a prifm B of the fubftance under
examination. The ray which was refrafted by it fell on
the wall at D, and the diftance of its illumination from
that point to C, on which an unrtfrafted ray would
have fallen, was carefully meafured. This ftiowed the
refraftion of that colour. Then, in order that we might
be certain that we always compared the refraftion of the
fame precife colour by the different prifms placed at B,
we marked the precife pofition of the prifm A when the
ray of a particular colour fell on the prifm B. This was
done by an index AG attached to A, and turning with
it, when we caufed the different colours of the fpeftrum
formed by A to fall on B. Having examined one prifm
B with refpeft to all the colours in the fpeftrum formed
by A, we put another B in its place. Then bringing A
to all its former pofitions fucceffively, by means of a gra¬
duated arch HGK, we were certain that when the in¬
dex was at the fame divifion of the arch it was the very
ray which had been made to pafs through the firft prifm
B in a former experiment. We did not folicitoufly en¬
deavour to find the very extreme red and violent rays;
becaufe, although we did not learn the wdrole difperfions
of the two prifms, we learned their proportions, which is
the circumftance wanted in the conftruftion of achroma¬
tic glaffes. It is in vain to attempt this by meafuring
the fpeftrums themfelves •, for we cannot be certain o£
K k felcfting
T E L [ 2;
relefting llie very fame colours for lire comparifon, be-
caufe they lucceed in an inienfible gradation.
i ne inteiiigent reader will readily obferve, that we
have hitherto proceeded on the luopontion, that when,
by means of contrary refractions, we have united the
extreme red and violet rays, we have alfo united all the
others. But this is <]uite gratuitous. Sir Ifaac Newton
would, however, have made the lame fuppofilion j for
he imagined that the different colouis divided the fpec-
tium formed by all fubltances in the proportions of a
inufical canon. This is a miftake. When a fpectrum
is formed by a prifm of crown glafs, and another of pre-
cufcly the fame length is formed by the fide of it by a
pn!m of fhnt-glafs, the confine between the green and
blue will be found precifely in the middle of the firft
fpeftrum, but in the fecond it will be conliderably
nearer to the red extremity. In ffiort, different fub-
ffances do not difperfe the colours in the fame propor¬
tion.
i. he effeef of this irrationality (To to call it) of difper-
fion, will appear plainly, we hope, in the following man-
log. 12. ner : Let A (fig. 12.) reprefent a fpot of white folar
light falling perpendicularly on a wall. Suppofe a prifm
of common glafs placed behind the hole through which
the light is admitted, with its refrafting angle facing
the left hand. It will refrafl the beam of light to the
right, and will at the fame time difperfe this heteroge¬
neous light into its component rays, carrying the ex-
tieme red ray from A to R, the extreme orange from
A to O, the extreme yellow from A to Y, &c. and
will form the ufual pril'matic fpearum ROYGBPVC.
If tne whole length RC be divided into 1000 parts, we
fhall have (when the whole refraftion AR is fmall)
RO very nearly 125, RY=200, RG-322, RB=rcoo,
RP—667, RV—778, and RC=:iooo; this being the
proportion obferved in the differences of the fines of re-
fraftion by Sir Ifaac Newton.
Perhaps a refracting medium may be found fuch, that
a prifm made of it would refradt the white light from A',
in the upper line of this figure, in fuch a manner that a
fpearum R'O'Y'G'B'P'V'C' (hall be formed at the fame
diftance from A', and of the fame length, but divided
in a different proportion. We do not know that fuch a
medium has been round ■, but we know that a prifm of
ilint-glafs iias its refraaive and difperfive powers fo con-
liituted, that if A'K' be taken about one-third of AR, a
fpot of white light, formed by rays falling perpendicu¬
larly at IT , will be fo refraaed and difperfed, that the
extreme red ray will be carried from H' to R', and the
extreme violet from IP to C;, and the intermediate co-
.'Oms to inteimediate points, forming a fpearum refemb*
bug the other, but having the colours more confiipated
towards R', and more dilated towards C j fo that the
ray which the common glafs carried to the middle point
of the fpearum RC is now in a point B' of the fpec¬
trum R'C', confiderably nearer to R'.
Di ^lair has found, on the other hand, that certain
fluids, particularly fuch as contain the muriatic acid,
w uen ^ lormed^ into a prifm, will refraa the light from
■ I’ (m the lower line) fo as to form a fpearum R^C"
equal to RC, and as far removed from A" as RC is from
A, but haying the colours more dilated toward R", and
more conffipated toward C, than is obferved in RC ; fo
Y3'- fay which was carried by the prifm of common
SI TEL
glafs to the middle point B is carried to a point B", con- Telefeope.
fiderabl-y nearer to C". >“ v——1
Let us now fuppofe that, inflead of a white fpot at
A, we have a prifmatic fpectrum AB (fig. 13.), and fig. it.
that the^pnfm ox common glafs is applied as before, im-
mediatciy behind the prilm which forms the fpeflrum
AL. We know that this uriil be refracted fidewile, and
i\hl matse a fpeftrum RON GBPC, inclined to the plane
Oi lenadfion in an angle of 450 : fo that drawing the
perpendicular RC', we have RC'—GC.
We alfo know that the prifm of flint-glafs would re¬
fract the fpearum formed by the firft priftn on EHF, in
fuch a manner that the red ray will go to R, the violet
to C, and the intermediate rays to points 0, y, g, b,/>, vt
fb fituated that G'o is 2= R'O' of the other figure : Y y
is rr R'Y' of that figure, G^ R'G', &c. Thefe points
muft therefore lie in a curve W.oygbpv C, which is
convex toward the axis R'C'.
In like manner we may be affured that Dr Blair's
fluid will form a fpearum R o11/' e'b'p'v'C. concave to¬
ward R'C.
Let u be obferved by the way, that this is a very
good, method for difcpvering whether a medium difperfes
the light in the fame proportion with the prifm which
employed for forming the firft fpearum AB or EF. It
difperfes in the fame or in a different proportion, accord¬
ing as the oblique fpearum is ftraight or crooked 5 and
the exaa proportion correfponding to each colour is
had by meafuring the ordinates of the curves R ^ C or
R b'C
Having formed the oblique fpearum RBC by a prifm
of common glafs, we know that an equal prifin of the
fame glafs, placed in a contrary pofition, will bring back
ail the rays from the fpearum RBC to the fpearum AB,
laying each colour on its former place.
Li like manner, having formed the oblique fpearum
R £ C by a prifm of flint-glafs, we know that another
prhm of flint-glafs, placed in the oppofite direaion, will
bring all the rays back to the fpeaium EHF.
But having formed the oblique fpearum RBC by a
pi.fm of common glafs, if we place the flint-glafs prifm
in the contrary poftiion, it will bring the colour R back
to E, and the colour C to F j but it will not bring the
colour L to H, but to a point Z*, fuch that B Z is equal
to b H, and Z B to Z H. In like manner, the other co¬
lours will not he brought back to the ftraight line
EHF, but to a curve E h F, forming a crooked fpec¬
trum.
In like manner, the fluids difeovered by Dr Blair,
when-employed to bring back the oblique fpearum RBC
formed by common glafs, will bring its extremities back
to E and F, and form the crooked fpearum E Z' F ly¬
ing beyond EHF.
This experiment evidently gives us another method
for examining the proportionality of the difperfion of dif¬
ferent fubftances.
Having, by common glafs, brought back the oblique
fpearum formed by_ common glafs to its natural place
AB, fuppofe the original fpearum at AB to contraa
gradually (as. Newton has made it do by means of a
lens), it is plain that the oblique fpearum will alfo con-
traa, and fo will the fecond fpeHrum at AB 5 and it
will at laft coalefce into a white fpot. The effea will
be equivalent to a gradual comprcfliun of the whole
figure
TEL [ 259 1
Telefcope. figure, by which the parallel lines All and BC gradual- deavours
TEL
to find feme remedy for this imperfe&ion of Telcfcope.
ly approach, and at laft unite.
In like manner, when the oblique fpeftrum formed
by flint-glafs is brought back to EHF by a flint-glafs
prifm, and the figure compreiTed in the fame gradual
manner, all the colours will coalefce into a white fpot.
But when flint-glafs is employed to bring back the
oblique fpe£lrum formed by common glafs, it forms the
crooked fpeftrum E h F. Now let the figure be com¬
preiTed. The curve E h F will be doubled down on the
line H /i, and there will be formed a compound fpec-
trum H //, quite unlike the common fpecfrum, being
purple or claret-coloured at H by the mixture of the ex¬
treme red and violet, and green edged with blue at h by
the mixture of the green and blue. The fluid prifms
would in like manner form a fpeftrum of the fame kind
on the other fide of H.
This is precifely what is obferved in achromatic ob-
jeft-glafles made of crown-glafs and flint : for the re¬
fraction from A to R correfponds to the refra&ion of
the convex crown-glafs; and the contrary refraefion
from R to E correfponds to the contrary refraction of
the concave flint-glafs, which flill leaves a part of the
firfl refraCtion, producing a convergence to the axis of
the telefcope. It is found to give a purple or wine-co¬
loured focus, and within this a green one, and between
thefe an imperfeCt white. Dr Biair found, that when
the eye-glafs was drawn out beyond its proper diflance,
a ftar was lurrounded by a green fringe, by the green
end of the fpeCtrum, which croffed each other within
the focus ’y and when the eye-glafs was too near the ob-
jeCt-glafs, the ftar had a wine-coloured fringe. The green
rays were ultimately moft refraCted. N. B. We fhoald
expeCl the fringe to be of a blue colour rather than a
green. But this is eafily explained : The extreme vio¬
let rays are very faint, fo as hardly to be fenfible j there¬
fore when a compound glafs is made as achromatic as
poflible to our fenfes, in all probability (nay certainly)
thefe almofl: infenfible violet rays are left out, and per¬
haps the extreme colours which are united are the red
and the middle violet rays. This makes the green to be
the mean ray, and therefore the moft outftanding when
the difperfions are not proportional.
Dr Blair very properly calls thefs fpe&rums, H/; and
H h', fecondary fpeRrums, and feems to think that he is
the firft who has taken notice of them. But Mr Clai-
rault was too accurate a mathematician, and too careful
an obferver, not to be aware of a circumftance which
was of primary confequence to the whole inquiry. He
could not but obferve that the fuccefs refted on this very
particular, and that the proportionality of difperfion was
indifpenfably neceflary.
This fubietft was therefore touched on by Clairault j
and fully difeufled by Bofcovich, firft in his DiiTertations
publiftied at Vienna in 1759; then in the Comment. Bon-
onienfs ; and, laftly, in his Opufcula, publiftied in 1785.
Dr Blair, in his ingenious DilTertation on Achromatic
Glafles, read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1793,
feems not to have known of the labours of thefe writers;
fpeaks of it as a new difeovery ; and exhibits fome of
the confequences of this principle in a Angular point of
view, as fomething very paradoxical and inconfiftent
with the ufually received notions on thefe fubjedls. But
they are by no means fo. We are, however, much in¬
debted to his ingenious refearches, and his fuccefsful en-
achromatic glafles. Some of his contrivances are ex¬
ceedingly ingenious j but had the Doftor confulted
thefe writers, he would have faved himfelf a good deal
of trouble.
Bofcovich (hows how to unite the two extremes with
the moft outftanding colour of the fecondary fpechum,
by means of a third fubftance. When we have done
this, the aberration occafioned by the fecondary fpec-
trums mult be prodigioufly diminiftied ; for it is evi¬
dently equivalent to the union of the points H and h of
our figure. Whatever caufe produces this muft diminifh
the- curvature of the arches E h and h F : but even if
thefe curvatures were not diminiftied, their gveateft ordi¬
nates cannot exceed one-fourth of H//; and we may fay,
without hefitation, that by uniting the mean or moft
outftanding ray with the two extremes, the remaining
difperfion will be as much lefs than the uncorre&ed co¬
lour of Dollond’s achromatic glafs, as this is leis than
four times the difperfion of a common objedl-glafs. It
muft therefore be altogether infenfible.
Bofcovich aflerts, that it is not poftible to unite more
than two colours by the oppofite refradion of two fub-
ftances, which do not difperfe the light in the fame pro¬
portions. Dr Blair makes light of this aflertion, as he
finds it made in general terms in the vague and paltry
extract made by Piieftley from Bofcovich in his Eliay
on the Hiltory of Optics •, but had he read this author
in his own diflxrtations, he would have feen that he was
perfectly right. Dr Blair, however, has hit on a very
ingenious arid effcftual method of producing this union
of three colours. In the fame way as we corredt the dif¬
perfion of a concave lens of crown-glafs by the oppofite
dirperfion of a concave lens of flint-glafs, we may ccr-
re6t the fecondary difpernon of an achromatic convex
lens by the oppofite fecondary difperfion of an achroma¬
tic concave lens. But the intelligent reader will ob¬
ferve, that this union does not contradift the aflertion of
Bofcovich, becaufe it is necejfarily produceu by means of
three refracting fubftances.
The moft eiTential fervice which the public has re¬
ceived at the hands of Dr Blair is the difeovery of fluid
mediums of a proper difperfive power. By compofing
the lenfes of fuch fubftances, we are at once freed from
the irregularities in the refraction and difperfion of flint-
glafs, which the chemifts have not been able to free it
from. In whatever way this glafs is made, it cor)fifts of
parts which difter both in refraCtive and difperfive power ;
and when taken up from the pot, thefe parts mix in
threads, which may be difleminated through the mafs in
any degiee of finenefs. But they ftill retain their- pro¬
perties ; and when a piece of flint-glafs has been formed
into a lens, the eye, placed in its focus, fees the whole
fui face occupied by gliftening threads or broader veins
running acrofs it. Great rewards have been offered for
removing this defeCf, but hitherto to no purpofe. We
beg leave to propofe the following method : Let the glafs
be reduced to powder, and then melted with a great
proportion of alkaline fait, fo as to make a liquor fili-
cum. When precipitated from this by an acid, it muft
be in a ftate of very uniform compofition. If again
melted into glafs, we Ihould hope that it would be free
from this defeeft j if not, the cafe feems to be defperate.
But by ufing a fluid medium, Dr Blair w7as freed
from all this embarraffment •, and he acquired another
K k 3 immenlb
TEL [2
r.-leicope.^ immenfe advantage, that of adjufting at pleafure both
the refraftive and difperfive powers of his lenfes. In
folid lenfes, we do not know whether we have taken
the curvatures fuited to the refraftions till our glafs is
finilhed ; and if we have miflaken the proportions, all
our labour is loll. Eut when fluids are ufed, it is e-
trough that we know nearly the refra&ions. We fuit
our focal diftances to thefe, and then feledl our curva¬
tures, fo as to remove the aberration of figure, preferv-
ing the focal diftances. Thus, by properly tempering
the fluid mediums, we bring the lens to agree precifely
with the theory, perfeftly achromatic, and the aberra¬
tion of figure as much corrected as is pofhble.
Dr Elair examined the refractive and diiperfive powers
of a great variety of fubftances, and found great varieties
in their adtions on the different colours. This is indeed
what every wTell informed naturalift would expeCl. There
is no doubt now among naturalifls about the mechanical
connexion of the phenomena of nature 5 and all are a-
greed that the chemical-aCtions of the particles of mat¬
ter are perfectly like in kind to the aCtion of gravita¬
ting bodies ; that all thefe phenomena are the effeCts of
forces like thofe which we call attractions and repul-
lions, and -which we obferve in magnets and eleCtrified
bodies ; that light is refraCted by forces of the fame
kind, but differing chiefly in the fmall extent of their
fphere of aCtivity. One who views things in this way
will expeCt, that as the aCtions of the fame acid for the
different alkalies aie different in degree, and as the dif¬
ferent acids have alfo different aCtions on the fame al¬
kali, in like manner different fubftances differ in their
general refraCtive powers, and alfo in the proportion of
their aCtion on the different colours. Nothing is more
unlikely therefore than the proportional difperfion of the
different colours by different fubiiances ; and it is furprif-
ing that this inquiry has been fo long delayed. It is
hoped that Dr Blair will oblige the public with an ac¬
count of the experiments w’hich he has made. This will
enable others to co-operate in the improvement of achro¬
matic glaffes. We cannot derive much knowledge
from what he has already publilhed, becaufe it was
chiefly with the intention of giving a popular, though
not an accurate, view of the fubjeft. The conffruftions
which are there mentioned are not thofe which he found
moll effedual, but thofe which would be molt eafily un-
derftood, or demonftrated by the flight theory which is
contained in the differtation ; befides, the manner of ex-
preffing the difference of refrangibility, perhaps chofen
for its paradoxical appearance, does not give us a clear
notion of the charaCteriftic differences of the fubftances
examined. Thofe rays which are ultimately moft de-
fleCted from their direction, are faid to have become the
moft refrangible by the combination of different fub-
ffances, although, in all the particular refraCtions by
which this effeCt is produced, they are lefs refraCted
than the violet light. We can juft gather lids much,
that common glafs difperfes the rays in fuch a manner,
that the ray which is in the confine of the green and
blue occupies the middle of the prifmatic fpeCtrum j but
in glaffes, and many other fubftances, which are more
difperfive, this ray is nearer to the ruddy extremity of
the fpeCtrum. While therefore the ftraight line RC'
Dg. 13- (fig. 13.) terminates the ordinates O o', YY', G g', &c.
which reprefent the difperfion of common glafs, the or¬
dinates which exprefs the difperfions of thefe fubftances
60 ] ' T E L
are terminated by a curve pa {Ting through R and C', but Telefcope.
lying below the line RC'. When therefore parallel he- ^ —-"v~~ 1J
terogenous light is made to converge to the axis of a
convex lens oi common glafs, as happens at F in fig. 6. Fig. 6.
C, the light is difperfed, and the violet rays have a Ihor-
ter focal drftance. if we now apply a concave lens of
greater difperfive power, the red and violet rays are
brought to one focus F ; but the green rays, not being
fo much refraCted away from F, are left behind at <p,
and have now a fhorter focal diftance. But Dr Biair
afterwards found that this was not the cafe with the mu¬
riatic acid, and fome folutions in it. tie found that the
ray wtich common glafs caufed to occupy the middle of
the fpeCtrum was much nearer to the blue extremity when
refraCted by thefe fluids. Therefore a concave lens form¬
ed of fuch fluids which united the red and violet rays in
F', refraCted the green rays toy7.
Having obferved this, it was an obvious conjeCture,
that a mixture of fome of thefe fluids might produce a
medium, whofe aCtion on the intermediate rays fhould
have the fame proportion that is obferved on common
glafs j or that two of them might be found which form¬
ed IpeCtra fimilarly divided, and yet differing fufficiently
in diiperfive power to enable us to deitroy the difperfion
by contrary refraCtions, without deltroying the whole
refraCtion. Dr Blair accordingly found a mixture of fo¬
lutions of ammoniacal and mercurial f’alts, and alfo fome
other fubftances, which produced difperfions proportional
to that of glafs, with refpeCt to the different colours.
And thus has the refult of this intricate and laborious
inveftigation correfponded to his utmoft willies. He has
produced achromatic telefcopes which feem as perfeCt as
the thing will admit of j for he has been able to give
them fuch apertures, that the incorrigible aberration
arifing from the fpherical furfaces becomes a fenfible
quantity, and precludes farther amplification by the
eye-glaffes. We have examined one of his telefcopes:
The focal dillance of the objeCl-glafs did not exceed 17
inches, and the aperture was fully 3 J- inches. We view¬
ed fome fingle and double liars and fbme common ob-
jeCfs with this telefcope and found, that in magnifying
power, brightnefs, and diftindnefs, it was manifellly fu-
perior to one of Mr Dollond’s of 42 inches focal length.
It alfb gave us an opportunity of admiring the dexterity
of the London artifls, who could work the glaffes with
fuch accuracy. We had moft diftinbl vifion of a ftar
when ufing an eredfing eye-piece, which made this tele¬
fcope magnify more than a hundred times; and we found
the field of vifion as uniformly diftindf as with Dollond’s
42 inch telefcope magnifying 46 times. The intelligent
reader muft admire the nice figuring and centering of
the very deep eye-glaffes which are neceffary for this
amplification.
It is to be hoped that Dr Blair will extend his views
to glaffes of different compofitions, and thus give us ob-
jebt-glaffes which are folid ; for thofe compofed of fluids
have inconveniences which will hinder them from com¬
ing into general ufe, and will confine them to the mu-
feums of philofophers. We imagine that antimonial
glaffes bid fair to anfwer this purpofe, if they could be
made free of colour, fo as to tranfmit enough of light.
We recommend this differtation to the careful perufal of
our readers. Thofe who have not made themfelves
much acquainted with the delicate and abftrufe theory
of a berrations, will find it exhibited in fuch a popular
form
T EL [26
Telefcope. form as will enable them to imderftand its general aim 5
V—and the well-informed reader will find many curious in¬
dications of inquiries and difcoveries yet to be made.
We now proceed to confider the eye-glalles or glaflcs
of telefcopes. The proper conitru&ion of an eye-piece
is not lefs effential than that of the objedl-glafs. But our
limits will not allow us to treat this fubjeft in the fame
detail. We have already extended this article to a great
length, becaufe we do not know of any performance in
the Englifh language which will enable our readers to
underftand the conftrudfion of achromatic telefcopes; an
invention which reflefts honour on our country, and has
completed the difcoveries of our illuilrious Newton.
Our readers will find abundant information in Dr Smith’s
Ootics concerning the eye-glafifes, chietly deduced from
Huyghen’s fine theory of aberration (a). At the fame
time, we muft again pay Mr Dollond the merited com¬
pliment of faying, that he was the firft who made any
fcientific application of this theory to the compound eye¬
piece for erecting the objedt. His eye-pieces of five and
fix glaffes are very ingenious reduplications of Huyghens’s
eye-piece of two glades, and would probably have luper-
feded all others, had not his difcorcry of achromatic ob-
jedt-glades caufed opticians to confider the chromatic dif-
perfion with more attention, and pointed out methods of
correfting it in the eye-piece without any compound eye-
glades. They have found that this may be more conve¬
niently done with four eye-glades, without fenfibly di-
minilhing the advantages which Huyghens (howed to
refult from employing many fmall refractions indead of
a leder number of great ones. As this is a very curious
fubjeft, we (hall give enough for making our readers
fully acquainted with it, and content ourfelves with
merely mentioning the principles of the other rules for
condrufting an eye-piece.
Such readers as are lefs familiarly acquainted with op¬
tical difcuflions will do well to keep in mind the follow¬
ing confequences of the general focal theorem.
Fw. 15. If AB (fig. 15 ) be a lens, R a radiant point or focus
0 " of incident rays, and a the focus of parallel rays coming
from the oppofite fide j then,
1. Draw the perpendicular a a' to the axis, meeting
the incident ray in a', and a' A to the centre of the lens.
The refracted ray BF is parallel to o' A ■, for R c' : a'A
(— Rfl : a A) = RB : BF (=RA : AF), which is
the focal theorem.
2. An oblique pencil BP l? proceeding from any point
P which is not in the axis, is colleCfed to the point^
where the refrafted ray BF cuts the line PA/ drawn
from P through the centre of the lens: for P 0': a' A zr:
PB : B/ which is alfo the focal theorem.
The Galilean telefcope is fufceptible of fo little im¬
provement, that we need not employ any time in illuf-
trating its performance.
1 ] T E L
The fimple aftronomical telefcope is reprefenled in Telefcope.
fig. 16. The beam of parallel rays, inclined to the
axis, is made to converge to a point G, where it forms lt)'
an image of the lowed point of a very didant objeft.
Thefe rays decudating from G fall on the eye-glals ;
the ray from the lowed point B of the objecf-glafs falls
on the eye-glafs at b ; and the ray from A falls on a ;
and the ray from the centre O falls cn 0. Thefe rays
are rendered parallel, or nearly fo, by refraflion through
the eye-glafs, and take the direction b i\ 0 I, a 2. It
the eye be placed fo that this pencil of parallel rays may
enter it, they converge to a point of the retina, and
give didinit vidon of the lowed point of the objeit. It
appears inverted, becaufe the rays by which we fee its
lowed point come in the direction which in fimple vi-
fion is conneited with the upper point of an objeit.
They come from above, and therefore are thought to
proceed from above. \Ve fee the point as if fituated in
the direition I 0. In like manner the eye placed at I,
fees the upper point of the objeit in the direition IP,
and its middle in the direition IE. The proper place
for the eye is I j if brought much near-er the glafs, or
removed much farther from it, fome, or the whole, ot
this extreme pencil of rays will not enter the pupil. It
is therefore of importance to determine this point. Be¬
caufe the eye requires parallel rays for didinff vifion,
it is plain that F mud be the principal focus of the eye-
glafs. Therefore, by the common focal theorem, OF :
OF = OF : OI, or OF : FE — OF : EL
The magnifying power being mcafured by the mag¬
nitude of the vifual angle, compared with the magni¬
tude of the vifual angle with the naked eye, we have
or —— for the meafure of the magnifying
oO/> oOF
... , OF OF
power. Ihis is very nearly zz or
As the line OF, joining the centres of the lenfes,
and perpendicular to their furfaces, is called the axis of
the telefcope, fo the ray OG is called the axis of the
oblique pencil, being really the axis of the cone of light
which has the objeft-glais for its bafe. This ray is
through its whole courfe the axis of the oblique pencil ;
and when its courfe is determined, the amplification,
the field of vifion, the apertures of the glades, are all
determined. For this purpofe we have only to confider
the centre of the objeft-glafs as a radical point, and
trace the procefs of a ray from this point through the
other glaffes : this will be the axis of fome oblique
pencil.
It is evident, therefore, that the field of vifion de¬
pends on the breadth of the eye-glafs. Should we in-
creafe this, the extreme pencil will pafs through I,
becaufe O and I are dill the conjugate foci of the eye-
glafs.
(a) While we thus repeatedly fpeak of the theory of fpherical aberration as coming from Mr Huyghens, we
mud not omit giving a due fhare of the honour of it to Dr Barrow and Mr James Gregory. The fird of thefe
authors, in his Optical Leftures delivered at Cambridge, has given every propofition which is employed by Huy¬
ghens, and has even profecuted the matter much further. In particular, his theory of oblique (lender pencils is of
immenfe confequence to the perfection of telefcopes, by fhowing the methods for making the image of an extended
furface as flat as poffible. Gregory, too, has given all the fundamental propofitions in his Optica Promota. But
Huyghens, by taking the fubject together, and treating it in a fydem, has greatly fimplified it : and his manner of
viewing the principal parts of it is incomparably more perfpicnous than the performances of Barrow and Gregory,
]
TEL
TEL [262
"Telefcope. glafs. On the Other hand, the angle refolved on for
V”‘w the extent or field of vifion gives the breadth of the
eye-glafs.
We may here obferve, by the way, that for all opti¬
cal inftruments there muft be two optical figures confi-
dered. The firft (hows the progrefs of a pencil of rays
coming from one point of the objeft. The various fo-
cufes of this pencil (how the places of the different
images, real or virtual. Such a figure is formed by
the three rays AG d, i, OG 0 I, EG f.
The fecond fhows the progrefs of the axes of the
•different pencils proceeding through the centre of the
objeft-glafs. The focufes of this pencil of axes fhow
the places where an image of the objedl-glafs is formed ;
and this pencil determines the field of vifion, the aper¬
tures of the lenfes, and the amplification or magnifying
power. The three rays OG 01, OFEI, OHPI, form
this figure.
See alfo fig. 24. where the progrefs of both fets of
pencils is more diverfified.
The perfe&ion of a telefcope is to reprefent an objeft
in its proper fhape, diftinflly magnified, with a great
field of vifion, and fufficiently bright. But there are
limits to all thefe qualities j and an increafe of one of
them, for the mofl part, diminifhes the refl. The
brightnefs depends on the aperture of the objedt-glafs,
and will increafe in the fame proportion- (becaufe i i'
will always be to AB in the proportion of EF to FO),
till the diameter of the emergent pencil is equal to that
of the pupil of the eye. Increafing the obje£t-glafs
any more, can fend no more light into the eye. But
we cannot make the emergent pencil nearly fo large
as this when the telefcope magnifies much *, for the great
aperture of the objeft-glafs produces an indiftinft image
at GF, and its indiftin&nefs is magnified by the eye-
glafs.
A great field of vifion is incompatible with the true
fhape of the objeft j for it is not ftri&ly true that all
rays flowing from O are tefrafted to I. Thofe rays
which go to the margin of the eye-glafs crofs the axis
between E and I ; and therefore they crofs it at a grea¬
ter angle than if they pafled through I. Now had they
really paffed through 1, the objeft would have been re-
prefented in its due proportions. Therefore fince the
angles of the marginal parts are enlarged by the aberra¬
tion of the eye-glafs, the marginal parts themfelves will
appear enlarged, or the objeft appear diftorted. Thus
a chefs-board viewed through a reading glafs appears
drawn out at the corners, and the firaight lines are all
Wig. 18. changed into curves, as is reprefented in fig. 18.
The circumftance which moft peremptorily limits
the extent of field is the neceffary diftinftnefs. If the
vifion be indiftin£t, it is ufelefs, and no other quality
can compenfate this defeft. The diftortion is very in-
confiderable in much larger angles of vifion than we can
admit, and is unworthy of the attention paid to it by
optical writers. They have been induced to take notice
of it, becaufe the means of correfting it in a confider-
able degree are attainable, and afford an opportunity of
exhibiting their knowledge } whereas the’ indiftindtnefs
which accompanies a large field is a fubjedl of mofl:
difficult difcuflion, and has hitherto baffled all their
efforts to exprefs by any intelligible or manageable for-
inulae.
*3
Qucsque traBata nitefcercpojfe , 'c‘.C^ 'i
Defperat relinquit.
This fubjefl muft, however be confidered. Tbe
image at GF of a very remote object is not a plain fur-
face perpendicular to the axis ol the telefcope, but is
nearly fpherical, having O for its centre. If a number
of pencils of parallel rays crofling each other in I fall
on the eye-glafs, they will form a picture on the oppo-
fite fide, in the focus F. But this pi&ure will by no
means be flat, nor nearly fo, but very concave towards
E. Its exaft form is of moft difficult inveftigation.
The elements of it are given by Dr Barrow1 •, and we
have given the chief of them in the article Optics,
when confidering the foci of infinitely flender pencils
of oblique rays. Therefore it is impoflible that the
pi&ure formed by the objefl-glafs can be feen diftin&ly
in all its parts by the eye-glafs. Even if it W’ere flat,
the points G and H (fig. 16.) are too far from the eye- Flg- ^
glafs when the middle F is at the proper diftance for
diftinft vifion. When, therefore, the telefcope is fo
adjufted that we have diftm<fl vifion of the middle of
the field, in order to fee the naargin diftin<ftly we muft
pufti in the eye-glafs : and having fo done, the middle
of the field becomes indiftinch. When the field of vifion
exceeds 12 or 15 degrees, it is not poflible by any con¬
trivance to make it tolerably diftinft all over ; and we
muft turn the telefcope fueceffively to the. different parts
of the field that wre may fee them agreeably.
The caufe of this indiftindlnefs is, as we have already
faid, the (hortnefs of the lateral foci of lateral and ob¬
lique pencils refradled by the eye-glafs. The oblique
pencil b G tf, by which an eye placed at I fees the
point G of the image, is a cone of light, having a cir¬
cular bafe on the eye-glafs •, of W'hich circle a b is one
of the diameters. There is a diameter perpendicular
to this, which, in this figure, is reprefented by the point
0. Fig. 17. reprefents the bafe of the cone as feen by Fig. 17*
an eye placed in the axis of the telefcope, with the ob-
jeft-glafs as appearing behind it. The point b is form¬
ed by a ray which comes from the loweft point B of the
obje£t-gla!s, and the point a is illuminated by a ray
from A. The point c at the right hand of the circular
bafe of this cone of light came from the point C on the
left fide of the objetff-glafs; and the light comes to d
from D. Now the laws of optics demonftrate, that the
rays wrhich come through the points c and d are more
convergent after refra£lion than the rays which come
through a and b. The analogies, therefore, which af-
certain the foci of rays lying in planes pafling through
the axis do not determine the foci of the others. Of
this we may be fenfible by looking through a lens to
a figure on w'hich are drawn concentric circles crofled
by radii. When the telefcope is fo adjufted that v'e
fee diftin&ly the extremity of one. of the radii, wre (hall
not fee diftinftly the circumference w’hich croffes the ex¬
tremity with equal diftinftnefs, and vice verfa. This
difference, however, between the foci of the rays
which come through a and b, and thofe which come
through t and d, is not confiderable in the fields oi vi¬
fion, which are otherwife admiflible. But the fame dif¬
ference of foci obtains alfo with refpeft to the difperfion
of light, and is more remarkable. Both d’Alembert
and Euler have attempted to introduce it into their for¬
mulae
1' E L [ 263 ] TEL
Telefcopp. muloe } but they have made them ulclcfs for any prac~
tical purpefe by their inextricable complication.
This muft ferve as a general indication of the diffi¬
culties which occur in the conilvudtion of telefcopes,
even although the obje£l-glafs were perfect, forming an
image without the fmallelt confufion or diftortion.
There is yet another difficulty or imperfection. The
rays of the pencil a G b, when refraCted through the
eye-glafs, are alfo feparated into their component co¬
lours. The edge of the lens mult evidently perform the
office of a prikn, and the white ray G b will be fo dif-
perfed that if b i be the path of its red ray, the violet
ray, which makes another part of it, will take fuch a
courfe b n that the angle zv b n will be nearly T1Tth of
G' b H. The ray G a palling through a part of the lens
whofe furfaces are lefs inclined to each other, will be
lefs refracted, and will be lefs difperfed in the fame pro¬
portion very nearly. Therefore the twro violet rays will
be very nearly parallel when the two red rays are ren¬
dered parallel.
Hence it mult happen, that the objeCt will appear
bordered with coloured fringes. A black line feen near
the margin on a white ground, will have a ruddy and
orange border on the outlide and a blue border within :
and this confulion is altogether independent on the ob-
je£t-glafs, and is fo much the greater as the vifual angle
b IE is greater.
Such are the difficulties: They would be unfurmount-
able were it not that lome of them are fo connefted
that, to a certain extent, the diminution of one is ac¬
companied by a diminution of the other. What are cal¬
led the caii/Hc curves are the geometrical loci of the
foci of infinitely (lender pencils, Confequently the
point G is very nearly in the cauftic formed by a beam
of light confiding of rays parallel to I 0, and occupying
the whole furface of the eye-glafs, becaufe the pencil of
rays which are collected at G is very fmall. Any thing
therefore that diminilhes the mutual inclination of the
adjoining rays, puts their concourfe farther off. Now
this is precifely what we want: for the point G of the
image formed by the objeft-glafs is already beyond the
focus of the oblique (lender pencil of parallel rays i a
and 1' b ; and therefore, if we could make this focus go
a little farther from n and b, we (hall bring it nearer to
G, and obtain more diltindb vifion of this point of the
objecl. Now let it be recollefted, that in moderate re-
fraClions through prifms, two rays which are inclined to
each other in a (mall angle are, after refradtion, inclin¬
ed to each other in the fame angle. Therefore, if we
can diminiffi the aberration of the ray a i, or 0 I, or
hi', we diminiffi their mutual inclination •, and confe¬
quently the mutual inclination of the rays Ga, G 0, Gbf,
and therefore lengthen the focus, and get more dif-
tindf vifion of the point G. Therefore we at once cor-
redt the diftortion and the indiftindlnefs: and this is the
aim of Mr Huyghens’s great principle of
refradfions.
The general method is as follows : Let 0 be the ob-
Fig. 19. jeft-glafs (fig. 19.) and E the eye-glafs of a telefcope,
and F their common focus, and EG the image formed
by the objedt-glafs. The proportion of their focal dif-
tances is fuppoled to be fuch as gives as great a magni-
fy’ng power as the perfedlion of the objedt-glafs will
admit. Let BI be the axis of the emergent pencil. It
dividing the
is known by tire local theorem that GE is parallel to Telefcope.
BI: therefore BGE is the whole refradtion or dellec-
tion of the ray OEIB from its former diredtion.
Let it be propofed 10 diminiffi the aberrations by di¬
viding this into two parts by means of two glafles
D and e, fo as to make the ultimate angle of vifion bi e
equal to BIE, and thus retain the iame magnifying
power and vifible field. Let it be propofed to divide it
into the parts BGC and CGE.
From G draw any line GD to the axis towards O }
and draw the perpendicular DH, cutting OG in H j
draw H c parallel to GC, cutting GD in g; draw g f
perpendicular to the axis, and g e parallel to GE j draw
e b perpendicular to the axis} draw D £ parallel to GC,.
and £ d perpendicular to the axis.
Then if there be placed at D a lens whofe focal dif-
tance is D d, and another at e who(e focal dillance is
e f, the thing is done. The ray OH will be refradled
into H b, and this into b i parallel to BI.
The demonftralion of this conftrudlion is fo evident
by means of the common focal theorem, that we need
not repeat it, nor the reafons for its advantages.
We have the fame magnifying power, and the fame
field of vifion } we have lels aberration, and therefore
lefs diftortion and indiftindlnefs 5 and this is brought
about by a lens HD of a (mailer aperture and a greater
focal diftance than BE. Confequently, if we are con¬
tented with the diftinctnefs of the margin of the field
with a (ingle eye-glais, we may greatly increafe the field
of vifionj for if we increafe DEI to the fize of EB we
(hall have a greater field, and much greater diftinft-
nefs in the margin } becaufe HD is of a longer fo¬
cal diftance, and will bear a greater aperture, pre-
ferving the fame diftinctnefs at the edge. On this
account the glafs EID is commonly called the Fie/d-
glaA
It muft be obferved here, however, that although
the diftortion of the objedt is leffened, there is a real
diftortion produced in the image fg. But this, when
magnified by the glafs e, is fmaller than the diftortion
produced by the glafs E, of greater aperture and llior- .
ter focus, en the undiliorted image GF. But becaufe
there is a diftortion in the fecund image f g, this con-
ftru&ion cannot be ufed for the telefcopes of aftronomi-
cal quadrants, and other graduated inftruments } be--
caufe then equal divifiens of the micrometer would not
correfpond to equal angles.
But the fame ccnftruction will anfwer in this cafe, by
taking the point D on that fide of F which is remote
from O (fig. 20.). This is the form how employed in pjg
the telefcopes of all graduated inft,ruments.
The exadf proportion in which the diftortion and the.
indiftindfnefs at the edges of the field are diminiffied by
this conftruflion, depends on the proportion in which
the angle BGE is divided by GC } and is of pretty dif¬
ficult inveftigation. But it never deviates far (never
-|-th in optical inftruments) from the proportion of the
fquares of the angles. We may, without any fenfible
error, fuppofe it in this proportion. This gives us a
praiftical rule of eafy recolleflion, and of moft exten-
five ufe. When we would diminiffi,. an aberration by
dividing the whole refraftion into two parts, we (hall do
it moft effe&ually by making them equal. In like man¬
ner, if we divide it into three parts by means of two ad-j
ditional. 4
Telcft'ope.
Fig. 21.
TEL [ 264 ] TEL
ditional glaiTes, we muft make each — jd of the whole 5
and fo on for a greater number.
This ufeful problem, even when limited, as we have
done, to equal refractions, is as yet indeterminate j that
is, fufceptible of an infinity of folutions: for the point
1), where the field-glafs is placed, was taken at plea-
lure: yet there mutt be fituations more proper than
others. The aberrations which produce diitortion, and
thole which produce indiftinCtncfs, do not follow the
fame proportions. To correift the indiltinftnefs, rve
ihould not feleft fuch pofitions of the lens HD as will
give a fmall focal dittance to be; that is, we fhould
not remove it very far from F. Huygens recommends
the proportion of 3 to 1 for that of the focal diltances
of the lens HD and e b, and fays that the diilance D e
fhould be r= 2 F e. This will make e i ~ ^ e .F, and
will divide the wdiole refradfion into two equal parts,
as any one will readily fee by conftruCling the com¬
mon optical figure. Mr "Short, the celebrated impro¬
ver of refleding telefcopes, generally employed this
proportion ; and we fhall prefently fee that it is a very-
good one.
It has been already obferved that the great refrac¬
tions which take place on the eye-glaffes occafion very
confiderable difperfions, and difturb the vifion by frin¬
ging every thing with colours. To remedy this, achro¬
matic eye-glaffes may be employed, confirufled by the
rules already delivered. This conflruClion, however, is
incomparably more intricate than that of objeft-glaffes :
for the equations muft involve the diftance of the radiant
point, and be more complicated : and this complication
is immenfely increafed on account of the great obliquity
of the pencils.
PJoft fortunately the Huyghenian conftruClion of an
eye-piece enables us to correcft this difperfion to a great
degree of exaflnefs. A heterogenous ray is difperfed at
H, and the red ray belonging to it falls on the lens b e
at a greater diftance from the centre than the violet ray
coming from H. It will therefore be lefs refraQed {cec-
terisparibus') by the lens b c 5 and it is poftible that the
difference may be fuch that the red and violet rays dif¬
perfed at H may be rendered parallel at or even a
little divergent, fo as to unite accurately with the red
ray at the bottom of the eye. How this may be affedl-
ed, by a proper feledlion of the places and figures of
the lenfes, will appear by the following propofition,
which we imagine is new, and not inelegant.
Let the compound ray OP (fig. 21.) be difperfed by
the lens PC ; and let PV, PR be its violet and red rays,
cutting the axis in G and g. It is required to place an¬
other lens RD in their way, fo that the emergent rays
R r, V “u, fhall be parallel. ,
Produce the incident ray OP to Z. The angles ZPR,
ZPV, are given, (and RPV is nearly
ZPR
27
and
the interfeflions G and g with the axis. Let F be the
focus of parallel red light coming through the lens RD
in the oppofite direftion. Then (by the common opti¬
cal theorem), the perpendicular F g will cut PR in fuch
a point that g F will be parallel to the emergent ray
R r, and to V v. Therefore if ?D cut PV in ?/, and
«/be drawn perpendicular to the axis, we (hall have
(alfo by the common theorem) the point f for the fo-
4
cus of violet rays, and DF : D / =: : D a ~ 28 : Telefrop?,
27 nearly, or in a given ratio. *——y——
The problem is therefore reduced to this, “ To draw
from a point D in the line CG a line D^, which {hall
be cut by the lines PR and PV in the given ratio.”
The following conftruftion naturally offers itfelf:
Make GM : in the given ratio, and draw MK pa¬
rallel to P^. Through amj point D of CG draw the
ftraight line PDK, cutting MK in K. join GK, and
draw D« parallel to KG. This will lolve the problem •,
and, drawing g F perpendicular to the axis, we {hall
have F for the focus of the lens RD for parallel red
rays.
The demonftration is evident : for MK being parallel
to Pg, we have GM : g- M = GK : HK, = §D : 11 D
— FD/D, in the ratio required.
This problem admits of an infinity of folutions; be-
caufe the point D may be taken anywhere in the line
CG. It may therefore be fubjetted to fuch conditions
as may produce other advantages.
1. It may be reftrifled by the magnifying power, or
by the divifion which we choofe to make of the whole
refraftion which produces this magnifying power. Thus,
if we have reiolved to diminiffi the aberrations by mak¬
ing the two refraftions equal, we have determined the
angle R r D. Therefore draw GK, making the angle
MGK equal to that which the emergent pencil muft
make with the axis, in order to produce this magniiy-
ing power. Then draw MK parallel to Fg, meeting GK
in K. Then draw PK, cutting the axis in D, and D g
parallel to GK, and g F perpendicular to the axis. D is
the place, and DF the focal diftance of the eye-glafs.
2. Particular circumftances may caufe us to fix on a
particular place D, and we only want the focal diftance.
In this cafe the fivft conftruftion fuftices.
3. We may have determined on a certain focal di¬
ftance DF, and the place muft be determined. In this
cafe let
GF
/"
then GF
then GF—-fg
or G^+F/
and
F g — 1 : tan. G
f u — 1 : wz, m being —
f g — tan. g : 1
f g — tan. g : m tan. G
GF — tan. g—m tan. G :
GF zz tan. g—m tan. G :
tan. ^
GF=Gf+F/-
tan. g—m tan.
7
■2-3-
lan. g
tan. g }
——, and is
therefore given, and the place of F is determined j and
fince FD is given by fuppofition, D is determined.
The application of this problem to our purpofe is dif¬
ficult, if we take it in the moft general terms 5 but the
nature of the thing makes fuch limitations that it be¬
comes very eafy. In the cafe of the difperfion of light,
the angle GP^ is fo fmall that MK may be drawn pa¬
rallel to PG without any fenfible error. If the ray OP
were parallel to CG, then G would be the focus of the
lens PC, and the point M would fall on C •, becaufe the
focal diftance of red rays is to that of violet rays in the
fame proportion for every lens, and therefore CG : Cg
rzzDF : D/ Now, in a telefcope which magnifies con-
fiderably, the angle at the objedt-glafs is very fmall,
and CG hardly exceeds the focal diftance 5 and CG is
to C^ very nearly in the fame proportion of 28 to 27.
We may therefore draw through C (fig. 22.) a line CK
parallel
Fig. 22.
TEL [2
Trfefcope. parallel to PG; then draw GK' perpendicular to the
axis of the lenfes, and join PK' j draw K/BJi. parallel
to CG, cutting PK in B j draw BHI parallel to GK,
cutting GK' in H : Join HD and PK. It is evident
that CG is bifedled in F, and that K'BrriFD : alio
K'H : HGrrK'B : BE, =:CD : DG. Therefore DH
is parallel to CK', or to PG. But becaufe PF=FK',
PD is = DB, and IH — HB. Therefore ? D = HB,
and FD = K'B, =2 FD ; and FD is bifetfed in F.
Therefore CD
2
That is, in order that the eye-glafs RD may corre6l
the dilperfion of the field-glafs PC, the dijlance between
them mujl be equal to the half fum of their focal aiftances
very nearly. More exactly, the dflance between them
muf be equal to the half fum of the focal dijlance of the
eye-glafs, and the di/lance at which the feld-glafs would
form an image of the objeB-glafs. For the point G is
the focus to which a ray coming from the centre of the
objeft-glafs is refracted by the field-glafs.
This is a very fimple folution of this important pro¬
blem. Huyghens’s eye-piece correfponds with it ex-
a6Uy. If indeed the difperfion at P is not entirely pro¬
duced by the refra&ion, but perhaps combined with
Fig. ir. feme previous difperfion, the point M (fig. 21.) will not
Fig 22 coincide with C, (fig. 22.), and we (hall have GC
to GM, as the natural difperfion at P to the difperfion
which really obtains there. This may deflroy the equa¬
tion CD ~
CG + FD
Thus, in a manner rather unexpe&ed, have wre freed
the eye-glafles from the greateft part of the eflfeft of dif¬
perfion. We may do it entirely by pulhing the eye-
glafs a little nearer to the field-glafs. This will render
the violet rays a little divergent from the red, fo as to
produce a perfect picture at the bottom of the eye. But
by doing fo we have hurt the diftinftnefs of the whole
pifture, becaufe F is not in the focus of RD. We re¬
medy this by drawing both glaffes out a little, and the
telefcope is made perfedt.
This improvement cannot be applied to the con-
Eiff‘20. ftru&ion of quadrant telefcopes, fuch as fig. 20. Mr
Ramfden has attempted it, however, in a very ingenious
way, which merits a place here, and is alfo inftru&ive
in another way. The field-glafs HD is a plano¬
convex, with its plane fide next the image GF. It
is placed very near this image. The conlequence of
this difpofition is, that the image GF produces a verti¬
cal image gf wTiich is much lefs convex towards the
glafs. He then places a lens on the point C, where
the red ray w'ould crofs the axis. The violet ray will
pafs on the other fide of it. If the focal diftance of
this glafs be fc, the vifion will be diftindt and free
from colour. It has, however, the inconveniency of
obliging the eye to be clofe to the glafs, which is very
troublefome.
This would be a good conftrudlion for a magic-lan-
thorn, or for the objedt-glafs of a tolar microfcope, or
indeed of any compound microfcope.
We may prefume that the reader is now pretty fami¬
liar with the different circumfiances which muft be con¬
sidered in the conftrudlion of an eye-piece, and proceed
VOL. XX. Part I.
Plate
DXXX.
65 ] TEL
to confider thofe which muft be employed to eredt the Tefdeope
objedt. *
This may be done by placing the lens which receives
the light from the objedt-glafs in fuch a manner, that a
fecond image (inverted with refpedt to the firft) may be
formed beyond it, and this may be viewed by an eye-
glafs. Such a conftrudtion is reprefented in fig. 23.
But, befides many other defedts, it tinges the objedt pro-Fig. 23.
digioully with colour. The ray 0 d difperled at d
into the red ray dr, and the violet dv, v being farther
from the centre than r, the refradted ray v v' cioffes rr4
both by reafon of fpherical aberration and its greater re-
frangibility.
But the common day telefcope, invented by F. Rheita,
has, in this refpedt, greatly the advantage of the one
now' deferibed. The rays of compound light are dif-
perfed at two points. The violet ray in its courfe falls
without the red ray, but is accurately colledted with
it at a common focus, as we (hall demonftrate by and
by. Since they crofs each other in the focus, the violet
ray muft fall within the red ray, and be lefs refradted
than if it had fallen on the fame point with the red
ray. Had it fallen there it would have feparated from
it 5 but by a proper diminution of its refradtion, it is
kept parallel to it, or nearly fo. And this is one ex¬
cellence of this telefcope : when conftrudled with three
eye-glaffes perfedtly equal, the colour is fenfibly dimi-
niftied, and by ufing an eye-glafs fomewhat fmaller, it
may be removed entirely.—We fay no more of it at
prefent, becaufe we ftiall find its conftrudlion included
in another, which is ftill more perfedl.
It is evident at firft fight that this telefcope may
be improved, by fubftituting for the eye-glafs the
Huyghenian double eye-glafs, or field-glafs and eye-glafs
reprefented in fig. 19* an<J 20. j and that the firlt
of thefe may be improved and rendered achromatic.
This will require the tw o glafles ef and g h to be in-
creafed from their prefent dimenfions to the fize of a
field-glafs, fuited to the magnifying power of the tele¬
fcope, fuppofing it an aftronomical telefcope. Thus we
fliall have a telefcope of four eye-glafles. The three
firft will be of a confiderable focal diftance, and tw'O of
them will have a common focus at b. But this is confi-
derably different from the eye-piece of four glaffes which
are nowr ufed, and are far better. We are indebted for
them to Mr Dollond, who was a mathematician as well
as an artift, and in the courfe of his refearch difeovered
refources which had not been thought of. He had not
then difeovered the achromatic objeft-glafs, and wTas
bufy in improving the eye-glaffes by diminilhing their
fpherical aberration. His firft thought was to make the
Huyghenian addition at both the images of the day te¬
lefcope. This fuggefted to him the following eye-piece
of five glaffes.
Fig. 24. reprefents this eye-piece, but there is not Fig. 24.
room for the objeft-glafs at its proper diftance. A pen¬
cil of rays coming from the upper point of the objeft is
made to converge (by the objeft-glafs) to G, where it
would form a pifture of that part of the objeft. But it
is intercepted by the lens A a, and its axis is bent to¬
wards the axis of the ?elefcope in the direftion a b. At
the fame time, the rays wdiich converged to G converge
to and there is formed an inverted nifture of the ob¬
jeft at gf The axis of the pencil is again refrafted at
L 1
TEL r 266 ] TEL
T'elefcope. i>, crofTes tlie axis of the telefcope in H, is refracted
again at c, at if, and at e, and at laft croffes the axis in
I. The rays or this pencil, diverging from are made
lefs divetging, and proceed as if they came from g1, in
the line g'. The lens c C cauks them to converge
to g1, in the line The lens dD makes them
converge dill more to G", and there they form an ereft
pi&ure G'7 F" j diverging from G", they are rendered
parallel by the refraftion at e.
At H the rays are nearly parallel. Had the glafs
B b been a little farther from A, they would have been
accurately lb, and the objeft-glafs, with the glaffes A
and B, would have formed an altronomical telefcope
with the Huyghenian eye-piece. The glaffes C, D,
and E, are intended merely lor bending the rays back
again till they again crofs the axis in I. The glafs C
tends chiefly to diminilh the great angle BH b ; and
then the two glaffes 1) and E are another Huyghenian
eye-piece.
The art in this conflru&ion lies in the proper adjuft-
ment of the glaffes, fo as to divide the whole bending of
the pencil pretty equally among them, and to form the
lall image in the focus of the eye-glafs, and at a proper
diftance from the other glafs. Bringing B nearer to A
would bend the pencil more to the axis. Placing C
farther from B would do the fame thing *, but this would
be accompanied with more aberration, becaufe the rays
■would fall at a greater diftance from the centres of the
lenfes. The greateft bending is made at the field-glafs
D ; and we imagine that the telefcope would be impro¬
ved, and made more diftindt at the edges of the field,
by employing another glafs of great focal diftance be¬
tween C and D.
There is an image formed at H of the obje6f-glaffes,
and the whole light paffes through a fmall circle in this
place, it is ufual to put a plate here pierced with a
hole which has the diameter of this image. A fecond
image of the objedf-glafs is formed at I, and indeed
wherever the pencils crofs the axis. ATens placed at
IT makes no change in any of the angles, nor in the
magnifying power, and affedls only the place where the
images are formed. And, on the other hand, a lens
placed at f, or F", where a real image is formed, makes
no change in the places of the images, but affefts the
mutual inclination of the pencils. This affords a re-
fource to the artift, by which he may combine properties
which feem incompatible.
The aperture of A determines the vifible field and all
the other apertures.
We -muft avoid forming a real image, fuch as f g, or
F" G", on or very near any glafs. For we cannot fee
this image without feeing along with it every particle of
duft and every fcratch on the glafs. We fee them as
making part of the objeft when the image is exa&ly
on the glafs, and we fee them confufedly, and fo as
to confufe the objebf, when the image is near it.
JPor when the image is on or very near any glafs,
the pencil of light occupies a very fmall part of its
furface, and a particle of duft intercepts a great propor¬
tion of it.
It is plain that this conftru£Hon will not do for the
telefcope of graduated inftruments, becaufe the micro¬
meter cannot be applied to the fecond image f g, on ac¬
count of its being a little diftorted, as has been obfer-
ved of the Huyghenian eye-piece.
Alfo the interpofttion of the glafs C makes it difficult Telefcope.
to correct the difperflun. ‘ 1 " v'
By proper reafoning from the correftion in the
Huyghenian eye-piece, we are led to the belt conftruc-
tion of one with three glaffes \ which we {hall now con-
fider, taking it in a particular form, which fhall make
the difcufiion eafy, and make us fully mafters of the
principles which lead to a better form. Therefore let
PA (fig. 25.) be the glafs which firft receives the light Fig. 25.
proceeding trom the image formed by the objeft-glafs,
and let OP be the axis ot the extreme pencil. This is
reflated into PR, which is again refrafted into Rr by
the next lens B r. Let b be t he focus of parallel rays of.
the lecond lens. Draw PB r. We know that A b :
b B“PB : B r, and that rays of one kind diverging
from P will be colletffed at r. But if PR, PV be a red
and a violet ray, the violet ray will be more refrafted
at V, and will crofs the red ray in feme intermediate
pointy of the line R r. If therefore the firft image had
been formed precifely on the lens PA, we fhould have a
fecond image ‘sX f g free from ail coloured fringes.
If the refra£fions at P and R are equal (as in the
common day teleicope), the difperfton at V muft be
equal to that at P, or the angle v V r—VPR. But we
have ultimately RPV : RrV —BC : AB, (=:Bb : h.b
by the focal theorem). 'Therefore ^ V r : ^ r V, (or
£ r : £■ V, or Cf\fl&) — Jjb:Ab, and AB : A b~
R r : R g.
This {hows by the wray the advantage of the common
day telefcope. In this AE = 2 A b, and therefore f is
the place of the laft image which is free from coloured
fringes. But this image will not be feen free from coloured
fringes through the eye-glafs C r, if ./be its focus: For
had g r, g v been both red rays, they would have been
parallel after refra&ion j but gv being a violet ray,
will be more refrafted. It wall not indeed be fo much
defledfed from parallclifm as the violet ray, which natu¬
rally accompanies the red ray to r, becaufe it falls near¬
er the centre. By computation its difperfton is diminifh-
ed about 4th.
In order that g v may be made parallel to ^ r after
refraction, the refraCtion at r muft; be fuch that the dif-
perfion covrefponding to it may be of a proper magni¬
tude. How to determine this is the quefticn. Let the
difperfion at g be to the difperfton produced by the re-
fraCHon at r (which is required for producing the in¬
tended magnifying power) as I to 9. Make 9:1 —
ff' '.f'C, — fC : CD, and draw' the perpendicular
D r' meeting the refraCted ray rr' in r'. Then w?e know
by the common focal theorem, that if/7 be the focus of
the lens C r, red rays diverging from g will be united
in r'. But the violet ray ^ zr will be refrafted into vv'
parallel to rr'. For the angle v r'r :vgr— (ulti-
mately)/'C : CD, = 9:1. Therefore the angle vr' r
is equal to the difperfton produced at r, and therefore
equal to r1 v v', and v v is parallel to r r'.
But by this we have deftroyed the diftinft vifion of
the image formed at. fg, becaufe it is no longer at the
focus of the eye-glafs. But diflinCl vifion will be re-
ftored by pufKing the glaffes nearer to the objeCt-glafs.
This makes the rays of each particular pencil more di¬
vergent after refraction through A, but fcarcely makes
any change in the diredlions of the pencils themfelves.
Thus the image comes to the focus f, and makes no
fenfible change in the difperfions.
In
TEL [2
Tdefcope. In the common day telefcope, the firft image is form-
V—' ed in the anterior focus of the firft eye-glafs, and the fe-
cond image is at the anterior focus of the laft eye-glafs.
If we change this laft for one of half the focal diftance,
and pulh in’the eye-piece till the image formed by the
objeft-glafs is half way between the firft eye-glafs and
itsJfocus, the laft image will be formed at the focus of
the new eye-glafs, and the eye-piece will be achroma¬
tic. This is eafily feen by making the ufual computa¬
tions by the focal theorem. But the vifible field is di-
minifhed, becaufe we cannot give the fame aperture as
before to the new eye-glafs *, but we can fubftitute for
it two eye glaffes like the former, placed clofe toge¬
ther. This will have the fame local diftance with the
new one, and will allow the fame aperture that we had
before.
On thefe principles may be demonftrated the corre&ion
of colour in eye pieces with three glaftes of the following
conftruffion.
Let the glafles A and B be placed fo that the pofte-
rior focus of the firft nearly coincides with the anterior
focus of the fecond, or rather fo that the anterior focus
of B may be at the place where the image of the ob-
jeft-glafs is formed, by which fituation the aperture ne-
ceftary for tranfraitting the whole light will be the
imalleft poftible. Place the third C at^ a diftance from
the lecond, which exceeds the lum of their focal di-
jftances by a fpace which is a third proportional to the
diftance of the firft and fecond, and the focal diftance
of the fecond. The diftance of the firft eye-glafs from
the objeft-glafs muft be equal to the product of the
focal diftance of the firft and fecond divided by their
fum.
Let O o, Aa, B £, C r, the focal diftances of the
glaffes, be O, a, b, c. Then make AB = a+b nearlyj
bz be
BC_
OA=
b-\-c ‘
o b
The amplification
or magnifying power will be — — j the equivalent eye-
glafs
and the field of vifion = 3438' X
ac
T
Anerture of A
foe. dill. ob. gl.
Thefe eye-pieces will admit the ufe of a micrometer
at the place of the firft image, becaufe it has no diftor-
tion.
Mr Dollond was anxious to combine this achromatifm
of the eye-pieces with the advantages which he had
found in the eye-pieces with five glaffes. This eye piece
of three glaffes neceffarily has a very great refradlion at
the glafs B, where the pencil which has come from the
other fide of the axis muft be rendered again conver¬
gent, or at leaft parallel to it. This occafions confider-
able aberrations. This may be avoided by giving part
of this refraftion to a glafs put between the firft and fe¬
cond, in the fame way as he has done by the glafs B
put between A and C in his five glafs eye-piece. But
tliis deranges the whole procefs. His ingenuity, how¬
ever, furmounted this difficulty, and he made eye-pieces
of four glaffes, which feem as perfeft as can be defired.
He has not publifhed his ingenious inveftigation j and
we obferve the London artifts work very much at ran¬
dom, probably copying the proportions of fome of his
67 ] TEL
beft glaffes, without underftandmg the principle, and Telefcope.
therefore frequently miftaking. We fee many eye- 'v
pieces which are far from being achromatic. We ima¬
gine therefore that it will be an ^ acceptable thing to
the artifts to have precife inftruftions how to proceed,
nothing of this kind having appeared in our language,
and the inveftigations of Euler, d’Alembert, and even
Bofcovich, being fo abftrufe as to be inacceffiole to all
but experienced analyfts. We hope to render it extreme¬
ly fimple.
It is evident, that if we make the rays of different
colours unite on the furface of the laft eye-glafs but one,
commonly called the Jicld-g/efs, the thing will be done,
becaufe the difperfion from this point ot union will then
unite with the difperfion produced by this glafs alone }
and this increafed difperfion may be corrected by the
laft eye-glafs in the way already (hown.
Therefore let A, B (fig. 26.) be the ftations which Fig. 16.
we have fixed on for the firft and lecond eye-glafles, in
order to give a proper portion of the whole refraftion
to the fecond glafs. Let b be the anterior focus of B.
Draw PB r through the centre of B. Make Ab : bl$
— -\B : BK. Draw the perpendicular K r, meeting
the reflated ray in r. We know by the focal theo¬
rem, that red rays diverging from P will converge to
r; but the violet ray PV, being more refratted, will
crofs R r in fome point g. Drawing the perpendicular
f g, we get/for the proper place of the field-glafs. Let
the refrafted ray R r, produced backward, meet the ray
OP coming from the centre of the objeft-glafs in O.
Let the angle of dffperfion RPV be called/*, and the
angle of difperfion at V, that is, r V “y, be v, and the
angle V r R be r.
It is evident that OR : OP“ /> : v, becaufe the difi-
perfions are proportional to the fines of the refraftions,
which, in this cafe, are very nearly as the refractions
themfelves.
/>B b B,
mp ; alfo p \ r ~ BK : AB, r= £ B : A and r — p,
Ab , . Ab , , c
—or making = », r—np; therefore
b B 0 Bo
/> B A £
_ OP/ op /> B\ ,
Let — or — or ^ 1 be made = m.
OKA />B b B/
Ab.
Then v =
The a-gle R V =: f V r + ^ r V—p. m n ; and
R^-V : Rr-urrRrrR.^-, or m-\-n : «—R r: R^, and
R ^ = Rr —T1-—. But R r is ultimately rr BK = AB
b B
Ab
m-\~n
AB f „ AB
 . 1 herefore R ? rr  X —
n n m
and B/~—-L
m 4- n
AB
This value of B/ is evidently = ^ B X
Now b B being a conftant quantity while the glais B is
• AB
the fame, the place of union vanes with “
we remove B a little farther from A, we increafe AB,
and />B, and Ab, each by the fame quantity. This evi¬
dently diminifties Bf. On the other hand, bringing
B nearer to A increafes B/ If we keep the diftance
between the glaffes the fame, but increafe the focal di¬
ftance £B, we augment B/, becaufe this change aug-
L 1 2 ments
TEL [ 268 ] TEL
Tclcfcope. menls the numerator and diminifhes the denominator of
^—V 1 . £BxAB
the fradlion —77——tt-
/>B-J-
In this manner we can unite the colours at what di-
ftance we pleafe, and confequently can unite them in
the place of the intended field-glafs, from which they
will diverge with an increafed difperfion, viz. with the
difperlion competent to the refraction produced there,
and the difperfion X m-\-n conjoined.
It only remains to determine the proper focal di-
ftances of the field-glafs and eye-glafs, and the place of
the eye-glafs, fo that this difperfion may be finally cor¬
rected.
This is an indeterminate problem, admitting of an in¬
finity of folutions. We {hall limit it by an equal divi-
fion of the two remaining refraftions, which are necef-
fary in order to produce the intended magnifying power.
This conltruCtion has the advantage of diminifhing the
aberration. Thus we know the two refraCtions, and
the difperfion competent to each j it being nearly -^Vth
of the refraftion. Call this q. The whole difperfion
at the field-glafs confifts of q, and of the angle KV of
fig. 19. wdiich we alfo know to be Call
their Ihm j-.
Fig. 27. Let fig. 27. reprefent this addition to the eye-piece.
Cg is the field-glafs coming in the place oifg of fig. 26.
and FggTU is the red ray coming from the glafs BR.
Drawer parallel to the intended-emergent pencil from
the eye-glafs j that is, making the angle C sg writh the
axis correfpond to the intended magnifying power. Bi-
feft this angle by the line ^K. Make sg : g q~s : <7,
and draw ^K, cutting C^inL Draw7 D, cutting
^ £ in 2, and the axis in D. Draw £ d and D r perpen¬
dicular to the axis. Then a lens placed in D, having
the focal ditlance D </, wull deftroy the difperfion at the
lens g c, which refrafls the ray g%v into gr.
Letj^u be the violet ray, making the angle v g r — s.
It is plain, by the common optical theorem, that^r
will be refracted into rr' parallel to £D. Draw gT)iJ
meeting rr\ and join vr'. By the focal theorem two red
rays^-will be united in rh But the violet ray
will be more refrafted, and will take the path v v', ma¬
king the angle of difperfion r' vv' — q, very nearly, be-
cauie the difperfion at does not fenfibly differ from
that at r. Now, in the fmall angles of refraClion which
obtain in optical inftruments, tbe angles rrJv, rgv are
very nearly as ^ r and r r', or as D and D r\ or as
CD and DT ; which, by the focal theorem, are as C^/
and dD ; that is, D</ : dc—rgv : rdv. But Y>d \ dC
u=:D^ : £/, —sg:gq, mr : q. But rgv — s; there¬
fore ?'r'=r <7, —r'vv', and‘u?/ is parallel to rr7, and
the whole difperfion at g is corrected by the lens D r.
The focal diitance C c of C^ is had by drawing Cx
parallel to K^, meeting Rjr in *, and drawing kc per¬
pendicular to the axis.
It is eafy to fee that this (not inelegant) conftruCtion is
not limited to the equality of the refraCtions wgr, Krr\
In whatever proportion the whole refraCtion wgs is di¬
vided, we always can tell the proportion of the difper-
fions which the two refraCtions occafion at g and r, and
can therefore find the values of s and q. Indeed this
fblution includes the problem in p. 266. col. 2. par. ult. j
but it had not occurred to us till the prefent occafion.
Our readers will not be difpleafed with this variety of Telefcope.
refource. 1
The intelligent reader will fee, that in this folution
fome quantities and ratios are affumed as equal which
are not ftriCtly fo, in the fame manner as in all the ele¬
mentary optical theorems. The parallelilm, however,
of vv' and rr' may be made accurate, by pufhing the
lens D r nearer to C^, or retiring it from it. We may
alfo, by pulhing it lull nearer, induce a fmall diver¬
gency of the violet ray, fo as to produce accurate vifion
in the eye, and may thus make the vifion through a
telefcope more perfeCI than with the naked eye, where
difperfion is by no means avoided. It would therefore
be an improvement to have the eye-glafs in a fiiding
tube for adjuftment. Bring the telefcope to diftinCt
vifion 5 and if any colour be vifible about the edges of
the field, flfift the eye glafs till this colour is removed.
The vifion may now become indiftlnft : but this is cor¬
rected by fiiifting the place of the ivhole eye-piece.
We have examined trigonometrically the progrefs of
a red and a violet ray through many eye-pieces of Dol-
lond’s and Ramfden’s beft telefcopes; and we have
found in all of them that the colours are united on or
very near the field-glafs; fo that we prefume that a
theory fomewhat analogous to ours has direCted the in¬
genious inventors. We meet with many made by
other artifts, and even fome of theirs, where a conli-
derable degree of colour remains, fometimes in the na¬
tural order and often in the contrary order. This mufl
happen in the hands of mere imitators, ignorant of prin¬
ciple. We prefume that wre have now made this prin¬
ciple fufficiently plain.
Fig. 28. reprefents the eye-piece of a very fine fpy-pig, ^
glafs by Mr Ramfden ; the focal length of its objeCt-
glafs is 8-i- inches, with i-/o-th of aperture, 2° 057 of vi¬
fible field, and 15.4 magnifying powder. The diftances
and focal lengths are of their proper dimenfions, but the
apertures are larger, that the progrefs of a lateral pen¬
cil might be more diftinCIly drawn. The dimenfions
are as follow :
Foe.lengths Aa—o.qq5 B&—1.025 Ccm.oi Tfdzzo.qy
Diftances AB=ia8 BC=ri.83'CD=i.io5.
It is perfectly achromatic, and the colours are united,
not precifely*at the lens Cg, but about -^Vth of an inch
nearer the eye-glafs.
It is obvious that this combination of glaffes may be
ufed as a microfcope ; for if, inftead of the image formed
by the objeCt-glafs at FG, we fubftitute a fmall objcCt,
illuminated from behind, as in compound microfcopes ;
and if w-e draw the eye-piece a very fmall w'ay from this
objeCt, the pencils of parallel rays emergent from the
eye-glafs D wall become convergent to very diftant
points, and will there form an inverted and enlarged
picture of the objeCt, which may be viewed by a Huy-
ghenian eye-piece ; and w7e may thus get high magnify¬
ing powers wuthout ufing very deep glaffes. We tried
the eye-piece of which we have given the dimenfions in
this way, and found that it might be made to magnify
180 times with very great diftinCtnefs. When ufed as
the magnifier of a folar microfcope, it infinitely furpafies
every thing we have ever reen. The picture formed by
a folar microfcope is generally fo indiftinCt, that it is fit
only for arcufing ladies ; but with this magnifier it feem-
TEL [ 269 ]
Telescope, ed perftftly (harp. We therefore recommend this to fimple,
"v——1 the art ids as a valuable article of their trade.
The only thing which remains to be confidered in the
theory of refra&ing telefcopes is the forms of the differ¬
ent leni'es. Hitherto we have had no occafion to con-
fider any thing but their focal diflances •, but their aber¬
rations depend greatly on the adjuftment of their forms
to their fituations. When the conjugate focufes of a
lens are determined by the fervice which it is to per¬
form, there is a certain form or proportion between
the curvatures of their anterior and pofterior furfaces,
which will make their aberrations the fmalletl pofiible.
It is evident that this proportion is to be obtained by
making the fluxion of the quantity within the paren-
thefis in the formula at the top of col. 2. p. 248. equal to
nothing. When this is done, we obtain this formula for a,
the radius of curvature for the anterior furface of a lens.
1 Atn-\-A , . , • r 1
- — 1 y—!—L— < where m is the ratio of the
« 2/«-f-4 2(,;z + 4)r
line of incidence to the fine of refraflion, and r is the
diltance of the focus of incident rays, pofitive or nega¬
tive, according as they converge or diverge, all meafured
on a fcale of which the unit is «, ~ half of the radius
of the equivalent ifcofeles lens.
It will be fufficiently exaft for our purpofe to fuppofe
#2—-, though it is more nearly
3_L
20’
In
this cafe - -
a 7
+
10
7r
_ 42 r70
49c
T—a
Therefore arr
49 r
42r -j- 70
And
As an example, let it be required to give the radii of
C’wvature in inches for the eye-glafs be of page 262.
col. 1. par. 4. which we fhall fuppofe of i j inches focal
dillance, and that e c (r=r) is 3^:th inches.
The radius of curvature for the equivalent ifofceles
V1
and its half is 0.75. nn f ' ~
lens is
Therefore r —
5 5 and our formula is a—
49X5
0.8755
and 1:
42X5+707 280’
0.i2q , , 0.87?
and b— 
0.875 0.125
Thefe values are parts of a fcale, of which the unit is
c.75 inches. Therefore
<7, in inches, = 0.875 Xo.75, =0.65525
in inches, = 7x0.75, =5-25-
And here we mull obferve that the pofterior furface is
concave : for is a pofitive quantity, becaufe 1—a is a
pofitive quantity as well as a ; therefore the centre of
fphericity of both furfaces lies beyond the lens.
And this determination is not very different from the
ufual praftice, which commonly makes this lens a plane
convex with its flat fide next the eye : and there will
not be much difference in the performance of thefe two
lenfes; for in all cafes of maxima and minima, even a
pretty confiderable change of the beft dimeafions does
not make a fenfible change in the lefult.
The lame confideration leads to a rule which is very
TEL
and fufticiently exaft for ordinary fituations. Teiefcope^
This is to make the curvatures fuch, that the incident v
and emergent pencils may be nearly equally inclined
to the furfaces of the lens. Thus in the eye-piece with
five glaffes, A and B ftiould be moft convex on their
anterior fides; C ihould be moft convex on the pofterior
fide ; D lliould be nearly ifofceles 5 and E nearly plano¬
convex.
But this is not fo eafy a matter as appears at firft fight.
The lenfes of an eye-piece have not only to bend the
feveral pencils of light to and from the axis of the tele-
fcope 5 they have alfo to form images ®n the axes of
theie pencils. Thefe offices frequently require oppofite
forms, as mentioned in par. 3. col. 2. p. 261. Thus
the glafs A fig. 28. ftiould be moft convex on the fideFiR< 28((
next the objeH, that it may produce little diftortion of
the pencils. But it ftiould be moft convex next the
eye, that it may produce diftinft vifton of the image
FG, which is very near it. This image Ihould have its
concavity turned towards A, whereas it is towards the
objedt-glafs. We muft therefore endeavour to made the
vertical image/jg flatter, or even convex. This requires
a glafs very flat before and convex behind. For fimilar
reafons the objeft-glafs of a microfcope and the fimple
eye-glafs of an aftronomical telefcope fliould be formed
the fame way.
This is a fubjeft of moft difficult difcuflion, and re¬
quires a theory which few of our readers would relilh 5
nor does our limits afford room for it. The artifts are
obliged to grope their way. The proper method of ex¬
periment would be, to make eye-pieces of large dimen-
fions, with extravagant apertures to increafe the aberra¬
tions, and to provide for each ftation A, B, C, and D,
a number of lenfes of the fame focal diftance, but of dif¬
ferent forms : and we would advife making the trial
in the way of a folar microfcope, and to have two eye¬
pieces on trial at once. Their pi&ures can be formed
on the fame Icreen, and accurately compared 5 whereas
it is difficult to keep in remembrance the performance
of one eye-piece, and compare it with another.
We have now treated the theory of refracting tele¬
fcopes w’ith confiderable minutenefs, and have perhaps
exceeded the limits which fome readers may think rea-
fonable. But w-e have long regretted that there is not
any theory on this fubject from wffiich a curious perfoh
can learn the improvements which have been made fince
the time of Dr Smith, or an artift learn how to proceed
with intelligence in his profeffion. If we have accom-
pliflied either of thefe ends, we truft that the public will
receive our labours with fatisfaCtion.
We cannot add any thing to what Dr Smith has de¬
livered on the theory of reflecting telefcopes. There ap¬
pears to be the fame poffibility of correcting the aber¬
ration of the great fpeculum by the contrary aberration
of a convex fmall fpeculum, that we have praClifed in
the compound objeCt-glafs of an achromatic refraCting
telefcope. But this cannot be, unlefs wre make the ra¬
dius of the convex fpeculum exceedingly large, which
deftroys the magnifying pow’er and the brightnefs.
This therefore mutt be given up. Indeed their per¬
formance, when well executed, does already furpafs all
imagination. Dr Herfchel has found great advantages
in what he calls the front view, not uting a plane mir¬
ror to throw the pencils to one fide. But this cannot
be
TEL
[
*TeIefcop?. be pra^ifed in any but telefcopes fo large, that the lofs
v—Y—0f bght, occalioned by the interpofition of the obferver’s
head, may be difregarded.
Nothing remains but to defcribe the mechanifm of
fome of the molf convenient forms.
To defcribe all the varieties of {hape and accommo¬
dation which may be given to a telefcope, would be a
talk as trifling as prolix. The artills of London and of
Paris have racked their inventions to pleafe every fancy,
and to fuit every purpofe. We 111 a 11 content ourfelves
with a few general maxims, deduced from the fcientific
conlideration of a telefcope, as an inftrument by which
the vifual angle fubtended by a diftant object is greatly
magnified.
The chief confideration is to have a Heady view of
the diftant objeft. This is unattainable, unlefs the
axis of the inftrument be kept conftantly direfted to the
fame point of it: for when the telefcope is gently Ihift-
ed from its pofition, the objedl feems td move in the
fame or in the oppolite direftion, according as the tele¬
fcope inverts the objedft or fhows it ereft. This is ow¬
ing to the magnifying power, becaufe the apparent an¬
gular motion is greater than what we naturally connedt
with the motion of the telefcope. This does not hap¬
pen when we look through a tube without glafles.
All lhaking of the inftrument therefore makes the
objeft dance before the eye ; and this is difagreeable,
and hinders us from feeing it diftindlly. But a tremu¬
lous motion, however fmall, is infinitely more prejudicial
to the performance of a telefcope, by making the objedl
-quiver before us. A perfon walking in the room pre¬
vents us from feeing diftindtly •, nay, the very pulfation
in the body of the obferver, agitates the floor enough to
produce this effedt, when the telefcope has a great mag¬
nifying power: For the vifible motion of the objedt is
then an imperceptible tremor, like that of an harpfi-
chord wire, which produces an effedl precifely fimilar
to optical indiftindtnefs *, and every point of the objedf
is diffufed over the whole fpace of the angular tremor,
and appears coexiftent in every part of this fpace, juft as
a harpfichord wire does while it is founding. The more
rapid this motion is, the indiftindfnefs is the more com¬
plete. Therefore the mote firm and elaftic and well
bound together the frame-work and apertures of our
telefcope is, the more hurtful will this confequence be.
A‘ mounting of lead, were it practicable, would be pre¬
ferable to wood, iron, or brafs. This is one great caufe
of the indiftindlnefs of the very fineft refledling telefcopes
of the ufual conftrudfions, and can never be totally re¬
moved. In the Gregorian form, it is hardly poffible to
damp the elaftic tremor of the fmall fpeculum, carried
by an arm fupported at one end only, even though the
tube were motionlefs. We were witneffes of a great
improvement made on a four feet refledfing telefcope,
by fupporting tbe finall fpeculum by a ftrong plate of
lead placed acrofs the tube, and led by an adjufting
fcrew at each end. But even the great mirror may vi¬
brate enough to produce indiftindlnefs. Refradling te¬
lefcopes are free from this inconveniency, becaufe a fmall
angular motion of the objedf-glafs round one of its own
diameters has no fenfible effbdf on the image in its fo¬
cus. They are affedled only by an angular motion of
the axis of the telefcope or of the eye-glaffcs.
This fingle confideration gives us great help towards
270 ] T E L
judging of the merits of any particular apparatus. We Telefcopt.
ftiould ftudy it in this particular, and fee whether its
form makes the tube readily lulceptible of fuch tremu¬
lous motions. If it does, the firmer it is and the more
elaftic it is, the worfe. All forms therefore where the
tube is fupported only near tbe middle, or where the
whole immediately or remotely depend on one narrow
joint, are defedlive.
Reafoning in this way, we fay with confidence, that
of all the forms of a telefcope apparatus, the old falhion-
ed fimple Hand reprefented in fig. 29. is by far the befc,
and that others are fuperior according as the difpofition
of the points of fupport of the tube approaches to this.
Let the pivots A, B, be fixed in the lintel and foie of a
windown Let the four braces terminate very near to
thefe pivots. Let the telelcope lie on the pin F/, reft-
ing on the flioulder round the eye-piece, while the far
end of it refts on one of the pins 1, 2, 3, &c.; and let
the diftance of thefe pins from F very little exceed the
length of the telelcope. The trembling of the axis, even
when confiderable, cannot affedt the pofition of the
tube, becaufe the braces terminate almoft at the pivots.
The tremor of the brace CD does as little harm, becaufe
it is nearly perpendicular to the tube. And if the ob-
jedh glafs were clofe at the upper fupporting pin, and
the focus at the lower pin F, even the bending and
trembling of the tube will have no effedl on its optical
axis. The inftrument is only fubjedl to horizontal tre¬
mors. Thefe may be almoft annihilated by having a
flender rod coming from a hook’s joint in the fide of
the window, and palling through fuch another joint
clofe by the pin F. We have been an inftrument of this
form, having AB parallel to the earth’s axis. 'I he
whole apparatus did not coft 50 (hillings, and we find
it not in the leaft fenfible manner affedled by a ftorm of
wind. It was by obfervations with this infttument that
the tables of the motions of the Georg'um Sidus, publifh-
ed in the Edinburgh Tranfadlions, were conflrudled,
and they are as accurate as any that have yet appeared.
This is an excellent equatorial.
But this apparatus is not portable, and it is fadly de¬
ficient in elegance. The following is the bell method
we have feen of combining thefe circumftances with the
indifpenfable requifites of a good telefcope.
The pillar VX (fig. 30.) rifes from a firm Hand, and Fig.-50.
has a horizontal motion round a cone which completely
fills it. This motion is regulated by a rack-work in
the box at V. The fcrew of this rack-work is turned
by means of the handle P, of a convenient length, and
the fcrew may be difengaged by the click or detent V,
when we would turn the inftrument a great way at once.
The telefcope has a vertical motion round the joint Q
placed near the middle of the tube. The lower end of
the tube is fupported by the flay OT. This confifts of
a tube RT, faftened to the pillar by a joint T, which
allows the ftay to move in a vertical plane. Within
this tube Aides another, with a fuff motion. This tube
is connedled with the telefcope by another joint O, alfo
admitting motion in a vertical plane. The fide M of
this inner tube is formed into a rack, in which works a
pinion fixed to the top of the tube RT, and turned by
the flat finger-piece R. The reader wall readily fee the
advantages and the remaining defe£ls of this apparatus.
It fis verv portable, becaufe the telefcope is eafily difen¬
gaged from it, and the legs and ftay fold up. If the
joint
TEL [27
Tdefcope. joint O xvere immediately under A, it would be much
“ freer trom all tremor in the vertical plane. But no¬
thing can hinder other tremors arifing from the long
pillar and the three foringy legs. Thefe communicate
all external agitations with great vigour. The inftru-
ment fhould be fet on a (tone pedeital, or, what is bet¬
ter, a calk filled with wet land. This pedeftal, which
necetlity perhaps fuggefted to our fcientific navigators, is
the belt that can be imagined.
pig. ^Ti Fig. 31. is the Hand uiually given to reflefling tele-
fcopes. The vertical tube FBG is faftened to the tube
by finger fcrevvs, which pafs through the Hits at F and
G. This arch turns round a joint in the head of the
divided pillar, and has its edge cut into an oblique rack,
which is adltd on by the horizontal fcrew, furnilhed
with the finger-piece A. This fcrew turns in a hori¬
zontal fquare frame. This frame turns round a horizon¬
tal joint in the off-fide, which cannot be feen in this
' view. In the fide of this frame next the eye there is a
finger-fcrew which pafifes through the frame, and
preffes on the round horizontal plate D. By fcrewing
down this finger-fcrew, the frame is brought up, and
preffes the horizontal fcrew to the rack. Thus the ele-
■vation of the telefcope is fixed, and may be nicely
changed by the finger applied to A and turning this
fcrew. The horizontal round plate D moves ftifHy
round on another plate of nearly equal diameter. This
under plate has a deep conical hollow focket, which is
nicely fitted by grinding to a folid cone formed on the
top of the great upright pillar, and they may be firmly
fixed in any pofition by the finger-fcrew E. To the
under plate is faflened a box c, containing a horizontal
fcrew C, which always works in a rack cut in the edge
of the upper plate, and cannot be difengaged from it.
When a great vertical or horizontal motion is wanted,
the fcrews a and E are Hacked, and by tightening them
the telefcope may be fixed in any pofition, and then any
fmall movements may be given it by the finger plates A
and C.
This Hand is very fubjefl; to briik tremor, either from
external agitation of the pedeflal, or from the immedi¬
ate affion of the wind j and we have feldom feen di-
ftinftly through telefcopes mounted in this manner, till
one end of the tube was preffed againft fomething that
was very fteady and unelaftic. It is quite aftonifiiing
what a change this produces. We took a very fine te¬
lefcope made by James Short, and laid the tube on a
great lump of foft clay, preffing it firmly down into it.
Several perfons, ignorant of our purpofe, looked through
it, and read a table of logarithms at the diftance of 310
yards. We then put the telefcope on its Hand, and
pointed it at the fame objeft j none of the company
could read at a greater diflance than 235 yards, al¬
though they could perceive no tremor. They thought
the vifion as fharp as before; but the incontrovertible
proof of the contrary was, that they could not read at
fuch a diftance.
If the round plates wTere of much greater dimenfions ;
and it the lower one, inftead of being fixed to the pillar,
were fupported on four ftout pillars (landing on another
plate ; and if the vertical arch had a horizontal axis
turning on two upright frames firmly fixed to the upper
plate—the inftrument would be much freer from tre¬
mor. Such Hands were made formerly j but being much
1 ]
TEL
more bulky and inconvenient for package, they have Telefcope.
gone into difule. 1
The high magnifying powers of Dr HerfchePs tele-
fcopts made ail the ufual apparatus for their fupport ex¬
tremely ini per left. But his judgement, and his inge¬
nuity and fertility in refource, aie as eminent as his phi-
lofophical ardour. Fie has contrived for his relieving
telefcopes Hands which have eveiy property that can be
defired. The tubes are all fupported at the two ends..
The motions, both vertical and horizontal, are contrived
with the utmoft fimplicity and firmnefs. We cannot
more properly conclude this article than with a defcrip-
tion of his 40 feet telefcope, the nobleft monument of
philofophical zeal and of princely munificence that the
world can boaft of.
Fig. 32. reprefents a view of tins inftrument in a me- j^XXI
ridional fituation, as it appears when feen from a con- A "
venient diftance by a perfon placed to the (outh-weft of ^ ^
it. The foundation in the ground confifts of two con¬
centric circular brick walls, the outennoft of which is
42 feet in diameter, and the infide one 21 feet. They
are two feet fix inches deep under ground 5 two feet
three inches broad at the bottom, and one foot two in¬
ches at the top j and are capped with paving ftones •
about three inches thick, and twelve and three quarters
broad. The bottom frame of the whole apparatus refts
upon thefe twro walls by twenty concentric rollers III,
and is moveable upon a pivot, which gives a horizontal
motion to the whole apparatus, as well as to the tele¬
fcope.
The tube of the telefcope, A, though very fimple in
its form, which is cylindrical, w7as attended with great
difficulties in the conftiu&ion. This is not to be won¬
dered at j when its fize, and the materials of which it is
made, are confidered. Its length is 39 feet four inches 5
it meafures four feet ten inches in diameter 5 and every
part of it is of iron. Upon a moderate computation,
the weight of a wooden tube muft have exceeded an
iron one at leaft 3000 pounds j and its durability would
have been far inferior to that of iron. It is made of
rolled or (beet iron, which has been joined together
without rivets, by a kind of feaming well known to
thofe who make iron funnels for ftoves.
Very great mechanical fkill is ufed in the contrivance
of the apparatus by which the telefcope is fupported and
directed. In order to command every altitude, the
point of fupport is moveable j and its motion is effected
by mechanifra, fo that the teiefcope may be moved
from its moft backward point of fupport to the moft for¬
ward, and, by means of the pulleys GG fufpended from
the great beam H, be fet to any altitude, up to the
very zenith. The tube is alfo made to reft with the
point of fupport in a pivot, which permits it to be turned
fidewife.
The concave face of the great mirror is 48 inches of
poliffied furface in diameter. The thicknefs, which is
equal in every part of it, remains now about three
inches and a half; and its weight, when it came from
the caft was 2118 pounds, of which it muft have 1. ft a
fmall quantity in polifhing. To put this fpeculum into
the tube, it is fufpended vertically by. a crane in the
laboratory, and placed on a fmall narrow carriage,
which is drawn out, rolling upon planks, till it
comes near the back of the tube; here it is again
fafpended
TEL r 272 ] T E M
Tell, fufpended and placed in the tube by a peculiar appara-
leller.
’ v The method of obferving by this telefcope is by what
Dr Herfchel calls the front view ; the obferver being
placed in a feat C, fufpended at the end of it, with his
back towards the objedl he views. There is no fmall
fpeculum, but the magnifiers are applied immediately to
the firft local image.
From the opening of the telefcope, near the place of
the eye-glafs, a fpeaking pipe runs down to the bottom
of the tube, where it goes into a turning joint j and
after feveral other inflexions, it at length divides into
two branches, one going into the obfervatory D, and
the other into the work-room E. By means of the
fpeaking pipe the communications of the obferver are
conveyed to the afliftant id the obfervatory, and the
workman is direXed to perform the required motions.
In the obfervatory is placed a valuable fidereal time¬
piece, made by Mr Shelton. Clofe to it, and of the
fame height, is a polar diftance-piece, which has a dial-
plate of the fame dimenlions with the time-piece : this
piece may be made to (how polar diftartce, zenith di¬
ftance, declination or altitude, by fetting it differently.
The time and polar diftance pieces are placed fo that
the afliftants fit before them at a table, with the fpeak-
ing-pipe rifing between them j and in this manner ob-
fervations may be written down very conveniently.
This noble inftrument, with proper eye-glaffes, mag¬
nifies above 6000 times, and is the largeft that has ever
been made. Such of our readers as wilh for a fuller ac¬
count of the machinery attached to it, viz. the flairs,
ladders, and platform B, may have recourfe to the fe-
cond part of the TranfaXions of the Royal Society for
I 795 $ in which, by means of 18 plates and 63 pages of
letter-prefs, an ample detail is given of every circum-
ftance relating to joiner’s work, carpenter’s work, and
fmith’s work, which attended the formation and ereXion
of this telefcope. It was completed on Auguft the 28th
1789, and on the fame day was the fixth fatellite of Sa¬
turn difcovered.
TELL, William, an illuftrious Swifs patriot, chief
inftrument of the revolution which delivered the Swifs
cantons from the German yoke in 1307. Grifler, the
governor of thefe provinces for the emperor Albert, ha¬
ving ordered him, under pain of death, to {hoot at an
apple placed on the head of one of his children j he had
the dexterity, though the diftance was very confiderable,
to ftrike it off wdthout hitting the child. The tyrant,
perceiving he had another arrow concealed under his
cloak, afked him for what purpofe ? To which he bold¬
ly replied, “ To have fhot you through the heart, if I
had had the misfortune to kill my fon.” The enraged
governor now ordered him to be hanged j but his fel¬
low-citizens, animated by his fortitude and patriotifm,
flew to arms •, attacked and vanquifhed Grifler, who was
fhot to death by Tell; and the affociation for the inde¬
pendency took place that inftant.
TELL-Ta/e, a name fometimes given to the Verpetual-
iOG. See that article.
TELLER, an officer of the exchequer, in ancient
records called tallier. There are four of thefe officers,
whofe duty is to receive all fums due to the king, and
to give the clerk of the pells a bill to charge him there¬
with. They likewife pay all money due from the king,
by warrant from the auditor of the receipt j and make
I
tveekly and yearly books both of their receipts and pay¬
ments, which they deliver to the lord treafurer.
TELLINA, a genus of fliell-fifh. See CoNCiio-'"
LOGY Index.
TEMISSA, a large town in Africa, about 120 miles
north-eaft of Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan. Here
the caravan of pilgrims from Bornou and Nigritia,
which takes its departure from Mourzouk, and travels
by the way of Cairo to Mecca, ufually provides the
ftores of corn and dates, and dried meat, that are requi-
fite for its dreary paffage.
TEMPE, in Ancient Geographj, a moft pleafant
place or valley of Theffaly. That it was there, appears
from the epithets Thejfalica (Livy), ThcJJala (Ovid) 5
but in what particular diftriX is the queition. From
the Phthiotica of Catullus, it fhould feem to be of
Phthiotis : but the Peneus, which ran through Tempe,
was at too great a diftance, being feparated from it by
Mount Othrys and others. Firft, however, we fhall
define Tempe, previous to the determining the particu¬
lar diftriX in which it lay. The Peneus, according to
Pliny, ranning down between Offa to the fouth and
Olympus to the north for 500 itadia, is for half that
fpace navigable : in the direXion of this couffe lies what
is called Tempe, extending in length for five miles, in
breadth for about an acre and a half, with gentle con¬
vexities rifing on the right and left hand. Within
glides the pure ftream of the Peneus, charming in
the grafs on its banks, and harmonioufly vocal with
the mufic of birds. In this defeription Strabo and
Ailian agree j the laft adding, that it has an agree¬
able variety of places of retreat; and that it is not
the work of man’s hand, but the fpontaneous pro-
duXion of nature j and Strabo fays, that formerly
the Peneus formed a lake in this fpot, being check¬
ed in its courfe by the higher grounds about the
fea; but that an opening being made by an earth¬
quake, and Mount Offa torn from Olympus, the Pe¬
neus gained a free courfe between them. But Livy,
who calls Tempe a grove, remarks a degree of horror
rather than amenity, with which the Roman army was
ftruck on marching over the narrow pafs $ for, befides
the defile, difficult to go over, which runs on for five
miles, there are fteep rocks on each hand, down which
the profpeX is apt to caufe a dizzinefs, heightened by
the noife and depth of the interfluent Peneus. Hence
it appears that Tempe was in the Pelafgiotis, whofe ex¬
tremity was formerly the Peneus, but afterwards, as is
probable, allotted to Magnefia ; and thus Pliny places
the mouth of the Peneus not in Theffaly itfelf, but in
the Magnefia of Theffaly.
TEMPER, in a mechanical fenfe. See Temper¬
ing.
Temper, in a moral fenfe, the difpofition of mind,
whether natural or acquired. The word is feldom ufed
by good writers without an epithet, as a good or bad
temper 5 though one of the moft beautiful poems in the
language is entitled The Triumphs of Temper.
It is well obferved by an elegant affayift, that more
conftant uneafinefs arifes from ill temper than from ill
fortune; as a bad temper embitters every fweet, and
converts a paradife into a place of torment. For fub-
duing the heart to foftnefs, and preferving a due balance
of the paflions, a proper culture of the underftanding
and of the tafte is the beft method. He who employs
Tellint
Temper.
tt; l,i: 5 c opk .
mate DXXIX.
/
' %-
N
*
/
Plate DXXXll.
TEMPERAMEIV'r OF Ml SH
V. .
'
■ '
m
,
T E M [ 273 ] T E M
. Temper, his time in the ftudies of elegant literature, or the fine
Tempera- arts^ jlas gimoft always a good temper ; whilft the man
1 . who is abforbed in the purfuits of profound fcience is apt
to acquire a feverity of difpofition, little lefs difagree-
able, though generally much lefs pernicious, than the
capricioufnefs of the idler. Mufic, painting, and poetry,
teach the mind to feledl the agreeable parts of thofe ob-
je£ts which furround us, and by habituating it to a pure
and permanent delight, gradually fuperinduce an habi¬
tual good humour. It is of infinite importance to hap-
pinefs to accuftom the mind, from inlancy, to turn from
deformed and painful fcenes, and to contemplate what¬
ever can be found of moral and natural beauty.
So much of the happinefs of private life depends on
the government of the temper, that the temper ought
to be a principal obje£l of regard in a well-condufted
education. The fuffering of children to tyrannize with¬
out controul over fervants and inferiors, is the ruin of
many an amiable difpofition. The virtues of humanity,
benevolence, humility, cannot be too early enforced ;
at the fame time, care fliould be taken that an infant
of two or three years old Ihould never be beaten or
fpoken to harlhly for any offence which it can poflibly
commit.
TEMPERAMENT, among phyficians, the fame
with conflitution, or a certain difpotition of the folids
and fluids of the human body, by which it may be pro¬
perly denominated ftrong, weak, lax, &c.
In every perfon there are appearances of a tempera¬
ment peculiar to himfelf, though the ancients only took
notice of four, and fome have imagined thefe were de¬
duced from the theories of the four humours or four
cardinal qualities; but it is more probable that they
were firft founded on obfervation, and afterwards adapt¬
ed to thofe theories, fince we find that they have a real
exiftence, and are capable of receiving an explanation.
The two that are moft diftinftly marked are the fangui-
neous and melancholic, viz. the temperaments of youth
and age.
1. Sanguineous. Here there is laxity of folids, dif-
coverable by the foftnefs of hair and fucculency •, large
fyftem of arteries, redundancy of fluids, florid com¬
plexion 5 fenfibility of the nervous power, efpecially to
pleafing objeftsy irritability from the plethora ; mobi¬
lity and levity from lax folids. Thefe characters are di-
flinctly marked, and are proved by the difeafes inci¬
dent to this age, as haunorrhagies, fevers, &c. but
thefe, as they proceed from a lax fyftem, are more eafily
cured.
2. Melancholic Habit. Here greater rigidity of fo¬
lids occurs, difcoverable by the hardnefs and crifpature
of the hair; fmall proportion of the fluids, hence dry-
nefs and leannefs; fmall arteries, hence pale colour;
venous plethora, hence turgefcency of thefe, and livi-
d;!y; fenfibility, frequently exquifite ; moderate irrita¬
bility, with remarkable tenacity of impreflions ; fteadi-
nefs in action and flownefs of motion, with great
ftrength y for excefs of this conftitution in maniacs gives
the moft extraordinary inftance of human ftrength we
know. This temperament is moft diftinctly marked in
Vol. XX. Part I.
old age, and in males. The fanguineous temperament Temperst-
of youth makes us not diftinguiih the melancholic till, ment- >
the decline of life, when it is very evident, from dif- _v
eafes of the veins, lutmorrhoids, apoplexy, cachexy, ©b-
ftruftions of the vifcera, particularly of the liver, <drop-
fies, affections of the alimentary canal, chiefly from
weaker influence of the nervous power. So much for
the fanguineous and melancholic temperaments j the
other two are not fo eafily explained. The choleric
temperament takes place between youth and manhood.
In the
3. Choleric, the diftribution of the fluids is more ex¬
actly balanced ; there is lefs fenfibility, and lefs obefity,
with more irritability, proceeding from greater tenfion,
lefs mobility and levity, and more fteadinefs in the
ftrength of the nervous power. As to the
4. Phlegmatic. This temperament cannot be diftin-
guifhed by any charafters of age or fex. It agrees
with the fanguineous in laxity and fucculency. It dif¬
fers from that temperament, and the melancholic, by
' the more exa£l diftribution of the fluids. Again, it
differs from the fanguineous, by having lefs fenfibility,
irritability, mobility, and perhaps ftrength, though
fometimes indeed this lalt is found to be great.
Thefe are the ancient temperaments. The tempera¬
ments, indeed, are much more various ; and very far
from being ealily marked and reduced to their genera
and fpecies, from the great variety which is obfervable
in the conftitutions of different men. s
TEMPERAMENT of the Mujical Scale, is that modi- Definition,
fication of the founds of a mufical inftrument, by which
thefe founds may be made to ferve for different degrees
of different fcales. See Music, Chap. VII.
Temperament, though intimately connected with mu¬
fic, is not, properly fpeaking, a part of that fcience;
The objects of mufic, as a fcience, are, to afeertain the
laws of mufical found, as depending on the powers of
the human voice. The purpofe of temperament isj to
regulate, in a way leaft adverfe to thefe laws, a certain
departure from them, rendered neceffary by the imper¬
fections of inftruments.
Although the temperament of the fcale of inftruments
be praftically familiar, the true principles on which it
depends have been much difputed. Various opinions
have been hazarded, and fyftems propofed. We offer
an abridged view of that which appears to us to merit a
preference (a).
Before confideration of the tempered fcale, a fliort Nature of
review of the nature of the true fcale is neceffary. the true
From the conformation of the vocal organs, all na-fcale*
tions, in finging, make ufe of the fame inflcdhions ofNot,J amj
voice. Thefe inflexions, called notes, are faid to be their pitch.
grave or acute, in proportion to the degree of hoarfenefs
or Ihrillnefs with which they are fung. The ftate of
voice with refpeX to gravity or acutenefs with which
any one note is fung, is termed its pitch.
Two notes having the fame pitch are termed unifons, Unifors and
or are faid to be in unifon to one another. The differ-intervals,
ence of pitch between any note and another is denomi¬
nated an interval.
M m In
(a) Amongft the very numerous authors on the fubjeX of temperament, we have feleXed, for our chief guidei
the late Dr Robert Smith of Cambridge, and Profeffor John Robifon of Edinburgh.
T E M
Tempera¬
ment.
Key note
or funda¬
mental.
6
Natural
Icale and
its degrees,
Difference
of pitch of
the male
and female
6
Odlave,
-what ?
In all attempts to fing, the ear, either unconfcioufly,
j or from the direftion of recently hearing it, fele&s a
particular note, from the previous impreffion of which
the voice naturally forms other liotes, at certain though
unequal intervals. The note, thus feleaed, is termed
the % note ox fundamental. When chofen, it inftantly
affumes a particular and predominant charafler. The
ear involuntarily refers to it the intonation of all other
notes, readily recurs to it during performance, and is
diflatisfied unlefs the voice clofe upon it.
Where the finger has affumed a key note, and, after
finging that note, lings the note nearelt in acutenefs to
it without forcing the voice, and fo on, the leries of
notes, thus naturally formed, conftitutes what is called
the naturalfeale. The notes of it are termed its de¬
grees ; thus the key note is the firjl degree of the
Icale ; the natural note next in acutenefs to it, is
named the fecond degree, or fecond of the fcale, and fo
on.
Two untaught men, attempting to fing the fame fcale
together, always fing in unilbn. But a man and a wo¬
man, making the fame attempt, fing naturally in fuch a
difference of pitch, although they proceed by the fame
intervals, that the eighth note only of the male voice
afeending, is in unifon with the key note of the female
voice. Were the male voice to afeend to a ninth note,
it would be in unifon with the fecond of the female
voice ; the tenth note of the former would be in unifon
with the third of the latter, and fo on.
We have thus two feales in fucceffion, perfe&ly fimi-
lar in the relation of the degrees of each to their refpec-
tive key notes j but differing in pitch by the interval
between thefe key notes.
This interval, comprehending feven fmaller intervals
and eight degrees, is, from this laft circumftance, called
an odlave : and this term is alfo applied, fomewhat in¬
accurately, to the feries of the eight degrees. Thus we
fay, that the oflave formed by the female voice is an
oBave acuter than that which is produced by the male
voice j meaning, that the eight degrees fung by the
C 274 J
T E M
woman are acuter by the interval of an o£laye, than Tempera,
thofe fung by the man. mCnt.
Not only are the natural oclaves of the male and fe- '-“"-v——*
male voice exa&ly fimilar j but the fame fimilarity is . it
found in the extremes of the human voice, and, beyond arC finS!
them, as far as mufical founds can be produced. Many
men can nng the fecond octave below, and niofl women
the fecond octave above, a given key note common to
both voices. Yet the gr&veft odtave of fuch a male
voice, and the acuteft octave of fuch a female voice, are
equally fimilar in their relations (although they differ in
pitch by an interval of two odtaves), as the two central
odtaves are. ^
^-11 the different natural infledtions of the human Ml mulle
voice are thus contained in one odtave, fince all other fo’ ^ined
odtaves are only repetitions of the fame infledtions in a !.n one oc-
gr-e/ oracuter pitch. _ nTtural
J. he odtave, then, confifts of eight degrees and feven fcale.
intervals. Two of thefe intervals, thole between the 11
third and fourth, and the feventh and eighth degrees °ftilve
are fenfibly lefs different in pitch than the others. And
although we have no diredt meafures of the pitch of grees and
founds, we term thefe fmaller intervals femitonic, and feven inter-
the others tonic intervals, prefuming the latter to bevais'
equal to each other, and a femitonic interval to be equal
to the half of a tonic one.
m The degrees of the natural fcale are, by Britifh mufi- Reprefen-
cians, diftinguifhed by the firft feven letters of the al- tat'on °f
phabet. I he letter C, for fome reafon lefs important fcale
than difficult to explain, has been appropriated to the b) letter5i
note moft eafily affumed as a key note by both the
male and female voice; the fecond of the fcale is term¬
ed D, the third E, and fo on. As the human voice,
and confequently moft mufical compofitions, compre¬
hend four odtaves, we reprefent the ordinary odtave of
the male voice by Roman capitals, and that of the fe¬
male voice by Roman minufcular letters. The graveft
male odtave is diitinguifhed by Italic capitals, and the
acuteft female odtave by minufcular Italics. The whole
natural fcale may therefore be exhibited thus:
Graveft Ordinary-
Male Ocftave. Male Odtave.
£,*Z)*£F*G*^*£C*D*EF*G*A*
i. 2. 34. 5. 6. 71. 2. 34. 5. 6.
Ordinary Acuteft
Female Odtave. Female Odtave.
B c * d * e f * g * a * b <r*V *ef*g *a*bc.
71. 2.34.5. 6. 71.2. 34.5. 6. 78.
In this exhibition, the juxtapofition of the thirds and
fourths, and of the fevenths and eighths or replicates of
the firft degree, indicates the femitonic intervals ; and
the afterilks reprefent the tonic intervals of the natural
fcale, or the artificial intercalary founds, which, as we
ffiall prefently fee, it becomes neceffary to fubftitute in
13 thofe intervals.
Different Were all voices of the fame compafs, and were mufi-
’uftfdtf- Cal feelinSs fat.isfied with the natural fcale, we might
ferent " reft k?re* Being furnifhed with a key note adapted to
Jfcales. aB voices, and with inftruments accurately tuned to that
key note,, it would be unneceflary to examine whether
any other note of the natural fcale could be affumed as
the key note of a different fcale, and if it could, whe¬
ther any agreeable effed refulted from the difeovery.
But the ufe of difterent feales, the key notes of which
are derived from the different degrees of the natural
feales, has been found not only to be one of the chief
fources of the pleafure imparted by mufical perform¬
ances, but to be indifpenfably neceffary, from the phy.
fical inequality of voices.
The central ‘c’ of the fcale, called in mufic the tenor
C, can be produced by every fpecies of voice. The
graveft male voices, termed bafs, can form this note,
but very few notes above it. The treble, or acuter
female voice alfo produces it, but feldom defeends
farther. The acuter male voices, called tenor, have
this ‘c’ fcarcely above the middle of their compafs, and
it is not much below the middle of that of the counter¬
tenor or graveft female voices. Now it is obvious that
an air in the natural fcale, which ffiould rife above ‘c’
and fall below it in the fame proportions, might be fung
by the tenor or counter-tenor voice, but would be too
acute for the bafs voice, and too grave for the treble.
Either of thefe voices, in order to execute the fame air,
muft affume a different key note from ‘c’ j and as all
the
2
T E M [ 275 ] T E M
Tempera- the degrees of the fcale are regulated by the key note,
. inetlt- the air mull of courfe be executed in a fcale different
Y~ from that of ‘c\
Again, fuppofe a Unger who can fing a given air on¬
ly in the fcale of B, to be accompanied by an inftru-
ment tuned in the fcale of ‘c\ Should the lyriff be¬
gin on his own key note, he is a femitone above the
key note of the finger j and (hould he begin on the
note which is in unifon with the finger’s key note, the
next degree is wrong, being but a femitonic interval by
the inftrument, and a tonic interval by the voice. In
fiiort, all the degrees but one will be found'wrong.
This is an evident confequence of the inequality of the
femitonic to the tonic intervals; and if the tonic inter¬
vals, which we prefume to be equal, be not exadtly fo,
14 the difcordance will be Hill greater.
Intercalary The remedy for this is apparently obvious. If the
founds ne- femitonic intervals are each equal to half of any of the
cc a tonic intervals, we need only to interpofe other founds
between each two of the degrees which form the tonic
intervals ; and then, in place of eight degrees and feven
unequal intervals, we (hall have twelve degrees and
twelve equal intervals, each of them equal to a femitone.
An inftrument thus furniftied, appears to be adapted to
any voice, and to refemble the modern harpfichord or
organ, which have twelve feemingly equjil intervals in
the oftave. Such were the practical refources of the
Greek muficians, famffioned by the approbation of Ari-
ftoxenus, and of all thofe who were Satisfied with the
15 decifion of the ear alone.
Mathema- But philofophers and mathematicians afcertained the
tical ratios exiftence of a certain connexion between mufical inter-
intervaTs! va^s anc* rnat^ema^ca^ proportions, and gradually open¬
ed the way to the difcovery that the relations of the
mufical fcale, as naturally formed by the human voice,
depend on principles equally plain and certain with the
Tg fimpleft geometrical propofitions.
Ratios of Pythagoras is faid to have difcovered, that if two
the odtave muficat chords be in equal tenfion, and if one of them
fourth”11 ke ha^ the length of the other, the (hort one will found
an o&ave above the long one ; if one third ftvorter, it
will produce the fifth : if one fourth Ihorter, it will give
the fourth. Thus the relation of the key to its oftave
was difcovered to correfpond to the ratio of 2 : 1 j that
of the key to its fifth to be in the ratio of 3:2; and
that of the key to its fourth to be in the ratio of 4:3.
For inftance, if a chord of a given fize and tenfion, and
12 inches long, produce ‘c’, another of the fame fize
and tenfion, but only fix inches long, will give the oc¬
tave c ; one eight inches long will found the fifth ‘g’ $
and one nine inches long will produce the fourth ‘f’.
Now as the firing of eight inches giving the fifth, and
that of fix inches producing the oftave, are in the ratio
of 4:3, which is that of the fourth *, it follows, that
the interval between the fifth and o6tave is a fourth :
and as the chord of nine inches producing the fourth, and
the oflave of fix inches, are in the ratio of 3 : 2, the in¬
terval between the fourth and oflave muft be a fifth.
Thus the oftave ‘c’ c, is divided into a fifth *c g’, and a
fourth ‘g’c, or into a fourth ‘cf’, and a fifth *fV, both
(b) We may make CD = 6i®, 72 j CE 1550, 9; CE:
£26° 48.
in fucceflion. The two fourths ‘c f’, and {g’ c, leave an Tempera-
interval ffg’, correfponding, as we have feen, to the ratio , n:en^ ^
of 9:8. _ 1?
We have thus the ratios of the oftave, of the fifth, and Ratio of
of the fourth j and it does not appear that the ancient the major
theorifts proceeded farther. They feem to have pre-t^ir^> mi"
ferred the harmony of fourths and fifths to that of thirds
and fixths, fo effential in modern harmony. By pur-tone,
firing the fyftem of the mathematical ratios, we find
that 5 : 4 gives the major third ‘ce’. And the fifth ‘g’
being already determined by the ratio 3 : 2, tve afcer-
tain the ratio of the minor third ‘e g’ to be 6 : 5, which
is the difference between 3 : 2 and 5:4. In the fame
way, the ratio of the third ‘e’ being 5 : 4, and that of
the fourth ‘f’ being 4:3, we afcertain the ratio of the
femitone ‘e f ’ to be 16 : 15, or 4 : 3—5 : 4,
A note in the ratio of 5 : 4, or that of a major third K-^10
to ‘f’, gives ‘a’, the major fixth of the natural fcale j fot ^and"
and a note in the fame ratio of 5 : 4 to ‘g’ produces ‘b,’major fe_
the major feventh of that fcale. The ratio of ‘ga’ willventh.
thus be 10 : 9, and that of ‘a b’ 9 : 8, the fame w ith that
offfg’j and that of‘bV will thus be 16 : 15 like‘e f’. *9
We have in this wray the mathematical ratios of all ^;at10 9^
the degrees of the natural fcale except that of the fe- fec0nd.
cond ‘d’. Confidering however, the fecond to be a per-
fedt fourth graver than the fifth, and having afcertain¬
ed the fifth ‘g’ to be a perfedl fourth below c, as 2 : I
is to 3 : 2 j fo 3:2 gives 9 :8, which we take for the
ratio of the fecond. 20
Thus have been formed two diftindl fyftems of into-Ara1^°“"
nation of the natural fcale ; that of mean tones and fe-pythago-
mitones, founded on the rules of Aviftoxenus, and the rean fy-
pradlice of ancient artifts, and that of the ratios, dedu- ftems.
ced from the difcoveries of Pythagoras, and the calcula¬
tions of mathematicians. 21
The difference between the Ariftoxenean fyftem ofCircular Te*
mean tones and femitones, and the Pythagorean fyftem ?re enrtar
or mathematical ratios, wull belt appear from the fol-fcaie-
lowing conftrudtion. Let the circumference of a circle
(fig. 1.) be divided by dotted lines (according to the dxxXII.
principles of Ariftoxenus) into five larger and equal in- Fig. 1.
tervals, and two fmaller intervals alfo equal. Let it al-
fo be divided by full lines into portions determined by
means of the mufical ratios. Thus let the arches CD,
FG, and AB be proportional to the logarithm of 9 : 8,
GA and DE to thofe ©f 10 : 9, and EF and BC to
thofe of 16 : 15 (u). Let us divide another circle in
the fame manner; but inftead of having its points of
divifion marked C.D, &c. let them be marked ‘key’
2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th. This circle, which may be
defcribed on a piece of card, is to be placed on the other,
and is to move round their common centre. a3.
In whatever point of the outer circle the point ‘ ^ey’the0"
of the inner one be placed, it is obvious that the other naturalE
points of the outer circle will ftiew what degrees of it, fcale for
by correfponding with the other points 2d, 3d, &c. of9omP0fltioa
the inner circle, will ferve for degrees of the fcale de-l-n c,llfferent
termined by the point ‘key.’ By this we fee clearlyica eS*
the infufficiency of the degrees of the natural fcale, for
the performance of compofitions in different fcales, and
Mm2 the
1490, 42 j CG=r2io°, 58 > CA~ 265°, 3 $ and C&
T E M [ 276 ] T E M
Tempers- the inefficacy of the Ariftoxenean remedy of mean
, tnent’ tones,
^ But although the errors of the Ariftoxeneans were de-
Galileo’s monftrated by the certainty of the ratios, and although
difeovery the dependence of muftcal intervals on the latter be faid
of aenal t0 jiave known fince the days of Pythagoras, the
un uiatxon. nature 0j.- tiiat relation remained unknown for ages.
Galileo difeovered that the ratios exprefs the frequency
of the aerial undulation, by which the feveral founds
are generated. He demonftrated that the vibrations of
twx> chords, of the fame matter and thicknefs, and of
equal tenfion, will be in the ratio of their lengths, and
that the number of ofcillations made in a given time
will be inverfely as their lengths. The frequency of
the fonorous undulations of the air is therefore inverfely
as the length of the firing. Thus 2 : 1 being the ratio
of the otlave, the undulations which produce the acuter
found are twice as frequent as thofe w'hich generate the
graver. The ratio of the fifth, 3 : 2, indicates that in
the fame time that the ear receives three undulations
from the upper found, it receives only two from the
lower. This is not peculiar to founds produced by the
vibration of firings : thofe produced from the vibration
of bells, and from the undulation of the air in pipes, are
regulated by the fame law.
Pitch of Thus, it is demonftrated that the pitch of mufical
found de- found is determined by the undulations of the air •, and
b^TiSal ^iaL a certain frequency of undulations produces a cer-
undula- tain and unalterable mufical note. It has been found
tions. that any noife whatever, if repeated 240 times in a fe-
cond, at equal intervals, produces the tenor ‘c’; if 360
times, the ‘g’, or fifth above. It had been imagined that
mufical found wras only to be produced by thofe regular
undulations, which are occafioned by the vibrations of
elaftic bodies. We are allured that the fame effe& will
be produced by any noife, if repeated not lefs than 30
or 40 times in a fecond ; and that the experiment has
been tried with a quill fnapping againft the teeth of a
2I. wneeu
Chords, By Galileo’s difeovery, the principles on which the
confonant juft intonation of the natural fcale depends, are Ihown
and difib- t0 be certain and plain. To proceed in our fearch of
nant’ an exaft meafure of temperament of this perfect intona¬
tion, we mull confider the nature and effefts of con¬
fonant and diffonant chords.
A chord is a combination of two or more fimultane-
ous mufical founds. If the coalefcence be fo complete
that the compound founds cannot be diftinguilhed, the
chord is faid to be confonant; if the feparate founds are
diftinftly heard, the chord is termed diffonant.
All confonances are pleafing, although fome are more
fo than others. ' All diffonances are unfatisfa&ory, and
fome are very harlh.
Beats, In confonances, no inequality of found is perceptible,
what? In diffonances, the ear is fenfible of an alternate increafe
and diminution of the ftrength of the found, without
variation of pitch. This is occafioned by the alternate
coincidence and bife&ion of the vibrations of the com¬
ponent founds. For example, fuppofe two perfeft uni-
fons produced from twro pipes each 24 inches long.
Each found has 240 vibrations in a fecond, either exact¬
ly coincident, or exaftly alternate. In either cafe, the
vibrations are fo frequent and uniform as not to be di-
(tinguilhable, and the whole appears one found. But
let one of the pipes be only 23 inches and feven-tenths Tempera-
long, it will give 243 vibrations in a fecond. There- raent-
fore the ill, the Both, the 160th, and the 240th vibra- 1 1
tion of the longer pipe, will coincide with the ill, the
81 ft, the 16 2d, and the 243d of the (horter. In the
infiant of coincidence, the aerial agitation produced by
the one vibration is reinforced by that produced by the
other. The deviations from coincidence gradually in¬
creafe till the 40th vibration of the longer pipe, which
will commence in the middle of the 41 ft vibration of the
fliorter one. The vibrations here bifeeling each other,
the aerial agitations of both will be weakened. The
compounded found will confequently be ftronger at the
coincidences and weaker at the bife&ions of the vibra¬
tions. The increafe of ftrength, which is termed the
beat, will recur thrice in every fecond. Thus the vi¬
brations are in the ratio of 80 : 81, or of a comma ;
and the compounded found now fuppofed is an unifon
imperfeB by a comma.
If a third pipe, tuned a perfedl fifth to the longer of
the two former, be founded at the fame time with the
ftiorter, the diffonance will beat nine times in a fecond j
and is thus (hown to be a fifth imperfedt by a comma.
The perfedlion or imperfedlion of any confonance
may thus be afeertained w7ith equal facility and pre-
cifion : and by this method, any perfedl confonance
may be altered to any acquired ftate of temperament.
The theory of beats is therefore valuable, as giving
us the management of a phenomenon intimately con- ford an ex-
nedled with perfedl harmony, as affording us precife and a<ft mea-
pradlicable meafures of all deviations from it, and as^ure 0^ten:1-
thus forming the bafis of the moft accurate fyftem 0fPerainent’
temperament.
For the preparatory procefs of determining the exadl
degrees of the fcale, let us attend to the following in¬
genious and amufing experiment. 2g
Let two harpfichord wires be exadlly tuned in unifon Fundamen-
at the pitch of the tenor ‘c,’ to be adled on fimultane- tal experi-
oufly by a wheel rubbed wfith rofin, like that of a vielle.mei:it-
Let a fcale of 240 equal parts be deferibed under one of
the firings, equal in length to the founding part of it,
and numbered from the end at which the wheel is
applied. Let a moveable bridge be placed under this
firing, but fo as not to alter the tenfion of it in the
kail.
The two open firings being in perfect unifon, with¬
out any beating whatever, let the moveable bridge be
advanced flowly from the nut, while the wheel is ap¬
plied to both firings. All kinds of chords, confonant
and diffonant, will of courfe be fuccefiively heard. Be¬
tween the confonances there will be a beating, which
will increafe as we approach the confonance, ceafe on
our reaching it, appear again as we leave it, diminifh as
we recede from it, and again incieafe as we approach to
the fucceeding confonance.
After this general view, let us more particularly ex¬
amine the feveral degrees of the fcale. ^
On placing the moveable bridge at 120, we fhall Determina-
hear a perfeft oftave, without any beating. If the di-tI0n
vifion be not quite exadl, there will be a little beating; °‘d:ave'
but by flnfting the bridge very gently to either fide, the
increafe or diminution of the beating will guide us to
the true place, where it will entirely ceafe. Detemina-
Qn placing the bridge at 160, the perfeft concord of tion of the
thcPerfedl
htth.
35.
Determina¬
tion of the
minor fixth.
36.
Determina¬
tion of the
major fixth.
37 .
Determina¬
tion of the
feventh.
T E M
- the key and fifth will be heard,
the bridge to either fide will produce a difagieeable
beating.
A rapid flutter in the vicinity of 180 will ceafe at
that point, and give place to the confonance of the key
and fourth.
On approaching 192, an angry wafpirti beating is fuc-
ceeded at that point by the animating concord of the
key and major third.
i- As we leave 192, the beating aflumes a melancholy
charafter, and ceafes at 200, the place of the plaintive
’ confonance of the key and minor third,
i. Between that point and the nut, we have only a fuc-
ceflion of difcords. As we were at a lofs to afcertain
* the mathematical ratio of the fecond of the fcale (art. 19),
fo we have fome difficulty in determining its juft place
by the theory of beats, and the experiment under con-
fideration. We are uncertain whether we ftiall fix it at
a minor tone, or at a major tone above the key. Both
form a harffi diffonance with the key. The major tone,
however, is thought lefs difagreeable : it admits of five
more concords in the o&ave than the minor 5 and the
ratio of it 9 : 8, is that fuggefted by the fimilarity of
its interval wdth the fifth, to the interval of the fifth and
oftave (art. 19). On thefe accounts we prefer it j and
its place in the divifion under our precife confideration
is 2134.
Let the bridge now be placed near, and flowly mo¬
ved to 150: the beatings fubfide into a confonance,
(lightly pleafing, that of the key and minor fixth.
At 144, we have the agreeable concord of the key
and major fixth. From 144 to 120 we hear nothing
but difcord.
In this interval, however, w’e have to find the place
of the fenfible note or major feventh. The ear informs
us, that the interval between the major feventh and the
oftave, muft be fimilar to that between the major third
and the fourth. Applying to the former interval the
ratio of the latter, that of 16 : 15, we place the move^
able bridge at x 28 5 for as 15 is to 16, fo 120 gives
128. We alfo feel, that the interval between the fifth
and major feventh is exa&ly fimilar to that between the
key and major third, of which the ratio is 5 : 4. Now,
applying the fame ratio to 160, the place of the fifth,
F 277 1 T E M
Any alteration of w'e find 5 : 4 :: 160 : 128. We thus determine 128 Tempera-
to be the place of the major feventh of the fcale. , ment- t
The interval or difference between the minor tone 3g !
10 : 9, and the major tone 9 : 8, is 81 : 80, termed Ratios of
comma. This interval is not employed in practical mu- fimple ini
fic, but muft be diftimfily underftood by theorifts, andterva^'
particularly in treating of temperament.
There are therefore four defcriptions of fimple inter¬
vals } that is, intervals which do not include more than
a major tone. Thefe are, comma, of which the ratio
is 81 : 80; hemitone, or 16 : 15; minor tone, or
io : 9 j and major tone, or 9 : 8 (c). ‘ 39
We have now to confider how far the perfect intona- Tempera-
tion of the natural fcale murt be departed from in keyed "ient. nec£f'
inftruments, fuch as the organ and harpfichord ; fo that j^yedjn.
the fame found may ferve for different degrees of diffetxftrmnentsi
ent fcales.
Thefe inftruments have twelve founds in every oc¬
tave 'j that is, they have the eight natural degrees and
four intercalary (bunds, viz. between C and D, D and
E, F and G, G and A, and A and B.
The purpofe of thefe intercalary founds is, that an
air may be performed in any pitch j that is, that any
found may be taken for a key note, and that other
founds may be found to form the fcale of that key note,
at intervals correfponding to thofe of the natural
fcale.
Thus, if inftead of C, the key note of the natural
fcale, we take B for the key note required *, A, which
is the feventh to B, will by no means anfwer for the
feventh of the affumed fcale j for the interval between
A and B is a major tone, of which the ratio is 9 : 8,
whereas the interval between the feventh of the fcale
and the oftave, can only be a hemitone, the ratio of
which is 16 : 15. We muft therefore employ the in¬
tercalary found between A and B, which in this em¬
ployment we call A $, or A (harp. But we (hall pre-
fently fee that we cannot tune even this found in the ra¬
tio of 16 : 15 with B. For, let us take F for the key
note of another fcale, we find that B will not ferve for
the fourth of that fcale, being a major tone above A
the third ; whereas the fourth of the fcale is only a he¬
mitone above the third. We muft therefore have re-
courfe to our intercalary found between A and B,
which
(c) The logarithmic meafures of thefe intervals, and of the compound intervals determined in the way which wft
have defcribed, are
Comma,
Hemitone,
Minor tone,
Major tone,
Minor third,
Major third,
Fourth,
Fifth,
Minor fixth,
Major fixth,
Seventh,
Octave,
54
280
458
S12
792
969
1249
1761
2041
2219
273©
30x0
The o&ave being thus divided into 3010 equal parts, a circle of which the circumference is divided into 301
degrees, and a concentric moveable circle having a nonius fubdividing each into ten parts, will form a convenient,
inftrument for examining all temperaments of the fcale.
Tempera.
ment.
T E M [2
which we niuft here call El?, or B flat, and which
ought in this Hate to be tuned a hemitone above A, or
in the ratio of 16 : 15 with that note. Now, this in¬
tercalary found cannot be both in the ratio of 16 : x ?
with A, and in the fame ratio of 16 : 15 with E. This
would extend the whole interval between A and B, to
the ratio of about 8 : 7 j whereas it fhould only be in
that of 9 : 8. We muft therefore tune the intercalary
found in fuch a diminifhed relation to A and to B, that
it may ferve either for A:$ or B [?.
But, even independent of thefe intercalary notes,
fame temperament of the natural fcale is neceflary.
Let the four fifths, ‘eg’, ‘g’^ ‘«V, and ‘a P, be
tuned all perfeft. Then tune the two perfect odtaves
from ‘e ’ downwards, ‘e e\ Le : e\ The major third
‘c e’, refulting from this procefs, will be too (harp by a
comma, or 81 : 80, and will beat 15 times in a fecond.
The minor third ‘e g’, and the major fixth ‘c a’, will be
ftill more difeordant.
It is therefore impoflible to have perfect fifths, and
at the fame time perfedt thirds and fixths. Now, al¬
though a perfedt fifth, occafionally employed, be plea-
fing, yet the ear does not relilh a fucceflxon of perfedt
fifths ; fuch a fucceflxon not only renders the harmony
languid, but creates a doubt as to the key, which is un-
fatisfadfory. On the other hand, an alternate fucceffion
of major and minor thirds and fixths conftitutes the
chief and moft brilliant part of our harmonics. We
therefore find it neceflary to facrifice fomewhat of the
perfedf harmony of the fifths to that of the third and
fixths.
It is this accommodation which is properly called
Temperament; and to this fyftem of it, by which the
fitths are diminilhed, and the thirds and fixths preferved
perfedl, we give the preference.
We have juft feen that four confecutive perfedl fifths
compofe an interval, greater, by a comma, than two
odtaves and a major third. But in the tuning of our
inftruments requiring temperament, thefe intervals muft
be rendered equal. Becaufe, as we have feven hemi-
tonic intervals in the fifth, twelve in the odtave, and
78 ]
T E M
four in the major third ; fo the interval of four-fifths Tempera*
contains twenty-eight hemitonic intervals, and that of ment-
two odtaves and major third contain alfo twenty-eight,
being twenty-four for the two o&aves, and four for the
major third. The real difference being, however, a
comma, it is plain, that if we keep the major thirds
perfeft, we muft diminilh or flatten each of the four-
filths one-fourth of a comma.
It is not eafy to afeertain with perfeft exa&nefs the
quarter comma by which the firft fifth ‘c g’ is to be di-
minilhed. We Ihall, however, be fufficiently accurate
for pradlical purpoles if we flatten ‘g’ till a beating of 9
beats in four feconds is produced (d).
Having in this manner tuned ‘g’, we diminilh the
next fifth ‘g’ </, one-fourth of a comma, by flattening d
till ‘g’d beat half as faft again as ‘c g’, or 134 beats in
four feconds (e).
The next fifth, da, muft be diminilhed in the fame
proportion by flattening a till ‘da"1 beat 15 times in fix
feconds.
Inftead of tuning upward the fifth a e, tune down¬
ward (f) the odftave a ‘a’, and then tune upwrard the
fifth ‘a’ e, and flatten it till it beat 1 c times in eight fe¬
conds.
If we take 15 feconds for the common period of all
thefe beats, we Ihall find
The beats of ‘c g’ =34
G ‘d’ — 25
‘da’ = 37 J
‘a e — 28
On tuning downwards the o&ave ^‘e’we have the
major third ‘ce’perfedt without any beating; and we
proceed, tuning upwards a fifth flattened by one-fourtlx
of a comma, and when the beating becomes too quick,
tuning downward an odtave. We may do this till we
reach ‘b’which Ihould be the fame with c, a perfedt
odtave above ‘c\
It wdll be better, however, to flop at ‘g’$, and then
to tune fifths downward from ‘c’ and odtaves upwards,
when we get too low. Thus we have ‘c’ F, F ‘f‘f ’ £
‘B
(D) If any concord, whofe perfedt ratio is ~ (m being the greateft term of the fmalleft integers exprefling that
ratio), be tempered fharp by the fraaion ~ of a comma, and if M and N be the pulfes made by the acute and
grave notes of the concord during any number of feconds, the number 6 of beats made in the fame time by this
concord will be orSZ^; md if it be tempered flat, then, or JLZSE. (Smith*.
Harm. 2d edit. p. 82, &c.).
of a comma, and N=‘c’ or 240 pulfes in a fecond. Therefore,
Now, let — be the ratio of the fifth ; y=zi,/> = 4; therefore,
» q
: one-fourth
2 7 »z N
2x3 X 240 __ 1440
161x4+5 ~ 647-2,25beats
161 x />+?
in four feconds very nearly.
(e) Becaufe fifths, being in the ratio to each other of 3 : 2, N in this fifth =r 360.
(f) The grave oaaves of the upper terms of each of thefe tempered fifths may be determined with perfedl accu¬
racy, by making the grave odtave beat with the lower term of the tempered fifth as often as the upper term does
with it; for inftance, by making G ‘c’ beat as often as ‘c g’, &c. For, it has been demonftrated by Dr Smith,
that the upper term of a minor concord beats equally with the lower term, and with the acuter odlave of that
term ; but that the upper term of a major concord beats twice as faft with the acuter odtave of the lower term as
it does with the lower term itfelf. Therefore, as ‘g’ beats twice as faft with c as with ‘c’, and is with its grave
Therefore, as ‘g     
©dtave G in the ratio of 2 ; i, G ‘c’ beats precifely as often as ‘c g\
T E M [ 279 ] T E M
t.mpera-JB 1) ‘b j)’, ‘b [) e 1)’; and this method is preferable, be- moll frequently employed as major thirds, and the ma- Te“'P'ra-
ment. caui'e the notes marked ^ or [?, are, when tuned in this jor third is the harmonic interval molt in uie (g). . ^ t .  /
way, in the heft relation to thofe with which they are Another fyftem of temperament is that which divides
(g) The procefs of temperament thus recommended, will be greatly facilitated by employing a pendulum made
of a ball of about two ounces wreight, Aiding on a light deal rod, having at one end a fmall ring. Let this pendu¬
lum be hung by the ring on a peg, and the ball adjufted fo as to make 20 vibrations in 15 feconds. I his done,
mark the rod at the upper edge of of the ball, and adjuft it in the fame manner for 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, and 48
vibrations. Then having calculated the beats of the different fifths, fet the ball at the correiponding mark, and
temper the found till the beats keep pace exaftly with the pendulum.
In order to difeover, fiiould it be neceffary, the number of pulfes made in a fecond by the tuning fork, by which
we tune the tenor ‘c’ of our infirument, let a wire be ftretched by a weight till it be unifon or odlave below the
fork ; let then be added to the weigbt- Being thus tempered by a comma, the contemporaneous founding
of the fork and wire will produce a beating ; and on multiplying the beats by 80, the produft gives tne. number
of pulfes of the fork, and confequently of the ‘c’ of the inftrument tuned from it. But the common ‘c’ tuning forks
are fo nearly confonant to 240 pulfes, that this procefs is fcarcely neceffary.
On the fyftem of temperament now propofed, Dr Smith makes the following ufeful obfervation and deduc-
1 °The octave confiding of five mean tones and two limmas, it is obvious that by enlarging the tones we diminifh
the limmas, and that the increment of the tone is two-fifths of the contemporaneous diminution of the limma. Let
^ reprefent any minute variation of this temperament: the increment of a mean tone is 2 xq and the contempoia-
neous diminution of the limma —5 v. Again, if the tone be diminiftied by —2 v, the limma will increafe by —5^.
Let us obferve the variations of the intervals in the latter cafe.
The perfect fifth confifting of three tones and a limma, its variation will be —6 ^ + 5 v, or —V. That is, the
fifth is flattened by the quantity v. Confequently the fourth is Aiarpened by that quantity.
The fecond, being a tone above the key note, and being therefore flattened by —2 v, the minor feventh is in-
creafed by 2t>. .... * , . ,
The minor third confifting of a tone and a limma, its variation is —->21'-{-5 1/ or 3 i*. Accordingly, that of the
major fixth is —3 v.
The major third, or two tones, is therefore diminiftied by —4 v.
Confequently the minor fixth is increafed by
The major feventh, being the inverfion of the limma is therefore varied by —5 v.
The tritone being diminiftied —6 V, the falfe fifth is accordingly 6 v.
On this obfervation, Dr Smith has founded the following geometrical conftru&ion : Divide the ftraight line CL
(fig. 2.) into fix equal parts Cg,gd, da, a¥.,¥.b,bt, and interfeft the points of divifion with the fix parallel
lines g G, </D, &c. reprefenting the intervals arranged according to the fyftem of mean tones and limmas.
Let any lengthy G, on the firft line to the right of the line CE, reprefent a quarter of a comma, G will thus
mark the place of the perfeft fifth, and ^ that of the tempered fifth, flattened by a comma.
Take c'D, double of^G, on the fecond parallel alfo on the right hand ; D will mark the place of the perfeft
fecond, and d that of the tempered fecond, flattened by the half comma d D.
By fetting off A on the third parallel to the left, equal to g G, we have A' the perfeft major fixth, and a the
transferred major fixth, ftiarpened by the quarter comma Ka.
The major third being in the fyftem of mean tones kept perfect, the place of that degree will be e.
By taking & B on the fifth line, on the right, equal to£ G, we find B to be the place of the perfeft major
feventh, and b to be that of the tempered major feventh flattened by the quarter comma b B.
And by making *■ T on the fixth line, to the right, equal to dt>, we have the contemporaneous temperament
of the tritone flattened by the half comma t T, and of the falfe fifth, fharpened by that quantity.
Any other ftraight line C t1 drawn from C. acrofs thefe parallels, will reprefent, by the intervals g1 G, d' D, &.c.
the temperaments of another fyftem of mean tones and limmas. Since it is plain that the fimultaneous variations
gg, dd, &c. from the former temperament, are in the juft proportions to each other. The ftraight line thus em¬
ployed, (C d, or C e"), has therefore been termed the temperer.
As the arrangement of the founds of keyed inftruments having only twelve keys for an oftave, and meant to be
ufed in different feales, muft approach nearly to a fyftem of mean tones, or rather mean limmas, this conftruttion of
Dr Smith’s is very ufeful. The temperer points out, not only all the temperaments of the notes with the key note,
but alfo the temperaments of the harmonic concords. Thus it will be feen, that the temperament of the minor
third forming the interval between the major third and fifth, is in all cafes the fame with that of the major fixth
and oftave, and that the temperament of the major third forming the interval between the fourth and major fixth,
is equal to that of the key and major third of the feale.
It has been propofed, in order to render Dr Smith’s conftru&ion ftill more ufeful, that it fhould be drawn of fuch
a fize as to admit of the following fupplementary feales.
1. A fcale of ^ G divided into thirteen parts and a half, exprefling the logarithmic meafures of the temperaments
mentioned in the note (c), a comma being rr 54.
2. A fcale of^G divided into 36 parts, giving the beats made in 16 feconds by the notes cyg> when tempered
by any quantity G^.
3-A
\
T E M [ 280 ] T E M
Tempera- the alterations between the fifths and major thirds, flat-
TemK- tening. the fifths and lharpening the major thirds, and
ance!' making both beat equally fait along with the key : and
y fince enlarging the fifth increafes the tone, and confe-
quently diminifhes the limma, the intercalary founds be¬
come thus better fuited for their double fervice of the
{harp of the note below, and the flat of the note above.
Much, however, is loft in the brilliancy of the major
thirds, which are the moil effedtive concords. The
fifths are not much improved, and the fixths are evident¬
ly hurt by this temperament (h).
Thefe methods of tuning by beats are incomparably
more exaft than by the ear. We cannot miltake above
one beat, that is, in the fifth T^th, and in the major
third x-goth of a comma.
We have offered a Ihort view of what appears to us
to be the preferable fyitem of temperament. It has
bee deduced f.om the obfervations of the moft able the-
orifts, and will greatly affift a tuner j but to him there
are farther neceffary, as to a mufical performer, a corredl
ear, patient attention, and long practice.
TEMPERANCE, that virtue which a man is faid
to poffcls who moderates and reftrains his fenfual appe¬
tites. It is often, how'ever, ufed in a much more gene¬
ral fenfe, as fynonymous with moderation, and is then
applied indiicriminately to all the paffions.
Temperance (fays Mr Nelfon) is the virtue that
bridles our irregular defires j it is nearly allied to pru¬
dence, and has a clofe connection with juftice ; it calms
revenge, and quenches the fire of unjuit refentment j it
checks the epicure, and flops the riotous hand of the
Bacchanalian ; it extinguifhes or abates the flames of
lull, and banifhes every lawlefs aCtion j it filences the
flippant detracting tongue, and gives in its dead a Temper-
pleafing moderation of ipeech ; it llmts the door againft ance-
avarice, and proves experimentally, that happinefs does
not confift in the eager purfuit or acquifition of riches,
but in a contented mind } it curbs the ftrongeft of all
other paffions, gaming, and diftinguifhes juiily the ab«
lurdity and folly of making that a dangerous trade,
which wras oniy defigned as a relaxation and an amufe-
ment : temperance, in a word, is the parent of many
virtues ^ the parent of peace, profperity, health, and joy.
Nothing can be more ftrange to all obfervation than
the praCtice of forfaking temperance ; fince every day’s
experience groves to us, that intemperance produces the
oppofite to what we leek. Suppofe, wTen a child is
born, we afk the parents what it is they wifli in that
child ; they will anfwtr, life. But as life alone, that is,
mere exiflence, may, by infirmity or other accidents, be
very wretched, they will naturally wilh for health and
happinefs. Well then, life, health, and happinefs, are
the general withes of parents for their children. Now
let us fee how their wiflies are likely to fucceed. Their
firft flep is ufually a fhameful negleft of the food of na¬
ture, the bread ; the next, a blind gratification of their
wdll 5 the third, an almod total negleCt of their man¬
ners ; and a fourth, the cherifhing them in every irre¬
gular affedion. Where then is the wonder that parents
are difappointed ? Life and health depend on proper
food and other judicious management on one part} and
if fick, an obedience to remedies on the other part; and
happinefs effentially depends in the fird place on health j
in the next, on the due government of our fenfes, affec¬
tions, and paffions. See here how much mankind de¬
viate from themfelves j how far they depart from their
OW'U
3. A fcale of^ G divided into 60 parts, for the beats of the major third C <?.
4. A fcale of^.G divided into 72 parts, for the beats of the minor third C e 6.
5. A fcale of G divided into 48 parts for the beats of the fourth cf
6. A fcale of ^ G divided into 89 parts for the beats of the minor third g c.
7. And,^ G divided into 80 parts for the beats of the major third fa.
Thus provided, and having determined by Dr Smith’s conftru&ion, the temperament of ‘g’, ‘d’, ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘b’, and
‘f’, the accurate tuning of the whole oCtave as a fyftem of mean tones with perfeCt major thirds may be completed
as follows.
Let ‘fbe tuned a perfeCt major third above ‘d’; ‘g$’ a perfeCl major third above ‘e’, and a perfeCl ma¬
jor third above ‘a’.
Let ‘b [)’ be tuned a perfeCl major third below and ‘e [?’ a perfeCl major third below ‘g’.
(h) To adjufl the temperer to this mode, let EG (fig. 2.) be divided in p, fo that Ep may be to/> G, as 3 to
5. Then draw C/>, cutting C in g', and C t* lhall be the temperer required. It will be found that E e' and
Gg' are each of them 32 of their refpeCtive fcales.
Let therefore ‘c g’ beat 32 times in 16 feconds
G ‘c 32;
G ‘d’ 24 5
G ‘b’ 24, and tune ‘b’ b j
‘d’ rt 36, and tune a ‘a’
•d’ffr 36 j
‘a’ e 27 $
'a’ c% 27 *,
e b 40-§-, proving ‘b’ b j
eg% 404 j
F ‘c’ 2if, and tune F ‘f’ j
FA 21-f, proving A ‘a’ $
B ‘f’ 284, and tune B t? ‘b b’
<e b b b’ 38^-!
‘C’c perfeCl.
T E M [ 281 ] T E M
Tethpe- own principles. But what is the remedy r Nothing
ranee, more obvious. Let parents exercife their reafon in all
Templars. ^ t?{.e for t]ie;r children’s welfare j let them
~v examine right and wrong ; let them not only avoid
paflion, but labour to correft their own errors of judge¬
ment, that they may be the better enabled to prevent
them in their children ; but, particularly, let them
fix in them the knowledge, love, and habit, of tem¬
perance.
TEMPERING, in the mechanic arts, the preparing
of fleel and iron, fo as to render them more compaft,
hard, and firm ; or even more foft and pliant, according
to their refpeftive occafions.
TEMPLARS, Tempters, or Knights cf the Tem¬
ple, a religious order inftituted at Jerufalem in the be¬
ginning of the 12th century, for the defence ot the holy
fepulchre and the protection of Chriftian pilgrims. They
were firft called The poor of the Ho/y City, and after¬
wards affumed the appellation of Templars, becaufe
their houfe was near the temple. The order was found¬
ed by Baldwin II. then king of Jerufalem, with the
concurrence of the pope j and the principal articles of
their rule were : That they fhould hear the holy office
throughout every day \ or that, when their military du¬
ties Ihould prevent this, they Ihould fupply it by a cer¬
tain number of pater nofters : that they ffiould abftain
from fleffi four days in the week, and on Fridays from
eggs and milk-meats : that each knight might have
three horfes, and one efquire : and that they fhould nei¬
ther hunt nor fowl. After the ruin of the kingdom of
Jerufalem about 1186,' they fpread themfdves through
Germany and other countries of Europe, to which they
were invited by the liberality of the Chriflians. In the
year 1228, this order acquired liability, by being con¬
firmed in the council of Troyes, and fubjeCled to a rule
of difeipline drawn up by St Bernard. In every nation
they had a particular governor, called mctjlcr of the
Temple, or of the militia of the Temple. Their grand-
mailer had his refidence at Paris.
The order of Templars flourilhed for fome time, and
acquired, by the valour of its knights, immenfe riches
and an eminent degree of military renown : but as their
profperity increafed, their vices were multiplied, and
their arrogance, luxury, and cruelty role at lall to fuch
a monftrous height, that their privileges were revoked,
and their order fuppreffed with the molt terrible circum-
flances of infamy and feverity. Their accufers were two
of their own body, and their chief profecutor Philip the
Fair of France, who addrefled his complaints to Cle¬
ment V. The pope, though at firft unwilling to pro¬
ceed againft them, was under a neceffity of complying
with the king’s defire ; fo that, in the year 1307, upon
an appointed day, and for fome time afterwards, all the
knights, who were dtfperfed throughout Europe, were
feized and imprifoned, and many of them, after trials
for capital crimes, were convifted and put to death. In
1312 the whole order was fuppreffed by the council of
Vienne. A part of the rich revenues they poffelfed was
bellowed upon other orders, efpecially on the knights of
St John, now of Malta, and the reft confifcated to the
refpeftive treafuries of the fovereign princes in whofe
dominions their poffeffions lay.—The knights Templars,
in order to juftify the feverity with which they were
treated, were charged with apoftafy to the Saracens,
and holding correfpondence with them, with infulting
Vol. XX. Part I.
the majefty of God, turning into derifion the gofpel of Templars,
Chrift, and trampling upon the obligation of all laws , <
human and divine. Candidates, it is faid, upon ad-
milhon to this order, were commanded to fpit, in token
of contempt, upon an image of Chrift, and after ad-
miffion to worlbip either a cat or a wooden head crown¬
ed with gold. It is farther affirmed, that, among them,
the odious and unnatural aft of fodomy was a matter of
obligation ; and they are charged with other crimes too
horrible to be mentioned, or even imagined. Flowever,
though there be reafon to believe, that in this order, as
well as others of the fama,,period, there were ffiocking
examples of impiety and profligacy yet that the whole
order was thus enormoully corrupt, there is no reafon to
believe. The pope indeed, though he afted with feve¬
rity, afted with juftice. Fie fent two cardinals to Paris,
who, publifhing his bull againft the order, condemned
thofe Templars who had made the voluntary confelfion
to be burnt by a flow fire. The criminals recanted their
former confellions, but acknowledged themfelves worthy
of death, becaufe they had unjuftly accufed the order of
crimes of which they were innocent. Several authors ^
of thofe times wrote in defence of the order ; and Boc-
cace alleges, that its extirpation was owing to the ava¬
rice of the king of France, who coveted the rich pof-
fellions the Templars then enjoyed in France.
The kino; of Arragon was much prefled to treat the
Templars in his kingdom as they tiad oeen treated in
France ; but his conftant anfwer was, “ We mull be
firft convinced of their guilt, and it will be then time
enough to talk of their puniftiment.” The people, how¬
ever, were in general fo provoked againft them, that
they were compelled to Ihut themfelves up in the for-
treffes belonging to their order, to prevent their being
torn in pieces; which precaution was reprefented to the
king of Arragon as an aft of rebellion. He marched,
therefore, with a corps of troops againft one of tbefe
fortrefles. The knight who commanded furrendered
immediately, and told the king the truth, alluring him
that they defired nothing but a fair trial ; with which
declaration the king was extremely moved, took the
whole order into his proteftion, and forbade any to
abufe or infult them under the heavieft penalties. At
the fame time he declared he was ready to receive any
informations againft them that were fupported by proofs
but if the informers failed therein, he would puniffi them
as they deferved.
Thefe fafts plead ftrongly for the innocence of the
Templars, or at leaft they prove that their guilt muft
have been exaggerated ; and if we add, that many of
the accufations advanced againft them flatly contradift
each other, and that many members of this unfoilunate
order folemnly avowed their innocence while languilh-
ing under the fevereft tortures, and even with their dying
breath—it would feem probable, that King Philip fet
on foot this bloody tragedy, with a view to gratify his
avarice, and glut his refentment againft the Templars,
and efpecially againft their grand-mafter, who had high¬
ly offended him. The principal caufe of his invincible
hatred againft them was, that in his quarrel with Boni¬
face VIII. the knights efpoufed the caufe of the pope,
and furnilhed him with money to carry on the war.
They originally wore a white habit, with red croffes
fewed upon their cloaks as a mark of diftinftion.
TEMPLE, Sir William, was born in London in
N n the
T E M [ 282 ] T E M
Temple, the year 1628. The family from which he fprung was
v'• ancient, and is faid to have affumed the furname of Tem¬
ple from the manor of Temple, in the hundred of Spar-
ken-Hall, in Leicefterfhire. He was firft fent to fchool
at Penfehurft, in Kent, under the care of his uncle, the
celebrated Dr Hammond, then minifter of that parith ;
but at the age of ten he was removed thence to a fchool
at Bilhop-Stortford, in Hertfordfhire. When he had
acquired a fufficient knowledge of the Greek and La¬
tin, he returned home at the age of fifteen ; and, two
years after, he went to Cambridge, where he was placed
under the tuition of the learned Dr Cudworth, then fel¬
low of Emanuel college. His father, Sir John Temple,
being a ftatefman, feems to have defigned him for the
fame way of life 5 and on this account, after refiding at
Cambridge two years, which were principally fpent in
acquiring a competency of French and Spanifh, both
languages exceedingly ufeful for his intended purfuits,
he was fent abroad to finifh his education.
Mr Temple began his travels by vifiting France in
1648. As he chofe to pafs through the Ifle of Wight,
where his>majefty was detained a prifoner, he there ac¬
cidentally met with the fecond daughter of Sir Peter
Olborn of Chickfand, in Bedfordlhire, then governor
of Guernfey for the king ; and his lady being on a
journey with her brother to St Maloes, where their fa¬
ther then was, our young traveller joined their party.
This gave rife to an honourable attachment, which at the
end of feven years, concluded in a happy marriage. Ha¬
ving refided two years in France, and learned the
French language perfeftly, Mr Temple made a tour
through Holland, Flanders, and Germany, during which
he became completely mailer of the Spanilh. In 1654
he returned from the continent, and, marrying Mifs
Olborn, paffed his time in retirement with his father, Ids
two brothers, and a filler, then in Ireland, happy in that
perfeft harmony which has been fo often remarked in
their family.
As he rejefted all offers made him of employment
under Cromwell, the five years which he lived in Ire¬
land were fpent chiefly in improving himfelf in hiftory
and philofophy ; but at the Reiteration, in 1660, being
chofen a member of the convention there, while others
were trying to make their court to the king, Mr Tem¬
ple oppofed the poll-bill with lb much fpirit, that his
conduct foon attrafted the attention of the public, and
brought him into notice. In the fucceeding parliament,
in 1661, he was deified with his father for the county
of Carlow j and in the year following, he was chofen
one of the commiffioners to be fent from that parliament
to the king, which gave him an opportunity of waiting
on the duke of Ormond, the new lord-lieutenant, then
at London. Soon after he went back to Ireland, but
with a refolution of quitting that kingdom, and of re¬
moving with his family to England.
On his return he met with a very favourable recep¬
tion from the duke of Ormond ; and foon acquired fuch
a coufiderable fhare in his elfeem, that the duke com¬
plained of him as the only man in Ireland that had ne¬
ver alked any thing from him. When he mentioned
his defign of carrying his family to England, his grace
faid, that be hoped he would at leaf! give him leave to
write in his favour to the two great miniflers, Clarendon
then lord chancellor, and the earl of Arlington, who
was fecretary of Hate. This the duke did. in fuch ftrong
terms, as procured him the friendfhip cf thefe two noble- Temple,
men, as well as the good opinion of the king. Mr l—-v~~
Temple, however, made no other ufe of this advantage
than to tell Lord Arlington, that if his majefty had
any employment abroad, which he was fit for, he fhould
be happy to undertake it j but, at the fame time, he re-
quefted that he might not be lent into any of the north¬
ern climates, to which he had a very great averfion.
Lord Arlington replied, he was very forry he had made
fuch an objedlion, as there was no other employment
then undifpofed of except that of going envoy to Swe¬
den. However, in 1665, about the beginning of the
firft Dutch war, Lord Arlington fent a meffenger to ac¬
quaint him that he muft immediately come to his houfe ;
v/hich he did, and found that his lordihip’s bufinefs was
to tell him, that the king had occafion to fend feme
perfon abroad upon an affair of the utmoft importance,
and that he had refolved to make him the firft offer j
but that he muft know, without delay, and without tell¬
ing him what it was, whether he would accept of it, and
that he muft be ready to fet out in two or three days,
without mentioning it to any of his friends. After a
little confideration, Mr Temple told his lordfliip, that,
as be took him to be his friend, and as he had advifed
him not to refufe, as it wTould be an entrance into his
majefly’s fervice, he Ihould confult no farther. This
bufinefs was to carry a fecret commillion to the biftiopj
of Munfter; which he fet out with on the fecond of
Auguft, and executed it fo much to the fatisfa&ion of
Charles II. that, on his return to Bruffels, his majefty
appointed him refident there, and created him a ba¬
ronet. As Bruffels was a place which he had long
wiftied to refide at, in April 1666 he fent for his family j
but, before their arrival, he had been again obliged to
depart upon bufinefs to the prelate’s court: for the bi~
fliop having liftened to terms of accommodation with
France, Sir William wrote two letters to diffuade
him from that alliance ; and thefe not having the de-
lired effeff, he went in difguife to Muniler, where,
though he arrived too late to fecure the prince in his
firft engagement, yet he prevailed on him to permit five
or fix thoufand ol his beft troops to enter into the Spa¬
nilh fervice. In this journey he paffed for a Spaniih
envoy, having twenty Spaniih guards to attend him.
In this manner he firft went to Duffeldorp, where the
duke of Newburgh, though in the French ir.tereft, gave
him a guard to Dortmund ; but when he reached that
place, finding the gates ihut, he was forced to proceed
to a village, at the diftance of a league, which being full
of Brandenburgh troops, he was under the neceffity of
lodging in a barn, upon a liraw bed, with his page for a
pillow. Next day he was entertained at a caftle be¬
longing to the bilhop of Munfter, by one Gorges a
Scotch lieutenant-general in that prelate’s fervice, with
what he calls a very epifcopal way of drinking. The
general coming to the large hall, in which flood a great
many flaggons ready charged, he called for wine to
drink the king’s health. A filver bell, that might hold
dbout two quarts, was upon this brought him ; and, as
foon as he received it, he pulled out the clapper, and
giving it to Sir William, to whom he intended to drink,
ordered the bell to be filled. When he was done, he
drank oft the contents to his majefty’s heath j and aiked
Sir William for the clapper, put it on, and turning
down the bell, rang it, to {hew that he had drank fair,
and
T £ M [28
Tr'emple- and left nolhing in it. He then took out the clapper,
—V*—' defired Sir William to give it to whomfoever he plea-
fed } and, ordering the bell to be filled again, prefented
it to Sir William : but as the latter feldom ufed to
drink, he had generally fome gentleman with him to
fupply his place in this refpeft whenever it might be ne-
ceflary. Having finilhed his bufinefs at Munfter, he re¬
turned to Bruffels, where he paffed a year with great
pleafure and fatisfaction,
Two months after the conclufion of the peace with
the Dutch at Breda, Sir William’s fifter, who refided
with him at Bruffels, being very defirous of feeing Hol¬
land, he went thither incognito to gratify her defire )
but while he was at the Hague, he paid a private vifit
to Mr De Witt, in which he laid the foundation of
that clofe intimacy which afterwards fubfifted between
them.
In the fpring of 16675 a new war breaking out be*
tween France and Spain, which expofed BruiTels to the
danger of falling into the hands of the former, Sir Wil¬
liam fent his lady and family to England $ but he him-
felf remained there with his fifter till the Chriftmas fol¬
lowing, when he was ordered by the king to come over
privately to London. Taking the Hague in his vray,
he paid another vifit to De \Vitt, and, purfuant to his
inftrufbions, propofed thofe overtures to him which pio-
duced the triple alliance. Soon after his arrival at the
Britifti court, he returned, on the 16th of January 1668,
with the chara&er of envoy extraordinary and plenipo¬
tentiary to Holland j where a conference being opened,
he brought that treaty to a perfeft conclufion in the
ihort fpace of five days. The ratifications of this alli¬
ance being exchanged on the 15th of February, he repair¬
ed to Bruffels j and a treaty being fet on foot between
France and Spain at Aix-la-Chapelle, he fet out for that
place on the 24th of April in quality of his majefty’s am-
baffador extraordinary and mediator. Here he arrived
on the 27 th : and it wras chiefly owing to his affillance
that the Spaniards were brought to fign the articles^ of
that peace on the fecond of May. This fervice being
completed, he returned to Bruffels, with a view of re¬
maining there in his former ftation of refident) but he
received letters from the earl of Arlington, with the
king’s order to continue as ambaffador, and to ferve
his country in that quality in Holland, as on account
of the late alliances, his majefty was refolved to renew a
character which the crmvn of England had difeontinued
there fince the time of King James. Sir William being
now left at liberty to return to England, embraced the
opportunity ; and, upon his arrival at London, he was
received with every poftible demonftration of favour both
by the king and the court.
Setting out again for Holland, with his new charac¬
ter of the king’s ambaffador, he arrived at the Hague
in the end of Auguft 1668. Here he enjoyed the con¬
fidence of that great minifter De Witt, and lived in
great intimacy with the prince of Orange, who was
then only eighteen years of age *, but, in September
1669, he was hurried back to England by Lord Arling¬
ton, who ordered him to put his foot in the ftirrup as
foon as he ftiould receive his letter. W hen Sir Wil¬
liam waited on the earl, he found that he had not one
word to fay to him •, for, after making him attend a long
time, he only afked a few indifferent queftions refpefting
his journey. Next day he was received as coolly by the
3 ] T E M'
king} but the fecret foon came out, and he preffed Tempte.
to return to the Hague, and pave the way for a war "
with Holland. This, however, he excufed himfelf from
having any hand in } which fo much provoked the lord
treafurer Clifford, that he refufed to him an arrear of
two thoufand pounds due from his embaffy. Difgufted
with Arlington’s behaviour, which was fo unlike the
friendfhip he had formerly profeffed, Sir William now
retired to his houfe at Sheen near Richmond, in Surry }
and in this retreat, when free from the hurry of bufinets,
he w7rote his Obfervations on the United Provinces, and
one part of his Mifcellanies, in the time of the feccnd
Dutch war. About the end of fummer, however, 1673,
the king wiftiing to put an end to the war, fent for Sir
William, and defired him to go to Holland to negotiate
a peace } but powers having been lent from thence at
this time to the Marquis de Frefno, the Spanifh am-
baflador at London, Sir William was ordered to confer
with him } and a treaty was accordingly^ concluded in
three days, and the point carried refpeaing the fuperi-
ority of the Britifti flag, which had been lo long con-
tefted. In June 1674 he was again fent ambaffador to
Holland to offer the king’s mediation between France
and the confederates, then at war, which was accepted
not long after } Lord Berkeley, Sir William Temple,
and Sir Leoline Jenkins, being declared ambaffadors
and mediators } and Nimeguen, which Sir William had
propofed, was at length agreed upon by all parties to be
the place of treaty. During his ftay at the Hague, the
prince of Orange, who was fond of the Englnh lan¬
guage, and of the plain Englifti way of eating, con-
ftantly dined and flipped once or twice a week at his
houfe } and by this familiarity he fo much gained the
prince’s confidence and efteem, that he had a confi-
derable hand in his marriage with the Princefs Mary,
daughter of James II.
In July 1676 he removed his family to Nimeguen,
where he fpent the remainder of that year without ma¬
king any progrefs in the treaty } and the year following
his fon was fent over with letters from the lord-trea-
furer, ordering him to return, and fucceed Mr Coventry
as fecretary of ftate. In confequence of this order, Sir
William came over to England in the fpring of 1677 }
and though the affair of the fecretary’s place was drop¬
ped at his defire, he did not return to Nimeguen that
year. About this time, the prince haying the king’s
leave to come over, he foon after married the Princefs
Mary } and this gave occafion for a new coolnefs be¬
tween Lord Arlington and Sir William, as he and the
lord-treafurer Othorn, who was related to Sir William’s
lady, were only privy to that affair. Alter the piincc
and princefs were gone to Holland, as the court always
feerned inclined to favour France, the king wifhed to
engage Sir William in fome negociations. with that
crown : but he was fo ill fatisfied with this propofal,
that he offered to give up all pretenfions to the office of
fecretary } and defiring the lord-treafurer to acquaint
his majefty with his intentions, retired to Sheen, in
hopes of being taken at his word. Upon a difeovery,
however, of the French defigns not to evacuate the
Spanifh towns agreed by the treaty to be delivered up,
the king commanded him to go upon a third embaffy
to the dates} with whom he concluded a treaty : by
which England engaged, in cafe France refufed to eva¬
cuate the towns in forty days, to declare war immedi-
N n 2 ately
T E M [ 284 ] T E M
Tewp^e. ately againft that rialion } but before half that time was
v ” elapfcd, one Du Crofs was fent from the Engliih court
-to Holland upon a bulinefs wliich damped all the good
humour excited by the treaty there, and which produ¬
ced fuch fudden and aitonhhing changes in this coun¬
try, as gave Sir William a diltalte for all public em¬
ployments.
In 1679 he went back to Nimeguen, where the
French delayed to fign the treaty till the laft hour ;
but having concluded it, he returned to the Hague,
whence he was foon after lent for to enter upon the fe-
cretary’s office, which Mr Coventry at length refolved
to refign. He accordingly came over, and went to
court, as all his friends hoped, with a full intention of
affirming his office, but he darted fome difficulty, be-
caufe he had not a feat in the houfe ol commons, think¬
ing that, by his not being a member, the public buli-
nels would fuller at fuch a critical time, when the con-
teds between the two parties ran fo high that the king
thought fit to fend the duke of York into Flanders, and
the parliament to put the lord-treafurer Danby into the
Tower. After this his majedy dill prefled Sir William
to be fecretary of date ; uling as an argument for his
compliance, that he had nobody to confult with at a
time when he had the greated need of the bed advice.
Notwithdanding all this, Sir William declined the
king’s offer, advidng him to choofe a council in whom
he could confide, and upon whofe abilities he could de¬
pend. This advice the king followed ; and the choice
of the perfons being conceited between his majedy and
Sir William, the old council was diffolved four days af¬
ter, and the new- one edablilhed, of which the latter was
a member.
In 1680 the councils began again to be changed, on
the king’s illnefs, at the end of dimmer, and the duke
of York’s return privately to court. In this junfture
Sir William, endeavouring to bring to the king’s favour
and bufinefs lome perfons to whom his majedy bad ta¬
ken a diflike, if not an avevfion, he met with fuch treat¬
ment from them as gave him a fredi didade to the court,
at which he feldom made his appearance ; fo that he re¬
dded principally at Sheen. Soon after this the king
lent for him again 5 and having propofed that he diould
go as ambaffador into Spain, Sir William confented :
but when his equipage was almod ready, and part of
the money paid down for it, the king changed his mind,
and told him that he would have him defer his journey
till the end of the feffion of parliament, in which he was
chofen a member for the univerfity of Cambridge. In
this feffion the fpirit of party ran fo high that it was im-
poffible to bring the houfe to any kind of temper. The
duke was fent into Scotland •, but this would not fatisfy
them, nor any thing but a bill of exclufion ; which Sir
William drenuoufly oppofed, faying, that “ His endea¬
vour ever ffiould be to unite the royal family, and that
he would never enter into any councils to divide them.”
Not long after this period, the parliament being diffolv¬
ed by bis majedy, without the advice of his privy coun¬
cil, and contrary to what he had promifed, Sir William
made a bold fpeech againd it; for which he was very
ill ufed by fome of fhofe friends who had been mod
earned in promoting the lad change in the minidry.
Upon this he grew quite tired of public bufinefs, declin¬
ed the offer he had of again ferving for the univerfity in
the next parliament, that was foon after called, and met
at Oxford ; and feeing his majefly refolved to govern
without his parliament, and to fupply his treafury through
another channel, he retired to Sheen a few days after,
whence he fent word by his fon, that “ he would pafs
the red of his days like a good fubjecf, but would never
more meddle with public affairs.” From that time Sir
William lived at this place till the end of that reign
and for fome time in the next; when having purchaled
a {mail feat, called Moor Park, near Farnham in Surry,
which he conceived a great fondnefs for, on account of
its folitude and retirement, and its healthy and pleafant
dtuation, and being much affli&ed with the gout, and
broken with age and infirmities, he refolved to ipend
the remainder of his life in this agreeable retreat. In
his way thither, therefore, he waited on King James,
who was then at Windfor, and begged his favour and
proteftion to one “ that would always live as a good
fubjeft, but, whatever might happen, never again enter
upon any public employment j” defiring his majefty to
give no credit to any thing he might hear to the con¬
trary. The king, who ufed to fay that Sir William
Temple’s character was always to be believed, promifed
him whatever he defired, gently reproached him for not
entering into his fervice, which, he faid, was his own
fault ; and kept his word as faithfully to Sir William as
Sir William did to his majefty, during the furprifing
turn of affairs that foon after followed by the arrival of
the prince of Orange. At the time of this happy re¬
volution, in 1688, Moor-Park becoming unfafe, as it
lay in the way of both armies, he went back to the
houfe at Sheen, which he had given up to his fon 5 to
whom he refufed leave, though importunately begged,
to go and meet the prince of Orange at his landing :
but after King James’s abdication, when the prince
reached Windfor, he went thither to wait upon his high-
nefs, and carried his fon along with him. The prince
preffed him to enter into his fervice, and to be fecretary
of ftate ; but his age and infirmities confirming him in
the refolution he had made not to meddle any more with
public affairs, he was fatisfied that his fon alone ftiould
enjoy.his majefty’s favour. Mr John Temple was up¬
on this appointed fecretary at war ; but he had hardly
been a week in that office, when he refolved to put an
end to his own exiftence ; which he did on the 14th of
April 1689, by throwing himfelf out of a boat, hired
for that purpofe, in {hooting London-bridge ; having
firft put ft ones into his pocket to make him fink
fpeedily.
In 1694 Sir William had the misfortune to lofe his
lady, who was a very extraordinary woman, as well as
an affectionate wife. He was then confiderably turned
of fixty ; at which age he practifed what he had fo often
declared to be his opinion, that “ an old man ought
then to confider himfelf of no farther ufe in the world
except to himfelf and his friends.” After this he lived
four years very much afflicted with the gout ; and his
ftrength and fpirits being worn out by the infirmities of
age, he expired in the month of January 1698. He
died at Moor-Park, where his heart was buried in a {li¬
ver box under the fun dial in his garden, oppofite to a
window from which he ufed to contemplate and admire
the works of nature, with his fifter, the ingenious Lady
Gifford. '1 his was according to his will ; in purfuance
of which his body was privately interred in Weftminfter
Abbey, and a marble monument erected in 17 22, after
Temple.
the
T E M [ 285 ] T E M
Temple, the death of Lady Gifford, who refembled him in ge-
n:us as weH as in peifon, and left behind her the cha-
racfer of one of the belt and moil conftant friends in the
world.
Sir William Temple’s principal works are, I. Me¬
moirs from 1672 to 1692: They are very ufeful for
thofe who with to be acquainted with the affairs of that
period. 2. Remarks upon the State of the United Pro¬
vinces. 3. An Introduflion to the Hiftoryof England:
This is a Sketch of a General Hiitory. 4, Letters writ¬
ten during his lait embaflies. And, 5. Mifcellanies,
which contain a great many curious pieces that difplay
confiderable depth of thought. He was an accomplifh-
ed gentleman, a found politician, a patriot, and a great
fcholar. And if this great idea Ihould perchance be
fliaded by fome touches of vanity and fpleen, the reader
will be fo candid as to confider, that the greateft, wifell,
and the beft of men, have (till fome failings and imper-
feflions which are infeparable from human nature.
Temple, Templum, a public building, erected in ho¬
nour of fome deity, either true or falfe} and wherein
the people meet to pay religious worfhip to the fame.
The word is formed from the Latin templum, which
fome derive from the Greek tcluvo;, fignifying the fame
thing ; and others from ripvw, abfcindo, “ I cut off, I
feparate,” in regard a temple is a place leparated from
common ufes j others with more probability deri\e it
from the old Latin word templare, “ to contemplate.”
It is certain the ancient augurs gave the name ternpla to
thofe parts of the heavens which were marked out for
the obfervation of the flight of birds. Their formula
was this: Temp la tejqua Junto. lemples were origi¬
nally all open, and hence received their name. See Phil.
Tranf. N° 471. left. 5. where we have an account of
an ancient temple in Ireland of the fame fort as our fa¬
mous Stonehenge. The word templum, in its primary
fenfe among the old Romans, fignified nothing more
than a place fet apart and confecrated by the augurs,
whether inclofed or open, in the city or in the fields.
Clemens Alexandrinus and Eufebius refer the origin
of temples to the fepulchres built for the dead. This
notion has been lately illuftrated and confirmed by a
variety of teftimonies by Mr Farmer in his Treatife on
the Worfhip of Human Spirits, p. 373, &.c. Herodo¬
tus and Strabo will have the Egyptians to have been
the firft who built temples to the gods. The firft erec¬
ted in Greece is aferibed to Deucalion, by Apollonius,
Argonaut, lib. iii. In antiquity we meet with many
people who would not build any temples to their gods
for fear of confining them to too narrow bounds. They
performed their facrifices in all places indifferently, from
a perfuafion that the whole world is the temple of God,
and that he required no other. This was the doftrine
of the magi, followed by the Perfians, the Scythians,
the Numidians, and many other nations mentioned by
Herodotus, lib. i. Strabo, lib xv. and Cicero in his fe-
cond oration againft Verres.
The Perfians, who worfhipped the fun, believed it
Would wrong his power to inclofe him in the walls of a
temple, who had the whole world for his habitatiou j
and hence, when Xerxes ravaged.Greece, the magi ex¬
horted him to deflroy all the temples he met with.
The Sicyonians would build no temple to their god-
defs Coronis 5 nor the Athenians, for the like reafon,
ereft any ffatue to Clemency, who, they faid, was to Temple,
live in the hearts of men, not within Hone walls.
The Bithynians had no temples but the mountains to
worftiip on j nor had the ancient Germans any other
but the woods.
Even fome philofophers have blamed the ufe and
building of temples, particularly Diogenes, Zeno, and
his followers the Stoics. But it may be faid, that if
God hath no need of temples, men have need of places
to meet in for the public offices of religion : according¬
ly temples may be traced back even into the remoteft an¬
tiquity. See Hofpinian de Origine Templorum.
The Romans had feveral kinds of temples j whereof
thofe built by the kings, &c. confecrated by the au¬
gurs, and wherein the exercife of religion was regularly
performed, were called, by way of eminence, templa,
“ temples.” Thofe that were not confecrated, were
called cedes. The little temples, that were covered or
roofed, they called ce'diculce. Thofe o\>tx\,facella. Some
other edifices, confecrated to particular myfteries of re¬
ligion, they called fana and delubra.
All thefe kinds of temples, Vitruvius tells us, had
other particular denominations, according to the form
and manner of their conftruction, as will be hereafter
fpecified.
Indeed the Romans outdid all nations with regard to
temples: they not only built temples to their gods, to
their virtues, to their difeafes, &c. but alfo to their em¬
perors, and that in their life time ; inftances whereof we
meet with in medals, inferiptions, and other monuments.
Horace compliments Auguftus hereupon, and lets him
above Hercules and all the heroes of fable ; becaufe
thofe were admitted into temples only after their death,,
whereas Auguftus had his temples and altars while li¬
ving.
Prcefenti tibi matures largimur honores ;
Jurandafque tuum per nomen ponimus aras.
Epift. ad. Aug.
Suetonius, on this occafion, gives an inftance of the mo-
defty of that emperor, who would allow of no temples
being erefted to him in the city • and even in the pro¬
vinces, where he knew it was ufual to raife temples to
the very proconful8, refufed any but thofe eretted in the
name of Rome as well as his own.
The moft celebrated temples among the Romans were
the Capitol and Pantheon. They had alfo the temple
of Saturn, which ferved for the public treafury ; and
the temple of Janus.
The temple at jerufalem was fimilar in its plan to
the TABERNACLE. The firft temple was begun by So¬
lomon about the year of the world 2992, and before
Chrift 1012 according to fome chronologers, and finiffi-
ed in eight years. Great miftakes have been commit¬
ted refpedling the dimenfions of this temple, by con¬
founding the emblematical defeription of Ezekiel with .
the plain account of it in the books of Kings and Chro¬
nicles. It confifted of the holy of holies, the fanftuary,
and a portico. The holy of holies was a fquare room
of 20 cubits *, the fancluary, or holy place, was 40 cu¬
bits long and 20 broad, confequenfly the length of both
thefe together was 60 cubits. The portico, which flood
before the fan&uary, was 20 cubits long and 10 cubits
broad. "Whether the portico was feperated by a wall
froitr
Temple.
Maurice's
Indian An¬
tiquities,
vol. iii.
P- 352*
Cranford's
Sketches,
vol. i.
jl. IO().
T £ M [ 286
from the reft of the temple or not, Is not mentioned in
' fcripture. If it was, the whole length of the temple,
computing the cubit at 22 inches, did not exceed 110
feet, in length and 36 feet 8 inches in breadth. In the
portico flood the two brazen pillars called Jachin and
Boa*, which, upon comparing and reconciling the feem-
ingiy different accounts in different places, appear to
have been 40 cubits high and about 4 cubits diameter.
The court probably at firft extended all round the temple.
Now we are told, that the court about the tabernacle
was 100 cubits long and 50 broad j and as Solomon
made every part of the temple about twice as large as
the correiponding part in the tabernacle, we have rea~
fon to conclude, that the court around the temple was
200 cubits long and 100 broad. According to this
defcription, which is taken from the fcripture hiftory,
the temple of Solomon was by no means fo large as it
is commonly reprefented. Still, however, it was very
magnificent in fize and fplendid in ornament. It was
plundered of its treafures in the reign of Rehoboam, and
repaired by Joafli •, it w-as again fpoiled in the time of
Ahaz and of Hezekiah ; and after being reftored by
Jofiah, u’as demoliflred by Nebuchadnezzar in the year
of the world 3416, after it had flood 476 years accord¬
ing to Jofephus, and according to Uiher 428 years.
The fecond temple was built by the Jews, after their
return from the Babylonifh captivity, under the direc¬
tion and influence of Zerubbabel their governor, and of
Jofhua the high-piieft, with the leave and encouragement
of Cyrus the Perfian -emperor, to whom Judea was now
become a tributary kingdom. According to the Jews,
this temple was deftitute of five remarkable appendages,
which were the chief glory of the firft temple ; viz. the
ark and mercy-feat, the Shechinah, the holy fire on the
altar, wdrich had been firft kindled from heaven, the
urim and thummim, and the fpirit of prophecy. This
temple was plundered and profaned by Antiochus Epi-
phanes, who alfo caufed the public worfhip in it to ceafe ;
and afterwards purified by Judas Maccabseus, who re¬
ftored the divine worfhip ; and after having flood 900
years, rebuilt by Herod, with a magnificence approach¬
ing to that of Solomon’s. Tacitus calls it immenfce opu-
/entice templum ; and Jofephus fays, it was the moft afto-
nifhing ftruflure he had ever feen, as well on account of
its architefture as its magnitude, and likewife the rich-
nefs and magnificence of its various parts and the re¬
putation of its facred appurtenances. This temple,
wdffch Herod began to build about 16 years before the
birth of Chrift, and fo far completed in nine years and
a half as to be fit for divine fervice, wras at length de-
ftroyed by the Romans on the fame month and day of
the month on which Solomon’s temple wras deftroyed by
the Babylonians.
The Indian temples, or pagodas, are fometimes of a
prodigious fize. They are commonly erefted near the
banks of the Ganges, Kiftna, or other facred rivers, for
tire benefit of ablution in the purifying ftream. Where
no river flows near the foot of the pagoda, there is in¬
variably in the front of it a large tank or refervoir of
water. '1 hefe are, for the moft part, of a quadrangular
form, are lined with freeftone or marble, have Heps re¬
gularly defcending from the margin to the bottom, and
Mr Cranford obferved many between three and four
hundred Ret in breadth. At the entrance of all the
more confiderable pagodas there is a portico, fupported
4
] T E M
by rows of lofty columns, and afcended by a handfome Temple,
flight of ftone fteps ; fometimes, as in the inftance of1 " ■“
Iripetti *, to the number of more than a hundred. Un-^^Yjides
der this portico, and in the courts that generally inclofe tom. Uif *
the whole building, an innumerable multitude aflemble
at the riling of the lun ; and, having bathed in the ftream
below, and, in conformity to an immemorial cuftom over
all the Eaft, having left their fandals on the border of
the tank, impatiently await the unfolding of the gates
by the miniftering brahmin. The gate of the pagoda
univerfally fronts the eaft, to admit the ray of the iolar
orb ; and, opening, prefents to the view an edifice par¬
titioned out, according to Mr Thevenot in his account
of Chitanagar, in the manner of the ancient cave-temples
of Elora, having a central nave or body 5 a gallery ran¬
ging on each fide j and, at the farther end, a fandtuary,
or chapel of the deity adored, furrounded by a ftone bal-
luftrade to keep off the populace. Thofe wdio wifh to
perufe a more particular account of the Indian temples
may confult Maurice’s Indian Antiquities. See alfo
Pagoda and Seringham.
Temple, in ArchiteSure. The ancient temples were
diftinguifhed, with regard to their conftrudfion, into va¬
rious kinds ; as, Temple in antce, TEdes in antis. Thefe,
according to Vitruvius, were the moft Ample of all
temples, having only angular pilafters, called antce or
parajlatce, at the corners, and two Tufcan columns on
each fide of the doors. Temple tetrajly/e, or Ample tc*
trajiyle, wTas a temple that had four columns in front,
and as many behind. Such was the temple of Fortuna
Virilis at Rome. Temple projlyle, that which had on¬
ly columns in its front or forefide \ as that of Ceres at
Eleufis in Greece. Temple amphiprojlyle, or double
projlyle, that which had columns both before and behind,
and which was alfo tetraftyle. Temple^ penptere, that
which had four rows of infulated columns around, and
was hexaftyle, i. e. had fix columns in front; .as the
temple of Honour at Rome. Temple diptcre, that which
had two wings and twm rows of columns around, and
was alfo o6toftyle, or had eight columns in front j as
that of Diana at Ephefus.
Temples, among us, denote two inns of court in Lon¬
don, thus called, becaufe anciently the dwelling-houfe
of the knight’s templars. At the fuppreflion of that
order, they were purchafed by the profeffors of the com¬
mon law', and converted into hofpitia or inns. They
are called the inner and middle temple, in relation to
Effex-houfe \ which was alfo a part of the houfe of the
templars, and called the outer temple, becaufe fituated
without Temple-Bar. In the middle temple, during
the time of the templars, the king’s treafure was kept 5
as was alfo that of the kings of France in the houfe of the
templars at Paris. The chief officer was the mafler of
the temple, who' was fummoned to parliament in 47
Hen. III. and from him the chief minifler of the tem¬
ple-church is ftill called mqfter of the temple.
Temples, in Anatomy, a double part of the head,
reaching from the forehead and eyes to the two ears.
The temples are chiefly formed of two bones called ojfa
tempons. Thefe parts, according to phyficians, were
called tempora, from their ftiowing the age or time of a
man by the colour of the hair, which turns white in this
part before any other ; wdnch Homer feems to have
been aware of, by his calling men poliocrotaphi, q. d.
“ grey-templed.”
T E M
[ 287 1
TEN
Temporal,
Tempora¬
lities.
Black/l.
Comment.
vol. i.
TEMPORAL, a term generally ufed for fecular, as
a diftinftion from ecclefiaftical. Thus we fay temporal
lords, and fpirkual or ecclefiallical lords.
TEMPORALITIES of Bishops, are the revenues,
lands, tenements, and lay-fees, belonging to bilhops, as
they are barons and lords of parliament.
The cuftody of the temporalities of bilhops forms a
branch of the king’s ordinary revenues (lee Revenue.
Thefe, upon the vacancy of the bifhopric, are immedi¬
ately the right of the king, as a confequence of his pre¬
rogative in church matters •, whereby he is confidered as
the founder of all archbilhoprics and bilhoprics, to
whom, during the vacancy, they revert. And for the
fame reafon, before the diffolution of abbeys, the king
had the cuftody of the temporalities of all fuch abbeys
and priories as were of royal foundation (but not of
thofe founded by fubjedts), on the death of the abbot or
prior. Another reafon may alfo be given why the po¬
licy of the law hath veiled this cuftody in the king ;
becaufe, as the fucceffor is not known, the lands and
pofleflions of the fee would be liable to fpoil and devaf-
tation if no one had a property therein. Therefore the
law has given the king, not the temporalities them-
felves, but the cuftody of the temporalities, till fuch
time as a fucceft'or is appointed ; with power of taking
to himfelf all the intermediate profits, without ^ giving
any account to the fucceflbr ; and with the right of
prefenting (which the crown very frequently exercifes)
to fuch benefices and other preferments as fall within
the time of vacation. This revenue is of fo high a na¬
ture, that it could not be granted out to a fubjedl, be¬
fore or even after it accrued : but now, by the ftatute
15 Edrv. III. flat. 4. cap. 4 and 5. the king may, after
the vacancy, leafe the temporalities to the dean and
chapter ; faving to himfelf all advowfons, efcheats, and
the like. Our ancient kings, and particularly William
Rufus, were not only remarkable for keeping the bithop-
rics a long time vacant, for the fake of enjoying the
temporalities, but alfo committed horrible waftes on the
woods and other parts of the eftate \ and to crown all,
would never, when the fee was filled up, reftore to the
bilhop his temporalities again, unlefs he purchafed them
at an exorbitant price. To remedy which, King Henry
1. granted a charter at the beginning of his reign, pro-
mifing neither to fell, nor let to farm, or take any
thing from, the dcmains of the church, till the fucceffor
was inftalled. And it was made one of the articles of
the great charter, that no wafte fhould be committed in
the temporalities of bifhoprics, neither ftiould the cuftody
of them be fold. The fame is ordained by the ftatute
ofWeftminfter the firft ; and the ftatute 14 Edw. III.
flat. 4. cap. 4. (which permits a leafe to the dean and
chapter) is ftill more explicit in prohibiting the other
exactions. It. was alfo a frequent abufe, that the king
would, for trifling or no caufes, feize the temporalities
of biftiops, even during their lives, into his own hands :
but this is guarded againft by ftatute 1 Edw. III. flat.
2. cap. 2.
This revenue of the king, which was formerly very
confiderable, is now by a cuftomary indulgence almoft
reduced to nothing : for, at prefent, as foon as the new
bilhop is confecrated and confirmed, he ufually receives
the reftitution of his temporalities quite entire and un¬
touched from the king j and then, and not fosner, he has
a fee-fimple in his biftiopric, and may maintain an aflion Tenacity
for the profits. Tenedos.
TENACITY, in Natural Philofophij, that quality oL
bodies by which they fuitain a confiderable preffure or
force of any kind without breaking. It is the quality
oppofite to fragility or brittlenefs. See STRENGTH of
Materials.
TENACULUM, in Surgery, an inftrument ufed in
amputation, for pulling out bleeding veffels that are to
be tied by ligatures. See Surgery.
TENAILLES and 7 See Fortification, Seft. I.
TENAILLIONS. $ § 3- and 5*
TENANT, one that holds lands or tenements of
fome lord or landlord, by rent, fealty, &c. See Te¬
nure.
TENAWIT. See Loxia, Ornithology Index.
TENCH. See Cyprinus, Ichthyology Index.
TENDER, a fmall ftfitp in the fervice of men of war,
for carrying men, proviiions, or any thing elle that is
neceffary.
TENDONS, in Anatomy, are white, firm, and tena¬
cious parts, contiguous to the mufcles, and ufually form¬
ing their extremities. See ANATOMY, N° 85.
TENEBRIO, in Natural Hijlory, a genus of infecls
belonging to the order of coleoptera. See ENTOMOLO¬
GY Index.
TENEDOS, in Ancient Geography, an illand on the
coaft of Troas, at the diftance of 40 ftadia from the
continent, and 80 in compafs} with a cognominal .ZEo-
lian town, and a temple of Apollo Smintheus. Its ori¬
gin is derived from lennes or lenes, who being ex-
pofed in a coffer or bog by his father Cygnus the Thra¬
cian, at the inftigation of the mother-in-law, was by
fate carried to this ifland, made king of it, and at length
w’orfhipped as a god on account of his virtues. I he
ifland was famous for its earthenware, for which pur-
pofe it had an excellent red clay ; and hence Bochart
would derive the appellation from tinedom, a “ red clay.’'
Tenedia fecuris, is a proverbial faying to denote feverity j
from a law there paffed, that perfons found in the adt of
adultery fhould be put to death ; a feverity executed on
the king’s fon; and therefore, in the coins of Tenedos, on
one fide are two heads in memorial of the king and his
fon, and on the reverfe an axe, (Ariftotle). ^ This ifland
ftill retains its ancient name ; and is one of the fmalleft
iflands of the Archipelago, fituated near the coaft of
Leffer Afia, weft of the ruins of Troy. It is .chiefly
rocky, but fertile, being remarkable for pi'oducing the
beft Mufcadine wine in the Levant ; and its pofition,
thus near the mouth of the Hellcfpont, has given it im¬
portance in all ages ; veffels bound toward Conftanti-
nople finding {belter in its port, or fate anchorage in the
road, during the Etefian or contrary winds, and in foul
weather. The emperor Juftinian .eredted a magazine to
receive the cargoes of the corn fhips from Alexandria,
when detained there. This was a lofty building, 280
feet long and 90 broad. The voyage from Egypt was
rendered lefs precarious, and the grain preferved until it
could be transported to the capital. Afterwards, during
the troubles of the Greek empire, Tenedos experienced
a variety of fortune. The pirates, who infefted thefe
feas, made it for many years their place of rendezvous ;
and Othman feized it in 1302, procured veffels, and
thence fubdued the other iflands of the Archipelago.
It
Tenedos,
Teneriff.
TEN [2
It lias continued in the pcffeflion of the Turks ever
, fince : and on the eaftern fide is a pretty large town,
feated at the foot of a mountain, with a fine harbour
commanded by a caftle. E. Long. 27. o. N. Lat. 29.
3°;
i ENERIFF, an ifland of Africa, and one of the
Canaries, being the moft confiderable for liches, trade,
and extent. It lies to the fouth of the ifland of Salva¬
ges, to the weft of the Grand Canary, to the north of
the ifland of Gomera, and to the eaft of that of Palma.
It is of a triangular form, being about 45 miles in
length and 20 in breadth ; and in the centre is the fa¬
mous peak, called by the natives El Pico de Teyde,
which in clear weather may be feen at the diftance of
120 miles, like a thin blue vapour very little darker
than the fky.
1 he moft frequented harbour is called Santa Cruz,
which is on the fouth fide of the ifland, and where (hips
with good anchors and cables may be fafe in all wea¬
thers. . At this port is the principal commercial town
in the ifland, called alio Santa Cruz, in the middle of
which is a mole, built at a vaft expence for the conve¬
nience of landing ; between the mole and the town is a
fort called St Philip's, and near it is a fteep rocky den
or valley, beginning at the fea ftiore, and running far
in land, which would render the attack of an enemy
very difficult j there are alfo other forts for its defence,
all joined together by a thick ftone w^all, and mounted
with cannon.
Santa Cruz is a large town, containing feveral churches
Jloncal Ac- and convents, an hofpital, and the belt conftructed pri-
€amt°fthe Va.te bu51dings °f any in the Canary iflands. It con-
,v tains about 7000 inhabitants ; it is not fortified on the
land fide, and all the country near it is dry, ftony, and
barren.
About four leagues to the fouth of Santa Cruz, clofe
to the fea, there is a cave, with a chapel called the
'chapel of our Lady of Candelaria, in which is an image
of the Virgin Mary, that is held in as much reverence
here as that of Diana was at Ephefus. This chapel is
endoveed with fo many ornaments that it is the richeft
place in all the feven iflands. At a certain feafon of the
year almoft all the inhabitants go thither on pilgrimage,
and innumerable and incredible ftories are related and
univerfally believed concerning this image.
About four miles in land from Santa Cruz ftands the
city of St Chryftobal de la Laguna, which is the me¬
tropolis of the ifland, and contains two parilh churches
and five convents, but has no trade, being inhabited
principally by the gentry of the ifland ; the inhabitants
are numerous, yet nobody is feen in the ftreets, which
are folitary and defolate, fo that grafs grows in thofe
that are moft frequented. There are many other towns
in the ifland wffiich contain a great number of people,
but none are more than three leagues from the fea.
All the fertile ground within a league of the fea is
covered with vines j that of the next league isfown with
corn, the third is adorned wfith woods, and above the
woods are the clouds, for the ifland gradually afeends
from the fea, rifing on all fides till it terminates in the
peak, which is the centre.
On the fouth-eaft of the ifland inland from Candela¬
ria is a town called Guimar, wffiere there are fome fa¬
milies which know themfelves to be the genuine unmix¬
ed offspring of the original natives 5 but they know no-
3
das's Hi-
Canary
I/lands.
88 ] T E N
thing of the manners of their anceftors, nor have they TenerifE
preferved any remains of their language. They are fairer
than the Spaniards of Andalufia.
lenerift contains about 96,000 perfons, fuppafed to
be equal to the number of inhabitants of all the reft of
the feven iflands put together. The peafants in gene¬
ral are wretchedly clothed 5 when they do appear bet¬
ter, they are habited in the Spanifli faihion. The men, White's
in a genteeler line, drefs very gaylv, and are feldom ,
feen without long fwords. It is remarked, that few of *
them walk with dignity and eafe; which may be attri-18.
buted to the long cloaks they ufually wear. The wo¬
men wear veils ; thofe worn by the lower ranks are of
black fluff, thofe of the higher of black filk 5 and fuch
among the latter as have any claim to beauty are far from
being over careful in concealing their faces by them.
The young ladies wear their fine long black hair plaited,
and faftened with a comb or a ribband on the top of the
head.
The common people, and in this they referable the
inhabitants of moft of the iflands in the Pacific ocean
lately difeovered, have in them a ftrong tendency to
thieving ; they are befides lazy, and the moft importu¬
nate beggars in the world. “ I obferved likewife (fays
Mr \\ hite) that the itch was fo common among them,
and had attained fuch a degree of virulence, that one
would almoft be led to believe it was epidemic there.
Some of the women are fo abandoned and (hamelefs,
that it would be doing an injuflice to the proftitutes
met with in the ftreets of London to fay they are like
them. The females of every degree are faid to be of
an amorous conftitution, and addifted to intrigue ; for
which no houfes could be better adapted than thofe in
Teneriff.
“ The manufactures carried on here are very few,
and the product of them little more than fufficient for
their own confumption. They confift of taffeties,
gauze, coarfe linens, blankets, a little filk, and curious
garters. The principal dependence of the inhabitants
is on their wine (their ftaple commodity), oil, corn,
and every kind of flock for (hipping. With thefe the
ifland abounds : and, in their feafon, produces not only
the tropical fruits, but the vegetable prodmftions of the
European gardens, in the greateft plenty. Teneriff en¬
joys an agreeable and healthful mediocrity of climate.
Indeed none feems better adapted for the reftoration of
a valetudinarian ; as, by going into the mountains, he
may graduate the air, and choofe that flate of it which
beft fuits his complaint. But although the inhabitants
are thus healthy, and have fo little occafion for medical
aid, they loudly complain of the want of knowledge in
the profeffional gentlemen of the ifland.”
The height of the peak of Tenerift' has been fo va-
rioufly eftimated and calculated by different travellers
and geographers, that we can only take the mean be¬
tween the two extremes of their decifions. Dr Halley Rye's Ex*
allows but two miles and a quarter from the level of the curfon t0
fea to the furamit of the fugar-loaf, whilft the Spaniffi ^Ineriff.
account of the Canary iflands, tranflated by Mr Glas enen^'
in 1763, makes it no lefs than five miles j and others
have affigned a height different from both thefe. That
it is an extinguiflied volcano is univerfally known.
“ The crater of the peak of Teneriff (fays Mongez)
is a true fulphur-pit, fimilar to thofe of Italy. It is a-
bout 50 fathoms long and 40 broad, rifing abruptly
from
TEN [ 289 ] TEN
Tcneriff from eaft to weft. At the edges of the crater, particu-
II larly on the under fide, are many fpiracles, or natural
Teniers, chimneys, from which there exhale aqueous vapours and
^ T7T1 fulphureous acids, which are fo hot as to make the ther-
Pbvjiq'ue.' mometer rife from 90 to 34® of Reaumur. The infide of
the crater is covered with yellow, red, or white, argil¬
laceous earth, and blocks of lava partly decompoled.
Under thefe blocks are found fuperb cryftals of ful-
phur; thefe are eight-fided rhomboidal cryftals, fome-
times an inch in length, and, I fuppofe, they are the
fineft cryftals of volcanic fulphur that have ever been
found. The water that exhales from the fpiracles is
perfeftly pure, and not in the leaft acid, as I was con¬
vinced by feveral experiments. “ The elevation of the
peak above the level of the fea is near 1900 toifes.”
W. Long. 16. 18. N. Lat. 28. 29.
TENESMUS, in Medicine, is a continual defire of
going to ftool, but without any ftool being ready to be
voided. See MEDICINE, N° in.
TENIERS, David, the Elder, a Flemifh painter,
born at Antwerp in 1582. He received the firft rudi¬
ments of his art from the famous Rubens, who highly
efteemed him for his promifing genius, and with great
fatisfa&ion examined and commended his defigns. From
the fchool of that celebrated painter Teniers went to
finifti his ftudies at Rome. He attached himfelf to A-
dam Ellheimer for fix years j and from the inftruftions
of two fuch incomparable mafters, he formed to himfelf
a peculiar ftyle, which his fon cultivated fo happily af¬
terward as to bring it to the utmoft perfeftion. His
pi&ures were fmall; and his fubjefts ufually {hops, ela-
boratories, humorous converfations, and rural feftivi-
ties. The demand for his pieces was univerfal; and
even his matter Rubens thought them an ornament to
his cabinet. He died at Antwerp in 1640.
TENIERS, David, the Younger, alfo an admirable
painter, was the fon of the former, and was born at
Antwerp in 1610. He obtained the name of Ape of
Painting, from his imitating the manner of different
painters with fuch exaftnefs as to deceive even the
niceft judges. He improved greatly under his father,
and obtained fuch reputation as introduced him to the
favour of the great. The archduke Leopold William
made him gentleman of his bedchamber ; and all the
pidtures of his gallery were copied by Teniers, and en¬
graved by his diredlion. The king of Spain and Don
Juan of Auftria fet fo high a value on his pidlures,
that they built a gallery on purpofe for them. Wil¬
liam prince of Orange honoured him with his friend-
<hip j and Rubens not only efteemed his works, but af-
iifted him with his advice. His principal talent lay in
landfcapes, adorned with fmall figures. He alfo painted
men drinking and fmoking, chemifts elaboratories, coun¬
try fairs, and the like. His fmall figures are fuperior
to his large ones. He died in 1694.
The works of the father and fon are thus diftinguiih-
cd : The latter difcover a finer touch and frefher pen¬
cil, greater variety of attitudes, and a better diipofition
of the figures. The father retained fomething of the
tone of Italy in his colouring, which was ftronger than
the fon’s 5 befides, the fon ufed to put at the, bottom of
his pictures, David Teniers, junior.
Abraham, another fon of David the Elder, was e-
qual, if not fuperior, to his father and brother in the ex-
preftion of his characters, and his underftanding the
Yol. XX, Part I.
claro obfcuro ; though he was inferior in the fprightli- Tenifon,
nefs of his touch, and the lightnefs of his pencil. , -Lfcnn!,'> t
TENISON, Dr Thomas, archbifhop of Canter¬
bury, was born at Cottenham in Cambridgeftiire in
16365 and ftudied at Corpus Chrifti college in Cam¬
bridge. In his youth, while the fanatical government
lafted, he applied himfelf to phyfic 5 but afterward went
into orders, and was fome time minifter of St Andrew’s
church, Cambridge 5 where he attended the fick during
the plague in 1665, which his parifhioners acknowledg¬
ed by the prefent of a piece of plate. He ftiowed him¬
felf very active againft the growth of Popery by his
w’ritings both in King Charles and in King James’s
reigns : in 1680 he was prefented to the vicarage of St
Martin’s in the Fields, London, to which parifti he made
feveral donations j and among others, endowed a free
fchool, and built a handfome library, which he furniih-
ed with ufeful books. King William and Queen Mary,
in 1689, prefented him to the archdeaconry of Lon¬
don 5 in 1691, he was nominated to the fee of Lincoln,
and in 1694 he fucceeded Dr Tillotfon as archbifhop of
Canterbury. He performed all the duties of a good
primate for 20 years, and died in I7I5*
TENNIS, a play at which a ball is driven by a racket.
As many perfons would become players at tennis, pro- jj0y^e<s .
vided they could eafily underfland the rudiments of ihv Games im-
game, fo as to form fome judgement of the players, or atproved by
leaft to know who wins and who lofes, we have here at- Beaufort*
tempted to give fo plain a defeription of it, that no one
can be at a lofs, if ever he ftrould bett or play. As to
the executive part, it requires great pra&ice to make a
good player, fo that nothing can be done without it j
all we prefume to do is to give an infight into the game,
whereby a perfon may not feem a total ftranger to it
when he happens to be in a tennis court.
The game of tennis is played in moil capital cities in
Europe, particularly in France, from whence we may
venture to derive its origin. It is efteemed with many
to be one of the moft ancient games in Chriftendom, and
long before King Charles I.’s time it was played in Eng¬
land.
This game is as intricate as any game whatever 5 a
perfon who is totally ignorant of it may look on for a
month together, without being able to make out how
the game is decided. Therefore we {hall begin by de-
feribing the court in which it is played.
The fize of a tennis court is generally about 96 or
97 feet by 33 or 34, there being no exaft dimenfion
aferibed to its proportion, a foot more or lefs in length
or width being of no confequence. A line or net hangs
exa&ly acrofs the middle, over which the ball muft be
ftruck, either with a racket or board to make the ftroke
good. Upon the entrance of a tennis-court1, there is a
long gallery which goes to the dedans, that is, a kind of
front gallery, where fpeftators ufually ftand, into w’hich,
whenever a ball is ftruck, it tells for a certain ftroke.
This long gallery is divided into different compartiments
or galleries, each of which has its particular name, as
follows 5 from the line towards the dedans are the fft
gallery, door, fecond gallery, and the lajl gallery, which
is called the fervice fde. From the dedans to the lail
gallery are the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, at ayarddiftance
each, by which the chaces are marked, and is one of
the moft effential parts of the game, as will appear in
the following defeription.
O o On
TEN
Tennis.
On the other fide of the line are alfo the firjl gallery,
^ door, fecondgallery, and lajl gallery ; which is called the
ha-zard-Jlde. Every ball ftruck into the laft gallery on
this fide reckons for a certain ftroke the fame as the de-
dans. Between the fecond and this laft gallery are the
figures i, 2, to mark the chaces on the hazard-fide.
Over this long gallery, or thefe compartiments, is a
covering, called the pent-houfe, on which they play the
ball from the fervice-fide, in order to begin a fet of ten¬
nis, from which it is called a fervice. When they mifs
putting the ball (fo as to rebound from the pent-houfe)
over a certain line on the fervice-fide, it is deemed a
fault, two of which are reckoned for a ftroke. If the
ball rolls round the pent-houfe, on the oppofite fide of
the court, fo as to fall beyond a certain line defcvibed
for that purpofe, it is called pojfe, reckons for nothing
on either fide, and the player mull ferve again.
On the right-hand-fide of the court from the dedans
is what they call the tambour, a part of tire wall which
projedls, and is fo contrived in order to make a Variety
in the ftroke, and render it more difficult to be returned
by the adverfary ; for when a ball ftrikes the tambour,
it varies its diredion, and requires feme extraordinary
judgement to return it over the line. The laft thing on
the right hand fide is called the grill, wherein if the
ball is ftruck, it is alfo 15, or a certain ftroke.
The game of tennis is played by what they call feta ;
a fet of tennis confifts of fix games : but if they play
what is called an advantage-fet, two above five games
mu ft be wTon on one fide or the other fucceffively, in or¬
der to decide ; or, if it comes to fix games all, two
games muft ftill be won on one fide to conclude the fet j
fo that an advantage-fet may laft a confiderable time j.
for which kind of fets the court is paid more than for
any other.
We muft now deferibe the ufe of the chaces, and by
what means thefe chaces decide or interfere fo much in
the game. When the player gives his fervice at the be¬
ginning of a fet, his adverlary is fuppofed to return the
ball; and wherever it falls after the firft rebound un¬
touched, the chace is called accordingly j for example,
if the ball falls at the figure 1, the chace is called at a
yard, that is to fay, at a yard from the dedans : this
chace remains till a fecond fervice is given 5 and if the
player on the fervice fide lets the ball go after his ad¬
verfary returns it, and if the ball falls on or between any
of thefe figures or chaces, they muft change fides, there
being two chaces 5 and he who then will be on the
hazard fide, muft play to win the firft chace ; which if
he wins by linking the ball fo as to fall, after its firft
rebound, nearer to the dedans than the figure x, with¬
out his adverfary’s being able to return it from its firft:
hop, he wins a ftroke, and then proceeds in like manner
to win the fecond chace, wherever it ffiould happen to
be. If a ball falls on the line with the firft gallery
door, fecond gallery, or laft gallery, the chace is like-
wife called at fuch or fuch a place, naming the gallery,
door, Src. When it is juft put over the line, it is called
a chace at the line. If the player on the fervrce-fide re¬
turns a ball with fuch force as to ftrike the wall on the
hazard-fide fo as to rebound, after the firft hop over the
line, it is alfo called a chace at the line.
The chaces on the hazard-fide proceed from the ball
being returned either too hard or not quite hard enough \
fb that the ball after its firft rebound falls on this fide of
[ 290 ]
TEN
the blue line, or line which deferibes the hazard-fide
chaces ; in which cafe it is a chace at 1, 2, &c. provid-'
ed there is no chace depending. When they change
fides, the player, in order to win this chace, muft put
the ball over the line anywhere, lo that his adverlary
does not return it. When there is no chace on the
hazard-fide, all balls put over the line from the fervice
fide, without being returned, reckon for a ftroke.
> As the game depends chic-fly upon the marking, it
will be neceffary to explain it, and to recommend thofe
who play at tennis to have a good andunbiaffed marker,
for on him the whole fet may depend : he can mark in
favour of the one and againft the other in fuch a manner,
as will render it two to one at ftarting, though even
players. Inftead of which the marker ffiould be very at¬
tentive to the chaces, and not be anyway partial to ei¬
ther of the players.
^ T his game is marked in a very lingular manner,
which makes it at firft femewhat difficult to underftand.
The fir it ftroke is called 15, the fecond 30, the third
40, and the fourth game, unlefs the players get four
ilrokes each ; in that cafe, inftead of calling it 40 all,
it is called deuce ; after which, as foon as any ftroke is
got, it is called advantage; and in cafe the ttrokes be¬
come equal again, deuce again, till one or the other gets
two ftrokes following, which win the game ; and as the
games are won, lo they are marked and called ; as one
game love, two games to one, &c. towards the fet, of
which fo many of thefe games it confifts.
Although but one ball at a time is played with, a
number of balls are made ufe of at this game to avoid
trouble, and are handed to the players in bafkets for
that purpofe : by which means they can play as long as.
they pleafe, without ever having occafion to ftoop for a
ball.
As to the odds at tennis, they are by no means fixed,
but are generally laid as follow :
Upon the firft ftroke being won between even players,
that is, fifteen love, the odds are of the
Single game - - - 7 to 4
Thirty love - - - 4 1
Forty love - - - 8 1
Thirty fifteen - - 2 1
Forty fifteen - - 5 r
Forty thirty - _ . 3 £
The odds of a four game fet when the
firfl game is won, are - 7 4
When two games love - - 4 1
Three games love - - 81
When two games to one - - 2 1
Three games to one - -51
The odds of a fix game fet when the
firft game is won, are - - 3 2
When two games love - 2 1
Three games love - -41
Four games love - - 10 1
Five games love - - 21 I
When two games to one - 8 5
Three games to one - - 5 2
Four games to one - , ^ £
Five games to one . . 15 1
When three games to two - 7 4
Four games to two - -41
Five games to two - - jo 1
When four games to three - 21
Five
Tenn
TEN [29
Tennis. Five games to three - -51
  ' The odds of an advantage fet when the
fird game is won, are - 5 4
When two games love - 74
Three games love - - 3 1
Four games love - - 51
Five games love * - 15 I
When two games to one - 4 3
Three games to one - - 2 I
Four games to one - - 7 2
Five games to one - - 10 1
When three games to two - 32-
Four games to two - -31
Five games to two - -81
When four games to three - & 5
Five games to three - -31
When five games to four - - 2 I
When fix games to five - * 5 2
The foregoing odds, as beforefaid, are generally laid,
but the chaces interfering makes the odds very precari¬
ous ; for example, when there is a chace at half a yard,
and a fet is five games all, and in every other refpeft
equal, the odds are a good five to four ; and if it were
fix games to five, and forty thirty with the fame chace,
the odds then would be a guinea to a {hilling ; fo that it
is plain that the odds at this game differ from thofe of
any other *. for one ftroke will reduce a fet, fuppofing
the players to be five games all, from an even wager to
three to two, and fo on in proportion to the ftage of
the fet.
There are various methods of giving odds at tennis,
in order to make a match equal 5 and that they may be
underftood, we (hall give the following lift of them, wdth
their meanings, fo that any perfon may form a judge¬
ment of the advantage received or given.
The loweft odds that can be given, excepting the
choice of the fides, is what they call a bifque, that is, a
ftroke to be taken or fcored whenever the player, who
receives the advantage, thinks proper : for inftance, fup-
pofe a critical game of the fet to be forty thirty, by tak¬
ing the bifque, he who is forty becomes game, and fo in
refpeft of two bifques, See.
The next greater odds are fifteen, that is, a certain
ftroke given at the beginning of each game.
After thefe, half thirty, that is, fifteen one game, and
thirty the next. Then follow the whole thirty, forty.
See.
There are alfo the following kind of odds which are
given, viz.
Round fervices; thofe are fervices given round the
pent-houfe, fo as to render it eafy for \hefriker-out
(the player who is on the hazard fide) to return the
ball.
Half-court, that is, being obliged or confined to play
into the adverfary’s half-court; fometimes it is played
ftraightwife, and at other times acrofs ; both which are
great advantages given by him fo confined, but the ftrait
half-court is the greateft.
Touch-no-wall, that is, being obliged to play within
the compafs of the walls, or fides of the court. This is
a confiderable advantage to him who receives it \ as all
the balls muft be played gently, and confequently they
are much eafierto take than thofe which are played hard,
or according to the ufual method of play.
i ] TEN
Barring the hazards, that is, barring the dedans, tam¬
bour, grill, or the laft gallery on the hazard-fide, or any
particular one or more of them.
Thefe are the common kind of odds or advantages
given 5 but there are many others, which are according
to what is agreed by the players : fuch as playing with
board againft racket, cricket-bat againft racket, &c.
The game of tennis is alfo played by four perfons,
two partners on each fide. In this cafe, they are gene¬
rally confined to their particular quarters, and one of
each fide appointed to ferve and ftrike out •, in every
other refpedt, the game is played in the fame manner as
when two only play.
Any thing more to be faid upon this fubjeft would
be needlefs, as nothing can be recommended after read¬
ing this fhort account of tennis, but pra&ice and atten¬
tion, wdthout which no one can become a proficient at
the game.
TENOR, or Tenour, the purport or content of a
writing or inftrument in law, &c.
Tenor, in Mufc, the firft mean, or middle part, or
that which is the ordinary pitch of the voice, w'hen nei¬
ther raifed to a treble nor lowered to a bafs.
TENSE, in Grammar, an infleftion of verbs, where¬
by they are made to fignify or dirtinguifh the circum-
ftance of time in what they affirm. See Grammar.
TENT, in IVar, a pavilion or portable houfe. Tents
are made of canvas, for officers and foldiers to lie under
when in the field. The fize of the officers tents is not
fixed } fome regiments have them of one fize and fome
of another ; a captain’s tent and marquee is generally
io-§- feet broad, 14 deep, and 8 high : the fubalterns are
a foot lefs •, the major’s and lieutenant-colonel’s a foot
larger ; and the colonel’s two feet larger. The fubal¬
terns of foot lie two in a tent, and thofe of horfe but
one. The tents of private men are 6-1- feet fquare, and
5 feet high, and hold five foldiers each. The tents for
horfe are 7 feet broad and 9 feet deep : they hold like-
wife five men and their horfe accoutrements.—The word
is formed from the Latin tentorium, of teiido “ I ftretch,”
becaufe tents are ufually made of canvas ftretched out,
and fuftained by poles, wnth cords and pegs.
Tent, in Surgery, a roll of lint made into the ffiape
a nail with a broad flat head, chiefly ufed in deep wTounds
and ulcers. They are of fervice, not only in conveying
medicines to the moft intimate receffes and finufes of the
wound, but to prevent the lips of the wound from unit¬
ing before it is healed from the bottom ; and by their
afliftance grumous blood, fordes, &c. are readily eva¬
cuated.
TENTER, Trier, or Prover, a machine ufed in
the cloth manufa&ory, to ftretch out the pieces ©f cloth,
fluff, &c. or only to make them even and fet them
fquare.
It is ufually about 4-*- feet high, and for length ex¬
ceeds that of the longeft piece of cloth. It confifts of
feveral long fquare pieces of wood, placed like thofe
which form the barriers of a manege 5 fo, however, as
that the low’er crofs pieces of wrood may be raifed or
lowered as is found requifite, to be fixed at any height
by means of pins. Along the crofs pieces, both the up¬
per and the under one, are hooked nails, called tenter¬
hooks, driven in from fpace to fpace.
To put a piece of Cloth on the TENTER. While the
piece is yet quite wet, dne end is faftened to one of the
O 0 2 * ends
Tennif
Tenter.
TEN [ 292 ] TEN
ienter ends of the tenter •, then it is pulled by force of arms to-
Tenths warcls t^le otiier end> to bring ^ to the length required :
i, ^ ' »that other end being fattened, the upper lilt is hooked
on to the upper crofs-piece, and the lowed lift to the
Joweft crofs-piece, which is afterwards lowered by force,
till the piece have its delired breadth. Being thus well
firetched, both as to length and breadth, they brutli it
with a ftiff hair brufti, and thus let it dry. Then they
take it oft j and, till they wet it again, it will retain
the length and breadth the tenter gave it.
TENTHREDO, the Saw-fly j a genus of infedfs
belonging to the order of hymenoptera. See Entomo¬
logy Index.
TENTHS, and FIRST FRUITS of Spiritual Prefer¬
ments, a branch of the king’s revenue. See Revenue.
ihefe were originally a part of the Papal ufurpations
over the clergy of this kingdom j firft introduced by
Pandulph the pope’s legate, during the reigns of King
John and Henry III. in the fee of Norwich ; and after¬
wards attempted to be made univerfal by the popes Cle¬
ment V. and John XXII. about the beginning of the
14th century. The firft ix\x\ts,, primitix or annates,
were the firft year’s whole profits of the Ipiritual prefer¬
ment, according to a rate or valor made under the di-
redlion of Pope Innocent IV. by Walter bilhop of Nor¬
wich in 38 Hen. III. and afterwards advanced in value
by commiffion from Pope Nicholas HI. A. D. 1292, 20
Edw. I.; which valuation of Pope Nicholas is ftill pre-
ferved in the exchequer. The tenths, or decimce, were the
Blaekjl. tenth part of the annual profit of each living by the fame
Co/mnent. valuation ; wrhich was alfo claimed by the holy fee, under
no better pretence than a ftrange mifapplication of that
precept of the Levitical law, which directs, that the Le-
vites “ ftiould offer the tenth part of their tithes as a
heave offeri. g to the Lord, and give it to Aaron the
highprielt.” But this claim of the pope met with vigo¬
rous refiftance from the Englifti parliament; and a va¬
riety of a£h were paffed to prevent and reftrain it, par¬
ticularly the ftatute 6 Hen. IV. c. 1. which calls it a
horrible mifchief and damnable cufom. But the Popifh
clergy, blindly devoted to the will of a foreign mailer,
ftill kept it on foot 5 fometimes more fecretly, fomelimes
more openly and avowedly : fo that in the reign of Henry
Vi II, it was computed, that in the compafs of 30 years
&co,ooo ducats had been fent to Rome for firft fruits
o> ly._ And as the clergy expreffed this willingnefs to
contiibute fo much of their income to the head of the
church, it was thought proper (when in the fame reign
the papal power was abolifhed,-and the king was declar¬
ed the head of the church of England) to annex this re¬
venue to the crown ; which was done by ftatute 26 Hen.
VUI. c. 3. (confirmed by ftatute 1 Eliz. c. 4.) ; and a
nerv valor benefeiorum w^as then made, by which the
clergy are at prefent rated.
By thefe laft mentioned ftatutes all vicarages under
ten pounds a year, and all reftories under ten marks,
are difeharged from the payment of firft fruits : and if,
in fuch livings as continue chargeable with this pavment,
the incumbent lives but half a year, he (hall pay only
one quarter oi his firft fruits; if but one whole year,
then half of them \ if a year and a half, three quarters 5
a.nd if two years, then the whole, and not otherwife.
Like wife by the ftatute 27 Hen VIII. c. 8. no tenths
are to be paid for the firft year, for then the firft fruits
are due ; and by ether ftatutes of Queen Anne, in the
fifth and ftxth years of her reign, if a benefice be under Tenths,
50I. per annum clear yearly value, it fliall be difchaiged Tenure,
of the payment of firft fruits and tenths. ''' V—“■
I hus the richer clergy being, by the criminal bigo¬
try of their Popiftr predeceffors, fubjedted at firft to a
foreign exa&ion, were afterwards, when that yoke was
fhaken off, liable to a like mftapplication of their reve¬
nues through the rapacious dilpoiitionof the then reigning
monarch ; till at length the piety of Queen Annereltored
to the church what had been thus indiredtly taken from
it. This fire did, not by remitting the tenths and firft
fruits entirely ; but, in a fpirit ot the trueft equity, by
applying theie luperfluities of the larger benefices to
make up the deficiencies of the imaller. And to this
end fire granted her royal charter, which was confirmed
by the itatute 2 Ann. c. 11. whereby all the revenue of
firit fruits and tenths is vefted in truliees for ever, to form
a perpetual fund for the augmentation of poor livings.
This is ufually called Queen Anne's bounty ; which has
been ftill farther regulated by fublequent itatutes.
TENURE, in Law, fignifies the manner whereby
lands or tenements are held, or the fervice that the te¬
nant owes to his lord.
Of this kingdom almoft all the real property is by the
policy of our laws fuppofed to be granted by, dependent
upon, and holden of, fome fuperior lord, by and in confi-
deration of certain fervices to be rendered to the lord by
the tenant or poffefforof this property. The thing holden
is therefore ftyled a tenement, the poffefibrs thereof te¬
nants, and the manner of their poffeflion a tenure. Thus
all the lands in the kingdom are fuppofed to be holden,
mediately or immediately, of the king 5 wBo is ftyled the
lord paramount, or above all. Such tenants as held un- n
der the king immediately, when they granted out Vov~ Comment
tions of the lands to inferior perfons, became alfo lords voL ii.
with refpedt to thofe inferior perfons, as they wrere ftill
tenants with refpedt to the king ; and, thus partaking of
a middle nature, were called mefne or middle lords. So
that if the king granted a manor to A, and he granted a
portion of the land to B, now B was laid to hold of A,
and A of the king •, or, in other words, B held his lands
immediately of A, but mediately of the king. The king
therefore was ftyled lordpai amount: A was both tenant
and lord, or was a mefne lord ; and B was called tenant
paravail or the lowef tenant, being he who W'as fuppoled
to make avail or profit ot the land. In this manner are
all the lands of the kingdom holden which are in the
hands of fubjedls : for, according to Sir Edward Coke,
in 4be law of England we have not properly allodium,
which is the name by which the feudilts abroad diftin-
guifh fuch eftates ot the fubjeft as are not holden of any
tuperior. So that at the firft glance we may obferve,
that our lands are either plainly feuds, or partake very
ftrongly of the feodal nature.
All tenures being thus derived, or fuppofed to be de¬
rived, from the king, thofe that held immediately un¬
der him, in right of his crown and dignity, were called,
his tenants in capite, or in chief; which was the moft
honourable fpecies of tenure, but at the fame time fub-
jefted the tenants to greater and more burdenfome fer¬
vices than inferior tenures did. And this diftinttion ran
through all the different forts of tenure.
ft here feem to have fubfifted among our ancefiors four
principal fpecies of lay-tenures, to which all other may be
reduced ; the grand criteria of which were the natures of,
the
TEN [ 293 J TEN
Tenure, the feveral fervices or renders that were due to the lords
“"""v 1 from their tenants. The fervices, in refpeft of their qua¬
lity, were either free or hafe fervices : in refpe£l of their
quantity and the lime of exa&ing them were either cer/om
or uncertain. Free fervices were fuch as were not unbe¬
coming the charatter of a foldier or a freeman to perform $
as to fei ve under his lord in the wars, to pay a fum of
money, and the like. Bafe fervices were fuch as were
fit only for peafants or perfons of a fervile rank *, as to
plough the lord’s land, to make his hedges, to carry out
his dung, or other mean employments. The certain fer¬
vices, whether free or bafe, were fuch as were ftinted in
quantity, and could not be exceeded on any pretence •,
as, to pay a ftated annual-rent, or to plough fuch a field
for three days. The uncertain depended upon unknown
contingencies 5 as, to do military fervice in perfon, or
pay an affeffment in lieu of it when called upon j or to
wind a horn upon the appearance of invaders: which are
free fervices ; or to do whatever the lord fhould com¬
mand $ which is a bafe or villein fervice.
From the various combinations of thefe fervices have
arifen the four kinds of lay-tenure which fubfifted in
England till the middle of the laft century ; and three
of which fubfift to this day. Of thefe Brafton (who
wrote under Henry III.) feems to give the cleareft and
moft compendious account of any author ancient or mo¬
dern 5 of which the following is the outline or abftraft :
“ Tenements are of two kinds, frank-tenemcni, and vil-
lenage. And of frank-tenements, fome are held freely
in confideration of homage and knight-fervice *, others in
free-focage, with the fervice of fealty only. And again,
of villenages, fome are pure, and others privileged. He
that holds in pure villenage (hall do whatfoever is com¬
manded him, and always be bound to an uncertain fer¬
vice. The other kind of villenage is called villein-foc-
age; and thefe villein-focmen do villein fervices, but
fuch as are certain and determined.” Of which the
fenfe feems to be as follows; firfl, where the fervice
was free, but uncertain, as military fervice with homage,
that tenure was called the tenure in chivalry, per fervi-
tium militare, or by knight-fervice. Secondly, where
the fervice was not only free, but alfo certain, as by
fealty only, by rent and fealty, &c. that tenure was
called liberum focagium, or free focage. Thefe were the
only free holdings or tenements •, the others were ville-
nous or fervile : as, thirdly, where the fervice was bafe
in its nature, and uncertain as to time and quantity, the
tenure was purum villenagium, abfolute or pure villen¬
age. Laftly, where the fervice was bafe in its nature,
but reduced to a certainty, this was ftill villenage, but
dift’nguifhed from the other by the name of privileged
vi/lenage, villenagium pnvilegiatum ; or it might be ftill
called focage (from the certainty of its fervices), but de¬
graded by their bafenefs into the inferior title of villa'
num focagium, villein-focage.
1. The military tenure, or that by knight-fervice,
was done away by ftat. 12 Car. II. For an account
of this fpecies of tenure fee FEODAL System, and
KNIGHT-Service; and for its incidents, fee Relief,
Primer-seisin, Wardship, Marriage, Fines, and
Escheat.
2. The fecond fpecies of tenure or free-focage, not
only fubfifts to this day, but has in a manner abforbed
and fu allowed up (lince the ftatute of Charles the Se¬
cond) almoft every other fpecies of tenure. See So- Tenure.
CAGE. Up—y—r
The other grand divifion of tenure, mentioned by
Bradton, is that of villenage, as contradiftinguiftied
from liberum tenementum, or frank-tenure. And this
(we may remember) he fubdivides into two claifes, pure
and privileged villenage : from whence have arifen two
other fpecies of our modern tenures.
3. From the tenure of pure villenage have fprung our
prefent copyhold-tenures, or tenure by copy of court-
roll at the will of the lord 5 in order to obtain a clear
idea of which, it will be previoufly neceffary to confult
the articles Manor and Villenage.
As a farther confequence of what has been there ex¬
plained, we maycolledt thefe two main principles, wdiich
are held to be the fupporters of a copyhold-tenure, and
without which it cannot exift : 1. That the lands be
parcel of and fituate within that manor under which it
is held. 2. That they have been demifed, or demifable,
by copy of court roll immemorially. For immemorial
cuftom is the life of all tenures by copy ; fo that no
new copyhold can, ilridtly fpeaking, be granted at this
day.
In fome manors, where the cuftom hath been to per¬
mit the heir to fucceed the anceltor in his tenure, the
eftates are ftyled copyholds of inheritance; in others,
where the lords have been more vigilant to maintain
their rights, they remain copyholds for life only ; for
the cuftom of the manor has in both cafes fo far fuper-
feded the will of the lord, that, provided the fervices be
performed or ftipulated for by fealty, he cannot in the
firft inftance refufe to admit the heir of his tenant upon
his death 5 nor, in the fecond, can he remove his prefent
tenant fo long as he lives, though he holds nominally by
the precarious tenure of his lord’s will.
The fruits and appendages of a copyhold-tenure, that
it hath in common with free tenures, are fealty, fervices
(as well in rents as otherwife), reliefs, and efeheats.-
The two latter belong only to copyholds of inheritance j..
the former to thofe for life alfo. But, befides thefe,
copyholds have alfo heriots, wardfliip, and fines. He-
riots, which are agreed to be a Danilh cuftom, are a
render of the bell bead or other good (as the cuftom
may be) to the lord on the death of the tenant. This
is plainly a relic of villein tenure; there being original¬
ly lefs hardfiiip in it, when all the goods and chattels
belonged to the lord, and he might have fe<zed them
even in the villein’s lifetime. Thefe are incident to
both fpecies of copyhold-, but wardftiip and fines to
thofe of inheritance only. Wardftiip, in copyhold-
eftates, partakes both of that in chivalry and that in fo¬
cage. Like that in chivalry, the lord is the legal guar¬
dian, who ufually afligns fome relation of the infant
tenant to a£l in his (lead : and he, like guardian in fo¬
cage, is accountable to his ward for the profits. Of
fines, fome are in the nature of primer-feifins, due on
the death of each tenant, others are mere fines for ali¬
enations of the lands y in fome manors, only one of thofe
forts can be demanded, in fome both, and in others
neither. They are fometimes arbitrary and at the will
of the lord, fometimes fixed by cuftom ; but, even when
arbitrary, the courts of law, in favour of the liberty of
copyholders, have tied them down to be reafonable in
their extent y otherwife they might amount to diflicrifon
of--
T E N [ 294 } TEN
of the eftate. No fine therefore is allowed to be taken
upon defcents and alienations (unlefs in particular cir-
cumftanccs) of more than two years improved values of
the eftate. From this inftance we may judge of the
favourable difpofidon that the law of England (which is
a law of liberty) hath always fliown to this fpecies of
tenants, by removing, as far as poffible, every real
badge of flavery from them, however feme nominal ones
may continue. It fuffered cuftom very early to get the
better of the exprefs terms upon which they held their
lands 5 by declaring, that the will of the lord was to be
interpreted by the cuftom of the manor; and, where
no cuftom has been fuffered to grow’ up to the prejudice
of the lord, as in this cafe of arbitrary fines, the law it-
felf interpofes in an equitable method, and will not fuf-
fer the lord to extend his ^power fo far as to difinherit
the tenant.
4. There is yet a fourth fpecies of tenure, defcribed
by Brafton, under the name fometimes of privileged vil-
lenage, and fometimes of villein-focage. See Privileged
VlLLENAGE.
Having in the prefent article and thofe referred to,
taken a compendious view of the principal and funda¬
mental points of the do&rine of tenures, both ancient
and modern, we cannot but remark the mutual connec¬
tion and dependence that all of them have upon each
other. And upon the w’hole it appears, that, whatever
changes and alterations thefe tenures have in procefs of
time undergone, from the Saxon era to the 12 Car. II.
all lay-tenures are now in effeft reduced to tw’o fpecies ;
free tenure in common focage, and bafe tenure by copy
of court-roll. But there is ftill behind one other fpecies
of tenure, referved by the ftatute of Charles II. which is
of a fpiritual nature, and called the tenure in FliANK-
Almoign; fee that article.
A particular account of the ancient tenures would to
many perfons be highly amufing. We can only feledl a
few of the moft lingular, referring the curious reader for
more information to Anderfon’s Origin of Commerce,
Henry’s Hiftory of Britain, and Blount’s Fragmenta
Antiqiiitales.
In the 19th of Henry III. Walter Gately :held jjthe
manor of Weftcourt, in Bedington in Surry, yielding
yearly to the king one crofs-bow, baliflam, value tw’elve
pence.
Anno tertio Edw\ I. Olbert de Lonchamp, knight,
held his lands of Ovenhelle in Kent, for perfonally
guarding the king forty days into Wales at his owrn
expence, with one horfe of five {hillings value, one fack
worth fixpence, and one broch for that fack. iV. B.
AH perfonal fervices, or attendances on our kings in
thofe times, w’ere limited to forty days, at their own ex¬
pence.
The like the fame year of Laurence de Broke, w’ho
for his hamlet of Renham in Middlefex, found the
king one foldier, a horfe worth five {hillings, a fack
worth fivepence, and a broch worth twopence (this
broch w’as a kind of cup, jug, pot, or bafon), for forty
days, at his own expence, wherever his army lhall be
within the four feas. This was fettled (fays Mr Blount)
at the Stone Crofs, which flood near the May-pole in
the Strand, London, where the judges-itinerant ufed in
old times to fit.
Robert Maunfel’s tenure of lands in Peverel paid
the fame fervice, and the horfe, fack, and broch, of the Tenufe.
fame prices. v—y—«—
13WO Edw. I. Henry de Averning’s tenure of the
manor of Morton in Effex, was to find a man, a horfe
worth ten Ihillings, four horfe-lhoes, a leather fack, and
an iron broch.
The year following, three perfons held thirty acres
of land in Carleton in Norfolk, by the fervice of bring¬
ing the king, whenever he lhall be in England, twCnty-
four pafties of frelh herrings, at their firft coming in.
Another held his manor in Norfolk of that king, by
annually fupplying him at his exchequer with two vef-
fels, called mues, of wine made of pearmains. “ Here
(fays our author) it is worth obferving, that in King
Edward the Firft’s time pearmain cyder was called
wine.'1' This therefore feems to account for the men¬
tion of vineyards in old times in Kent, Suffex, and other
parts of England, which has fo often puzzled many
people to elucidate.
Another perfon, in the 2ill of the faid king, held
thirty acres of land, valued at ten Ihillings yearly in
the exchequer, or fourpence per acre, in Cambridge-
Ihire, for furnilhing a trufs of hay for the king’s ne-
ceffary-houfe or privy, whenever he lhall come into that
county.
Another, in the 34th of that king, held a manor in
Kent for providing a man to lead three greyhounds when
the king lhall go into Gafcony, fo long as a pair of Ihoes
of fourpence Ihould laft.
And that we may not again recur to thefe old te¬
nures, we lhall further add, from the fame author, that
in the firft year of King Edward II. Peter Spileman
made fine to the king for his lands by ferjcanty, to find
one to ferve as a foldier for forty days in England, with
a coat of mail; alfo to find ftraw for the king’s bed, and
hay for his horfe.
This article of ftraw for the king’s bed we did not
fo much wonder at, when we found it in an article in
William the Conqueror’s time 5 but it is fomewhat more
remarkable fo late as the days of King Edward II.
Several others, we find, held their lands of the crown
in thofe times by very different tenures. One, by pay¬
ing tw’o white capons annually j another, by carrying
the king’s ftandard whenever he happens to be in the
county of Suffex j another, by carrying a rod or batoon
before the king on certain occafionsj another, by fer-
ving the office of chamberlain of the exchequer, a very
good place at prefent} another, by building and up¬
holding a bridge ; another, by being marechal {mere-
tricum)y i. e. as Mr Blount tranllates it, of the laun-
dreffes in the king’s army ; another, by a&ing as a fer-
jeant at arms for the king’s army whilft in England 5
one fupplies a fervant for the king’s larder ; another,
for his wardrobe ; others, to find fervants for this or
that foreft j another, a hawk} one prefents the king a
pair of fcarlet hofe annually; others are bound to fup-
ply foldiers with armour for certain days, for the keep¬
ing this or that caftle } one, viz. for the manor of El-
fton in Nottinghamlhire, pays yearly rent of one pound
weight of cummin feed, two pair of gloves, and a fteel
needle *, another, is to repair the iron-work of the king’s
ploughs j Ela countefs of Warwick, in the 13th year
of King Edward I. held the manor of Hokenorton in
Oxfordlhire, in the barony of D’Oyly, by the ferjeanty
TER C 295 ] TER
fees of earning at the king’s table oh his birth-day, and (lie
to have the knife the king then ufes at table.
■ TEOS, one of the twelve Ionian cities, was fituated
on the fouth fide of the Ionian peninfula, and diftinguifli-
ed by being the place where the poet Anacreon and the
hiftorian Hecataeus were born.
TERAPHIM, or Theraphim, a word in the He¬
brew language, ■which has exercifed much the ingenuity
of the critics. It occurs 13 or 14 times in the Old
Teftament, and is commonly interpreted idols. We
will not trouble our readers with the numerous conjec¬
tures which have been formed refpe&ing the meaning of
this word. The only way to determine it, if it be at
all poffible, would be to examine and compare all the
paffages in which it occurs, and to confult the ancient
tranflations. Conje&ures are ufelefsj every man may
make a new one, which will have juft as good a title to
belief as thofe which have been already propofed.
TERCERY, or Tercera, one of the largeft iflands
of the Azores, or Weftern illands, lying in the Atlan¬
tic ocean. It is about 40 miles in circumference j and
furrounded writh craggy rocks, which render it almoft
inacceflible. The foil is fertile, abounding in corn,
wine, and fruits; and they have plenty of cattle to
fupply the fillips which call there. Their principal trade
is wood. The inhabitants are lively, addifted to gal¬
lantry, and are faid to be extremely revengeful. It is
fubjeft to Portugal •, and Angra is the capital town.
W. Long. 27. 1. N. Lat. 28. 45.
TEREBELLA, the Piercer, a genus of infe&s
belonging to the clafs of vermes, and order of mollufca.
See Helminthology Index.
TEREBINTHUS. See Pistacia, Botany In¬
dex.
TEREDO, a genus of vermes belonging to the or¬
der of teftacea. See Conchology Index.
TERENCE, or Publius Terentius Afer, a ce¬
lebrated comic poet of ancient Rome, was born at Car¬
thage in Africa. He was flave to Terentius Lucanus
the fenator; who gave him his liberty on account of
of his wit, his good mien, and great abilities. Terence,
on his becoming a freed man, applied himfelf to the
writing of comedies $ in the execution of which he imi¬
tated Menander and the other celebrated comic poets
of Greece. Cicero gives him the moft pompous eulo-
giums, both for the purity of his language and the per-
fpicuity and beauty of his compofitions, which he con-
fiders as the rule and ftandard of the Latin tongue ; and
obferves, that they w’ere efteemed fo fine and elegant,
that they were thought to have been written by Scipio
and Lelius, who were then the greateft perfonages and
the moft eloquent of the Roman people. Terence died
while on a voyage into Greece, about the 15th year
before the Chriftian era. There are fix of his comedies
extant, of which the beft editions are the Elzevir one
1635, 12mo ; that cum integris not is Donati, etfelcciis
variorum, 1686, 8vo; Wefterhovius’s, in two vols 4I0,
1726 j and that of Bentley the fiime year, 4to. Madame
Dacier has given a beautiful French verfion of this au¬
thor ; and a very good Englifh tranllation was publilh-
ed in 4to, 1768, by Mr Colman.
TERM, in Law, is generally taken for a limitation
of time or eftate ; as, a leafe for term of life or years.
• Term, however, is more particularly ufed for that time
wherein our courts of juftice are open j in oppofttion to
which, the reft of the year is called vacation.
Term, in Grammar, denotes fome word or expreflion
in a language.
The word term, terminus, is borrowed metaphorically,
by the grammarians and philofophers, from the meafur-
ers or furveyors of lands : as a field is defined and di-
ftinguiftied by its termini, or limits, fo is a thing or mat¬
ter Ipoken of by the word or term it is denoted by.
Term in the Arts, or Term of Art, is a word
which, befides the literal and popular meaning which it
has or may have in common language, bears a further
and peculiar meaning in fome art or fcience.
Terms, the feveral times or feafons of the year,
wherein the tribunals, or courts of judicature, are open
to all who think fit to complain of wrong, or to feek
their rights by due courfe of law, or aftion ; and during
which the courts in Weftminfter-hall fit and give judge¬
ment. But the high court of parliament, the chancery,
and inferior courts, do not obferve the terms •, only
the courts of king’s-bench, common-pleas, and exche¬
quer, which are the higheft courts at common law. In
contradiftin&ion to thefe, the reft of the year is called
vacation.
Of thefe terms there are four in every year, during
which time matters of juftice are difpatched. Hilary-
term, which, at London, begins the 23d day of January,
or if that be Sunday, the next day after ; and ends the
12th. of February following. Eqjler-term, which be¬
gins the Wednesday fortnight after Eafter-day, and
ends the Monday next after Afcenfion-day. Trinity-
term, beginning the Friday next after Trinity-Sunday,
and ending the Wednefday fortnight after. Michael¬
mas-term, wdiich begins the fixth day of November, and
ends the 28th of November following. Each of thele
terms have alfo their returns. Thefe terms are fuppofed
by Mr Selden to have been inftituted by William the
Conqueror 5 but Sir H. Spelman hath ftiewn, that they
were gradually formed from the canonical conftitutions
of the church *, being no other than thofe leifure feafons
of the year which were not occupied by the great fefti-
vals or fafts, or which were not liable to the general avo¬
cations of rural bufinefs. Throughout all Chriftendom,
in very early times, the whole year was one continual
term for hearing and deciding caufes. For the Chriftian
magiftrates, in order to diftinguifh themfelves from the
heathens, who w'ere very fuperftitious in the obfervation
of their dies fq/li and nefajli, adminiftered juftice upon
all days alike j till at length the church interpofed, and
exempted certain holy feafons from being profaned by
the tumult of forenfic litigations; as, particularly, the
time of Advent and Chriftmas, which gave rife to the
winter vacation j the time of Lent and Eafter, which
created that in the fpring j the time of Pentecoft,
which produced the third ; and the long vacation, be¬
tween midfummer and Michaelmas, which was allowed
for the hay-time and harveft. All Sundays alfo, and
fome peculiar feftivals, as the days of the purification,
afeenfion, &c. were included in the fame prohibition,
which was eftablifhed by a canon of the church, A. D.
517, and fortified by an imperial conftitution of the
younger Theodofius, comprized in the Theodofian code.
Afterwards, when our own legal conftitution was efta-
bliftied, the commencement and duration of our law
terms
Ter
terms were appointed, with a view to thefe canonical
prohibitions j and it was ordered by the laws of King
Edward the Eonfefior, that from Advent to the obtave
ot the Epiphany, from Septuagefima to the oftave of
Eatter, from the Afcenfion to the oftave of Pentecoft,
End from three in the afternoon of all Saturdays till
Monday morning, the peace of God and holy church
lhall be kept throughout the whole kingdom.
And io extravagant was afterwards the regard paid
to thefe holy times, that though the author of the Mir¬
ror mentions only one vacation of confiderable length,
containing the months of Auguft and September, yet
Britton fays, that in the reign of King Edward I. no
fecular plea could he held, nor any man fworn on the
Evangelifls, in the time of Advent, Lent, Pentecoft,
harvelt, and vintage, the days of the great litanies, and
all folemn feftivals. He adds, that the bifhops and
pi elates granted difpenfations for taking affizes and juries
in fome of thefe holy feafons, upon reafonable occafions }
and foon after a general difpenfation was eftablifhed in
parliament by fiat. Wefhn. I. 3 Edw. I. cap. 51. that
affizes of novel diffeifin, tnort d'ancejiar, and darrein pre-
fentment, fhould be taken in Advent, Septuagefima,
and Lent, as well as inquefts; at the fpecial requeff of
the king to the bilfiops. The portions of time that
were not included within thefe prohibited feafons fell
naturally into a fourfold divifion j and from fome fefti-
val, or faint’s day, that immediately preceded their
commencement, were denominated the terms of St Hi-
lary, of Eqfter, of the Holy Trinity, and of .57 Michael:
which terms have been fince regulated and abbreviated
by feveral afts of parliament $ particularly Trinity-term
by flat. 32 Hen. VIII. cap. 2. and Michaelmas-term
by fiat. 16 Car. I. cap. 6. and again by fiat. 24 Geo. II.
cap. 48.
Terms, Oxford. Hilary or Lent-term begins Janu¬
ary 14th, and ends the Saturday before Palm-Sunday.
Eafter-term begins the tenth day after Eafter, and ends
the Thurfday before Whitfunday. Trinity-term be¬
gins the Wednefday after Trinity-Sunday, and ends
after the aft, or 6th of July, fooner or later, as the
vice chancellor and convocation pleale. IVIichaelmas-
term begins Oftober the 10th, and ends December the
17th.
Terms, Cambridge. Lent-term begins January the
14th, and ends Friday before Palm-Sunday. Eafter-
term begins the Wednefday after Eafter-week, and
ends the week before Whitfunday. Trinity-term be¬
gins the Wednefday after Trinity-Sunday, and ends the
Friday after the commencement, or 2d of July. Mi¬
chaelmas-term begins Oftober the 10th, and ends De¬
cember the 16th.
Terms, Scottifh. The court of feflion has two terms,
the winter and fummer. The winter begins on 12th
November, and ends 1 ith March, only there is a recefs
of three weeks at Chriftmas. The fummer term com¬
mences, 12th May, and ends nth July. The court of
exchequer has four terms: 1. Candlemas term begins
15th January, and ends 3d February j 2. Whitfuntide
term beings 12th May, and ends 2d June j 3. Lammas
term begins 17th June, and ends 5th July j 4. Martin¬
mas term begins 24th November, and ends 20th De¬
cember.
1 erms, Inf). In Ireland the terms are the fame as
at London, except Michae’lmas term, which begins
f 295 ]
TER
Oftober the 13th, and adjourns to November the 3d, Ternwi
and thence to the 6th. ||
_ TERMES, a genus of infefts belonging to the order iTerPande1’*
of aptera. See Entomology Index. u—y—*
I ERMINALIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated by
the Romans in honour of the god Terminus.
J ERMINALIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs poiygamia. See Botany Index.
TERMINI, in Architeliure, denote a kind of ftatues
or columns, adorned on the top with the figure of a
man’s, woman’s, or fatyr’s head, as a capital j and the
lower part ending in a kind of fiieath or fcabbard.
TERMINUS, in Pagan worfhip, an ancient deity
among the Romans, who prefided over the ftones or land¬
marks, called termini, which were held fo facred, that
it was accounted facrilege to move them ; and as the
criminal became devoted to the gods, it wTas lawful for
any man to kill him. The worftiip of this deity was
inftituted by Numa Pompilius, who, to render land¬
marks, and confequently the property of the people,
facred, erefted'a temple on the Tarpeian mount to Ter¬
minus.
TERN. See Sterna, Ornithology Index.
TERNATE, the moft northerly of the Molucca or
Clove ifiands in the Eaft Indies. It abounds in cocoa-
nuts, bananas, citrons, oranges, and other fruits peculiar
to the torrid zone 5 but cloves are the moft valuable
produce. . It is in the poffeffion of the Dutch. Malaya
is the capital town. E. J^ong. 129. o. N. Lat. I. o.
TERNI, a town of Italy in the pope’s territories,
and in the duchy of Spoletto, with a bifhop’s fee. It is
but a {mall place j though there are very beautiful ruins
of antiquity, it having been a very confiderable Roman
colony. It is fituated on the top of a high mountain,
and to the weft of it are fields which are extremely fer¬
tile. E. Long. 12. 40. N. Lat. 42. 34.
TERNSTROM1A, a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs polyandria. See Botany Index.
. TERPANDER, a celebrated Greek poet and mufi-
cian. The Oxford marbles tell us that he was the fon
of Derdeneus of Lefbos, and that he flouriftied in the
381ft year of thefe records j which nearly anfwers to
the 27th Olympiad, and 671ft year B. C. The mar¬
bles inform us likewife, that he taught the nomes, or
airs, of the lyre and flute, which he performed himfelf
upon this laft inftrument, in concert with other players
on the flute. Several writers tell us that he added
three firings to the lyre, which before his time had but
four $ and in confirmation of this, Euclid and Strabo
quote two verfes, which they attribute to Ternandet
himfelf.
The tetrachord’s reftraint we now defpife,
The feven-ftring’d lyre a nobler ftrain fupplies.
_ Among the many fignal fervices which Terpander is
faid to have done to mufic, none was of more importance
than the notation that is aferibed to him for afeertain-
ing and preferving melody, which before was traditional,
and wholly dependent on memory. The invention, in¬
deed, of mufical charafters has been attributed by Aly-
pius and Gaudentius, two Greek writers on mufic, and
upon their authority by Boethius, to Pythagoras, who
flourifhed full two centuries after Terpander. But
Plutarch, from Heraclides of Pontus, affures us that
Terpander, the inventor of nomes for the cithara, in
hexameter
E R
[ 297 ]
TER
Terpander,hexameter veife, fet them to mufic, as well as the verfes
Terra. 0f Homer, in order to ling them at the public games :
 1 And Clemens Alexandrinus, in telling us.that this mu-
fician wrote the laws of Lycurgus in verfe, and fet them
to mufic, makes ufe of the fame expreffion as Plutarch j
which feems clearly to imply a written melody.
After enumerating the airs which Terpander had
compofed and to which he had given names, Plutarch
continues to fpeak of his other compofitions 5 among
which he defcribes the proems, or hymns for the citha-
ra, in heroic verle. Thefe were uied in after-times by
the rhapfodifts, as prologues or in trod unions to the
poems of Homer and other ancient rvriters. But Per-
pander rendered his name illullrious, no lefs by his per¬
formances upon the flute and cithara than by his com-
pofltions. This appears by the marbles already men¬
tioned by a paffage in Athenaeus, from Hellanicus,
which informs us that he obtained* the firft prize in the
mufical contefts at the Carnean games •, and by the
tellimony of Plutarch, who fays, that “ no other proof
need be urged of the excellence of lerpander in the art
of playing upon the cithara, than the regifter of the
Pythic games, from which it appears that he gained four
prizes fucceflively at thole folemnities. Of the works of
this poet only a few fragments now remain.
TERRA AUSTRALIS INCOGNITA, a name for a large
unknown continent, fuppofed to lie towards the louth
pole, and which for a long time was fought after by na¬
vigators. The voyages of Captain Cook have afcer-
tained this matter as much as it probably ever will be.
(See SOUTH Sea ; Cook's Difcoveries, N° 47, 48, 68,
69; and America, N° 4). On this fubjeft Captain
Cook expreffes himfelf as follow’s : “ I had now made
the circuit of the Southern ocean in a high latitude, and
traverfed it in fuch a manner as to leave not the lealt
room for the poflibility of there being a continent, unlefs
near the pole, and out of the reach of navigation. By
twice vifiting the tropical fea, I had not only fettled
the fituation of fome old difcoveries, but made there
many new ones, and left, I conceive, very little more
to be done even in that part. Thus I flatter myfelf,
that the intention of the voyage has in every refped
been fully anfwered •, the fouthern hemifphere fufRcient-
Jy explored ; and a final end put to the fearching after
a fouthern continent, which has at times engroffed the
attention of fome of the maritime poryers for near two
centuries part, and been a favourite theory amongft the
geographers of all ages. That there may be a conti¬
nent, or large traft of land near the pole, I will not
deny : on the contrary, I am of opinion there is 5 and
it is probable that we have feen a part of it. The ex-
ceffive cold, the many iflands, and vaft floats of ice, all
tend to prove that there muft be land to the fouth and
for my perfuafion that this fouthern land muft lie or ex¬
tend fartheft to the north, oppofite to the fouthern At¬
lantic and Indian oceans, I have already afligned fome
reafons •, to which I may add, the greater degree of cold
experienced by us in thefe feas than in the Southern Pa¬
cific ocean under the fame parallels of latitude.”
I'KRRA Firtna, in Geography, is fometimes ufed for
a continent, in contradiftindfion to ifiands.
TERRA Firma, otherwife called New Cajhile, or Ca-
Jlella del Oro, a country of America, bounded on the
north by the North fea and part of the Atlantic ocean,
by the fame fea and Guiana on the eaft, by the country
of the Amazons and Peru on the fouth, and by the Pa-
Vol. XX. Part I.
cific ocean and Veragua on the weft. It lies between ^ 'Teriv-
62 and 83 degrees of weft longitude, and between the v'
equator and 12 degrees of north latitude •, being up¬
wards of 1200 miles in length from eaft to weft, and 800
in breadth from north to fouth. It had the name of Ca-
Jlella del Oro from the quantity of gold found in the di~
ftridls of Uraba and other parts j and was firft difcovered
bv the celebrated Columbus in his third voyage.
^ The climate is neither pleafant nor healthy j the inha¬
bitants one part of the year being fcorched by the molt
intenfe and burning heat, and the other almoft drowned
with perpetual floods of rain, pouring from the fky with
fuch violence as it a general deluge was to emue.
In fo large a tradl of country i)ie foil muft neceflanly
vary. Accordingly, in fome parts it is a banen Lind,
or drowned mangrove land, that will fcarce produce
any kind of grain ; in others it yields Indian corn,
balms, gums, and drugs, almoft all manner of fruits as
well of Old as of New Spain, fugar, tobacco, Braiil
wood, and feveral other kinds of dyeing woods 3 a va¬
riety of precious ftones, particularly emeralds and fap-
phires 3 venifon and other game. he plantations of
cacao, or chocolate nuts, in the diftritt of the Caraccas,
are efteemed the beft in America. The mountains
abound with tygers, and, according to fome, with lions,
and great numbers of other wild beafts. 1 he rivers,
feas, and lakes, teem with fifh, and alfo with alligators 3
and the bowels of the earth were once furnithed with the
richeft treafures, now almoft exhaufted. 1 he lame may
be faid of the pearl fitheries on tne coaft, which are far
from being io profitable now7 as formerly.
Terra Firma is a very mountainous country. I erra
Firma Proper, in particular, confifts of prodigious high
mountains, and deep valleys flooded more than half the
year. The mountains in the provinces of Carthagena
and St Martha, according to Dampier, are the higheft
in the world : being feen at lea 200 miles off : from
theie runs a chain of hills of almoft equal height, quite
through South America, as far as the ftraits of Magel¬
lan, called the Cordilleras des Andes. The province of
Venezuela alio, and diftridl of the Caraccas, the moft
northerly parts of South America, aie almoft a conti¬
nued chain of hills, feparated by Imall valleys, pointing
upon the coaft of the North fea. A chain of barren,
mountains, almoft impaffable, runs through the province
of Popayan from north to fauth, fome whereof are volca¬
noes 3 but towards the fhores of the Pacific ocean it is a
low7 country, flooded great part of the year.
The principal rivers of 1 erra Firma are, the Darien,
Chagtre, Santa Maria, Conception, Rio Grande or Mag-
dalera, Maricaibo, and Oroonoko.
Terra Firma contains the provinces of Terra Firma
Proper or Darien, of Carthagena, St IVXartha, R.io de
Ta Hacha, Venezuela, Comana, New Andalulia or Pa-
ria, New Granada, and Popayan.
Terra Firma Proper lies in the form of a crefcent,
about the fpacious bay of Panama, being the ifthmus
which joins South and North America 3 and extending
in length between the two feas 300 miles, but in breadth,
where the ifthmus is narroweft, only 60. Here are found
gold mines, gold fands, and fine pearls 3 and though the
land is generally rough, there are fome fruitful valleys,
watered by rivers, brooks, and fprings. The chief pla¬
ces are Panama and Porto Bello.
The inhabitants of Terra Firma have never been tho¬
roughly fubdued, and in all probability never will 3 as
P p they
TER
Terra they are a brave and warlike people, have retreats inac-
TJJre ceflible to Europeans, and bear an inveterate enmity to
♦ t-r—v—' ' the Spaniards. See Darien.
Terra Japonica, or Catechu, a drug which was for¬
merly fuppofed to be an extraft from the feeds of the
areca catechu, is obtained from the mimofa catechu. See
Materia Medica Index.
Terra Pwz%olana. See Puzzolana.
TerrAl Filius, Son of the Forth, a ftudent of the
univerfity of Oxford, formerly appointed in public a£ts
to make fatirical and jefting fpeeches againft the mem¬
bers thereof, to tax them with any growing corrup¬
tions, &c.
TERRACE, a walk or bank of earth, raifed in a
garden or court to a due elevation for a profpedf. The
name is alfo given to the roofs of houfes that are flat,
and whereon we may walk.
1ERRAQUEOUS, in Geography, a name given
to our globe,1 becaufe confifting of land and water.
TERRAS, or Tarras, in Mineralogy, a fpecies of ar-
Kir'wati’s gillaceous earth, differing little from puzzolana, but in
Minerals- being more comp aft and hard, porous and fpongy. It
is generally of a whitifh yellow colour, and contains
more heterogeneous particles, as fpar, quartz, flioerl,
&c. and fomething more calcareous earth ; it effervefces
with acids, is magnetic, and fufible perfe. When pul¬
verized, it ferves as a cement, like puzzolana. It is
found in Germany and Sweden.
A fpecies of red earth has been found in the parith of
Society for St Elizabeth in Jamaica, which turns out to be an ex-
^ ‘■k-0, cellent fubftitute for terras or puzzolana earth, and may
therefore be of great value to the inhabitants of the
Weft Indies.
One meafure of this earth, mixed with two of well
flaked lime, and one of fand, forms a cement that an-
fwers extremely well for buildings in water, for it foon
hardens and becomes like a flone.
TERRASON, Abbe John, a French writer, born
at Lyons in 1669. diftinguifhed himfelf in the dif-
pute concerning Homer, between La Motte and Madame
Dacier, by wanting a Differtation contre Clliade. He
Wrote a political and moral romance called Sethos, full
of learning and philofophy 5 and another capital rvork of
ins is a French tranflation of Diodorus Siculus. He died
in 1750.
TERRE Verte, in the colour-trade, the name of a
green earth much uftd by painters, both fingly for a
good Handing green, and in mixture with other colours.
The name is French, and fignifies “ green earth.”
It is an indurated clay, of a deep bluifh green colour,
and is found in the earth, not in continued ftrata or beds,
as moft of the other earths are, but in large flatmaffes of
different fizes, imbedded in other ftrata \ thefe break ir¬
regularly in the cutting, and the earth is generally
brought out of the pit in lumps of different fizes. It is of
a fine, regular, and even ftru&ure, and not very hard. It
is of an even and gloffy furface, very fmooth to the
touch, and in fome degree refembling the morochthus or
French chalk, but adhering firmly to the tongue. It
does not ftain the hand in touching it ; but being drawn
along a rough furface, it leaves an even white line, with
a greenifh caff.
It does not effervefee wn’th acids, and burns to a dufky
brown colour. It is dug in the ifland of Cyprus, and in
many parts of France and Italy. That from the neigh-
T E S
bourhood of Verona has been efteemed the beft in the Terre
world } but of late there has been fome dug in France !j
that equals it. There is alio an earth dug on Mendip , Tct cra‘ .
Hills, in the finking for coal, which, though wholly
unoblerved, is nearly, if not wholly, of equal value.
When feraped, and the finer parts feparated, it is ready
to be made up with oil for the ufe of the painters, and
makes the moft true and lafting green of any fimple
body they ufe.
TERRESTRIAL, fomething partaking of the na¬
ture ,of earth, or belonging to the globe of earth ; thus
we fay, the terreftrial globe, &c.
TERRIER, a fmall hound to hunt the fox or bad¬
ger 5 fo called becaufe he creeps into the ground, as fer¬
rets do into the coney-burrows, after the fox, &c.
TERRITORY, in Geography, denotes an extentor
compafs of land, within the bounds or belonging to the
jurifdiftion of any ftate, city, or other fubdivifion of a
country.
TERROR. See Fear and Fright.
TERTIAN fever. See Medicine, n° 126.
TERTULLIAN, or Quintus Septimus Florens
Tertuelianus, a celebrated prieft of Carthage, was
the fon of a centurion in the militia, who ferved as pro-
conful of Africa. He was educated in the Pagan reli¬
gion •, but being convinced of its errors, embraced Chri-
ftianity, and became a zealous defender of the faith. He
married, it is thought, after his baptifm. Afterwards
he took orders, and went to Rome ; where, during the
perfecution under the emperor Severus, he publiftied his
Apology for the Chriftians, which is, in its kind, a ma-
fterpiece of eloquence and learning •, and at the begin¬
ning of the third century he embraced the fe£t of the
Montanifts. He lived to a very great age, and died
under the reign of Antoninus Caracalla, about the year
216. Many of his works are ftill extant, in all of
which he difeovers a great knowledge of the Holy
Scriptures, a lively imagination, a ftrong, elevated, and
impetuous ftyle, great eloquence and ftrength of reafon-
ing; but is fometimes obfeure. His Apology and Pre-
feriptions are moft efteemed. The beft editions of his \
works are thofe of Rigault : efpecially that of Venice
in 1746, folio. Pamelius and Alix, Mr Thomas, and
the Sieur du Foffe, have written his life ; and Rigault,
M. de PAube Epine, Father Petau, and other learned
men, have publiihed notes on his works.
TERUNCIUS, in antiquity, a very fmall brafs coin
in ufe among the Romans.
The inconvenience of fuch very fmall pieces being
foon found, the teruncius became difufed, but its name
is ftill retained in reckoning, and thus it became a mo¬
ney of account. The teruncius at firft was a quarter of
the as, or libra 5 hence, as the as contained twelve oun¬
ces, the teruncius contained three, whence the name,
which is formed of the Latin tres undo:. Teruncius
was alfo ufed for the quarter of the denarius } fo that
when the denarius was at ten afes, the teruncius was
worth tw’o and a half 5 and when the denarius was rifen
to fixteen, the teruncius was worth four. See Denarius.
TESSELATED pavements, thofe of rich mofaic
work, made of curious fquare marbles, bricks, or tiles,
called teffelce from their refembling dice.
TESSERA, in Roman antiquity, denoted in its pri¬
mary fenfe a cube or dye \ fo called from the Greek
word itc'Txgx, or zivviox, four; relpeft being had to its
number
r 298 ]
T E S
[ 299 ]
T E S
number of Tides, diftinft from the two horizontal planes
above and below. And it was thus diftinguilhed from
the talus, which being round at each end contained
only four planes or faces on which it could Hand ; and
therefore when thrown had no more than two Tide faces
in view. Hence ludere tails et ludere tejfens, are fpoken
of by Roman writers as two different games.. I he iyl-
lable TES occurs often in Roman infcriptions. Ine
word tetfera was applied to many other things, not fo
much from a fimilitude in the figure, as from the relation
they bore to fome other thing of which they were the
Tign or token $ as the points on the upper plane of the
dye denoted the good or ill fuccefs 01 the caft. ^
The tcffera hofpltalis was either public or private. As
to the former, we find among the mfcriptions pubhfhed
by Gruter inftances of two municipal towms which put
themfelves under the patronage of the Roman governor j
and the reciprocal engagement between them, engraved
on two copperplates, in the form of an oblong
with a pediment at the top, is called in both ttjfera hofpi-
talis. The defign of it was to cultivate or maintain a
lafting friendlhip between private perfons and their fa¬
milies ; and gave a mutual claim to the contrafting par¬
ties and their defcendants of a reception and kind treat¬
ment at each other’s houfes, as cccafion offered, for
which end thofe tefferre were fo contrived as beft to pre-
ferve the memory of that tranfa&ion to poftenty. And
one method of doing this was by dividing one of them
lengthwife into two equal parts’, upon each of which
one of the parties wrote his name, and intercnanged it
with the other. From this cuftom came the prevailing
expreflion tejferam hofpitalem confringere, applied to per¬
fons who violated their engagements. . .
The tcffera: frumentarice were fmall tallies given by
the emperors to the populace at Rome, entitling them
to the reception of a quantity of corn from the public at
Rated feafons. The perfon who had the inipeftion of
thefe was called tejfferarius. They were made of wood
and of ftone. .
There was another kind of teffera which mtitled per¬
fons to a fight of the public games and other diverfions,
ufually made in the form of an oblong.fquare.
The teffera militaris was a fignal given, by the gene¬
ral or chief commander of an army, as a direction.to tne
foldiers for executing any duty or fervice required of
them. This, upon urgent occafions, was only vocal ;
but, in ordinary cafes, it was written on a tablet, com¬
monly made of wood. Befide thefe civil, and military
tefferm, there are others which relate to religious affairs,
and may be called facred.
TESSON, or Teston. See Tester.
TESSOUWA, a confiderable town in Africa, fitua-
ted eaft of Mourzouk, the capital of the kingdom of
Fezzan. Near this town a deep and rapid ftream is faid
to have exiiled, but was overwhelmed by the moving
lands fo frequent in Africa.
TEST, a veffel ufed in metallurgy for abiorbing the
fcorioe of metallic bodies when melted, oee Cupel,
under Ores. Redu£hon of.
TesT-AB, in Law, is the ftatute 25 Car. II. cap. 2.
which directs all officers, civil and military,-^to tase the
oaths, and make the declaration againft tranfubffantia-
tion, in the court of King’s Bench, or Chancery, the
next term, or at the next quarter-feffions, or (by.fubfe^
quent ftatutes) within fix months after their admUfion :
and alfo within the fame time to receive the facrament
of the Load’s Supper, according to the ufage of the
church of England, in fome public church, immediate¬
ly after divine fervice or fermon, and to deliver into
court a certificate thereof figned by the minifter and
church warden, and alfo to prove the fame by two cre¬
dible witneffes, upon forfeiture of 5°oh and difability to
hold the faid office.
The avowed obje£t of this a£t was to exclude fic-ru
places of truft all members of the church of Rome } and
lienee the diffenters of that age, if they did not lupport
the bill when paffing through the two homes of parlia¬
ment, gave it no oppofition. hor this part of their con-
duel they have been often cenfured with feverity,. as ha¬
ving betraved their rights from refentment to their ene¬
mies. But is this a fair ftate of the cafe ? Were any
rights in reality betrayed ? That the dread of a. popifli
fucceffor and of popilh influence was the immediate and
urgent caufe of paffing the teJl-aB, is indeed true j but
that the legiflature, when guarding againft an impend¬
ing evil, had not likewife a retrofpeft to another from
which they had fo recently been delivered, is not fo evi¬
dent. If it be proper to fupport an eftabhihed enureb
as a branch of the conftitution, and if the teft-aft be
calculated to afford that fupport to the chuich of Eng¬
land, it is probable that the deliberations of parliament
were as much influenced by the dread of puritanic fury,
and a renewal of the covenant, as by apprehenfions of
a perfecution from a popifh hing and popifli councils.
That the members of the church eflabiifhed by law in
England had as much reafon to dread the effefts of
power in the hands of Puritans as in the hand.s of Pa-
pifls, no impartial man will controvert, who is not a
ftranger to that period of our national hiftory j and that
it was the duty of the legiflature by every method, in
their power to provide for the fecurity of the conflitu-
tion againft the machinations of both its enemies, will
be admitted by all but fuch as are in love with anarchy
on the one hand, or with defpotifm on the other.
Many people, when they talk or write of the tejl-adi,
feem to think that it was framed in oppofition to the
religious opinions of the church of Rome ^ and finding
the Proteftant diflenters, who abhor thefe opinions, de¬
prived by it of their civil rights, they, fpeak with indig¬
nation of a law which confounds the innocent with the
guilty. But all this proceeds from a palpable miftake
of the purpofe of the teft. As the legiflature had no
authority to make laws againft any opinions whatever,
on account of their being falfe in theology ; fo it is not
to be fuppofed that, in their deliberations on the test-
ACT, the members of that auguft body took into their
confideration the comparative orthodoxy of the diftin-
guifliing tenets of the Catholics and Puritans. As a re¬
ligious feci they might efteem the latter much more than
the former j but if they found that both had combined
with their theological doctrines opinions refpefting ci¬
vil and ecclefiaftical government, inconfiftent with the
fundamental principles of the Englilh conftitution, they
had an undoubted right to enacl a law, by which none
ftiould be admitted to offices, in the execution of which
they could injure the conftitution, without previoufly
giving fecurity that their adminiftration fhould fupport
it in all its branches. It had not then been doubted,
nor is there realbn to doubt yet, but that an eftablifhed
religion is neceffary, in conjun&ion with civil govern-
P p 2 ment
T<
T E S
Ttft. ment, to preferve the peace of fociety j and therefore in
-V'1 every well regulated Hate an ellablilhed religion mull
be fupported, not becaufe it is the duty of the civil ma-
giflrate to conduft his fubjefts to future happinefs, but
becaufe he cannot without fuch an eltablifhment preferve
among them prefent tranquillity. The eftablilhment
which muft bell anfwer this purpofe, is that which, teach¬
ing the great and unchangeable duties of morality, is
nioit acceptable in its government and forms of worihip
to the majority of the people j and therefore in giving
a legal eftablifhment to one conflitution of the church
in preference to all others, it is only this circumltance,
and not the comparative purity of the rival churches,
viewed merely as ecclefiailical corporations, to wdiich it
is the bufinefs of the legiflature to pay attention. At
the time w’hen the tefl-aB paffed the two houfes of par¬
liament, the eflablifhed church of England was certain¬
ly more acceptable to the great body of the people and
to all ranks in the Hate, than any one of the fe£ts, whe¬
ther Catholic or Proteftant, wdiich diflented from her j
and therefore it was the duty of the legiflature to pre¬
ferve to that church all her privileges and immunities,
and to prevent thofe hoflile fedtaries from doing her in¬
jury in the difcharge of any civil office w’ith which they
might be entrufted. It was with this view that the tejl-
aEi was formed •, and it is with the fame view that the
legiflature has hitherto rejedled every petition for its re¬
peal. In doing fo, it depfWes no man of his rights, far
lefs of rights which confcience calls upon him to main¬
tain at every hazard ; for the rights of individuals to
hold civil offices are not inherent, but derived from the
legiflature, which of courfe muft be the judge upon what
terms they are to be held. The legiflature of England
has excluded from many offices, civil and military, eve¬
ry man who will not give fecurity, that in the difcharge
of his public duty he will fupport the church eftablifhed
by law •, and as the tell of his intention it requires him,
before he enters upon his office, to renounce the dodlrine
of tranfubfiantiation, and receive the facrament of the
Lord’s Supper in fome public church, according to the
liturgy of the church of England. Whether this be
the moil proper tefl: that could have been enadfed, may
well be queflioned ; but that in a country abounding
with feflaries of various denominations, who agree in
nothing but venomous hoftility to the religious eftabliffi-
ment,yo/72e tefl is neceffary, feems incontrovertible, if it
be the bufinefs of the legiflature to preferve the public
peace.
To this it wall be replied, That the public peace in
Scotland is preferved without a teft, and that therefore
a teft cannot be neceffary in England. This is plaufible,
but not conclufive. For 40 years after the Revolution,
there wras in Scotland no denomination of Chriftians but
T E S
thofe of the Prefbyterian church, eftabliftied by law, the Teft.
Proteftant Epifcopalians, W'hcfe church had been efta- l——
bliffied prior to that event, and the adherents to the
church of Rome. The Epifcopalians and Papifls were
effedlually excluded from every office in which they
could injure the ecclefiaftical eftabliffiment, by the fe-
veral reftridtions under which they were laid, on ac¬
count of their attachment, real or luppofed, to the ab¬
dicated family of Stuart. The penal laws operated up¬
on them more powerfully than a religious teft. It is to
be obferved too, that in the church of Scotland, though
her clergy are better provided for than any other paro¬
chial clergy perhaps in Europe (a), there is nothing ©f
that fplendor and temporal power which in England
excite envy to clamour againft the eftablifhment, under
the pretence of maintaining the caufe of religious liber¬
ty. Yet even in Scotland a religious teft is occafional-
ly exadled of civil officers. In the royal boroughs of
that part of the united kingdom, no man can hold the
office of a magiftrate without previoufly fwearing the
burgefs-oath (fee Seceder, N° 8.) ; and every initruc-
tor of youth, whether in fchools or colleges, may be
called upon to qualify himfelf for his office, by fubferib-
ing the eftabliftied Confeffion of Faith. The buigefs-
oath is a more effedlual teft than that which is required
of magiftrates in England \ for a man might with a fafe
confcience receive the facrament of the Lord’s Supper
occafionally in a church “ at which he would not fwear
to abide and defend the fame to his life's end.'1'1 This
teft appears to us to be neceffary in boroughs, where
faftion is commonly blended with fanaticifm 5 and if
thofe feiftaries which, at their firft appearance in 1732,
were infignificant, if not contemptible, continue to
multiply, and to imbibe principles much more pernici¬
ous than thofe which wreie held by their fathers, it may
perhaps be found expedient to extend fome teft over the
whole country.
We do not, however, by any means, wifh to fee the
facramental teft introduced into Scotland. A teft may¬
be neceffary to fecure to the church all her rights and
immunities •, but to receive the facrament can give her
no fuch fecurity, whilrt it leads inevitably to the pro¬
fanation of a facred ordinance. A much better teft;
would be, to require every man, before he be admitted
to an executive office, to fwear that in the difcharge of
it he will be careful to maintain all the rights and pri¬
vileges of the church eftabliftied by law. Such an oath
no fenftble and peaceable diffenter could refufe ; for it
wmuld not bind him to communicate with the eftablifti¬
ed church ; and he cannot be ignorant that it belongs
not to the executive government, but to the legiflature,
to determine what ffiall be the religion of the ftate. On
this account, we cannot help thinking that the members
of
[ 1
(a) There are indeed many livings in the church of England, and probably in other churches, to which nothing
in the church of Scotland can be compared in refpefl of emolument •, but thefe rich benefices bear no proportion to
the number of thofe which, in this age of unavoidable expence, cannot afford to the incumbents the means of decent
fubfiftence as gentlemen. In the church of Scotland many livings amount to 200I. each annually ; and we have
reafon to hope, that when the prefent plan for augmenting the ftipends of the clergy has been extended over Scot¬
land, very few will be below 100I. ; whilft in England the vicarages and fmall reftories, from which w’e have rea¬
fon to believe that the incumbents reap not Sol. a-year, greatly exceed in number all the livings in Scotland? Nay
we doubt if there be not upwards of a thoufand livings in England and Wales from which the reftor or vicar de¬
rives not above 50I. annually.
T E S [ 301 ] T E S
Teft of the legiflative body fhould be fubje&ed to no religious
II tell whatever, that they may be at freedom to reform
Tefta'iient. the coryUptjons Qf the church, or to exchange one efta-
^ blifhment for another, fliould they find fuch exchange
expedient. If this reafoning be juft, it will be difficult
to vindicate that claufe of 25 Car. II. and of 1 Geo. I.
in which it is enabled, that no member (hall vote or fit
in either hoiife of parliament till he hath, in the pre¬
fence of the houfe, fubfcribed and repeated the declara¬
tion againft tranfubftantiation, the invocation of faints,
and the facrifice of the mafs. The church of Rome is
indeed a very corrupt fociety ; but if it be not for the
purity of her doftrines and government that any church
is eftablilhed in preference to all others, why ftiould that
particular church be precluded from the poffibility of
obtaining a legal eftabliffiment in Great Britain, even
though fhe were to become moft acceptable to the ma¬
jority of all ranks in the kingdom ? The Engliffi Ca¬
tholics have unqueftionably greater reafon to complain
of this teft, than either they or the diffenters have to
complain of the law which requires every civil and mi¬
litary officer to receive the Lord’s Supper in the efta-
bliffied church.
Test for Acids and Alkalies. See Chemistry.
Test Liquors for Wines. See WlNE.
TESTACEA, in the Linnsean fyftem, comprehends
the third order of vermes, or ffiell-fifh. See Concho-
LOG Y Index.
TESTACEOUS, in Natural Hiforzj, an epithet
fynonymous with Testacea. See above.
TESTAMENT, or Last Will. Teftaments both
Juftinian and Sir Edward Coke agree to be fo called,
becaufe they are tejlatio mentis : an etymon which feems
to favour too much of conceit; it being plainly a fub-
ftantive derived from the verb teflon, in like manner as
Blackfl juramentum, incrementum, and others, from other verbs-.
Corn,lent. The definition of the old Roman lawyers is much better
vol. ii. than their etymology *, voluntatis nofire jufta fententia
de eo, quod quis pqft mortem fuam fen vs lit : which may
be thus rendered into E igliffi, “ the legal declaration
of a man’s intentions, which he wills to be performed
after his death.” It is called fententia, to denote the
circumfpe&ion and prudence with which it is fuppofed
to be made : it is voluntatis nofrce fententia, becaufe its
efficacy depends on its declaring the teftator’s intention,
whence in Enghffi it is emphatically ftylcd his will,■ it
is jufa fententia ; that is, drawn, attefted, and publiffi-
ed, with all due folemnities and forms of law ; it is de
eo, quod quis pqft mortem fuam fieri veht, becaufe a tefta-
ment is of no force till after the death of the teftator.
Thefe teftaments are divided into two forts ; written,
and verbal or nuncupative 5 of which the former is com-
mited to writing : the latter depends merely upon oral
evidence, being declared by the teftator in extremis, be¬
fore a3ufficient number of witnefles, and afterwards re¬
duced to writing.
But as nuncupative walls and CODICILS (which were
formerly more in ufe than at prelent when the art of
writing is become more general) are liable to great im-
pofitions, and may occafion many perjuries, the ftatute
of frauds 29 Car. II. c. 3. enafts, I. That no written
will fliall be revoked or altered by a fubfequent nuncu¬
pative one, except the fame be in the lifetime of the
teftator reduced to writing, and read over to him, and
approved } and unlefs the fame be proved to have been
fo done by the oaths of three wdtneffes at the leaft, who, Teftament.
by ftatute 4 and 5 Anne, c. 16. muft be fuch as are ad- " i
miflible upon trials at common law. 2. That no nun¬
cupative will (hall in any wife be good, where the eftate
bequeathed exceeds 30I. unlefs proved by three fuch
witneffes, prefent at the making thereof (the Roman
law requiring feven), and unlefs they or fome of them
were fpecially required to bear witnefs thereto by the
teftator himfelf: and unlefs it was made in his laft fick-
nefs, in his own habitation or dwelling-houfe, or where
he had been previoufly refident ten days at the leaft,
except he be furprifed wTith ficknefs on a journey, or
from home, and dies without returning to his dwelling.
3. That no nuncupative will fliall be proved by the wit-
neftes after fix months from the making, unlefs it were
put in writing within fix days. Nor fhall it be proved
till fourteen days after the death of the teftator, nor till
procefs hath firft iflued to call in the widow, or next of
kin, to conteft it if they think proper. Thus hath the
legiflature provided againft any fraud in fetting up nun¬
cupative wills, by fo numerous a train of requifites, that
the thing itfelf has fallen into difufe j and hardly ever
heard of, but in the only inftance where favour ought to
be ftiown to it, when the teftator is furprifed by hidden
and violent ficknefs. The teftamentary words muft; be
fpoken with an intent to bequeath, not any loofe idle
difcourfe in his illnefs ; for he muft require the by-
ftanders to bear witnefs of fuch his intention ; the will
muft be made at home, or among his family or friends,
unlefs by unavoidable accident, to prevent impofitions
from ftrangers : it muft be in his laft ficknefs ; for if he
recovers, be may alter his dilpofitions, and have time to
make a written will: it muft not be proved at too long
a diftance from the teftator’s death, left the words ffiould
efcape the memory of the wilnefles ; nor yet too haftily
and without notice, left the family of the teftator ftiould
be put to inconvenience or furprife.
As to written wills, they need not any witnefs of their
publication. We fpeak not here of devifes of lands,
which are entirely another tiring, a conveyance by fta~
tute, unknown to the feodal or common law, and not
under the fame jurifdi&ion as perfonal teftaments. But
a teftament of chattels, written in the teftator’s own
hand, though it has neither his name nor feal to it, nor
witneffes prefent at its publication, is good ; provided fuf-
ficient proof can be had that it is his hand-writing. And
though written in another man’s hand, and never figned
by the teftator, yet if proved to be according to his in -
ftruftions and approved by him, it hath been held a
good teftament of the perfonal eftate. Yet it is the
fafer and more prudent way, and leaves lefs in the breaft
of the ecclefiaftical judge, if it be figned or fealed by
the teftator, and published in the prefence of witneffes ;
which laft was always required in the time of Braflon j
or rather he in this refpeft has implicitly copied the rule
of the civil law.
No teftament is of any effeft till after the death of
the teftator ; Nam omne t-efiamentum imrte confiumma-
turn efi, et voluntas lejlatoris efi ambulatoria ufique ad
mortem. And therefore, if there be many teftaments,
the laft will overthrows all the former; but the repub¬
lication of a former will revoke one of a later date, and
eftablilhes the firft again.
Regularly, every perfon hath full power and liberty
to make a will, that is not under fome fpecial prohibition
bj
T E S
[ ]
T E S
ment. by law or cuftom : which prohibitions are principally
upon three accounts } for wrant of fufficient difcretion *,
for w^ant of fufficient liberty and free-will; and on ac¬
count of criminal conduft.
1. In the fir ft fpecies are to be reckoned infants, un¬
der the age of 14 if males, and 12 if females ; which is
the rule of the civil law. For though fome of our com¬
mon lawyers have held that an infant of any age (even
four years old) might make a teftament, and others have
denied that under 18 he is capable ; yet as the ecclefi-
aftical court is the judge of every teftator’s capacity,
this cafe muft be governed by the rules of the ecclefiaftical
law. So that no obje&ion can be admitted to the wull
of an infant of 14, merely for want of age 5 but if the
teftator was not of fufficient difcretion, whether at the
age of 14 or 24, that will overthrow his teftament.
Madmen, or otherwife non compotes, ^diots or natural
fools, perfons grown childiffi by reafon of old age or di-
ftemper, fuch as have their fenfes befotted with drunken-
nefs,—all thefe are incapable, by reafon of mental dif-
ability, to make any will fo long as fuch difability lafts.
To this clafs alfo may be referred fuch perfons as are
born deaf, blind, and dumb •, who, as they have always
wanted the common inlets of underftanding, are incapable
of having animum tejlandi, and their teftaments are there¬
fore void.
2. Such perfons as are intertable for want of liberty
or freedom of will, by the civil law are of various kinds •,
as prifoners, captives, and the like. But the law of Eng.
land does not make fuch perfons abfolutely intertable ;
but only leaves it to the difcretion of that court to judge
upon the confideration of their particular circumftances
- of durefs, whether or no fuch perfons could be fuppofed
to have liberum animum teftandi. And with regard to
feme-coverts, our laws differ ftill more materially from
the civil. Among the Romans there was no diflindlion $
a married wroman was as capable of bequeathing as a
feme-fole. But with us a married woman is not only
utterly incapable of devifing lands, being excepted out
of the flatutc of wills, 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. c. 5. but
alfo {he is incapable of making a teftament of chattels,
without the licenfe of her hufband. For all her perfon-
al chattels are abfolutely his own ; and he may difpofe
of her chattels real, or (hall have them to himfelf, if
he furvives her : it would be therefore extremely in-
confiftent to give her a pow?er of defeating that provificn
of the laxv, by bequeathing thofe chattels to another.
The queen-confort is an exception to this general rule,
for (he may difpofe of her chattels by will, without the
confent of her lord *, and any feme-covert may make
her will of goods which are in her poffeffion in outer
droit, as executrix or adminiftratrix j for thefe can never
be the property of the hulband : and if (he has any pin-
money or feparate maintenance, it is faid fire may dif¬
pofe of her favings thereout by teftament, without the
controul of her hufband. But if a fegiale foie makes her
will, and afterwards marries, fuch fubfequent marriage
is efteemed a revocation In law, and entirely vacates the
will.
3. Perfons incapable of making teftaments on account
of their criminal conduft, are in the firft place all trai¬
tors and felons, from the time of conviction ■, for then
their goods and chattels are no longer at their own dif-
pofal, but forfeited to the king. Neither can a felo de
4
Tettes.
fe make a will of goods and chattels, tor they are for- Teftament
feited by the aft and manner of his death j but he may
make a devife of his lands, for they are not fubjeCt t@ 1
any forfeiture. Outlaws alfo, though it be but for debt,
are incapable of making a will fo long as the outlawory
fubfifts, for their goods and chattels are forfeited during
that time. As for perfons guilty of other crimes, ffiort
of felony, who are by the civil law precluded from ma¬
king teftaments (as ufurers, libellers, and others of a
worfe ftamp), at the common law their teftaments may
be good. And in general the rule is, and has been lb
at leaft ever fince Glanvil’s time, quod libera Jit cujuf-
cunque ultima voluntas.
Teftaments may be avoided three w7ays : 1. If made
by a perfon labouring under any of the incapacities be¬
fore-mentioned ; 2. By making another teftament of a
later date •, and, 3. By cancelling or revoking it. For
though I make a laft will and teftament irrevocable in
the ftrongeft words, yet I am at liberty to revoke it >
becaufe mine own aCI or wrords cannot alter the difpo-
fition of law, fo as to make that irrevocable which is in
its own nature revocable. For this, faith Lord Bacon,
would be for a man to deprive himfelf of that which,
of all other things, is moft incident to human condition j
and that is, alteration or repentance. It hath alfo been
held, that, without an exprefs revocation, if a man, wdio
hath made his will, afterwards marries and hath a child,
this is a prefumptive or implied revocation of his former
will which he made in his ftate of celibacy. The Ro¬
mans were alfo wont to lay afide teftaments as being in-
qfficiofa, deficient in natural duty, if they difinherited or
totally paffed by (without affigning a true and fufficient
reafon) any of the children of the teftator. But if the
child had any legacy, though ever fo fmall, it was a
proof that the teftator had not loft his memory or his
reafon, which otherwife the law prefumed ; but was then
fuppofed to have a£fed thus for fome fubftantial caufe :
and in fuch cafe no querela inqfficioji tejlamenti was al¬
lowed. Hence probably has arifen that groundlefs vul¬
gar error of the neceffity of leaving the heir a {lulling,
or fome other exprefs legacy, in order to difinherit him
effedlually •, whereas the law of England makes no fuch
wild fuppofition of forgetfulnefs or infanity 5 and there¬
fore, though the heir or next of kin be totally omitted,
it admits no inqfficioji to fet afide fuch a teftament.
Testament, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxxxi.
2. &c.
Testament, Old and New. See Bible and Scrip¬
ture.
TESTATOR, the perfon who makes his will and
teftament.
TESTER, Teston, the name of a coin ftruck in
Franee by Louis XII. in 1513, and in Scotland in the
time of Francis II. and Mary queen of Scotland, fo call¬
ed from the head of the king, which was engraved up¬
on it. The filver it contained was 11 deniers 18 grains,
its weight feven deniers 11^- grains, and its value 10
fols. The coinage of it w^as prohibited by Henry III.
in 1375, when the value of it was augmented to 14 fols
fix deniers. The tefton or teller among us was rated
at 12d. in the reign of Henry VIII. and afterwards re¬
duced to 6d.
TESTES, in Anatomy, the tefticles. See the next
article.
TESTICLE
T E T
t 3°3 ]
T E U
Tefticle TESTICLE {tejlis), a double part in animals of the
II male kind, ferving for the office of generation. See
‘letirrch ^ _A.NA.TOMY, N0 107.
TESTIMONY. See Logic, N° 29, and Meta¬
physics, N° 135—138-
Testimony, in Law. See Evidence.
TESTUDO, the Tortoise, a genus of animals be¬
longing to the clafs of amphibia, and order of reptilia.
See Erpetoeogy Index.
Testudo, in antiquity, was particularly ufed among
the poets, &c. for the ancient lyre 5 becaufe it was ori¬
ginally made by its inventor Mercury, of the back or
hollow of the teftudo aquatica, or fea-tortoife, which he
accidentally found on the banks of the river Nile. See
Lyre.
Testudo, in the military art of the ancients, wras a
kind of cover or fcreen which the foldiers, e. gr. a
whole company, made themfelves of their bucklers, by
holding them up over their heads, and handing clofe
to each other. This expedient ferved to (belter them
from darts, hones, &c. thrown upon them, efpecial-
ly thofe thrown from above, when they went to the
aflault.
Testudo, was alfo a kind of large wooden tower
which moved on feveral wheels, and was covered with
bullock-hides, ferving to (belter the foldiers when they
approached the walls to mine them, or to batter them
with rams. It wras called tejludo, from the hrength of
its roof, which covered the workmen as the (hell does
the tortoife.
TETANUS, a dreadful fpafmodic diforder, in which
the whole body becomes rigid and inflexible. It mod
commonly proves mortal. See MEDICINE, N° 279.
TETHYS, a genus of infefts belonging to the clafs
of vermes, and order of mollulca. See Helmintho¬
logy Index.
TETRACERA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs polyandria; and in the natural fyftem ranging un¬
der the doubtful. See Botany Index.
TETRADYNAMI A, (rstrs-asgEj “ four,” and
“ power”), four powers •, the name of the 15th clafs in
Linnaeus’s Sexual Syftem. See Botany Index.
TETRAGONIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs icofandria •, and in the natural method ranging
under the 13th order, fueculentcr. See Botany Index.
TETRAGRAMMATON, a de¬
nomination given by the Greeks to the Hebrew name
of God iTl'V, “ Jehova” becaufe in the Hebrew it con-
fifts of four letters.
TETRAGYNIA, “ four,” and “ a
woman”) y the name of an order, or fecondary diviflon,
in the Sexual Syftem. See Botany Index.
TETRANDRIA, “ four,” and “ a
man or hulband”) ) the name of the fourth clafs in the
Linnaean Syftem. See Botany Index.
TETRAO, a genus of birds belonging to the order
of gallinae. See Ornithology Index.
TETRODON, a genus of fifties arranged by Lin¬
naeus under the clafs of amphibia, and order of nantes ;
but placed by Gmelin under the clafs of pifees, and or¬
der of branckiojiegi. See Ichthyology Index.
TETRARCH, a prince who holds and governs a
fourth part of a kingdom. Such originally was the im¬
port of the title tetrarch ; but it was afterwards applied
to any petty king or fovereign j and became fyno-
nymous with ethnarch, as appears from the following
confiderations : 1. That Pliny makes mention of fix
tetrarchies within the city of Decapolis. 2. That He¬
rod’s kingdom was only divided into three parts, which
yet were called tetrarchies, and the fovereigns thereof,
Luke iii. I. tetrarchs. 3. Jofephus tells us, that, after
thp battle of Philippi, Antony, going into Syria, confti-
tuted Herod tetrarch ; and on medals the fame Herod
is called ethnarch.
TETRASTYLE, in the ancient archite&ure, a
building, and particularly a temple, with four columns
in its front.
TETUAN, an ancient and pleafant town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Fez, and in the province of Habata.
It is pretty well built, and the inhabitants are about
1 i;,ooo in number, who call themfelves Andalujians,
and almoft all fpeak Spanifli; but they are great pi¬
rates. Some fay there are 30,000 Mooriffi inhabitants,
and 50CO Jews. W. Long. 5. 26. N. Lat. 35. 27.
TEUCRIUM, Germander, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs didynamia 5 and in the natural fyf¬
tem ranging under the q2d order, Verticillatce. See
Botany Index.
TEUTHIS, a genus of fifties belonging to the order
of abdominales. See Ichthyology Index.
TEUTONES, or Teutont, in Ancient Geography,
a people always by hiftorians joined with the Cimbri;
both feated, according to Mela, beyond the Elbe, on
the Sinus Codanus, or Baltic ; and there it is fuppofed,
lay the country of the Teutones, now Hitmarfh ; diver-
fity of dialefts producing the different terms Teut, Tut,
Dit, Tid, and Thod, which in the ancient German lan¬
guage fignified people. Of thefe leutones, Virgil is to
be underftood in the epithet Teutonicus, an appellation
which more lately came to be applied to the Germans in
general, and later ftill the appellation Alemanm.
The Teutones, in conjunction with the Cimbri and
Ambrones, made war on the Romans, and niarched to¬
wards Italy in the year 101 B. C. We are told, that
the Teutones alone were fo numerous, that they were
fix whole days without intermiffion in paffing by the Ro¬
man camp. In Tranfalpine Gaul they engaged the
Roman conful Marius j but were defeated with incredi¬
ble (laughter ; 100,000 of them, according to the lowed
calculations, being killed on the fpot. According to
others, the number of thofe killed and taken prifoners
amounted to 290,000. The inhabitants made,fences for
vineyards of their bones. Their king Teutobochus, faid
to be a monftrous giant, was taken prifoner and carried
to Rome. See Giant.
TEUTONIC, fomething belonging to the Teutones.
The Teutonic language is fuppofed to have been the
language of the ancient Germans, and hence is rec¬
koned amongft the mother-tongues. See Philology,
N° 219.
TEUTONIC Order, an order of military knights, efta-
bliftied towards the clofe of the twelfth century, on the
following occafion.—When the emperor Barbarofla en¬
gaged in a crufade for the recovery of the Holy Land
out of the hands of Saladin, he was followed by great
numbers of German volunteers, who from various mo¬
tives enlifted under his banners. After the death of
Barbaroffa, the Germans, who had fignalized themfelves
before Acre or Plolemais, refolved to choofe another
leader ; and at laft fixed their choice upon Frederic
duk^;
Tetrarch
II .
Teutonic.
Jofcpbus1!
Antiq- b.
xiv. c. 23*
i
E X
[ 3°4 ]
T H A
Nugent's
Grand
Tour,
vol> i.
duke of Suabia, fecond fon to the emperor, and Henry
duke of Brabant. Under thefe generals they behaved
with fo much bravery, that Henry king of Jerufalem,
the patriarch, and feveral other princes, determined to
reward their valour by inlliluting an order of knight¬
hood in their favour. This was accordingly done ; an.d
our new knights had at firft the title of the knights of
St George ; afterwards it was thought proper to put them
under the tutelage of the Virgin Mary, to whom there
was already an hofpital dedicated on Mount Zion, for
the relief of German pilgrims. From this time they
were called Equites Mariani, or knights of St Mary.
Laws, regulations, and ilatutes, were drawn up for
them by the Chrillian kings in Syria and the patriarch 5
and among other obligations it was required, that every
perfon admitted to the privileges of the order Ihould be
of noble parentage ; that the order fhould defend the
Chriftian religion and the Holy Land ; that they Ihould
exercife hofpitality towards the Chriftians in general,
but particularly thofe of their own country ; and that
they fhould with all their power endeavour to propa¬
gate and extend the Chriftian faith and the religion of
Jesus. In the year 1150, having become rich by dona¬
tions from the fuperftitious, they eledted their firft grand-
mafter, Henry Walpot, a German, who had diftinguifhed
himfelf by his zeal and valour 5 and their choice rvas
confirmed by the emperor. The following year, Pope
Celeftine III. confirmed their privileges already granted,
giving them the title of the Teutonic knights of the hof¬
pital of St Mary the Virgin. By the conditions of this
bull, they vowed perpetual continence, obedience, and
poverty ; obligations which it may well be imagined
were not very ftriftly kept. See Poland, N° 59, 61,
67—69, and Prussia, N° 3, 4.
TEW IT. See Tringa, Ornithology Index.
TEWKESBURY, a town in Gloucefterfhire, for¬
merly noted for its monaftery, and now containing about
500 houfes, with a magnificent church. It is feated at
the confluence of the rivers Severn and Avon, has a
cotton manufaflory, and fends two members to parlia¬
ment. W. Long. 2. 13. N. Rat. 52. o.
TEXEL, a town of the United Provinces, in North
Holland, feated at the mouth of the Zuyder-Zee, with
a good harbour, and a ftrong fort. It is feated in a
fruitful ifland, known all over the world by the great
number of fhips that pafs this way every day from all
parts \ it is about fix miles long and five broad, lying a
little northward of the continent of Holland, between
which and the ifland is one of the principal paflages out
of the Zuyder-Zee into the ocean. It is defended from
the fea by fand hills and ftrong banks. Moft of the
foil is applied to feed ftreep, of which they have great
flocks ; and the cheefe made of their milk is faid to vie
with the Parmefan. This ifland contains feveral fair
villages, and a town on the eaft fide, called Burch,
ftrongly fortified and garrifoned, and inhabited chiefly
by fiftiermen. N. Lat. 53. 8. E. Long. 4. 51.
TEXT, a relative term, contradiftinguiftied to glofs
or commentary, and fignifying an original difcourfe ex-
clufive of any note or interpretation. This rvord is par¬
ticularly ufed for a certain paffage of fcripture, chofen
by a preacher to be the fubjecl of his fermon.
TEXTURE, properly denotes the arrangement and
cohefion of feveral flender bodies or threads interwoven
Thalia.
or entangled among each other, as in the webs of fpi- Texture
ders, or in the cloths, fluffs, &c.
Texture is alfo ufed in fpeaking of any union or con-
ftituent particles of a concrete body, whether by weav¬
ing, hooking, knitting, tying, chaining, indenting, in¬
truding, comprefling, attracting, or any other way. In
which fenfe we fay, a dole compaCt texture, a lax porous
texture, a regular or irregular texture, &c.
THABOR. See Tabor.
THALES, a celebrated Greek philofopher, and the
firft of the feven wife men of Greece, was born at Mi¬
letus about 640 B. C. In order to improve himlelf in
the knowdedge of the fciences, he travelled into Egypt,
where he difcourfed with the priefts and other learned
men. Some fay that he married 5 but others obferve,
that he eluded the felicitations of his mother on this
head, by telling her, when he was young, that it was
too foon ) and aftenvards, that it rvas too late. Thales
acquired great reputation by his wifdom and learning :
he was the firft among the Greeks who foretold eclipfes
of the fun, and made extraordinary difeoveries in aftro-
nomy. Thales was the author of the Ionian fed of phi-
lofophers, wdio were thus called from his being born at
Miletus, a city of Ionia. He maintained that w:ater
was the principle of which all the bodies in the univerfe
are compofed } that the world was the wmrk of God 5
and that God fees the moft fecret thoughts in the heart
of man. He faid, “ That the moft difficult thing in
the world is to know curfelves j the moft ealy to advife
others 5 and the meft fweet to accomplifh our defires.
That, in order to live wTell, we ought to abftain from
what we find fault wfith in others. That the bodily fe¬
licity confifts in health, and that of the mind in know¬
ledge. That the meft ancient of beings is God, becaufe
he is uncreated : that nothing is more beautiful than the
world, becaufe it is the work of God ; nothing more
extenfive than fpace, quicker than fpirit, ftronger than
neceflity, wafer than time.” It was alfo one of his fen-
tences, “ That we ought never to fay that to any one
that may be turned to our prejudice *, and that rve Ihould
live with our friends as with perfons that may become
our enemies.” He thanked God for three things j that
he was born of the human, not of the brute fpecies ; a
man, and not a wroman ; a Greek, and not a barbarian.
None of the ancient philofophers ever applied themfelves
more earneftly to the ftudy of aftronomy than Thales.
Diogenes Laertius reports, that leaving his lodging with
an old woman to contemplate the ftars, he fell into a
ditch ; on which the good woman cried, “ How canft:
thou know what is doing in the heavens, when thou
canft not perceive what is at thy feet ?” He w'ent to fee
Croefus, who wTas marching wfith a powerful army into
Cappadocia, and enabled him to pafs the river Halys
wfithout making a bridge. Thales died foon after, at
about 90 years of age. He compofed feveral treatifes
in verfe, on meteors, the equinoxes, &c. but they are
all loft.
THALIA- in Pagan mythology, one of the nine
mufes. She prefided over Comedy •, and is reprefented
crowmed wfith a garland of ivy, holding a majk in her
hand, and wearing bufldns on her feet.
Thalia, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs mo-
nandria ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
8th order, Scitaminece. See Botany Index.
THALICTRUM,
T H A
Thalic- THALICTRUM, Meadow-rue, a genus of plants
Thames ^e^ong^ng to t^e c^a^s polyandria j and in the natural
. ^ ' , fyftem ranging under the 26th order, Multijiliquce. See
Botany Index.
THAMES, the fineft river in Great Britain, which
takes its rife from a copious fpring, called Thames Head,
two miles fouth-weft of Cirenceiler in Gloucefterlhire.
It has been erroneoufly faid, that its name is Ifis till it
arrives at Dorchefter, 15 miles below Oxford, when,
being joined by the Thame or Tame, it affume$ the
name ot the Thames, which, it has been obferved, is
formed from a combinatiqn of the words Thame and
Ilis. What was the origin of this vulgar error, cannot
now be traced. Poetical fiflion, however, has perpe¬
tuated this error, and invefted it with a kind of claflical
fandttty. “ It plainly appears (fays Camden), that the
river was always called Thames or Terns, before it came
near the Thame ; and in leverai ancient charters granted
to the abbey of Malmlbury, as well as that of Enlham,
Brnoke’s and in the old deeds relating to Cricklade, it is never
Gazetteer, confidered under any other name than that of Thames.''1
He iikewife fays, that it occurs nowhere under the name
of His. All the hiflorians who mention the incurfions
of Ethelwold into Wiltlhire in the year 905, or of Ca¬
nute in 1016, concur likewdfe in the fame opinion, by
declaring, that they pafled over the Thames at Crick¬
lade in Wiltlhire. It is not probable, moreover, that
Thames Head, an appellation by which the fource has
ufuaily been diftinguilhed, Ihould give rife to a river of
the name of Ifis $ which river, after having run half its
courfe, Ihould reaffume the name of Thames, the appel¬
lation of its parent fpring. About a mile below the
fource of tire river is the firft corn-mill, which is called
Kemble Mill. Here the river may properly be faid to
form a conftant current $ which, though not more than
nine feet wide in the fummer, yet in the winter becomes
fuch a torrent as to overflow the meadows for many
miles around. But, in the fummer, the Thames Head
is fo dry, as to appear nothing but a large dell, inter-
’fperfed with ftones and weeds. From Somerford the
ftream winds to Cricklade, where it unites with many
other rivulets. Approaching Kemsford, it again enters
its native county, dividing it from Berklhire at Ingle-
'ftiam. It widens confiderably in its way to Lechlade j
and being there joined by the Lech and Coin, at the
diftance of 138 miles from London, it becomes navi¬
gable for veffels of 90 tons. At Enlham, in its courfe
north-eaft, to Oxford, is the firft bridge of ftone $ a
handfome one, of three arches, built by the earl of
Abingdon. Palling by the ruins of Godftow nunnery,
where the celebrated Fair Rofamond was interred, the
river reaches Oxford, in whofe academic groves its poe¬
tical name of Ifis has been fo often invoked. Being
there joined by the Charwell, it proceeds fouth-eaft to
Abingdon, and thence to Dorchefter, where it receives
the Tame. Continuing its courfe fouth-eaft by Wal¬
lingford to Heading, and forming a boundary to the
counties of Berks, Bucks, Surry, Middlefex, Effex, and
Kent, it walhes the towns of Henley, Marlow, Maiden¬
head, Windfor, Eton, Egham, Staines, Laleham, Chert-
fey, Weybridge, Shepperton, Walton, Sunbury, Eaft
and Weft Moulfey, Hampton, Thames Ditton, Kingf-
ton, Feddington, Twickenham, Richmond, Ifleworth,
Brentford, Kew, Mortlake, Barnes, Chifwick, Hammer-
Imith, Putney, Fulham, Wandfworth, Batterfea, Chelfea,
Vol. XX. Part I. ’
T H A
and Lambeth. Then, on the north bank of the river, Thames,
are Weftminfter and London, and, on the oppofite fide,
Southwark j forming together one continued city, ex¬
tending 'to Limehoufe and Deptford $ and hence the
river proceeds to Greenwich, Erith, Greenhithe, Gray’s
Thurrock, Gravefend, and Leigh, into the ocean. It
receives in its courfe from Dorchetter the rivers Kennet,
Loddon, Coin, Wey, Mole, Wandle, Lea, Roding, Da-
rent, and Medway. The jurifdi&ion of the lord mayor
of London over the Thames extend*' from Coin ditch, a
little to the weft of Staines, to Yendai or Yenleet to the
eaft, including part of the rivers Medway and Lea ‘y
and he has a deputy, named the water-bailiff, who is to
fearch for and punilh all offenders againft the laws for
the prefervation of the river and its fiih. Eight times
a year the lord mayor and aldermen hold courts of con-
fervance for the four counties of Surry, Middlefex,
Effex, and Kent. Though the Thames is faid to be
navigable 138 miles above the bridge, yet there are fo
many flats, that in fummer the navigation weftward
would be entirely flopped, when the fprings are low,
were it not for a number of locks. But thefe are at¬
tended with confiderable expence 5 for a barge from
Lechlade to London pays for pafling through them
13I. 15s. 6d. and from Oxford to London 12I. 18s.
This charge, howrever, is in fummer only, when the wa¬
ter is low ; and there is no lock from London bridge to-
Bolter’s lock 5 that is, for 51-i miles above the bridge.
The plan of new cuts has been adopted, in fome places,
to fhorten and facilitate the navigation. There is one
near Lechlade, which runs nearly parallel to the old
river, and contiguous to St John’s bridge ; and there is
another a mile from Abingdon, which has rendered the
old ftream toward Culham bridge ufelefs. But a much
more important undertaking has lately been accom-
plilhed } namely, the jun&ion of this river with the Se¬
vern. A canal had been made, by virtue of an aft of
parliament in 1730, from the Severn to Wallbridge,
near Stroud. A new canal now afeends by Stroud,
through the vale of Chalford, to the height of 343 feet,
by means of 28 locks, and thence to the entrance of a
tunnel near Sapperton, a diftance of near eight miles.
The canal is 42 feet in width at top and 30 at the bot¬
tom. The tunnel (which is extended under Sapperton
hill, and under that part of Earl Bathurft’s grounds
called Haley wood, making a diftance of two miles and
three furlongs) is near 15 feet in width, and can navi¬
gate barges of 70 tons. The canal defending hence
134 feet, by 14 locks, joins the Thames at Lechlade, a
diftance of above 20 miles. In the courfe of this vaft
undertaking, the canal, from the Severn at Froomlade
to Ingldham, where it joins the Thames, is a diftance
of more than 30 miles. The expence of it exceeded the
fum of 2oo,oool. of which 3000I. are faid to have been
expended in gunpowder alone, ufed for the blowing up
of the rock. This new canal was completed in 1789,
in lefs than feven years from its commencement. A
Communication, not only with the Trent, but with the
Merfey, has likewife been effefted by a canal from Ox¬
ford to Coventry and an aft of parliament has paffed
to extend another canal from this, at Braunfton, to the
Thames at Brentford. This is to be called The Grand
JunElion Canal. On the extenfive advantages refulting
from thefe navigable communications from the metro¬
polis with the ports of Briftol, Liverpool, Hull, &c.
Q. q and
r 3°s i
Thames,
Thane,
T H A [ 3
and the principal manufa£limng towns in the inland
parts of the kingdom, it is needlefs to expatiate. The
tide flows up the Thames as high as Richmond, which,
following the winding of the river, is 70 miles from the
ocean ; a greater diitance than the tide is earned by
any other river in Europe. The water is efleemed ex¬
tremely wholelome, and fit for ufe in very long voyages,
during which it will work itfelf perfeftly fine.
Thames is alfo the name of a river in the flate of
Connecticut in America. See the article Connecti¬
cut.
THANE, or Thanus, a name given to the nobili¬
ty in Britain before the time of William the Conqueror.
It fignifies a minifter or honourable retainer, from the
verb thenian, “ to minifter.There were ieveral de¬
grees of nobility among the Anglo Saxons; but thofe
moft commonly mentioned are the king’s thanes and the
alderman’s thanes. The king’s thanes feem to have been
of three different degrees, according to their different
degrees of wealth or favour at court. The alderman’s
thanes feem to have been of the loweft degree of nobili¬
ty, and next to them thofe who were promoted to that
dignity from their advancement in the church, from
their valour, fuccefs in agriculture or commerce : for if
a ceorl or farmer applied to learning and attained io
priefts orders 5 if he acquitted himfelf fo well as to ob¬
tain from a nobleman five hylhes of land, or a gilt
fword, helmet, and breaft-plate, the reward of his va¬
lour ; or if by his induftry he had acquired the. property
of five hythes of land 5 or if he applied to trade, and
made three voyages beyond fea in a ftsip of his own, and
a cargo belonging to himfelf, he was denominated a
thane.
The thanes, who were the only nobility among the
Anglo-Saxons, were a very numerous body of men,
comprehending all the confiderable landholders in Eng¬
land, and filling up that, fpace in fociety between the
ceorls or yeomanry on the one hand, and the royal fa¬
mily on the other ; which is now occupied both by the
nobility and gentry. In times of war, they conftituted
the flow'd- of their armies, and in times of peace they
fwelled the trains of their kings, and added greatly to
the fplendour of their courts, efpecially at the three
great feftivals of Chriflmas, Eafler, and Whitfuntide.
i/erfry’-r .ffz-From this body all the chief officers, both civil and mi-
Jory of litary, as aldermen, greeves, earls, heretogens, &c.
were taken 5 and to obtain fome of thefe offices was the
great objeft of their ambition. Before they obtained an
office, their lands u-ere their only fupport ; and they liv¬
ed in greater or lefs affluence, according to the extent
of their eftates. Thefe they divided into two parts;
one of which they called their inlands, and the other
their outlands. Their inlands they kept in their own
immediate poffefflon, and cultivated them by the hands
of their flaves and villains, in order to raife prov'fions
for their families, their outlands they granted to ceorls
or farmers, either for one year, or for a term of years j
for which they received a certain flipulated proportion
of their produce annually. Thefe cuftoms had long
prevailed among their anceflors in Germany, and
were adhered to by their pofterity in England till the
conqueft.
ihe thaties were under no obligations on account of
their lands, except the three following, w-hich w-ere in-
dflpenfably neceffary to the defence and improvement of
06 1 THE
their country : To attend the king with their followers Thane
in military expeditions, to aflift in building and defend- ^
ing the royal caftles, and in keeping the bridges and T ;
highways in proper repair. To thefe obligations all
proprietors of land (even the churchmen for a long
time not excepted) were fubjefted } and thele fervices
were confidered as due to their country, rather tiian
to the perfons of their kings j and were agreed to by
all as being neceffary to their own prefervation and con-
veniency.
This title of thane was abolifhed in England at the
conqueft, upon the introduction ot the feudal lyftem
by William. The titles of earl and baron w;ere about
the lame period introduced into Scotland by Malcolm
Canmore, when the title of thane tell into dilufe.
THAN El', an ifland of the county of Kent, fur-
rounded by the fea except on the north-eaft fide, where
it is bounded by the branches of the river Stour, now
inconfiderable to what they were formerly. It con¬
tains feveral villages, and the fea port towns of Mar¬
gate and Ramlgate, and has the title of an earldom. It
is celebrated for being the fpot through which arts, fei-
t-nccs, and divine know-ledge, came into this happy ifle.
The Britons called it Richborough, from its vicinity to
the city of that name, now' only a venerable ruin } but
the Saxons called it Thanet, from fire, having fb many
beacons ereCted on it. It is in the north-eaft part of the
county, lies open to the fea on the north and eaft, wuth
the river Wantfum on the weft and fouth, is about 10
miles long from the North Foreland to Sarre-Bridge,
and about 8 broad from Weftgate to Sandwdch Ferry. England s
The north part of it is chiefly arable ; and the fouth %Ti&Ga%eiteer*
W'eft parts confift of marfh or pafture-lands. The foil is
generally very fertile, efpecially in producing the belt
barley, of which it is computed above 20,000 quarters
are annually fent to London.
THAPSIA, the Deadly Carrot, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs pentandria, and in the natural
fyftem ranging under the 45th order, umbellate?. See
Botany Index.
THAWING, the refolution of ice into its former
fluid ftate by the warmth of the air. See CONGELATION
and Frost.
THEA. See Tea.
THEATINES, a religious order in the Romilh
church, fo called from their principal founder John Pe¬
ter Caraffa, then bifhop of Theate, or Chieti, in the
kingdom of Naples, and afterwards pope, under the name
of Paul IV. The names of the other founders were
Gaetan, Boniface, and Configlieri. Thefe four pious
men defiring to reform the ecclefiaftical flate, laid the
foundation of an order of regular clerks at Rome in the
year I524- Pope Clement VII. approved the inftitu-
tion, and permitted the brethren to make the three re¬
ligious vows, to eleft a fupexior every three years, and
to draw' up flatutes for the regulation of the order. They
were the firft who endeavoured, by their example, to
revive among the clergy the poverty of the apoftles and
firft difciples of our Saviour, and w-ere alfo the firft who
affumed the title of regular clerks.
THEATRE, a place in w'hlch fhows or dramatic
reprefentations are exhibited.
For the origin of the dramatic art w'e always turn
our eyes to Greece, the nurfery of the arts and fciences-.
It may indeed have been known among more ancient
nations^
Tlicatre.
Anachar-
fis's Trci-
'vels, vol. i-
THE [ 307 ] THE
nations, but no records remain diffident to fupport this
opinion. The different Hates of Greece afferled their
claim to the honour of having given it birth, but the
account of the Athenians is moil generally received. It
derived its origin from the hymns which were fung in
the feftivals of Bacchus in honour of that deity. While
thefe refounded in the ears of the multitude, chorufes
of Bacchants and Fauns, ranged round certain obfcene
images which they carried in triumphal proceffion, chant¬
ed lafcivious longs, and fometimes facrificed individuals
to public ridicule.
This was the pra&ice in the cities j but a ftill greater
licentioufnefs reigned in the worfliip paid to the fame
divinity by the inhabitants of the country, and efpe-
cially at the feafon when they gathered the fruits of his
beneficence. Vintagers, befmeared with wine-lees, and
intoxicated with joy and the juice of the grape, rode
forth in their carts, and attacked each other on the road
with grofs farcafms, revenging themfelves on their neigh¬
bours with ridicule, and on the rich by puoliffiing their
injuftice.
Among the poets wdio fiourilhed at that time, fome
celebrated the great actions and adventures of gods and
heroes, and others attacked with afperity the vices and
abfurdities of individuals. The former took Homer for
their model, and fupported themfelves by his example,
of which they made an improper ufe. Homer, the
mod tragic of poets, the model of all wffio have fuc-
ceeded him, had in the Iliad and the Odyffey brought
to perfection the heroic poem, and in his Margites had
employed pleafantry. But as the charm of his works
depends in a great meafure on the paffions and motion
with which he knew to animate them, the poets who
came after him endeavoured to introduce into theirs an
nCtion which might excite emotion or mirth in the fpec-
tators : fome even attempted to produce both, and ven¬
tured certain rude effays, which have fince been ftyled
indifferently either tragedies or comedies, becaufe they
unite the characters of thofe two dramas. The authors
of thefe {ketches have been diffinguilhed by no dil-
covery ; they only form in the hiftory of the art a
fucceffion of names which it would be ufelefs to recal to
light.
The neceffity and power of theatrical intereft was al¬
ready known. The hymns in honour of Bacchus, wffiile
they deferibed his rapid progrefs and fplendid conquefts,
became imitative ; and in the contefts of the Pythian
games, the players on the flute who entered into com¬
petition were enjoined by an exprefs law to reprefent
fucceffively the circumfiances that had preceded, ac¬
companied, and followed the victory of Apoilo over
Python.
Some years after this regulation, Sufarion and Thef-
pis, both born in a fmall borough of Attica, named
Icaria, appeared each at the head of a company of ac¬
tors, the ene on a kind of fiage, the other in a cart (a).
The former attacked the vices and abfurdities of his
time ; and the latter treated more noble fubjeds, which
be took from hiftory.
The comedies of Sufarion were in the fame tafte with
thofe indecent and fatirical farces which were afterwards Theatre,
performed in fome of the cities of Greece. They were
long the favourite entertainment of the country people.
Athens did not adopt this Ipecies of exhibition until af¬
ter it was brought to perfection in Sicily.
Thefpis had more than once feen in the festivals, in
which as yet hymns only wTere fung, one of the fingers,
mounted on a table, form a kind of dialogue with the
chorus. From this hint he conceived the idea of intro¬
ducing into the tragedies an aCtor who, by fimple reci¬
tals introduced at intervals, ftiould give relief to the
chorus, divide the aCtion, and render it more interefting.
This happy innovation, together with fome other liber¬
ties in which he had allowed himfelf, gave alarm to the
legifiator of Athens, who was more able than any other
perfon to difeern the value or danger of the novelty.
Solon condemned a fpecies of compofition in which the
ancient traditions were difguifed by fiftions. “ If we
applaud falfehood in our public exhibitions (faid he to
Thefpis), we {hall foon find that it will infmuate itfelf
into our moft facred engagements.”
The exceflive approbation and delight with which
both the city and country received the pieces of I hefpis
and Sufarion, at once juftified and rendered ufelefs the
fufpicious forefight of Solon. The poets, who till then
had only exerciled their genius in dithyrambics and li¬
centious fatire, ftruck with the elegant forms wffiich
thefe fpecies of compofition began to aflume, dedicated
their talents to tragedy and comec’/. Soon after a great¬
er variety was introduced in the fubje&s of the former
of thefe poems. Thofe who judged of their pleafures on¬
ly from habit exclaimed, that thefe fubjefts were fo¬
reign to the w’orftrip of Bacchus; but the greater num¬
ber thronged with ftill more eagernefs after the new
pieces.
Phrynichus, the difciple of Thefpis, made choice of
that kind of verfe which is moft fuitable to the drama,
was the author of fome other changes, and left tragedy
in its infancy.
yEfchylus received it from his hands enveloped in a
rude veftment, its vifage covered with falfe colours, or a
malk inexpreffive of charafter, without either grace or
dignity in its motions, infpiring the defire of an intereft
which it with difficulty excited, ftill attached to the
buffooneries which had amufed its infant years, and ex-
preffing its conceptions fometimes with elegance and
dignity, but frequently in a feeble and low ftyle, pol¬
luted with grofs obfeenities.
In his firlt tragedies he introduced a fecond aftor ;
and afterward, copying the example of Sophocles, who
had juft entered on his theatrical career, he admitted a
third, and fometimes even a fourth. By this multipli¬
city of perfonages, one of his a&ors became the hero of
the piece, and attra&ed to himfelf the principal intereft;
and as the chorus now held only a fubaltern ftation,
Aifchylus took care to fhorten its part, and perhaps even
carried this precaution too far.
He is cenfured for having admitted mute characters
into his drama. Achilles, after the death of his friend,
and Niobe, after the deftruftion of her children, appear
Q_q 2 on
(a) Sufarion reprefented his firft pieces towards the year 580 before Chrift. Some years after, 1 hefpis made his
firft attempts in tragedy, and a6ted his Alceftis in 536.
T H E [ 308 ] T II E
llieatre. 0n the flags, and remain daft tig i’everal iccnes molion-
lefs, with their heads covered with a veil, and without
uttering a word j but if their eyes had overflown with
tears, and they had poured forth the bittereft lamenta¬
tions, could they have produced an effect fo terrible as
this veil, this fiience, and this abandonment to grief 1
It was not iufficient that the noble and elevated ftyle
of tragedy fliould leave in the minds of the auditors a
ffrong impreflion of grandeur ; to captivate the multi¬
tude, it was requifiic that every part of the fpedtacle
fhould concur to produce the fame effect. It was then
the general opinion that nature, by beftowing on the
ancient heroes a more lofty ftature, had impreffed on
their perfons a majelly which procured them as much
refpeft from the people as the enfigns of dignity by
which they were attended. iEfchylus therefore raiied
his actors on high (lilts or bulkins. He covered their
features, which were frequently difagreeable, with a
maik that concealed their irregularity He clothed them
in (lowing and magnificent robes, the form of wThich was
fo decent, that the prieits of Ceres have not blufhed to
adopt it. The inferior adtors were alfo provided with
maiks and dreffes fuited to their parts.
In (lead of thole wretched fcaffolds which were for¬
merly erefted in hade, he obtained a theatre furnifhed
with machines, and embelliffied with decorations. Here
the found of the trumpet was reverberated, incenfe was
feen to burn on the altars, the (hades of the dead to a-
rife from the tomb, and the furies to rufh from the
gulfs of Tartarus. In one of his pieces thefe infernal
divinities appeared, for the firft time, with mslks of a
horrid palenefs, torches in their hands, ferpents inter¬
twined in their hair, and followed by a numerous reti¬
nue of dreadful fpeftres. It is faid that, at the fight of
them, and the found of their terrific bowlings, terror
feized on the whole aflernbly, women mifearried, and
children expired with fear ; and that the magiurates,
to prevent fimilar accidents in future, commanded that
the chorus (hould confift only of fifteen afters inffead of
fifty.
The effefl of fo many new objefls could not but affo-
nifh the (peftators; nor were they leis furprifed and de¬
lighted at the intelligence difplayed in the performance
of the aftors, whom TEfehylus almoft always exercifed
himfelf. He regulated their fteps, and taught them to
give additional force to the aflion by new and expreffive
pc (lures.
O
The pregrefs of the art was extremely rapid. ./Efchy-
lus was born 525 years before Cbrift, 11 years after
Thefpis had afled his Alceftis. He had for competi¬
tors Choerilus Pratenas, and Phrynicbus, whofe glory
he eclipfed, and Sophocles, who rivalled his own. So¬
phocles was born about the year 497 B. C. about 14
years before Euripides. Thefe canied tragedy to the
higheft perfection to which it attained among the
Greeks. /Efchyius painted men greater than they can
be, Sophocles as they ought to be, and Euripides as they
are.
Invented towards the 50th Olympiad (about 580
B. C.), and adapted to the rude manners of the nifties,
comedy ventured not to approach the capital j and if
by chance feme companies of aflors, who were uncon-
nefled with any others, found their way into the city,
and performed their indecent farces, they were lefs au-
t.hcrifed than tolerated by the government. It was not
till after a long infancy that this fpecics of drama be- Theatre
gan luddenly to make a rapid improvement in Sicily. —-y—-
Inftead ol a (iicceffion of feenes without connexion or
tendency, the philofopher Epicharmus introduced an
aclion, all the parts oi which had a dependence on each
other j and condufled his fubjeft, without wandering
iionr it, through a juft extent to a determinate end.
His pieces, iubjefted to the fame laws as tragedy, were
known in Greece, where they were confidered as mo¬
dels } and comedy (bon (hared with her rival (he fufk
frages o( the public, and the homage due to genius.
The Athenians, efpecially, received her with the fame
tranfpoits as they would have teftified at the news of a
vidory : many of their poets exercifed their genius in
this novel fpecies of compofition ; and their names adorn
the numerous lift of writers who have been diftinguiihed
in comedy from the time of Epicharmus. Such were,
among the more ancient, Magnes, Cratinus, Crates,
Pherecrates, Eupolis, and Ariftophanes. They all (iou-
riihed in the age of Pericles.
If we perule the comic pieces which have come down
to us, we (hall be convinced that the foie objedf of the
authors was to pleafe the multitude. The gods and
heroes were traveflied, grofs and obicene language was
often employed, and virulent invedlives were often
thrown out againft individuals of the firft rank for ge¬
nius and virtue. Towards the end of the Peloponneiian
war the licentioufnefs of comedy was reftrained. The
chorus was laid afide, becaufe the rich citizens were a-
larmed, and would no longer contribute money to fup-
port it, nor provide mafks with portraits for expofing
individuals.
The poets being thus reftrained from mentioning
names of living perfons on the ftage, invented falfe names.
They ftill expofed real and known charablers ■, and thus
gave a more exquifite gratification to the (peftators, w'ho
were highly amufed with finding out the perfons intend¬
ed. The coiifequence of the law was only to make that
done with delicacy which was formerly done in the moft
indecent and fcurrilous manner. Ariftophanes, in fome
of his lateft pieces, has given us fome good example*- of
this kind of comedy, wdiich is fometimes called the mid¬
dle comedy.
Comedy was ftill liable to abufe, and therefore requir¬
ed far!her reformation. As the ufe of real names had
formerly been prohibited, real fubjefls were alfo forbid¬
den ; and comedy from that time was no longer a fury-
armed wfith torches, or a firebrand fcattering mifehief,
but a pleafing and inftrudftive companion. This is cal¬
led the new comedy. The moft eminent among the
Greeks in this improved fpecies w*as Menander. His
writings are now loft j but we may form a good efti-
mate of their merit from the comedies of Terence, which
are faid to have been borrowed from Menander, and to
have nearly refembled the original, though inferior in
that vis comica by which the elegant Grecian was diftin¬
guiihed. The comedy of Menander is that which has
been cultivated in modern times.
To give fome idea of a Grecian theatre, we (hall de-
feribe very fhortly the theatre of Bacchus in Athens,
which w^as built by the famous architefl Philos in the
time of Pericles. The part intended for the fpeflatcrs
■was of a femicircular form, at the diameter of which
was eredled the ftage. The orcheHra occupied the
fpace where the pit in modern theatres is fituaied, where
the
THE [ 3o9 ] THE
The..rr*. the mafic, the chorus, and the ml mi were placed. It
' v   was four feet elevated above the ground. The fpedla-
tors were arranged in three galleries round all the Tides
of the orcheftra except that next the ftage, each gallery
containing eight rows of feats. At the farther end of
the orcheftra, where the ftage is ere&ed in modern the¬
atres, ftood the thymele or logeon, but projefting a lit-
Gent'('~M t^e towarc^s t^ie au(fience. It was a little higher than
for" t^e orc,,le^ra> an<i did not extend the whole breadth of
1760. h. In fome theatres it was only fix feet fquare. Here
the principal part of the chorus made their recitations,
and in comical interludes the mimi performed. Behind
the thymele appeared the ftage or profcenion, confider-
ably elevated. No part of this theatre was covered ex¬
cept the ftage, and a high gallery called circys fet apart
for the women. The Athenians, being expofed to the
weather, came ufually with great cloaks, to fecure them
from the rain or the cold $ and for defence againft the
fun, they had the fciadion, a kind of parafol, which the
Romans ufed alfo in their theatres by the name of um-
bellce ; but when a fudden ftorm arofe, the play was in¬
terrupted, and the fpe£lators difperfed.
A fort of tent-work over the entire area of the edifice
might have been contrived as a fhelter from the rain
and a (hade from the fun. Such a covering would have
obviated the inconveniences of roofed theatres, which
obftruft the free communication of the air, and of un¬
roofed, theatres, which do not keep out the weather.
At Athens the plays were always reprefented in the
daytime, which made the unroofed theatres lefs incon¬
venient. \
Plays were reprefented only during the three feftivals
folemnized in honour of Bacchus. The firft of thefe
was celebrated at the Piraeus, where fome of Euripides’s
pieces were firft performed. The fecond, which lafted
only one day, was kept at the end of January or begin¬
ning of February. The third, called the greater Dio-
nysia, was celebrated a month after. It continued fe-
veral days, and attra&ed a great multitude of fpeflators.
In the feftivals which lafted only one day, five or fix
dramatic pieces, either tragedies or comedies, were per¬
formed. But in the greater Dionyfia, which continued
longer, 12 or 15, and fometimes more, were a£ted.
The performance began early in the morning, and fome¬
times lafted the whole day.
The chorus, according as the fubjefl demanded, was
compofed of men and women, old men or youths, citi¬
zens or (laves, priefts, foldiers, &c. to the number of
15 in tragedy, and 24 in comedy. The chorus came
upon the ftage preceded by a flute-player, who regula¬
ted their fteps; fometimes one after the other, but in
tragedy more frequently three in front and five in depth,
or five in front and three in depth.
The fame perfons performed both in tragedy and co¬
medy ; but, as among ourfelves, it was rare to meet
with any who excelled in both. The pay of thofe who
had acquired great reputation was confiderable. Polus
* Pint, in gained a talent in two days (equal to 22 5I. fterling *).,
X. Rbet. Players of eminence were iblicited by different a&ors of
Greece to attend their feftivals. If, after making an
engagement, they failed, they were obliged to pay a
certain fum of money j and if they were abfent during
the feftivals of their own republic, they were condemned
to a heavy fine.
Xhe. a dors had habits and fymbols fuited to their
parts. Kings wore a diadem, leaned on a fceptre which Theatre,
fupported an eagle on its top, and were drefled in long '-—■'v——
robes of purple or other fplendid colours ornamented
with gold. Heroes, befides having their ftature fre¬
quently increafed to fix feet Englifhf, and their bulk f Arift. in
i*i proportion, were frequently covered with the fkin of Ran-
a lion or a tyger, and armed with (words, quivers, and
clubs. All who {offered misfortunes wore a black,
brown, or dirty white garment, which frequently hungcap, y,
in tatters. There were various kinds of mafks for tra¬
gedy, comedy, and fatire. Thefe certainly took away
the pleafure arifing from the expreflion of the counte¬
nance ; but at any rate, little pleafure could be derived
from this circumftance in a Grecian theatre, from its im-
menfe fize, and the great diftance of the audience from
the ftage.
Dramatic entertainments were introduced at Rome in
the year of the city 391. They were called ludifcenici^
becaufe they were firft a£ted in a (hade formed by the
branches and leaves of trees. They were borrowed im¬
mediately from Etruria, whence alfo they received their
firft players. Thefe Etrurians at firft only danced to a
flute, without either finging or adling. The Roman
youth foon imitated them at their folemn feftivals, add¬
ing raillery in rude verfes, and geftures adapted to the
fubjeft. Thefe verfes were called Fefcennmi, from Fef-
cennia, a city of Etruria. Livius Andronicus was the-
firft poet who wrote a regular play in Latin. This hap¬
pened in the year of Rome 512 or 514, about 160 years-
after the death of Sophocles and Euripides, and 52 af¬
ter that of Menander. The Grecian model was after¬
wards introduced and cultivated much by fucceeding
dramatic writers. This was the model of Menander,
for the old and middle comedy was unknown at Rome.
As the Romans were only imitators of the Greeks in
the dramatic art, as well as in mod of the arts and fci-
ences, nothing more is necefiary to be faid in addition
to the account which we have already given of the Gre¬
cian ftage.
The origin of the Englifh ftage is hid in obfcurity.
It was not, however, copied from the Grecian or Ro¬
man ; for it was evidently different in form as well as in
matter, and may with more propriety be deduced from
a Gothic original. It appears that there rvere theatrical
entertainments in England almoft as early as the con-
queft; for we are told by William Stephanides or Yitz-Gentle-
Stephen, a monk, who in the reign of Henry II. wrote mnn's Ma
his Defcnptio Nobili/fimce Civitatis Londanice, that “ Lon ^
don inftead of the common interludes of the theatre, had
plays of a more holy kind'; reprefentations of the mira¬
cles of confeffors, and the fufferings- of martyrs. At
this time there were alfo certain fets of idle people, who
travelled the countries and were called Mummers, a
kind of vagrant comedians, whofe excellence confifted
altogether in mimickry and humour.
It is probable that, foon after this time, the dramatic
reprefentations called Mysteries were exhibited : Thefe
myfteries were taken from fcripture-hiftory : fome repre¬
fented the creation of the world, with the fall of Adam
and Eve ; fome the ftory of Jofeph; and others even
the incarnation and fufferings of the Son of God. Thtfacibleds A-
pieces were exhibited in a manner fo ridiculous as-to fa-pology for-
vour libertinifm and infidelity, as appears by a petition Life*
of the chaunters of St PauPs cathedral to Richard II,
in 1378, praying, that “fome unexpert people might
ha.
Theatre.
T H E [ 3
be prohibited from reprefenting the hillory of the Old
Teftament to the prejudice of the faid clergy, who had
been at great expence to reprefent it publiciy at Chrift-
mas.”
In the year 1390, the pariflt clerks of London are
faid to have played interludes at Skinner’s-vvell on three
fucceflive days in July ; and, in 1409, to have a£fed
for eight days fuccefiively a play Concerning the crea¬
tion of the world, at the fame place which thence ac¬
quired the name of Clerkenwell.
Thefe Myfteries were fucceeded by Moralities, in
which there were fome rude traces of a fable and a mo¬
ral ; and fome alfo of poetry, the virtues, vices, and
other affe&ions of the mind being frequently perfonified.
After thefe Moralities came what were called Inter¬
ludes, which made fome approaches to wit and humour.
Many of thefe pieces were written by John Hey wood,
jefter to Henry VIII.
In the time of Henry VIII. one or txvo pieces had
been publilhed under the claffical names of Comedy and
Tragedy, but they appear not to have been intended for
^ ^ popular ufe. It was not till the religious ferments had
P-Tyf'^d-d that the public had leifure to attend to drama-
cientEnl'- t‘c Poe.try- In the reign of Elizabeth, tragedies and
UJh Poetry, comedies began to appear in form, and could the poets
have perfevered, the firft models were good. Gorboduc,
a regular tragedy, was a£Ied in 1561 ; and Gafcoigne,
in 1566, exhibited Jocafla, a tranflation from Euripides,
as alfo The Suppofes, a regular comedy, from Ariofto,
near thirty years before any of Shakefpeare’s were
printed.
The people, however, Hill retained a relifh for their
old myfteries and moralities, and the popular dramatic
poets feem to have made them their models. The gra¬
ver fort of moralities appear to have given birth to our
modern tragedy j as our comedy evidently took its rife
from the lighter interludes of that kind. And as moft
of thefe pieces contain an abfurd mixture of religion and
buffoonery, an eminent critic has well deduced from
thence the origin of our unnatural tragi-comedies. Even
after the people had been accuftomed to tragedies and co¬
medies, moralities ftill kept their ground. One of them,
entitled The New Ct/Jlom, was printed fo late as x ^73.
At length they aflumed the name of mafques, and, with
fome claftical improvements, became in the two folloiv-
ing reigns the favourite entertainments of the court.
As for the old myfteries, which ceafed to be a fled af¬
ter the reformation, they feem to have given rife to a
third fpecies of ftage exhibition ; which, though now
confounded with tragedy or comedy, was by our firft
dramatic writers confidered as quite diftimft from them
both : thefe were hiftorical plays, or hiftories ; a fpecies
of dramatic writing which refembled the old myfteries
in reprefenting a feries of hiftorical events fimply in the
order of time in which they happened, without any re¬
gard to the three great unities. Thefe pieces feem to
differ from tragedy juft as much as hiftorical poems do
from epic : as the Pharfalia does from the /Eneid.
What might contribute to make dramatic poetry take
this turn was, that foon after the royftenes ceafed to be
exhibited, there wras pubhfhed a large colledlion of poe¬
tical narratives, called the Mirror for Magifrates, where-
i o ] T H E
in a great, number of the moft eminent characlers in Theatre.
ILnghfh liiftory are drawn relating their owm misfortunes. ''““"V—**
1 his book was popular and ot a dramatic calf; and
therefore, as an elegant writer has well obferved, might
have its influence in producing hiftoric plays. Thefe
narratives probably funnihed the fubjedls, and the an¬
cient myfteries fuggefted the plan.
1 hat our old writers confidered hiftorical plays as
fomewhat dilunci from tragedy and comedy, appears
from numberlefs paffages of their works. “ Of late days
(fayrs Stow in his Survey of London), inftead of thofe
ftage plays have been ufed comedies, tragedies, inter¬
ludes, and hiftories, both true and Lined.” Beaumont
and Fletcher, in the prologue to the Captain, fay,
“ This is nor comedy, nor tragedy,
“ Nor hi/loryN
Polonius in Hamlet commends the aflors as the heft
in the world, either for tragedie, comedie, hiftorie, pa-
ftorall, See. And Shakefpeate’s friends, Heminge and
Condell, in the firft folio edition of his plays, in 162^
have not only intitled their book “ Mr William Shake¬
fpeare’s Comedies, Hiftories, and Tragedies,” but, in
their table of contents, have arranged them under thofe
three feveral heads ; placing in the clafs of hiftories,
“ King John, Richard II. Henry IV. two parts, Henry
V. Henry VI. three parts, Richard III. and Henry
VIIL” J
This diftimftion deferves the attention of the critics :
for if it be the firft canon of found criticilm to examine
any work by thofe rules the author preferibed for his firft
obfervance ; then we ought to try Shakefpeare’s hifto¬
ries by the general law7s of tragedy and comedy. Whe¬
ther the rule itfelf be vicious or not, is another inquiry j
but certainly we ought to examine a work only by thofe
principles according to which it was compofed. This
would fave much impertinent criticifm.
Not fewer than 19 playhoufes had been opened be¬
fore the year 1633, when Prynne publilhed his Hijlrio-
mafix. From this writer we learn that tobacco, wane,
and beer, w7ere in thofe days the ufual accommodations
in the theatre, as now at Sadlers Wells. With regard
to the ancient prices of admiffion, the playhoufe called
the Hope had five different priced feats, from fixpence
to half-a-crown. Some houfes had penny benches. The
two-penny gallery is mentioned in the prologue to Beau¬
mont and Fletcher’s Woman-hater; and feats of three¬
pence and a groat in the paffage of Prynne laft referred
to. But the general price of what is now called the
Tit feems to have been a (hilling. The time of exhibi¬
tion was early in the afternoon, their plays being gene¬
rally sdted by day-light. All female parts were per¬
formed by men, no aclrefs being ever feen on the pub¬
lic ftage before the civil wars. And as for the play¬
houfe furniture and ornaments, they had no other feenes
nor decorations of the ftage, but only old tapeftrv, and
the ftage ftrewed with nifties, with habits accordingly •,
as we are affured in a fhort Difcourfe on the Englifh
Stage, fubjoined to Flecknce’s Love's-Kingdom, 1674,
12mo.
(V.) For the ftate of the theatre during the time of
Shakefpeare, fee Playhouse j where a full account of
it
(b) W e have been anxious to give as full an account of the ancient Englifh drama as we could: we muft not
2 omit,
THE [31
Theatre, it is given from the late valuable edition of our illuftri-
  v 1 bus poet’s works by Mr Malone. During the whole
reign of James I. the theatre was in great profperity and
reputation : dramatic authors abounded, and every year
produced a number of new plays ^ it became a fafhion
for the nobility to celebrate their weddings, birthdays,
and other occafions of rejoicing, with malques and in¬
terludes, which were exhibited with furprifing expence;
our great architebl, Inigo Jones, being frequently em¬
ployed to furnifh decorations, with all the luxuriance of
his invention and magnificence of his art. The king
and his lords, and the queen and her ladies, frequently
performed in thefe mafques at court, and the nobility at
their private houfes; nor was any public entertainment
thought complete without them. This tafte for thea¬
trical entertainments continued during great part of the
reign of King Charles I. ; but, in the year 1633, it be¬
gan to be oppofed by the Puritans from the prefs ; and
the troubles that foon after followed entirely fufpended
them till the reftoration of King Charles II. in 1660.
The king, at his reftoration, granted two patents,
one to Henry Killigrew, Efq. and the other to Sir Wil¬
liam Davenant, and their heirs and afligns, for forming
two diftinbl companies of comedians. Killigrew’s were
called the Kinfs Servants, and Davenarit’s the Duke's
Company. About ten of the company called the King's
Servants were on the royal houfehold eftablifirment, ha¬
ving each ten yards of fcarlet cloth, with a proper
quantity of lace allowed them for liveries ; and in their
warrants from the lord chamberlain they wTere ftyled
gentlemen of the great chamber.
Till this time no woman had been feen upon the
Englifh ftage, the charafters of women having always
been performed by boys, or young men of an effeminate
afpeft, which probably induced Shakefpeare to make fo
few of his plays depend upon female charaffers, as they
mud have been performed to great difadvantage. The
principal characters of his women are innocence and fim-
plicity, fuch are Defdemona and Ophelia ; and his fpe-
cimen of fondnefs and virtue in Portia is very fhort.
But the power of real and beautiful women was now
added to the ftage ; and all the capital plays of Shake¬
fpeare, Fletcher, and Ben Jonfon, were divided between
the two companies, by their own alternate choice, and
the approbation of the court.
The king’s fervants feem to have been allowed to be
the beft company ; and when the variety of plays began
to be exhaufted, they drew the greater audiences. Da¬
venant, therefore, to make head againft them, firft add¬
ed fpeCIacle and rpufic to a&ion, and introduced a new
fpecies of plays, fince called dramatic operas; among
thefe were, The Tempeft, Pfi/che, and Circe; which,
with many others, were fet off with the moft expenfive
decorations of feenes and habits, and with the beft voices
and dancers.
In 1684 the two houfes united, and continued toge¬
ther for ten years. In 1690 the play began at four
o’clock ; and, we are told, the ladies of fafhion ufed to
take the evening air in Hyde-park after the reprefenta-
1 3 THE
tion ; by which it appears that the exhibitions were in Theatre* ^
fummer too. The principal aClors were, Betterton, v
Montfort, Kynafton, Sandford, Nokes, Underhill, and
Leigh, commonly called Tony Leigh; the actreffes
were, Mrs Betterton, Barry, Leigh, Butler, Montfort,
and Bracegirdle ; and to this company, in this year,
old Cibber was admitted as a performer in the lowefl
rank. It was a rule with the patentees, that no young
perfon, who offered himfelf as an actor, fhould be ad¬
mitted into pay till after at leaft half a year’s probation;
and Cibber waited full three quarters of a year before he
was taken into a falary of 10s. a-week.
In 1695 a new theatre was opened with Mr Con¬
greve’s comedy of Love for Love, which had fuch ex¬
traordinary fuccefs (fays Cibber) that fcarce any other
play was afted there till the end of the feafon ; but
when the feafon ended, which appears to have begun in
June, he does not tell us, and it is indeed difficult to
guefs ; for though the company afled in fummer, it
feems improbable that they ffiould fhut up the houfe in
winter, as it is difficult to conceive any reafon for fo do¬
ing. Congreve was then in fuch high reputation, that
this company offered him a whole fhare (but into how
many (hares the whole was divided Colley has not
told us) upon condition he would give them a new play
every year. This offer he accepted, and received the
advantage, though he never fulfilled the condition ; for
it was three years before he produced the Mourning
Bride, and three more before he gave them the Way of
the World.
It is not neceffary that we give in detail the remain¬
ing hiftory of the Englifh ftage : thofe who are anxious
to be acquainted with it may confult Cibber’s hiftory of
the ftage, continued by Viclor, under the title of A
Hijlory of the Theatres of London and Dublin from the
year 1730. We (ball only mention a few fafts refpeft-
ing the falaries of the players about that period, and the
rife of the price of play tickets.
A difference having arifen in 1733 between the ma¬
nagers and aftors, moft of the a£tors fet up for them-
felves at the little theatre in the Haymarket. Upon
this the managers publiffied the following account of
their falaries, to (how the public how little room they
had to mutiny. To Mr Colley Cibber, from the time
of letting his fhare till he left the ftage, 12I. 12s. per
week. Mr The. Cibber 5!. and his wife’s whole falary
till her death, without doing the company any fervioe^«’j-TJi-
the greateft part of the winter ; and his own alfo, A\xr-Sa^ne Li.
ing the time of his being ill, who performed but feldom1733’
till after Chriftmas. Mr Mills jun. 3I. under the fame
circumftances with regard to his wife. Mr Mills fen.
ll. per day for 200 days certain, and a benefit clear of
all charges. Mr Johnfton 5I. Mr Miller 5I. paid
him eight weeks before he a6Ied, befides a prefent of 10
guineas. Mr Harper 4I. and a prefent of 10 guineas.
Mr Griffin 4I. and a prefent. Mr Shepard 3]. Mr
Hallara, for himfelf and father (though the latter is of
little or no fervice) 3I. Mrs Heron jl. raifed from 40s.
lad winter, yet refufed to play feveral parts affigned
her,,
omit, however, to inform our readers what Mr Malone fays of the old plays, viz. that noi one play publiffied be¬
fore 1 ^92 will bear a fecond reading ; and that exclufive of myfteries, moralities, and tranflations, there are bufc
34 pieces extant which were publiffied before that period.
THE [ 313 ] THE
Theatre her, and a&ed but feldom this feafon. Mrs Butler 3I.
I! per week. By thefe and other falaries, with the inci-
, Tlirbcs. c|ent cilarges ^belides clothes and Icenes), the patentees
v are at the daily charge of 49I. odd money, each a£ting-
day.
Till about the fame time, the prices at the theatre
'Were 4s. the boxes, 2s. 6d. the pit, is. 6d. the firft
gallery, and is. the fecond, except upon the firlt run
of a new play or pantomime, when the boxes were
5s. the pit 3s. the firft gallery 2s. and the fecond is.
But Fleetwood thought fit to raife the prices for an
old pantomime, which was revived without expence.
This produced a riot for feveral nights, and at laft a
number deputed by the pit had an interview with the
manager in the green room, where it was agreed,
that the advanced prices Ihould be conftantly paid at
the doors, and that fuch perfons as did not choofe to
Hay the entertainment ftiould have the advanced part
of their money returned. This was a very advanta¬
geous agreement for the manager} becaufe, when the
audience had once paid their money, and were feat-
ed, very few went out at the end of the play, and
and demanded their advanced money ; the few that
did it at firft, foon grew tired, and at laft it fettled
in the quiet payment of the advanced price, as at this
day.
It has been frequently a fubjeft of debate, whether
the ftage be favourable to morals. We do not mean
to enter into the controverfy *, but we (hall make an
obfervation or two. It will be allowed by all, that
the intention of the players in afting, is to procure
money } and the intention of the audience in attend¬
ing the theatre, is to feck amufement. The players
then will only aft fuch plays as they believe will an-
fwer their intention. And what fort of plays are
thefe ? They are fuch as correfpond with the opinions,
manners, and tafte, of the audience. If the tafte of
the audience be grofs, therefore the plays will be grofs;
if delicate and refined, they will be the fame. And
if we go back to the time of Shakefpeare, we {hall
find that this has been uniformly the cafe. The con-
clufion, then, which wTe draw, is this, if the tafte of
the audience be pure, free from licentioufnefs, the plays
will be the fame, and the ftage will be favourable to
virtue.
THEBAID, a celebrated heroic poem of Statius,
the fubjeft of which is the civil war of Thebes, between
the two brothers Eteocles and Polynices j or Thebes
taken by Thefeus.
THEBES, the name of a celebrated city of ancient
Greece. It is fuppofed to have been built by Cadmus,
1 about the year of the world 2555. This Cadmus, ac-
Caclmuf °f cord'ng t0 the Greeks, was the fon of Agenor king of
vhe found- Sidon or of Tyre ; but the Sidonians allow him to have
<er of been of no higher quality than his cook, and tell us that
Thebes. fiis wJfe was a mufician at court, with whom he ran
away into Greece. The Greek writers tells us, that
being commanded by his father to go in fearch of his
daughter Europa, whom Jupiter in the (hape of a bull
had carried off, and forbid to return without her, he
built, or rebuilt, the city of Thebes, after having long
fought her in vain. He was at firft oppofed by the Hy-
antes and Aones; the former of whom he defeated in
battle, and forced to retire into Locris; the latter fub-
..rnitted. and were incorporated among his fubjefts.
1
Thofe who endeavour to extraft fome truth from the Thebes,
multitude of fables in which the early part of the Gre- ^ J
cian hiftory is obfcured, are of opinion that Cadmus wassuppoied ta
one of the Canaanites expelled by Joftiua ; and that he be one of
wras of the family of the Cadmonites mentioned by Mofesthe exiled
and Joftiua. He is univerfally allowed to have intro-^anaani,;es.
duced the Phoenician letters into Greece, fet up the firft
fchools, and introduced brafs •, which, from him, had
the name of Cadmean given to it. The government of
Thebes continued for a long time monarchical j and the
names of a number of its kings have been tranimitted to
us, wdth fome account of their trani'aftions 5 but very
much obfcured by fable.
Though the Thebans had been famed in the early The The.
period of their hiftory for their martial atchievements,bans a de-
yet in procefs of time they feem to have degenerated. generate
At the time of the invafion of Xerxes, they w'ere the ltuPid F0*
firft people in Greece who were gained over to the Per-1
fian intereft. On account of this conduft, they became
very obnoxious to the other ftates, efpecially to the A-
thenians, whofe power and renown increafed every day,
and threatened at laft to fwallow them up altogether.
The Thebans being in no condition to oppofc fuch a
formidable power, put themfelves under the proteftion put
of the Spartans, who, out of jealoufy of the Athenians, felves un¬
readily forgave them ; and fo grateful were the The-der the pro^
bans for the kindnefs ftiowm them at this time, that
ring the whole of the Peleponnefian war Sparta had nottaies par“
a more faithful ally. By thefe means they not only re¬
covered the government of Boeotia, of which they had
been formerly in poffeflion, till deprived ©f it on account
of their Tiding with the Perfians, but their city became
one of the firft in Greece. By this profperity the The¬
bans were fo much elated, that, WThen the peace of An-
talcidas came to be figned, they refufed to agree t® it,
as they wjere thus once more deprived of the govern¬
ment of Boeotia j fo that it w'as not without the utmoft 5
difficulty that they wrere overawed into it by the other
ftates. Not content with forcing them to give up thismef
point, however, the Spartans undertook to change the ged, and
form of the Theban government, which at this time was the citadel
a democracy, and accomplilhed through the treachery of^lzed by
thofe who had the care of the citadel. ta^s> par
The Thebans continued under the power of the Spar- 6
tans for four years j at the end of which term a confpi- The The-
racy being formed againft them by fome of the princi-ba™ 5rF°-.
pal people in the city, among whom was a young no-bert dejT
bleman named Pelopidas, the Spartans were maffacredpeiopidas.
and driven out, and the citadel regained. During the
tumult Epaminondas, afterwards the celebrated gene¬
ral, with a number of the heft citizens, joined the party
of Pelopidas; and the latter having called a general
affembly of the Thebans, proclaimed liberty to them,
and exhorted them in the ftrongeft manner to fight for
their country. This fpeech was received with the greateft
acclamations •, Pelopidas was unanimoufty proclaimed
the preferver of Thebes, and was charged with the ma¬
nagement of the war w-hich was then to be declared a-
gainft Sparta. 7
Thefe tranfaftions fo much exafperated the Spartans, War witk
that they immediately fent their king Cleombrotus a-Sparta,
gainft them, though it was then the depth of winter.
The Athenians, in the mean time, who had hitherto af-
fifted the Thebans, declined any farther conneftion, left
they ftiould draw upon themfelves the relentment of
the
THE l 3
Throes, tile Spartans. But they were loon after determined to
* V   aa again on the fame tide, by an attempt which the
Spartan general, Sphodnas, nad rainly made on tlm Py*
rteus or harbour of Athens. Thus, by means of the
Athenians, a powerful diveriion was made in favour of
the Thebans, who gradually recovered all the towns of
Boeotia, and at length began to aft ofFenfively againft
their enemies, and made a powerful invalion in Phocis.
They had now’ many tharp encounters wdlh them j
which, though they did not amount to decifrve battles,
g yet did not tail to raife their courage, and deprefs that
The Spar- of the Spartans. In thefe encounters Pelopidas always
tans defeat- fignalized himfelf} and in the battle ot Tanagra, where
ed by Pelo- t}ie Lacedemonians were entirely defeated by the Athe-
P*'-""" mans and their allies, Pelopidas had a puncipal lhare in
the victory, and killed the Spartan general with his own
hand. Soon after this, with a body of only 300 The¬
bans, be entirely routed and difperied near 1000 Spar¬
tans •, which was the greateft difgrace the latter had
ever known ; for till that time, whether in war w’ith the
Greeks or barbarians, they had never been overcome
by an equal, mucn leis by fuch an inferior, numoer or
tioops.
Thefe fucceffes of the Thebans greatly alarmed the
Athenians, who continually iought to oppofe . their
PktJa and groiving pon’er. In this oppontion they wrere joined
Thefpia ra- by the Plataeans, who on this account became extierne-
zed by the jy obnoxious to the Thebans, lo that they at laft came
Thebans. tQ a ref0iution to furprife their city. This they accom-
pliihed, and entirely deftroyed it, together with Thef¬
pia, another city extremely well atlefted to Athens.
Soon after this, the Lhebans, encouraged by their fuc-
cefs, began to think of enlarging their territories, and
of making encroachments on their neighbours, as they
10 ^ f faw otheiAlates had done before them. This Ipirit or
Enaddnon- conqueft is faid to have been raifed by their general
das' Pelopidas; in which he was feconded by Epammondas,
a perfon who, though like him endowed with all the
neceffary qualities to make a complete captain or pa¬
triot, had till then preferred a private life, and lived in
a conftant courfe of virtue and the itudy of philofophy.
He had as yet feldom appeared in public, except to get
bimfelf excufed from thofe ftate employments which
were fo eagerly courted by others. This, however, had
not hindered him from contracting an intimate friend-
jfhip with Pelopidas, which had been daily improved by
the correfpondence of their tempers and principles, as
well as by that zeal which both difplayed for the good
of their country ; which laft had made them, even be¬
fore this time, appear together in aftion, and to fuch
advantage, that E.pammondas’s merit could be no longer
concealed, nor indeed fuffer him to continue longer in
his beloved retirement : fo that he faw himfelf, at length
defervedly placed at the head of the Theban troops ;
where he gave fuch early proofs of his future prowefs
and abilities, as juftly gave him the next rank to Pelo¬
pidas. Both came now to be confidered in the fame
light, as generals in the field, as governors at home,
and as complete ftatefmen in the council. When the
general treaty for reftoring peace to Greece came to be
propofed by the Athenians, and was upon the point of
being executed by the reft of the ftates, the 1 hebans
refufed to agree to it, unlefs they were comprehended
in it under the name of Boeotians. This demand was as
ftrenuoufly oppofed by the other contradling powers as
Vol. XX. Part I.
]
THE
infifted on by Epaminondas, who was there as ambaffa-, ,
dor on the part of the Thebans. Agefilaus, in particu-
lar, told him in plain terms, that the Thebans ought to His differ-
evacuate Bceotia, and leave the cities of it free and m-ence with
dependent. To which it was anfwered by him, that Ageiilaus
the Lacedemonians wmuld do well to let them the ex*g ta>
ample, by reftoring Meflenia to its ancient proprietors,
and Laconia to its ancient freedom } for that the pre-
tenfions of the city of Thebes to Bceotia were as well
founded, at lead, as thofe of Sparta to thofe two coun¬
tries. After this he went on, and (bowed how far
Sparta had aggrandized herfelf at the expence of her
neighbours : that peace might be indeed obtained, anu
upon a folid and lading footing ■, but that this could not
otherwife than by bringing all to an equality, ibis
bold though juft remonftrance, in which not only
Thebes, but Greece in general was concerned, failed
not, however, to exafperate the haughty Spartan mo¬
narch ; and the Athenians, who had till now looked
upon the Thebans as dependents either on tnem 01 on
the Macedonians, were not a little offended to hear their
ambaffadors talk in fuch high terms. The refult of the
conference was, that Agsiilaus ftruck the name of Inches
out of the treaty, and declared war againft them, about
the year 371 B. C. . 12
The Thebans were in no fmall confternation to fee The Spar-
themfelves engaged in a war with the powerful Spar-tans declare
tans, without aany ally to aflift them 5 and the reft ©f
the Grecian ftates having made peace with the latter,
began to look upon the ruin of the former as unavoid¬
able. However, they refolved to make the beft defence
they could ; and put their army under the command of
Epaminondas, affigning him, at his own requeft, fix
others to a£f as counfellors or afliftants. The Theban
army confifted at moft but of 6000 men, whereas that
of the enemy was at leaft thrice that number } but T.pa-
minondas tiufted moft to his horfe, wherein he had much
the advantage both in quality and good management .
the reft he endeavoured to fupply by the difpofition of
his men, and the vigour of the attack. He even retuied
to fuffer any to ferve under him in the engagement, but
fuch as he knew to be fully refolved to conquer or die. 13
The two armies met at Leuara, where the
were defeated with great {laughter, as related under a!. LeU(qra,
article.
The viaorious general, defirous to improve this great
viaory, fent an herald, crowned with garlands, to com¬
municate it in form to the Athenians, in hopes that this
would be an effeaual means to reunite them to the The-
ban intereft. But it proved quite otherwife. Athens, The Athe-
which now looked upon them with a jealous eye, and
had then in view the fovereignty of Greece, chofe ra-
ther, if they could not wholly obtain it, to (hare it with
Sparta, than to let the Thebans into the whole ; and
therefore even declined giving their herald audience.
However, the 'Thebans took care to ftrengthen them-
felves by alliances •, and, befides the Arcadians and E-
leans, had got the Phocians, Locrians, Acarnanians, Eu-
boeans, and other ftates, under their dependence : fo that 15
they were now in a condition to a6t ofFenfively againft Ehe the-
the Spartans. Accordingly, under pretence of affifting^y^®
the Arcadians, they entered Peloponnefus with a gallantfus with a
army, with Epaminondas and Pelopidas at their head, formidable
Here they were joined by the Arcadian and other con- army, but
federate forces; fo that the whole amounted to 40,000,3^ repui-
Rr fomefed-
Thebes.
16
ancient do¬
minions.
*7
THE [3
fome fay 56,000 men, besides great numbers of thofe
who followed the camp, rather for plunder than fight¬
ing, and were computed about 20,coo more. The
army was divided into four columns, and moved ftraight
towards Sellafia, the place of rendezvous, from which
they purfued their journey with fire and fword towards
Sparta. But here they were repulled by Agefilaus,
who was then returned to that metropolis.
To repair, in fome meaiure, this difgrace, and at
the fame time to leave lome lading monument which
iliould redound as much to his glory as to the moitin
cation of the Spartans, Epaminondas left not their ter¬
ritories till he had reftored the pofterity of the old
Meffenians to their ancient dominions, out of which they
ii, had been banilhed near 300 years 5 rebuilt their capi-
The Mefle- ^al, and left a ftrong garrifon for its defence. He
nians refto- was, however, nearly cut oft in his return by Iphicrates,
red to therr whom the Athenians had lent with 12,000 men to in¬
tercept him 5 but this laft loitered fo long at Corinth,
that the I hebans had paffed the defiles of Cenchreae,
the chief place where he could have obftrufted his re¬
treat had he taken pofleflion of it in proper time. Epa¬
minondas continued his march till he came in full view
of the city of Corinth. He found the roads choaked
up with trees, rocks, ftones, and every thing that could
render them impaflable 5 and the Corinthians well forti¬
fied, and refolute on a ftout defence. But he came fo
furioufiy upon them, notwithftanding all thefe difticul-
_ . _ bcs, that they abandoned all their entrenchments and
tid'imT11" outwor^s t0 t^e -f^ieSans» and ded into the city. Thi-
feated/ e" tiler t*1e^e Purfued them fword in hand, and made an hor¬
rid flaughter of them 5 infomuch that Corinth muft have
unavoidably fallen into their hands, had their generals
thought fit to purfue thefe advantages ; but whether
they were afraid of the Athenians falling upon them,
or apprehended fome dangerous ambuftr in a country
with which they were but indifferently acquainted, or
whether the army was too much weakened through fo
many fatigues, or laftly, whether the coldnefs of the
feafon, it being then the depth of winter, wmuld not
18 permit them to proceed farther, they immediately march-
Epaminon- ed towards Bceotia. This gave fuch an advantage to their
das and Pe-enemies, that they met with a very mortifying reception
^cVd wU~ al their return to Thebes, where they were both ar-
refteft, and feized as ftate-prifoners, for having pre-
iumed to prolong their command four months longer
than the time limited by law, which time took in almolt
the whole of their expedition from their firft entrance
into Peloponnefus. However, at laft, the judges being
alhamed to proceed any farther, they were both honour¬
ably acquitted.
1 his profecution had been chiefly carried on and en¬
couraged by Meneclides, a difeontented Theban, and a
bold and able fpeaker, who, by his artful calumnies at
the trial, had fo far prevailed wdth the judges as to get
Epaminondas deprived of the government of Boeotia for
a whole year, though he could not gain the fame advan-
tage againft Pelopidas, who was a greater favourite of
the people, as being his fenior.
By this delay the Spartans, with much difficulty, had
recovered themfelves from their great defeat at Leudfra,
newed with and fettled their affairs in as good a poflure as they
?arta- could ; but though they had repulfed the Thebans in
Peloponnefus, yet from the exploits they had performed
there, efpecially in the difmenibering the wdiole king-
ThebeJ.
gracef
Thebe
19
War re
14 1 THE
dom oi Meflenia from them, they had ftill caufe to fear
wiiat their forces might do under two fuch generals •
and had accordingly taken due care to ftrengthen thern-
lelves againft them, and to provide themlelves with a
great number of auxiliaries from other ftates, efpecially
Ecm that of Athens, with whom they had renewed
their old treaty, and had agreed that each fhould have
the command five days alternately. Soon after this
treaty the Arcadians renewed the war, and took Pal-
lene in Laconia by ftorm, put the garrilon to the fword,
and were prelently affifted by the Argives and Eleans,
and efpecially by the Thebans, who fent to them joco
foot and 500 horde under the command of Epaminon¬
das. This io alarmed the Athenians likewife, that they
immediately lent Gobrias with fome forces to oppofe hi's
paffage in good earneft j and he fo behaved himfelf a-
gainft the T hebans, that they were forced to abandon 2e
Peloponnefus a fecond time. This ill fuccefs gave frtlhThe The-
occafion to the enemies of Epaminondas to blame hisbans rePu*'
conduct in the higheft terms, notwithftanding the fin- ftd‘
gular bravery with which he and his troops had forced
the pafs. Even his friends cculd not but fufpedt him
of partiality for the Spartans, in not purfuing his ad¬
vantage over them, and making a greater flaughter of
them when he had it in his power ; whilft his enemies
made it amount to no lefs than treachery to his coun--^ 21 r
try : fo that their brave general was once more depriv-
ed of the government of Bceotia, and reduced to theded.
condition of a private man. He did not continue long
under this difgrace, before an occafton offered to make
his fervices again of fuch neceffity to the ftate, as to
gn-e him an opportunity to retrieve his fame, and
wipe off the ftain which his enemies had thrown upon
him.
1 he Theffalians, who had groaned fome time under
the tyranny of the ufurper Alexander, furnamed the 22
F/ierccan, fent an embaffy to Thebes to implore their peIopida*.
aid and proteflion ; upon which Pelopidas was imme-!Ez‘d
diately fent as ambaffador to expoftulate with him on 0f Pherata!
their behalf. He w^as then in Macedon, from whence
he took the young prince Philip, afterwards the celebra¬
ted monarch, in order to proteft and educate him •, and,
upon his return, marched dire&ly to Pharfalus in Thef-
faly, in order to puniffi the treachery of fome mercena-
nts, who had deferted the Thebans in that expedition ;
but when he came thither, he was furprifed to be met
by the tyrant at the head of a numerous army before
that city, whilft his own was but as an handful of men
in companion of it. How'ever, whether he fuppoftd, or
w7ould be thought to do fo, that Alexander came thither
to juftify himfelf, and anfwer to the complaints alleged
againft him, he went, with Ifmenias his colleague, to
him unarmed and unattended, not doubting but his cha-
radter as ambaffador from fo powerful a republic, joined
to his owm charadler and authority, would proteft them
from in full or violence : but he found himfelf miftaken ;
for Alexander had no fooner got them into his hands,
than he caufed them to be feized, and fent prifoners to
Phereea.
1 he. Thebans, highly refenting the indignity offered A Theban
to their ambaffadors, lent immediately an army intoamiy ^ent
Theffaly : but the generals were repulfed with great lofs
by the Phersean ufurper; and it was owing to Epami-feuted^"
nondas, who was among them only as a private centinel,
that they were not totally cut off. For the Thebans^
THE [ 315 ] THE
Thebes, finding themfelves in fuch imminent danger, which they
*■*—-v ' attributed to the incapacity of their generals, had imme¬
diately recourfe to him, whofe valour and experience
had been fo often tried ; and, partly by perfuafions and
intreaties, and partly by threats, obliged him to take
F.paminon- the command. This foon gave a different turn to their
casreltored. affairs, and converted their flight into a fafe and regular
retreat; for he took the horfe and light-armed foot, and
placed himfelf at their head in the rear, and charged the
enemy with fuch vigour and bravery, that he obliged
them to defift from their purfuit.
However, as the army had fuffered fuch lofs before
as not to be able to purfue them in their turn, he was
obliged to return with them to Thebes, with their pu-
fillanimous generals : where the latter were fined 12,000
drachms each, and the former w^as reinftated in the com¬
mand, and fent with a new reinforcement to repair the
late diflionour, and profecute their revenge. The news
of his being in full march on this errand greatly alarm¬
ed the tyrant; but Epaminondas, preferring the fafety
of his imprifoned colleague to all other confiderations,
forbore pufliing hoftilities to extremes, for fear of pro¬
voking the enemy to wreak all his fury on him : to pre¬
vent which, he contented himfelf for a while hovering
about wflth his army, and now and then with fuch flight
fldrmifhes as fhould intimidate the tyrant, and bring him
the fooner to make fome fatisfa&ory offers. Alexander
Refcues Pe- being fully convinced of the fuperiority of the Theban
lopidas. general, was glad to accept of a truce of 30 days, and
to reftore Pelopidas and Ifmenxas to him ; upon which
he immediately withdrew his forces, and returned with
them to Thebes.
By this time Thebes was raifed to a fufficient height
of reputation and glory to begin to aim in earnefl: at the
fovereignty of Greece. The main obftacle to it was,
that the other Hates grew fo jealous of her prefent great-
nefs, as to enter into the flrongeft alliances and confe¬
deracies to prevent its farther growth 5 fo that not being
able now to procure many allies at home, they made no
difficulty to feek for them abroad ; and the Lacedaemo¬
nians, by leading the van, gave them a plaufible pre¬
tence to follow their fteps, and procure an alliance with
Perfia, which at that time they found was ready to ac¬
cept of the offers on any terms •, the only queftion was,
which of the three ftates ffiould be preferred, Sparta,
Athens, or Thebes. At the fame time, the Thebans
propofed to their new' confederates to fend 1‘kewife pro¬
per deputies to the Perfnn court, in order to fupport
their refpeftive interefls *, which they readily agreed to.
Succefs of Thefe were the Arcadians, Eleans, and Argives ; at the
Pelopidas bead of whofe deputation Pelopidas was fent on the be-
filn court"* t^ie Thebans; which the Athenians being anpiif.
ed of, appointed Kvo cn their part. Thefe being all ar¬
rived at the Perflan court, began to purfue each their
refpe&ive interefts y but Pelopidas had by that time gain¬
ed fuch credit there, both for his Angular addrefs and
his extraordinary exploits, that he was diftinguiffied in a
particular manner from all the other deputies, and wTas
received by the king with manifeft marks of honour
and efteem. who freely owned himfelf convinced that
the Thebans were the people on whom he could moft
fafely depend ; and after having greatly applauded the
equity of his demands, ratified and confirmed them wflth
great readinefs, to the no fmall mortification of the other
fi&Les. The fubflance of them was, that the liberties
formerly granted to the other towns of Greece fliould Tliebes.
be confirmed j that Meffenia, in particular, thould con- f
tinue free and independent on the jurifditfion of Sparta $
that the Athenians Ihould lay up their fleet; and that
the Thebans fliould be looked upon as the ancient and
hereditary friends of Perfia.
The Thebans took advantage of the diflenfions which
prevailed among the Greeks as a pretence for increafing
their f *.ces j and Epaminondas thought it a proper °P"The^rhe-
portunity for his countrymen to make a bold effort to bans pro-
obtain the dominion at fea, as they had obtained it in apofe to
great meafure at land. He propofed it to them in a pub-bui^ a
lie affembly, and encouraged their hopes from the expe-^ect‘
rience of the Lacedemonians, who in Xerxes’s time had,
with ten fhips only at fea, gained the fuperiority over the
Athenians, who had no fewer than 200 $ and added,
that it would be a difgrace now to Thebes to fuffer twm
fuch republics to engrofs the empire of fo extenfive an
element, without putting in at lead for their ffiare of it.
The people readily came into his propofal, not without
extraordinary applaufe, and immediately ordered 100
galleys to be equipped ; and in the mean while fent him
to Rhodes, Chios, and Byzantium, to fecure thofe ftates
in their intereft, and get what affiftance he could from
them. His negotiations had all the fuccefs that could
be wflflied for, notwithftanding the ftrenucus oppofition
of the Athenians, and of their admiral Laches, who was
fent with a powerful fquadron againft him. But wffiat
more effeftually thwarted all his meafures, w^as the
work that they found for him at land, and the obliging
the Thebans to take part in the quarrels that then reign¬
ed among their neighbours: fo that whatever projefts
they had concerted, proved abortive for the prefent ;
and the death of Epaminondas, wffiich happened not
long after, put an effectual ftop to them.
During the abfence of that general, andof his colleague
Pelopidas, the Orchomenians, being fpirited up by fome
Theban fugitives, had formed a defign to change the
Theban government into an ariftocracy j and 300 horfe-
men of the former had been a&ually fent to put it in exe¬
cution. Their projeft, however, was timely difeovered
by the vigilance of the magiftrates, who caufed them to 2s
be feized, and put immediately to death. They next The city of
fent a fufficient force againft the city of Orchomenos, Orriiotne-
wflth orders to put all the mefi to death, and to fell the R0S razed*
women and children for flaves, which was pun&ually
done ; after which they razed that noble city to the
ground. Pelopidas W'as then on his way to Theffaly, atpei0pklas
the head of a powerful army, whither he had been fent marches a-
to affift the Theffalians, who ftill groaned under the ty- g,ainft thfi
ranny of Alexander the Pheraean, and had made ^everal j1 lian
brave efforts to recover their liberty, but had been ftilltyTan ’
overpowered by that ufurper. Being joined by the Thef-
falians, he encamped in the face of the enemy, though
far fuperior in number, and confifting of above 20,000
men. A fierce engagement foon enfued, in which both
fides fought with uncommon bravery. The place where
the battle w'as fought was called Cynocepka/a, from fe-
veral little hills on it, between which there ran a large
plam. Both fides endeavoured at firft to poft themfelves
on thefe eminences with their foot, whilft Pelopidas or¬
dered his cavalry to charge that of the enemy below j
which they did with fuch fuccefs, that they foon put
them to the rout, and purfued them over the plain. This
obliged the tyrant to gain the tops of the hills, where he
R r 2 greatly
Thebes,
Is killed.
31
Alexander
defeated,
32
and at laft
murdered.
33.
Ambition
of the The¬
bans.
THE [ 3
greatly annoyed the Theflalians that endeavoured to
force thofe afcents 5 fo that Pelopidas was obliged to
give over his purfuit to come to their relief. This im¬
mediately infpired the J, heflaliaris with frefh courape,
who began again to charge the enemy at feveral onlets;
and foon threw them into fuch diforder, that they were
iorced to give way. Pelopidas no fooner perceived the
advantage, than he began to look about for Alexander,
with a dcfign of engaging him. Having found sm out
as he was commanding his right wing, and endeavouring
to rally his men, he moved dire&ly to him 5 and being
got near enough to be heard by him, challenged him to
decide the battle by fingle combat with him. Alexan¬
der, inftead of accepting the offer, turned about, and
with all the fpeed he could ran to fcreen himfelf a-
mongft his guards. Upon this Pelopidas charged him
with fuch furious fpeed, that he obliged him to retire
farther, and (belter himfelf within the thickeft ranks j
the fight of which made him attack with frelh vigour,
and fight more defperately againit him. He tried in
vain feveral times to break through their ranks to reach
him, cutting down great numbers of thofe that came
forward to oppofe him : his eagernefs at length expofed
him fo far to the darts that were (hot at him at a di-
llance, that fome of them went quite through his ar¬
mour, and gave him a defperate wound or two, while
the reft advanced and ftabbed him in the bread with
their fpears.
It is Icarcely poftible for words to exprefs the grief and
defpair which not only his brave Thebans, but likewiie
the Theffalians and other allies, (howed at the fight of
their (lain general : fome of the latter, who had perceiv¬
ed the danger he was expofed to, came down the hill
with all poftible fpeed to his relief; but when they per¬
ceived that they were come too late to fave him, both
they and the reft of the little army thought on nothing
now but to revenge his death. They rallied accordingly,
botn horfe and foot, as quick as poflible, and began to
charge tne enemy afrefh, and with iuch defperate fury,
that they at length gained a complete vidtory over them*
and killed above 3000 of them in the purfuit, befides
a much greater number which they had (lain on the field
of battle, though they (till looked upon all thefe advan¬
tages as vaftly too fmall to compenfate the lofs of their
brave general.
The news of his death had no fooner reached Thebes,
than the whole city was feen in as deep a mourning as
his army. However, they fent a reinforcement to it of
7000 foot and 700 horfe, as well to revenge the death
of that general, as to improve the vidiory he had gained
over the enemy ; by the help of which they fell fo fu-
rioufly on them, that they quickly broke and totally de¬
feated the (battered remains of Alexander’s army. Plere-
upon he was (orced to fue for peace, and to accept it on
(uch conditions as the conquerors thought fit to impofe.
He was at length difpatched in his bed by his wife
ihebe, affifted by her brothers, about feven years after
his defeat. His body was afterwards dragged along
the ftreets, trodden under foot, and left a prey to the
dogs.
All this while the Thebans were watching to improve
every commotion that^happened, every fuccefs they met
with, to the forwarding of their then reigning and fa¬
vourite projedl, of increaimg their power above all the
reft, and in their turn to give laws to Greece. Their
r<5 ] THE
late fuccefs in Thefialy, and the rupture between the Thebes.
Arcadians and Manlineans at the fame time, about fome v
confecrated money which the former had taken out of
the temple of Olympias to pay their troops employed a-
gainft the Eleans, and which the latter called a down-
light laoilege, befides other difeords that reigned in the
other (tates of Greece, gave freih encouragement to
i hvoes to fet up for arbitrefs in thofe difputes 5 and fo
much the more, as thoie who had embezzled the facred
money, and wanted rather to embroil matters than to
have them brought to light, fent that republic word that
the Arcadians were juft upon the point of revolting to
the Spartans, and advifed them to come and put an im¬
mediate flop to it. At the fame time they difpatched
(ome private dire&ions to a Theban officer at Tegea, to
appiehend feveral of their own people as difturbers of
the peace. This was accordingly done, and feveral emi¬
nent perfons were confined as prifoners of ftate : they
were foon after difeharged, and loud complaints were
made againft (uch arbitrary and unjuft proceedings. The
officer was accufed before the Theban fenate of having
intermeddled in their affairs, and endeavoured to inter¬
rupt the good correfpondence betwen the two (fates. It
was even infifted on by fome of the Tegeans, that he
(hould be indiffed and proceeded againft by his princi¬
pals 5 whilft the more moderate fort, who forefaw the
coniequences that were likely to attend fuch appeals,
and that it would infallibly bring the Thebans upon
them, loudly protefted againft their marching into their
territories, and did all they could to prevent it. The
I hebans, however, were become too powerful and am¬
bitious to mifs fo fair an opportunity of getting once
more footing in Peloponnefus, as they had long ago pre¬
meditated j and Jipaminondas was fo far from making a j?r„n,
fecret of their defign, that he told the Arcadian depu-d;!s difplea-
ties in juftification of it, that as it was on their account fes the
that the Thebans engaged in the war, they had aftedftates of
treacheroufly with them in making peace with Athens Greece-
without their confent: however, that when he had join¬
ed his army on his march into Peloponnefus to affift
his friends, he wmuld foon fee what proofs the Arca¬
dians would give of their fidelity. This fpeech did not
fail to alarm them greatly ; efpecially as it was fpoken
in iuch a magifterial ftyle and threatening tone. Even
thofe who were beft affeaed to the Thebans could not
forbear expreffing their diilike of it j and all that had
the welfare of Peloponnefus at heart readily agreed
with the Mantineans, that there was no time to be loft
to ufe all proper means to prevent the impending (form.
Athens and Sparta were accordingly applied to, andAcombi-
were eafily prevailed upon to affift the Mantineans, and nation
to come into a drift confederacy againft the Thebans ; againft
and to prevent all difputes about the command of the ^kebcs*
army, it was agreed that each ftate (hould have it in its
own territories 5 which plainly (hows how terrified they
all were at the apprehenfion of a frefh invafion of the
fhebans: for this was a point which neither the Spar¬
tans nor Athenians would have fo readily given up to
the Arcadians, though thefe had formerly as ftrenuoufiy
infifted upon it, even when they were almoft reduced to
the laft extremity, and had never been able to obtain it
till now. But Epaminondas wTas then in full march at
the head of his Boeotian troops, with fome Eubcean auxi-
liaiies, and a body of ftout Iheffalian horfe •, and was
moreover to be joined by the Meffenians, Argives, and
feveral
Thebes.
36
Epaminon-
das makes
an unl'uc-
cefsful at¬
tempt on
Sparta,
37
and on
Mantinea.
38
Battle of
Mantinea.
3?
Fpaminon-
das killed.
THE [ 31
feveral other nations, as foon as he tiad entered Pelo-
ponnefus. The confederate army againft him had or¬
dered their rendezvous at Mantinea, the place which
they naturally concluded would be firft attacked, as be¬
ing the chief feat of thole who had revolted from the
Thebans. But whilft they were fecuring themfelves on
that fide, Epaminondas, who wifely confidcred how far
this confederacy and expedition mull have drained the
city of Sparta of its main ftrength, broke up privately
from Nemrea, where be had lain for fome time encamp¬
ed, and marched all that night with a defign to have
furprifed that important capital: but his project being
timely difeovered, the vigilant king took care to d:fcon-
cert it *, fo that, though the Theban general made feve¬
ral vigorous a {faults on that city, he was lo iloutly re-
pulfed, and the Spartans behaved with fuch intrepid va¬
lour, that he was forced to retire and turn Iris thoughts
againlt Mantinea, which he judged by this time to have
been quite defencelefs. He judged rightly indeed j for
the place was not only drained of its troops, but like-
wife of its inhabitants, who took that opportunity, whilft
the feene of war was in Laceclemon, to gather in their
harveft, and were fcattered all over the country ; fo that
he would not have met with any difficulty in gaining the
town, had not the Athenian auxiliaries come unexpedt-
edly to its relief, and given him a frefti repulfe.
Thefe two laft defeats greatly exafperated the Theban
general, who had never before experienced Inch difalters,
and could not but forefee that they would not only lef-
fen his reputation with his allies, but, if not timely re¬
trieved, would fully the glory of all his former exploits.
What added to his prefent difficulties was, that the time
allotted him for his expedition was almoft expired j lo
that he had but a Ihort fpace left to undertake fome
brave atchievement, which might recover his and his
country’s honour, and keep up the fpirits of his auxili¬
aries and thefe under his protedlion. He was moreover
got very far into his enemy’s country, and faw plain
enough how narrowly they watched all his motions, and
how well prepared they were to oppofe him whatever at¬
tempt he refolved upon, whether to attack them or to
retreat. Under all thefe difficulties, he rightly confider-
ed, that he muft immediately refolve upon a decifive
battle •, in which, if his priftine fortune followed him,
he might at once retrieve his affairs, and make himfelf
mafter of Peloponnefus; or, if that failed him, as it late¬
ly had done, fall honourably in the attempt. In this
engagement Epaminondas made the wifeft difpofition of
his troops, attacked and fought with the moft intrepid
courage and conduft, and had opened himfelf a way
through the Spartan phalanxes, thrown them into the
utmoft confufion, and made a terrible {laughter of them,
infomuch that the field of battle was covered with their
wounded and {lain, when, in the heat of the fight, ha¬
ving ventured himfelf too far in order to give them a
total overthrow, the enemy rallied again, pouring with
their whole fury three volleys of darts at him, fome of
which he drew out and returned to them, till at length,
being covered with wounds, and weakened with the lofs
of fo much blood, he received a mortal wound from a
javelin, and was with great difficulty refeued from the
enemy by his brave Thebans, and brought alive, though
fpeechlefs, into his tent. As foon as he had recovered
himfelf, he alked his friends that were about him what
was become of his ffiield 5 and being told that it was
7 ] THE
fafe, he beckoned to have it brought to him, and kiffed i <
it. ’ He next inquired which fide had gained the vie- v
tory ; and being anfwered, The Thebans; he replied,
Then all is well: and upon obferving fome of his friends
bewail his untimely death, and leaving no children be¬
hind him, he is faid to have anfwered, \ es j I have lelt
two fair daughters, the vidlory of JLeuftra, and this of
Mantinea, to perpetuate my memory. Soon after this,
upon drawing the point of the javelin out of his body,
he expired.
The confequence of this great general s fall, and of
this bloody fight in which neither party could boaft any
great advantage over the other, but a great lofs ol men
on both tides, infomuch that Xenophon makes it a
drawn battle, was, that both parties agreed on a ceffation
of arms, and parted, as it were by confent, to take care
of their wounded and {lain. J he Inebans indeed thus
far gained the greater fhare of glory, that they renewed
the fight, and after a moft defperate conteft, gained the
victory over thofe Spartans that oppofed them, and re¬
feued the body of their dying general out.of their hands.
However, an effeflual end was put to this bloody war,
and a general peace agreed on by all but Sparta 5 who
refufed it only becaufe the Meffenians were included in 40
it. But as to the Thebans, they had no great reafon to^e^011"
boaft of this dear-bought viftory, fince their power andclu e '
glory began to decline from that very time j to that it
may be truly faid, that it rofe and fet with their great
general. 41
On the death of Epaminondas, the Thebans relapfed State^of ^
into their former ftate of ina&ivity and indolence: a™*^/pmfent
at laft having ventured to oppofe Alexander the Great, tjinei
their city was taken, and the inhabitants flaughtered for
feveral hours, after which the buildings were deftroyed.
It was rebuilt by Caffander, but never afterwards made
any confiderable figure among the ftates of Greece.
About the year 146 B. C. it fell under the power, of
the Romans, under which it continued till the extindftion
of their empire by the Turks, It is now called Thive,
and is nothing to what it was formerly j yet it is four
miles in circumference, but fo full of the ruins, that
there are not above 4Q00 1 urks and Chriftians in it.
It is now famous for a fine fort of white clay, of which
they make bowls for pipes after the Turkiffi faftiion.
They are never burnt, but dry naturally, and become
as hard as a ftone. There are two mofques in Thebes, ■>
and a great many Greek churches. It is feated be¬
tween two fmall rivers, in E. Long. 23. 40. N. Lat.
38' 1 /•
Thebes, in Egypt, one of the moft renowned cities
of the ancient world. It was alfo called Diofpolis, or
the city of Jupiter, and was built, according to fome,
by Ofiris, according to others by Bufiris. Its length, Anaent .
in Strabo’s time, was 80 furlongs, or ten miles j but this
was nothing in comparifon of its ancient extent, before^,,
it was ruined by Cambyfes, which, we are told, was no
lefs than 420 ftadia, or 52 miles and an half. The
wealth of this city was fo great, that, after it had been
plundered by the Perfians, what was found, on burning
the remains of the pillage, amounted to above 300 ta¬
lents of gold and 2300 of filver.
Mr Bruce vifited the ruins of this celebrated city j
but informs us that nothing now remains except four
temples, and thefe neither fo entire nor magnificent as
fome others at a place called Dendera. Thebes has
been
THE [31
Thebes, been celelirated by Homer for its bundred gates ; but
, , Mr Bruce informs us, that no veftiges of thefe are now
remaining, neither can we difcover the foundation of
any wall it ever had j “ and as for the horfemen and
chariots it is faid to have fent out, all the Thebaid fown
with wheat would not have maintained one half of them.
Thebes, at lead the ruins of the temples called Medinet
Tabu, are built in a long ftretch of about a mile broad,
{Bruce's mo^ parfimonioufly chofen at the fandy foot of the
Travels. mountains. The Horti Penjiles, or hanging gardens,
were furely formed upon the Tides of thefe hills, then
fupplied with water by mechanical devices. The utmoft
is done to fpare the plain, and with great reafon 5 for all
the fpace of ground this ancient city has had to maintain
its myriads ol horfes and men, is a plain of three quarters
of a mile broad betiveen the town and the river, upon
which plain the water rifes to the height of four and five
feet. All this pretended populoufnefs of ancient Thebes
I therefore believe to be fabulous.”
Mr Bruce, after examining the ground on which
Thebes is fuppofed to have flood, thinks that it had no
walls, and that confequently Homer’s ftory of its having
an hundred gates is mifunderflood. The mountains of
the Thebaid ftand clofe behind the town, not in a ridge,
but Handing Angle, fo that you can go round each of
them. A hundred of thefe are faid to be hollowed out
for fepulchres and other purpofes. Thefe, he thinks,
were the hundred gates of Homer ; in proof of this they
are ftill called by the natives Beeban el Me/uke, “ the
ports or gates of the kings.”
All that is faid of Thebes by poets or hiftorians after
the days of Homer is meant of Diofpolis, which rvas
built by the Greeks long after Thebes was deftroyed,
as its name teftifies j though Diodorus fays it was built
by Bufiris. It was on the e.afl fide of the Nile, whereas
ancient Thebes was on the weft, though both are confi-
dered as one city ; and Strabo fays, that the river runs
through the middle of Thebes, by which he means be¬
tween Old Thebes and Diofpolis.
THEFT, or Simple Larceny, is “ the felonious
taking and carrying away of the perfonal goods of ano¬
ther.” This oflence certainly commenced then, when¬
ever it was, that the bounds of property, or laws of meum
and tumn, were eflablifhed. How far fuch an offence
can exift in a ftate of nature, where all things are held
to be common, is a queftion that may be folved with
very little difficulty. The difturbance of any individual
in the occupation of what he has feized to his prefent
ufe, feems to be the only offence of this kind incident to
fuch a ftate. But, unqueftionably, in facial communi¬
ties, when property is eftabliffied, any violation of that
property is fubjeft to be punifhed by the laws of fociety
though how far that punifhment fhould extend is matter
of confiderable doubt.
By the Jewifh law it was only puniffied with a pe¬
cuniary fine, and fatisfaftion to the party injured j
and in the civil law, till fome very late conftitutians,
we never find the punifhment capital. The laws of
D-iaco at Athens pumlhed it with death : but his laws
were faid to be written with blood : and Solon after¬
wards changed the penalty to a pecuniary mulft. And
fo the. Attic law in general continued *, except that once,
in a time of dearth, it was made capital to break into a
garden and fteal figs: but this law, and the informers
•againfl; the offence, grew fo odious, that from them all
8 ] THE
malicious informers were ftyled fycophants; a name Theft,
which we have much perverted from its original mean- —y~“
ing. from theie examples, as well as the reafon of tl e
thing, many learned and fcrupulous men have queftion-
ed the propriety, if not lawlulnefs, of infiifting capital
puniihment for Ample theft. And certainly the natu¬
ral pumfhment for injuries to property feems to be the
lufs of the offender’s own property; which ought to be
univetfally the cafe, were all men’s fortunes equal. But
as thole who have no property themfelves are generally
the moft ready to attack the property of others, it has
been found neceffary, inftead of a pecuniary, to fubfti-
tute a corporal puniffiment; yet how far this corporal
punifhment ought to extend, is what has occafioned the
doubt. Sir Thomas More and the Marquis Beccaria,
at the diftance of more than two centuries, have very
fenfibly propofed that kind of corporal puniihment which
approaches the ncareft to a pecuniary fatisfaclion, viz.
a temporary imprifonment, with an obligation to labour,
firft for the party robbed, and afterwards for the public,
in works of the moft: flaviih kind ; in order to oblige ti e
ofiender to repair, by his induftry and diligence, the de¬
predations he had committed upon private property and
public order. But, notwithftanding all the remonftran-
ces of fpeculative politicians and moralifts, the punifhment
of theft ftill continues throughout the greateft part of
Europe to be capital : and Puffendorf, together with
Sir Matthew Hale, are of opinion that this muff always
be referred to the prudence of the legiflature ; who are
to judge, fay they, when crimes are become fo enormous
as -.to require fuch fanguinaiy reftriftions. Yet both
thefe writers agree, that fuch punifhment fhould be
cautioufly inflicted, and never without the utmoft ne-
ceffity.
The Anglo-Saxon laws nominally punifhed theft \Vith
death, if above the value of twelvepence : but the cri¬
minal was permitted to redeem his life by a pecuniary
ranfom ; as, among their anceftors the Germans, by a
ftated number of cattle. But in the 9th year of Hen¬
ry I. this power of redemption was taken away, and all
perfons guilty of larceny above the value of twelvepence
were.directed to be hanged ; which law continues in force
to this day. lor though the inferior fpecies of theft, or
petit larceny, is only punifhed by whipping at common
law, or (by flat. 4 Geo. I. c. 11.) may be extended to
tranfportation for feven years, as is alfo exprefsly direft-
ed in the cafe of the Piate-glafs Company ; yet the pu-
nilhment of grand larceny, or the ftealing above the va¬
lue of twelvepence (which fum was the ftandard in the
time of King Athelftan, 800 years ago), is at common
law regularly death : which, confidering the great in¬
termediate alteration in the price or denomination of mo¬
ney, is undoubtedly a very rigorous conftitution 3 and
made Sir Henry Spelman (above a century fince, when
money was at twice its prefent rate) complain, that
while every thing elfe was rifen in its nominal va¬
lue, and become dearer, the life of m an had continually
grown cheaper. It is true, that the mercy of juries will
often make them ftrain a point, and bring in larceny to
be under the value of twelvepence, when it is really of
much greater value : but this, though evidently juftifi-
able and proper when it only reduces the prefent nomi¬
nal value of money to the ancient ftandard, is otherwife
a kind of pious perjury, and does not at all excu/e our
common law in this refpeft from the imputation of f'e-
verity,
THE [ 310 ] -THE
Theft verity, but rather ftrongly confefles the charge. It is
likewife true, that by the merciful extenfions of the be-
. ' ^!'"u nciit of clergy by our modern ftatute-law, a perfon who
commits a fimple larceny to the value of thirteen pence
or thirteen hundred pounds, though guilty of a capital
offence, iliall be excufed the pains of death j but this is
only for the firtl offence. And in many cafes of fimple
larceny the benefit of clergy is taken away by ftatu(e:
as from horfe-ftealing in the principals and acceflbries
both before and after the fa£l ; theft by great and no¬
torious thieves in Northumberland and Cumberland 3
taking woollen cloth from off the tenters, or linens,
fuflians, calicoes, or cotton goods, from the place of ma-
nufafture (which extends, in the lail cafe, to aiders, affif-
ters, procurers, buyers, and receivers) ; felonioully driving
away, or otherwife dealing one or more iheep or other
cattle fpecified in the afts, or killing them with intent to
Heal the whole or any part of the carcafe, or aiding or
affiiting therein ; thefts on navigable rivers above the
value of forty ihiilings, or being prefent, aiding and af-
fifting thereat ; plundering veffels in diftrefs, or that
have buffered fhipwreck 5 dealing letters lent by the poll 5
and alfo Healing deer, hares, and conies, under the pe¬
culiar circumftances mentioned in the Waltham black
a£t. Which additional feverity is owing to the great
malice and mifchief of the theft in fome of thefe inllances-,
and others, to the difficulties men would otherwife he
under to preferve thofe goods, which are fo eafily carried
off. Upon which latl principle the Roman law punifhed
more feverely than other thieves the Abigei or Healers of
cattle, and the Balnearii or inch as Hole the clothes of
perfons who were wafhing in the public baths ; both
which conHitutions feem to be borrowed from the laws
of Athens. And fo, too, the ancient Goths punifhed
with unrelenting feverity thefts of cattle, or of corn that
was reaped and left in the field : fuch kind of property
(which no human induHry can fufficiently guard) being
efleemed under the peculiar cuflody of heaven.
THEFT-Bote (from the Saxon theof i. e. fur, and
bate, compenfatio), is the receiving of a man’s goods again
from n thief, after Holer, or other amends not to profe-
cute the felon, and to the intent the thief may efcape ;
which is an offence punifhable with fine and imprifon-
ment, &c.
I HELIGONUM, a genus of plants belong ing to
the clafs moncecia, and order of polyandria ; and in the
natural fyflem ranging under the 53d order, Scabridee,
See Botany Index,
THEME, denotes the fubjeef of an exercife for
young fludents to wj-ite or compofe on.
THEMISON, a phyfician of Laodicea, a difciple of
Afclepiades. He founded the methodic feef, with a
view to the more eafiiy teaching and pra&ifing the art of
medicine. (See Medicine, nD 37.). Themifon gave
the firfi account of diacodium, which was prepared of
the juice and decoftion of poppy-heads and honey.
THEMIS FlUS. an ancient Greek orafor and phi-
lofopher, a native of Paphlagonia, w-ho flourifliedin the
4th century. He had great interefl and favour with the
emperors in his time, and though a heathen, was of a
very tolerating fpirit. He taught for many years at Con-
flantinople, of which city he w7as made pi mfeiR bv Ju¬
lian and I heodo.ms} and lived to a great age. IVIorc
than 30 of his orations are Hill extant, befide commen¬
taries on feveral parts of AriHotle’s works.
' THEMISTOCLES, the renowned Athenian admi- Tliemifto*-
ral, general, and patriot, who gained the battle of Sa- c?es
lamis againH the Perfians. Being baniihed his country ' ritus.
by his ungrateful fellow-citizens, he fled to Artaxerxes1 f ♦
king of Perfia : but, in order to avoid taking up arms
againfl his country, he flew himfelf, 464 B. C. See
Attica, n° 76, et feq.
THEOBALD, Lewis, the fon of an attorney at Sit-
tingbourn in Kent, was a well-known writer and critic
in the early part of the 18th century. He engaged in
a paper called the Cenfor, publifhed in Milt’s Journal,
w'herein, by delivering his opinions with too little referve
concerning fome eminent wits, he expefed himfelf to their
refentment. Upon the publication of Pope’s Homer, he
praifed it in terms of extravagant admiration, yet after¬
wards thought proper to abufe it as earneftly for w'hich
Pope at fiiH made him the hero of his Dunciad, though
he afterwards laid him afide for another. Mr Theobald
not only expofed himfelf to the lafhes of Pope, but wa¬
ged war with Mr Dennis, who treated him more rough¬
ly, though with lefs fatire. He neverthelefs publilhed
an edition of Shakefpeare, in which he correfted, with
great pains and ingenuity, many faults that had crept
into that poet’s writings. This edition is flill in great
efleem ; being in general preferred .to thofe publilhed by
Pope, Warburton, and Hanmer. He alio wrote fome
plays, and tranflated others from the ancients.
THEOBROMA, a genus of plants belonging to the 1
clafs of polyadelphia, and order of pentandria ; and in
the natural fyftem ranging under the 37th order Colum-
nferce. See Botany Index.
THEOCRACY, in matters of government, a Hate
governed by the immediate direction of God alone :
fuch was the ancient government of the Jews before the
time of Saul.
THEOCRITUS, the father of pafioral poetry, was
born at Syracufe in Sicily. Two of his poems afeertain
his age •, one addrefled to Hiero king of Syracufe, wdio
began his reign about 275 years before ChriH ; and the
other to Ptolemy Phila\ielphus king of Egypt. Hiero,
though a prince dillinguiflied in arms and political wif-
dom, does not feem to have been a patron of learning.
This is fuppofed to have given birth to the 16th Idyl-
lium. From Syracufe Theocritus went to Alexandria,
where he feems to have found a munificent patron in
Ptolemy Philadelphus, if wre may judge from the pane¬
gyric which he compofed on that prince (the 17th Idyl-
lium). It has been faid that Theocritus was Hrangled
by Hiero, but we have not found evidence of this.
t he compofitions of this poet are diflinguilbed, among
the ancients, by the name of Idyi/iums, in order to ex-
prefs the fmalinefs and variety of their natures : they
would now be called MfceUanies, or Poems on feveral
Occafons. The firfl nine and the eleventh are confeffed
to be true paftorals, and hence Theocritus has ufually
paffed for nothing more than a pafloral poet ; yet he is
manifeflly robbed of a great part of his fame, if his
other poems have not their proper laurels. For though
the greater part of his Idylliums cannot be called the
fongs of ihepberds, yet they have certainly their refpec-
tive merits. His paflor ds ought to be confidered as the
foundation of his credit } upon this claim he will be ad¬
mitted for the finiflier as well as the inventor of bis art*
and will be acknowledged to have excelled all his imita-
tors as much as originals ufually do their copies.
Tho
THE [ 320 ] THE
The works of this poet were firft publilhed in folio by
Aldus Manutius at Venice in 1495. A more elegant
and corrcft edition was printed by Henry Stephens at
Paris in 1566. An edition was publithed at Leipfic in
1^55, with valuable notes by the learned Reilke. lic.t
what will moll highly gratify the admirers of paftoral
poetry, is an edition publithed in 1770? 2 vols 410, by
Mr Thomas Wharton. It is accompanied by the fcho-
lia of the beft editors, and the different readings of 15
MSS.
THEODOLITE, a mathematical inffrument lor
meafuring heights and diftances. See Mensuration
and Surveying. .
THEODORE, king of Cornea, Baron Nieuhoff in
the county of La Marc in Weftphalia. Pie hau his edu¬
cation in the French fervice, and afterwards went to
Spain, where he received fome marks ox regard from
the duke of Riperda and Cardinal Alberoni j but being
of an unfettled difpolition, he quitted Spain, and travel¬
led into Italy, England, and Holland, in fearch of
fome new adventure. Pie at laft fixed his attention on
Corfica, and formed the fcheme of rendering himfelf
ioveriign of that ifland. lie was a man of abilities and
addrefs; and having fully informed himfeli of every
thing relating to Corfica, went to lunis, where he fell
upon means to procure forne money and arms •, and then
went to Leghorn, from whence he wrote a letter to the
Corfican chiefs Giafferi and Paoli, offering confiderable
afliffance to the nation if they would ele£t him as their
fovereign. This letter was configned to Count Dome¬
nico Rivarola, who a£ted as Corfican plenipotentrary in
Xufcany, and he gave for aniwer, that if Theodore
brought the aflritance he promrfed to the Corficans, they
would very willingly make him king.
Upon this he, without lofs of timejet fail, and landed
at Tavagna in the fpring sf the year 1736. Pie was a
man of a very ftately appearance, and the Turk'fir drefs
he wore added to the dignity of his mein. He had a
few attendants with him ; and his manners were fo en¬
gaging, and his offers fo plaufible, that he was pro¬
claimed king of Corfica before Count Rivarola’s dif-
patches arrtved to inform the chiefs of the terms upon
which he had agreed. He brought w ith him about 1000
zequins of Tunis, befrdes fome arms and ammunition,
and made magnificent promrfe,s of foreign aflrftance j
whence the Corficans, wdro were glad of any fupport,
willingly gave into his fchemes. iheodore inftantry
affirmed every mark of royal dignity. He had his guards
and his officers of ftate •, he conferred titles of honour4,
and ftruck money both of filver and copper. The frl-
ver pieces were few in number, and can now hardly be
met with j the copper coinshave on one fide T. R. that
is, “ Theodorus Rex,” with a double branch croffed, and
round it this infeription, Pro BONO PUBLICO Re. Co.
that is, “ For the public good of the kingdom of Cor¬
fica on the other fide is the value of the piece j Cinque
folidi, or five fous.
The Genotfe wrere not a little confounded with this
unexpefted adventurer. They publilhed a violent mani-
feifo againft Theodore, treating him with great contempt •,
but at the fame time (bowing they w'ere alarmed at his
appearance. Theodore replied, in a manifefto, wnth all
the calmnefs and dignity of a monarch 5 but after being
about eight months in Corfica, perceiving that the peo¬
ple began to cool in their affeftions towards him, he af-
4
fembled Iris chiefs, and declared he would keep them no Theodore,
.longer in a ftate of uncertainty, being determined to yheodoret.
feek in perfon the fupport he fo long expedled. He let-
tied an adminiftration during his abfence, recommended
unity in the ftrongeft terms, and left the ifland with re¬
ciprocal affurances of fidelity and affeilion. He went to
Holland, where he was fo fuccefsful as to obtain credit
from feveral rich merchants, particularly Jews, who
trufted him with cannon and other warlike ftores to a
great value, under the charge of a fupercargo. With
thefe he returned to Corfica in 1739 j but by this time
the French, as auxiliaries to the Genoefe, had become
fo powerful in the ifland, that though Theodore threw
in his fupply of warlike ftores, he did not incline to ven¬
ture his perfon, the Genoefe having fet a high price on
his head. He therefore again departed 5 and after many-
unavailing attempts to recover his crown, at length chole
for retirement a country where he might enjoy the par¬
ticipation of that liberty which he had fo vainly endea¬
voured to give his Corficans 5 but hisfituation in England
by degrees grew- wretched, and he was reduced fo low- as to
be feveral years before his death a prifoner for debt in the
King’s Bench. At length, to the honour of fome gen¬
tlemen of rank, a charitable contribution was fet on foot
for him in the year 1753. Mr Bofwell obferves, that
Mr Horace Walpole generoufly exerted himfelf for the
unhappy Theodore, and wrote a paper in Ihe World
with great elegance and humour, foliciting a contribu¬
tion for the unhappy monarch in diftrels, to be paid to
Mr Robert Dodfley bookfeller, as lord high treafurer.
This brought him a very handfome fum, and he was fet
at liberty. That gentleman adds, that Mr Walpole has
the original deed, by which Theodore made over the
kingdom of Corfica in fecurity to his creditors^ and that
he has alfo the great feal of the kingdom. Theodore
died in 1756, and was buried in St Anne’s churchyard,
Weftminfter ; where, in 1757, a fimple unadorned monu¬
ment of marble was eredled to his memory by a gentle¬
man, with an infeription, which,after mentioning fome of
the above particulars, concludes with the following lines ;
The grave, great teacher, to a level brings
Fie roes and beggars, galley-flaves and kings :
But Theodore this moral learn’d ere dead, 1
Fate pour’d its leffbn on his living head, >
Bellow’d a kingdom and deny’d him bread. J
THEODORET, bilhop of St Cyricus in Syria, in
the 4th century, and one of the molt learned fathers of
the church, was born in the year 386, and was the dif-
ciple of Theodorus Mopfueftia and St John Chryfoftom.
Having received holy orders, he was with difficulty per-
fuaded to accept of the bifhopric of St Cyricus, about
the year 420. He difeovered great frugality in the ex-
pences of his table, drefs, and furniture, but fpent con¬
fiderable fums in improving and adorning the city of
Cyricus. He erefted two large bridges, public baths,
fountains, and aquedu&s, and laboured with great zeal
and fuccefs in his diocefe. Yet his zeal was not confi¬
ned to his own church : he went to preach at Antioch
and the neighbouring towns \ where he became admired
.for his eloquence and learning, and had the happinefs to
convert multitudes of people. He wrote in favour of
John of Antioch and the Neftorians, againft Cyril’s
Twelve Anathemas : he afterwards attacked the opinions
of Neftorius. and was depofed in the fynod held by the
Eutychians,
THE [ 321 ] THE
Tkeodoret, Eutydiians at Ephefus j but was again reftored by the
Theodofius generai council of Chalcedon, in which he was prefent,
jn Js thought that he died foon after ; though
others fay that he lived till the year 457. There are
Hill extant Theodoret’s excellent Commentary on St
Paul’s Epiitles, and on feveral other books of the Holy
Scriptures. 2. His Ecclefiaftical Hiftory from the time
of Arius to Theodofius the Younger. 3. The Hiftory
of the famous Anchorites of his time. 4. Epiftles.
5. Difcourfes on Providence. And, 6. An excellent
treatife againft the Pagans, entitled, De Curandis Grce-
corum AffeBibus; and other works. The belt edition
of all which is that of Father Sirmond in Greek and
Latin, in 4 vols folio.
THEODOSIUS I. called the Great, was a native
of Spain. The valour he had (hown, and the great fer-
vices he had done to the empire, made Gratian, when at¬
tacked by the Goths and Germans, to admit him as a Theogony,
partner in the government. He received the purple in , Iheogm^
379, aged 43. See Constantinople, n° 77—88. ^
THEOGONY, from 0sej, God, and yov>j, “ feed,
offspring,” that branch of the heathen theology which
taught the genealogy of their gods.
Hefiod gives us the ancient theogony in a poem under
that title. Among the moft ancient writers, Dr Burne
obferves that theogony and cofmogony fignified the
fame thing. In effeft, the generation of the gods of the
ancient Perfians, fire, water, and earth, is apparently no
other than that of the primary elements.
THEOGNIS, an ancient Greek poet of Megara
in Achaia, flourifhed about the 59th Olympiad, 144
B. C. We have a moral work of his extant, containing
a fummary of precepts and reiledlions, ufually found in
the collections of the Greek minor poets.
THEOLOGY
fJefuution T $ a Greek word and fignifies that fcience
Jh which treats of the being and attributes of God, his
relations to us, the difpenfations of his providence, his
will with refpeft to our actions, and his purpofes with
refpedt to our end. The word was firft ufed to denote
the fables of thofe poets and philofophers who wrote of
the genealogy and exploits of the gods of Greece. It
was afterwards adopted by the earlieft writers of the
Chriftian church, who ftyled the author of the Apoca-
lypfe, by way of eminence, « feeAeyas, the Divine.
Although every pagan nation of antiquity had fome
tutelary deities peculiar to itfelf, they may yet be confi-
dered as having all had the fame theology, fince an in¬
tercommunity of gods was univerfally admitted, and the
heavenly bodies were adored as the dii majorum gentium
over the whole earth. This being the cafe, we are hap¬
pily relieved from treating, in the fame article, of the
truths of Chriftianity and the fictions of paganifm, as
we have elfewhere traced idolatry from its fource, and
fliewn by what means “ the foolilh hearts of men be¬
came fo darkened that they changed the glory of the in¬
corruptible God into an image made like to corruptible
man, and to birds, and four-footed beafts, and creeping
things.” See Polytheism.
The abfurdities and inconfiftency of the pretended re¬
velation of the Arabian impoftor have been fufficiently
expofed under the words Alcoran and Mahometa-
a NISM 5 fo that the only theology of which we have to treat
Ghriftian at prefent is the Chriffian theology, which comprehends
theology, whJcfo ;s commonly called natural, and that which
is revealedir\ the fcriptures of the Old and New Tefla-
ments. Thefe taken together compofe a body of fcience
lo important, that in comparifon with it all other fci-
ences fink into infignificance for without a compe¬
tent knowledge of the attributes of God, of the feveral
relations in which he (lands to us, and of the ends for
which wre were created, it is obvious that we muft wan¬
der through life like men groping in the dark, ftrangers
to the road on which we are travelling, as well as to the
fate awaiting us at the end of our journey.
But if this knowledge be neceffary to all Chriftians,
it is doubly fo to thofe who are appointed to feed the
Vol. XX. Part I.
flock of Chrifl, and to teach the ignorant what they are to be ftu-
to believe, and what to do, in order to w'ork out their^1^ (jare''
own falvation. The wifdom and piety of our anceltors teho^e
have accordingly founded profelforfliips of theology intended for
all our univerfities, W'here the principles of our religion the fervice
are taught in a fyftematic and fcientific manner j and0^1^
the church has ordained, that no man (hall be admittedc"urc a‘
to the office of a preacher of the gofpel who has not at¬
tended a regular courfe of fuch theological leflures.
It mult not, however, be fuppofed, that, by merely
liftening to a courfe of lectures howrever able, any man
will become an accompliftied divine. The principles of
this fcience are to be found only in the word and works
of God ; and he who would extract them pure and un-
fophifticated, muft dig for them himfelf in that exhauft- 4
lefs mine. To fit a man for this important inveftiga-Pfevious
tion, much previous knowledge is requifite. He muftkno'y^Se
ftudy the works of God fcientifically before he can Per-the^pro.
ceive the full force of that teftimony which they bear tofecution of
the power, the wifdom, and the goodnefs of their au-this Itudy.
thor. Hence the neceffity of a general acquaintance
with the phyfical and mathematical fciences before a
man enter on the proper ftudy of theology, for he will
not otherwife obtain juft and enlarged conceptions of the
God of the univerfe. See Physics, N° 115.
But an acquaintance with the phyfical and mathema¬
tical fciences is not alone a fufficient preparation for the
ftudy of theology. Indeed it is poffible for a man to
devote himfelf fo wholly to any of thefe fciences, as to
make it counteraft the only purpofes for which it can
be valuable to the divine ; for he who is conftantly im-
merfed in matter, is apt to fufpedl that there is no other
fubftance ; and he who is habituated to the routine of
geometrical demonftration, becomes in time incapable of
reafoning at large, and eftimating the force of the vari¬
ous degrees of moral evidence. To avert thefe difagree-
able confequences, every man, before he enter on the
ftudy of that fcience which is tke fubjedl of the prefent
article, fliould make himfelf acquainted with the princi¬
ples of logic, the feveral powers of the human mind,
and the different fources of evidence ; in doing which he
will find the greateft affiftance from Bacon’s Novum Or-
S f ganum,
322 T H E O
Introduc- ganum, Locke’s Effaij on the Human Undemanding,
t Reid’s EJfays on the IntelieElual and Active Powers of
Man, and Tatham’s Chart and Scale of Truth. Thefe*
works will teach him to think jullly, and guard him
againd a thoufand errors, which thofe who have not
laid fuch a foundation are apt to embrace as the truths
of God.
The man who prcpofes to Rudy theology ought to
have it in view, as the ultimate end of his labours, to
impart to others that knowledge which he may procure
for himfelf. “ AmongR the many marks which diilin-
guiih the Chriftian philofopber from the Pagan, this
* Warlur- (fays a learned writer *) is one of the moll (hiking—the
ion. Pagan fought knowledge in a felfilh way, to fecrete it
for his owm ufe j the Chrijiian feeks it with the generous
purpofe (firft in view, though lalt in execution) to im¬
part it to others. The Pagan philolopher, therefore,
having cultivated the art of thinking, proceeds to that
oifpeaking, in order to difplay his vanity in the dexter¬
ous ufe of deceit. On the other hand, the Chrijiian
philofopher cultivates the art of /peaking, for the foie
purpofe of difleminating the truth in his office of preach¬
er of the gofpel.”
As every man, before he enters on the proper Rudy
of theology, receives, at leaR in this country, the rudi¬
ments of a liberal education, it may perhaps be fuperRu-
ous to mention here any books as peculiarly proper to
teach him the art of (peaking : we cannot however for¬
bear to recommend to our fludent the attentive perufal
of Quintilian’s InjHlutions, and Dr Blair’s LeBures on
Rhetoric and the Belies Lcttres. A familiar acquaint¬
ance with thefe works will enable him, if he be endow¬
ed by nature with talents fit for the office in which he
propofes to engage, to exprefs his thoughts with cor-
reftnefs and elegance ; “ without which, it has been
well obferved, that fcience, efpecially in a clergyman,
is but learned lumber, a burden to the owner, and' a nui-
fance to every body elfe.”
No man can proceed thus far in the purfuits of gene¬
ral fcience without having been at leafi initiated in the
learned languages ; but he-who intends to make theolo¬
gy his profeffion ffiould devote himfelf more particularly
to the Rudy of Greek and Hebrew7, becaufe in thefe
tongues the original fcriptures are written. He who is
incapable of confulting the original fcriptures, muR reR
his faith, not on the fure foundation of the word of
God, but on the credit of fallible tranflators; and if he
be at any time called on to vindicate revelation againR
the feoffs of infidelity, he will have to flruggle with
many difficulties which are eafily folved by him who is
^ mafler of the original tongues.
Cautions to The fludent having laid in this Rock of preparatory
be obterved knowledge, is now qualified to attend with advantage
ing thTle'c-theological leftures of a learned profeffor; but in
turesofa doing this, he ffiould be very careful neither to admit
profeffor. nor rejeft any thing on the bare authority of his mafler.
Right principles in theology are of the utmofl import-
L O G Y.
ance, and can reR on no authority inferior to that of Intfoduc-
the word of God. On this account we have long been tK>11-
of opinion, that a profeffor camlet render his pupils 10 ” * ' '1
much fervice by a fyflematical courfe of ledhires, as by
dirediing their Rudies, and pointing out the road in
whiofT they may themfelves arrive in the fliorteft time at
the genuine fenfe of the facred fcriptures. In this opi¬
nion we have the honour to agree with the ablefl lec¬
turer * in theology that we have ever heard. The au- * The late
thors of all fyflems are more or lefs prejudiced in behalf^
of iome particular and artificial mode of faith. He, °f A-
therefore, who begins with the Rudy of them, and after- r^£7?‘
wards proceeds to the facred volume, fees with a jaun¬
diced eye every text fupporting the peculiar tenets of
his firfl mafler, and a<As as abfurd a part as he who tries
not the gold by the copel, but the copel by the gold.
Before our young divine, therefore, fit down to the fe-
rious perufal of any one of thofe inf ititles or bodies
theology which abound in all languages, and even before
he read that which the nature of our work compels us
to lay before him, we hog leave to recommend to his
confideration the following
Preliminary Directions Eor the Study of
Theology.
Christian theology is divided into two great parts, Chriflian
natural and revealed; the former comprehending that thcoJogy
which may be known of God from the creation of thec!lvldecl IR*
world, even bis eternal power and Godhead ; the lat- ^eat parts,
ter, that which is difeovered to man nowhere but in the& * '
facred volume of the Old and New Teflaments.
Concerning the extent of natural theology many opi-Firft prln-
nions have been formed, whilR feme have contended ciples of
that there is no fuch thing. Into thefe difpuies wetheology.
mean not at prefent to enter. We believe that one of^^ UIU"
them could have had no exiflence among fober and en¬
lightened men, had the contending parties been at due
pains to define w ith accuracy the terms which they ufed.
Whatever be the origin of religion, winch we have en¬
deavoured to afeertain elfewhere (fee Religion, N° 6- 
17.), it is obvious, that no man can receive a written
book as the wTord of God till he be convinced by fome
other means that God exifls, and that he is a Being of
power, wifdom, and goodnefs, w-ho watches over the
conduft of his creature man. If the progenitor of the
human race w7as inflrufled in the principles of religion
by the Author of his being (a faft of which it is diffi¬
cult to conceive howr a confiflent theifl can entertain a
doubt), he might communicate to his children, by na¬
tural means, much of that knowledge which he himfelf
could not have difeovered had he not been fupernatu-
rally enlightened. Betiveen illuflrating or proving a
truth which is already talked of, and making a dilco-
very of wffiat is wholly unknown, every one perceives
that there is an immenfe difference (a).
To beings whofe natural knowledge originates wholly
from
r ^ ie powers of Ariflotle will not be queflioned ; and in the following extraft made by Cicero
Arom fome Oi his wmrks which are now loR, he expreffes our fentiments on this important fubjeft with his ufual
precifion “ Prseclare ergo Arifloteles, Si JF.SSENT, inquit, qui fub terra Temper habitaviffent,J bonis, et illuflri-
bus domicihis, quae effent ornata fignis atque pi&uris, inflru&aque rebus iis omnibus, quibus abundant ii, qui beati
putantur, nec tamen exiffent unquam fupra terrain; ACCEPISSENT autem fama et auditione, esse quoddam
nu'mEn,
preliminary
Directions.
S
to the
earlieft
mortals by
repeated
revelations;
and yet
may be pro
perly term¬
ed natural
principles.
T II E O
from fenfation, and wliofe minds cannot, but by much
difcipline, advance from fenfe to fcience, a long i'eries of
revelations might be neceflary to give them at firft jud
notions of God and his attributes, and to enable them
to perceive the relation between the effedl and its caufe,
fo as to infer by the powers of their own reafon the ex-
iltence of the Creator from the prefence of his creatures.
Such revelations, however, could be fatisfaftory only to
thofe who immediately received them. Whenever the
Deity has been pleafed by fupernatural means to commu¬
nicate any information to man, we may be fare that he
has taken effe&ual care to fatisfy the perfon fo highly
favoured that his underftanding was not under the in¬
fluence of any illufion ; but luch a perfon could not
communicate to another the knowledge which he had
thus received by any other means than an addrefs to his
rational faculties. No man can be required to believe,
no man indeed can believe, without proof, that another,
who has no more faculties either of fenfation or intelleft
than himfelf, has obtained information from a fource to
which he has no potfible accefs. An appeal to miracles
would in this cafe ferve no purpofe ; for we mud believe
in the exidence, power, wifdom, and judice of God, be¬
fore a miracle can be admitted as evidence of any thing
but the power of him by whom it is performed. See
Miracle.
It is therefore undeniable that there are fome princi-
" pies of theology which may be called tiatural; for
’ though it is in the highed degree probable that the pa¬
rents of mankind received all their theological know¬
ledge by fupernatural means, it is yet obvious that fome
parts of that knowledge mud have been capable of a
proof purely rational, otherwife not a dngle religious
truth could have been conveyed through the fucceeding
generations of the human race but by the immediate in-
fpiration of each individual. We indeed admit many
propofitions as certainly true, upon the foie authority of
the Jewidi and Chridian feriptures, and we receive thefe
feriptures with gratitude as the lively oracles of God 5
LOGY. 523
but it is felf-evident that we could not do either the one Preliminary
or the other, were we not convinced by natural means Dnecaom.
that God exids, that he is a Being of goodnefs, judice,
and power, and that he infpired with divine wifdom the
penmen of thefe facred volumes. Now, though it is
very podible that no man or body of men, left to them-
felves from infancy in a delert world, would ever have
made a theological difeovery ; yet whatever propofitions
relating to the being and attributes of the fird caule and
the duty of man, can be demondrated by human reafon,
independent of written revelation, may be called 7iatu-
ral theology, and are of the utmod importance, as being
to us the fird principles of all religion. Natural the¬
ology, in this fenfe of the word, is the foundation of
the Chridian revelation ; for without a previous know¬
ledge of it, we could have no evidence that the ferip-
tures of the Old and New Tedaments are indeed the
word of God. 10
Our young divine, therefore, in the regular order ofNatural
his dudies, ought to make himfelf mader of n/7/«rtf/|heolog_y to
theology before he enter upon the important talk ofbefore the
fearching the feriptures. On this fubjefl many books dodtrines
have been publidied in our ow;n and other languages; of revela-
but perhaps there is none more worthy of attention than don.
the Religion of Nature delineated by Mr Wollailon (b).
It is a work of great merit, and bears ample tedimony
to its author’s learning and acutenefs : yet we think it Il4
ought to be read with caution. Mr Wolladon’s theory Books re-
of moral obligation is fanciful and groundlefs } and commencl-
whild we readily acknowledge that he demonftrates eti‘
many truths with elegance and perfpicuity, we cannot
deny that he attempts a proof of others, for which we
believe no other evidence can be brought than the de¬
clarations of Chrid and his apodles in the holy ferip¬
tures. To fupply the defefts of his theory of morals,
we would recommend to the dudent an attentive perulal
of Cumberland on the Law of Nature, and Paley’s Ele¬
ments of Moral Philofophy. A learned author * af- * Warfotr-
firms of Cumberland, that “ he excels all men in fixing ton‘
S f 2 the
NUMEN, ET vim DKORUM *, deinde aliquo tempore, patefaftis terrae faucibus, ex illis abditis fedibus evadere in haec
loca, quie nos incolimus, atque exire potuiffent : cum repente terram, et maria, coetumque vidiflent . nubium mag-
nitudinem, ventorumque vim cognoviflent, adfpexiffentque folem, ejufque turn magnitudinem, pulchritudinemque,
turn etiam efficientiam cognovilTent, quod is diem efficeret, toto ccelo luce difiufa cum autem terras nox opacafiet,
turn coelum totum cernerent adris didin&um et ornatum, lunaeque luminum varietatem turn crefeentis, turn lene-
feentis, eorumque omnium ortus et occaius, atque in omni aeternitate ratos, immutabilefque curfus . baec cum vi-
derent, profecto et esse decs, et HiEC tanta opera DEORUM esse arbitrarentur.” De Nat. Deorum,
lib. ii. § 37. . .
From this paffaae it is evident, that the Stagyrite, though he confidered the motions of the heavenly bodies,
the ebbing and flowing of the fea, and the other phenomena of nature, as affording a comploie/>roo/of the being
and providence of God, did not howrever fuppofe that from thefe phenomena an untaught barbarian would difeover
this fundamental principle of religion. On the contrary, he exprefsly affirms, that before a man can feel the
force of the evidence which they give of this important truth, he mud have heard of the exidence and power
(b) It may not be improper to inform the reader, that Mr Wolladon, the author of the Religion of Nature,
was a different man from Mr Wooldon, who blafphemed the miracles of our Saviour. The former was a clergy¬
man of great piety, and of fuch moderate ambition as to refufe one of the highed preferments in the church of
England when it was offered to him ; the latter was a clergyman likewife, but remarkable only for gloomy infide¬
lity, and a perverfe defire to deprive the wretched of every fource of comfort. In the mind of the former, philo¬
fophy and devotion were happily united ; in the mind of the latter, there was neither devotion nor fcience. Yet
thefe writers have been frequently confounded ; fometimes through inadvertence from the fimilarity of their names;
and fometimes, we are afraid, defignedly, from a w’eak and bigotted abhorrence of every fydem of religion that
pretends to have its foundation in reafon and in the nature of things.
324 T H E O
Preliminary tlie true grounds of moral obligation, out of which na-
i tural law and natural religion both arife j” and we
have ourielves never read a work in which the various
duties which a man owes to his Maker, himfelf, and his
fellow-creatures, are more accurately ftated or placed
on a furer balls than in the moral treatife oi the arch¬
deacon of Carlille.
As Wollalfon demonftrates with great perfpicuitv
the being and many of the attributes of God, it may
perhaps appear fuperfluous to recommend any other book
on ttiat lubjedt. ihe prefent age, however, having
among other wonderful phenomena, witnefled a revival
or Atheifm, we would advife our Undent to read with
much^ attention Cudworth’s Intelleftual Syftem, and to
read it rather in Molheim’s Latin tranilation than in
the author’s original Engliih. It is well known that
Cudworth wrote his incomparable work in confutation
of Hobbes’s philofophy 5 but inftead of confining him¬
felf to the whimfies of his antagonift, which were in a
lutle time to link into oblivion, he took a much wider
range, and traced atheifm through all the mazes of an¬
tiquity, expofing the weaknefs of every argument by
which iiich an ablurdity had ever been maintained. In
exhaufting the metaphylical queilions agitated among
the Greeks concerning the being and perfe&ions of God,
he has not only given us a complete hiltory of ancient
learning, as far as it relates to thefe inquiries, but has
in fa£t anticipated moll of the fophifms of our modern
atheills, who are by no means fuch difcoverers as they
are fuppofed to be by their illiterate admirers.
The fludent having made himfelf mailer of natural
theology, and carefully endeavoured to afcertain its li¬
mits, is now prepared to enter on the important talk of
fearching the fcriptures. In doing this, he ought to di¬
veil himielf as much as poflible of the prejudices of edu¬
cation in behalf of a particular fyflem of faith, and lit
X2 down to the lludy of the facred volume as of a work to
frriptures he 15 an. ent‘re flranSer- He ought firlt to read
are to be 1^>as a nioral hidory of fa£ts and doftrines, beginning
■ftuclied. with the books of Mofes, and proceeding through the
reft, not in the order in which they are commonly pub-
liiiied, but in that in which there is reafon to believe
they were written (fee Scriptures). If he be mailer
of the Hebrew and Greek languages, he will doubtlefs
prefer the original text to any verfion j and in this per-
nfal we would advife him to confult no commentator,
becaufe his objea at prefent is not to lludy the doarines
contained in the bible, but merely to difcover what are
the fubjeas of which it treats. Many hiftories of the
bible have been written ; and were we acquainted with
a good one, we ftiould recommend it as a clue to direa
ihe young divine’s progrefs through the various books
which compofe the facred volume. Stackhoufe’s hiftory
Las been much applauded by fome, and as much cen¬
tred by others. It is not a work of which we can ex-
prefs any high degree of approbation ; but if read with
attention, it may no doubt be ufeful as a guide to the
ieries of faas recorded in the fcriptures. Between the
Uld and New Teftaments there is a great chafm in the
.11 ft or y of the Jewifh nation 5 but it is fupplied in a very
able and fatisfadory manner by Dr Prideaux, whofe
V/a and hew Tejlament conneBed is one of the moll va¬
luable biftorical works in our own or any other lan-
guage Shuck ford’s Sacred and Profane Hi/lory of th»
mtdd connected is likewife a work of merit, and may
LOGY.
be read with advantage as throwing light on many paf-PreLminary
lages of the Old ieftament: but this author is not in- Diredfioms*
titled to the fame confidence with Prideaux, as his learn- 1 v
ing was not fo great, and his partialities feem to have
been greater.
In thus making himfelf mafter of the hiftory of the
Old and New Teftaments, the Undent will unavoidably
acquire fome general notion of the various dodrines
which they contain. Thefe it will now be his bufinefs
to itudy more particularly, to afcertain the precife
meaning of each, and to diltinguilh fuch as relate to the
whole human race, from thofe in which Abraham and
his pollerity were alone interefted. He mull therefore
travel over the facred volume a fecond time ; and Hill
we would advife him to travel without a guide. From
Walton’s Polyglot bible, and the large colledion called
Criticifacn, he may indeed derive much aflillance in
his endeavours to alcertain the fenfe of a difficult text •
but we think he will do well to make little ule of com!
mentators and expofitors, and Hill lefs of fyftem-build-
ers, till he has formed fome opinions of his own refped-
ing the leading dodrines of the Jewiffi and Chriftian re¬
ligions.
“ Imprefled (fays an able writer) with an awful fenfe
of the importance of the facred volume, the philofophi-
cal divine will ffiake off the bias of prejudices however
formed, of opinions however fandioned, and of paffisns
however conftitutional, and bring to the lludy of it the
advantage of a pure and impartial mind. Inftead of
wafting all his labour upon a number of minute and lefs
fignificant particulars, and of refining away plain and
obvious fenfe by the fubtleties of a narrow and corrofive
mind, his firft objed will be to inftitute a theological in¬
quiry into the general defign of the written word, and
from principles fully contained and fairly underftood, to
illuftrate the true nature and genius of the religious dif-
penfation in all its parts. He will mark the difference
between the firft and fecond covenants, and obferve the
connedion that fubfifts between them. He wfill trace
the temporary economy of the Old Tef anient, and weigh
the nature and intent of the partial covenant With the
Jew's; obferving with aftonifhment how it was made in-
trodudory of better things to come : and he will follow
it through the law and the prophets in its wonderful
evolutions, till he fee this vail and preparatory machine
of providence crowned and completed in the eternal
gofpeL This New Tcf ament, the laft and beft part of
the religious difpenfation, he will purfue through the fa¬
cred pages of that gofpel with redoubled attention j
contemplating the divine foundation on which it claims
to be built, the fupernatural means by which it was exe¬
cuted, and the immortal end which it has in view * Tatham's
In the courfe of this inquiry into the import of the fa- Chart and
cred volume, the ftudent will pay particular attention Scale °f
to the cireumftances of the age and country in which its Truth%-
various writers refpedively lived, and to the nature of
the difterent /fy/er, analogical and parabolical, in which
it is written. He will likewife keep in mind that God
whom it claims for its author, is the parent of truth
and that all his a£lions and difpenfations muft be con¬
fident with one another. He will therefore compare the
different paffages of the Old and New Teftaments which
relate to the fame do&rine, or to the fame event rea-
fonably concluding that the bible mull be the beft inter-
preter of itfelfj and though the opinions which he thus
forms
T H E O
preliminary forms may often be erroneous, tney will feldom be dan-
D-irections. g-erous errorSj and may eafily be correfted by mature re-
Heftion, or by confulting approved authors who have
treated before him of the various points which have
been the f'ubject of his ftudies. Of this mode of pro¬
ceeding one good confequence will be, that, having
from the facred fcriptures formed a fyltem of theology
for himfelf, he will afterwards ftudy the fyftems of other
men without any violent prejudices for or againft them j
he will be fo much attached to his own opinions as not
to relinquidi them in obedience to mere human autho¬
rity, at the fame time that he will be ready to give them
up when convinced that they are not well founded ; and
if he have read the fcriptures attentively, he wall have
acquired fuch a love of truth as to embrace her where-
ever lire may be found.
As we have fuppofed that every man, after having
formed a theological lyffem of his own, will conliilt the
fyflems of others, it may perhaps be expefted that we
fhould here recommend thofe which, in our opinion,
Approved are moft worthy of his attention, lo do this, however,
fyttems of Would, we apprehend, be an interference with the r.ights
divinity. of private judgement. But left we ihould be fufpefted
of wiihing to bias the mind of the young ftudent toward
the fhort lyftem which we are obliged to give, we ihall
juft obferve, that by the divines of what is called the
yirmmian fchool, Epifcopius’s Theo/ogue Injlitutiones,
Eimborch’s Theologia Ckrijliana, and Locke’s Reeifon-
ablenefs of ChriJIianity, have long been held in the
higheft efteem ; whilft the followers of Calvin have pre¬
ferred the Injiitutiones of their matter, Turretine’s Injli-
tut'io Theologicc RlenRicce, and Gill’s Body of Divinity.
This laft wTork has many merits and many defefts. Its
ftyle is coarfe and tedious j and the author embraces
every opportunity of introducing the difcriminating te¬
nets of his fed : but his book is fraught with profound
learning, breathes the fpirit of piety, and may be read
with advantage by every divine who has previoufly
formed the outlines of a fyftem for himfelf.
Books^e- As the Jewifh and Chriftian difpenfations are clofely
commend- linked together, being only parts of one great whole, it
ed on the is impoflible to have an adequate notion of the latter
^enfation^" wit’llout underftanding the defign of the former. Now,
pen a ion. tjle pvi0fa;c religion is nowhere to be learned
but in the Old Teftament, it may be convenient for
our ftudent, after he has formed his own opinions of it
from that facred fource, to know what has been writ¬
ten on the fubjeft by others. For illuftrating the ri-
tual law, a learned prelate warmly recommends the
DuRor Duhitantium of Maimonides, and Spencer’s
book entitled De Legibus Hebrceorum Rituahbus. Both
works have undoubtedly great merit-, but our young
divine will do well to read along with them Hermanni
Witfii JEgyptiaca, and Dr Woodward’s Difcourfe on
the Worfhip of the Ancient Egyptians, where feme of
Spencer’s notions are fhortly and ably refuted. On the
other parts of this difpenfation, fuch as the nature of its
civil government ; the rewards and puniftiments pecu-
LOGY. 325
liar to it (c) ; its extraordinary adminiftration by ap- Preliminary
pointed agents, endowed with fupernatural powers, and iDire(^I0ns;
with the gifts of miracles and prophecy j the double “ v
fenfe in which the latter is fometimes involved \ and the
language conlequent on its nature and ufe—the reader
will find much erudition and ingenuity difplayed in the
fecund part of Warburton’s Divine Legation of Mofes de-
monf rated. That work is entitled to a ferious perufal ;
for it difplays great learning and genius, and, we be¬
lieve, the heavielt cenfures have fallen on it from thofe
by whom it was never read. 15
Having proceeded thus far in the courfe, the ftudent’s Incluiry^tc>
next bufinefs ihould be to inquire ferioully what evi'j^^tLfre-
dence there is that the doflrines which he has fo care-ality 0f re..
fully ftudied were indeed revealed in times paft by God.veiation.
He muft already have perceived, in the nature and
tendency of the do&rines themfelves, ftrong marks of
their origin being more than human ; Dut he muft like-
wfife have met with many difficulties, and he muft pre-
pare himfelf to repel the attacks of unbelievers. Here he
will find opportunities of exerting the utmoft powers of
his reafoning faculties, and of employing in the fervice
of religion all the (lores he may have amaffed of human
learning. The feriptures pretend to have been written
by feveral men who liv&d in different ages of the world j
but the lateft of them in an age very remote from the
prefent. His firft bufinefs therefore muft be to prove
the authenticity of thefe books, by tracing them up by
hiftorical evidence to the feveral writers whole names
they bear. But it is not enough to prove them authen¬
tic. They profefs to have been written by men divinely
infpired, and of courfe infallible in what they wrote.
He muff therefore inquire into the truth of this infpira-
tion. The Bible contains a number of truths do&rinal
and- moral, which are called mysteries, and afferted to
be the immediate didlates of God himfelf. To evince
this great point to man, a number of fupernatural tefs
and evidences are infeparably connefted with thofe my-
fteries; fo that if the former be true, the latter muft be fo
likewife. He muft therefore examine thefe tefts and evi¬
dences, to eftablifh the divinity of the Holy Scriptures
and in this part of his courfe he will find much afliftance
from many rvriters rvhofe defences of the truth and
divinity of the Chriftian religion do honour to human
nature. i5
The firft ftep towards the embracing of any truth is, Books re-
to get fairly rid of the obje61ions which are made to it
and the general objedlions made by deiftical writers toa*
the Chriftian revelation are by no writer more complete¬
ly removed than by Bilhop Butler, in his celebrated
work entitled The Analogy of Religion natural and re¬
vealed to the Confitution and Courfe of Nature. This
book therefore the ftudent ftiould read with attention,
and meditate on with patience } but as it does not fur-
nifh a poftive proof of the divinity of our religion, he
(hould pafs from it to Grotius de Veritatc Religionir
Chriftianse, and Stillingfleet’s Origines Saerce. Both
thefe works are excellent; and the latter, which may be
confidered
(c) On this fubjeff the reader wall find many excellent obfervations in Bifiiop Bull’s Harmonia Apofolica, wita
its ffveral defences, and in a fmall book of Dr Wells’s, entitled A Help for the Right Underftanding of the^feveral
Divine Laws and Covenants, whereby man has been obliged through the feveral ages of the world to guide liira-
felf in order to falvation.
526 T H E O
Preliminaryconfidered as an improvement of the former, is perhaps
Directions.^ t]le funeft anc] ableft defence of revelation in general
* that is to be found in any language. In this part of
the united kingdom it is now indeed fcarcely mention¬
ed, or mentioned with indifference ; but half a century
ago the Englifh divines thought it a fubjeft of triumph,
and fly led its author their incomparable Stilling fleet.
Other works, however, may be read with great advan¬
tage, and none with greater than Paley’s Evidences of
the Chriflian Religion, and Leflie’s Short Method with
the Defls ; which laft work, in the compafs of a very
few pages, contains proofs of the divinity of the Jewilh
and Chriftian revelations, to which the celebrated Dr
Middleton confeffed (d), that for 20 years he had la¬
boured in vain to fabricate a fpecious anlwer (e).
ilewifhcon- Having fatisfied himfelf of the truth of revelation in
troverfy to generaij it may be worth the young divine’s while to
be ftudied, provide a defence of the Chriffian religion againff the
objections of modern Judaifm. In this part of his
fiudies he will need no other inftruCtion than what lie
may reap from Limborch’s work entitled De Veritate
Religionis Chrifliancc arnica collatio cum crudito Judceo.
“ In that dil'putation, which was held with Orobio, he
will find all that the ftretch of human parts on the one
hand, or fcience on the other, can produce to varnilh
error or unravel fophiftry. All the papers of Orobio
in defence of Judaifm, as oppofed to Chriffianity, are
# iyar]nir Pr’^e^ large? with Limborch’s anfwers, feCtion by
ton'Hirec-> an{^ the fubtileft fophifms of a very fuperior
tions for gonius are ably and fatisfaftorily detefted and ex-
the Study pofed by the ftrong, profound, and clear reafoning, of
ofTheo- this renowned remonftrant See Orobio and LlM-
tW- 0 BORCH.
iS rp, . ,
and the va- various controverlies fubfifting between the leve-
rious con- ral denominations of Chriftians, about points which fe-
troverfies parate them into different churches, ought next to be
ChSans ftudIed in lhe 0rder. of the coul're > nothing is unim-
themfelves. portant which divides the followers of that Mafter
whofe favourite precept was love. It has indeed been
long falhionable to decry polemical divinity as an ufe-
lefs, if not a pernicious, ftudy ; but it is not impoflible
that this fafliion has had its origin in ignorance, and that
it tends to perpetuate thofe fchifms which it proftffes to
lament. We are, however, far from recommending to
the young divine a perufal of the works of the feveral
combatants on each fide of a difputed queftion, till he
has fitted himfelf for judging between them by a long
courfc of preparatory ftudy j and the only preparation
logy*
which can fit him for this purpoie is an impartial ftudy Prelimii.ary
of ecclefiaftical hiftory. He who has with accuracy Directions,
traced the progrefs of our holy religion from the davS ^
of the apoftles to the prefent time, and marked the in-
trodudtion of new dodtrines, and the rife of the various
fedts into which the Chriftian world is divided, is
furnithed with a criterion within himlelf bv which to
judge of the importance and truth of the many conteft-
ed dodtiines j whiift he who, without this preparation,
ftiall lead a multitude of books on any religious contro-
verfy, will be in danger of becoming a convert to his
laft author, if that author poffefs any tolerable fliare of
art and ingenuity.
There are many hiftorits of the Chriftian church Importance
which pofleis great merit, but we are acquainted with0^ ecdefiat-
none which appears to us wholly impartial. Moftieini’s t^ca'
is perhaps the molt perfed compend (f) j and one of^’^
its greateft excellencies is, that on every fubjedt the beft commend-
writers are referred to for fuller information. Thefeed.
indeed ftiould often be confulted, not only to fupply the
defedls neceffarily refulting from the narrownefs of the
limits rvhich the author, with great propriety, preferibed
to bvnielf; but alfo to conedl his partial obliquities ;
for with all his merits, and they were many and great,
he is certainly not free from the influence of prejudice.
Indeed there is no coming at the true hiftory of the pri¬
mitive church, but by ftudying the works of the primi¬
tive writers j and the principal wmrks of the firft four
centuries will amply reward the labour of perufing
them (g). The rife and progrefs of the reformation in ge^-
neral, the moft important period of church-hiftory, may
be beft learned from Sleidan’s book De Statu Religioms
et Reipub/icw, Carolo V. Cafarc, Commentarii; the Hi¬
ftory of the Reformation of the Church of Scotland
from Knox and Spotifwood ; axd that of the Church
of England from the much applauded work of Eiftiop
Burnet.
p After this courfe of ecclefiaftical hiftory, the young
divine may read with advantage the moft important
controverfies which have agitated the Chriftian world.
To enumerate thefe controverfies, and to point out the
ableft authors who have written on each, would be a
tedious, and perhaps not a very profitable talk. On
one controverfy, however, we are induced to recommend
a very mafterly work, which is Chillingworth’s book
againft Knott, entitled The Religion of Proteflants afafe
svaij' to Salvation ; in which the fchool jargon of that
Jefuit is admirably expofed, and the long difpute be¬
tween
Ar(r?bP'S °f informatioa wc had from the late Dr Berkeley, prebendary of Canterbury, who had it from
Aichbiihop Seeker, to v^honi the conieffion was made.
(E) To thefe defences of revelation we might have added the colkaion of fermons preached at Bovle’s le&ure
on0 r™ h9 c ^ ^ 1SiLP N-on’S nilTertations
” r   —VJO......OVV., ltui. wt muii, uuce ior an, cauuon tne reaaer apainft fnnnnfino-
Ihat we approve of every thing to be found in any work except the facred Scriptures. 8 FI S
je bl{hoP °1 Landaff, m the catalogue of books publilhed at the end of his Theological Tra&s rernm-
a^tm.s evera ot er ecclefiaftical hiftories as works of great merit j fuch as, Dupin’s, Echard’s Gregory’s and
voS, iwY WUh Pim/ En'*l‘ W”** Orilli***, at Frankfort in three
, C,G) F°r.a Pr?of“f tl”’f and for a juft eftimate of the value of the Taller,, as they are called fee the in.
troduflion to Warburton’s Julian, and Kelt’s Sermons at Bamptot.’s Lcaures, 1 1
2
theology.
327
Preliminary tween tfce Popifti and Reformed churches placed on its
Directions, proper ground, the Holy Scriptures.
1 "v 1 One of the molt plaufible onjeclions to the fludy of
Toleration, polemical divinity, is its tendency to give a rigid turn
' to the femiments of thoie long engaged in it j whilft
we know, from higher authority that “ the end of the
commandment is charity.” But for preferving charity
in the minds of Chritlians, there are better means than
abfolute ignorance or indifference to truth. Charity is
violated only when a church unrealbnably reftrains the
inquiries of its own members, or exercifes intolerance
towards thofe who have renounced its juriidiflion. The
injuftice of the firft fpecies of ecclefiaftical tyranny is
expofed in a very mafterly manner by Jeremy J aylor
in his Libertij of Prophecying, and by Stillingfleet in his
Irenicum ; the injuifice of the fecond, by Locke in his
celebrated Letters on Toleration. Ihe man who fhall
perufe thefe three works, and impartially rveigh the
force of their arguments, will be in little danger of
thinking uncharitably of thofe from whole principles the
love of truth may compel him to diffent.
In thefe directions for the ftudy of theology, we
might have enumerated many more books on each
branch of the fubjeCt well deferving of the molt atten¬
tive perufal j but he who fhall have gone through the
courfe here recommended, will have laid a foundation
on which he may raife fuch a I'uperftrufture as will en¬
title him to the charafter of an accomplifhed divine.
His diligence muft indeed be continued through life j
for when a man ceafes to make acquifitions in any de¬
partment of learning, he loon begins to lofe thofe which
he has already made •, and a more contemptible charac¬
ter is nowhere to be found than that of a clergyman un¬
acquainted with the learning of his profefuon. I his
learning, however, is not to be acquired, and indeed is
fcarcely to be preferved, by fludying bodies 01 injiitutes
of theology ; and though we have mentioned a few .ge¬
nerally approved by two rival feCls of Chfi-llians, and
muft, in conformity with the plan of our work, give
another ourfelves, we do not hefitate to declare, that
the man who has carefully gone through the coune of
fludy which we have recommended, though it be little
more than the outlines on which he is to work, may,
with no great lofs to himfelf, negleft ours and all other
% Tgiham. fyftems. For as an excellent writer *, whom we have
often quoted, well obferves, “ to judge of the foB
whether fuch a revelation containing fuch a principle,
with its myflevies and credentials, was aClually fent
from God and received by man, by examining the evi¬
dences and circumflances which accompanied it—the Preliminary
time when, the place where, the manner how, it was Dire<~t'101lSl.
delivered—the form in which it delcends to us—and in
what it is contained—together with the particular fub-
fance and burden of it—and how every part is to be
rightly underjiood: thefe are the various and extenlive
fubjecls which conflitute the fublhne oftice of theolo-
GIC REASONING and the PROPER STUDY OF DlVINl-*
TY.” On this account we fhall pals over flightly, many
things which every clergyman ought thoroughly to
undtrftand, and confine ourlelves, in the fhort compend
which we are to give, to the chief articles of Chrittian
theology. In doing this, we lhall endeavour to diveft
ourfelves of party prejudices *, but as we are far from
thinking that this endeavour will be completely fuccefs-
ful (for we believe there is no man totally free from pre¬
judice), we cannot conclude this part of the article more
properly than with the following loletnn Charge, with t Pr Toy-
which a very learned divinef always prefaced his The-
ological Ledtures. 2I
I. “ 1 do folemnly charge you, in the name of the A charge
God of Truth, and of our Lord Jefus Chriil, who is them Undents
Way, the Truth, and the Life, and before whofe judge-ol theology,
ment-feat you muft in no long time appear, that in all
your ftudies and inquiries of a religious nature, prefent
or future, you do conflantly, carefully, impartially, and
confcientioufly, attend to evidence, as it lies in the
Holy Scriptures, or in the nature of things, and the
dictates of reafon 5 cautioufly guarding againft the
fallies of imagination, and the fallacy of ill-grounded
conjedlure.
II. “ That you admit, embrace, or aftent, to no prin¬
ciple or fentiment by me taught or advanced, but only
fo far as it (hall appear to you to be fupported and jufti-
fied by proper evidence from revelation or the reafon of
things.
III. “ That if, at any time hereafter, any principle
or fentiment by me taught or advanced, or by you ad¬
mitted or embraced, lhall, upon impartial and faith¬
ful examination, appear to you to be dubious or falfe,
you either fufpedl or totally rejedl fuch principle or fenti¬
ment.
IV. “ That you keep your mind always open to evi¬
dence : That you labour to banifh from your breaft all
prejudice, prepcffeflion, and party-zeal : That you ftudy
to live in peace and love with all your fellow Chrillians;.-.
and that you fteadily aflert for yourfelf, and freely al¬
low to others, the unalienable rights of judgement and.
confcience.”
PART I. OF NATURAL THEOLOGY.
Sect. I. Of the Being and Attributes of God.
* St Paul. HE who cometh to God, fays an‘ancient divine*,
deeply read in the philofophy of his age, muft believe
that he is, and that he is a rewarder of them who dili¬
gently feek him. This is a truth as undeniable as that
The be’nn- a man cannot concern himfelf about a nonentity. The
of God ° exiftence of God is indeed the foundation of all religion,
proved and the firft principle of the faience which is the fubjeft
&oia of this article. It is likewife a principle which muft
command the alTent of every man who has any notion
of the relation between effedls and their caufes, and
whofe curiofity has ever been excited by the phenomena
of nature. This great and important truth we have
elfewhere endeavoured to demonftrate (fee Metaphy¬
sics, Part III. Chap, vi.) ; but it may be proved by ar¬
guments lefs abftradled than the nature of that article
required us to ufe. Of thefe rve fhall give one or two,
which we hope rvill be level to every ordinary capaci¬
ty ; while, at the fame time, we earneftly recommend
to the young divine a diligent ftudy of thofe books on
the •
2 §
Being and
Attributes
of God.
23
propaga¬
tion of ani¬
mals
* See Bcnt-
ley'shoyle's
Lectures.
24
and vege¬
tables,
and from
the laws
cf attrac¬
tion and re-
pulfion, See.
T H E O
the fubjeft which we have mentioned in the preceding
directions.
, We fee that the human race, and every other fpecies
of animals, is at prefent propagated by the co-operation
of two parents j but has thisprocefs continued from eter¬
nity ? A moment’s reHeftion wrill convince us that it
has not. Let us take any one man alive, and let us
fuppofe his father and mother dead, and himfelf the on¬
ly perfon at piefent exiting: how came he into the
world ? It will be faid he was produced mechanically or
chemically by the conjunction of his parents, and that
his parents were produced in the fame manner by theirs.
Let this then be fuppofed j it mult furely be granted,
that when this man was born, an addition was made to
the feries of the human race. But a feries which can
be enlarged may likewife be diminilhed; and by tracing
it backwards, we mult at fome period, however remote,
reach its beginning. There mult therefore have been a
firlt pair of the human race, who w'ere not propagated by
the conjunction of parents. How did thefe come into
the world ?
Anaximander tells us*, that the firlt men and all ani¬
mals were bred in w’arm moilture, inclofed in crultace-
ous Ikins like crab-filh or loblters j and that when they
arrived at a proper age, their (belly prifons growing
dry, broke, and made way for their liberty. Empedo¬
cles informs us, that mother Earth at firlt brought forth
valt numbers of legs, and arms, and heads, &c. which,
approaching each other, arranging themfelves properly,
and being cemented together, Itarted up at once full
grown men.
Surely thofe fages, or their followers, Ihould have been
able to tell us why the earth has not in any climate this
power of putting forth vegetable men or the parts of
men at prefent. If this univerfal parent be eternal and
felf-exiftent, it muft be incapable of decay or the fmall-
elt change in any of its qualities; if it be not eternal,
we (hall be obliged to find a caufe for its exiftence, or
at lead for its form and all its powers. But fuch a
caufe may have produced the firft human pair, and un¬
doubtedly did produce them, without making them
fpring as plants from the foil. Indeed the growth of
plants themfelves clearly evinces a caufe fuperior to any
vegetative power which can be fuppofed inherent in the
earth. No plant can be propagated but from feed or
flips from the parent flock ; but when one contemplates
the regular procefs of vegetation, the exiftence of every
plant implies the prior exiftence of a parent feed, and
the exiflence of every feed the prior exiftence of a pa¬
rent plant. Which then of thefe, the oak or the acorn,
was the firft, and whence was its exiftence derived ? Not
from the earth : for we have the evidence of univerfal ex¬
perience that the earth never produces a tree but from
feed, nor feed but from a tree. There muft therefore be
i’ome fuperior power which formed the firft feed or the
firft tree, planted it in the earth, and gave to it thole
powers of vegetation by which the fpecies has been pro¬
pagated to this day.
Thus clearly do the proceffes of generation and vege¬
tation indicate a power fuperior to thofe which are ufual-
ly called the powers of nature. The fame thing ap¬
pears no lefs evident from the laws of attra&ion and re-
pulfion, which plainly prevail through the whole fyftem
of matter, and hold together the ftupendous ftructure.
Experiment dhows that very few particles of the moft
L O G Y. Part l
folid body are in aftual conta& with each other (fee Being and
Optics, N° 63—68. Physics, N° 23.); and that there Attributes
are confiderable interllices between the particles of G(X*‘
every elaftic fluid, is obvious to the fmallelt refledlion," ^ M
\ et the particles of folid bodies ftrongly cohere, whilft
thole of elaftic fluids repel each other. Plow are thefe
phenomena accounted for ? To fay that the former is
the effeft of attraction and the latter of repulfion, is on¬
ly to lay that two individual phenomena are fubjeCt to
thofe law's which prevail through the whole of the clafles
under which they are refpeCtively arranged ; whilft the
quftion at iflue is concerning the origin of the laws
THEMSELVES, the power which makes die particles of
gold cohere, and thole of air repel each other. Power
without fubftance is inconceivable j and by a law of hu¬
man thought, no man can believe a being to operate
but where it is in fome manner or other aftually pre¬
fent : but the particles ol gold adhere, and the particles
of air keep at a diftance from each other, by powers ex¬
erted where no matter is prefent. There mull therefore
be fome fubftance endowed with power which is not ma¬
terial.
Of this fubftance or being the power is evidently im-
menfe. The earth and other planets are carried round
the fun with a velocity wrhich human imagination can
fcarcely conceive. 1 hat this motion is not produced by
the agency of thefe vaft bodies on one another, or by
the interpofition of any material fluid, has been Ihown
elfewhere (fee Metaphysics, N° 196—200. and Op¬
tics, N° 67.) ; and fince it is a law of our belt philo-
lofophy, that we are not to multiply fuhjlances without
necejjity, w'e muft infer that the fame Being which form¬
ed the firft; animals and vegetables, endowing them with
powers to propagate their refpe£live kinds, is likewife
the caufe of all the phenomena of nature,- fuch as cohe-
Jion, repuljion, elajticity, and motion, even the motions
of the heavenly bodies themfelves.
If this powerful Being be felf-exiftent, intelligent,
and independent in his adlions and volitions, he is an ori¬
ginal or firft caufe, and that Being wdiom we denomi¬
nate God. If he be not felf-exiftent and independent,
there mull be a caufe in the order of nature prior and
fuperior to Him, which is either itfelf the firft: caufe, or
a link in that feries of caufes and effefts, wrhich, how¬
ever vaft we fuppofe it, muft: be traced ultimately to
fome one Being, who is felf-exiftent, and has in himfelf
the power of beginning motion, independent of every
thing but his own intelligence and volition. In vain
have Atheifts alledged, that the feries may afeend infi¬
nitely, and for that reafon have no firft mover or caule.
An infinite feries of fucceflive beings involves an abfur- Abfimlitv
dity and contradi&ion (fee Metaphysics, N° 288.) : of an infi-
but not to infill on this at prefent, we (hall only begnke feries
leave to conlider fuch a feries as a whole, and fee what0^ e^e<"^s*
confequences will flow from the fuppofition. That we
may with logical propriety confider it in this light, is
incontrovertible; for the birth of each individual of the
human race (how s that it is made up of parts ; but parts
imply a whole as necefiarily as an attribute implies its
fubjedl. As in this fuppofed feries there is no caufe
rvhich is not likewife an effeft, nor any bodv movmw
another which wes not itfelf moved by a third, the
whole is undeniably equivalent to an infinite eftedl, or
an infinite body moved : but if a finite effedl muft ne-
ceflarily have proceeded from a caufe, and a finite body
in
Paul. T H E O
Being anti m motion muft Kave been put into that ft ate by a mo-
A'ttributes ver js a human .mind which can conceive an infi-
. of God- n;te effeft to have proceeded from no caufe, or an infi-
' J' v nite body in motion to have been moved by nothing ?
No, furely! An infinite effeft, were fuch a thing pof-
fible, would compel us to admit an infinite caufe, and
an infinite body in motion a mover of infinite power.
This great caufe is God, whofe wifdom, power, and
goodnefs, all nature loudly proclaims. That the pheno¬
mena which we daily fee evince the exiftence of one
fuch Being, has juft been Ihown ; and that we have no
reafon to infer the exiftence of more than one, is very
evident. For, not to lay more ftrefs than it will bear
*7. on that rule of Newton’s, which forbids us to multiply
orl^one fubftances without neceflity, fuch a harmony prevails
original through the whole vifible univeffe, as plainly (hows it
caule. to be under the government of one intelligence. I hat
on this globe the feveral elements ferve for nourifhment
to plants, plants to the inferior animals, and animals to
man •, that the other planets of our fyftem are probably
inhabited, and their inhabitants nouriflied in the fame
or a fimilar manner ; that the fun is fo placed as to give
light and heat to all, and by the law of gravitation to
bind the whole planets into one fyftem with itfelf—are
truths fo obvious and fo univerfally acknowledged, as to
fuperfede the neceflity of eftablithing them by proof.
The fair inference therefore is, that the folar fyftem and
all its parts are under the government of one intelligence,
which directs all its motions and all the changes which
take place among its parts for fome wife purpofes.. To
fuppofe it under the government of two or more intel¬
ligences would be highly unreafonable } for if thefe in¬
telligences had-equal power, equal wifdom, and the fame
defigns, one of them would evidently be fuperfluous •,
and if they had equal power and contrary deligns, they
could not be the parents of that harmony which we
clearly perceive to prevail in the fyftem.
But the Being capable of regulating the movements
of fo vaft a machine, may w^ell be fuppofed to poflefs
infinite power, and to be capable of fuperintending the
motions of the univerfe. That the widely extended fyf¬
tem of nature is but one fyftem, of which the feveral
parts are united by many bonds of mutual connedtion,
has been Ihown elfewhere (fee Physics), and appears
daily more and more evident from our progrefs in phyfi-
cal difeoveries; and therefore it is in the higheft degree
unreafonable to fuppofe that it has more than one author,
or one fupreme governor.
Of infinft’ the unity defign aPParent th6 works of cre-
power,wif- ation plainly proves the unity of their Author, fo do the
dom, and immenfity of the whole, and the admirable adjuftment
of the feveral parts to one another, demonftrate His
power and His wifdom. On this fubjeft the following
beautiful refledlions by Mr Wollafton are deferving of
the moft ferious attention.
* Religion “ In order (fays that able writer *) to prove to any
of Nature, one the grandnefs of this fabric of the world, one needs
fed. v. oniy t0 Hd him confider the fun, with that infupporta-
prop. 14. hie* glory and luftre that furrounds it j to demonftrate
its vaft fliftance, magnitude, and heat *, to reprefent to
him the chorus of planets moving periodically, by uni¬
form laws, in their feveral orbits about it j guarded
fome of them by fecondary planets, and as it were emu¬
lating tbe ftate of the fun, and probably all poffeffed by
proper inhabitants j to remind him of thore furprifing
Vol. XX. Part I.
LOGY. 329
vifits which the comets make to us, and the large trains Being and
of uncommon fplendor which attend them, the far coun- ^r^teS
try from which they come, and the curioftty and horror . . ^ ^
which they excite not only among us, but in the inha¬
bitants of other planets, who may alfo be up to fee the
entry and progrefs of thefe miniflers of fate j to direft
his eye and contemplation through thofe azure fields and
vaft regions above him up to tVz fixed fars, that radiant
numberlefs hoft of heaven 3 and to make him underftand
how unlikely a thing it is that they ftiould be placed
there only to adorn and befpangle a canopy over our
heads 5 to convince him that they are rather fo many
other funs, with their feveral fyftems of planets about
them 3 to (how him by the help of glailes ftill more and
more of thefe fixed lights, and to beget in him an appre-
henfion of their inconceivable numbers, and thofe im-
menfe fpaces that lie beyond our reach and even our
imagination : One needs but to do this (continues our
author), and explain to him fuch things as are now
known almoft to every body 3 and by it to (how, that
if the world be not infinite, it is infinito fimilis, and un¬
doubtedly the work of an INFINITE ARCHITECT.
“ But if we would take a view of all the particulars
contained within that aftoniftiing compafs which we have
thus haftily run over, how would wonders multiply up¬
on us ? Every corner, every part of the world, is as it
were made up of other worlds. If we look upon this
our earth, what fcope does it furniih for admiration ?
The great variety of mountains, hills, valleys, plains,
rivers, feas, trees, and plants! The many tribes of dif¬
ferent animals with which it is ftocked 3 the multifari¬
ous inventions and works of one of thefe, t. e. of us
men 3 with the wonderful inftin&s of others, guiding
them uniformly to what is heft for themfelves, in fitua-
tions where neither fenfe nor reafon could direct them.
And yet when all thefe (heaven and earth) are furvey-
ed as nicely as they can be by the help of our unaflifted
fenfes and of telefcopes, we may difeover by the aflif-
tance of good microfcopes, in very fmall parts of mat¬
ter, as many new wonders as thofe already difeovered,
new kingdoms of animals, with new and curious archi-
tedlure. So that as our fenfes and even conception fainted
before in the vaft journeys we took in confidering the
expanfe of the univerfe, they here again fail us in our
refearches into the principles and minute parts of which
it is compofed. Both the beginnings and the ends of
things, the leaf and the greatefi, all confpire to baffle
us 3 and which way foever we profecute our inquiries, we
ftill meet with frefli fubjefts of amazement, and frelh
reafons to believe that there are indefinitely more and
more behind, that will forever efcape our eagereft pur-
fuits and deepeft penetration.
“ In this vaft aflemblage, and amidft all the multifa¬
rious motions by which the feveral procefles of genera¬
tion and corruption, and the other phenomena of na¬
ture, are carried on, we cannot but obferve that there
are ftated methods, as fo many forms of proceeding, to
which things punctually and religioufly adhere. The
fame caufes circumftanced in the fame manner produce
always the fame effeBs ; all thefipecies of animals among
us are made according to one general idea 3 and fo are
thofe of plants alfo, and even of minerals. No new fpe-
cies are brought forth or have arifen anywhere 3 and the
old are preferved and continued by the old ways.
li It appears, laftlv, beyond difpute, that in the part
T t and
.S3Q T H E O
Attr£ut« ane* ef tlie world tliere is a contrivance for ac-
of God, eomPJl^mg certain ends. The fun is placed near the
.1 Lj centre of our fyitem, for the more convenient difpenfing
of his benign influences to the planets moving about
mm j the place of the earth’s equator mterfefls that of
her orbit, and makes a proper angle with it, in order to
diverfify the year, and create an ufeful variety of fea-
fcn\; and many other things of this kind will be al-
v.ays oolerved, and though a thouland times repeated,
be meditated upon with pleafure by good men and true
pnilofophers. Who can obferve the vapours to afeend,
especially from the fea, meet above in clouds, and fall
again after condenfation, without being convinced that
this is a kind of dijiillation, in order to clear the water
of its groflfer falts, and then by rains and dews to fupply
tne fountains and rivers with frefh and wholefome li-
quor ; tonourilh the vegetables below by Ihowers, which
demend in drops as from a watering-pot upon a garden ?
Who can view the JiruBure of a plant or animal, the
indefinite number of its fibres and fine veffels, the forma¬
tion of larger veffels, and the feveral members out of
them, with the apt difpofition of all thefe 5 the means
contrived for the reception and diftribution of nutri
vient j the efett this nutriment has in extending the
veifels, bringing the vegetable or animal to its full
growth and expanfion, continuing the motion of the fe-
veral fluids, repairing the decays of the body, and pre,
ferving life? Who can take notice of the feveral facul-
!i.s ot animals, their arts of faving and providing for
themfelves, or the ways in which they are provided for ;
tne i.ics of plants to animals, and of fome animals to
otners, particularly to mankind ; the care taken that
hie ieveral Ipecies fliould be propagated, without confu-
i.Oii, from their proper feeds ; the ftrong inclination
planted in animals for that purpofe, their love of their
young and the like.—Who (fays our author) can ob-
icrve all this, and not fee a de/ign in fuch regular pie¬
ces, lo nicely wrought and fo admirably preferved ? If
tbeje vere but one animal in exiftence, and it could not
oe doubted but that his eyes were formed that he might
Ae with them, his ears that he might hear with them,
and his feet to be inftruments by which he might re¬
move him felf from place to place j \i defign ^contri¬
vance can be much lefs doubted, when the fame things
are repeated in the individuals of all the tribes of ani¬
mals j if the like obfervations be made with refpeft to
vegetables and other things; and if all thefe clajfes of
things, and much more the individuals comprehended
under them, be inconceivably numerous, as moft vn-
queflionably they are—one cannot but be convinced,
irom what fo plainly runs through the nobler parts of
the vifible world, that not only they, but other things
even thofe that leem to ht lefs -have their ends
like wife, though not always perceived by capacities li¬
mited like ours. And fince we cannot, with the Epi¬
cureans of old, fuppole the parts of matter to have con¬
trived among themfelves this wonderful form of a world,
to have taken by agreement each its refpeflive pofl
and then to have purfued in conjunaion conflant end)
w certain methods and meafures concerted, there muft be
iome other Being, whofe wifdom and power are equal
to fiich a mighty work as is the JiruBure and preferva-
tion of the world. There muft be fome Almighty
Mtxp who modelled and preferves it ; lavs the caufes
■oi things ,0 deep ; preferibes them fuch'uniform and
L 0 g Y. PartL
fteady laws 5 deftines and. adapts them to certain pur- Being and
poles ; and makes one thing to fit and anfwer another Attributes
fo as to produce one harmonious whole. Yes, , of God.
I hefe are thy glorious works, Parent of good !
Almighty, thine this univerfal frame,
ihus wondrous fair ; Ihyself how wondrous then!
How wondrous in wifdom and in power !” 2g
. the wool)NESS of God is not lefs confpicuous in goodnefi.
his works than His power or His wifdom. Contrivance
proves defign, and the predominant tendency of the
contrivances indicates the difpofition of the defigner.
I he world (fays an elegant and judicious writer *) * Dr Talev
abounds with contrivances, and all the contrivances in
it with which we are acquainted are directed to benefi¬
cial purpefes. Evil no doubt exifts ; but it is never
that we can perceive the objefl of contrivance. Teeth
are contrived to eat, not to ache ; their aching now and
then is incidental to the contrivance, perhaps infepara-
ble from it ; but it is not its objeft. This is a diftinc-
tion.which well deferves to be attended to. In deferib-
ing implements of hulbandry, one would hardly fay of
a fickle that it is made to cut the reaper’s fingers,
though from the conftruction of the inftrument, am? the
manner of ufing it, this mifchief often happens. But if
he had occafion to deferibe inftruments of torture or ex¬
ecution, this, he would fay, is to extend the finews ;
tins to di floe ate the jointsthis to break the bones ■
this to fcorch the foies or the feet. Here pain and mi-
fery are the very obje&s of the contrivance. Now no¬
thing of this fort is to be found in the works of nature.
We never difeover a train of contrivance to bring about
an evil purpofe. No anatomift ever difeovered a fyftem
of organization calculated to produce pain and difeafe y
or, in explaining .the parts of the humafi body, ever
faid, this is to irritate, this to inflame, this du£t is to
convey the gravel to the kidneys, this gland to fecrete
the humour wftnch forms the gout. If by chance he
come to a part of which he knows not the ufe, the moft
that he can fay is, that to him it appears to be ufelefs :
no one ever fufpe&s that it is put there to incommode,
to annoy, or to torment. If God had wifhed our mi-
fery, he might have made fure of his purpofe, by form¬
ing our fenfes to be as many fores and pains to us as
they are now inftruments ofgratification and enjoyment;
or, by placing us among obje&s fo ill fuited to our
perceptions, as to have continually offended us, inftead
of. miniftering to our refrefhment and delight. He
might have made, for inftance, every thing we tafted
bitter, every thing we faw loathfome, every thing we
touched a fting, every fmeil a flench, and every found
a difeord.” f
Inftead of this, all our fenfations, except fuch as are
excited by what is dangerous to our health, are plea-
fures to us : The view of a landfcape is pleafant ; the
tafte of nourifhing food is pleafant ; founds not too loud
are agreeable, while mufical founds are*exquifite ; and
fcarcely any fmells, except fuch are excited by effluvia
obviouflv pernicious to the brain, are difagreeable;
while fome of them, if not too long indulged, are de¬
lightful. Our lives are preferved and the fpecies is con¬
tinued by obeying the impulfe of appetites; of which
the gratification is exquifite when not repeated too fre¬
quently, to anfwer the purpofes of the Author of our
being. Since, then, God lias called forth his confum-
mate
Part I. T H E O
Beinsv anti mate wifdom to contrive and provide for our happinefs,
Attributes an(j ]ias made thofe things which are neceffury to our
of God- exiftence and the continuance of the race fources of our
o-reateft fenfual pleafures, who can doubt but that be¬
nevolence is one of his attributes j and that, if it
were not impious to draw a comparifcn between them,
it is the attribute in which he himfelf mod delight-
eth ?
But it is not from fenfation only that we may infer
the benevolence of the Deity : He has formed us with
minds capable of intelleftual improvement, and he has
implanted in the bread of every man a very drong. de¬
fire of adding to his knowledge. This addition, it is
true, cannot be made without labour ; and at fird the
requifite labour is to mod people irkfome : but a very
fhort progrefs in any dudy converts what was irkfome
into a pleafure of the mod exalted kind •, and he who
by dudy, however intenfe, enlarges his ideas, experien¬
ces a complacency, which, though not fo poignant per¬
haps as the pleafures of the fenfualid, is fuch as endears
him to himfelf, and is what he would not exchange for
any thing elfe which this world has to bedow, except
the dill fweeter complacency arifing from the confciouf-
nefs of having difcharged his duty.
That the practice of virtue is attended with a pecu¬
liar pleafure of the pured kind, is a faff which no man
has ever quedioned, though the immediate folirce of
that pleafure has been the fubjcdl of many difputes.. He
who attributes it to a moral fenfe, which inftin&ively
points out to every man his duty, and on the perfor¬
mance of it rewards him with a fentiment of felf-appro-
bation, mud of necedity acknowledge benevolence to
be one of the attributes of that Being who has fo con-
diluted the human mind. That to protect the inno¬
cent, relieve the didreffed, and do to others as we would
in like circumdances with to be done by, fills the bread,
previous to all reflection, with a holy joy, as the com-
miffion of any crime tears it with remorfe, cannot in¬
deed be controverted. Many, however, contend, that
this joy and this remorfe fpring not from any moral in-
ftinCt implanted in the mind, but are the confequence
of early and deep-rooted affbeiations of the praftice of
virtue with the hope of future happinefs, and of vice
with the dread of future mifery. On the refpe&ive me¬
rits of thefe two theories we fhall not now decide, but
only obferve, that they both lead with equal certainty
to the benevolence of the Deity, who made bs capable
of forming affociations, and fubjeCled thefe affbeiations
to fixed laws. This being the cafe, the moral fenfe,
with all its indantaneous eflfe&s, affords not a more con¬
vincing proof of his goodnefs, than that principle in our
nature by which remote circumdances become fo linked
together, that the one circumdance never occurs with¬
out bringing* the other alfo into view. It is thus that
the pleafing complacency, which was perhaps fird ex¬
cited by the hopes of future happinefs, comes in time to
be fo affociated with the confcioufnefs of virtuous con-
dubl, the only thing entitled to reward, that a man ne¬
ver performs a meritorious ablion without experiencing
the mod exquifite joy diffufed through his mind, though
his attention at that indant may not be direfled either
to heaven or futurity. Were we obliged, before we
could experience this joy, to edimate by reafon the me¬
rit of every individual aftion, and trace its connection
to heaven and future happinefs through a long train of
LOGY. 3.51
intermediate reafoning, we ihould be hi a great mea-
fure deprived of the prefent reward of virtue; and ^
therefore this affociating principle contributes much ■ ^ >
to our happinefs. But the benevolence of a Be¬
ing, who feems thus anxious to furnidi us with both
fenfual and intellectual enjoyments, and who has made
our duty our greated pleafure, cannot be quedioned 5
and therefore we mud infer, that the Author of Nature
willies the happinefs of the whole fenfible and intelligent
creation. . _ . 5°.
To fuch reafoning as this in fupport of the Divine a -ion..
Benevolence many objections have been made. Some
of them appear at firit fight plaufible, and are apt to
dagger the faith of him who has bedowed no time on
the dudy of that branch of general fcience which is cal¬
led phjfKs (fee Physics). To emit thefe altogether in
fuch an article as this might be condrued into negleCt j
while it is certain that there is in them nothing wor¬
thy the attention of that man who is qualified either to
edimatc their force, or to underdand the arguments by
which they have often been repelled.
It has been afked, Why, if the Author of Nature be
a benevolent Being, are we neceffarily fubjeCt to pain,
difeafes, and death ? The feientific phyficlogid replies,
Becaufe from thefe evils Omnipotence itfelf could not
in our prefent date exempt us, but by a conltant feries
of miracles. He who admits miracles, knows likewife anfwereff.
that mankind were originally in a date in which they
were not fubjeCt to death •, and that they fell under its
dominion through the fault of their common progeni¬
tors. But the fall and redoration of man is the great
fubjeft of revealed religion •, and at prefent we are dif-
cuding the quedion like philofophers who have no other
data on which to proceed than the phenomena of na¬
ture. Now we know, that as all matter is divifible,
every fydem compofed of it mud neceffarily be liable to
decay and diffolution} and our material fydem would
decay and be diffolved long before it could ferve the
purpofes of nature, were there not methods contrived
with admirable wifdom for repairing the wade occafion-
ed by perpetual fridion. Tire body is furnilhed with
different fluids, which continually circulate through it
in proper channels, and leave in their way what is ne-
ceffary to repair the folids. Thefe again are fupplied by
food nb extra ; and to the whole procefles of digedion,
circulation, and nutrition, the air we breathe is abfolute-
ly neceffary. But as the air is a very heterogeneous
fluid, and fubjeft to violent and fudden changes, it is
obvious that thefe changes mud affeft the blood, and by
confequence the whole frame of the human body. The
air indeed in procefs of time confumes even marble it¬
felf ; and therefore we cannot wonder, that as it is in
one date the parent of health, it diould in another be
the fource of difeafe to fuch creatures as man and other
terredrial animals. Nor could thefe confequences be
avoided without introducing others much more deplo¬
rable. The world is governed by general laws, -without
which there could be among men neither arts nor fei-
ences ; and though laws different from thofe by which
the fydem is at prefent governed might perhaps have
been edablilhed, there is not the fmalled reafon to ima¬
gine that they could on the whole have been better, or
attended with fewer inconveniencies. As long as we
have material and folid bodies capable of motion, liable
to refidance from other folid bodies, fupported by food,
T t 2 fubjeft
332 T H E O
Being pnd fubjeft to tiie agency of the air, and divifible, they muft
of God.C necehhriiy be liable to pain, difeafe, corruption, and
death, and that too by the very influence of thofe laws
which preferve the order and harmony of the univerfe.
'I hus gravitation is a general law fo good and fo necef-
fary, that were it for ,a moment fufpended, the world
would inflantly fall to pieces ; and yet by means of this
law the man muft inevitably be cruflied to death on
whom a tower fliall chance to tumble. Again, the at-
tra£Hon of cohefion is a general law, without which it
does not appear that any corporeal fyftem could pofl
flbly exift : it is by this law too, or a modification of it,
that the glands and lafteals of the human body extract
from the blood fuch particles as are neceflary to nourifh
the folids ; and yet it is by means of the very fame mo¬
dification of the very fame law that a man is liable to
be poifoned.
Sicknefs, Although the human body could not have been pre-
thedr^d *"er.vec* ^rom dangers and diflblution but by introducing
of death e.vils £reater °n the whole than thofe to which it is now
ferve good hable, why, it has fometimes been afked, is every dif-
purpofes. order to which it is fubjebl attended with ficknefs or
with pain ? and why is fuch a horror of death implanted
in our breafts, feeing that by the laws of nature death is
inevitable ? We anfwer, That ficknefs, pain, and the
dread of death, ferve the very beft purpofes. Could a
man be put to death, or have his limbs broken without
feeling pain, the human race had long ago been extinft.
Felt we no uneafinefs in a fever, we fhould be infenfible
of the difeafe, and die before we fufpedfed our health to
be impaired. The horror which generally accompanies
our reflexions on death tends to make us" more careful
of life, and prevents us from quitting this world rafhly
when our affairs profper not according to our wifhes. It
is likewife an indication that our exiflence does not ter¬
minate in this wmrld ; for our dread is feldom excited by
t.he profpeX of the pain which we may fuffer when dy¬
ing, but by our anxiety concerning what we may be
doomed to fuffer or enjoy in the next ftage of our exifl¬
ence ; and this anxiety tends more perhaps than any
thing eife to make us live W'hile we are here in fuch a
manner as to enfure our happinefs hereafter.
Thus from every view that we can take of the works
and laws of God, and even from confidering the objec¬
tions which have fometimes been made to them, we are
compelled to acknowledge the benevolence of their Au¬
thor. We muft not, however, fuppofe the Divine be¬
nevolence to be a fond affeXion like that which is called
benevolence _ among men. All human affeXions and
paflions originate in our dependence and wants ; and it
has been doubted whether any of them be at firft difin-
terefted (fee Passion) : but he to whom ex'ftence is
effential cannot be dependent; he who is the Author of
every thing can feel no want. The divine benevolence
therefore muft be wholly difinterefted, and of courfe
free from thofe partialities originating in felf-love, which
are alloys in the moft fublime of human virtues. The
moft benevolent man on earth, though he wifhes the
happinefs of every fellow-creature, has ftill, from the
ties of blood, the endearments of friendfhip, or, perhaps
from a regard to his own intereft, fome particular fa-
The divine vourites whom, on a competition with others, he would
benevolence certainly prefer. But the equal Lord of all can have
with^uf^ n° PartIcuIar ^vourites. His benevolence is therefore
,S:JU- coincident with juftice 3 or, that which is called divine
LOGY. Parti.
jujitce, is only benevolence exerting itfelf in a particular Being and
manner for the propagation of general felicity. When Attributes
God preferibes laws for regulating the conduX of his of God' .
intelligent creatures, it is not becaufe he can reap any """" ^
benefit from their obedience to thofe law's, but becaufe
fuch obedience is neceflary to their owm happinefs 3 and
when he punifhes the tranfgreflbr, it is not becaufe in
his nature there is any difpofition to which the profpeX
of .fuch punilhment can afford gratification, but becaufe
in the government of free agents punifhment is neceflary
to reform the criminal, and to intimidate others from
committing the like crimes.
The e Hence of this felf-exifient, all-powerful, infinite- God In com
ly wife, and perfeXly good Being, is to us wholly in- prehenfiblq
comprehenfible. That it is not matter, is fhown by the
procefs of argumentation by which we have proved it to
exift : but what it is we know not, and it would be im¬
pious prefumption to inquire. It is fufficient for all the
purpofes of religion to know that God is fome how or
other prefent to every part of his works 3 that exiftence
and every poflible perfeXion is cflential to him 3 and
that he wifhes the happinefs of all his creatures. From
thefe truths we might proceed to illuflrate the perpetual
fuperintendance of his providence, both general and par¬
ticular, over every the minuteft part of the univerfe :
but that fubjeX has been difeuffed in a feparate article 3
to which, therefore, we refer the reader, (fee Provi¬
dence). We fhall only obferve at prefent, that the
manner in which animals are propagated affords as com¬
plete a proof of the conftant fuperintendance of divine
power and wifdom, as it does of the immediate exertion
of thefe faculties in the formation of the parent pair of
each fpecies. For were propagation carried on by ne-
cejjary and mechanical laws, it is obvious, that in every
age there would be generated, in each fpecies of ani¬
mals, the very fame proportion of males to females that r
there was in the age preceding. On the other hand, but con-
did generation depend on fortuitous mechanifm, it is not ftantly pre-
conceivable but that, fince the beginning of the world,lent t0 bis
feveral fpecies of animals fhould in fo?ne age have gene-works*
rated nothing but males, and others nothing but fe¬
males; and that of courfe many fpecies would have been
long fince extinX. As neither of thefe cafes has ever
happened, the prefervation of the various fpecies of ani¬
mals, by keeping up conftantly in the world a due, though
not always the fame, proportion between the fexes of
male and female, is a complete proof of the fuperinten¬
dance of divine providence, and of that faying of the
apoftle, that it is “ in God we live, move, and have our
being.”
Sect. II. Of the Duties and Sanctions of Natural Re¬
ligion.
From the (hort view that we have taken of the di- Reverence
vine perfeXions, it is evidently our duty to reverence in and grati-
our minds the felf-exiftent Being to whom they belong.tude due ^
This is indeed not only a duty, but a duty of which no Gocu
man who contemplates thefe perfeXions, and believes
them to be real, can poflibly avoid the performance.
He who thinks irreverently of the Author of nature,
can never have confidered ferioufly the power, the wif¬
dom, and the goodnefs, difplayed in his works 5 for
whoever has a tolerable notion of thefe muft be con¬
vinced, that he who performed them has no imperfec¬
tion 3
\
/
Part I.
T H E O
Duties and tion j that his power can accomplhh every thing which
Sandlions involves not a contradiftion , that his knowledge is in-
^*tural tuitive, and free from the pofTibility of error } and that
i ° his goodnefs extends to all without partiality and with¬
out any alloy of felfilh defign. This convi&ion muft
make every man on whofe mind it is impreiTed ready to
proftrate himfelf in the dull before the Author of his
being ; who, though infinitely exalted above him, is the
fource of all his enjoyments, conllantly watches over
him with paternal care, and protetts him from number-
lefs dangers. The fenfe of lb many benefits mult ex¬
cite in his mind a fentiment of the livelieft gratitude to
him from whom they are received, and an ardent wilh
37 for their continuance.
efwhom no While filent gratitude and devotion thus glow in the
pofitive idea ^rea^ Qf ^he contemplative man, he will be careful not
formed. L to ^orrn even a mental image of that all-perfeft Being
to whom they are directed. He knows that God is not
material; that he exifts in a manner altogether incom-
prehenfible j that to frame an image of him would be
to aflign limits to what is infinite ; and that to attempt
to form a pofitive conception of him would be impioutly
to compare himfelf with his Maker.
The man who has any tolerable notion of the perfec-
ought to be tions of the Supreme Being will never fpeak lightly of
fpeken of; him, or make ufe of his name at all but on great and
and folemn occafions. He knows that the terms of all lan¬
guages are inadequate and improper, when applied di-
reftly to him who has no equal, and to whom nothing
can be compared } and therefore he will employ thefe
terms with caution. When he fpeaks of his mercy and
compaffion, he will not confider them as feelings wring¬
ing the heart like the mercy and compaflion experienced
by man, but as rays of pure and difinteielled benevo¬
lence. When he thinks of the ftupendous fyftem of
nature, and hears it, perhaps, faid that God formed it
for his own glory, he will reflefl that God is fo infinite¬
ly exalted above all his creatures, and fo perfe<5t in him¬
felf, that he can neither take pleafure in their applaufe,
nor receive any acceffion of any kind from the exigence
of ten thoufand worlds. The immenfe fabric of nature
therefore only difplays the glory or perfedlions of its
Author to «j* and to other creatures who have not fa¬
culties to comprehend him in himfelf.
When the contemplative man talks of ferving God,
he does not dream that his fervices can increafe the di-
ferving him. vine felicity j but means only that it is his duty to obey
the divine laws. Even the pronoun He, when it refers
to God, cannot be of the fame import as when it refers
to man j and by the philofophical divine it will feldom be
ufed but with a mental allufion to this obvious diftinftion.
As the man who duly venerates the Author of his
being will not fpeak of him on trivial occafions, fo will
he be Hill further from calling upon him to witnefs im¬
pertinences and falfehood, (fee Oath). He will never
mention his name but with a paufe, that he may have
time to refieft in filence on his numberlefs perfeftions,
and on the immenfe diftance between himfeif and the
Being of whom he is fpeaking. The flighteft refleftion
will convince him that the world with all that it con¬
tains depends every momeat on that God who formed
it j and this conviftion will compel him to wilh for the
divine proteftion of himfelf and his friends from all dan¬
gers and misfortunes. Such a wilh is in effe£l a prayer,
and will always bs accompanied with adoration, confef-
3?
what is
meant by
L O G Y. 333
fion, and thankfgiving (fee Prayer). But adoration, Duties and
confeflions, fupplication, and thankfgiving, conftitute ‘Natural
what is called worfiip, and therelore the worlhip of Religion.
God is a natural duty. It is the addrefling of ourfelves v v—j
as his dependants to him as the fupreme caufe and go¬
vernor of the world, with acknowledgements of what
we enjoy, and petitions for what we really want, or he
knows to be convenient for us. As if, ex. gr. I fhould
in fame humble and compofed manner (fays Mr Wol-
lafton) pray to that “ Almighty Being, upon whom de¬
pends the exigence of the world, and by whofe provi- ^
dence I have been preferved to this moment, and cn-j)jvinewor-
joyed many undeferved advantages, that he would gra- fliip a natu-
cioully accept my grateful fenfe and acknowledgments ral duty.
of all his beneficfence towards me j that he would deli¬
ver me from the evil confequences of all my tranfgref-
fions and follies; that he would endue me with fuch dif-
pofitions and powers as may carry me innocently and
fafely through all future trials, and may enable me on
all occafions to behave myfelf conformably to the laws
of reafon pioufly and wifely *, that He would fuffer
no being to injure me, no misfortunes to befal me,
nor me to hurt myfelf by any error or mifeonduft of my
own ; that he would vouchfafe me clear and diftintt
perceptions of things j with fo much health and profperi-
ty as may be good for me j that I may at leaf! pafs my
time in peace, with contentment and tranquillity of
mind j and that having faithfully difeharged my duty to
my family and friends, and endeavoured to improve my¬
felf in virtuous habits and ufeful knowledge, I may at
lafl: make a decent and happy exit, and find myfelf in
fome better Hate.”
That an untaught favage would be prompted by in-
JlinB to addrefs the Supreme Being in fuch terms as
this, we are fo far from thinking, that to us it appears
not probable that fuch a favage, in a ftate of folitude,
would be led by inflind to fuppofe the exiftence of
that Being. But as foon as the being and attributes
of God were, by whatever means, made known to man,
every fentiment exprefled in this prayer mull necefla-
rily have been generated in his mind j for not to be fen-
fible that we derive our exiftence and all our enjoyments
from God, is in effeft to deny his being or his provi¬
dence } and not to feel a wifti that he would give us
what we want, is to deny either his' goodnefs or his
power.
The worlhip of God therefore is a natural duty re-
fulting from the contemplation of his attributes and
a fenfe of our own dependence. But the reafoning
which has led us to this conclufion refpefts only pri- 41
vote devotion ; for it is a queftion of much greater Wlieiher or
difficulty, and far enough from being yet determined,’^a‘''
whether public worlhip be a duty of that religion
which can with any propriety be termed natural. Mrtural reli-
Wollafton indeed polilively affirms that it is, and en-gion?
deavours to prove his pofition by the following argu¬
ments. 42
“ A man (fays he) may be confidered as a member Argumenta-
of fome fociety 5 and as fuch he ought to worlhip God for it,
if he has the opportunity of doing it, if there be proper
prayers ufed publicly to which he may refort, and if his
health, &c. permit. Or the fociety may be confidered
as one bodij, that has common interefts and concerns,
and as fuch is obliged to worlhip the Deity, and offer
one prayer. Befides, there are many who know not of
themfelves »
334 T H E O
Duties and thertifelves how to pray ; perhaps cannot fo much as
Natural01 read‘ J.hefe be takcn as they arc ; and come-
Religion. <luen^y fome tirne and place appointed where they may
1—-y—-J have fuitable prayers read to them, and be guided in
their devotions. And further, towards the keeping
mankind in order, it is necejfary there Ihould be fome
religion profefled, and even eftablifhed, which cannot
be without public worlhip. And were it not for that
fenfe of virtue which is principally preferved (lb far as it
is preferved) by national forms and habits of religion,
men would loon lofe it all, run wild, prey upon one ano¬
ther, and do what elfe the world of lavages do.”
1 hefe are in themfelves juft obfervations, and rvould
come with great force and propriety from the tongue or
pen of a Chriftian preacher, who is taught by revelation
that the Mailer whom he ferves has commanded his
followers “ not to forfake the aflembling of themfelves
together,” and has promifed, “ that if two of them lhall
agree on earth as touching any thing that they lhall
alri, it fhall be done for them of his Father who is in
heaven.As urged by fuch a man, and on fuch grounds,
they would ferve to {how the fitnefs of the divine com¬
mand, and to point out the benefits which a religious
obediense to it might give us reafon to expert. But
the author is here profeffing to treat of natural religion,
and to Hate the duties which I'efuit from the mere rela¬
tion which fubfifts between man as a creature and God
as bis creator and conftant preferver. Now, though we
readily admit the benefits of public worlhip as experi¬
enced under the Chriftian dilpenfation, we do not per¬
ceive any thing in this reafoning which could lead a
pious theift to expedl the fame benefit previous to all ex-
43 perience. When the author thought of national forms
borrowed and efablijhmeats of religion, he certainly loft fight of
from nwek-hls proper fubjedl, and, as fuch writers are too apt to do,
comprehended under the religion of nature what belongs
only to that which is revealed. Natural religion, in the
proper fenfe of the words, admits of no particularyo/mr,
and of no legal efablifhment. Private devotion is ob-
vioufly one of its duties, becaufe fentiments of adoration,
confeftion,. fupplicatisn, and thankfgiving, neceffarily
fpring up in the breaft of every man who has juft no¬
tions Oi God and of himfelf: but it is not fo obvious
that fuch notions would induce any body of men to meet
at fated times for the purpofc of expreffing their devo¬
tional fentiments in public. Mankind are indeed focial
beings, and naturally communicate their fentiments to
each other ; but we cannot conceive what Ihould at firft
have led them to think that public worlhip at ftated
times would be acceptable to the felf-exiftent Author of
the univerfe. ^ In cafe of a famine, or any other calami¬
ty m which the whole tribe was equally involved, they
might fpeak of it to each other, inquire into its caufe,
and in the extremity of their diftrefs join perhaps in cne1
fervent petition, that God would remove it. In the
fame manner they might be prompted to pour forth oc~
cafional ejaculations of public gratitude for public mer¬
cies ; but it does not follow from thefe incidental occur¬
rences that tney would be led to inftitute times and
places and forms of national worlhip, as if they believed
the omnifeient Deity more ready to hear them in public
than in private. ^ That the appointment of fuch "times
nnd forms and places is beneficial to lociety, experience
teaches us j and therefore it is the duty, and has been
the praftice, of the fupreme magiftrate, in every age
4
L 0 G. Y- Fart L
and in every civilized country, to provide for the main- Duties and
tenance of the national worlhip. Eut this praflice hns San&ions of
taken its rife, not from the deductions of reafon, but ei- 3N?fu.ral
thev from direct revelation, as among the Jews and , ve'‘glong
Chnftians ; or from tradition, which had its origin in
fome early revelations, as among the more enlightened
Pagans of ancient and modern times.
\» e hope none of our readers will imagine that we
mean, in any degree, to call in queftion the fitnefs or
the duty of public worfhip. This is far from our in¬
tension ; but while we are convinced of the importance
and neceffity of this duty, we do not apprehend that
we ieffen its dignity, or detraft from the weight of al-
moft univerfal pradlice, by endeavouring to derive that
practice from its true fource, which appears to us to be
not human reafon, but divine revelation.
But whatever doubts may be entertained with refped The ptac-
to the origin of public worlhip, there can be none as to dee of vir¬
tue foundation of moral virtue. Reafon clearly perceivestue a <luty
it to be the will of our Maker, that each individual off^on?1
the hr.itian race fhould treat every other individual as, in °
limilar circumftances, he would expect to be treated
himfelf. ^ It is thus only that the greateft fum of human
happinefs can be produced (fee Moral Philosophy,
N jy. and 135.) ; for were all men temperate, fober,
juft in their dealings, faithful to their promifes, chari-
t.i.jic to the poor, &c. it is obvious that no miferies
would be felt on earth, but the few which, by the laws
of corporeal nature, unavoidably refult from the union
of our minds with fyftems of matter. But the delign of
God in forming fentient beings was to communicate to
tnem fome portion, or rather lome refemblance, of that
felicity which is effential to himfelf} and therefore every
aftion which in its natural tendency co-operates with
this defign muft be agreeable to him, as every atticn of
a contrary tendency muft be difagreeable.
From this reafoning it follows, that we are obliged
not only to be juft and beneficent to one another, but
alio to abftain from all unneceflary cruelty to inferior
animals. That we have a right to tame cattle, and em-r
ploy them for the purpofes of agriculture and other arts the inferior
where ftrength is required, is a pofition which we be-animals a
lieve has feldom been controverted. But if it is the in-fin-
tention of God to communicate a portion of happinefs to
all his creatures endowed with fenfe, it is obvious that
we fin again!! him when we fubjett even the horfe or the
afs to greater labour than he is able to perform 5 and this
fin is aggravated when from avarice we give not the ani¬
mal a fufficient quantity of food tofupport him under the
exertions which we compel him to make. That it is our
duty to defend ourfelves and our property from the rava¬
ges of beafts of prey, and that we may even exterminate
fuch beafts from the country in which we live, are truths
which cannot be queftioned ; but it has been the opinion
of men, eminent for wifdom and learning, that we have
no right to kill an ox or a (beep for food, but in confe-
quer.ee of the divine permiflicn to Noah recorded in the
ninth chapter of the book of Genefis. Whether this
opinion be Well or ill founded we lhall not pofitively de¬
termine, though the arguments on which it refts are of
fuch a nature as the reafoners of the prefent day would
perhaps find it no .eafy talk to anfwer ; but it cannot
admit of a doubt, that, in killing fuch animals, we are,
in duty to their Creator and out's, bound to put them to
the le'aft poftible pain. If this be granted, it is ftill more
evident
Part I.
T H E O L O G Y.
Duties and evident that we a£l contrary to the divine will when we
Sandtions^oftorture anc{ pUt (0 death fuch animals as are confdTedly
Reli<don not injurious to ourfelves, or to any tiring on which the
comforts of life are known to depend. \Ve are indeed
far from being convinced with the poet, that infedls and
reptiles “ in mortal fufferance feel as when a giant dies:”
but their feelings on that occafion are certainly fuch, as
that, when we wantonly inllidt them, we thwart, as far
as in our power, the benevolent purpoie of the Creator
in giving them life and fenfe. Let it be obferved too,
that the man rvho praftifes needlefs cruelty to the brute
creation is training up his mind for exercifing cruelty
towards his fellow-creatures, to his Haves if he have
any, and to his fervants ; and, by a very quick progrefs,
to all who may be placed beneath him in the fcale of
fociety.
Such are the plain duties of natural religion ; and if
they were univerfally praftifed, it is evident that they
would be produdlive of the greateft happinefs which
mankind could enjoy in this world, and that piety and
virtue would be their own reward. They are however
far from being univerfally prabtifed ; and the confequence
is, that men are frequently railed to affluence and power
by vice, and fometimes funk into poverty by a rigid ad¬
herence to the rules of virtue.
This being the cafe, there can be no queftion of
greater importance, while there are few more difficult
to be anfwered, than “ What are the fandfions by which
natural religion enforces obedience to her own laws i”
It is not to be fuppofed that the great body of mankind
fflould, without the profpebt of an ample reward, prac-
tife virtue in thofe intfances in which fuch pradfice would
KV'tnd rc ke °bvioufly attended with injury to themfelves 5 nor
lipion de- ^oe£ ^ aPPear reafonable in any man to forego prefent
fective in enjoyment, without the well-grounded hope of thereby
its evidence fecuring to himfelf a greater or more permanent enjoy¬
ment in reverfion. Natural religion therefore, as a fy-
flem of dodtrines influencing the condubt, is exceedingly
defective, unlefs it affords fufficient evidence, intelligible
to every ordinary capacity, of the immortality of the foul,
or at leaft of a future Hate of rewards and punifhments.
That it does afford this evidence, is ftrenuoufly main¬
tained by fome deifts, and by many philofophers of a dif¬
ferent defcription, wTho, though they profefs Chridianity,
feem to have fome unaccountable dread of being deceiv¬
ed by their bibles in every dodfrine which cannot be fup-
ported by philofophical reafoning.
One great argument made ufe of to prove that the
immortality of the foul is among the dobhines of natu-
future g'it“ ra* re^S*orb i® the univerfal belief of all ages and na-
^ lions that men continue to live in fome other ftate after
death has feparated their fouls from their bodies. “ Quod
li omnium confenfus natures vox eft : omnefque, qui ubi-
que hint, confentiunt effe aliquid, quod ad eos perlineat,
qui vita ceflerint: nobis quoque idem exiftimandum eft :
et ft, quorum aut ingenio, aut virtute animus excellit,
eos arbitramur, quia natura optima hint, cernere naturae
v;m maxime : verifimile eft, cum obiimus quifque maxitne
pojlemtatiferviat, tlfe aliquid, cujus is poft mortem fen-
fjm fit habiturus. Sed ut deos effe natura omnamur,
qualefque fint, ratione cognofcimus, fie permanere ani-
* Cicer mos at'1“trarnur confenfu nationum omnium
Tujc.^ueft. That this is a good argument for the truth of the doc-
'15, trine, through whatever channel men may have received
it, we readily acknowledge 5 but it appears not to us to
335
of a future
ftate,
47
The gene¬
ral expec¬
tation of a
lib.
lb.
be any proof of that dodlrine’s being the dedudfion of Duties and
human reafoning. The popular belief of Paganifin, both5^^10^^01
ancient and modern, is fo fantaftic and abiurd, that it
could never have been rationally inferred from what na- 1
ture teaches of God and the foul. In the Elyflum of 48
the Greek and Roman poets, departed fpirits were vi-j?ot. t*ie
lible to mortal eyes; and muft therefore have been01
clothed with fome material vehicle of lufficient denfity
to reflect the rays of light, though not to reiift the hu¬
man touch. In the mythology of the northern nations,
as decealed heroes are reprefenled as eating and drink¬
ing, they could not be conftdered as entirely diverted of
matter ; and in every popular creed of idolatry, future
rewards were fuppofed to be conferred, not for private
virtue, but for public violence, on heroes and conquerors
and the deftroyers of nations. Surely no admirer of what
is now called natural religion will pretend that thefe are
part of its doblrines; they are evidently the remains of
fome primeval tradition obfeured and corrupted in its
long progrefs through ages and nations. 49
The philofophers of Greece and Rome employed much
time and great talents in difquifitions concerning the hu-*
man foul and the probability of a future ftate ; and ifrefpedting
the genuine concluftons of natural religion on this fub- a future
jebl are anywhere to be found, one would naturally ^atc“
look for them in the writings of thofe men whofe ge¬
nius and virtues did honour to human nature. Yet it is
a fabf, that the philofophers held fuch notions concern¬
ing the fubftance of the loul and its ftate after death as
could afford no rational fupport to fuffering virtue, (fee
Metaphysics, Part III. chap. 4.). Socrates is indeed
an exception. Confining himfelf to the ftudy of ethics,
that excellent perlon inferred by the common moral ar¬
guments (fee Moral Philosophy, N° 232—246, that
the reality of a future ftate of rewards and punifhments
is in the higheft degree probable. He was not, however,
at all times abfolutely convinced of this important truth;
for a little before his death he faid to fome who were a-
bout him, “ I am now about to leave this world, and
ye are ftili to continue in it; which of us have the bet¬
ter part allotted us, God only knows And again, * piat0
at the end of his moil admired difeourfe concerning the Apolog.
immortality of the foul, delivered at a time when he‘s'or-
muft have been ferious, he faid to his friends who came
to pay their laft vifit,I would have you to know that
I have great hopes that I am now going into the com¬
pany of good men ; yet I would not be too peremptory
and confident concerning it f.” p;nto
Next to Socrates, Cicero was perhaps the moft rt-Phced.
fpedable of all the philofophers of antiquity ; and lie
feems to have ftudied this great queftion with uncom¬
mon care : yet what were his conclufions ? After retail¬
ing the opinions of various {’ages of Greece, and fhowing
that fome held the foul to be the heart; others, the
blood in the heart; fome the brain ; others, the breath ;
one, tliat it was harmony ; another, that it was number ;
one, that it was nothing at all; and another, that it was
a certain quinte(fence without a name, but which might
properly be called he gravely adds, “ Harurn
fententiarum quae vera fit, Deus aliquis viderit : qum ve-
rifimillima, magna queftio eft J.” He then proceeds to j. Tljr
give his own opinion; which was, that the foul is part.^JyL*lib.k
of God. j xo, 11.
To us who know by other evidence that the foul is
immortal, and that there will be a future ftate in which
all
336 T H E O
Duties and all tKe obliquities of tbe prefent ftall be made ftraight,
SaN^tural°fthe' argument drawn from the moral attributes of God,
Religion an<^ ^le uneclual diftribution of the good things of this
—y-—, life, appears to have the force of demonftration. Yet
none of us will furely pretend to fay that his powers of
reafoning are greater than were thofe of Socrates and
Cicero : and therefore the probability is, that had we
been like them deflitute of the light of revelation, we
fhould have been difturbed by the fame doubts, and have
faid with the latter, on reading the arguments of the
former as detailed by Plato. “ Nefcio quomodo, dum
lego, affentior : cum pofui librum, et mccum ipfe de im-
mortalitace animorum coepi cogitare, affenfio ilia elabi-
tur
Np one, we hope, will fufpeft us of an impious at¬
tempt to weaken the evidence of a future (fate. God for¬
bid ! The expectation of that Hate is the only fupport
fhould have v5rtue an(f religion ; and we think the arguments we
doubted have ftated elfewhere, and referred to on the prefent oc-
like them, cafion, make the reality of it fo highly probable, that,
though there were no other evidence, he would aft a
very foolilh part who Ihould confine his attention wholly
to the prefent life. But we do not apprehend that we
can injure the caufe either of virtue or of religion, by
confefling, that thofe arguments which left doubts in
the minds of Socrates and Cicero appear not to us to
have the force of complete demonjlration of that life and
immortality which our Saviour brought to light through
the gofpel.
Natural re- Were the cafe, however, otherwife ; were the argu-
ligion has ments which the light of nature alfbrds for the immor*
no means oftality of the human foul as convincing as any geometri-
certainly ca| demonftration—natural religion would ftill be defec-
the Deity to ^ve ’ becaufe it points out no method by which fuch as
finners. have offended God may be reftored to his favour, and
to the hopes of happinefs which by their fin they had
loft, 'i hat he who knows whereof we are made would
fhow himfelf placable to finners, and that he would find
fome way to be reconciled, might perhaps be reafonably
inferred from the confideration of his benevolence dif-
L O G Y.
Part I,
* Ibid.
. 5°
Without
the light
of revela¬
tion we
played in his works. But when we come to inquire more Duties and
particularly how we are to be reconciled, and whether aSamffmns^of
propitiation will be required, nature flops fhort, and ex- ion
pefts with impatience the aid of fome particular revela- ^ /
tion. That God will receive returning linners, and ac¬
cept of repentance inftead of perfeft obedience, cannot
be certainly known by thofe to whom he has not de¬
clared that he will. For though repentance be the moft
probable, and indeed the only means of reconciliation
which nature fuggefts *, yet whether he, who is of purer
eyes than to behold iniquity, will not require fomething
further before he reftore finners to the privileges which
they have forfeited, mere human reafon has no way of
difcovering. From nature therefore arifes no fufficient
comfort to finners, but anxious and endlefs folicitude
about the means of appealing the Deity. Hence thofe
different ways of facrificing, and thofe numberlefs fuper-
ftitions which overfpread the heathen world, but which
were fo little fatisfaftory to the wifer part of mankind,
that, even in thofe days of darknefs, the philofophers
frequently declared that, in their opinion, thofe rites and
oblations could avail nothing towards appeafing the
wrath of an offended'God, or making their prayers ac¬
ceptable to him. Hence Socrates and one of his difciples
are reprefented by Plato-f as expefting a perfon divinely! In Alcibi»
commiflioned to inform them whether facrifices be &c.-ades'
ceptable to the deity, and as refolving to offer no more
till that perfon’s arrival, which they pioully hoped might
be at no great diftance. $2
This darknefs of the pagan world is to us who live Thefe
under the funlhine of the gofpel happily removed by the ^e"
various revelations contained in the feriptures of the Old ^
and New Teftaments. Thefe taken together exhibittures.
fuch a difplay of providence, fuch a fyftem of doftrines,
and fuch precepts of prafticnl wifdom, as the ingenuity
of man could never have difeovered. The Chriftian,
with the feriptures in his hands, can regulate his con-
duft by an infallible guide, and reft his hopes on the
fureft foundation. Thefe feriptures it is now our bulinefs
to examine.
PART II. OF REVEALED THEOLOGY.
53 IN every civilized country the popular fyftem of the-
Many pre- 0l0gy }ias claimed its origin from divine revelation. The
velatTon°re" Pagans antiquity had their augurs and oracles ; the
Chinefe have their infpired teachers Confucius and Fohi:
the Hindoos have their facred books derived from Bra-
hama •, the followers of Mahomet have their Koran dic¬
tated by an angel; and the Jews and Chriftians have
the- feriptures of the Old and New Teftaments, which
they believe to have been written by holy men of old,
who fpake and wrote as they were moved by the Holy
Ghoft.
That the claims of ancient Paganifm to a theology
derived from heaven, as well as the fimilar claims of the
Chinefe, Hindoos, and Mahometans, are ill founded, has
been Ihown in various articles of this work, (fee China,
Hindostan, Mahometanism, Mythology, and Po¬
lytheism) ", whilft under the words Religion, Reve¬
lation, and Scripture, we have fufficiently proved
the divine infpiration of the Jewith and Chriftian ferip¬
tures, and of courfe the divine origin of Jewifti and Chri-
4
54
ftian theology. Thefe indeed are not two fyftems of theo- theugh the
logy, but parts of one fyftem which was gradually re- Jewifli and
vealed as men were able to receive it ; and therefore
both feriptures mult be ftudied by the Chriftian divine. are along
There is nothing in the facred volume which it is not true,
of importance to underftand ; for the whole proceeds
from the fountain of truth : but fome of its doftrines are
much more important than others, as relating imme¬
diately to man’s everlafting happinefs ; and thefe it has
been cuftomary to arrange and digeft into regular fy¬
ftems, called bodies or injlitutes of Chrijlian theology.
Could thefe artificial fyftems be formed with perfeft im¬
partiality, they would undoubtedly be ufeful, for the
bible contains many hiftorical details, but remotely re¬
lated to falvation ; and even of its moft important truths,
it requires more time and attention than the majority of
Chriftians have to bellow, to difeover the mutual con- £5
neftion and dependence. div'ifionsVy
Artificial fyftems of theology are commonly divided reveaie(j ;
into two great parts, the theoretic and thetheology.
and
Part II.
T H E O
Revealed and tliefe again are fubdivided into many inferior branches.
Theology. Under the theoretic part are fometimes claffed,
‘ i. Dogmatic theology 5 which comprehends an entire
fyftem of all tlie dogmas or tenets which a Chriftian is
bound to believe and proiefs. ihe truth of thefe tfje
divine mult clearly perceive, and be able to enforce on
lus audience : and hence the neceffity of Itudying what
is called,
2. The exegejis, or the art of attaining the true fenfe
of the holy leriptures $ and,
3. Hermeneutic theology, or the art of interpreting
and explaining the fcriptures to others } an art ot which
no man can be ignorant who knows how to attain the
true fenfe of them himfelf.
4. Polemical theology, or controverfy } and,
5. Moral theology, which is diftinguilhed from moral
philofophy, or the limple doftrine of ethics, by teaching
a.much higher degree of moral perfection than the mere
light of realon could ever have difcovered, and adding
new motives to the praCtice of virtue.
The practical Iciences of the divine are,
j. Homiletic or pajloral theology 5 which teaches him
to adapt his difcourfes from the pulpit to the capacity of
his hearers, and to purfue the belt methods of guiding
them by his doCtrine and example in the way of falvation.
2. Catechetic theology, or the art of teaching youth
and ignorant perfons the principal points of evangelical
doCtrine, as well with regard to belief as to praCtice.
3. Cafuijlic theology, or the feience w’hich decides on
doubtful cales of moral theology, and that calms the
fcruples of confcience which arile in the Chriltian’s foul
during his journey through the prefent world.
We have mentioned thefe divifions and fubdivifions of
the fcience of theology, not becaufe we think them im¬
portant, but merely that our readers may be at no lofs
to underftand the terms wiien they meet with them in
other works. Of fuch terms w’e fliall ourfelves make no
$6 ufe, for the greater part of them indicate diftinCtions
Ufelefs. where there is no difference, and tend only to perplex
the Undent. As the truths of Chriftianity are all con¬
tained in the fcriptures of the Old and New Teflaments,
it is obvious that dogmatic theology muft comprehend
the fpeculative part of that which is called moral, as
well as every doCtrine about which controverfy can be
of importance. But no man can extraCt a fingle dogma
from the bible but by the praCtice of what is here called
the cxegejis ; fo that all the fubdivifions of this arrange¬
ment of theoretical theology muft be ftudied together as
they neceffarily coalefce into one. The fame thing is
true of the three branches into which practical theology
is here divided. He who has acquired the art of adapt¬
ing his homilies to the various capacities of a mixed au-
Mience, will need no newT ftudy to fit him for inftruCting
children, and the moft ignorant perfons who are capable
of inftruCtion ; and the complete mafter of moral theo¬
logy wall find it no very difficult talk to refolve all the
cafes of confcience which he can have realon to fuppofe
will ever be fubmitted to his judgement. For thefe rea-
fons w’e fhall not trouble our readers with the various
divifions and fubdiviiions of theology. Our preliminary
directions will fhow them how we think the fcience
fhould be ftudied •, and all that we have to do as fyftem-
builders is to lay before them the view which the fcrip¬
tures prefent to us of the being and perfections of God,
Vox.. XX. Part I.
LOG Y. 337
his various difpenfations to man, and the duties thence
incumbent on Chriltians. In doing this, we fhall follow ‘■|'ulxs n'
the order of the divine difpenfations as we find them re- > 
corded in the Old and New Teftaments, dwelling long-
eft on thofe which appear to us of moft general import¬
ance. But as we take it for granted that every reader
of this article will have previoufly read the whole facred
volume, we fhall not fcruple to illuftrate dogmas con¬
tained in the Old Teftament by texts taken from the
New, or to iliuftrate doftrines peculiar to the Chriftian
religion by the teftimony of Jewifn prophets.
Sect. I. Of God and his Attributes.
57
Ik every fyftem of theology the firft truths to be be- H16 tuit
lieved are thofe which relate to the being and attributes
of God. The Jewilh lawgiver, therefore, who records th bejng
the earlieft revelations that were made to man, begins 0j'goc1 to
his hiftory with a difplay of the power and wifdom of be a know n
God in the creation of the world. He does not inform truth,
his countrymen, and expeCl them to believe, on the au¬
thority of his divine commiffion, that God exi/ls; for
he well knew' that the being of God muft be admitted,
and juft notions entertained of his attributes, before man
can be required to pay any regard to miracles which
afford the only evidence of a primary revelation. “ In
the beginning (fays he) God created the heavens and
the earth.” Here the being of God is aflumed as a
truth univerfally received \ but the fentence, fhort as it
is, reveals another, wffiich, as we fhall afterwards ftiew,
human reafon could never have difcovered -
There is nothing which the fcriptures more frequently
or more earneftly inculcate than the unity of the divine
nature. The texts afferting this great and fundamental
truth are almoft numberlefs. “ Unto thee (fays Mofes
to his countrymen *) it was fhewed, that thou mighteft * Dent iv.
know that the Lord is God j there is none elfe be/ides^
him. Know therefore that the Lord he is God in hca- " H
ven above and upon the earth beneath : there is none
clfe. And again, “ Hear, O Ilrael, the Lord our God
is* one Lordf or, as it is exprefled in the original, “ Je¬
hovah our God is one Jehovah,” one Being to whom
exiftence is effential, who could not have a beginning
and cannot have an end. In the propnecies of Ifaiah,
God is introduced as repeatedly declaring -f, “ I am Je-f Ifaialixiv.
hovah, and there is now elfe; there is no God befdes g
me ; that they may know from the rifing of the fun and ‘
from the weft, that there is none befdes me: I am Je¬
hovah, and there is none elfe: Is there a God befides
me ? Yea there is no God \ I know not any.” In per¬
fect harmony wfith thefe declarations of Mofes and the
prophets, our Saviour, addrefting himfelf to his Father,
fays X, “ This is life eternal, that they might know' f John xviL
Thee, the onhf true God, and Jefus Chrift whom 1 hou 3-
haft feni j” and St Paul, who derived his do&rine
from his divine Mafter, affirms §, that “ an idol is no- § 1 Cor.viii.
thing in the world j and that there is none other God*'
but one.’1'1
'The unity of the divine nature, which, from the or¬
der and harmony of the wmrld, appears probable to hu¬
man reafon, thefe texts of revelation put beyond a doubt.
Hence the firft precept of the Jewifh law, and, accord¬
ing to their own w'fflers, the foundation of their whole
religion, was, “ Thou fhalt have none other gods before
b 1 U u Me.”
1
338 T H E O
God and Me.” Hence, too, the reafon of that itri& command
Ids Attri- jcWS an(l Chriftians to give divine worihip to none
, bu^es- but God : “ Thou {halt worihip the Lord thy God,
and him only ihalt thou ferve j” becauie he is God
alone. Him only muft we fear, becaufe he alone hath
infinite power j in him alone muft we truft, becaufe “ he
only is our rock, and our falvation j” and to him alone
muft we direct our devotions, becaufe “ he only knoweth
8 the hearts of the children of men.”
Denotes a The word o'nbN does not indicate a plurality of gods,
plurality of In the opinion, however, of many eminent divines, it
perfons in denotes, by its junction with the Angular verb, a plu-
itead^" ra^ty °* Perf°ns in the one Godhead} and fome few
have contended, that by means of this peculiar conftruc-
tion, the Chriitian do<ftrine of the Trinity may be
proved from the firft chapter of the book of Genefis.
To this latter opinion we can by no means give our af-
fent. That there are three diftinft perfons in the one
divine nature may be interred with fufficient evidence
from a multitude of paffages in the Old and New Tefta-
ments diligently compared together ; but it would per¬
haps be ralh to reft the proof of fo fublime a myftery on
any fingle text of holy fcripture, and would certainly be
fo to reft it on the text in queftion. That Mofes wras
acquainted with this do&rine, we may reafonably con¬
clude from his fo frequently making a plural name of
God to agree with a verb in the Angular number ; but
had we not poffeffed the brighter light of the New Tef-
tament to guide us, we fhould never have thought of
drawing fuch an inference. For fuppofing the word
tnnbx to denote clearly a plurality of perfons, how could
we have known that the number is neither more or lefs
than three, had it not been afcertained to us by fubfe-
quent revelations ?
There are indeed various paffages in the Old Tefta-
ment, of the phrafeology of which no rational account
can be given, but that they indicate more than one per-
fon in the Godhead. Such are thofe texts already no¬
ticed *, “ and the Lord God faid, let us make man in
our image, after our likenefs j” and “ the Lord God
laid, behold the man is become like ONE of US.” To
thefe may be added the following, which are to us per-
feflly unintelligible on any other fuppofition 5 “ and the
Lord God faid, let us go down, and there confound
^ Gen. xi. language *.” “ If I be a Majier (in the Hebrew7
6, 7. ado?iim^ masters), where is my fear f ?” “ The fear
+ Mai. i. 6. of the Lord (Jehovah) is the beginning of wifdotn, and
the knowledge of the Holy (in the Hebrew HOLY ONES)
$ Prov. ix. underftandrng J.” “ Remember thy Creator (He-
JO. brew, thy Creators) in the days of thy youth §.”
§ Eccl. xii. “ And now the Lord God and his Spirit hath fent
H Ifaiah me H*” “ 0Ut l^e t^e ^0R]D an^
xlviii. rtf. rea<^ i ^or MY mouth it hath commanded, and his spirit
* Ifaiah ^ hath gathered them
xxxiv. rtf. That thefe texts imply a plurality of divine perfons,
feems to us incontrovertible. When Mofes reprefents
God as faying, let us make man, the majefty of the plu¬
ral number had not been adopted by earthly fovereigns 5
and it is obvious that the Supreme Being could not, as
has been fuppofed, call on angels to make man j for in
Job Ix. 8. ^'^erent P1iaces of fcripture f creation is attributed to
Ifa. xlv* God alone. Hence it is that Solomon fpeaks of Crea-
faJJUn. tors in the plural number, though he means only the
one Supreme Being, and exhorts men to remember
them in the days of their youth. In the paffage firft
LOGY. Part 11.
quoted from Ifaiah, there is a diftin£Hon made between God and
the Lord God and his Spirit; and in the other, three his Attri-
divine per Ions are introduced, viz. the Speaker, the. u*es’ .
Lord, and the Spirit of the Lord. It does not, how¬
ever, appear evident from thefe paffages, or from any
other that we recolleft in the Old Teftament, that the
perfons in Deity are three and no more : but no fober
Chriftian will harbour a doubt but that the precife
number was by lome means or other made known to
the ancient Hebrews j for inquiries leading to it would
be naturally fuggefted by the form in which the high
prieft was commanded to blefs the people. “ The Lord
blefs thee and keep thee. The Lord make his face
to (hine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee. The * Numb.
Lord lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee ^ 24’ 2S'
peace *.” ... . 59
The form of Chriftian baptifm eftablifhes the truth of A Trinity
the dodrine of the Trinity beyond all reafonable groundin unjtytlie-
of difpute. “ Go (fays our bleffed Saviour) and teach
all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, p
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft.” What was it
the apoftles were to teach all nations ? Was it not to
turn from their vanities to the living God j to renounce
their idols and falfe gods, and fo to be baptized in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghoft ? What now muft occur to the Gentile rations
on this occafion, but that, inftead of all their deities, to
whom they had before bowed down, they were in fu¬
ture to ferve, worfhip, and adore, Father, Son, and
Holy Ghoft, as the only true and living God ? To fup-
pofe that God and two creatures are here joined to¬
gether in the folemn rite by which men were to be ad¬
mitted into a new religion, which direftly condemns all
creature-voorfhip, would be fo unreafonable, that we are
perfuaded fuch a fuppofition never was made by any
converted Polytheift of antiquity. The nations were to
be baptized in the name of three perfons, in the fame
manner, and therefore, doubtlefs, in the famefenfe. It
is not faid in the name of God and his two faithful
fervants; nor in the name of God, and Christ, and
the Holy Ghost, which might have fuggefted a thought
that one only of the three is God but in the name of
the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.
Whatever honour, reverence, or regard, is paid to the
firft perfon in this folemn rite, the fame is paid to all
three. Is he acknowledged as the objeft of worfhip ?
So are the other two likewife. Is he God and Lord
over us ? So are they. Are we enrolled as fubjefts,
fervants, and foldiers, under him ? So are we equally
under all. Are we hereby regenerated and made the
temple of the Father ? So are ive fikewife of the Son
and Holy Ghoft. “ We will come (fays our Saviour f) f John xi7#.
and make our abode with him.” 23*
If thofe who believe the infpiration of the feriptures
could require any further proof that the Godhead com¬
prehends a trinity of perfons in one nature, we might
urge the apoftolical form of benediftion j “ The grace
of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and
the communion of the Holy Ghost, be with you
all J.” Would St Paul, or any other man of common t.?. Cor*
fenfe, have in the fame fentence, and in the moft folemn ^ I4*
manner, recommended his Corinthian converts to the
love of God, and to the grace and communion of two
creatures ? We fhould think it very abfurd to recom¬
mend a man at once to the favour of a king and a beg¬
gar?
Part II. T H E O
God and gar *, but how infinitely fmall is the diftance between
his A.ttri- the greatelt earthly potentate and the meaneft beggar
butes' . when compared with that which muft for ever fubfift
T between the Almighty Creator of heaven and earth and
the moft elevated creature ?
But how, it will be alked, can three divine perfons
Difficulties be but one and the fame G°.d ? This is .a wbich
in this doc- has been often put, but which, we believe, no created
frine. being can fully anfwer. The divine nature and its man¬
ner of exiftence is, to us, wholly incomprehenfible j and
we might with greater reafon attempt to weigh the
mountains in fcales, than by our limited faculties to fa¬
thom the depths of infinity. The Supreme Being is
prefent in power to every portion of fpace, and yet it is
demonllrable, that in his effence he is not extended (fee
Metaphysics, N° 309, 310). Both thefe truths, his
inextenfion and omniprefence, are fundamental principles
in what is called natural religion ; and when taken to¬
gether they form, in the opinion of moft people, a myf-
tery as incsmprehenfible as that of the Trinity in unity.
Indeed there is nothing of which it is more difficult to
form a diftinft notion than unity Ample, and abfolutely
indivifible. Though the Trinity in unity, therefore,
were no Chriftian doftrine, myfteries muft ftill be be¬
lieved ; for they are as infeparable from the religion of
nature as from that of revelation ; and atheifm involves
the moft incomprehenfible of all myfteries, even the be¬
ginning of exiftence without a caufe. We muft indeed
form the belt notions that we can of this and all other
myfteries •, for if we have no notions whatever of a Tri¬
nity in unity, wTe can neither believe nor difbelieve that
doftrine. It is however to be remembered, that all our
notions of God are more or lefs analogical; that they
muft be expreffed in words which, literally interpreted,
are applicable only to man } and that propofitions under-
ftood in this literal fenfe may involve an apparent con-
tradi&ion, from which the truth meant to be expreffed
by them would be feen to be free, had we direft and
adequate conceptions of the divine nature. On this ac¬
count it is to be wfiffied that men treating of the myfte-
ry of the Holy Trinity, had always expreffed themfelves
in fcripture language, and never aimed at being wife
above what is written •, but fince they have a&ed other-
wife, we muft, in juftice to our readers, animadvert on
one or two ftatements of this do&rine, which wre have
reafon to believe are earneftly contended for by fome
who confider themfelves as the only orthodox.
In the fcriptures, the three perfons are denominated
bv the terms Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, or by
God, the Word, who is alfo declared to be God, and
the Spirit of God. If each be truly God, it is ob¬
vious that they muft all have the fame divine nature,
juft as every man has the fame human nature with every
other man ; and if there be but ONE God, it is equally
obvious that they muft be of the fame individual fub-
ftance or effence, which no three men can poffibly be.
In this there is a difficulty ; but, as will be feen by and
by, there is no contradiction. The very terms Father
and Son imply fuch a relation between the txvo perfons
fo denominated, as that though they are of the fame
6r fubftance, poffeffed of the fame attributes, and equally
Subordina- God, juft as a human father and his fon are equally
tion of the men, yet the fecond muft be perfonally fubordinate to
fecond and ^ jn manner, the Holy Ghost, who is
fonsl1 i>er* called the Spirit of God, and is faid to proceedfrom the
l 0 d y. 339
Father, and to be fent by the Son, muft be conceived as 9od ; nd
fubordinate to both, much in the fame way as a fon is
fubordinate to his parents, though poffeffed of equal or 1 f ' a.
even of fuperior powers. That this is the true dodlrine,
appears to us undeniable from the words of our Saviour
himfelf, who, in a prayer addreffed to his Father, ftyles
him * by way of pre-eminence, “ the only true God,” as * John
being the fountain or origin of the Godhead from which xvu- 3*
the Son and the Holy Ghoft derive their true divinity.
In like manner, S Paul, when oppofing the polytheifm
of the Greeks, fays exprefsly f, that “ to us there is but 1 Cof,
one God, the Father, of whom are all things, airdviii. 6.
we in, or for, him ; and one Lord Jesus Christ, by
whom are all things, and we by him.”
That the primitive fathers of the Chriftian church
maintained this fubordination of the lecond and third
perfons of the bleffed Trinity to the firft, has been
evinced with complete evidence by Bilhop Bull. We
ffiall tranferibe two quotations from him, and refer *he
reader for fuller fatisfadlion to feSl. 4. of his Defenjio
fidei Nicence. The firft {hall be a paffage cited from
Novatian, in which the learned prelate affures us the
fenfe of all the ancients is expreffed. “ Ouia quid eft
Filius, non ex fe eft, quia nec innatus eft j fed ex patre
eft, quia genitus eft : five dum verbum eft, five dum
virtus eft, five dum fapientia eft, five dum lux eft, five
dum Filius eft, et quicquid horum eft, non aliunde eft:
quam ex Patre. Patri (uo originem fuam debens ” The
next is from Athanafius, wdro has never been accufed of
holding low opinions refpe£ting the fecond perfon of the
holy Trinity. This father, in his fifth difeourfe againft
the Arians, fays, ku]x rot lactvr/iv tv ravlvi w
0 Aeyof y.xi o Xoyo?. w rsv 6iov. &ios yaeg scrim «
xxi iTTU^ix* s% xv\m scr]i, hx tovto xxi 6sof yv 0 Aayo? ; ac¬
cording to John, the Word was in this firjl principle,
and the Word was God. For God is the principle ; and
becaufe the Word is from the principle, therefore the
Word is God. Agreeably to this doftrine, the Nicene
fathers, in the creed which they publiffied for the ufe of
the univerfal church, ftyle the only begotten Son, God
of God, iso? sx 6sov.
Regardlefs however of antiquity, and of the plain Denied by
fenfe of fcripture, fome modern divines of great learning fome mo-
contend, that the three perfons in Deity are all confub- (krn
Jlantial, co-eternal, co-ordinate, without derivation, fubor-'"xvt%‘‘
dination, or dependence, of any fort, as to nature or ef¬
fence \ while others affirm, that the fecond and third
perfons derive from the firft their perfonality, but not
their nature. We ffiall confider thefe opinions as diffe¬
rent, though, from the obfeurity of the language in
which we have always feen them expreffed, we cannot
be certain but they may be one and the fame. The
maintainers of the former opinion hold, that the three
perfons called Elohim in the Old Teftament, naturally
independent on each other, entered into an agreement
before the creation of the world, that one of them ftiould
in the fulnefs of time affume human nature, for the pur-
pofe of redeeming mankind from that mifery into which
it was forefeen that they would fall. This antemundane
agreement, they add, conftitutes the whole of that pa¬
ternal and filial relation which fubfifts between the firft
and fecond perfons whom wre denominate Father and
Son ; and they hold, that the Son is faid to be begotten
before all worlds, to indicate that He who was before
ail worlds was begotten, or to be begotten, into the office
U u 2 of
340
God and
his Attri¬
butes.
* See
Ridgetey’s
Body of
Divinity.
63
The exprefs
doctrine of
fcripture.
t Jolm iv.
9-
J Htb. v. 8.
T H E O
of redeemer j or, more declfively, to fignify that he un¬
dertook that office before the creation, and ajfumed to
himfelt fome appearance or figure of the reality in which
he was to execute it 5 and he is called or the
only begotten, becaufe he alone was begotten into the
office of redeemer *.
To many of our readers we doubt not but this wall
appear a very extraordinary dofhine, and not eafy to be
reconciled with the unity of God. It is however fuffi-
ciently overturned by two fentences of holy fcripture,
about the meaning of which there can be no difpute.
“ In this (fays St John f) was manifefted the love of
God towards us, becauie that God lent his only begot¬
ten Son into the world, that we might live through
him.” I aking the word fon in its ufual acceptation,
this was ceitainly a wonderful degree of love in the Fa-
tbei of mercies to lend into the world on our account a
perfon fo nearly related to him as an only Ion ; but if
we fubftitute this not'd interpretation of the wmrds onh/
begotten fon in their dead, the apoftle’s reafoning will
lole all its rorce. St John will then be made to fav,
In this wras manifeded the love of God toward us,
becaufe that God lent a divine perfon equal to himfelf,
and no way related to him, but who had before the cre¬
ation covenanted to come into the world, that we might
live through him.” Is this a proof of the love of the
perfon here called God ? Again, the infpired author of
the epifile to the Hebrews, treating of our Saviour’s
priefthood, fays, among other things expreffive of his
humiliation, that “ though he was a son, yet learned
he obedience by the things which he fuffered J.” If
the word fon be here underftood in its proper fenfe, this
verfe difplays in a very ftriking manner the condefcen-
fion of our divine Redeemer, who, though he was no
lefs a perfon than the proper Son of God by nature, yet
vouchfafed to learn obedience by the things which he
fullered ; but if wTe fubftitute this metaphorical fonlhip
m place of the natural, the reafoning of the author will
be very extraordinary. “ Though this divine perfonage
agreed before all worlds to fuffer death for the redemp¬
tion of man. yet learned he obedience by the things
which he fuffered.What lenfe is there in this argu¬
ment ? Is it a proof of condefcenfion to fulfil one’s en¬
gagement ? Surely, if the meaning of the w ord fon
when applied to the fecond perfon of the bleffed tri¬
nity, were what is here fuppofed, the infpired waiter’s
argument would have been more to the purpofe for
which it is brought had it run thus ; “ Though he was
not a ton, i. e. though he had made no previous aoree-
ment, yet condefcended he to learn,” &c.
The other opinion, which fuppofes the Son and the
Holy Ghotl to derive from the Father their per'onality
but not their nature, is to us wholly unintelligible : for
peiionahty cannot exiff, or be conceived in a flate of
feparation from all natures, any more than a quality can
exid m a (late of feparation from all fubffances. ’ The
mrmer of thefe opinions w'e are unable to reconcile with
the unity of God ; the latter is clothed in words that
have no meaning. Both, as far as we can underhand
them, are palpable polytheifm ; more palpable indeed
than that of the Grecian philofophers, who though
they worffiipped gods many, and lords many, yet all
held one God fupreme over the reft. See Polythe¬
ism, N° 32.
But if the Son and the Holy Ghoft derive their na-
Part IJ
log y.
ax k. j. jl
ture as weH as their perfonality from the Father, will it God and
not iodow that they muft be poftcrior to him in tinv*
fince every effea is pofterior to its caufe >. No j this con’ butes''
iequence feems to follow only by reafoning too clofely Z J
ri om one nature to another, when there is between the The fecond
two but a very diftant analogy. It is indeed true, thatant* tllird
among men, every father muft be prior in time as well perfot!.s not
as in the order of nature to his fon 5 but were it effential^
to a man to be a father, fo as that he could not exift
other wife than in that relation, it is obvious that his fon
would be coeval with himfelf, though {fill as proceeding
from him, he would be pofterior in the order of nature,
llus is the cafe with all neceffary caufes and effefts
The vifible fun is the immediate and neceffary caufe of
light and heat, either as emitting the rays from his own
jubilance, or as exciting the agency of a ftuid diffufed
for that purpofe through the whole fyftem. Light and
heat therefore, muft be as old as the fun ; and had he
exifted trom eternity, they would have exifled from eter¬
nity with him, though dill, as his effecT, they would
nave been behind him in the order of nature. Hence it
is, that as we muft fpeak analogically of the Divine na¬
ture and when treating of mind, even the Supreme
mind make ufe of words literally applicable onlv to the
modifications of matter, the Nicene fathers illuifrate the
eternal generation of the fecond perfon of the bltffed
Irinity by this proceflion of light from the corporeal
fun, calling him God OF God, light OF light.
Another ccmparifon has been made ufe of to enable
us to form feme notion, however inadequate, how three
Divine perfons can fubfift in the fame fubftance, and
thereby conftitute but one God. Mofes informs us that
man was made after the image of God. That this re¬
lates to the foul more than to the body of man has
been granted by all but a few grofs anthropomorphites:
but it has been well obferved *, that the foul, though in * LefiRt
it felt one indi vifible and unextended fubftance, is con.- Socnian
ceived as confiftmg of three principal faculties-, the un-Contrc'
derjtandmg, the memory, and the will. Of thefe, though
they are all coeval in time, and equally effential to^a
rational foul, the undemanding is in the order of nature
obviouily the firft, and the memory the fecond : for
things muft be perceived before they can be remember-
ed , and they muft be remembered and compared to¬
gether before they can excite volitions, from being foma
agreeable and others difag,-eeable. The memory there-
fore may be fa,d t fpnng from the untierftandl-n and
the will from both ; and as thefe three faculties are con¬
caved to conftitute one foul, fo may three Divine per-
Ions partaking of the fame individual nature or effence
conftitute one God. e
riiefe parallels or analogies are by no means brought No font-a
forward as proofs of the Trinity, of which the evideL.haio”T'
is to be gathered wholly from the word of God ; but,h' Catl'»-
tbey ferve perhaps to help our labouring minds to form 1!f d'”-‘,r:nc
the jufteft notions of that myflery which it is poffible for ° ,'h' T"'
us to form the prefeut flate of our eairtence : and
they feem to refeue the doflrine fufficiently from the
charge of contraduftion, which has been fo often nrged
agamft ,t by Vmtartan writers. To the laft analogs- we
are aware ,t has often been objefted, that the foul may
as well be faid to confifl of ten or twenty faculties as of
ncc, fince the paffions are equally effential to it with
the underftandmg, the memory, and the will, and are
as different -rom one another as thefe three faculties are.
This,
66
Objections.
Part II. T H E O
God and This, however, is probably a miftake •, for the belt phi-
h;s "Attri- i0f0phy feems to teach us, that the pailions are not in-
butes' nate j that a man might exift through a long life a
itranger to many of them •, and that there are probably
no two minds in which are generated a// the paflions (fee
Passion) ; but underilar ding, memoiy, and will, are
abfolutely and equally neceflary to every rational being.
But whatever be in this, if the human mind can be con¬
ceived to be one indivilible fubftance, confiding of dif¬
ferent faculties, whether many or few, why Ihould it
be thought an impoflibility for the infinite and eter¬
nal nature of God to be communicated to three per-
fons afting different parts in the creation and govern¬
ment of the world, and in the great fcheme of man’s re¬
demption.
To the doctrine of the Trinity many objections have
been made, as it implies the divinity of the Son and the
Holy Ghoft •, of whom the former affumed our nature,
and in it died for the redemption of man. Thefe we
ihall notice when we come to examine the revelations
more peculiarly Chriftian; but there is one objection
which, as it refpeCts the doCtrine in general, may be
properly noticed heie. It is faid that the firlt Chriitians
borrowed the notion of a Triune God from the later
Platonifts •, and that we hear not of a Trinity in the
church till converts were made from the fchool of Alex¬
andria. But if this be the cafe, we may properly afk,
whence had thofe Piatoniits the doctrine themfelves ? It
is not furely fo fimple or fo obvious as to be likely to
have occurred to the reafoning mind of a Pagan philo-
fopher ; or if it be, why do Unitarians fuppofe it to in-
volvi: a contradiction ? Plato indeed taught a doCtrine
in fome refpeCts fimilar to that of the Chriftian Trinity,
and fo did Pythagoras, with many other philofophe.s of
Greece and the Eaft (fee Platonism, Polytheism,
and Pythagoras) ; but though thefe fages appear to
have been on fome occafions extremely credulous, and
on others to have indulged themfelves in the moft myf-
terious fpeculations, there is no room to fuppofe that
they were naturally weaker jnen than ourfelves, or that
they were capable of inculcating as truths what they
perceived to involve a contradiBion. The Platonic and
Pythagorean trinities never could have occurred to the
mind of him who merely from the works of creation en¬
deavoured to difcover the being and attributes of the
Creator ; and therefore as thofe philofophers travelled
into Egypt and the Eaft in queft of knowledge, it ap¬
pears to us in the higheft degree probable, that they
picked up this myfterious and fublime doCtrine in thofe
reg:ons where it had been handed down as a dogma from
the remoteft ages, and where we know that fcience was
not taught fyftematically, but detailed in colleftions of
fententious maxims and traditionary opinions. If this
be fo, we cannot doubt but that the Pagan trinities had
their origin in fome primaeval revelation. Nothing elfe
indeed can account for the general prevalence of a doc¬
trine fo remote from human imagination, and of which
we find veftiges in the facred books of almoft every civi¬
lized people of antiquity. The corrupt ftate in which it
is viewed in the writings of Plato and others, is the na¬
tural confequence of its defcent through a long courfe
of oral tradition •, and then failing into the hands of men
who bent every opinion as much as poftible to a con¬
formity with their own fpeculations. The trinity of
Piatonifm therefore, inftead of being an objeftion, lends,
341
God and
his Attri¬
butes.
61 ,
Anfwered.
L O G Y.
in our opinion, no feeble fupport to the Chriftian doc¬
trine, fince it affords almoit a complete proof of that
dodlrine’s having made part of the firft revelations com¬
municated to man.
Having thus difeovered that the one God compre¬
hends three perfons, let us now inquire what this triune
God exerted when he created the heaven and the earth.
That by the heaven and the earth is here meant the
whole univerfe, vifible and invifible, is known to every
perfon acquainted with the phraieojogy of Scripture}
and we need inform no man converlant with Englilh
writers, that by creation, in its proper fenfe, is meant
bringing into being or making that to exift which exilled
not before. It muft, however, be acknowledged, that
the Hebrew word does not always imply the pro-
dudlion of fubftance, but very often the forming of par¬
ticular organized bodies out of pre-exifting matter. Thus
when it is faid * that “ God created great whales, and * Gen. i.
every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought 21, 27.
forth abundantly after their kind,” and again, “ that he
created man male and female }” though the word is
ufed on both occafions, we are not to conceive that the
bodies of the firft human pair, and of thefe animals,
were brought into being from nonentity, but only that
they were formed by a proper organization being given
to pre-exiftent matter. But when Moles lays, “ In the Creation
beginning God created the heaven and the earth,” he taught by
cannot be fuppofed to mean, that “ in the beginning God -rv!uies*
only gave form to matter already exifting of itielf}” for
in the very next verfe we are affured that after this a£t
of creation was over, “ the earth was ftiil without form
and void,” or, in other words, in a'chaotic ftate.
That the Jews, before the coming of our Saviour;
underftood their lawgiver to teach a proper creation, is
plain from that paffage in the fecond book of the Mac¬
cabees, in which a mother, to perfuade her fon to fuffer
the cruelleft tortures rather than forfake the law of his
God, ufes the following argument : “ I befeech thee,
my fon, look upon the heaven and the earth, and all
that is therein, and confider that God made them of
things that were not.” To the fame purpofe the infpi-
red author of the epiftle to the Hebrews, when magni¬
fying the excellence of faith, fays, “ Through faith we
underftand that the worlds were framed by the word of
God, fo that things which are feen were not made of
things which do appear }” where, as Bfthop Pearfon has
ably proved f, the phrafe p,i\ iKCpanoy-ivuv is equivalent to ^ -
evx e| cvtuv, in the quotation from the Maccabees. ti:u 0j t-ns
The very firft verfe, therefore, of the book of Gene- Creed.
fis informs us of a moft important truth, which all the
uninfpired wifdom of antiquity could not difcover. It
affures us, that as nothing exifts by chance, fo nothing
is neceffarily exifting but the three divine perfons in the
one Godhead. Every thing elle, whether material or
immaterial, derives its fubftance, as veil as its form or
qualities, from the fiat of that felf exiftent Being, “ who
was, and is, and is to come.” ^
It does not, however, follow from this verfe, or from The whole
any other paffage in the facred Scriptures, that theuhiverie
w'hole univerfe was called into exiftence at the fame in- not createcl
ftant } neither is it by any means evident that the chaos ofa once‘
our world was brought into being on the firft of thofe fix
days during which it was gradually reduced into form.
From a paffage J in the book of Job, in which we are ,
told by God himfelf, that when the “ foundation of the xxx'ni'
earth
34* T H E O
Cod and earth was laid the morning ftars fang together, and all
^ntes*1" ^onS ^10Ute^ ^or joy*” it appears extremely
f-r—'v—’ . probable that worlds had been created, formed, and in¬
habited, long before our earth had any exiftence. Nor
is this opinion at all contrary to what Moles fays of the
creation of the ftars; for though they are mentioned in
the fame verfe with the fun and moon, yet the manner
in which, according to the original, they are introduced,
by no means indicates that all the ftars were formed at
the fame time with the luminaries of our fyftem. Molt
of them have been created long before, and fome of
them fince, our world was brought into being ; for that
claufe (verfe 16.) “ he made the ftars alfo,” is in the
Hebrew no more than “ and the ftars 5” the words he
made being inferted by the tranflators. The whole verle
therefore ought to be rendered thus, “ and God made
two great lights j the greater light to rule the day, and
the leffer light with the ftars to rule the night 5 where
nothing is intimated with refpeft to the time when the
ftars were formed, any more than in that verfe of the
* Pfalm Pfalms *, which exhorts us to give thanks to God who
caxxvi. 5). made the moon and ftars to rule by night ; for his
mercy endureth “ for ever.” The firft verfe of the
book of Genefis informs us, that all things fpiritual and
corporeal derive their exiftence from God j but it is
nowhere faid that all matter was created at the fame
time.
That the whole corporeal univerfe may have been
created at once mult be granted \ but if fo, we have rea-
fon to believe that this earth, with the fun and all the
planets of the fyftem, were fuffered to remain for ages
in a ftate of chaos, “ without form and void 5” becaufe
it appears from other fcriptures, that worlds of intelligent
creatures exifted, and even that fome angels had fallen
from a ftate of happinefs prior to the era of the Mofaic
'The folar cofmogony. That the fun and the other planets revol-
fyftem crea-ving round him were formed at the fame time with the
ted at once. earth? cannot indeed be queftioned j for it is not only
probable in itfelf from the known laws of nature, but is
exprefsly affirmed by the facred hiftorian, who relates
the formation of the fun and moon in the order in which
it took place •, but there is one difficulty which has fur-
niffied* ignorance with fomething like an objection to the
divine legation of the Hebrew lawgiver, and which we
fhall notice.
A difficulty Mofes informs us, that on the firjl day after the pro-
folved. du&ion of the chaos, the element of light was created j
and yet within a few fentences he declares, that the fun,
the fountain of light, was not made till the fourth day.
How are thefe two paffages to be reconciled ? We anfwer,
That they may be reconciled many ways. Mofes wrote
for the ufe of a whole people, and not for the amufement
or inftruflion of a few aflronomers ; and in this view
his language is fufficiently proper, even though we fup-
pofe the formation of the fun and the other planets to
have been carried on at the fame time, and in the fame
progreffive manner, with the formation of this earth.
The voice which called light into exiftence would fepa-
rate the.fiery and luminous particles of the chaos from
thofe which were opake, and, on this hypothefis, confo-
lidate them in one globe, diffufing an obfcure light
through the planetary fyftem ; but if the earth’s atmo-
fphere continued till the fourth day loaded with vapours,
as from the narrative of Mofes it appears to have done,
he fun could not till that day have been feen from the
I
L O G Y. Part II.
earth, and may therefore, in popular language, be faid God and
with fufficient propriety to have been formed on the Attri-
fourth day, as it was then made to appear. (See Crea-. 1jutf‘s’
TION, n° 13.) But though this folution of the difficulty * 'v' *
ferves to remove the objection, and to fecure the credit
of the facred hiftorian, candour compels us to confefs
that it appears not to be the true folution.
The difficulty itfelf arifes entirely from fuppofing the
fun to be the foie fountain of light ; but the truth of this
opinion is not felf-evident, nor has it ever been efta-
blifhed by fatisfaftory proof. It is indeed to a mind di¬
verted of undue deference to great names, and confider-
ing the matter with impartiality, an opinion extremely
improbable. The light of a candle placed on an emi¬
nence may in a dark night be feen in every direction at
the diftance of at leaft three miles. But if this fmall
body be rendered vifible by means of rays emitted from
itfelf, the flame of a candle, which cannot be fuppofed
more than an inch in diameter, muft, during every in-
ftant that it continues to burn, throw from its own fub-
ftance luminous matter fufficient to fill a fpherical fpace
of fix miles in diameter. This phenomenon, if real, is
certainly furprifing ; but if we purfue the refleftion a lit¬
tle farther, our wonder will be greatly increafed. The
matter which, when converted into flame, is an inch in
diameter, is not, when of the confiftence of cotton and
tallowq of the dimenfions of the 20th part of an inch ;
and therefore, on the common hypothefis, the 20th part
of an inch of tallow may be fo rarefied as to fill a fpace
of 113.0976 cubic miles ! a rarefa&ion which to us ap¬
pears altogether incredible. We have indeed heard much
of the divifibility of matter ad infinitum, and think we
underftand what are ufually called demonf rations of the
truth of that propofition ; but thefe demonftrations prove
not the aftual divifibility of real folid fubftances, but
only that on trial vie lhall find no end of the ideal pro-
cefs of dividing and fubdividing imaginaiy extenfion.
On the whole, therefore, we are much more inclined
to believe that the matter of light is an extremely fub-
tile fluid, diffufed through the corporeal univerfe, and
only excited to agency by the fun and other fiery bodies,
than that it confifts of ftreams continually iffuing from
the fubftance of thefe bodies. It is indeed an opinion
pretty generally received, and certainly not improbable
in itfelf, that light and eledftricity are one and the fame
fubftance (fee ELECTJUCITT-Index) 5 but V'e know that
the eleflrical fluid, though pervading the whole of cor¬
poreal nature, and, as experiments ffiow, capable of ail¬
ing with great violence, yet lies dormant and unpercei¬
ved till its agency be excited by fome foreign caufe. Juft
fo it may be with the matter of light. That fubftance
may be “ diffufed from one end of the creation * to the* ^r,i,
other. It may traverfe the whole univerfe, form a com-difplayeii.
munication between the moft remote fpheres, penetrate " '
into the inmoft receffes of the earth, and only wrait to be
put in a proper motion to communicate vifible fenfations
to the eye. Light is to the organ of fight what the air is
to the organ of hearing. Air is the medium wffiicb, vi¬
brating on the ear, caufes the fenfation of found ; but it
equally exifts round us at all times, though there be no
fonorous body to put it in motion. In like manner, light
may be equally extended at all times, by night as well
as by day, from the moft diftant fixed ftars to this earth,
though it then only ftrikes our eyes fo as to excite vifible
fenfations when impelled by the fun or fome other mafs
of
Part II.
THEOLOGY.
God and
his Attri¬
butes.
72
Mofes a
found phi-
lolopher.
,
Infinite
power of
the Crea¬
tor.
of fire.” Nor let any one imagine that this hypothefis
interferes with any of the known laws of optics $ for if
the rays of light be impelled in ftraight lines, and in
the fame direction in which they are fuppofed to be
emitted, the phenomena of viiion muft neceffarily be the
fame.
Mofes therefore w?as probably a more accurate philofo-
pher than he is fometimes fuppofed to be. The element
of light was doubtlefs created, as he informs us, on the
firft day 5 but whether it was then put in that ftate in
which it is the medium of vifion, we cannot know, and
we need not inquire, fince there was neither man nor in¬
ferior animal with organs fitted to receive its impref-
fions. For the firft three days it may have been ufed
only as a powerful inftrument to reduce into order the
jarring chaos. Or if it was from the beginning capable
of communicating vifible fenfations, and dividing the day
from the night, its agency muft have been immediately
excited by the Divine power till the fourth day, when
the fun was formed, and endowed with proper qualities
for inftrumentally difcharging that office. This was in¬
deed miraculous, as being contrary to the prefen t laws
of nature : but the whole creation was miraculous ; and
we furely need not hefitate to admit a lefs miracle
where wTe are under the necslTity of admitting a greater.
The power which called light and all other things into
exiitence, could give them their proper motions by ten
thoufand different means ; and to attempt to folve the
difficulties of creation by philofophic theories refpefting
the laws of nature, is to trifle with the common fenfe of
mankind : it is to confider as fubfervient to a law that
very power by whofe continued exertion the law is efta-
bliflied.
Having thus proved that the unlverfe derives its being,
as well as the form and adjullment of its feveral parts,
from the one fupreme and lelf-exiftent God, let us here
paufe, and refleft on the fubfime conception's which fuch
aftonilhing wrorks are fitted to give us of the divine per-
feflions.
And, in the firft place, how ftrongly do the works of
creation imprefs on our minds a convi&ion of the infinite
power of their Author ? He fpoke, and the univerfe
ftarted into being *, he commanded, and it flood fall.
How mighty is the arm which “ ftretched out the hea¬
vens and laid the foundations of the earth ; which re-
moveth the mountains and they know it not ; which
overturneth them in his anger; which ftiaketh the earth
out of her place, and the pillars thereof tremble ! How
powerful the word which commandeth the fun, and it ri
feth not j and which fealelh up the ftars 5” which fu-
ftaineth numberlefs worlds of amazing bulk fufpended in
the regions of empty fpace, and dire&s tin ir various and
inconceivably rapid motions with the utmoft regularity !
“ Lift up your eyes on high, and behold, who hath cre¬
ated all thefe things ? By the word of the Lord were
the heavens made, and all the hoft of them by the breath
of his mouth. Hell is naked before him, and deftruc-
tion hath no covering. He ftretcheth out the North
over the empty place, and hangeth the earth upon no¬
thing. He has meafured the waters in the hollow of his
hand, and meted out the heavens with a fpan 5 and com¬
prehended the duft of the earth in a mcafure ; and weigh¬
ed the mountains in fcales, and the hills in a balance.
Behold ! the nations are as a drop of the bucket, and
?u;e counted as the fmall duft of the balance j behold, he
343
taketh up the ifles as a very little thing. All nations 90(1 anlI
before him are as nothing, and they are counted to him his^Attri-
lefs than nothing, and vanity. To whom then will ye v u es’
1*1- ~ J   1 l. Ill    ! 11   .
liken God, or what likenefs will ye compare unto * pf. xxxiii.
him * ?” 6, 9 ; Job
As the works of creation are the effe&s of God Vx-4» &c*
power, they likewife in the moft eminent manner difplay
his wifdom. This was fo apparent to Cicero, even from ^
the partial knowledge in aftronomy which his time af-Hiswif-
forded, that he declared f thofe who could affert thedom,
contrary void of all underftanding. But if that great
mafter of reafon had been acquainted wflth the modern ^ ’
difeoveries in aftronomy, which exhibit numberlefs
wmrlds fcattered through fpace, and each of immenfe
magnitude ; had he known that the fun is placed in the
centre of our fyftem, and that to diverfify the feafons the
planets move round him with exquifite regularity j could
he have conceived that the diftinftion between light and
darknefs is produced by the diurnal rotation of the earth
on its own axis, inftead of that difproportionate whirling
of the w'hole heavens which the ancient aftronomers
were forced to fuppofe ; had he known of the wonderful
motions of the comets, and confidered how fuch eccen¬
tric bodies have been preferved from falling upon fome
of the planets in the fame fyftem, and the feveral fyf-
tems from falling upon each other ; had he taken into
the account that there are yet greater things than thefe,
and “ that we have feen but a few of God’s works
that virtuous Pagan would have been ready to exclaim
in the words of the Pfalmift, “ O Lord, how manifold
are thy works! In wifdom haft thou made them all j
the earth is full of thy riches.”
That creation is the offspring'of unmixed goodnefs, And gocd»
has been already fhown with fufficient evidence (feenefs*
Metaphysics, N°3i2. and N° 29. of this article) p
and from the vaft number of creatures on our earth en¬
dowed with life and fenfe, and a capability of happinefs,
and the infinitely greater number which probably inha¬
bit the planets of this and other fyftems, we may infer
that the goodnefs of God is as boundlefs as his power,
and that “ as is his majefty, fo is his mercy.” Out of
his own fulnefs hath he brought into being numberlefs
worlds, replenifhed with myriads of myriads of crea¬
tures, fumifhed with various powers and organs, capa¬
cities and inftin&s ; and out of his own fulnefs he con¬
tinually and plentifully fupplies them all with every
thing neceffaty to make their exiitence comfortable.
“ The eyes of all wait upon him, and he giveth them
their meat in due feafon. He openeth his hand and fa-
tisfi-s the defires of every living thing : he loveth righ-
teoumefs and judgement; the earth is full of the goodnefs
of the Lord. He watereth the ridges thereof abundantly;
he fettleth the furrows thereof; he maketh it foft with
Ihowers, and bleffeth the fpringing thereof. Fie crown-
eth the year with his goodnefs y and his paths drop fat-
nefs. They drop upon the paftures of the wildernefs y
and the little hills rejoice on every fide. The paftures
are clothed with flocks ; the valleys alfo are covered
with corn ; they fhout with joy, they alfo fing J.” Sur-t pr cxK.
vey the whole of what may be feen on and "about this i5, ^
terraqueous globe, and fay, if our Maker hath a fparingxxiii. 5. lv.
hand. Surely the Author of fo much happinefs muft I0> Stc-
be effential goodnefs y and we muft conclude with St
John, that “ God is love.”
Thefe attributes of power, wifdom, and goodnefs, fo
confpicuou%
.34+
God and
his Attri¬
butes.
76
The iecond
perfon in
the Trinity
the imme¬
diate Crea¬
tor.
*' Ch. i. 3.
T H E G L O G
Part IL
77
Creation
peculiar to
God.
*#•
f Colof. iv.
17.
t Tfa. xl.
1 2. xliv. 24.
Jerem, x.
jc—13.
§ Rom. i.
iS 22.
con-fpicuoufly dilplayed in ilie works of creation, belong
in the fame fupreme degree to each perfon in the bleffed
Trinity } for Mofes declares that the heaven and the
earth were created, not by one perfon, but by the E/o-
him. The indeed, or fecond perfon, appears to
have been the immediate Creator ; for St John allures
us *, that “ all things were made by him, and that
without him wras not any thing made that was made.”
Some Arian writers of great learning (and we believe
the late Dr Price was of the number) have afferted,
that a being wdro was created himlelf may be endowed
by the Omnipotent God with the power of creating
other beings j and as they , hold the Aoyas or word, to
be a creature, they contend that he was employed by
the Supreme Deity to create, not the whole univerfe,
but only this earth, or at the utmoft the folar fyftem.
u The old argument (fays one of them), that no being
inferior to the great Omnipotent can create a wmrld, is
fo childilh as to deferve no anfwer. Why may not God
communicate the power of making worlds to any being
W'hom he may choofe to honour with fo glorious a pre¬
rogative ? I have no doubt but fuch a power may be
communicated to many good men during the progrels
of their exiftence; and to fay that it may not, is not on¬
ly to limit the power of God, but to contradidl acknow¬
ledged analogies.”
We are far from being inclined to limit the powrer of
God. He can certainly do whatever involves not a di-
re£t contradiction j and therefore, though we know
nothing analogous to the power of creating worlds, yet
as we perceive not any contradiction implied in the no¬
tion of that powder being communicated, we lhall admit
that fuch a communication may be pojjible, though we
think it in the higheft degree improbable. But furely
no man will contend that the whole univerfe wras
brought into exiftence by ant/ creature; becaufe that
creature himfelf, however highly exalted, is neceffarily
comprehended in the notion of the univerfe. Now? St
Paul exprefsly affirmsthat, by the fecond perfon in
the bleffed Trinity, “ w’ere all things created that are
in heaven, and that are in earth, vifible and invifible,
whether they be thrones, or dominions, or princi¬
palities, or powers ; all things were created by him
and for him j and he is before all things, and by him
all things confift.” Indeed the Hebrew’ Scriptures in
more places than one J exprefsly declare that this earth,
and of courfe the wffiole folar fyftem, was formed, as
well as created, not by an inferior being, but by the
true God, even Jehovah alone •, and in the New Tefta-
ment the Gentiles are faid to be without excufe for
not glorifying him as God, “ becaufe his eternal porver
and Godhead are cleaily feen from the creation of the
world.” But if it were natural to fuppofe that the
power of creating wmrlds has been, or ever wdll be,
communicated to beings inferior to the great Omnipo¬
tent, this reafoning of the apoftle’s would be founded on
faif- principles, and the fentence which he palled on the
Heathen w’ould be contrary to juftice.
But though it be thus evident that the Aeyej wras the
immediate Creator of the univerfe, we are not to fup¬
pofe that it w’as without the concurrence of the other
two perffins. The Father, who may be faid to be the
fountain of the Divinity itfelf, wras certainly concerned
in the creation of the world, and is therefore in the
p.poftk’s creed denominated the “ Father Almighty,
2
Maker of heaven and earth4” and that the Holy Ghoft
or third perfon is likewife a Creator, we have the ex-
prefs teitimony of two iufpired writers: “ By the word
of the Lord (lays the Pfalmill) were the heavens made,
and all the hoft of them by the breath (Hebrew, Spi¬
rit) of his mouth.” And Job declares, that the
“ Spirit of God made him, and that the breath of the
Almighty gave him life.” Indeed thefe three divine
perfons are fo intimately united, that what is done by
one muft be done by all, as they have but one and the
fame will. This is the reafon affigned by Origen * for * ,
our paying divine worftrip to each ; igitpKtv'tpiv ™
7^5 cc\rdux.<; -Kcti r7ct viov Try uXrJuxv evict c)vo t>j
VTrorlctru vr^ctyuctlx, tv Ci rtf opevotec, xxi Tt] ervftpwvtx xxt
tv TxvloltiTi tks /SevAvo-eeJs, “ we w’orfiup the Father of
truth, and the Son the truth itfelf, being two things as
to hypoftafis, but one in agreement, content, and fame-
nefs of will.” Nor is their union a mere agreement in
will only ; it is a phyfical or effential union : fo that
what is done by one muft neceffarily be done by the
others alfo, according to that of our Saviour, “ I am in
the Father and the Father in me: The Father wrho
dwelleth in me, he doth the works.”
Sect. II. Of the Original State of Man, and the frjl
Covenant of Eternal Life which God vouchfafed to
make with him.
1 m CJ
In the Mofaic account of the creation, every atten-Peculiarity
tive reader muft be ftruck with the manner in which the°f the ex-
fupreme Being is reprefented as making man : “ And
God faid, let us make man in our image, after our js putj t0
likenefs 5 and let them have dominion over the fifli of make man.
the fea, and over the fowd of the air, and over the cat¬
tle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping
thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created
man in his own image; in the image of God created he
him ; male and female created he them. And God
bleffed them j and God faid unto them, be fruitful, and
multiply, and replenifh the earth, and fubdue it 5 and
have dominion over the fifti of the fea, and over the
fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth
upon the earth. And God faid, behold, I have given
you every herb bearing feed, which is upon the face of
all the earth ; and every tree, in the which is the fruit
of a tree yielding feed:* to you it (hall be for meat.
And God fawr every thing that he had made, and, be¬
hold, it w'as very good. And the evening and the
morning w’ere the fixth day. Thus the heavens and the
earth were finifhed, and all the hoft of them. And on
the feventh day God ended his work which he had
made ; and he refted on the feventh day from all his
w’orks which he had made. And God bleffed the feventh
day and fan£!ified it : becaufe that in it he had refted
from all his work which God created and made *.” * Gen i.
This is a very remarkable paffage, and contains much 2<5> &-c' “•
important information. It indicates a plurality of per-1’ 2’ •3‘
fons in the Godhead, deferihes the nature of man as he
came at firft from the hands of his Creator, and furniffi-
es data from which we may infer what w’ere the duties
required of him in that primeval ftate, and wffiat were
the rewards to which obedience w’ould entitle him.
Of the plurality of Divine perfons, and their effential In h;7s9own
union, we have treated in the preceding fe&ion, and image,
proceed now’ to inquire into the fpecific nature of the
firfl: man. This muft be implied in the image of God,
Part II.
Original
State of
Man.
theology.
'go
Different
opinions re-
fpecffing
the image
of God.
f Gen. ii.
7-
8r
Calviniftic
opinions.
* Gill’s
Body o f Di¬
vinity, b. iii
ch. 3.
82
Objedled
to.
in which he is laid to have been created j for it is by
that phrafe alone that he is characterized, and his pie-
eminence marked over the other animals. _ Now this
image or likenefs muft have been found either^ in his
body alone, his foul alone, or in both united. That it
could not be in his body alone, is obvious ; for the infi¬
nite and omnipotent God is allowed by all men to be
without body, parts, or paflions, and therefore to be
fuch as nothing corporeal can poflibly refemble.
If this likenefs is to be found in the human foul, it
comes to be a queftion in what faculty or power of the
foul it confifts. Some have contended, that man is the
only creature on this earth who is animated by a prin¬
ciple effentially different from matter 5 and hence they
have inferred, that he is faid to have been formed in
the Divine image, on account of the immateriality of
that vital principle which was infufed into his body
when the “ Lord God breathed into his noftrils the
breath of life, and man became a living foul -f-.” 1 hat
this account of the animation of the body of man indi¬
cates a fuperiority of the human foul to the vital piin-
ciple of all other animals, cannot, we think, be quef-
tioned 5 but it does not therefore follow, that the hu¬
man foul is the only immaterial principle of life which
animates any terreftrial creature. It has been fliown
elfewhere (fee Metaphysics, N° 235’)» that the power
of fenfation, attended with individual confcioufnels, as
it appears to be in all the higher fpecies of animals, can¬
not refult from any organical ftrufture, or be the qua¬
lity of a compound extended being. The vital princi¬
ple in fuch animals therefore muft be immaterial as well
as the human foul ; but as the wmrd immaterial denotes
only a negative notion, the fouls of men and brutes,
though both immaterial, may yet be fubftances effential-
ly different. This being the cafe, it is plain that the
Divine image in which man wTas formed, and by which
he is diftinguifhed from the brute creation, cannot con-
fift in the mere circumftance of his mind being a fub-
ftance different from matter, but in fome pofitive qua¬
lity which diftinguifhes him from every other creature
on this globe.
About this chara&eriftic quality various opinions have
been formed. Some have fuppofed * “ that the image
of God in Adam appeared in that reftitude, righteouf-
nefs, and holinefs, in which he was made 3 for God
made man upright (Ecclef. vii. 2.), a holy and righ¬
teous creature 3 which holinefs and righteoufnefs w’ere in
their kind perfect 3 his underftanding was free from all
error and miftakes 3 his will biaffed to that which is
good 3 his affections flowed in a right channel towards
their proper objefts 3 there were no fmful motions and
evil thoughts in his heart, nor any propenfity or inclina¬
tion to that which is evil 3 and the whole of his conduct
and behaviour uTas according to the will of God. And
this righteoufnefs (fay they) rvas natural, and not per-
fonal and acquired. It was not obtained by the exer-
cife of his free-will, but was created with him, and be¬
longed to his mind, as a natural faculty or inftinCt.”
They therefore call it original righteoufnefs, and fuppofe
that it was loft in the fall.
To this doClrine many objections have been made. It
has been faid that righteoufnefs confiding in right ac¬
tions proceeding from proper principles, could not be
created with Adam and make a part of his nature 3 be-
caufe nothing which is produced in a man without his
Vol. XX. Part I.
345
Original
State of
Man.
knowledge and confent can be in him either virtue or
vice. Adam, it is added, was unqueftionably placed in
a ftate of trial, which proves that he had righteous ha¬
bits to acquire; whereas the doftrine under confidera-
tion, affirming his original righteoufnefs to have been
perfeCt, and therefore incapable of improvement, is in-
confiftent with a ftate of trial. That his underftanding
was free from all errors and miftakes, has been thought
a blafphemous pofition, as it attributes to man one of
the incommunicable perfections of the Deity. It is like-
wife believed to be contrary to faCt 3 for either his un¬
derftanding was bewildered in error, or his affeCtions
flowed towards an improper objeCt, when he fuffered
himfelf at the perfuafion of his wife to tranfgrefs the ex-
prefs law of his Creator. The objeCtor expreffes his
wonder at its having ever been fuppofed ’that the whole
of Adam’s conduCt and behaviour was according to the
will of God, when it is fo notorious that he yielded to
the firft temptation with which, as far as we know, he
was affailed in paradife.
Convinced by thefe and other arguments, that the
image of God in which man was created could not con-
fift in original righteoufnefs, or in exemption from all
poflibility of error, many learned men, and Bifliop
Bull * among others, have fuppofed, that by the image * See. ]lis
of God is to be underftood certain gifts and powers, fu- vol<
pernaturally infufed by the Holy Spirit into the minds iiit
of our firft parents, to guide them in the ways of piety
and virtue. This opinion they reft chiefly upon the au- g3
thority of Tatian, Irenseus, Lertullian, Cyprian, Atha-opinion of
nafius, and other fathers of the primitive church 3 but Bifliop Bull
they think, at the fame time, that it is countenanced byaj}d fome
feveral paffages in the New Teftament. Thus when St
Paul fays |, “ and fo it is written, The firft man Adam thers
was made a living foul, the laft Adam was made a t 1 Cor.
quickening Spirit 3” they underftand the whole paffage xv- 45. 4^*
as relating to the creation of man, and not as drawing a
comparifon between Adam and Chrift, to Ihow the
great fuperiority of the latter over the former. In fup-
port of this interpretation they obferve, that the apoftle
immediately adds, “ howbeit, that was not firft which
is fpiritual, but that which is natural, and afterwards
that which is fpiritual 3” an addition which they think
was altogether needlefs, if by the quickening Spirit he
had referred to the incarnation of Chrift, which had
happened in the very age in which he was writing.
They are therefore of opinion, that the body of Adam,
after being formed of the duft of the ground, was firft
animated by a vital principle endowed with the facul¬
ties of reafon and fenfation, which entitled the whole
man to the appellation of a living foul. After this they
fuppofe certain graces of the Holy Spirit to have been
infufed into him, by wdrich he was made a quickening
fpirit, or formed in the image of God 5 and that it was
in confequence of this fucceflion of powers communica¬
ted to the fame perfon, that the apoftle faid, “ Howbeit,
that w’as not firft which is fpiritual, but that which is
natural.”
We need hardly obferve, that with refpeft to a que¬
ftion of this kind the authority of Tatian and the other
fathers quoted is nothing. Thofe men had no better
means of difcovering the true fenfe of the fcriptures of
the Old Teftament than we have*, and their ignorance
of the language in which thefe fcriptures are written,
added to fome metaphyfical notions refpe&ing the foul,
X x which
34<> T H E O
Original which too many of them had derived from the fchool of
SMan° Plato> rendered them very ill qualified to interpret the
i y ■ writings of Mofes. Were authority to be admitted, we
fhould confider that of Bifhop Bull and his modern fol¬
lowers as of greater weight than the authority of all the
ancients to whom they appeal. But authority cannot
be admitted ; and the reafoning of this learned and ex¬
cellent man from the text of St Paul is furely very in-
g4 conclufive. It makes two perfons of Adam ; a firft,
-ill-founded, when he rvas a natural man compofed of a body and a
reafonable foul ; a fecond, when he was endowed with
the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and by them formed in the
image of God ! In the verfe following too, the apoffle
exprefsly calls the fecond man, of whom he had been
ipeaking, “ the Lord from heaven but this appella¬
tion we apprehend to be too high for Adam in the date
of greatei'f perfedion in which he ever exifted. That
our firft parents were endowed with the gifts of the Ho¬
ly Ghoft, we are ffrongly inclined to believe for reafons
which fliall be given by and by j but as thefe gifts were
adventitious to their nature, they could not be that
85 image in which God made man.
Other opi- Since man was made in the image of God, that phrafe,
whatever be its precife import, muff denote fomething
peculiar and at the fame time eflential to human nature;
but the only two qualities at once natural and peculiar
to man are his fhape and his reafon. As none but an
anthropomorphite will fay that it was Adam’s fhape
which refleded this image of his Creator, it has been
concluded that it was the faculty of reafon which made
the refemblance. To give ftrength to this argument it
°kkrve^ t’ t^iat wf>en God fays, “ let us make man
Vine LeS. *n our *mage>” he immediately adds, “ and let them
book ix. have dominion over the filh of the fea, and over the
fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the
earth but as many of the cattle have much greater
bodily flrength than man, this dominion could not be
maintained but by the faculty of reafon beftowred upon
him and withheld from them.
If the image of God was imprefTed only on the mind
of man, this reafoning feems to be conclufive; but it
f G//A £0-has been well obferved J that it was the whole man,
dy of Divi- and not the foul alone, or the body alone, that is find to
iiity, hook. haVe been formed in the divine image; even as the
iU' C ap-3' whole man, foul and body, is the feat of the new and
fpiritual image of God in regeneration and fanftification.
“ The very God of peace (fays the apoftle) fan&ify you
wholly ; and may your whole fpirit, foul and body, be
preferved blamelefs to the coming of our Lord Jefus
Chrift.” It is worthy of notice, too, that the reafon
affigned for the prohibition of murder to Noah and his
fons after the deluge, is, that man was made in the
image of God. “ Whofo flheddeth man’s blood, by
man fhall his blood be fhed; for in the image of God
made he man,” Thefe texts feem to indicate, that
whatever be meant by the image of God, it was ftamp-
' ed equally on the. foul and on the body. In vain, is it
faid that man cannot referable God in fhape. This is
true, but it is little to the purpofe ; for man does not
referable God in his reafoning faculty more than in his
form. It would be idolatry to fuppofe the fupreme ma-
jefty of heaven and earth to have a body or a fhape ;
and it would be little fhort of idolatry to imagine that
he is obliged to compare ideas and notions together ; to
advance from particular truths to general propofitions;
LOGY. Part II.
and to acquire knowledge, as we do, by the tedious Original
proceffes of indu&ive and fyllogiflic reafoning. There State of
can therefore be no direft image of God either in the ^an‘
foul or in the body of man ; and the phrafe really feems
to import nothing more than thofe powers or qualities True im-
by which man was fitted to exercife dominion over the Port °f die.
inferior creadon ; as if it had been faid, “ Let us makePhrafe'
man in our image, after our likenefs, that they may
have dominion, &c.” But the erea form of man con-
tiibutes in fome degree, as well as his rational powers,
to enable him to maintain his authority over the brute
creation ; for it has been obferved by travellers, that
the fierceft bead of prey, unlefs ready to perifh by
hunger, fhrinks back from a fteady look of the human
face divine.
By fome *, however, who have admitted the proba- * Gill
bility of this interpretation, another has been devifed for
its being faid that man was formed in the image of God.
All the members of Chrift’s body, fay they, were writ¬
ten and delineated in the book of God’s purpofes and
decrees, and had an ideal exiftence from eternity in the
divine mind ; and therefore the body of Adam might
be faid to be formed after the image of God, becaule it
was made according to that idea. But to this reafoning
objedfions may be urged, which we know not how to
anfwer. All things that ever were or ever fhall be,
the bodies of us who live at prefent as well as the bodies
of thofe who lived 5000 years ago, have from eternity
had an ideal exiftence in the Divine mind ; nor in this
fenfe can one be faid to be prior to another. It could
not therefore be after the idea of the identical body of
Chrift that the body of Adam was formed ; for in the
Divine mind ideas of both bodies were prefent together
from eternity, and each body was formed after the ideal
archetype of itfelf. It may be added likewife, that the
body of Chrift was not God, nor the idea of that body
the idea of God. Adam therefore could not with pro¬
priety be faid to have been formed in the image of God,
if by that phrafe nothing more were intended than the
refemblance between his body and the body of Chrift.
Thefe objeftions to this interpretation appear to us un-
anfwerable ; but we mean not to diftate to our readers.
Every man will adopt that opinion which he thinks
fupported by the beft arguments; but it is obvious, that
whatever more may be meant by the image of God in
which man was made, the phrafe undoubtedly compre¬
hends all thofe powers and qualities by which he is en¬
abled to maintain his authority over the inferior creation.
Among thefe the faculty of reafon is confefledly the
moft important; for it is by it that man is capable of
being made acquainted with the Author of his being,
the relation which fubfifts between them, and the duties
implied in that relation from the creature to the Cre¬
ator.
That the firft man, however, was not left to difeoverRghf,oUy
thefe things by the mere efforts of his own unaffifted inftru&ion
reafon, we have endeavoured to (how in another place • communi-
(fee Religion, N° 5—10.); and the conclufion tocat,edto
which we were there led, is confirmed by.the portion 0fAuam*
revelation before us. The infpired hiftorian fays, that
“ God blefikd the feventh day and fanBified it, becaufe
that in it he had refted from all his works, which he
created and made but Adam could not have under-
ftood what was meant by the fanBif cation of a particu¬
lar day, or of any thing elfe, unlefs he had previoufty
received
Part II.
Original
State of
Man.
THEOLOGY.
347
83
Xnftitution
of the Sab¬
bath.
Dr Tay¬
lor of Nor
Hvicb'
89
Duties of
man in his
original
Hate,
| Gen. i.
Sj. v. 2.
jj Gen. ii.
7, 8, and
*5-
received fome religious inllruction. There cannot there¬
fore be a doubt, but that as foon as man was made, his
Creator communicated to him the truths of what is
called natural religion, which we have endeavoured to
explain and eftablilh in Part I. of this article 5 and to
thefe were added the precept to keep holy the Sabbath-
day, and fet it apart for the purpoies of contemplation
and worfliip. ... ...
This was a very wife inftitution, as all the divine m-
ftitutions mutt be. “ The great end for which we are
brought into life, is to attain the knowledge and be
confirmed in the love of God. This includes obedience
to his will in thought, word, and deed, or that courfe
of conduit which can alone make us happy here, and
fit us for everlafting glory hereafter. But of thefe
things we cannot retain a proper fenfe without clyfe and
repeated application of thought ^ and the unavoidable
cares and concerns of the prefent life occupying much
of our attention, it is, in the nature of things, neceffary
that fome certain portion of time fliould be appropriated
to the purpofes of religious inftruilion and the public
adoration of our Creator, in whom we all live, arid
move, and have our being.” Hence a very learned di¬
vine f has inferred, that though the particular time is
" a matter of pofitive appointment, the obiervation of a
fabbath in general is a duty or natural religion, as ha¬
ving its foundation in the reafon of things. See Sab-
BATH.
Man therefore in his natural and original {late was a
rational and religious being, bound to do “ juflice, to
love mercy, to walk humbly with his God, and to
keep holy the Sabbath-day.” Thefe feem to be all the
duties which in that ftate were required of him ; for as
foon as he was introduced into the terreflrial paradife
and admitted into covenant with his Maker, he was pla^-
ced in a fupernatural ftate, when other duties were of
courfe enjoined.
That our firfc parents were both made on the fixth
day, Mofes exprefsly affirms when he faysf, that “ God
created them male and female, and bleffed them, and
called their name Adam (k), in the day when they were
created :” but that they were introduced into the gar¬
den of Eden on that day, is an opinion which, however
generally it may be received, feems not to be teconcile-
able with the plain narrative of the facred penman.
After telling us that on the fixth day God finiffied all
his works, which he faw to be very good, and refled
on the feventh day, he briefly recapitulates the hiftory
of the generations of the heavens and of the earth,
gives us a more particular account of the formation of
the firft man, informing us that the “ Lord God form¬
ed him out of the duft of the ground, and breathed into
his noflrils the breath of life, when man became a living
foul and then proceeds to fay j|, that the “ Lord
God planted a garden eafLvard in Eden, where he put
the man whom he HAD formed.'n From this fhort hi-
flory of the firft pair it appears beyond difpute evident,
that neither the man nor the woman was formed in the
garden j and that from their creation fome time elapfed
before the garden was prepared for their reception, is Original
likewife evident from a comparifon of Gen. i. 29. with ‘'Man_
Gen. ii. 16, 17. In the firft of thefe paffages God gives ( 
to man, immediately after his creation, “ every herb 9o
bearing feed which was upon the face of all the earth, before he
and every tree, without exception, in which was the ^
fruit of a tree bearing feed : to him he faid it fhould bedenof
for meat.” In the fecond, “ he commanded the man,den,
faying, of every tree of the garden thou mayeft freely
eat •, but of the tree of knowdedge of good and evil,
thou fhalt not eat of it j for in the day thou eateft
thereof thou fhalt furely die.” When the firft grant of
food was given, Adam and his wbfe muft have been
where no tree of knowledge grew, and they muft har e
been intended to live at leaft fo long in that ft-t^ as
that they fhould have occafion for food, otherwife the
formal grant of it would have been not only fuperfluous,
but apt to miflead them with refpe6t to the fuofequent
reft ri£t ion. ^ -
In this original ftate man was under the diicipline of
what wTe have called natural religion, entitled to happi-
nefs while he fhould perform the duties required of him,
and liable to punifhment wffien he fhould negleft thefe
duties, or tranfgrefs the law of his nature as a rational
and moral agent. This being the cafe, it is a matter of
fome importance, to afeertain, it we can, what the re¬
wards and punifhments are which natural religion holds
out to her votaries.
That under every difpenfation of religion the pious
and virtuous man fhall enjoy more happineiS than mi-
fery; and that the incorrigibly wicked thall have a
greater portion of mifery than happineis, are truths
which cannot be controverted by any one who admits,
that the Almighty governor of the univerfe is a Being
of wifdom, goodnefs, and juftice. But refipefting the
rewards of virtue and the punifhment of vice, more than
thefe general truths feems not to be taught by natural 9f
religion. Many divines, however, of great learning did not,
and"’worth, have thought otherwife, and have contend-formedPeen.
ed, that from the nature of things the rewards bellowed title hi’m
by an infinite God upon piety and virtue muft be eter- to eternal
nal like their author. Thefe men indeed appear willing life,
enough to allow' that the puniftiments with which natu¬
ral religion is armed againft vice muft be only of a tem¬
porary duration, becaufe reafon, fay they, is ready to
revolt at the thought of everlajling punifhment.
This opinion, which confounds natural w'ith revealed
religion, giving to the former an important truth which
belongs exclufively to the latter, has been fo ably con¬
futed by a learned writer, that we fhall fubmit his ar¬
guments to our readers in preference to any thing which
we can give ourfelves.
il If reafon doth, on the one hand, feem to icvolt at
everlajling punijljment, we muft coufefs that FANCY, on
the other, (even when full plumed hy vanity), hztii
fcarcely force enough to rife to the idea of infinite re¬
wards. How the heart of man came to confider this
as no more than an adequate retribution for his right
condufl during the fhort trial of his virtue here, would
X x 2 be
(k) The wmman w7as fome time afterwards diftinguifhed by the name of Eve, rr'irh becaufe fhe was to le t e mo¬
ther all living, and particularly of that bleffed feed which wras to bruife the hea o. the feip^nt. ee ar inrj
Lexicon on the word.
34^
Original
State of
Man.
92
that they
did incon-
cluiive.
T H E O
be hard to tell, did we not know what monders pride
begot of old upon Pagan phi/qfophy; and how much
greater frill thefe latter ages have difclofed, by the long
^ incubation of fchool-divinity upon folly. What hath
Arguments been urged from natural realon, m fupport of this ex-
to prove travagant prefumption, is fo very flender, that it recoils
as you enforce it. Fird, you fay, “ that the foul, the
fubjeft of thefe eternal rewards, being immaterial, and
fo therefore unaffe&ed by the caufes which bring mate¬
rial things to an end, is, by its nature, fitted for eter¬
nal rewards.— I his is an argument ad ignorantiam, and
holds no farther.—Becaufe an immaterial being is not
fubject to that mode of didolution which aflfedts mate¬
rial lubdances, you conclude it to be eternal. This is
going too fad. There may be, and probably are, many
natural caufes (unknown indeed to us), whereby imma-.
terial beings come to an end. But if the nature of
things cannot, yet God certainly can, put a final period
to fuch a being when it hath ferved the purpofe of its
creation. Doth annihilation impeach that wifdom
and goodnefs which was difplayed when God brought it
out of nothing ? Other immaterial beings there are,
viz. the fouls of brutes, which have the fame natural
fecurity with man for their exidence, of whofe eternity
we never dream. But pride, as the poet obferves, calls
God unjuf.
If man alone engrofs not heaven’s high care j
Alone made perfeB here, immortal there.
However, let us (for argument’s fake) allow the human
foul to be unperithablc by nature, and fecured in its ex-
sdence by the unchangeable will of God, and fee what
will follow from thence—An infnite reward for virtue
during one moment of its exidence, becaufe reafon dif-
covers that, by the law of nature, fome reward is due ?
By no means. When God hath amply repaid us for
the performance of our duty, will he be at a lofs how to
difpofe of us for the long remainder of eternity / May
he not find new and endlefs employment for reafonable
creatures, to which, when properly difeharged, new re¬
wards and in endlefs fucceffion will be adigned ? Moded
reafon feems to di&ate this to the followers of the law
of nature. 1 he flattering expedient of eternal re¬
wards for virtue here was invented in the fimplicity of
early fpeculation, after it had fairly brought men to
conclude that the foul is immaterial.
“ Another argument urged for the eternity of the re¬
wards held out by natural religion to the praftice of
piety and virtue is partly phyfical and partly moral.
The merit of fervice (fay the admirers of that religion)
increafes in proportion to the excellence of that Being
to whom our fervice is direfted and becomes acceptable.
An infinite being, therefore, can difpenfe no rewards but
what are infinite. And thus the virtuous man becomes
entitled to immortality.
“ The misfortune is, that this reafoning holds equally
on the fide of the unmerciful dodflors, as they are called,
wdio doom the wicked to everlasting punishment.
Indeed were this the only diferedit under which it la¬
bours, the mercilefs do&ors would hold themfelves little
concerned. But the truth is, that the argument from
infinity proves juft nothing. To make it of any force,
both the parties fhould be infinite. This inferior ema¬
nation of God’s image, man, Ihould either be fupremely
good or fupremely bad, a kind of deity or a kind of
L.o G Y. Partir.
devil. But thefe reafoners, in their attention to the Original
divinity, overlook the humanity, which makes the de* State of
creafe keep pace with the accumulation, till the rule of, ^lar1,
logic, that the conclufion follows the weaker part, comes ' v—**J
in to end the difpute .
r,M r r * tv cub nr-
Inele arguments leem to prove unanfwerably that \xn.-ton's Li-
mortality is not effential to any part of the compoundclnne Lega-
being man, and that it cannot be claimed as a reward tion' book
due to his virtue. It is not indeed effential to any'*’
created being, for what has not exiftence of itfelf, can¬
not of itfelf have perpetuity of exiftence (fee Meta¬
physics, bn 272, &c.) 5 and as neither man nor angel
can be profitable to God, they cannot claim from him
any thing as a debt. Both, indeed, as moral agents,
have duties preferibed them ; and while they faithfully
perform thefe duties, they have all the fecurity which
can arile from the perfeft benevolence of him w’ho
brought them into exiftence, that they (hall enjoy a
fufficient portion of happinefs to make that exiftence
preferable to non-exiftence; but reafon and philofophy
furnilh no data from w’hich it can be inferred that they
ftiall exift for ever. Man is compofed in part of perifti-
able materials. However perfeft Adam may be thought
to have been when he came firft from the hands of his
Creator, his body, as formed of the duft of the ground,
mnft have been naturally liable to decay and diflblution.
His foul, indeed, was of a more durable fubftance ; but
as it was formed to animate his body, and had no prior
confcious exiftence, it is not eafy to conceive what
fhould have led him, under an equal providence, where
rewards and punifliments were exaftly diftributed, to fup-
pofe that one part of him fliould furvive the other. In
his natural and original ftate, before the covenant made
with him in paradife, he was unqueftionably a mortal
creature. How’ long he continued in that ftate, it feems
not poflible to form a plaufible conje&ure. Bifhop foreTis irl
arbuiton fupppfes him to have lived feveral years trodudlion.
under no other difpenfation than that of natural religion; ^nt0 Paia-
dunng which he was as liable to death as his fallen difejliali:,Ie
pofterity are at prefent. t0 death.
“ We muff needs conclude (fays this learned wniter*), * B • •
that God having tried Adam in the fiat e of nature, and Legation,.
approved of the good ufe he made of his free-will under book ix.
the direflion of that light, advanced him to a fuperior chaP-L
ftation in Paradife. How long, before this remove,™,
man had continued fubjeft to natural religion alone, we he con°rinu-
can only guefs : but of this we may be affured, that it ed in that
was tome confiderable time before the garden of Eden ftate>
could naturally be made fit for his reception. Since
Mofes, W'hen he had concluded his hiftory of the crea¬
tion, and of God’s refi on, and fanBification of, the
feventh day proceeds to [peak of the condition of this
new world in the following terms: “ And God made
every plant of the field before it was in the earth, and
every herb of the field before it grew ; for the Lord God
had not caufed it to rain upon the earth fWhich . r, ..
feems plainly to intimate, that when the feeds of vege-1 C™'
tables had been created on the third day, they w^ere left ’ "
to nature, in its ordinary operations, to mature by fun
and fhowers. So th?t when in courfe of time Paradife
was become capable of accommodating its inhabitants
they w^ere tranfplanted thither.”
This reafoning is not without a portion of that inge-
nuity which was apparent in every thing that fell from
tne pen of Warburton y but it was completely confut¬
ed
Part II.
T H E O
Man.
f Gen. i
E2.
Original ed almoft as foon as it was given to the public, and
State of fl10wn t0 be deduced from premifes which Could be em-
j ployed againft the author’s fyftem. If only the feeds of
vegetables were created on the third day, and then left
to nature, in its ordinary operations, to mature by fun
and (bowers, the firif pair muft have perilhed before a
fingle vegetable could be fit to furnifh them with food j
and we may fuppofe that it was to prevent this difafter
that the garden ©f Eden was miraculoufly ftored at once
with full grown trees and fruit in peifedl maturity,
whilif the relt of the earth was left under the ordinary
laws of vegetation. There is, however, no evidence
that they were only the feeds of vegetables that God
created. On the contrary, Mofes fays exprefsly f, that
God made the earth on the third day bring forth the
herb yielding feed after his kind, and the tree yielding
fruit whofe feed was in itfelf after his kind and when
he recapitulates the hiftory of the creation, he fays, that
God made, not every feed, but every plant of the field
before it was in the earth, and every herb of the field
before it grew. From the procefs of vegetation, there¬
fore, nothing can be inferred with refpeft to the time of
Adam’s introduction into Paradife, or to afcertain the
duration of his original ftate of nature. If angels were
created during the fix days'of which the Hebrew law¬
giver writes the hiftory, an hypothefis very generally
received (fee Angel), though in the opinion of the pre-
fent writer not very probable, there can be no doubt
but our firft parents lived a confiderable time under the
law of nature before they were raifed to a fuperior fta-
tion in the garden of Eden 5 for it feems very evident
that the period of their continuance in that flation was
not long. Of this, however, nothing can be faid with
certainty. They may have lived for years or only a
few days in their original ftate j but it is very neceftary
to diftinguifh betrveen that ftate in which they were
under no other difpenfation than what is commonly call¬
ed natural religion, entitled, upon their obedience, to
the indefinite rewards of piety and virtue, and their
ftate in Paradife when they were put under a new law,
and by the free grace of God promifed, if they fhould
be obedient, a fupernatural and eternal reward. Into
that ftate we muft now attend them, and afcertain, if
we can, the precife terms of the firft covenant.
Mofes, who in this inveftigatiop is our only guide,
tells us, that the Lord God, after he had formed the firft
pair, “ planted a garden eaftward in Eden, and took
the man and put him into the garden to drefs it and to
keep it. And the Lard God (continues he) command¬
ed the man, faying, of every tree of the garden thou
mayeft freely eat 5 but of the tree of the knowledge of
good and evil thou {halt not eat of it j for in the day
95
irtipoffible
to be
known.
LOGY. 349
that thou eateft thereof, thou (halt furely die f 1” Here ^)n^nafi
is no mention made of the laws of piety and moral vir-
ture refulting from the relation in which the various ,
individuals of the human race ftand to each other, and { Gen. ii.
in which all as creatures ftand to God tneir Almighty 8, 15, 16,
and beneficent Creator. With thefe laws Adam was 17-
already well acquainted j and he muft have been lenli-
ble, that as they were founded in his nature no fuble-
quent law could difpenfe with their obligation. They
have been equally binding on all men in every ftate and
under every difpenfation ; and they will continue to be
fo as long as the general pra&ice of juftice, mercy, and
piety, (hall contribute to the fum of human happinefs.
The new law peculiar to his paradifaical ftate was the
command not to eat of the fruit of the tree of the
knowledge of good and evil. This was a pofitive pre¬
cept, not founded in the nature of man, but very pro¬
per to be the teft of his obedience to the will of his
Creator. The laws of piety and virtue are fan&ioned The^ove_
by nature, or by that general fyftem of rules according nant of e_
to which God governs the phyfical and moral wmrlds, ternal life
and by which he has fecured, in fome ftate or other, made with
happinefs to the pious and virtuous man, and mifery to
fuch as fliall prove incorrigibly wicked. The law re-
fpe&ing the forbidden fruit was fanftioned by the penal¬
ty of death denounced againft difobedience 5 and by the
fubjefts of that law the nature of this penalty muft have
been perfectly underftood : but Chriftian divines, as we
{hall afterwards fee, have differed widely in opinion re-
fpefHng the full import of the Hebrew words which our
tranflators have rendered by the phrafe thou Jha/t furely
die. All, however, agree that they threatened death,
in the common acceptation of the word, or the fepara-
tion of the foul and body as one part of the punifhment
to be incurred by eating the forbidden fruit •, and hence
we muft infer, that had the forbidden fruit not been
eaten, our firft parents would never have died, becaufe
the penalty of death was denounced againft no other
tranfgreflion. What therefore is faid refpedfing the
fruit of the tree of knowledge, implies not only a law
but alfo a covenant (l), promifing to man, upon the
obfervance of one pofitive precept, immortality or eter¬
nal life; which is not effential to the nature of any crea¬
ted being, and cannot be claimed as the merited reward
of the greateft virtue or the moft fervent piety.
This obvious truth will enable us to difpofe of the ob-
jeflions which have been fometimes brought by free-
thinking divines againft the wifdom and juftice of
punilhing fo feverely as by death the breach of a mere
pofitive precept; which, confidered in itfelf, appears to
be a precept of very little importance. We have only
to reply, that as an exemption from death is not due
either
(l) It Joes not appear that any tranfaflion between God and mankind in general was denominated by a word
equivalent to the Englifli word covenant till the end of the fourth century, when fuch phrafeology was introduced
into the church by the celebrated Auguftine, bifhop of Hippo. That the phrafeology is ftriftly proper, no man can
fuppofe who reflefts on the infinite diftance between the contrafting parties, and the abfolute dominion of the one
over the other. To be capable of entering into a covenant, in the proper fenfe of the word, both parties muft have
a right either to agree to the terms propofed or to rejeft them •, but furely Adam had no right to bargain with bis
Maker, or to refufe the gift of immortality on the terms on which it was offered to him. The word difpenfation
would more accurately denote what is here meant by the word covenant; but as this laft is in general ufe, we have
retained it as fufficient, when thus explained, to diftinguifh what man received from God upon certain poiitive con¬
ditions, from what he had a claim to by the conftitution of his nature.
350
T H E O
Original
State of
.Man.
either to the nature or to the virtue of man, it was wife
and juft to make it depend on the obfervance of a poft-
tive precept, to im’prefs on the minds of our firft parents
a conftant conviction that they were to be preferved
immortal, not in the ordinary courfe of divine provi¬
dence, but by the fpecial grace and favour of God. The
fame confideration will fhow us the folly of thofe men
who are for turning all that is faid of the trees of know-
letige and of life into figure and allegory. But the
other trees which Adam and Eve were permitted to eat
were certainly real trees, or they muft have perifhed for
want of food. And what rules of interpretation will
authorife us to interpret eating and trees literally in one
part of the fentence and figuratively in the other ? A
garden in a delightful climate is the very habitation,
and the fruits produced in that garden the very food,
which we fhould naturally fuppofe to have been pre¬
pared for the progenitors of the human race j and
though in the garden actually fitted up for this purpofe
two trees were remarkably diftinguiftied from the reft,
perhaps in fituation and appearance as well as in ufe, the
diftindtion was calculated to feive the beft of purpofes.
The one called the tree of life, of which, while they
continued innocent, they were permitted to eat, ferved
as a facramental pledge or affurance on the part of God,
that as long as they ftiould obferve the terms of the cove¬
nant their life thould be preferved \ the other, of which
it was death to tafte, was admirably adapted to imprefs
on their minds the neceftity of implicit obedience to the
Diviae will, in whatever manner it might be made
known to them.
A queftion has been ftarted of fome importance, What
would have finally become of men if the firft covenant
had not been violated ? That they would have been all
immortal is certain •, but it is by no means clear that
they would have lived for ever on this earth. On the
contrary, it has been an article of very general belief in
all ages of the church f, that the garden of Eden was
°Manbiforean emklem or type of heaven, and therefore called Pa-
the fall. radife (fee Paradise) •, and that under the firft cove-
97 nant, mankind, after a fufficient probation here, were to
had it pot be tranflated into heaven without tailing death. This
tecTenti a" d°&r'ne is not indeed explicitly taught in Scripture j
tied him to but many things confpire to make it highly probable,
heaven, The frequent communications between God and man
before the fall (m), feem to indicate that Adam was
training up for fome higher ftate than the terreftrial pa-
radife. Had he been intended for nothing but to cul¬
tivate the ground and propagate his fpecies, he might
have been left like other animals to the guidance of his
own reafon and inftinfts j which, after the rudiments of
knowledge were communicated to him, muft furely have
been fufficient to direft him to every thing neceflary to
the comforts of a life merely fenfual and rational, other-
wife he would have been an imperfeft animal. It is
obvious too, that this earth, however fertile it may have
originally been, could not have afforded the means of
fubfiftence to a race of immortal beings multiplying to
infinity. For thefe reafons, and others which will
readily occur to the reader, it feems incontrovertible,
f Bull's
State of
LOGY. Part II.
that, under the firft covenant, either mankind would Original
have been fucceffively tranfiated to fome fuperior ftate, s^.te
or would have ceafed to propagate their kind as foon as. ^ ' .
the earth Ihould have been repleniftied with inhabitants.
He who refle&s on the promife, that, after the general
refurreftion, there is to be a new heaven and a new
earth, will probably embrace the latter part of the al¬
ternative 5 but that part in its confequences differs not
from the former. In the new earth promifed in the
Chriftian revelation, nothing is to dwell but righteouf-
nefs. It will therefore be precifely the fame with what
we conceive to be expreffed by the word heaven ; and if
under the firft covenant this earth was to be converted
into a fimilar place, where, after a certain period, men
fhould neither marry nor be given in marriage, but en¬
joy what divines have called the beatific vifion, we may
confidently affirm, that, had the firft covenant been
faithfully obferved, Adam and his pofterity, after a fuf¬
ficient probation, would all have been tranflated to fome
fuperior ftate or heaven. 0
To fit them for that ftate, the gifts of divine grace ancj ^
feem to have been abfolutely neceffary. To them it gifts of
was a ftate certainly fupernatural, otherwife a God ofdivine
infinite wifdom and perfeft goodnefs would not, for aSrace‘
moment, have placed them in an inferior ftate. But to
enable any creature, efpecially fuch a creature as man,
whom an ancient philofopher has juftly ftyled
[apfUxoi, to rife above its nature, foreign and divine aid
is unqueftionably requifite : and therefore, though we
cannot perfuade ourfelves that the gifts of the Holy
Ghoft conftituted that image of God in which man was
originally made, we agree with Bifhop Bull, that thefe
gifts were beftowed on our firft parents to enable them
to fulfil the terms of the covenant under which they
were placed.
On the whole, we think it apparent from the por¬
tions of fcripture which we have examined, that Adam
and Eve were endued with fuch powers of body and
mind as fitted them to exercife dominion over the other
animals; that thofe powers conftituted that image of
God in which they are faid to have been formed ; that
they received by immediate revelation the firft princi¬
ples of all ufeful knowledge, and efpecially of that fyf-
tem which is ufually called natural religion ; that they
lived for fome time with no other religion, entitled to
the natural rewards of piety and virtue, but all the
while liable to death ; that they were afterwards tranf¬
lated into paradife, where they were placed under anew
law, with the penalty of death threatened to the breach
of it, and the promife of endlefs life if they fhould faith¬
fully obferve itj and that they were endued with the jt is^here-
gifts of the Holy Ghoft, to enable them, if not wanting fore impro-
to themfelves, to fulfil the terms of that covenant, which perly called
has been improperly termed the covenant of 'fince t^ie c°rce~
it flowed from the mere grace of God, and conferred pri-
vileges on man to which the moft perfeft human virtue
could lay no juft claim.
Sect. III. Of the Pall of Adam, and its Confequences.
From the preceding account of the primeval ftate of
man,
(m) That there were fuch frequent communications, has been ftiown to be in the higheft degree probable by the
late Dr Law bilhop of Carlifle. See his Difcourfe on the feveral Difpenfations of revealed Religion.
4
Part II.
T H E O
its confe-
quences,
Fall of A- man, it is evident that his continuance in the terreftrial
dam, and paradife, tog;ether with all the privileges which he there
enjoyed, were made to depend on his oblervance or one
pofxtive precept. Every other duty incumbent on him,
too whether as refulting from what is called the law of his
as it could nature, or from the exprefs command of his God, was
be violated as mucj1 dmy before as after he was introduced into
difobedi- garden of Eden ; and though the tranfgreflion of
ence to one any law would undoubtedly have been punifhed, or have
pofitive been forgiven only in confequence of fincere repentance
command. ancj amendment, it does not appear that a breach of the
moral law, or of the commandment refpedling the fanc-
tification of the Sabbath-day, would have been punifhed
with death, whatever may be the import of that word
in the place where it is firft threatened. The punifh-
ment was denounced only againft eating the fruit of the
tree of the knowledge of good and evil: “ For “ the
Lord God commanded the man, faying, of every tree
of the garden thou mayeft freely eat, but of the tree of
the knowledge of good and evil thou (halt not eat of it *,
for in the day that thou eateft thereof thou (halt furely
die.” To the word death in this paflage divines have
affixed many and different meanings. By fome it is
fuppofed to import a feparation of the foul and body,
while the latter was to continue in a ftate of confcious
exiffence 5 by others, it is taken to imply annihilation
or a ftate without confcioufnefs \ by fome, it is imagined
to ftgnify eternal life in torments and by others a fpi-
ritual and moral death, or a ftate neceffarily fubjeft to
fin. In any one of thefe acceptations it denoted fome-
thing new to Adam, which he could not underhand
without an explanation of the term ; and therefore, as
it was threatened as the punifhment of only one tranf-
greflion, it could not be the divine intention to inflidt
it on any other.
The abftaining from a particular fruit in the midft of
a garden abounding with fruits of all kinds, was a pre¬
cept which at firft view appears of eafy obfervation ‘y
and the penalty threatened againft the breach of it was,
in every fenfe, awful. The precept, however, was bro¬
ken notwithftanding that penalty *, and though we may
thence infer that our firft parents were not beings of
fuch abfolute perfeftion as by divines they have fome-
times been reprefented, we (hall yet find, upon due con-
fideration, that the temptation by which they were fe-
duced, when taken with all its circumftances, was fuch
as no wife and modeft man will think himfelf able to
have refifted. The (hort hiftory of this important tranf-
affion, as we have it in the third chapter of the book
of Genefis, is as follows.
“ Now the ferpent was more fubtile than any beaft
of the field which the Lord God had made ; and he faid
unto the woman, Yea, hatli God faid, ye (hall not eat
of every tree of the garden ? And the woman faid unto
the ferpent, We may eat of the fruit of the trees of the
garden •, but of the fruit of the tree which is in the
midft of the garden, God hath faid ye (hall not eat of
it, neither (hall ye touch it, left ye die. And the fer¬
pent faid unto the woman, ye (hall not furely die : For
God doth know, that on the day ye eat thereof, then
your eyes (hall be opened, and ve (hall be as gods,
knowing good and evil. And when the woman faw
that the tree was good for food, and that it was plea-
fant to the eyes, and a tree to be defired to make one
xoi
It was vio¬
lated,
LOGY.
35i
wife, (lie took of the fruit thereof, and did eat, and gave Fall of A-
alfo unto her hufband with her, and he did eat,” ^am’ aTK*
To the lefs attentive reader this converfation between fences'
the ferpent and the woman muft appear to begin abrupt- 1——v »
ly $ and indeed it is not poftible to reconcile it with the 102
natural order of a dialogue, or even with the commonin conle-
rules of grammar, but by fuppofing the tempter’s que- oft6art
ftion, “ Yea, hath God faid, ye (hall not eat of every fui tempta-
tree of the garden ?” to have been fuggefted by fome-tion,
thing immediately preceding either in words or in figni-
ficant figns. Eve had undoubtedly by fome means or
other informed the ferpent that (he was forbidden to eat
of the fruit on which he was probably feafting ; and
that information, whether given in words or in aftions,
muft have produced the queftion with which the facred
hiftorian begins h>s relation of this fatal dialogue. We
are told that the woman faw that the tree was good for
food; that it was pleafant to the eyes, and a tree to be
dejired to make one wife ; but all this (he could not have
feeti, had not the ferpent eaten of its fruit in her pre¬
fence. In her walks through the garden, it might have
often appeared pleafant to her eyes ; but previous to ex¬
perience (he could not know but that its fruit was the
mod deadly poifon, far lefs could the conceive it ca¬
pable of conferring wifdom. But if the ferpent ate of
it before her, and then extolled its virtues in rapturous -
and intelligible language, (lie would at once fee that it
was not deftruftive of animal life, and naturally infer
that it had very lingular qualities. At the moment (he
was drawing this inference, it is probable that he invited
her to partake of the delicious fruit, and that her refu- \
fal produced the conference before us. That (lie yield¬
ed to his temptation need excite no wonder ; for (he
knew that the ferpent was by nature a mute animal, and
if he attributed his fpeech to the virtues of the tree, (lie
might infer, with fome plaufibility, that what had power
to raife the brute mind to human, might raife the hu¬
man to divine, and make her and her hulhand, accord¬
ing to thepromife of the tempter, become as gods, know-
ing good and evil. Milton, who was an eminent divine
as well as the prince of poets, makes her reafon thus with
herfelf.
Great are thy virtues, doubtlefs, heft of fruits,
Tho’ kept from man, and worthy to be admir’d j ~
Whofe tafte, too long forborne, at firft eflay
Gave elocution to the mute, and taught
The tongue not made for fpeech to fpeak thy praife.
*****
 For us alone
Was death invented ? or to us denied
This intellectual food, for beads referved ?
For beads it feems: yet that one beaft which firft
Hath tafted, envies not, but brings with joy
The good befallen him, author unfufpedt,
Friendly to man, far from deceit or guile.
What fear I then, rather what know to fear
Under this ignorance of good and evil,
Of God or death, of law or penalty ?
Here grows the cure of all, this fruit divine,
Fair to the eye, inviting to the tafte,
Of virtue to make wife : what hinders then
To reach, and feed at once both body and mind ?
Paradife Lojl, book ix.
Full
352 T H E O
- Fall of A- Full of thefe hopes of raifmg herfelf to divinity, and
dam, and no^ as has fometimes been fuppofed, led headlong by
^u-nces" a ^en^ua^ appetite, Hie took of the fruit and did eat, and
i .l1-—y ' ■ gave to her hufband with her, and he did eat. The
great poet makes Adam delude himfelf with the fame
lophiftry that had deluded Eve, and infer, that as the
ferpent had attained the language and reafoning powers
of man, they Ihould attain
Proportional afcent, which could not be
But to be gods, or angels, demi-gods.
and Adam Thus was the covenant, which, on the introduclion of
and Eve our parents into paradife, their Creator was graciouf-
of'Tradife ^ pleafed to make with them, broken by their violation
l* ‘ ‘ of the condition on which they were advanced to that
fupernatural date ; and therefore the hiftorian tells us,
that “ led they fhould put forth their hand and take al-
fo of the tree of life and eat, and live for ever, the
Lord God fent them forth from the garden of Eden to
till the ground from whence they were taken (n).”
Had they been fo fent forth without any farther intima¬
tion refpefting their prefent condition or their future
profpefts, and if the death under which they had fallen
was only a lofs of confcioufnefs, they would have been
in precifely the fame date in which they lived before
they were placed in the garden of Eden 5 only their
minds mud now have been burdened with the inward
fenfe of guilt, and they mud have known themfelves to
be fubjedt to death j of which, though not exempted
from it by nature, they had probably no apprehenjion till
it was revealed to them in the covenant of life which
they had fo wantonly broken.
God, however, did not fend them forth thus hopelefs
and forlorn from the paradife of delights which they had
fo recently forfeited. He determined to punifh them
for their tranfgreffion, and at the fame time to give them
an opportunity of recovering more than their lod inhe¬
ritance. Calling therefore the various offenders before
him, and inquiring into their different degrees of guilt,
he began with pronouncing judgment on the ferpent in
terms which implied that there was mercy for man.
“ And the Lord God faid unto the ferpent, Becaufe
thou haft done this, thou art curfed above all cattle, and
above every beaft of the field : upon thy belly (halt thou
go, and duff fhalt thou eat all the days of thy life ; and
I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and be¬
tween thy feed and her feed : it (hall bruife thy head,
104 and thou (halt bruife his heel.”
The temp- That this fentence has been fully inflicffed on the fet¬
ter punn'h- p£n^ no reafomng can be neceffary to evince. Every
fpecies of that reptile is more hateful to man than any
other terreftrial creature •, and there is literally a per¬
petual war between them and the human race. It is
remarkable too that the head of this animal is the only
part which it is fafe to bruife. His tail may be bruifed,
or even cut off, and he will turn with fury and death on
his adverfary : but the flighteft ftroke on the head in¬
fallibly kills him. That the ferpent, or at leafi: the
greater part of ferpents, go on their belly, every one
LOGY. Part II.
knoxvs ; though it is faid f, that in fome parts of the Fall of A-
eaft ferpents have been fecn with wings, and others with
feet, and that thefe fpecies are highly beautiful. If ^uences
there be any truth in this ftory, w:e may fuppofe that > 1
thefe walking and flying ferpents have been fuffered to t Delanay's
retain their original elegance, that mankind might {ct^ey-exa-
what the whole race was before the curfe was
nounced on the tempter of Eve : but it is certain that
molt of the fpecies have neither wings nor feet, and that
many of the molt poifonous of them live in burning de-
ferts, where they have nothing to eat but the duff a-
mong which they crawl 'j:. } See Bo-
To this degradation of the ferpent, infidels have oh-chat t atid
jefted, that it implies the puniftunent of an animal ow
which was incapable of guilt j but this obje&ion is
founded in thoughtleffnefs and ignorance. The elegant Bruce's
form of any fpecies of inferior animals adds nothing \.o Travels.
the happinefs of the animals themfelves : the afs is pro¬
bably as happy as the horfe, and the ferpent that crawls
as he that flies. Fine proportions attraft indeed the no¬
tice of man, and tend to imprefs upon his mind juft no¬
tions of the wifdom and goodnefs of the Creator 5 but
furely the fymmetry of the horfe or the beauty of the
peacock is more properly difplayed for this purpofe than
the elegance of the inftrument employed by the enemy
of mankind. The degradation of the ferpent in the pre¬
fence of our firft parents muft have ferved the beft of
purpofes. If they had fo little reflexion as not yet to
have difcovered that he was only the inftrument wflth
which a more powerful being had wrought their ruin,
they would be convinced, by the execution of this fen¬
tence, that the forbidden fruit had no power in itfelf to
improve the nature either of man or of beaft. But it is
impoflible that they could be fo ftupid as this objection
fuppofes them. They doubtlefs knew by this time that
fome great and wicked fpirit had a&uated the organs of
the ferpent ; and that when enmity was promifed to be
put between its feed and the feed of the woman, that
promife was not meant to be fulfilled by ferpents oc-
cafionally biting the heels of men, and by men in return
bruifing the heads of ferpents ! If fuch enmity, though
it has literally taken place, was all that was meant by
this prediftion, why xvas not Adam direfled to bruife
the head of the identical ferpent which had feduced his
wife ? If he could derive any confolation from the exer-
cife of revenge, furely it would be greater from his re¬
venging himfelf on his own enemy, than from the know¬
ledge that there ftiould be a perpetual warfare between
his defcendants and the breed of ferpents through all ge¬
nerations.
We are told, that when the foundations of the earth
were laid, the morning ftars fang together, and all the
fons of God fhouted for joy ; and it is at leaft probable
that there would be fimilar rejoicing when the fix days
work of creation was finilhed. If fo, Adam and Eve,
who were but a little lower than the angels, might be
admitted into the chorus, and thus be made acquainted
with the exiftence of good and evil fpirits. At all e-
vents, we cannot doubt but their gracious and merciful
Creator
(n) The ideas which this language conveys are indeed allegorical\ but they inform us of this, and nothing but
this, that immortal life was a thing extraneous to our nature, and not put into our pafte or compofition when firft
lafhioned by the forming hand of the Creator.” Warburton's Divine Legation, book ix. chap. 1.
4
dam, and
its conle-
quences.
Ssntence
pafffcd on
Adam and
Eve.
Part II. T H E O
Fall of A-Creator would inform tliem that they had a powerful
’ enemy j that he was a rebellious angel capable of de¬
ceiving them in many ways p and that they ought there¬
fore to be conftantly on their guard againft his wiles.
They mult have known too that they were themfelves
animated by fomething different from matter j and when
they found they were deceived by the ferpent, they
might furely, without any remarkable ftretch of faga-
city, infer that their malignant enemy had actuated the
organs of that creature in a manner iomewhat fimilar to
that in which their own fouls a6tuated their own bodies.
If this be admitted, the degradation of the ferpent would
convince them of the weaknefs of the tempter when com¬
pared with their Creator; and confirm their hopes, that
fince he was not able to preferve unhurt his own inftru-
ment of mifchief, he Ihould not be able finally to prevail
again it them ; but that though he had bruifed their
heels, the promiled feed of the woman (hould. at laft
bruife his head, and recover the inheritance which they
had loll. See Prophecy, N° 9, io.
Having thus punilhed the original inftigator to evil,
the Almighty Judge turned to the fallen pair, and faid
to the woman, “ I will greatly multiply thy forrow and
thy conception : in forrow (halt thou bring forth chil¬
dren •, and thy defire lhall be to thy hulband, and he
(hall rule over thee. And unto Adam he faid, Becaule
thou halt hearkened unto the voice of thy wife, and haft
eaten of the tree of which I commanded thee, laying,
Thou (halt not eat of it 5 curfed is the ground for thy
fake; in forrow (halt thou eat of it all the days of thy
life. Thorns alfo and thiftles (hall it bring forth unto
thee, and thou lhall cat the herb of the_ field. In the
fweat of thy face (halt thou eat bread till thou return
unto the ground $ for out of it waft thou taken. for
dull thou art, and unto dull (halt thou return.
Here is a terrible denunciation of toil and miiery and
death upon two creatures ; who, being inured to no¬
thing, and formed for nothing but happinefs, muft have
felt infinitely more horror from fuch a lenience, than
we, who are familiar with death, intimate with mifery,
and “ born to forrow as the fparks fly upward,” can
form any adequate conception of. Bhe haidthip of it,
too, feems to be aggravated by its being feverer than
what was originally threatened againft the breach of
the covenant of life. It was indeed faid, ‘‘ In the day
thou eateft thereof, thou (halt furely Tie but no men¬
tion v/as made of the woman’s incurring forrow in con¬
ception, and in the bringing forth of children ; of the
curfe to be infli&ed on the ground •, of its bringing forth
thorns and thiftles inftead of food for the ufe of man •,
and of Adam’s eating bread in forrow and the fweat of
his face till he fliould return to the dull from which he
f was taken.
/Jobfcure Thefe feeming aggravations, however, are in reality
intimation inftances of divine benevolence. Adam and Eve were
given them now lubj lifted to death ^ but in the fentence palled on
11 ferpent, an obfcure intimation had been given them
that they were not to remain for ever under its power.
It was therefore their intereft, as well as their duty, to
reconcile themfelves as much as poflible to their fate j
to wean their affections from this world, in which they
were to live only for a time ; and to hope, with hum¬
ble confidence, in the promife of their God, that, upon
their departure from it, they Ihould be received into
Vol XX. Part I.
of deliver¬
ance from
it.
LOGY. 353
fome better ftate. To enable them to wean their af- ^allof A-
feCtions from earth, nothing could more contribute than
to combine fenfual enjoyment with forrow, and lay them quences.
under the necefliiy of procuring their means of fubfiffence 1   »
by labour, hard and often fruitlefs. This would daily
and hourly imprtfs upon their minds a full conviftion
that the prefent world is not a place fit to be an ever-
lafting habitation ; and they would look forward, with
pious refignation, to death, as putting a peiiod to all
their woes. Had they indeed been furnilhed with no
ground of hope beyond the grave, we cannot believe
that the Righteous Judge of all the earth would have
added to the penally originally threatened. That pe¬
nalty they would doubtlefs have incurred the very day
on which they fell j but as they were pronufed a delive¬
rance from the confequences of their fall, it was proper
to train them up by fevere dil’cipline for the happinefs re-
ferved for them in a future ftate.
After the palling of their fentence, the man and wo¬
man were turned out into the world, where they hid
formerly lived before they were placed in the garden
of Eden j and all future accefs to the gaiden was for
ever denied them. They were not, however, in the
fame ftate in which they were originally before their
introduaion into Paradife : They were now confcious of
guilt; doomed to fevere labour •, liable to forrow and
ficknefs, difeafe and death : and all thefe miferies they
had brought, not only on themfelves, but alfo on
their unborn pofterity to the end of time. It may feem
indeed to militate againft the moral attributes oi God,
to inflia mifery on children for the fins of their parents 5
but before any thing can be pronounced concerning the
Divine goodnefs and juftice in the nrefent cafe, we muft
know precifely how much we fuffer in conlequence of
Adam’s tranfgreflion, and whether we have ourfelves any
{hare in that guilt which is the caufe of our fufferings.
That women would have had lefs forrow in the bring- Doubtfui
ing forth of children *, that we ftiould have been fub-whether
iefled to lefs toil and exempted from death, had our men would
"firft parents not fallen from their paradifaical ftate—are have^been
truths incontrovertible by him who believes the infpira- from pain
tion of the Holy Scriptures j but that mankind would under the
in that ftate have been wholly free from pain and every firft cove-
bodily diftrefs, is a propofition which is not to be found nanb
in the Bible, and which therefore no man is bound to
believe. The bodies of Adam and Eve confided of
fiefli, blood, and bones, as ours do; they were fur-
rounded by material obje&s as we are ; and their limbs
were unqueftionably capable of being fra£tured; That
their fouls fliould never be feparated from their bodies
while they abftained from the forbidden fruit, they
knew from the infallible promife of him who formed
them, and breathed into their noftrils the breath of life;
but that not a bone of themfelves or of their numerous
pofterity fliould ever be broken by the fall of a ftone or
of a tree, they were not told, and had no reafon to ex-
pe£t. Of fuch fractures, pain would furely have been
the confequence ; though we have reafon to believe that
it would have been quickly removed by fome infallible
remedy, probably by the fruit of the tree of life.
Perhaps it may be faid, that if we fuppofe our firft
parents or their children to have been liable to accidents
of this kind in the garden of Eden, it will be difficult to
conceive how they could have been prefervcd from death,
Y y as
354 T H E O
Him°nnV ^ ^ ^one liave ialicn on tlieir heads as well as on
its confe- feet» and have at once deftroyed the principle of
cjuences. v.da 1^" ^his can be laid only by him who knows
    little of the phyiical world, and itill lefs of the power
ol God. There are many animals which are iulceptible
of pam, and yet not eafily killed j and man in paradife
might have refembled thefe. At any rate, we are hire
that toe Omnipotent Creator could and would have pre-
iei\^d him from death j but we have no realon to be¬
lieve that, by a conftant miracle, he would have pre-
ferved him from every kind of pain. Indeed, if, under
tne hilt co/enant, mankind were in a hate of probation,
it is certainly conceivaole that fame one individual of
the numerous race might have fallen into fin, without
a dually breaking the covenant by eating the fruit of
die tiee of Knowledge} and fucli a finner would un¬
doubtedly have been punifhed by that God who is of
pmer eves than to behold iniquity: but how punifhment
could have been indicted on a being exempted from all
poffibility of pain as well as of death, we confefs our-
feives unable to imagine. Remorfe, which is the infe-
parable confequence of guilt, and conftitutes in our pre-
fent date great part of its punidiment, flows from the
fearful looking for of judgment, which the dinner knows
ihall, in a future ftate, devour the adverfaries of the
gofpel of Chnft ; but he, who could neither fuffer pain
1101 death, had no caufe to be afraid of future judge-
inent, and was therefore not liable to the tortures of re-
morie. We conclude, therefore, that it is a miflake
to fuppofe pain to have been introduced into the world
by the fall of our firfl parents, or at leaft that the opi-
iiion contrary to ours has no foundation in the word of
God.
they would however, was certainly introduced by their
from death, fad j for the infpired apoftle affures us, that in Adam all
die* ; and again, that through the offence of ONE many
ere dead-\.' But concerning the full import of the word
aealh in this place, and in the fentence pronounced up¬
on our firfl parents, divines hold opinions extremely dif¬
ferent. Many contend, that it includes death corporal,
fpiruual or jnoral, and eternal; and that all mankind
are fubjefted-to thefe three kinds of death, on account
of their (hare m the guilt of the original tranfgreflion,
which is ufually denominated original fin, and confider-
ed as the fource of all moral evil.
1 hat all men are fubjeifed to death corporal in con¬
fequence of Adam’s tranfgreflion, is univerfaliy admit¬
ted ; but that they are in any fenfe partakers of his
guilt, and on that account fubjetfed to death fpiritual
and eternal, has been very ftrenuoufly denied. To dif-
cover the truth is of great importance ; for it is inti¬
mately conneded with the Chriftian do&rine of redemo-
tion. We {hall therefore flate, with as much impartiL
hty as we can, the arguments commonly urged on each
^ fide of this much agitated queftion.
fririnilfif Th°ne m,ai?taIn t}ia> ^ men finned in Adam,
J Jed. ' 8enerally ftate the,r dodrine thus : “ The covenant be¬
ing made with Adam as a public perfon, not for himfelf
only but for his pofterity, all mankind defeending from
rum by ordinary generation finned in him and fell with
him in i nat firfl tranfgreflion ; whereby they are depriv¬
ed of that original righteoufhefs in which he was crea¬
ted, and are utterly indifpofed, difabled, and made op-
polite to all that is fpiritually good, and wholly inclined
to ail evil, and that continually j which is commonly
loS
though
* Cor.
XV. 22.
f Rom.
y,
xcp
L O G Y. PartIr,
called originalfm, and from which do proceed all ac- Fall of A-
tual tranfgreflions, fo as we are by nature children of ^arn- aild
wrath, bond-flaves to Satan, andjuftly liable to all pu-
nifliments in this world and in that which is to come,
even to eveilading feparation from the comfortable pre-
lence of God, and to molt grievous torments in foul and
body, without intermiflion, nr hell fire for ever.”
1 uat v/hich in this paflage we are firfl to examine, is
the fenfence winch affirms all mankind deicending from
Adam by ordinary generation to have fnned in him and
fallen with him in his firft tranfgreflion ; the truth of
which is attempted to be proved by various texts of Ho¬
ly Scripture. Ihus St Paul fays exprefsly, that “ by
one man fin entered into the world, and death by fin ;
and fo death pafled upon all men, for that all have fin- rro
*6d. But not a$ the offence, fo allb is the free gift. Arguments
lor if, through the offence of one, mam/ be dead; muchf01 it-
more the grace of God, and the gift by grace, which is
by one man, jefus Chrift, hath abounded unto many ;
and not as it was by one that finned, fo is the gift (for
the judgment was by one unto condemnation) ; but the
free gilt is of many offences unto juftification. For if,
by one man’s offence, death reigned by one \ much more
they, who receive the abundance of grace and of the
gift of righteoufnefs, flrall reign in life by one, Jefus
Chrift. Therefore as, by the offence of one, judgment
came upon all men to condemnation ; even fo, by the
righteoufnefs of One, the free gift came upon all men
unto juftification of life. For as by one man’s difobe-
dience many were made finners; fo by the obedience of
one {hall many be made righteous In this paffage
the apoftle affures us, that all upon whom death hath*Rom,v*
paffed b'Avt jinned; but death hath paffed upon infants,12’
who could not commit adlual fin. Infants therefore
muft have finned in Adam, fince death hath paffed up¬
on them ; for death “ is the wages only of fin.” He
tells us likewife, that by the offence of one, judgment
came upon all men to condemnation j and therefore,
fince the Righteous Judge of heaven and earth never
condemns the innocent with the wicked, we muft con¬
clude, that all men partake of the guilt of that offence
for which judgment came upon them to condemnation.
Thefe conclufions are confirmed by his faying exprefsly,
that “ by one man’s difobedience many (/. e. all man¬
kind) were madefnners ;”and elfewhere f, that “ there fRom. ;;;
is none righteous, no not one and that his Ephefian io. and
converts “ were dead in trefpaffes and fins, and were by EPh-
nature children oi wrath even as others:' The fameand 3’
doftrine, it is faid, we are taught by the infpired writers
of the Old Teftament. Thus Job, expoftulating with
God for bringing into judgment with him fuch a crea¬
ture as man, fays, “ Who can bring a clean thing out
of an unclean ? Not one.” And Eliphaz, reproving
the patient patriarch for what he deemed prefumption,
alks J, “ What is man that he fliould be clean, or he + job xiy
who is born of a woman that he ftiould be righteous and^xv.
From thefe two paffages it is plain, that Job and his M-
unfeeling friend, though they agreed in little elfe, ad¬
mitted as a truth unqueftionable, that man inherits from
his parents a finful nature, and that it is impoffible for
any thing born of a woman by ordinary generation to
be righteous. The pfalmift;talks the very fame lan-
guage; when acknowledging his tranfgreflions, he
fays |j, “ Behold I was fliapen in iniquity, and in fin,, pr , ..
did my mother conceive me.” “lialai
Having
•20.
Part II. T H E O
Fall of A- Having thus proved the ia£l, that all men are made
<lam, and finners by Adam’s difobedience, the divines, who em¬
its confe- brace this fide of the queftion, proceed to inquire how
, q.uences- , they can be partakers in guilt which was incurred (b
1Ti many ages before they were born. It cannot be by imi-
Adam’s tation j for infants, according to them, are involved in
guilt impu- this guilt before they be capable of imitating any thing,
ted to his Neither do they admit that fin is by the apoftle put for
poftenty. ^ confequences Qf fan> and many laid to be made fin-
ners by one man’s difobedience, becaufe by that difobe-
dience they were fubje£ted to death, which is the wages
of fin. This, which they call the dodhine of the Ar-
minians, they affirm to be contrary to the whole fcope
and defign of the context j as it confounds together fin
and death, which are there reprefented, the one as the
caufe, and the other as the efTeft. It likewife exhibits
the apoftle reafonmg m fuch a manner as would, in their
opinion, difgrace any man of common fenfe, and much
more an infpired writer ; for then the fenfe of thefe
words, “ Death hath palled upon all men, for that all
have finned,” mull be, death hath palled upon all men,
becaufe it hath palled upon all men } or, all men are ob¬
noxious to death, becaufe they are obnoxious to it. Ihe
only way therefore, continue they, in which Adam’s po-
ilerity can be made finners through his difobedience, is
by the imputation of his difobedience to them ; and
his imputation is not to be confidered in a 77ioral fenfe,
as the action of a man committed by himfelf, whether
good or bad, is reckoned unto him as his own j but in a
forenfic fenfe, as when one man’s debts are in a legal
way placed to the account of another. Of this we have
an inftance in the apoftle Paul, who faid to Philemon
concerning Onefimus, “ If he hath wronged thee, or
oweth thee any thing (iWoyu), let it be imputed to
me,” or placed to and put on my account. And thus
the pofterity of Adam are made finners by his difobedi¬
ence •, that being imputed to them and put to their ac¬
count, as if it had been committed by them perfonally,
though it was not.
Some few divines of this fchool are indeed of opinion,
that the phrafe, “ By one man’s difobedience many were
made finners,” means nothing more than that the pofte¬
rity of Adam, through his fin, derive from him a cor¬
rupt nature. But though this be admitted as an un¬
doubted truth, the more zealous abettors of the fyftem
contend, that it is not the whole truth.. “ It is true
(Tay they) that all men are made of one man’s blood,
and that blood tainted with fin ; and fo a clean thing
cannot be brought out of an unclean. What is born of
the flefti is flelh, carnal and corrupt : every man is con¬
ceived in fin and lhapen in iniquity \ but there is a dif¬
ference between being mode finners and becoming finful.
The one refpe&s the guilt, the other the pollution of na¬
ture *, the one is previous to the other, and the founda¬
tion of it. Men receive a corrupt nature from their im¬
mediate parents; but they are made finners, not by any
a£t of their difobedience, but only by the imputation of
the fin of Adam.”
To illuftrate this do&rine of imputed fin, they obferve,
that the word ufed by the apoftle, fignifies
confituted in a judicial way, ordered and appointed in
the difpenfation of things that fo it ftrould be ; juft as
Chrift was made fin or a finner by imputation, or by
that conftitution of God which laid upon him the fins
of all his people, and dealt with him as if he had been
LOGY.
355
the guilty perfon. That this isthe fenfe of the paffage, FaUo^A
dam, and
its confe-
quences.
they argue further from the punifhment infi&ed on men
for’the fin of Adam. The punhhment threatened to that
fin wras death ; which includes death corporal, moral,
and eternal. Corporal death, fay they, is aHowed by ^
all to be fufl'ered on account of the fin of Adam ; and it 0f jm..
fo, there muft be guilt, and that guilt made over to t-uepUled guilt,
fufferer, which can be done only by imputation. A mo¬
ral death is no other than the lofs of the image ot God
in man, wdrich confifted in righteoufnefs and holinels j
and particularly it is the lofs of original righteoufnefs,
to which lucceeded unrighteoufnefs and unholinefs. It
is both a fin and a punifnment for fin j and fince it
comes on all men as a punilhment, it muft fuppoie pre¬
ceding fin, which can be nothing but Adam’s clifobedi-
ence j the guilt of which is made over to his pofterity
by imputation. This appears ftill more evident from the
pofterity of Adam being made liable to eternal death in
confequence of his tranfgreflion ; for the wages of fin is
death, even death eternal, which never can be infliAed
on guiltlefs perfons. But from the paflage before us we
learn, that “ by the offence of one judgement came up¬
on all men to condemnation j” and therefore the guilt
of that offence muft be reckoned to all men, or they
could not be juftly condemned for it. That Adam’s fin
is imputed to his pofterity, appears not omy from the
words, “ by one man’s difobedience many were made
finners j” but likewife from the oppofite claufe, “ fo by
the obedience of One lhall many be made righte¬
ous for the many ordained to eternal life, for whom
Chrift died, are made righteous, orjuftified, only through
the imputation of his righteoufnefs to them j and there¬
fore it follows, that all men are made finners only through
the imputation of Adam’s difobedience.
To this do&rine it is faid to be no ohjeaicn that
Adam’s pofterity were not in being when his fin was
committed j for though they had not then aftual being,
they had yet a virtual and reprefentative one. They
were in him both feminally and federally, and finned in
him * ; juft as Levi was in the loins of Abraham, and * Rom. y.]
paid in him tithes to Melchizedeckf. From Adam they I2<
derive a corrupt nature *, but it is only from him, as their t Hob. vu.
federal head, that they derive a {hare of his guilt, and 9’ IC•
are fubjedted to his punilhment. That he was a federal II3
head to all his poftenty, the divines of this fchool think Adam afe-
evident from his being called a figure of Chrift % ; and
the firft Adam defcribed as natural and earthly, in con- ? 1S1'0 e
tradiftinaion to Chrift the fecond Adam defcribed as j Rom< v.
fpiritual and the Lord from heaven ; and from the pu-14.
nifhment threatened againft his fin being inflided not on
himfclf only, but on all his fucceeding offspring. He
could not be a figure of Chrift, fay they, merely as a
man j for all the Tons of Adam have been men as well
as he, and in that fenfe were as much figures of Chrift;
as he j yet Adam and Chrift are conftantly contrafted,
as though they had been the only two men that ever
exifted, becaufe they w'ere the only two heads of their
refpeaive offspring. He could not be a figure of Chrift
on account of his extraordinary produdion ; for though
both were produced in ways uncommon, yet each was
brought into the wwld in a way peculiar to himfelf.
The firft Adam was formed ol the dull of the ground j
the fecond, though not begotten by a man, was born of
a woman. They did not therefore refembie each other
in the manner of their formation, but in their office as
Y y 2 covenant-
356
Fall of A-
dam, and
its confe-
quences.
114
No caufe
Of CO'U-
plaint in
this confti-
tution of
thiags.
* See CiWs
Body of Di-
'L’iiiity.
XI5
St Auguf-
tine the au¬
thor of this
doctrine.
116
Cbjedlions
to it,
T H E O
covenant-heads} and in that alone the companion be¬
tween them is exaft.
Nor have any of the pofterity of Adam, it is faid, rea-
j fon to complain of fuch a procedure. Had he hood in
his integrity, they would have been, by his Handing,
partakers of all his happinefs 5 and therefore Ihould not
murmur at receiving evil through his fall. If this do
not fatisfy, let it be confidered, that lince God, in his
infinite wifdom, thought proper that men Ihould have a
head and reprefentative, in whofe hands their good and
happinefs (hould be placed, none could be fo fit for this
high Hation as the common parent, made after the im¬
age of God, fo wife, fo holy, juft, and good. Laftly,
to filence all obje&ions, let it be remembered, that
what God gave to Adam as a federal head, relating to
himfelf and his pofterity, he gave as the Sovereign of
the univerfe, to whom no created being has right to alk,
“ What dull thou * ?”
Such aie the confequences of Adam’s fall, and fuch
the do£trine of original fin, as maintained by the more
rigid followers o^ Calvin. That great reformer, how¬
ever, was not the author of this do&rine. It had been
taught, fo early as in the beginning of the fifth century,
by St Anguftine, the celebrated bilhop of Hippo (ice
Augustine) j and the authority of that father had
made it more or lefs prevalent in both the Greek and
Roman churches long before the Reformation. Calvin
was indeed the moft eminent modern divine by whom it
has been held in all its rigour ; and it conftitutes one
great part of that theological fyftem which, from be¬
ing taught by him, is now known by the name of Ca/-
vinifm.
But if it was as fovereign of the univerfe that God
gave to Adam what he received in paradife relating to
himfelf and his pofterity, Adam could in no fenfe of the
words be a federal head 5 becaufe, upon this fuppofition,
there was no covenant. The Sovereign of the univerfe
may unqueftionably difpenfe his benefits, or withhold
them, as feems expedient to his infinite wifdom 5 and
none of his fubjefts or creatures can have a. right to fay
to him, What doft thou ? But the difpenfing or with¬
holding of benefits is a tranfaftion ve y different from
the entering into covenants 5 and a judgement is to be
formed of it on very different principles. Every thing
around us proclaims that the Sovereign of the univerfe
is a being of perfeft benevolence ; but, fay the difciples
of the fchool now under confideration, the difpenfation
given to Adam in paradife was fo far from being the off-
fpring of benevolence, that, as it is underftood by the
rollowers of Calvin, it cannot poffibly be reconciled with
the eternal laws of equity. The felf-exiftent and all-
fufficient God might or might not have created fuch a
being as man 5 and in either cafe there would have been
no reafon for the queftion “ What doft thou ?” But as
boon as he determined to create him capable of happi¬
nefs or mifery, he would not have been either benevolent
or juft, if he had not placed him a ftate where, by his
own exertions, he might, if be chofe, have a greater
fhaie of happinefs than of miferv, and find his exiftence,
upon the whole, a bWing. They readily acknowledge,
that the exiftence of any created being may be of longer
or fhorter duration, according to the good pleafure of
the Creator ; and therefore they have no objection to
the apoftolic do£!rine, that “ in Adam all die for im¬
mortality being not a debt, but a free gift, may be be-
LOGY. Part II.
flowed on any terms, and with perfeft juftice withdrawn Fall of A-
when thefe terms are not complied with. Between dam> and
death, however, as it implies a lofs of confcioufnefs, and
the extreme mifery of eternal life in torments, there is
an immenfe difference. To death all mankind might
juftly be fubje&ed through the offence of one j becaufe
they had originally no claim to be exempted from it,
though that one and they too had remained for ever in¬
nocent : but eternal life in torments is a punifhment 117
which a God ol juftice and benevolence can never in- as incon-
flift but upon perional guilt of the deepeft die. Thatllftent wit}l
we can perfonally have incurred guilt from a crime com- ^eJ"|llcc
mitted fame thoufands of years before we were born, is0' U< ’
impoflible. It is indeed a notion as contrary to Scrip¬
ture as to reafon and common fenfe : for the apoftle ex-
prefsly informs us*, “that fin is the tranfgreflion of* 1 John ill.
fome law j-’ and the fin of Adam was the tranfgreflion4-
of a law which it was never in our power either to ob-
ferve or to break. Another apoitle f affures us, that f R-om-iv-
“ where no law is, there is no tranfgreffion” 5 but there I5‘
is now no law, nor has been any ihefe 5000 years, for¬
bidding mankind to eat of a particular fruit 5 for, ac¬
cording to the Calyinifts themfelves+, Adam had no ^ G/Z/’j .Bc-
fooner committed his firft fin, by which the covenant'3')'
witn him was broken, than he ceafed to be a covenant- ’
head. This law given him was no more ; the promife ch‘ IO'
of life by it ceafed \ and its fandfion, death, took place.
But if this be fo, how is it poflible that his unborn po¬
llen! y ftiould be under a law which had no exiftence, or
that they fliould be in a wrorfe ftate in confequence of
the covenant being broken, and its promife having ceaf¬
ed, than he himfelf was before the covenant was firft:
made ? He was originally a mortal being, and was pro-
mifed the fiipernatuial gift of immortality on the Angle
condition of his abftaining from the fruit of the tree of
knowledge of good and evil. From that fruit he did
not abftain 5 but by eating it fell back into his natural 118
ftate of mortality, 'Ihus far it is admitted that his po-th6 fcrip-
fterity fell with him : for they have no claim to a fuper-ture' and
natural gift which he had forfeited by his tranfgreflion.
But we cannot admit, fay the divines of this fchool, that01 1,mgS‘
they fell into his guilt; for to render it poflible for a man
to incur guilt by the tranfgreflion of a law, it is necef-
fary not only that he have it in his power to keep the law,
but alfo that he be capable of tranfgrefling it by a vo¬
luntary deed. . But furely no man could be capable of
voluntarily eating the forbidden fruit jooo years before
he himfelf or his volitions exifted. fi he followers of
Calvin think it a fufficient objediion to the dodlrine of
tranfubftantiation, that the fame numerical body cannot
be in different places at the fame inftant of time. But
this ubiquity of body, fay the remonftrants, is not more
palpably abfuia, than the fuppofition that a man could
exert volitions before he or his will had any exiftence. JT
Nor will the introduction of the word imputation into The word
this important queftion remove a Angle difficulty. Fo^mputa-
what is that we mean by faying that the fin of Adam T10N re*
is imputed to his pofterity? Is the guilt of that fin^V-9
transferred from him to them ? So furely thought j)1/nttltuIUe9c
Gill, when he faid that it is made over to them. But
this is the fame abfurdity as the making over of the fen-
fible qualities of bread and wine to the internal fub-
ftance of our Saviour’s body and blood ! This imputa¬
tion either found the pofterity of Adam guilty of his
fin, or it made them fo.
It could not find them guilty
fo?
dam, and
its coni'e-
quences.
i JO
in Scrip
Uue.
Part II. T H E O
Fall of A- for the reafon already afligned ; as well as becaufe the
apoftle fays exprefsly, that for the oftence of judge¬
ment came upon rt//men, which would not be true had
a//offended. It could not make them guilty ; for this
reafon, that if there be in phyfics or metaphylics a fingle
truth felf-evident, it is, that the numerical powers, ac¬
tions, or qualities, of one being cannot poffibly be trans¬
ferred to another, and be made its powers, actions, or
qualities. Different beings may in diftant ages have
qualities of the fame kind j but as eafily may 4 and 3
be made equal to 9, as two beings be made to have the
fame identical quality. In Scripture we nowhere read
of the aftions of one man being imputed to another.
“ Abraham (we are told) believed in God, and it tvas
counted to him for righteoufnefs }” but it was his own
faith, and not the faith of another man, that was fo
counted. ‘‘ To him that worketh not, but believeth,
his faith (not another’s) is imputed for righteoufnefs.”
And of our faith m him that raifefl Chrift from the
dead, it is faid, that “ it lhall be imputed, not to our
fathers or our children, but to us for righteoufnefs.”
iw of W*ien thi® is with a negative, not only is
th;u word the man’s own perfonal fin fpoken ot, but the non-im¬
putation of that fin means nothing more but that it
brings not upon the finner condign punithment. I bus
when Shemei “ faid unto David, Let not my lord im¬
pute iniquity unto me it could not be his meaning
that the king (hould not think that he had offended 5
for with the fame breath he added, “ Neither do thou
remember that which thy fervant didperverfely, the day
that my lord the king went of Jerufalem, that the king
fhould take it to his heart. For thy fervant doth know
that I have finned?'' Here he plainly confeffes his fin,
and declares, that by intreating the king not to impute
it to him, he wiihed only that it ihould not be fo remem¬
bered as that the king ihould take it to heart, and pu-
niih him as his perverfenefs deferved. When therefore
it is faid *, that “ God was in Chrilt reconciling the
world to himfelf, not imputing to them their iniquities,
the meaning is only that for Chriti’s fake he was pleafed
to exempt them from the punifhment due to their fins.
In like manner, when the prophet, foretelling the fuf-
ferings of the Meffiah, fays, that “ the Lord laid on
him the iniquity of us all,” his meaning cannot be, that
the Lord by imputation made his immaculate Son guilty
of all the fins that men have ever committed ; for in that
cafe it would not be true that the “ juft fuffered for the
11 Peteriii. unjuft,” as the apoftle exprefsly teaches f : but the fenfe
18. of the verfe muft be, as Biftiop Coverdale tranflated it,
“ through him the Lord pardoneth all our fins.” This
interpretation is countenanced by the ancient verfion of
the Seventy, Kvgiog Trctgidaxiv xvlon rxif xp.x^hxi?
j words which exprefs a notion very different from
that of imputed guilt. The Meffiah was, without a
breach of juftice, delivered for fins of which he had vo¬
luntarily offered to pay the penalty ; and St Paul might
have been juftly charged by Philemon with the debts of
Onefimus, which he had defired, might be placed to his
account. Had the apoftle, however, exnreffed no fuch
defire, furely Philemon could by no deed of his have
made him liable for debts contracted by another ; far
lefs could he by imputation, whatever that word may
mean, have made him virtually concur in the contracting
of thofe debts. He could not have been juftly fubjeted
to fuffering without his own confent j- and he could not
* 2 Cor. v.
LOGY. 3^7
poffibly have been made guilty of the fins of thofe for Fall of
whom he fuffered. "ts^onfe^
The dotrine of imputed guilt therefore, as underftood querces'
by the Calvinifts, is, in the opinion ol their opponents, 1 t 1
without foundation in Scripture, and contrary to the na¬
ture of things. It is an impious ablurdity (fay they), to
which the mind can never be reconciled by the hypo-
thefis, that all men were in Adam both feminally and
federally, and finned in him, as Levi paid tithes to
Melchizedeck in the loins of Abraham. The apoftle,
when he employs that argument to leffen in the minds-
of his countrymen the pride of birth and the lofty opi¬
nions entertained of their priefthood, plainly intimates,
that he was ufing a bold figure, and that Levi’s paying
tithes is not to be underftood in a ftrieft and literal fenfe.
“ Now confider (fays he) how great this man was, unto
whom even the patriarch Abraham gave the tenth of
the fpoils. And, as I may fo fay, Levi alfo, who re¬
ceived! tithes, paid tithes in Aoraham : for he was yet
in the loins of his father when Melchizedeck met him.”'
This is a very good argument to prove that the Leviti-
cal priefthood was inferior in dignity to that of Melchi¬
zedeck ; and by the apoftle it is employed for no other
purpofe. Levi could not be greater than Abraham,
and yet Abraham was inferior to Melchizedeck. This I2I
is the whole of St Paul’s reafoning, which lends no fup- Moral guilt
port to the doeftrine of original fin, unlefs it can becanBot.^e'
ftiown that Levi and all his defeendants contradled from
this circumttance fuch a ftrong propenfity to the payings fon<
of tithes, as made it a matter of extreme difficulty for
them, in every fubfequent generation, to comply with
that part of the divine law which conftituted them re¬
ceivers of tithes. That all men were feminally in A-
dam, is granted; and it is likewife granted that they
may have derived from him, by ordinary generation,
difeafed and enfeebled bodies : but it is as impoflible to
believe that moral guilt can be tranfmitted from father
to fon by the phyfical aft of generation, as to conceive-
a fcarlet colour to be a cube of marble, or the found of
a trumpet a cannon ball. That Adam was as fit a per-
fon as any other to be entrufted with the good and bap-
pinefs of his pofterity, may be true j but there is no fit-
nefs whatever, according to the Arminians, in making
the everlafting happinefs or mifery of a whole race de-,^^ .^
pend upon the conduftof any fallible individual. “ That of Qri,.nU!l
any man ftiould fo reprefent me (fays Dr Taylor *), sin, partiii.
that when he is guilty, I am to be reputed guilty j
when he tranfgreffes, I (hall be accountable and puniih-
able for his tranfgreffion ; and this before I am born,
and confequently before I am in any capacity of know¬
ing, helping, or hindering, what he doth : all this every
one who ufeth his underftanding muft clearly fee to be
falfe, unreafonable, and altogether inconfillent with the
truth and goodnefs of God.” And that no fuch appoint¬
ment ever had place, he endeavours to prove, by (bow¬
ing that the texts of Scripture upon which is built the
doftrine of the Calvinifts refpefting original fin, will
each admit of a very different interpretation. Ia3
One of the ftrongeft of thefe texts is Romans v. 19. The ieveral
which we have already quoted, and which our author tfcXfs on
thus explains. He obferves, that the apoftle was a Jew,
familiarly acquainted with the Hebrew tongue j that hebuiitcapa-
wrote his epiftle as well for the ufe of his own country-ble of a dif-
men refiding in Rome, as for the benefit of the Gentile^erent ^n-
converts} and that though he made ufe of the Greek
language,
35^
T H E O
fall of A- language, as moft generally underftood, he frequently
tlam, and cmpl0yec} Hebrew idioms. Now it is certain that the
quences. Hebre-W words nKtsn and TP “ fin and iniquity,” are
frequently ufed in the Old Tell ament to fignify fuffer-
ing, by a figure of fpeech which puts the efftcl for the
caufe } and it is furely more probable, that in the verfe
under confideration, the apoftle ufed the correfponding
Greek word in the Hebrew fenle, than that
he meant to contrajfift what he had faid in the former
verfe, by teaching that all men were made guilty of an
aft of difobedience committed thoufands of years before
the majority of them had any being. In the preceding
verfe he fays, “ that by the offence of one, judgement
came upon all men to condemnation.” But this cannot
be true, if by that offence all men were made finners j
for then judgement muff have come upon each for his
own lhare in the original difobedience. “ Any one
may fee (fays our author) that there is a vaft difference
between a man’s making himfelf a finner by his own
wicked aft, and his being made a finner by the wicked
aft of another. In the latter cafe, he can be a finner
m no other fenfe but as he is a fufferer 5 juft as Lot would
have been made a finner with the Sodomites, had he
^ Gen. six. been confirmed in the iniquity of the city * ; and as the
15. fubjefts of Abimelech would have been made finners,
had he, in the integrity of his heart, committed adultery
f Gen. xx. with Abraham’s wife f. That the people of Gerar
could have contrafted any real guilt from the adultery
of their fovereign, or that he, by lying with a woman
whom he had reafon to believe to be not the wife but
the fifter of another man, would have incurred all the
moral turpitude of that crime, are pofitions which can¬
not be maintained. Yet he fays, that Abraham had
brought upon him and on his kingdom a great Jin ;
though it appears, from comparing the 6th verfe with
the 17th and 18th, that he had not been brought under
fin in any other fenfe than as he was made to fuffer for
taking Sarah into his houfe. In this fenfe, “ Chrift,
though we are fure that he knew no fin, was made fin
for us, and numbered with the tranfgreffors,” becaufe he
fuffered death for us on the crofs ; and in this fenfe it
is true, that by the difobedience of Adam all mankind
were made finners, becaufe, in confequence of his offence,
they were by the judgement of God made fubjeft to
death.
But it may be thought that this interpretation of the
words Jin and Jinners, though it might perhaps be ad¬
mitted in the 19th verfe, cannot be fuppofed to give the
apoftle’s real meaning, as it would make him employ in
the 12th verfe an abfurd argument, which has been al¬
ready noticed. But it may perhaps be poffible to get
quit of the abfurdity, by examining the original text in-
ftead of our tranllation. The words are, dvlwj Trctflxs
0 Bxfxjei tip a Ttxvks iipx/lov. In order
to alcertain the real fenfe of thefe words, the firft thing
to be done is to difeover the antecedent to the relative
LOGY. Part II.
<a. Our tranfiators feem to confider It as ufed abfolute- Fall of A-
ly without any antecedent j but this is inaccurate, as it ^am>' and
may be queftioned whether the relative w’as ever ufed in ltb conlc'
any language without an antecedent either expreffed on c^'tIKC ’
underftood. Accordingly, the Calvinift critics, and
even many R.emonftrants, confider ivo{ in the
beginning of the verfe as the antecedent to « in the end
of it, and tranfiate the claufe under confideration thus :
“ And fo death hath paffed upon all men, in whom
(viz. Adam) all have finned.” G)xtctla$, however, ftands
much nearer to than avS^uTrov 5 and being of the lame
gender, ought, we think, to be confidered as its real an¬
tecedent : but if fo, the claufe under confideration
Ihculd be thus tranflated : “ and fo death hath paffed
upon all men, unto which (o) all have finned, or, as
the Arminians explain it, have fuffered. If this criti-
cifm be admitted as juft, ip a muft be confidered as
Handing here under a particular emphafis, denoting the
utmoft length of the confequences of Adam’s fin (p) j
as if the apoftle had faid, “ fo far have the confequences
of Adam’s fin extended, and fpread their inffuence
among mankind, introducing not only a carle upon the
earth, and forrow and toil upon its inhabitants, but even
DEATH, UNIVERSAL DEATH, in every part, and in all
ages of the world.” His words (fay the Remonftrants)
will unqueftionably bear this fenfe j and it is furely
much more probable that it is their true fenfe, than that
an infpired writer fiiould have taught a doftrine fubver-
five of all our notions of right and wrong, and which,
if really embraced, muft make us incapable of judging
when we are innocent and w'hen guilty.
When the apoftle fays that there is none righteous,
no not one, he gives us plainly to underftand that he is
quoting from the 14th Pfalmj and thequeftion firft to be
anfwered is, In what fenfe were thefe words ufed by the
Pfalmift ? That they were not meant to include all the
men and women then living, far lefs all that have ever
lived, is plain from the fifth verfe of the fame Pfalm,
where vre are told that thofe wicked perfons li wrere in
great fear, becaufe God was in the congregation of the
righteous.” There was then, it feems, a congregation of
righteous perfons, in oppofition to thofe called the chi/-
dren of men, of whom alone it is faid that there was
none that did good, no not one. The truth is, that the
perfons of whom David generally complains in the book
of Ptalms, conftituted a ftrong party difaffefted to his
perfon and government. That faftion he deferibes as
proud and oppreflive, as deviling mifehief againft him,
as violent men continually getting together for war.
He ftyles them his enemies ; and fometimes charafterizes
them by the appellation which was given to the apoftate
defendants of Cain before the deluge. Thus in the
57th Pialm, which was compofed when he fled from
Saul to the cave in which he fpared that tyrant’s life,
he complains, “ I lie among them that are fet on fire,
even the sons of men, whofe teeth are fpears,” &c. ;
and
(o) That nn, when conftrued rvith a dative cafe, often fignifies to or unto, is known to every Greek fcholar.
Thus wr oSes, the way to fame, (Lucian.). KecKovgya? itti tu B-xvx]u, a criminal unto death, (Demofth.). Etu
trvAAceSeiv, to carry to death or execution, (Ifoc.). stt tXivk^tx sxAjj&jtj, ye have been called to liberty,
,{Gal v. 13.). K.t<6-$sv7ss ev Xgxo-rw itsi igyois uyxiui, created m Chrijl JeJus unto good xvorks, (Ephef. ii. 10.).
See alfo 1 fhef. iv. 7- j 2 Tim. ii. 14.; and many other places of the New Teftament.
(p) Ep' a has likewife this import, denoting the terminus ad quem in Phil. iff. 12. and iv. iq.
x
Part II. T H E O
Fall of A- and again, In the 58th Pfalm, he fays, “ Do ye indeed
dam, and fpeak righteoufnefs, O congregation ? Do ye judge
its come- uprightly', O ye Tons of men ?” Ey comparing thefe
« ^ -i>—, texts with 1 Sam. xxvi. 19. it will appear evident that
by the soxs OF MEN mentioned in them, he meant to
charafterize thofe enemies who exafperated Saul againlt
him. Now it is -well known, that there was a party ad¬
hering to the interefts of the houfe of Saul, which conti¬
nued its enmity to David during the 40 years of his
reign, and joined with Abfalom in rebellion againft him
only eight years before his death. But it is the opinion
^ Hammond, of the moll judicious commentators f, that the 14th
&-c' Pfalm was compofed during the rebellion of Abfalom ;
and therefore it is furely much more probable, that by
the children of men, of whom it is faid there is “ none
that doth good, no not one,” the infpired poet meant to
charaflerize the rebels, than that he fhould have direft-
ly contraditled himfelf in the compafs of two fentences
luce ceding each other. Had he indeed known that all
the children of men, as defeending from Adam, “ are
utterly indifpofed, difabled, and made oppofite to all
that is fpiritually good, and wholly and continually in¬
clined to all evil,” he could not, with the leall degree
of confxftency, have reprefented the Lord as looking
down from heaven upon them, to fee if there were any
that did underdand and feek after God }” but if by the
children of men was meant only the rebel faftion, this
fcenical reprefentation is perfedlly confident, as it was
natural to fuppofe that there might be in that faddion
lome men of good principles mided by the arts of the
rebel chiefs.
Having thus afeertained the fenfe of the words as ori¬
ginally u(ed by the Pfalmid, the Arminian proceeds to
inquire for what purpofe they were quoted by the a-
podle ; and in this inquiry he feems to find nothing dif¬
ficult. The averfion of the Jews from the admidion of
the Gentiles to the privileges of the gofpel, the high
opinion which they entertained of their own worth and
fuperiority to all other nations, and the drong perfua-
fion which they had that a drift obedience to their own
law was fufficient to judify them before God, are fafts
univerfally known ; but it was the purpofe of the apodle
to prove that all men dood in need of a Redeemer, that
Jews as well as Gentiles had been under the dominion
of fin, and that the one could not in that refpeft claim
any fuperiorily over the other. He begins his epidle,
therefore, with fhowing the extreme depravity of the
Heathen world \ and having made good that point, he
proceeds to prove, by quotations from the book of
Pfalms, Proverbs, and Ifaiah, that the Jews were in no¬
wife better than they, that every mouth might be dop-
ped, and all the world become guilty, or infufficient for
their own judification before God.
The next proof brought by the Calvinids in fupport
of their opinion, that all men derive guilt from Adam
by ordinary generation, is that text in which St Paul
fays that the Ephefians “ were by nature children of
wrath even as others.” To this their opponents reply,
that the doftfine of original fin is in this verfe, as in the
lad quoted, countenanced only by our tranflation, and
not by the original Greek as underdood by the ancient
fathers of the Chridian church, who were greater ma¬
tters of that language than we. The words are x«.i ipiv
Tir.vtt tpvrtt egy»jc ; in which it is obvious, that nxyet,
though, in its original fenfe it fignifies the genuine chil-
L O G Y; 359
dren of parents by natural generation, cannot be fo utv Fall of A-
derdood here ; becaufe no man was ever begotten by,
or born of, the abdraft notion wrath. It mud there- qaences'
fore be ufed figuratively ; and in other places of ferip- 1^
ture it often denotes a clofe relation to any perion or
thing. Thus we read of the children of God, of the
kingdom, the refurreclion, wifdoni, light, obedience, and
peace ; whence it is concluded, that by the children of
wrath are meant thole who are liable to punifhment or
rejeftion. And becaufe there were in thofe days fome
children, in a lower and lefs proper ienfe, by adoption,
and others, in a higher and more proper fenfe, by natu¬
ral generation, of whom the relation of the latter to
their parents was much clofer than that of the former j
the apodie tells the Ephefians, that they were by na¬
ture children of wrath, to convince them that they were
really liable to it by the drifted and c*ofeft relation
pottible. That the word Qvvu here is of the fame im¬
port with really or truly, and that it does not fignify
what we mean by nature in the proper lenfe of that
word, the ancient fathers are generally agreed # 5 ax\&*SezHam*
that the modern Greeks, who dill fpeak a dialeft oim°nd and
the noble language of their ancettors, underdand the ^
word in the fame lenfe, is apparent from their verfion ofan4 Sui'das
the text before us. In the mod correft and elegant on the worA
edition of the New Tedament in their vernacular tongue,
the words under confideration are thus rendered xmi
tyva-ixu. v.u.xddxv ’vix.vct, o^y/n ucrcty xxi oi Xoitcm, where it is
impolfibie that Qvo-ixx can fignily natural, otherwife the
apodle will be made to fay, not that we are by na¬
ture derived from Adam liable to wrath, but that we
were naturally begotten by wrath in the abdraft ! For
taking the word in the ienfe of really or truly,
both the ancient and modern Greeks appear indeed to
have the authority of St Paul himfelf; who, writing to
Timothy, calls him yrasxav Tixyov, “ his true or genuine
fon ;” not to fignify that he was the child of the apodle
by natural generation, but that he was clofely related to
him in the faith to which St Paul had converted him.
That the words tix.'/a tpvni egy<3; can fignify nothing but
truly or really relations to wrath, is dill farther evident
from the ground adigned of that relation. It is not the
fin of Adam, or the impurity of natural generation,
“ but the trefpafles and fins in which the Ephefians in
time pad walked, according to the courfe of the world,
according to the prince of the power of the air,” the
the fpirit that at the time of the apodle’s writing “ work ¬
ed in the children of difobedience.” Surely no man
can fuppofe that the Ephefians at any pad time walked
in Adam’s trefpafs and fin, or that the prince of the
power of the air tempted them to eat the forbidden
fruit.
Having thus commented on the principal texts which
are cited from the New Tedameirt to prove the doftrine
of original fin, the Arminians treat thofe which are
quoted from the Old Tedament, in fupport of the fame
doftrine, with much lefs ceremony. Thus, when Job
fays, “ who can bring a clean thing out of an unclean ?
Not one,” he is fpeakihg, fay they, not of the pravily
of our nature, but of its frailty and weaknefs, of the
diortnefs and mifery of human life. The fen ten ce is
proverbial j and as it is ufed only to fignify, that nothing
can be more perfeft than its original, it mud, whenever
it occurs, be underdood according to the fubjeft to
which it is applied. That in the place under confidera¬
tion
g6o
Fail cf A-
dam, aud
its confe-
quences.
Scripture
Dottrine,
part ii.
T H E O L O G Y,
Part II.
f Ubi fu-
pra-
| See ins
Lexicon OR
the word
orv»
|l Gen, xxx.
3s. 39, 4°-
compared
with xxxi.
10.
ticm it refers to our mortality, lliey think plain from the
context; and Dr Taylor adds *, with fome plaufibility,
that if the words refer to the guilt which we are fup-
pofed to derive from Adam, they will prove too much
to ferve the common fcheme of original fin. They will
prove that our natural and inherent pravity, fo far from
rendering us fit fubjefts of wrath, may be urged as a
reafon why God Ihould not even bring us into judge¬
ment ; for the patriarch’s whole expoftulation runs thus,
“ Daft thou open thine eyes upon fuch a one, and
bringeft me into judgement with thee ? Who can bring
a clean thing out of an unclean ?”
The other text, quoted from the fame book, they
think ftill lefs to the purpofe } for Eliphaz is evidently
contrafting the creature with the Creator $ in compari-
fon with whom, he might well fay, without alluding to
original guilt, “ what is man that he Ihould be clean ?
and he who is born of a woman that he fhould be
righteous ? Behold he putteth no truft in his faints ;
yea the heauens are not clean in his fight. How much
more abominable and filthy is man, who drinketh ini¬
quity like rvater ?” He does not fay, who derives by
birth an iniquitous nature •, for he knew well, that as
we are born, we are the pure workmanflrip of God,
“ whofe hands have fafhioned and formed every one of
usj” but “ who drinketh iniquity like water,” who
maketh himfelf iniquitous by running headlong into
every vicious pradlice.
Of the text quoted from the fifty-firft pfalm in fup-
port of the doftrine of original fin, Dr Taylor labours f,
by a long and ingenious criticifm, to prove that our
tranflators have miftaken the fenfe. The word which
they have rendered he (hows to be ufed once by
Ifaiah, and twice in the book of Proverbs, to fignify
brought forth ; and that which is rendered conceived me,
is never, he fays, employed in fcripture to denote hu¬
man conception. In this laft remark, however, he is
contradifted by a great authority, no lefs indeed than
that of Mr Parkhurlt J, who fays, that the LXX con-
ftantly render it by x.io-o-ctu or tyx-Hrc-xu, and the Vulgate
generally by concipio. Without taking upon us to de¬
cide between thefe two eminent Hebrew fcholars, we
lhall only obferve, that upon one occafion || it certainly
denotes ideas much grofier than thofe which the Pfalmift
mull; have had of his mother’s conception 5 and that
there, at leaft, Dr Taylor properly tranfiate1* it, incalef-
cebant, adding, “ de hoc vero incalefcendi genere loqui
Davidem nemo fanus exiftimare poteff. Matrem enim
incaluiffe, aut ipfum calefeciffe eo modo quo incalefce-
rent Jacobi pecudes Ptegem dicere, prorfus indecorum et
abfurdum.” He contends, however, that the original
force of the word is to be hot, and that it is applied to
conception, to refentment, to warmth by which the body
is nourifiied, to idolaters in love with idols, and to the
heat of metals. The heat of idolaters, of refentment,
and of metals, are evidently foreign to the Pfalmift’s
purpofe ■, and the idea conveyed by the word incalefcere
being fet afide for the reafons already afligned, there re¬
mains only the warmth by which the body is nourifiied,
and of that warmth our author is confident that David
fpoke.
If this criticifm be admitted, the whole verfe will
then run thus: “ Behold I was born in iniquity, and in
fin did my mother nurfe me which hath no reference
to the original formation of his conftitution, but is a
periphrafis of his being a /inner from the'wofnb, and Fall of A-
means nothing more than that he was a great fnner, or ^'!lrn• anti
had contrafted early habits of fin. He no more de-
figned to fignify in this verfe, that by ordinary genera¬
tion he had a nature conveyed to him which was “ ut¬
terly indifpoled, difabled, and oppofite to all that is
fpiritually good, and wholly and continually inclined to
evil,” than he meant in another* to fignify ftriftly and jv;.j
properly that “ the wicked are eftranged from the 3.
womb, and tell lies as foon as they are born or
that Job meant to fignify f, that from the moment he j j0b xxx;v
came from his mother’s womb be had been a guide to iS.
the widow and a fuccour to the fatherlefs. All thefe
are hyperbolical forms of exprefiion 5 which, though
they appear ftrained, and perhaps extravagant, to the
phlegmatic inhabitants of Europe, are perfe&ly fuited
to the warm imaginations of the orientals, and to the
genius of eaftern languages. They mean not that Job
was born with habits of virtue, that the. wicked actually
walked, and fpeke, and fpoke lies from the inftant of
their birth, or that the Pialmiit was really Jhapen infn
and conceived in iniquity. This laft fentence, if inter¬
preted literally, would indeed be grofsly impious : it
would make the infpired penman throw the whole load
of his iniquity and fin from off himfelf upon him who
flraped, and upon her who conceived him •, even upon
that God “ whofe hands had made him and fafhioned
him, and whom he declares that he will praife for ha¬
ving made him fearfully and wonderfully,” and upon
that parent who conceived him with forrow, and brought
him forth with pain, and to whom the divine law com¬
manded him to render honour and gratitude. “ But if,
after all (fays Dr Taylor J), you will adhere to the li- } Scripture
teral fenfe of the text for the common doftrine of oru-Dofinne,
ginalfn, fhow me any good reafon why you ought notPart lu
to admit the literal fenfe of the text, this is my body,
for tranfub/antiation ? If you fay, it is abfurd to fup-
pofe that Chrifl fpeaks of his real natural body ; I fay,
it is likewife abfurd to fuppofe that the Pfalmill: fpeaks
of his being really and properly'firapen in iniquity, and
conceived^in fin. If you fay, that the fenfe of the
words this is my body may be clearly explained by other
texts of fcripture where the like forms of fpeech are
ufed ; I fay, and have fhown, that the Pfalmifi’s fenfe
may as clearly and evidently be made out by parallel
texts, where you have the like kind of exprefiion. If
you fay that tranfubftantiation is attended with confe-
quences hurtful to piety, I fay that the common doc¬
trine of original fin is attended with confequences e-
qually hurtful ; for it is a principle apparently leading
to all manner of iniquity to believe that fin is natural
to us, that it is interwoven and ingrafted into our very
conftitution from our conception and formation in the
womb.” 123
The Arminians having thus, as they think, proved Cont'equen-
that the pofterity of Adam are not in any fenfe render-ces °f eat>
ed guilty by his fin, contend, that the death threatened lor
again!! his eating of the forbidden fruit, and which, in fru;t) ac_
confequence of his tranfgreflion, came upon all men, cording to
can mean nothing more than the lofs of that vital prin-ft}6 Armi-
ciple which he received when God breathed into his no-111™5'
ftrils the breath of life, and he became a living foul.
Every thing beyond this is pure conjefture, which has
no foundation in the feriptures of truth, and is diredftly
contrary to all the notions of right and wrong which.
we
Part II. T H E O
Fall of A- we have been able to acquire from the ftudy of thofe
darn, and very fcrJptUres. It is not conceivable from any thing
its come- jn tjie that Adam could underhand it of the
, of any other life than that which he had lately re¬
ceived, for no other life is fpoken of to which the threat¬
ened death can be oppofed \ and in fuch circumftances
it was ftrange indeed, if by the word death he under-
ftood either eternal life in mifery, or a neceflity of con¬
tinuing in fin. The fenfe therefore of the threatening,
lay they, is this : “ I have formed thee of the dull of
the ground, and breathed into thy noftrils the breath of
life } and thus thou art become a living foul. But if
thou eateft of the fruit of the tree of knowledge of
good and evil, thou fhalt ceafe to be a living foul ;
for I will take from thee the breath of life, and thou
I24 fhalt return to the dull of which thou waft formed.”
Some of Thus far the Arminians of the prefent day are agreed
them admit Jn oppofing the do&tine of the tigid Calvinifts, and in
the depra- {^ajjng their 0wn notions of the confequences of A dam’s
min nature fal1 i but from that event their adverfaries deduce one
' confequence, which fome of them admit and others
deny. It is faid, that though we cannot poffibly be
partakers in Adam’s guilt, we yet derive from him a
moral taint and infedlion, by which we have a natural
propenfity to fin ; that having loft the image of God,
in which he was created, Adam begat fons in his own
, image 5 and in one word, that the fenfual appetites of
human nature were inflamed, and its moral and intellec¬
tual powers greatly weakened by the eating of the for¬
bidden fruit. The heathens themfelves acknowledged
and lamented this depravity •, though they were igno¬
rant of the fource from which it fprung. The feriptures
affert it, affirming that no man can be born pure and
clean ; that whatever is born of the flefli, or comes into
the world by ordinary generation, is flefli, carnal and
corrupt \ that the imagination of the thoughts of man’s
heart is only evil continually j that the heart is deceitful
above all things and defperately wicked j and that out
. ., of it proceeds all that is vile and finful *.
John hi.'<h' This depravity of human nature, thus clearly deduci-
Rom. iil. 5. ble from feripture, and confirmed by the teftimony. of
Jer. xvii. 9. ages, an ingenious writer of the moderate Arminian
Mat. xv. 19. undertakes to illuftrate upon the principles of n -
andmu- tural knowledge. “ We know (fays he f), that there
Itrate it'up- are feveral fruits in feveral parts of the world of fo noxi-
*>n princi- ous a nature as to deftroy the beft human conftitution on
pies of na- earth. We alfo know that there are fome fruits in the
!;u(jal know-world which inflame the blood into fevers and frenzies j
^Leiany'f ar‘d we are told that the Indians are acquainted with a
Revelation certain juice, which immediately turns the perfon who
e-xamined drinks it into an idiot, leaving him at the fame time in
Dif" t^e enjoyment of his health and all the powers of his
fm! I. and body. Now I alk Whether it be not poffible, nay
7. whether it be not rational, to believe, that the fame
fruit, which, in the prefent infirmity of nature, would
utterly deftroy the human conftitution, might, in its
higheft perfection, at leaft difturb, impair, and difeafe
it ? and whether the fame fruit, which would now in¬
flame any man living into a fever or frenzy, might not
inflame Adam into a turbulence and irregularity of paf-
fion and appetite ? and whether the fame fluids, which
inflame the blood into irregularity of paffion and appetite,
may not naturally produce infeCtion and impair the con¬
ftitution ? That the forbidden fruit had the effeCt to pro¬
duce irregularity of appetite, appears as from other proofs,
VOL. XX. Part I.
LOG Y. 361
fo I think fully and clearly from the covering which Adam of A-
and Eve made ufe of foon after their offence j for there
is no imaginable reafon for that covering but one, and qUences.
that one iufficiently demonftrates, that irregularity and u—y—i
violence of appetite, independentof thedominion of reafon,
was the effeCt of their offence. But the fruit which in¬
flamed the fenfual appetite might likewife debafe their ra¬
tional powers; for I alk, whether the fame juice, which
now affefts the brain of an ordinary man lo as to make
him an idiot, might not affeft the brain of Adam fo as
to bring his underftanding clown to the prefent ftandard
of ordinary men ? And if this be poffible, and not abluid
to be fuppofed, it is evident that the fubfequent igno¬
rance and corruption of human nature may be clearly
accounted for upon thefe fuppofitions; nay, I had al-
moft faid upon any one of them. For it is univerfally
known, that the infeftions and infirmities of the father
affeCt the children yet in his loins; and if the mother
be equally infefted, muft, unlefs removed by proper re¬
medies, afteCl their pofterity to the end of the world,
or at leaft till the race become extinft. Therefore
why all mankind might not by their firft father’s fin
be reduced to the fame condition of infirmity and cor¬
ruption with himfelf, efpecially when the mother was
equally infirm, and infefted, I believe no man anyway
fkilled in the knowledge of nature will fo much as pre¬
tend to fay.”
This account of the corruption of human nature feems
to be generally adopted by moderate divines, as well
among the Calvinifts as among the Arminians 5 but by
the high-fliers in both fchools it is rejedled, on different
principles indeed, with great indignation. The zea¬
lous Calvinift contends, that this hereditary corrup¬
tion is not to be accounted for or explained by any
principle of phyfical fcience, fince it is part of that puniih- *
ment which was inflifted on the race for their original
fin. If we were not partakers of Adam’s guilt, fay
they, we fhould not have been partakers of his corrup¬
tion. The one is previous to and the foundation of the
other. The depravity of human nature is a punifti-
ment for fin ? and fo it was threatened to Adam, and
came upon him as fuch, and fo to all his pofterity, by the
ordination and appointment of God; lor which there can
be no other foundation but the imputation of Adam’s
difobedience to them, nor can any thing elfe vindicate
the righteoufnefs of God. For if the law of nature was
fufficient, why ftiould this original taint infeft men ra¬
ther than the fins of their immediate parents f ?” f Gill's Bo-
The more violent Arminians, on the other hand, de-dy.°f
ny that we inherit any moral taint whatever from Adam,”-^ '
or that the rational powers of our minds are naturally n. and 13.
weaker than his were. Of that wonderful degree of 126
perfedlion which is ufually attributed to the firft pair,°r
they find no evidence in feripture. All that we learn"
of them, fay they, is, that they fell from a ftate of ex- tl-;ne>
quifite happinefs by yielding to a temptation lefs power¬
ful by far than fome others which many of their dege¬
nerate fons have luccefsfully refifted. “ I leave you to
judge (fays Dr Taylor J), whether Jofeph, when he 1 Scripture
refifled the folicitations of his miftrefs, and Mofes when ^':ldrlne>
he refufed to be called the fon of Pharaoh’s daughter,
choofing rather to fuffer affli&ion with the people of
God than to enjoy the pleafures of fin for a feafon,
efteeming the reproach of true religion greater riches
than the treafures of Egypt, did not exhibit proofs of
Z z regularity
363 T H E O
Fan of A- regularity of paflions and appetites equal at leatt to what
itscont'e- hi the garden ol Eden. When the
queries. t*lree young men mentioned in the book of Daniel fub-
W— / mitted to be burnt alive in a fiery furnace rather than
worfhip Nebuchadnezzar’s golden image ; when Daniel
himlelf refolved, rather than conceal the worftiip of
God for one month only of his life, to be torn in pieces
by hungry lions; and, to come nearer to our own times,
when numbers of men and women, during the reign of
Mary queen of England, chofe rather to be burnt at a
flake than renounce the reformed religion and embrace
the errors ot popery—furely all thele perfons exhibited
a virtue, a faith in God, and a Heady adherence to what
they believed to be the truth, far j'uperior to what A-
dam diiplayed, when his wife gave him of the forbidden
fruit, and he did eat.” If it be laid that thefe perfons
were fupported under their trials by the grace of God
firengthening them, the fame will be faid of Adam. He
was undoubtedly fupplied with every aid from the fpirit
of grace which was necelTary to enable him to fulfil his
duty; for being defigned for more than mere animal
life, even lor the refined enjoyments of heaven, there is
every reafon to believe, as we have already obferved,
that he was put under the guidance of the Holy Ghoft,
to train him for that iupernatural Hate of felicity. Thefe
communications of the fpirit would of courfe be with¬
drawn when he forfeited his right to thofe privileges, on
account of which they were originally vouchfafed to
him ; but that any polilive malignity or taint was infil¬
led into his nature, that his mere rational powers were
weakened, or his appetites inflamed by the forbidden
fruit, there is no evidence to be found in fcripture, or in
the known conftitution of things. The attributing of
this fuppofed hereditary taint to the noxious qualities of
^ the forbidden fruit, is a whimlicai hypothelis, which
12j receives no countenance from any well authenticated
and deem fa ft in natural hiltory. After the numberlefs falfe-
the phyfical hoods that have been told of the poifon tree of Java,
ofifwhirn ^omel*1'r-g raore would be requifite than the com-
Hcal; raon evidence of a lying voyager to give credit to the
qualities of the Indian tree, of which the fruit in-
flantly turns the wifeft man into an idiot : and yet for
this lingular ftory our ingenious author vouchfafes not
even that evidence, flight as it generally is. The in¬
ference drawn from the covering ufed by our firft pa¬
rents is contradifted by every thing that we know of
human nature ■, for furely no man, inflamed to the ut-
mofl with the fire of animal love, ever turned his eyes
from a naked beauty ready and eager to receive him to
her embrace. Yet this, it feems, was the behaviour of
Adam and Eve in fuch a Hate ! According to our au¬
thor, the juice of the forbidden fruit had rendered their
carnal appetites violent and independent of reafon ; ac¬
cording to the fcripture, they were both naked ; and as
they were hufband and wife, there was no law prohibit¬
ing them from gratifying thefe inflamed appetites. In
fijeh circumftances, how did they conduft tbemfelves ?
One would naturally imagine that they immediately re¬
tired to fome fliady grove, and pleafed themfelves in all
the loft dalliances of wedded love. Their conduft, how¬
ever, was very different. We are told, that “ they
fewed fig-leaves together, and made themfelves aprons
to cover their nakednefsAnd this tranfaftion is
brought as a proof of the impetuofity of their carnal ap¬
petites. The truth is, that the carnal appetite appears
L O G \. part ip
not to be naturally more violent than is neceffary to an- Fall of A-
liver the end for which it was implanted in the human dam» anci
conflitution. Among favages the defires of animal love lts tonle~
are generally very moderate ; and even in fociety they . tluei‘ccs- .
nave not oiten, unlels inflamed by the luxurious arts of
civil life, greater flrength than is requifite to make
mankind attend to the continuation of their Ipecies. In
the decline of empires highly polilhed, where the dif¬
ference ol rank and opulence is great, and where every
man is ambitious of emulating the expence of his imme¬
diate fuperiors, early marriages are prevented by the in¬
ability of moft people to provide for a family in a way
luitable to what e-ach is pleafed to confider as his proper
flation 5 and in that Hate ot things the violence of ani¬
mal love will indeed frequently produce great irregula¬
rities. But for that ftate of things, as it was not in¬
tended by the Author of nature, it is perhaps unrea-
fonable to fuppofe that provifion Ihould be made ; and
yet we believe it will be found, upon due conlideration,
that if the defires of animal love wrere lefs violent than
they are, the general confequences would be more per¬
nicious to fociety than all the irregularities and vices
which thefe defires now accidentally produce ■, for there
would then be no intercourfe between the fexes what¬
ever except in the very higheft ftations of life. That
our conftitution is attended with many fenfual appetites
and painons, is true ^ and that there is a great danger
of their becoming excefiive and irregular in a world fo
full of temptation as ours is, is alfo true ; but there is
no evidence that all this is the confequence of Adam’s
fall, and far lels that it amounts to a natural propenjity ^
to fin. For I prefume (fays Dr Taylor), that by a
natural propenfity is meant a neceffary inclination to fin,ing that we
or that we are neceffarily linful from the original bent fiave 110 na-
and bias of our natural powers. But this muff be falfe j turai pro"
for then we ftrould not be finful at all, becaufe that which ^nfUy t0
is neceffary, or which we cannot help, is not fin. That
we are weak and liable to temptation, is the will of
God holy and good, and for glorious purpofes to our-
felves; but if we are wicked, it muft be through our
own fault, and cannot proceed from any conftraint, or
neceffity, or taint in our conflitution.”
Thus have we given as full and comprehenftve a view
as our limits will permit of the different opinions of the
Calvinifts and Arminians refpefting the confequences of
Adam’s fall. If we have dwelt longer upon the fcheme
of the latter than of the former, it is becaufe everv Ar-
minian argument is built upon criticifm, and appeals to
the original text; whilft the Calvinifts reft their faith
upon the plain words of fcripture as read in our tranfla-
tion. If we might hazard our own opinion, we fliould The opini-.
fay that the truth lies between them, and that it has ons of mo-
been found by the moderate men of both parties, who, derate men
while they make ufe of different language, feem to usamoi?5t^e
to have the fame fentiments. That all mankind really and^mi-
ftnned in Adam, and are on that account liable to moflnians the
grievous torments in foul and body, without intermif-farae> and
fion, in hell fire for ever, is a doftrine which cannot be couritenan-
reconciled to our natural notions of God. On the other
hand, if human nature was not fomehow debafed by the tion.
fall of our firft parents, it is not eafy to account for the
numberlefs phrafes in fcripture which certainly feem to
fpeak that language, or for the very general opinion of
the Pagan philofephers and poets refpefting the golden
age and the degeneracy of man. Cicero, in a quotation
preferved
Part II. T H E O
Theology preierved by St Auguftine from a work that is now loii,
^froni the thefe remarkable words, “ Homo non ut a matre fed
(lam to the ut a noverca natura editus eft in vitam, corpore nudo, et
coming of fragili, et intirmo *, animo autem anxio ad moleftias, hu-
Chrift. mili ad timores, molli ad labores, prono ad libidines ; in
u .—v— fjU0 tamen inejl tanquam obrutus quidam divinus ignis in-
f genii et mentis fNor do we readily perceive v\ hat
i\.S'-ont ’ra ihould induce the more zealous Arminians to oppofe fo
Pelagium. vehemently this general opinion of the corruption of hu-
Vide etiam m:m nature. Their defire to vindicate the juftice and
g0°dnefs of God does them honour ; but the doftrine of
dC£ ' '' inherent corruption militates not againft thele attributes j
for what we have loft in the firft Adam has been amply
fupplied to us in the fecond 5 and we know from the
higheft authority that the duties required of us are in
proportion to our ability, fince we are told, that “ unto
wbomfoever much is given, of him {hall much be re¬
quired.”
Sect. IV. View of Theology from the fall of Adam to
the coming of Chrift.
We have dwelt long on the original ftate of man, his
fntroduftion into the terreftrial paradife, the privileges
to which he was there admitted, his forfeiture oi thofe
privileges, and the ftate to which he was reduced by
tranfgrefling the law of his Maker \ but the import¬
ance of thefe events render's them worthy of all the at¬
tention that we have paid to them. They paved the
way for the coming of Chrift and the preaching of the
gofpel *, and unlefs we thoroughly underftand the origin
of the gofpel, we cannot have an adequate conception
of its deftgn. By contrafting the firft with the fecond
Adam, St Paul gives us clearly to underftand, that one
purpofe for which Chrift came into the world and fuf-
fered death on the crofs, was to reftore to mankind that
life which they had loft by the fall of their original pro¬
genitor. The preaching of the gofpel therefore com¬
menced with the firft hint of fuch a reftoration ; and the
promife given to Adam and Eve, that “ the feed of the
woman ftrould bruife the head of the ferpent,” was
as truly evangelical as thefe words of the apoftle, by
which we are taught, that “ this is a faithful faying and
worthy of all acceptation, that Chrift Jefus came into
* x Tim. i. the world to fave finners The former text taken by
15. itfelf is indeed obfeure, and the latter is explicit; but both
belong to the fame fyftem, for the feriptures contain but
two covenants or difpenfations of God to man, in which
j 30 the whole race is included.
Chriitianity Chriftianity therefore is indeed very near as old as the
may be faid creation ■, but its principles were at firft obfeurely re-
to have ^ vealed, and afterwards gradually developed under differ-
witlvth^ C ent f°rms as mankind became able to receive them, (fee
fall. Prophecy, N0 5. &c.). All that appears to have been
at firft revealed to Adam and Eve was, that by fome
means or other one of their pofterity Ihould in time re¬
deem the whole race from the curfe of the fall ; or if
they had a diftinft view of the means by which that re¬
demption was to be wrought, it was probably communi¬
cated to them at the inftitution of facrifices, (fee Sacri¬
fice). This promife of a future deliverer ferved to com¬
fort them under their heavy fentence ; and the inftitution
of facrifices, whilft it impreffed upon their minds lively
ideas of the puniftiment due to their tranfgreftion, was
L o ,G Y. 363
admirably calculated to prepare both them and their po- Iheology
fterity for the great atonement which, in due time, was
to take away the fins o the world. dam to the
Our firft parents, after their fall, were fq far from be- coming of
ing left to fabricate a mode of wovftiip tor themfelves by Chrift.
thole innate powers of the human mind ot which we ^ '
daily hear fo much, and feel io little, that God was gra-p_eveiation9
cioufiy pleafed to manifeft himlelf to their fenfes, and vi- frequent in
fibly to condudf them by the angel of his prefence in all the early
the rites and duties of religion. This is evident from agf^| t^ie'
the different difeourfes which he held with Cain, as wellwor ’
as from the complaint of that murderer of being hid from
his face, and from its being faid, that “ he went out
from the prefence of the Lord and dwelt on the call of
Eden.” Nor does it appear that God wholly withdrew
his vifible prefence, and left mankind to their own in¬
ventions, till their wickednefs became lo very great that
his fpirit could no longer ftrive with them. The infant
ftate of the world ftood in conftant need of his fuperna-
tural guidance and protection. The early inhabitants
of this globe cannot be fuppofed to have been able, with
Mofes *, to look up to him who is invifible, and perform ^ Heb> ^
a worlhip purely rational and fpiritual. They were all
tillers of the ground, or keepers of cattle ; employed in.
cultivating and repleniihing this new world ; and, through
the curfe brought upon it by their forefather, forced,
with him, to eat their bread “ in the fweat of their
brow.” Man in fuch circumftances could have little
leifure for fpeculation ; nor has mere fpeculation, unlefs
furnifhed with principles from another fource, ever ge¬
nerated in the human mind adequate notions of God’s
nature or providence, or of the means by which he can
be acceptably worfhipped. Frequent manifeftations, there¬
fore, of his prefence would be neceffarv to keep a toler¬
able fenfe of religion among them, anu fecure obedience
to the divine inftitutions; and that the Almighty did not
exhibit fuch manifeftations, cannot be inferred from the
filence of that very ftrort hiftory which we have of thofe
early ages. Adam himfelf continued 930 years a living
monument of the juftice and mercy of God ; of his ex¬
treme hatred and abhorrence of fin, as well as of his love
and long fuffering towards the finner. He was very fen-
fible how fin had entered into the world, and he could
not but apprife his children of its author. He would at
the fame time inform them of the unity of God, and his
dominion over the evil one $ of the means by which he
had appointed himfelf to be worfliipped ; and of his pro¬
mife of future deliverance from the curfe of the fall.
Such information would produce a tolerable idea of the
Divine Being, and afford fufficient motives to obey his
will. The effe&s of it accordingly were apparent in the
righteous family of Seth, who foon diftinguifhed them¬
felves from the pofterity of Cain, and for their eminent
piety were honoured with the appellation of the fans of
God. Of this family fprang a perfon fo remarkable for
virtue and devotion, as to be exempted from Adam’s
fentence and the common lot of his fons 5 for after he
had walked with God 300 years, and prophecied to his
brethren, he was tranflated that he fhould not fee death.
Of this miraculous event there can be no doubt but that
his contemporaries had fome vifible demonftration ; and
as the fate of Abel xvas an argument to their reafon, fo
the tranflation of Enoch was a proof to their fenfes of an¬
other ftate of life after the prefent. To Adam himfelf,
Z z 2 if
Theology
from the
full of A-
darn to th
coming of
Cliriit.
13?
yet rice,
valent,
• 133 .
Pure reli¬
gion for
ftime time
after the
flood : x
354 T H E O
if he was then alive (s), it muft have been a lively'and
afl'efting inilance of what he might have enjoyed, had
he kept his innocence j it mult have been a comfortable
f earnelt of the promifed victory over the evil one •, and
have confirmed his hope, that when the head of the fer-
pent ihould be completely bruifed, he and his polferity
would be rettored to the favour of their Maker, and be¬
hold his prefence in blifs and immortality.
Notwithllanding this watchful care of God over his
dnd proba- fallen creature man, vice, and probably idolatry, fpread
fion^be-'"1'’ trough the world with a rapid pace. The family of
came pre- Seth married into that of Cain, and adopted the man¬
ners of their new relations. Rapine and violence, un¬
bounded lull and impurity of every kind, prevailed uni-
verfally 5 and when thofe giants in wickednefs had filled
the earth with tyranny, injultice, and oppreflion j when
the whole race was become entirely carnal—God, af¬
ter raifing up another prophet to give them frequent
warnings of their fate for the fpace of 120 years, was at
length obliged, in mercy to themfelves as well as to the
fucceeding generations of men, to cut them oft' by a ge¬
neral deluge. See Deluge.
Thus did God, by the fpirit of prophecy, by frequent
man Reflations of his own prefence j and by uninterrupt¬
ed tradition—make ample provifion for the inftrudfion
and improvement of the world for the firlt 1600 years.
After the deluge he was pleafed to converfe again with
Noah, and make in his perfon a new and extenfive co¬
venant with mankind, (fee Rrophecy, N° ii.). Of his
power, juftice, and goodnefs 5 of his fupreme dominion
over the earth and the heavens ; of his abhorrence of
ftn, and his determination not to let it go unpunilhed—
that patriarch and his family had been moft awfully con¬
vinced ; nor could they or their children, for feme time,
want any other argument to enforce obedience, fear,
and worftrip. The Ions of Noah were an hundred years
old when the deluge overwhelmed the earth. They had
long converfed with their anceftors of the old world,
had frequented the religious aflemblies, obferved every
Sabbath day, and been inftrufted by thofe who had feen
Adam. It is therefore impoflible that they could be ig¬
norant of the creation of the world, of the fall of man,
or of the promife of future deliverance from the confe-
quences of that fall j or that they could offer their fa-
crifices, and perform the other rites of the inftituted wor-
ftiip, without looking forward with the eye of faith to
that deliverance feen, perhaps obfeurely, through their
typical oblations.
In this ftale of things religion might for fome time
be fafely propagated by tradition. JBut when by de-
Ihe difper-*Mrees mankind corrupted that tradition in its moft effen-
£on from tial parts; when, inftead of the one Supreme God, they
fet up feveral orders of inferior deities, and worfhipped
all the hoft of heaven when, at the fame time they
were uniting under one head, and forming a univerfal
empire under the patronage of the Sun their chief divi¬
nity (fee Babel)—God law it neceffary to difperfe them
into diftinff ccloi ies, by caufing fuch difeord among
them as rendered it impoftible for any one fpecies of ido¬
latry to be at once univerfally eftablifhtd.
After this difperfion, there is reafon to believe that
i34
Idolatry,
however,
the caufe of
Eabd.
L O G Y. Fart IT.
particular revelations were vouchfafed wherever men Theology
were difpofed to regard them. Peleg had his name pro- from the
phetically given him from the diiperfion which was to
happen in his days; and not only his father liber, but coming1 of
all the heads of families mentioned from Noah to Abra- Chriit.
ham, are with much plauftbility fuppofed to have had v —-v—t
the fpirit of prophecy on many occaftons. Noah was
undoubtedly both prieft and prophet , and living till
within two years of the birth of Abraham, or, accord¬
ing to others, till that patriarch was near 60 years old,
he would furely be able to keep up a tolerable fenle pf
true religion among fuch of his defeendants as lojourned
within the influence of his do&rine and example. His
religious fon Shem, who lived till after the birth of
Ifaac, could not but preferve in tolerable purity the
faith and worfhip of the true God among fuch of his
own defeendants as lived in his neighbourhood.
But though the remains of true religion were thus
preferved among a few righteous men, idolatry had in a
(hort time prevailed fo far among the fons of Noah, that
God, faw it expedient not only to fhorten the lives of
men, but alfo to withdraw his prefence from the gene¬
rality, who had thus rendered themfelves unworthy of
Rich communications $ and to feleft a particular family,
in which his worfhip might be preferved pure amidlt the
various corruptions that were overfpreaaing the world. X35
With this view Abraham was called, and, after many The call of
remarkable trials of his faith and conftancy, admitted toA^ra^aai
a particular intimacy and friendfhip with his Maker. God Was
entered into a peculiar covenant with him, engaging to
be his prefent guide, proteftor, and defender j to beiiow
all temporal bleflings upon him and his feed j and to
make fome of thofe feed the inftruments of conveying
bleflings of a higher kind to all the nations of the
earth. - „
It was doubtlefs for his Angular piety that Abraham to prevent
was fixed upon to be the parent of that people, who the univer-
fhould preferve the knowledge of the unity of God in
the midft of an idolatrous and polytheiflic world; but ot
we are not to imagine that it was for his fake only that
all this was done, or that his lefs worthy defeendants
were by the equal Lord of all treated with partial fond*
nefs for the virtues of their anceftor; it was for the be¬
nefit of mankind in general that he was called from his
country, and from his father’s houfe, that he might pre-
ferve the dodlrine of the divine unity in his own family,
and be an inftrument in the hand of Providence (and a
fit one he was) to convey the fame faith to the nations a-
round him. Accordingly, we find him diflinguiftied a-
mong the neighbouring princes, and kings reproved for
his fake ; who being made acquainted with his prophe¬
tic charadler, defired his interceflion with God.. Hillory
tells us of his converfing on the fubjeft of religion with
the moft learned Egyptians, who appear to have derived
from him or fome of his defeendants the rite of circum-
cifion, and to have been for a while ftopt in their pro-
grefs towards the laft ftage of that degrading idolatry
which afterwards rendered their national worfhip the op¬
probrium of the whole earth, (fee Polytheism, N° 28).-
We are informed that his name was held in the greateft
veneration all over the Eaft ; that the Magians, Sabians.
Perfians,-
(s) According to the Samaritan chronology, he was alive ; according to the Hebrew, he had been dead 57 years.
Fart II.
T H E O
Theology Perlians, and Indians, all glory in him as the greateft re-
fiom the former 0f their refpettive religions : and to us it appears
ndl ot A- extremeiy probable, that not only the Brachmans, but
comin'Mf like wife the Hindoo god Brahma *, derive their names
Chrift. from the father of the faithful. As he was let into the
c V——' various counfels of the Almighty, and taught to reafon
* See 4^- anj ret|e^ Up0n them j as he was fully apprifed of the
“(larches overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah, with the particular
and Newt, circumftances of that miraculous event-, and as he had
Chian. frequent revelations of the promifed Redeemer, whofe
day he longed earneftly to fee, and feeing it was glad—
there can be no doubt but that he and his family took
care to propagate thefe important doflrines in every na¬
tion which they vihted ; for the only reafon which we
can conceive for his being made to wander from place
to place was, that different people might be induced to
inquire after his profefhon, his religion, and his hopes.
But though the Supreme Being was pleafed to mani-
fcft himfelf in a more frequent and familiar manner to
Abraham, he by no means left the reft of the world
without fufRcient light. Lot profeffed the true religion
in the midft of Sodom. In Canaan we meet with Mel-
chizedeck, king and prieft of the moft high God, who
bleffed Abraham, and to whom that patriarch himfelf
O rational homage. Abimelech king of Gerar receiving an
revelations admonition from the Lord, immediately paid a due re¬
given to gard to it and the fame fenfe of religion and virtue de-
other pious fcencle(l to his fon. Laban and Bethuel acknowledged
Inen’ the Lord, and the former of them was even favoured
with a vilion. In Arabia, we find Job and bis three
friends, all men of high rank, entering into the deepeft
difquifitions in theology agreeing about the unity, om¬
nipotence, and Ipirituality of God \ the juftice of his
providence, with other fundamental articles of true reli¬
gion ; and mentioning divine infpiration or revelation as
* Job. iv. a thing not uncommon in their age and country * (u).
*2, IS* I(S> Balaam appears to have been a true prophet \ and as he
KxilC'i2 was unqueftionably a man of bad morals, the natural in¬
ference is, that the gift of prophecy was then, as after¬
wards bellowed on individuals, not for their own fakes,
but for the fake of the public ; and that, as in “ every na¬
tion, he who feareth God and worketh righteoufnefs is
accepted of him fo in thofe early ages of the world,
when mankind were but children in religious know¬
ledge, they were bleffed with the light of divine revela¬
tion wherever they were dnpofed to make a proper ufe
*38 of it.
A fecond yery feWi however, appear to have had this difpofi-
whkh^A^ ti011 i and therefore God was pleafed to adopt Abraham
braham was and part of his pofterity as the race from which the great
called.. Redeemer was to fpring, to train them up by degrees in
fuitable notions of their Creator, and gradually to open
up to them, as they were able to receive it, the nature
of that difpenfalion under which “ all the nations of the
earth were to be blefled in the patriarch’s feed, (fee
Prophecy, N° 13). For this purpofe, he held fre¬
quent correfpondence with them 5 and to ftrengthen and
LOG Y. 365-
confirm their faith, to fix and preferve their dependence Theology-
on the one God of heaven and earth, he daily gave
them new promifes, each more magnificent than that ^am t0 the
which preceded it. He blefled Ifaac, miraculoufly in- coming of*
creafed his fubftance, and loon made him the envy of Clniit. ^
the neighbouring princes. He foretold the condition of
his two fons, renewed the promile made to Abraham,
and bleffed the adopted fon Jacob, with whom he con-
defeended to converfe as he had converfed with A-
braham and Ifaac j renewing to him the great promife j
bellowing upon him all kinds of riches ^ and impreflmg
fuch terror upon all the cities which were round about
him as prevented them from hurting either him or his
family.
All this was indeed little enough to keep alive even
in the mind of Jacob a tolerable lenle oi duty and de¬
pendence on his Creator. After the firil vilion he is
furprifed, and hefitates, feemingly inclined to make a
kind of llipulation with his Maker. If (fays he) God
will be with me, and will keep me in this way that I
go, and will give me bread to eat, and raiment to put
on, fo that I come again to my father’s houfe in peace,
t/ien Ihall the Lord be my God f.” It appears not to 1 Gen.
have been till after many fuch revelations, bleflings, and
deliverances, and being reminded of the vow which on
this occafion he had vowed, that he fet himfelf in good
earneft to reform the religion of his own family, and to^
drive out from it all ftrange gods *' So little able, in xxxv
that age, were the boalted powers of the human mind
to prelerve in the world juft notions ol the unity of the
Godhead, that we fee there was a neceflrty for very fre¬
quent revelations, to prevent even the beft men from'
running headlong into polytheifm and idolatry.
Thus was God obliged to treat even with the pa¬
triarchs themfelves, by way of pofitive covenant and ex--
prefs compadl; to promife to be their God it they would
be his people ; to give them a portion of temporal blel-
fings as introduftory to future and fpiritual ones} and to
engage them in his fervice by immediate rewards, till
they could be led on to higher views, and prepared by*
the bringing in of a better hope to worfhip him in fpint
and in truth. With regard to what may be called tlm
t/ieory of religion, mankind were yet fcarcely got out of
their childhood. Some extraordinary perfons indeed oc-
cafionally appeared in different countries, fuch as Enoch,
Noah, Abraham, and Job, with many others, who had a
more enlarged profpedl of things, and entertained more
worthy fentiments of the divine difpenfations and of the
ultimate end of man *, but thefe were far fuperior to the
times in which they lived, and appear to have been pro¬
videntially raifed up to prevent the favage ftate and
favage idolatry from becoming univerfal among men.
See Savage. _ rjg >
The woi fhip which was praflifed by thofe holy men The patri-
appears to have confifted principally of the three kinds archalwor-
of facrifice mentioned elfewhere (fee Sacrifice) j .to t|"J!)fe<)eariy ,
which were doubtleis added prayers and prailes, v\ ith ag.es per_
the formed in
faith
(u) There are great difputes among the learned refpeaing the antiquity and the author of the book of Job, and
whether it be a hiftory of events, or a poem which has its foundation in hirtory. All fober men, however, are a-
greed, that there really was fuch a fierfon as Job, eminent for patience under uncommon fufferings; and that he
was of very remote antiquity. The LXX. give us the names of his father and mother, and lay that he was the -
fifth from Abraham0
T H E O
Theology the more valuable oblation of pure hands and devout
fall of A- Such of them as looked forward to a future re-
(lam to the demption, and had any tolerable notion of the means by
coming of which it was to be effe&ed, as Abraham certainly had,
, chrilt- mull; have been fenfible that the blood of bulls and of
v ' goats could never take away fin, and that their lacrifices
xvere therefore valuable only when they Were offered iu
faith of that great promife, “ which they, having feeu
it amr off, were perfuaded of, and embraced : and con-
felled that they were ftrangers and pilgrims upon earth.”
That luch perfons looked for “ a better country,
even a heavenly one,” in a future date cannot be que-
llioned ; for they knew tvell how fin and death had en*
tered into the world, and they mud have underdood the
promhe made to their original progenitor, and repeated¬
ly renewed to themlelves, to include in it a deliverance
at fome period from every confequence of the fird tranf-
gredion. I hey wrere to all intents and purpofes Chri-
dians as well as we. They indeed placed their confi-
of a futu-e ^ence *n a Redeemer, who in the fulnefs of time was to
Redeemer, appear upon earth, while we place ours in a Redeemer
that has been already manifeded ; they exprelfed that
confidence by one mode of worlhip, we exprefs it by an¬
other ; but the patriarchal worlhip had the fame end in
view with the Chridian—the attainment of everlading
141 life in heaven.
Such faith The generality of men, however, appear not, in the
however, ^ early age of which we now write, to have extended their
not general. vjews beyond the prefent life. From the confufed re¬
mains of ancient tradition, they acknowledged indeed
fome fuperior potver or powers, to whom they frequently
applied for dire&ion in their affairs 5 but in all probabi¬
lity it w-as only for dire&ion in temporal affairs, fuch as
the cultivation of the ground, or their tranfa&ions with
each other. In the then date of things, when no part
of the world was overdocked with inhabitants, and when
luxury with its confequences were everywhere unknown,
virtue and vice mud have produced their natural effe&s;
and the good man being happy here, and the wicked
man mnerable, reafon had no data from which to infer
the reality of a future date of rewards and punifhments.
Thofe who were bleffed with the light of revelation un¬
doubtedly looked forward to that date with a holy joy j
but the red worfhipped fuperior powers from worldly
motives. How many of thofe powers there might be,
or how far their influence might reach, they knew not.
Uncertain whether there be one Supreme Governor of
the whole world, or many co-ordinate powers prefiding
each over a particular country, climate, or place—gods
cf the hills and of the valleys, as they were afterwards
didinguiflied—-they thought that the more of thefe they
could engage in their in tered the better. Like the Sa¬
maritans therefore, in after times, they fought, wherever
they came, the “ the manners of the god of the land,”
142 and ferved him, together with their own gods.
The pur- ^ Thus was the world ready to lofe all knowledge of
which'the *rue an1^ wordiip, had not he been graciouf-
Ifraelites ^ P^ea^e^ to interpofe, and take effe&ual care to pre-
were made felve that knowledge in one nation, from which it might
to fojourn be conveyed to the red of mankind at different tirnes,
in and ^ greater or lefs degrees, as they fhould be capable
of receiving it. To this purpofe he made way for the
removal of Jacob and his family to one of the mod im¬
proved and polifhed countries of the world ; and intro¬
duced them into it in a manner fo advantageous, as to
LOG Y. Part ir.
give them an opportunity of Imparting much religious Theology
knowledge to the natives. The natives, however, were trom tJie
grofs idolaters j and that his chofen people might be as todia
far as poffible from the contagion of their example, he coming of
placed them upon the borders of Egypt, where, though Chrilt.
they multiplied exceedingly, they were by their very 1 l" v— •’
occupation f dill kept a ieparate people, and mud havef Gen. xlri.
been rendered, by a long and fevere oppredion, in a 33> 34-
great degree averfe to the manners and religion of their
neighbours. This averfion, however, feems to have
gradually becomes lefs and lefs ; and before they were
miraculoufiy redeemed from their houfe of bondage,
they had certainly lod all correft notions of the unity of
God, and the nature of his worlhip, and had adopted
the greater part of the fuperditions of their talk-maders.
Of this we need no other proof than what is implied in
the words of Mofes when he faid unto God, “ Be- f Exod. iiL
hold, when I come unto the children of Ifrael, and fay
unto them, the God of your fathers hath fent me untoConfequen*
you ; and they lhall fay unto me, What IS His NAME rcesof iu
what lhall I fay unto them ?” Had not the deftined
laxvgiver of the Hebrews been aware that his country¬
men had adopted a plurality of gods, this difficulty
could not have occurred to him; for names are never
thought of but to diftinguilh from each other beings of
the fame kind 5 and he mult have remembered, that in
Egypt, where the multitude of gods was marffialled in¬
to various claffes, the knowledge of their names was
deemed of great importance. This we learn likewife
from Herodotus, who informs us *, that the Pelafgi, * Lib>
after fettling in Greece, thought it neceffary to confultcap. 52, *
the oracle of Dodona, whether it would be proper to 53-
give to their own gods the names of the Egyptian di¬
vinities ? and that the oracle, as might have been fup-
pofed, affured them that it would. Indeed the Hebrews
during their refidence in Egypt had acquired fuch an
attachment to the idolatrous worlhip of the country,
that it appears never to have left them entirely till many
ages afterwards, when they were carried captive into
Babylon, and feVerely puniflred for their repeated apo-
ftacies; and fo completely were they infatuated by thefe
fuperftitions at the era of their exodus, that, as the pro¬
phet Ezekiel informs us <J, they rebelled againft God,§Ch. >;*,
and would not call away their abominations, or forfake
the idols of Egypt, even in the very day that the hand
of Omnipotence was lifted up to bring them forth of
that land in which they had been fo long and fo cruelly
oppreffed. In fuch a Hate of things, to have fuffered
them to remain longer in Egypt, could have ferved no
good purpofe •, and therefore to lulfil the promife which
he had given to Abraham, God determined to deliver
them out of the hand of the Egyptians by means which
Ihould convince both them and their offspring of his
own fupremacy over heaven and earth. ^ I_J4
As Mofes was the perfon appointed to deliver God’s Moles ap-
meffage to Pharaoh, and to demand of him leave for the I,0.'nt:ec* t0
Ifraelites to go three days journey into the wildernefs to
ferve the God of their fathers, it was neceffary that he gypt?
ffiould be endowed with the power of working miracles61
to evince the reality of his divine miffion. Without a
convi&ion that his claims were well-founded, neither
Pharaoh nor his own countrymen could reafonably have
been expe&ed to Men to the propofals of a man who,
though bleffed in his youth with a princely education,
had come dire&ly on his embaffy from the humble em¬
ployment
Part IT.
T H E O
*45
The pro¬
priety of
the miracles
which he
wrought
Theology ployment of a flieplierd, which he had for many years
fTl'of t\e exercifed in the country of Midian. To prove that he
dam to the was rea^7 ^'ent hy God, any vifxble and undoubted con-
coming of troul of the latvs of nature would have been abundantly
Chrift. fufficient; but he was to prove not only this truth, but
' v ~' alfo the unity of the Divine nature } and the miracles
which he was diretded to work were executions of judge-
f Exod. xii. ments againll the very gods of Egypt f.
12, When Pharaoh firft turned a deaf ear to his requeft,
though enforced by the convevfion of a rod into a ler-
pent, at the command of Jehovah he fmote with the
lame rod upon the waters in the river, which were in-
llantly converted into blood, and occafioned the death
of all the fillies that fwam in them. To any people
this miracle would have been a proof of Divine agency;
but it wTas in a particular manner calculated to open the
eyes of the blind and infatuated Egyptians, who confi-
dered the Nile as one of their greatell gods, and all the
fillies that it contained as fubordinate divinities. They
called that noble river fometimes Sirius, fometimes OJt-
ris, fometimes Canobus (fee Canobus), and not unfre-
quently flzinw (x) ; and adored it as the parent of
all their deities. What then mult the people have
thought when they found their molt revered god, at
the command of a fervant of Jehovah, converted into
blood, and all his facred offspring into {linking carcafes ?
To conceive their conlternation, if it can be conceived,
the reader mult remember, that the Egyptian prielts
held blood in the utmolt abhorrence, as a thing of which
the very touch wrould deeply pollute them, and require
immediate and folemn expiation. The fame facred river
was a fecond time polluted, when it fent forth frogs,
wdiich covered all the land of Egypt, and died in t^e
houfes, in the villages, and in the fields ; thus render¬
ing it impoffible for the people to avoid the touch of
dead bodies, though from every fuch contaft they be¬
lieved themfelves to contract an impurity, which, in the
cafe before us, mult have been the more grievous, that
in the whole country there was not left a pool of unin-
fefted water to walh away the Itain.
The third plague inflidted on the Egyptians was. the
converting of the dull of the land into lice, upon man
and upon bealt, throughout the whole kingdom. To
fee the propriety of this miracle as a judgement upon
their idolatry, we muft recollect their utter abhorrence
of all kinds of vermin, and their extreme attention to
external purity above every other people perhaps that
has hitherto exiffed on the face of the earth. On this
head they were more particularly folicitous when about
to enter the temples of their gods; for Herodotus in¬
forms us, that their priefts wore linen raiment only, and
fhaved off every hair from their heads and bodies, that
there might be no loufc or other deteftable object upon
them when performing their duty to the gods. This
plague therefore, while it lafted, made it impoffible for
them to perform their idolatrous worfhip, without giving
fuch offence to their deities as they imagined could
never be forgiven. Hence we find, that on the produc¬
tion of the lice, the priefts and magicians perceived im¬
mediately from what hand the miracle had come, and
exclaimed, “ This is the finger of God !” The fourth
t4<)
to evidence
the vanity
of idol
vrorihip. ,
L O G Y. 3f)7
plague feems to have been likewife acknowledged to be Theology
the finger of God, if not by the magicians, at leaft by
Pharaoh ; for in a fit of terror he agreed that the Ifrael- dam to the
ites Ihould go and ferve the Lord. That he was terrifi- coming of
ed at the fwarms of flies which infefted the whole coun- Chrift.
try, except the land of Goflien, will excite no wonder,'' ""v
xvhen it is known that the worfliip of the fly originated
in Egypt; whence it was carried by the Caphtorim to
Paleftine; by the Phoenicians to Sidon, Tyre, and
Babylon ; and from thefe regions to other parts of the
world. The denunciation of this plague was delivered
to Pharaoh early in the morning, when he was on the
banks of the Nile, probably paying his accuftomed de¬
votion to his greatefl god ; and when he found himfelf
and his people tormented by a fivarm of fubordinate di¬
vinities, who executed the judgement of Jehovah in de¬
fiance of the power of the lupreme numen of Egypt, he
muft have been convinced, had any candour remained
in his mind, that the whole fyftem of his fuperftition
was a mafs of abfurdities, and that his gods were only
humble inflruments at the difpofal of a Superior Power.
He was not, however, convinced ; he was only alarm¬
ed, and quickly relapfcd into his wonted obflinacy..
The fifth plague therefore, the murrain among the cat¬
tle, brought deatJi and deftruflion on his mold revered
gods themfelves. Neither Ofiris, nor Ifis, nor Ammon,
nor Pan, had power to fave his brute reprefentatives.
The facred bull, and heifer, and ram, and goat, were
carried off by the fame malady which fwept away all the
other herds of deities, thefe diiJlercorei, who lived on
grafs and hay. The impreflion of this punifliment muft
have been awful on the minds of the Egyptians, but
perhaps not equal to that which fucceeded it.
In Egypt there were feveral altars on which human
facrifices were offered ; and from the defcription of the
perfons qualified to be vittims, it appears that thofe un¬
happy beings muft have been foreigners, as they were
required to have bright hair and a particular com¬
plexion. The hair of the Ifraelites was much brighter
than that of the Egyptians, and their complexions fair¬
er; and therefore there can be little doubt but that,
during their refidence in Egypt, they were made to fur-
nifti the vidlims demanded by the bloody gods. Thefe
viftims being burnt alive on a high altar, and thus fa-
crificed for the good of the nation, their aflies were ga¬
thered together by the priefts, and fcattered upwards in
the air, that a blefiing might be entailed on every place
to wdiich an atom of this dull fnould be wafted. Mofes
too, by the dire&ion of the true God, took aflies of the
furnace, probably of one of thole very furnaces in
which fome of his countrymen had been burnt, and
fprinkling them towards heaven in the fight of Pharaoh,
brought boils and blains upon all the people, of fo ma¬
lignant a nature, that the magicians and the other mini-
fters of the medical gods, with which Egypt abounded
beyond all other countries, could not themfelves efcape
the infection.
The powers of darknefs w'ere thus foiled ; but the
heart of the monarch was ftill hardened. Deftrudtion
was therefore next brought on him and his country by
the elements, which were among the earlieft idol deities
not
(x) Whence came the Greek word the ccsan.
368 T H E O
Theology ne^ on}y 0f Egyptians, but of every other polytheif*
fl’i™1 tic nation. “ The Lord rained hail on the land of
dam to the ^gyP1 i t^iat there was hail, and fire mingled with
.coming of the hail, fuch as there was none like it in all the land
Chritt. Egypt fince it became a nation. And the hail fmote
throughout all the land of Egypt all that was in the
field, both man and bead: ; and the hail fmote every
herb of the field, and broke evety tree of the field.”
This was a dreadful calamity in itfelf; and the horror
which it excited in the minds of the people mud have
been greated aggravated by the well-known fa£l, that
Egypt is blefled with a Iky uncommonly ferene ; that
in the greated part of it rain has never been feen at any
other time fince the creation ©f the world j and that a
flight and tranfient fhower is the utmod that in the or¬
dinary courfe of nature falls anywhere throughout the
country. The fmall quantity of vegetables which was
left undedroyed by the fire and the hail was afterwards
devoured by locuds, which by a drong ead wind were
brought in fuch numbers from Arabia, where they a-
bounded at all times, that they covered the whole face
of the earth, and did eat every herb of the land, and all
the fruit of the trees, fo that there remained not any
green thing in the trees or in the herbs of the field
through all the land of Egypt.
The ninth plague which the obdinacy of Pharaoh
brought upon his country, whild it feverely punidied the
Egyptians for their cruelty to the Hebrews, druck at
the very foundation of all idolatry. We have elfewhere
fhown, that the fird obje&s of idolatrous wordiip were
the contending powers of light and darknefs (fee POLY¬
THEISM ; and that the benevolent principle, or the
power of light, was everywhere believed to maintain a
condant fuperiority over the power of darknefs. Such
was the faith of the ancient Perfians *, and fuch, as a
very learned writer has lately proved, was likewife the
faith of the earlier Egyptians. It was therefore with
wifdom truly divine, that God, to fliow the vanity of
their imaginations, brought upon thofe votaries of light,
who fancied themfelves the offspring of the fun, a preter¬
natural darknefs, which, for three days, all the powers
of their fupreme deity, and his fubordinate agents, could
not difpel.
The tenth and lad plague brought on this idolatrous
people was more univerfally and feverely felt than any
which had preceded it. It wras likewife, in feme fenfe,
an indance of the /ex ta/ioms, wdiich requires an eye for
an eye, and a tooth for a tooth, &c. Mofes was com¬
manded, at his firft interview with Pharaoh, to fay,
u Thus faith the Lord, Ifrael is my fon, even my fird-
born. Let my fon go that he may ferve me : and if
thou refufe to let him go, behold, I will flay thy fon,
even thy fird-born.” Before this threat was put in ex¬
ecution, every attempt w’as made to foften the hardened
heart of the obdinate tyrant. The waters of his facred
river wrere turned into blood, and all the fillies that it
LOG Y. Part II,
contained {lain •, frogs vrcre brought over all the land to Theology
pollute the people ; the miniders of religion wTere ren donyhe
dered fo impure by vermin, that they could not difeharge ^
their wonted offices; the animals mod revered as gods, coming of
or emblems of gods, w'ere cut oft’ by a murrain j the Chrift.
elements, that were everywhere worlhipped as divinities, '■“’""'v ■"*‘J
carried through the land a devaflation, wEich was com¬
pleted by fwarms of locufts; the allies from the facred
furnace, which were thought to convey bleflings whi-
therfoever they were wafted, were made to communicate
incurable difeafes 5 a thick and preternatural darknefs
was fpread over the kingdom, in defiance of the pow'er
of the great Ofiris ; and when the hearts of the people
and their fovereign continued dill obdurate, the elded
fon in each family was dain, becaufe they reiufed to let
go Ifrael, God’s fird-born. From this univerfal pelti-
lence the Ifraelites were preferved by fprinkling the
door-pods of their houfes with the blood of one of the
animals adored in Egypt j a faft which, as it could not
be unknown to Pharaoh or his fubjefts, ought to have
convinced that people of the extreme abfurdity of their
impious fuperditions. This effetd it feems not to have
had $ but the death of the fird-born produced the de¬
liverance of the Hebrews j for when it was found that
there was not a houfe where there was not one dead,
“ Pharaoh called for Mofes and Aaron by night, and
faid, Rife up, and get you forth from among my people,
both you and the children of Ifrael $ and blefs me alfo.
And the Egyptians were urgent upon the people, that
they might fend them out of the land in hade j for they
faid, We be all dead men (y).” The wonted obdinacy
of the monarch indeed very foon returned 5 and his
fubjefts, forgetting the lofs of their children, joined
with him in a vain attempt to bring back to bondage
the very people whom they had been thus urgent to
fend out of the land ; but their attempt was defeated by
Jehovah, and all who engaged in it drowned in the Red
fea.
The God of Ifrael having thus magnified himfelf over
the Egyptians and their gods, and refeued his people
from bondage by fuch means as mud not only have
druck terror and adonidiment into the whole land, but
alfo have fpread his name through all the countries
which had any communication with that far-famed na¬
tion, proceeded to indrudl and exercife the Hebrews for X47
many years in the wfildernefs. He inculcated upon them Reafon of
the unity of the Godhead j gave them ftatutes and detaining
judgements more righteous than thofe of any other na-
tion } and by every method confident with the freedom tpe wil.
of moral agency guarded them againd the contagion of dernefs.
idolatry and polytheifm. He lent his angel before
them to keep them in the way, took upon himfelf the
office of their fupreme civil governor, and by bis pre¬
fence dire&ed them in all their undertakings. He led
them with repeated figns and wonders throughk-tfie
neighbouring nations, continued to try and difcipline
them
(y) For this account of the plagues of Egypt, we are indebted to the very valuable Obfervations on the fubjefl
publidied by Mr Bryant. We have not quoted the authorities by which the learned and pious author fupports his
opinions ; becaufe it is to be hoped, that for a fuller account of thefe important tranfaflions the reader will have
recourfe to his ivork, of which we have given only a very brief abdraft. For much of the preceding parts of this
ferdion, we acknowledge our obligations to Bidrop Law’s admirable dlfcourfe on the Several Difpenfations of Re¬
vealed Religion,
I
Part II.
Theology
frdm the
fall of A-
dam to the
coming of
Chriit.
148
Great ob¬
jects of the
Jewilh law.
T H E O
them till they were tolerably attached to his government
and eftablilhed in his worfhip, and introduced them in¬
to the Promifed Land when its inhabitants were ripe
for deftruftion. ’ At their entrance into it, he gave
them a fummary repetition of their former laws, with
more fuch ordinances, doth of a ceremonial and moral
kind, as were both fuited to their temper and circum-
ftances, as well as to prefigure, and by degrees to pre¬
pare them for, a more perfed difpenfation under the
Mefliah.
The Jew!fir law had two great objeds in view; of
which the firlf was to preferve among them the know¬
ledge of the true God, a rational worfhip fpringing
from that knowledge, and the regular pradice of moral
virtue : and the fecond was to fit them for receiving the
accomplifhment of the great promife made to their an-
ceftors, by means analogous to thofe which a fchool-
mafter employs to fit his pupils for difcharging the duties
of maturer years. Every thing in that law peculiar to
itfelf, its various ceremonies, modes of facrificing, the
fandions by rvhich it was enforced, and the theocratic
government by which it xvas adminiftered, had a dired
tendency to promote one or other of thefe ends j and
keeping thefe ends in view', even the minuteft laws, at
which impious ignorance has affeded to make itfell mer¬
ry, will be difcovered by thofe who {hall ffudy the whole
fyftem, and are at the fame time acquainted with the
genius of ancient polytheifm, to have been enaded with
the mod confummate wifdom.
It is not eafy for us, who have been long bleffed with
the light of revelation, to conceive the propenfity of all
nations, in that early age of the world, to the worfhip
of falfe gods, of which they w'ere daily adding to the
number. It is indeed probable, from many paflages of
Scripture, as well as from profane authors of the great-
eft antiquity, that one fupremc numen was everywhere
acknowledged : but he rvas confidered as an extramun-
dane being, too highly exalted to concern himfelf with
the affairs' of this wmrld, the government of which, it
was believed, he had delegated to various orders of fub-
ordinate deities. Of thofe deities, fome were fuppofed
to have the charge of one nation and fome of another.
Hence it is, that w'e read of the gods of Egypt, the
gods of the Ammorites, and the gods of the different na¬
tions around Paleftine. None of thofe nations denied
the exiftence of their neighbour’s gods •, but all agreed,
that while the Egyptians were the peculiar care of Ofi-
ris and Ifis, the Amorites might be the favourites of
•Moloch, the Phoenicians of Cronus, and the Philiftines
of Dagon ; and they had no objection occafionally to
join with each other in the worfhip of their refpective
tutelary deities. Nay, it w'as thought impiety in
foreigners, while they fojourned in a ftrange country,
not to facrifice to the gods of the place. Thus Sopho¬
cles makes Antigone fay to her father, that a ftranger
fhould both venerate and abhor thofe things which are
Vol. XX. Part I.
LOGY. 3<>9
venerated and abhorred in the city where he refides j Theology
and another author *, who, though comparatively late,
drew much of his information from ancient writings,(jam t0 tjia
which are now loft, affures us, that this complaifance coming of
proceeded from the belief that the “ feveral parts of thrift.
the world were from the beginning diftributed to feveral ^
powers, of which each had his peculiar allotment anc^Avg.
refidence.”
From this notion of local divinities, whofe power or
partial fondnefs was confined to one people, the Ifraelites,
on their departure from Egypt, appear not to have been
free (z). Hence it is, that, when the true God firft
tells them, by their leader Mofesf, that if they would f Exod.
obey his voice indeed and keep his covenant, then they X1X> 5*
fhould be a peculiar treasure to him above all
people : to prevent them from luppofing that he {hared
the earth with the idols of the heathen, and had from
partial fondnefs chofen them for his portion, he immedi- 149
ately adds, for All THE EARTH is MINE. By this ad- °-
dition he gave them plainly to underftand that *^7 nation from
were chofen to be his peculiar treafure for fome purpofe peo_
of general importance 5 and the very firft article of the pie,
covenant w'hich they were to keep was, that they fhould
have no other gods but him. So inveterate, however,
was the principle winch led to an intercommunity of
the objects of worfhip, that they could not have kept
this article of the covenant but in a ftate of feparation
from the reft of mankind and that feparation could f x Sam.
neither have been effefted nor continued without thexxv‘> I9"
vifible providence of the Almighty watching over them
as his peculiar treafure. This we learn from Mofes
bimfelf, who, when interceding for the people after
their idolatrous worfhip of the golden calf, and intreat¬
ing that the prefence of God would ftill accompany
them, adds thefe words § : “ For wherein fhall it be § Exod.
known here that I and thy people have found grace inxxxiii. 16.
thy fight ? Is it not in that thou GOEST with us ? So
fhall we be separated, I and thy people, from all the
people that are on the face of the earth.” On this fe¬
paration every thing depended', and therefi^e to render
it the more fecure, Jehovah was gracioufly pleafed to be¬
come likewife their fupreme Magiftrate, making them a
“ kingdom of priefts and a holy nation,” and deliver¬
ing to them a digeft as well of their civil as of their re¬
ligious laws. 150
The Almighty thus becoming their King, the govern- of them
ment of the Ifraelites was properly a theocracy, in
theocratic
govern-
which the two focieties, civil and religious, w’ere of^ent,
courfe incorporated. They had indeed after their fettle-
ment in the Promifed Land, at firft, temporary judges
occafionally raifed up ; and afterwards permanent ma-
giftrates called kings, to lead their armies in war, and
to give vigour to the adminiftration of juftice in peace :
but neither thofe judges nor thofe kings could abrogate
a fingle law of the original code, or make the fmalleft
addition to it but by the fpirit of prophecy. They can-
3 A not
(z) It is not indeed evident that they bad got entirely quit of this abfurd opinion at a much later period. Jeph-
tha, one of their judges, who, though half oaganlzed (as Warburton obferves) by a bad education, had probably as
correft notions of religion as an ordinary Ifraelite, certainly talked to the king of Ammon as if he had believed the
different nations of the earth to be under the immediate prote&ion of different deities: “ Wilt not thou (fays he)
poffefs that which-Chemofh thy god giveth thee to poffefs ! So whomfoever the Lord our God fliall drive oyt
from before us, them will we poffefs. (Judges xi. 24.)*
3/0 T H E O
Tbeoiogy not therefore be confidered as fupreme magiftrales, by
faUofA- w^atever they may have been known j for they
dam to the were t0 g° out and come in at the word of the priefts,
coming of who were to afk counftl for them of the Lord, and with
Chnit. whom they were even ailbeiated in all judicial proceed-
v ‘ jogs as well of a civil as of a fpiritual nature *. Under
xxvii. 21. an7 °ther than a theocratic government the Hebrews
and Deut. could not have been kept feparate from the nations
•xvn. 8—13. around them j or if they could, that feparation would
not have anfwered the great purpofe for which it vras
eitablifhed. “ The people, on their leaving Egypt,
were funk into the low’eft pra£tices of idolatry. To re¬
cover them by the difeipline of a feparation, it was ne-
ceflary that the idea of God and his attributes iliould be
imprefled upon them in the moft ftnjible manner. But
this could not be commodioufly done under his charac¬
ter of God of the univerfe : under his charafter of King
of Ifrael, it well might. Hence it is, that W'e find him
in the Old Teftament fo frequently reprefented with af¬
fections analogous to human pafiions. The civil rela¬
tion in which he flood to the liraelites made fuch a re-
prefentation natural j the groffnefs of their conceptions
made the reprefentation neceffary •, and the guarded
manner in which it was always qualified prevented it
f IVarbur- from being mifehievousf,” Hence too it is, that un-
ton’s Div. der the Mofaic difpenfation, idolatry was a crime of
lj00^v' date, punifhable by the civil magillrste. It was indeed
high treafon, againfl wdiich law's were enaCled on the
julleft principles, and carried into effeCl without danger
of error. Nothing lefs indeed than penal laws of the
fevereft kind could have reftrained the violent propen-
fity of that headflrong people to worfhip, together with
their own God, the gods of the Heathen. But penal
laws enafted by human authority for errors in religion
are manifeflly unjufl ; and therefore a theocratic govern¬
ment feems to have been abfolutely neceffary to obtain
the end for which the Ifraelites w7ere feparated from the
furrounding nations.
and of the It wTas for the fame purpofe that the ritual law was
ntual Lvv> given, after their prefumptuous rebellions in the wilder-
nefs. Before the bufinefs of the golden calf, and their
frequent attempts to return into Egypt, it feems not to
have been the Divine intention to lay on them a yoke
of ordinances ; but to make his covenant depend en¬
tirely on their duly praftifing the rite of circumcifion ;
obferving the feflivals inftituted in commemoration of
their deliverance from bondage, and other fignal fervices
vouchfafed them j and keeping inviolate all the precepts
D!vi-ne ^ decalogue (a), which, if they had done, they
Lfj^bcok j,ave even f]Ved In them J. But after their re-
iv. fedl. 6. Plated apoftacies, and impious wilhes to mix with the
furrounding nations, it was neceffary to fubjeft them
to a multifarious ritual, of wdrich the ceremonial parts
were folemn and fplendid, fitted to engage and fix the
attention of a people whofe hearts w ere grofs ; to in-
fpire them with reverence, and to withdraw their affec¬
tions from the pageantry of thofe idle fuperftitions
which they had fo long witneffed in the land of Egypt.
LOGY. Part II.
To keep them warmly attached to their public worfnip, Theology
that worlhip was loaded wdth operole and magnificent *"rorn *‘ie
rites, and fo completely incorporated with their 'civil
polity as to make the fame things at once duties of re- comint of
ligion and afts of ftate. The fervice of God w'as indeed Chrift. *
lo ordered as to be the conftant bufinefs as well as enter-“V—^
tainment of their lives, fupplying the place of all other
entertainments j and the lacrifices which they wTere
commanded to offer on the moft folemn occafions, were
of fuch animals as the Egyptians and other Heathens
deemed facred. I-2
Ihus a heifer without blemiflr was in Egypt held fa-inftanced
cred to the goddefs Ifis, and woifhipped as the repre-in.theirfa'‘
Tentative of that divinity ; but the fame kind of heiferCriflCeS’
was by the ritual law of the Hebrews commanded to be
burnt without the camp, as the vileft animal, and the
water of reparation to be prepared from her athes *. *Num. xif;
The goat was by the Egyptians held in great venera¬
tion as emblematical of their ancient god Pan, and fa-
crifices of the moft abominable kind were offered to the
impure animal (fee Pan) 5 but God, by his fervant
Mofes, enjoined the Ifraelites to offer goats themfelves
as facrifices for fin, and on one occaiion to di{mil's the
live animal loaded with malediftions into the wilder-
nefsf. The Egyptians, with Angular zeal, worfhip-f Levit. xviv,
ped a calf without blemifh as the fymbol of Apis, or
the god of fertility ; and it appears from the book of
Exodus, that the Ifraelites themfelves had been infedfted
with that fuperftition. They w’ere, however, fo far
from being permitted by their Divine lawgiver to conli-
der that animal as facred, that their prieffs were com¬
manded to offer for themfelves a young calf as a fin-cf-
fering J. No animal was in Egypt held in greater ve* t Levit. is,
neration than the ram, the fymbol of their god Ammon,
one of the conflellations. It was therefore with wifdom
truly divine, that Jehovah, at the inflitution of the paf-
fover, ordered his people to kill and eat a young ram on
the very day that the Egyptians began their annual fo-
lemnities £ in honour of that animal as one of their $ Spencer
greateft gods \ and that he enjoined the blood of this di-(le Le8iburr
vinity to be fprinkled as a fign on the two fide-pofts and
upper door-poft of the houfe in which he was eaten. cap. i’v.
Surely it is not in the power of imagination to conceive
a ritual better calculated to cure the Ifraelites of their
propenfity to idol worihip, or to keep them feparate
from the people who had fiift given them that proptn-
fity, than one which enjoined them to offer in facrifice
the very creatures which their fuperffiticus mafters had
worftiipped as gods. “ Shall we (faid Mofes) facrifice
the abominations of the Egyptians before their eyes, and
will they not ftone us
But it was not againft Egyptian idolatry only that
the ritual law was framed : the nations of Syria, in the
midft of whom the li'raelites were to dwell, were addift-
ed to many cruel and abfurd fuperftitions, againft which
it was as neceffary to guard the people of God as againft
the brute-worthip of Egypt. We need not inform any
reader of the book of Mofes that thofe nations worfiiip-
peJ
(a) Of thefe precepts we think it not neciffary, in an abftradl fo ftiort as this, to wafte the reader’s time with a
farmal and laboured defence. To the decalogue no objection can be made by any man who admits the obligations
of natural religion ; for, except the obfervation of the Sabbath-day, it enjoins not a fingle duty which do£S not by
ihe confeflion ©fall menrefult from cur relations to God, ourfelves, and our fellow-creatures.
Part II. T H E O
Theology ped the fun and moon and all the holt of heaven ; or
from the wa3 part of their religion to propitiate their 01-
fall of A- fen(jecj „0ds by occafionally facrificing their fons and
dam to the daughters. From fuch worlhip and facrifices the
COChrfft° Ifraelites were prohibited under the _ fever eft penalties-,
 1 but we cannot confider that prohibition as making part
of the rituai law, fince it relates to praflices impious
and immoral in themfelves, and therefore declared to be
abominations to the Lord. The Phoenicians, however,
and the Canaanites, entertained an opinion that every
child came into the world with a polluted natut e, and
that this pollution could be removed only by a lujlral
„vlr>\he fire. Hence they took their new-born infants, and with
laws re- particular ceremonies made them pafs through the flame
fpe&ing 0f a piie facred to Baal or Moloch, the fymbols ot their
eating, and at 1 tke fun> Sometimes this purgation was cle-
drS?I fayed till the children had arrived at their tenth or
twelfth year, when they were made either to leap
through the flame, or run feveral times backwards and
forwards between two contiguous facred fires -, and this
luftration was fuppofed to free them from every natural
pollution, and to make them through life the peculiar
care of the deity in whofe honour it !was performed . .
The true God, however, who would have no feUowftiip
with idols, forbade all fuch purgations among his peo-
pie, whether done by fires coniecrated to himlelf or to
the’ bloody deities of the Syrian nations. “ There
fnall not be found (lays he) among you any one that
maketh his fon or his daughter to pafs through the
fire f •” r ,
. There are, in the Jewilh law, few precepts more fre¬
quently repeated than that which pronibits the feething
of a kid in its mother’s milk % 5 and there being no mo-
+'F , ral fitnefs in this precept when confidered abfolutely and
i9 xxxiv. 'without regard to the circumftances under which it was
given infidel ignorance has frequently thought fit to
make it the fubjecd of profane ridicule. But the ridi¬
cule will be forborne by thofe who know that, among
the nations round Judea, the feafting* on a kid boiled in
its mother’s milk rvas an effential part of the impious
and magical ceremonies celebrated in honour of one of
their cods, who was fuppofed to have been fuckled b\ a
{he-goat. Hence, in the Samaritan Pentateuch, the text
runs thus : “ Thou ftialt not feeth a kid in its mother’s
milk for whoever does fo, is as one who facrifices an
f Spencer, abominable thing, which offends the God of Jacob §.”
Another precept, apparently of very little impoitance,
is given in thefe words: “ Ye (hall not round the cor¬
ners of your heads, neither (halt thou mar the corners
of thy beard j|.” But its wifdom is feen at once, when
we know that at funerals it was the praftice of many of
the heathens, in that early period, to round the corners
of their heads, and mar their beards, that by throwing
the hairs they had cut olt on the dead body, or the fu¬
neral pile, they might propitiate the (hade of the de¬
parted hero ; and that in other nations, particularly in
Phoenicia, it was cuftomary to cut off all tne hair of
their heads except what grew on the. croun, whicn,
with great folemnity, was confecrated.either to the lun
* Spencer, or to Saturn *. The unlearned Chnftian, if he be a
man of refleflion, muft read with dome degree of won¬
der fuch laws as thefe : “ Thou fhait not fow thy vine¬
yard with divers feeds, left the fruit of tny feed which
th@u haft fown and the fruits of thy vineyard be defiled.
Thou (halt not plow with an ox and an afs together.
culture.
* Spencer,
iib. ii.
cap. 13-
Deut.
Xvii. 10. xu.
29. and
Levit. xx.
2. &c.
26. Deut.
xiv. 21.
lib. ii.
cap. 9.
fi Levit.
six. 27,
lib. ii.
cap. iS.
LOGY. 371
Thou (halt not wear a garment of divers forts, or of
woollen and linen together f.” But his wonder will fallofA_
ceafe when he knows that all thefe were practices irorn(3am to the
which the Sabian idolaters of the eaft expefted the corning of
greateft advantages. Their belief in magic.and judicial, ^ ,
aftrology led them to imagine, that by lowing different^ Deut_
kinds of corn among their vines they Ihould propitiate xx^ ^ ^
the gods which were afterwards known in Rome by the IX.
names of Bacchus and Ceres that, by yoking animals
fo heterogeneous as the ox and the afs in the lame
plough, they ftiould by a charm fecure the favour ot the
deities who prefided over the affairs of hufbandry j ana
that a garment compofed of linen and woollen, worn
under certain conjun&ions of the ftars, would proteft Us
owner, his flocks, his herds, and his field,, from all ma¬
lign influences, and render him in the higheft degree
pfofperous through the whole courfe of his life %■ ButJib^i. ' *
magical ceremonies were always performed in order tocap ^
render propitious good or evil demons (fee Magic) j 31, 33.
and therefore fuch ceremonies, however unimportant in
themfelves, were in that age moil wifely prohibited in
the Mofaic law-, as they naturally led thofe who were
addicted to them to the vvorftiip of idols and impure Ipi-
rits.
If the whole ritual of the Jewiih economy be exa¬
mined in this manner, every precept in it will be found
to be direfted againft fome idolatrous praftice of the
age in which it was given. It was therefore admirably
calculated to keep the Ifraelites a feparate people, and
to prevent too clofe an intercouife between them and
their Gentile neighbours. The diftinflion made by
their law between clean and unclean animals (iee Sla¬
very, N° 33.) rendered it impoflible for them, with¬
out a breach of that law, to eat and drink with their
idolatrous neighbours -, their facred and civil ceremonies
being direftly levelled againft the Egyptian, Zabian,
and Canaanitifh fuperftitions, had a tendency to gene¬
rate in their minds a contempt of thofe fuperftitions;
and that contempt muft have been greatly increafed by
their yearly, monthly, and daily facrifices, of the. very
animals which their Egyptian mafters had worfhipped
^ That thefe laws might have the fuller effea on minds TbeMo-
grofs and carnal, they were all enforced by femPor^enforced
fanfhons. Hence it is that Mofes affured them, tha. if by tempo-
they would hearken to God’s judgements, and keepralfanc-
them, and do them, they ftiould be bleffed above all™,
people threatening them at the fame time with utter
deflruftion if they ftiould at all walk after other gods,
and ferve them, and worfhip them §. Nor were thefe § Deut.
temporal rewards and punifhments held out only to tnePadi
nation as a colleftive body j they were piomifed and
threatened to every individual in his private capacity as
the certain confenuences cf his obedience or difobedi-
ence. Every particular Hebrew was commanded to
honour, his father and mother, that it might go well
with him, and that his days might be prolonged ; whilft
he who curbed his father or his mother was furely to.be
put to death. Againft every idolater, and even againft
the wilful tranfgreffor of the ceremonial law, God re¬
peatedly declared that he would fet his face, and would
cut off that man from among his people : and that indi¬
viduals, as well as the nation, were in this life aftually
rewarded and puniflied according to their deferts, has| T)iy. Leg.
been proved by Biftiop Warburton jj. Indeed the
3 A 2 laic 1
372 T H E O
fromSL7 faIc laW’ taken in itS 1Iteral fenfe> hoIds out no other
fall ol A- Pr°rPea:s 1:0 Israelites than temporal happinefs 3 fuch
dam to the as» health, long life, peace, plenty, and dominion, if
coining of they Ihould keep the covenant 3 and temporal mifery,
, ChmL viz- difeafes, immature death, war, famine, want, fub-
v “■ jedlion, and captivity, if they fhould break it. “ See
(lays Mofes), I have let before thee this day life and
good, death and evil ; in that I command thee this day
to love the Lord thy God, to walk in his ways, and to
keep his commandments, and his ftatutes, and his judge¬
ments, that thou mayeft live and multiply 3 and the
Lord thy God fhall blefs thee in the land whither thou
goeft to poilefs it. But it thine heart turn away, fo
that thou wilt not hear, but (halt be drawn away, and
worlhip other gods, and ferve them 3 I denounce unto
you this day, that ye fhall furely perifh, and that ye
lhall not prolong your days upon the land whither thou
paffeit over Jordan to poffefs it.” And elfewhere, ha¬
ving informed them that, upon their apoftacy, their
land fhould be rendered like Sodom and Gomorrah, he
adds, that all men fhould know the reafon of fuch bar-
rennefs being brought upon it, and ihould fay, “ Be-
caufe they have forfaken the covenant of the Lord God
* I)eut- their fathers, which he made with them when he
imxxxil brought them forth out of the land of Egypt, the anger
2<.' V" the Lord was kindled againft this land, to bring up-
155 on it all the curfes that are written in this book
Whence it From this fad, which fcarcely any man of letters will
rafldyin- ven.ture to fome dairies have concluded, that the
ferred that anc'ent Ifraelites had no hope whatever beyond the
the ancient grave 3 and that in the whole Old Teftament there is
Hebrews not a fingle intimation of a future date. That many of
hoteT- tke fower c3affes> who could neither read nor write,
yond the .were m tb's hate of darknefs, may be true 3 but it is
grave. impofTible that thofe who underftood the book of Genefis
could be ignorant that death came into the world by the
tranfgreffion of their firft parents, and that God had re¬
peatedly promifed to redeem mankind from every confe-
quence of that tranfgrefiion. They muff likewife have
known that, before the deluge, Enoch was tranflated
into heaven without taffing death 3 that afterwards Eli¬
jah had the fame exemption from the common lot of
humanity 3 and that, as God is no refpeiffer of perfons,
every one who ferved him with the zeal and fidelity of
thefe two prophets would, by fome means or other, be
made capable of enjoying the fame rewards. The God
of Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob, was not the God of the
dead, but of the living.
In the earlieff periods of their commonwealth, the Is¬
raelites could, indeed, only infer, from different paffa-
ges of their facred books, that there would be a general
refurreffion of the dead, and a future ffate of rewards
and punifhments 3 but from the writings of the prophets
it appears, that before the Babylon!fh captivity that
doflrine muff have been very generally received. In
the Pfalms, and in the prophecies of Ifaiah, Daniel,
and Ezekiel, there are' feveral texts which feem to us
to prove, incontrovertibly, that, at the time when thefe
infpired books were written, every Ifraelite who could
read the fcriptures mult have had fome hopes of a refur-
xefHon from the dead. We fhall confider two of thefe
texts, becaufe they have been quoted by a very learned
and valuable writer in fupport of an opinion the reverfe
of ours.
In a fublime fong, pompcfed with a view to incite
L O G Y. Part II.
the people to confidence in God, the prophet Ifaiah has Theology
thele remarkable words ; “ Thy dead men fhall live 3 fr°m
together with my dead body fhall they arife. Awake fal1 of A‘
and fing, ye that dwell in the duff 3 for thy dew is as
t.re dew of herbs, and the earth fhall call out the Chrift.
dead We agree with Bifhop Warburton that thefe * 1 v— ~J
words are figurative, and that they were uttered to give .156.
the Ifraelites confolation in very difaftrous limes. The
pulpofe of the prophet was to affure them, that thoughfot«h°n"
their community fhould, in Babylon, be as completely * Chap,
diffolved as a dead body reduced to dufl, yet God would xxvi- ^
reftore them to their own land, and raife that commu-
nity again to life. This was indeed a prophecy only of
a temporal deliverance 3 but as it is expreffed in terms
relating to the death and refurre&ion of man, the doc¬
trine of a refurreftion muff then have been w ell knowm
and generally received, or fuch language would have
been altogether unintelligible.
The prophet Ezekiel, when the flate of things was
moft defperate, is carried by the Spirit into a valley full
of dry bones, and afked this quellion j “ Son of man,
can thefe bones live ?” To which he anfwers 3 “ O
Lord God, thou knoweft f.” He was not afked if a//f Chap,
the dead would rife at the lall day 3 but only if the par- xxxvii. 3.-
ticular bones then prefented to him could live at that
time, and while other bones were mouldering in cor¬
ruption : and to fuch a queftion w’e cannot conceive any
anfwer that a-man brought up in the belief of a general
refurre&ipn could have given, but—“ O Lord God,
thou knoweft.Had Ezekiel been a ftranger to the
doftrme of a general refurreftion, or had he not be¬
lieved that dodlrine, he would doubtlefs have anfw'ered
the queftion that wras put to him in the negative 3 but
convinced that all men are at fome period to rife from
the dead, “ that every one may receive the things done
in his body, according to that he hath done, whether
it be good or bad,” he very naturally laid, that God
alone knew whether the bones then exhibited to him
in the valley w’culd rife before the general refurrec-
tion.
But though the more intelligent and righteous Ifrael- Th/hope
ites certainly “ all died in faith, and not having re- of the Re¬
ceived the promifes, but having feen them afar off brews,
were perfuaded of them and embraced them, confeflinghowever'
that they were ftrangers and pilgrims on earth, who de-
fired a better country, that is, a heavenly one J,” w'ekw!
are not to luppofe that this heavenly defire arofe from 1 Heb. xi,
any thing taught in the law of Mofes. That law, when 3. Re¬
taken by itfelf, as unconnedled with prior and fubfe-
quent revelations, makes no mention whatever of a hea¬
venly inheritance, which St Paul affures us § was given c r , ...
430 years before to Abraham by a promife which may
be traced back to the firft ray of comfort vouchfafed to
fallen man in the fent<yice paffed on the original de¬
ceiver. “ Wherefore then ferved the law ? It was add¬
ed (fays the apoftle), becaufe of tranfgreflions, till the
feed fhould come to whom the promife was made.’?
The tranfgreflions here alluded to were polytheifm and
idolatry, which, with a train of cruel and deteftable
vices, had overfpread the whole world ; and the pri¬
mary intention of the law was to ftem the torrent of
thefe corruptions, for which we have feen it was admi¬
rably calculated 3 and, like a fchoolmafter, to inftruft
the Ifraelites in the unity and worfhip of Jehovah, and
thus by degrees bring them to Chrift.
But
Part II.
T H E O
Theology
from the
fall of A-
dam to the
coming of
Chriit.
IS?
Why the
law was
typical.
* Heb.
x. i.
159 ,
Means ufed
to prepare
the world
for the co¬
ming of
Chrift.
But though it is apparent that a future ilate of re¬
wards and punilhments made no part of the Mofaic dif-
penfation, yet the law had certainly a fpiritual meaning
to be underftood when the fulnefs ot time Ihould come.
Every Chriftian fees a linking refemblance between the
facrifice of the pafchal lamb, which delivered the If-
raelites from the deftroying angel in Egypt, and the
facrifice of the Lamb of God, which taketh away the
fin of the world. Indeed the whole ritual of facrifice
mult have led the more intelligent of them to faith in a
future facrifice ; by which, while the heel of the feed of
the woman (hould be bruifed, the head of the ferpent
fhould be completely crulhed (fee Sacrifice) j and as
prophets were raifed up from time to time, to prepare
them for the coming of the Mefliah, and to foretel the
nature of his kingdom, there can be no doubt but that
thofe infpired teachers would lay open to them, as far
as was expedient, the temporary duration of the Mofaic
law, and convince them that it was only the fhadow of
better things to come. From the nature of their ritual,
and the different prophecies vouchfafed them, which
became more and more explicit as the time approached
for their accomplilhment, they mult furely have been
led to expeft redemption from the curfe of the fall by
the fiiiferings of their Mefiiah ; but that any one of
them knew precifely the manner in which they were to
be redeemed, and the nature of that religion which was
to fuperfede their own, is wholly incredible. Such
knowledge would have made them impatient under the
yoke of ordinances to which they were fubje£ted 5 for
after the Chriltian faith came into full fplendour, man¬
kind could be no longer under the tuition of fuch a
fchoolmafter as the law, which “ had only a jhadovo of
good things; and fo far from their reality, not even the
very image of them Through thefe fhadows, how¬
ever, the Jews, aided by the clearer light of prophecy,
though it too fhone in a dark place, might have feen
enough of God’s plan of redemption to make them ac¬
knowledge Jefus of Nazareth, when he came among
them working miracles of mercy, for the Mefliah fa
long promifed to their forefathers, and in whom it was
repeatedly faid-, that all the nations of the earth fhould
be bleffed.
While fuch care was taken to prepare the defcendants
of Abraham for the coming of the Prince of Peace, we
muft not fuppofe that God was a refpe£ter of perfons,
and that the reft of the world was totally negledted.
The difperfion of the ten tribes certainly contributed to
fpread the knowledge of the true God among the eaft-
ern nations. The fubfequent captivity of the tribes of
Judah and Benjamin muft have confirmed that know
ledge in the great empires of Babylon and Perfia ; and
that particular providence of God which afterwards led
Ptolemy Pliiladelnhus to have the Jewifh fcriptures
tranflated into the Greek language, laid the divine ora¬
cles open to the ftudy of every accompliftied fcholar.
At laft, when the arms of Rome had conquered the ci¬
vilized world, and rendered Judea a province of the
empire; when Auguftus had given peace to that em-
E ° G Y. 373
pire, and men were at leifure to cultivate the arts and Theology
fciences; when the different febls of philofophers had
by their deputations whetted each others underftandings, (jam t0 t]ie
fo that none of them was difpofed to fubmit to an im- coming of
polture ; and when the police of the Roman govern- Chrift.
merit was fuch that intelligence of every thing import- ' y
ant was quickly tranfmitted from the moft diftant pro¬
vinces to the capital of the empire j “ when that fulnefs
of time was come, God fent "forth his Son made of a
woman, made under the law, to redeem them that were
under the law, that we might receive the adoption of
Ions,” and be reftored to that inheritance of which the
forfeiture introduced the feveral difpenfations of revealed
religion into the world.
Sect. V. View of Theology more peculiarly Chrijlian*
Mankind being trained by various difpenfations of
providence for the reception of Jefus Chrift, and the
time fixed by the prophets for his coming being arrived,
“ a meffenger was fent before his face to prepare his
way before him by preaching the baptifm of repentance
for the remiftion of fins.” This meffenger was John
the Baptift, a very extraordinary man, and the greateft
of all the prophets. His birth was miraculous, the
fcene of his miniftry the wildernefs, his manners auftere,
and his preaching upright, without refpeft of perfons.
He frankly told his audience that he was not the Mef-
fiah, that the Mefliah would foon appear among them,
that “ he was mightier than himfelf, and that he would
baptife them with the Holy Ghoft and with fire.” 160
Mightier indeed he was ; for though born of a wo- ^r.lft t^e
man the Mefliah was not the fon of a human father;
and though living for the firft thirty years of his life in carnate.
obfcurity and poverty, he was the lineal defcendant of
David, and heir to the throne of Ifraeh But the dig¬
nity of his human defcent, great as it was, vanilhes
from confideration when compared with the glory which
he had wdth his Father before the world was. The
Jewifti difpenfation was given by the miniftry of Mofes,j
and illuftrated by fubfequent revelations vouchfafed to
the prophets; the immediate author of the Chriftian re¬
ligion is the Aoyos or the fecond perfon of the bleffed
Trinity, of whom St John declares, that “ he was in
the beginning with God, and wras God •, that all things
were made by him ; and that without him was not any
thirag made that was made.” We have already proved
that in the one Godhead there is a Trinity of perfons 5
and that the Mycs is one of the three, is apparent from
thefe words of the apoftle, and from many other palTa-
ges of (acred fcripture. Thus he is called the Lord of
hojls himfelf; the firjl and the lajl, hefdes whotn there is
no God; the mofl high God; God bleffed for ever ; the
mighty God, the everlqfting Father, Jehovah our righ-
teoufnefs ; and the only wife God our Saviour (b). This
great Being, as the fame apoftle affures us, was made
flefti, and cLvelt among men ; not that the divine na¬
ture was or could be changed into humanity, for God
is immutable, the fame almighty and incomprehenfible
Spirit,
(B) Ifaiah viii. 13, 14. compared with 1 Peter ii. 7, 8. j Ifaiah vi. 5. compared with John xii. 41.; Ifaiah xliv. 6-.
compared with Revelation xxii. 13. j Pfalm Ixxviii. 56. compared with 1 Corinthians x. 9. Romans ix. 5. Ifaiah
ix 6. Jeremiah xxiii. 6. Jude.
i6i
Objections
to the in¬
carnation
of the
Word.
162
obviated.
374 T H E 0
Theology Spirit yefterday, to-day, and forever 5 but the Word or
l?10*'e fecond perfon in tlie godhead, affuming a jjuman foul
aiftian n" anc^ body into a perfonal union with himfelf, dwelt up-
‘ ' on earth as a man, veiling his divinity under mortal
flelh. Hence he is faid elfewhere to have been “ mani-
feiled in the flelh,” and “ to have taken upon him the
nature of man phrafes of the fame import with that
which afferts “ the Word to have been made defh.”
This incarnation of the Son of God is perhaps the
greateft myftery of the Chriftian faith, and that to
which ancient and modern heretics have urged the moil
plaufible objeflions. The dodlrine of the Trinity is in¬
deed equally incomprehenlible } but the nature of God
and the mode of his fubfiftence, as revealed in fcripture,
no man, who thinks, can be furprifed that he does not
comprehend ; for a revelation which fhould teach
nothing mylterious on fuch a fubject would be as incre¬
dible and as ufelefs as another which contained nothing
but mystery. The difficulty refpe&ing the incarnation,
which forces itfelf on the mind, is not how two natures
fo different as the divine and human can be fo intimately
united as to become one perfon ; for this union in itfelf
is not more inconceivable than that of the foul and body
in one man} but that which at fir ft is apt to ftagger the
faith of the reflefiling Chriftian is the infinite diftance
between the two natures in Chrift, and the compara¬
tively fmall importance of the object, for the attainment
of which the eternal Son of God is faid to have taken
on him our nature.
Upon mature refleftion, however, much of this diffi¬
culty will vanifti to him who confiders the ways of Pro¬
vidence, and attends to the meaning of the words in
which this myftery is taught. The importance of the
objeft for which the Word condefcended to be made
flefti, we cannot adequately know. The oracles of truth
indeed inform us, that Chrift Jefus came into the world
to fave finners *, but there are paffages fcattered through
the New Teftament * which indicate, not obfcurely,
that the influence of his fufferings extends to other
worlds befides this : and if fo, who can take on him to
fay, that the quantity of good which they may have
produced was not of fufficient importance to move even
to this condefcenfion a Being who is emphatically ftyled
love ?
But let us fuppofe that every thing which he did and
taught and fuffered was intended Only for the benefit of
man, we {hall, in the daily adminiftration of providence,
find other inftances of the divine condefcenfion *, which,
though they cannot be compared with the incarnation
of the fecond perfon in the bleffed Trinity, are yet fuffi¬
cient to reconcile our underftanding§ to that myftery
when revealed to us by the Spirit of God. That in
Chrift there ihould have dwelt on earth “ all the fulnefs
of the Godhead bodily f,” is indeed a truth by which
the devout mind is overwhelmed with aftonifhment ;
but it is little lefs aftoniffiihg that the omnipotent Crea¬
tor fhould be intimately prefent at every inftant of time
to the meaneft of his creatures, “ upholding all things,
the vileft reptile as well as the moft glorious angel, by
1 Heb. 1. 3. (jie word 0f 'ujs power J.” Yet it is a truth felf-evident,
that without this conftant prefence of the Creator, no¬
thing which had a beginning could continue one mo¬
ment in being v that the vifible univerfe would not only
crumble into chaos, but vaniffi into nothing •, and that
the fouls of men, and even the moft exalted fpirits of
4
* Eph. i.
10. Col. i.
19, 20.
•1 Col. ii.
LOGY. Part II.
creation, would inftantly lofe that exiftence, which, as Theology
it was not of itfelf, and is not neceffary, muft depend ff0l!e IYU~
wholly on the will of Him from whom it was originally iar^an n""
derived. See Metaphysics, N° 272—276, and Pr.o- i — ^ -- >
vidence, N° 3.
In what particular way God is prefent to his works,
we cannot know. He is not diffuled through the uni¬
verfe like the anima mundi of the ancient Platonifts, or
that modern idol termed the fubflratum of [pace (Meta¬
physics, N° 309, 310) \ but that he is in power as in¬
timately prefent now to every atom of matter as when
he firft brought it into exiftence, is equally the diftate
of found philofophy and of divine revelation •, for “ in
him we live and move and have our being j” and power
without fubftance is inconceivable. If then the divine
nature be not debafed, if it cannot be debafed by being
conftantly prefent with the vileft reptile on which we
tread, wffiy ffiould our minds recoil from the idea of a
ft ill clofer union between the fecond perfon of the ever
bleffed Trinity and the body and foul of Jefus Chrift ?
The one union is indeed different from the other, but we
are in truth equally ignorant of the nature of both.
Reafon and revelation affure us that God muft be pre¬
fent to his works to preferve them in exiftence j and re¬
velation informs us farther, that one of the perfons in
the Godhead affumed human nature into a perfonal union
with himfelf, to redeem myriads of rational creatures
from the miferable confequences of their own folly and
wickednefs. The importance of this objeft is fuch, that,
for the attainment of it, we may eafily conceive that he
who condefcends to be potentially prefent with the
worms of the earth and the grafs of the field, would
condefcend ftill farther to be perfonally prefent with the
fpotlefs foul and body of a man. Jefus Chrift; lived in¬
deed a life of poverty and fuffering upon earth, but his
divine nature was not affefted by his fufferings. At the
very time when, as a man, he had not a place where to
lay his head ; as God, he was in heaven as well as upon
earth *, dwelling in light inacceffible ; and while, as a * John fib-
man, he was increafing in wifdom and ftature, his divini-13.
ty was the fulnefs of him who filleth all in all, and from
whom nothing can be hid.
Perhaps the very improper appellation of mother of
God, which at an early period of the church was given
to the Virgin Mary, may have been one caufe of the
reluctance with which the incarnation has been admit¬
ted ; for as we have elftwhere obferved (fee Nes-
torius), fuch language, in the proper fenfe of the
words, implies what thofe, by whom it is ufed, cannot
poffibly believe to be true ; but it is not the language of
fcripture. We are there taught, that “ Chrift being in
the form of God, thought it no robbery to be equal
with God ; but made himfelf of no reputation, and took
upon him the form of a fervant, and was made in the
likenefs of man f -f that “ God Tent forth his Son made j
of a woman, made under the law, to redeem them that 6, 7. *
were under the law, that we might receive the adoption
of fons and that “ the word who was in the be-t Gal. iv.'
ginning with God, and was God, by whom all things4> 5-
were made, was made flefti, and drvelt among men (who
beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten of
the Father), full of grace’and truth § but we are no- ^ jcpn p
where taught that, as God, he had a mother! It wasjl Horfey's
indeed the doftrine of the primitive church ||, that the Sermon on
very principle of perfonality and individual exiftence in the ln'ar-
Mary’s natl0”''
Part II.
T H E O
ftian.
IC|3
His divine
nature be¬
gotten of
the Father.
* Matth. i.
i.S, &cc.
Theology Mary’s fon, was union W'ith the uncreated word j and
|?orje Fj™- this doftrine is thought to imply the miraculous concep-
' ‘ ‘ 'tion, which is recorded in the plaineil: terms by two of
the evangelilts j for he wTas conceived by the Ploiy
Gholt and born of a virgin * j but, as God, he had
been begotten from all eternity of the Father, and in
order of nature was prior to the Holy Ghcit. This is
evident from the appellation of e Xoyoj given to him by
St John ; for the term being ufed in that age, both by
the Jewilh rabbies and the heathen philclophers, to de-
Lw i. 27. note the feconcj divine fubliftence, which they confidered
as an eternal and neceffary emanation from the hrft,
fsmetimes called Txyxisv and fometimes to evj and the
apoftle giving no intimation of his ufing the word in any
uncommon fenfe, we mull neceffarily conclude, that he
meant to inform us that the divinity of Chrift is of eter¬
nal generation. That the term was ufed in this
fenfe by the later Platonifts, and in all probability by
Plato bimfelf, we have fufficiently (hewn in another
place (lee Platonism) ; and that a fimilar mode of ex-
preffion prevailed among the Jews in the time of St
John, is apparent from the Chaldee paraphrafe ; which,
in the noth pfalm, inftead of the words “ the Lord
faid unto my Lord,” has, “ the Lord faid unto his
WORD.” Again, where we are told in the Hebrew
j- Gen. xv. that Jehovah laid to Abraham f, “ I am thy Ihield and
I* thy exceeding great reward,” we read in the Chaldee,
“ my wrORD is thy fhield, and thy exceeding great re¬
ward.” Where it is laid, “ your new moons and your
appointed feafts my foul hateth J,” the paraphratl hath
it, “ my word hateth 5” and where it is faid, that
“ Ifrael {ball be faved in the Lord with an eveilafting
falvation §,” in the fame paraphrafe it is, “ Ifrael fhall
be faved by the wTORD of the Lord wdth everlafling fal¬
vation.” But there is a paffage in the Jerulalem Tar-
gum which puts it beyond a doubt, that by the A«yas
the Jews underilood a divine perfon begotten of his Fa¬
ther before all worlds j for commenting on Genelis iii.
22. the authors of that work thus exprefs themfelves:
“ The' w’ORD of the I^ord faid, behold Adam, whom I
created, is the only begotten upon earth, as I am the
only BEGOTTEN IN heaven in conformity with
|| De Agri- which, Philo introduces || the Logos fpeaking thus of
cult. lib. ii. himfelf j K«t< yatg ov\i «ysv»j]«j as 6iog av, yivvrflos as
vuus. I am neither unbegotten, as God, nor begotten
after the fame manner as you are.
From thefe quotations we may juflly conclude, that
the Nicene fathers expreffed themfelves properly when
cene creed, they declared that the only begotten Son of God was
begotten of his Father before all worlds, and is God of
f Ifaiah i.
14.
§ Ifaiah
xlv. 17.
164
Orthodoxy
of the Ni~
LOGY. 375
God ; for if St John had believed the *«yej or W'ORD to Theology
be unbegotten, contrary to the belief of all who made Pf^j”
ufe of the phrafe at the time when he wrote, he would*
furely have expreffed his diffent from the generally re- u—y—j
ceived opinion. This however he is fo far from doing,
that he gives the ampleft confirmation of that opinion,
by declaring, that “ he beheld the glory of the WORD
incarnate as the glory of the only begotten of the Fa¬
ther j” for this declaration is true only of the divinity
of Chrift, his human nature not being begotten of the
Father, but conceived by the Holy Ghoft of the Virgin
Mary. Hence our bleffed Lord affures us, that “ as
the Father hath life in himself, fo hath he given the
Son to have life in himlelf j” that “ the Son can do no¬
thing of himfelf but what he feeth the Father do * j” * ^Jolm
and that “ he knew the Father, becaufe he was from v‘ 2 ' I9‘
him and fent by him f.” We muft therefore agree withf Jo^n V11>
Bilhop Pearfon (c), that “ though the Father and Son
are both truly God, and therefore equal in refpeft of
nature, yet the one is greater than the other, as being
the fountain of the Godhead. The Father is God, but
not of God; Light, but not of Light. Chrift is God,
but o/God ; Light, but 0/Light. There is no differ¬
ence or inequality in the nature or efience, becaufo the
fame in both ; but the Father of our Lord Jefus Chrift;
hath that effence of himfelf, from none ; Chrift hath the
fame effence, not of himfelf, but from him.” I(j^
The great purpofe for which this divine perfon wasPurpofe
fent into the world, was to bruife the head of the fer- f°r wfoch
pent, and reftore mankind to the inheritance which had
been forfeited by Adam’s tranfgreffion. Every difpen-
fation of Providence from the fall had been preparatory
to this reftoration. Prophets had been raifed from time
to time to preferve in the early ages of the world the
knowledge and worftiip of the true God : the children
of Abraham had been feparated from the furrounding
nations for the fame purpofe ; and by the difperfion of
the ten tribes, the captivity of the other two in Babylon,
and the tranflation of the Hebrew fcriptures into the
Greek language, much of the knowledge which had
been revealed to the Ifraelites was gradually diffuled
over the eaftern world.
But while the Jews were thus rendered the inftru-
ments of enlightening the heathen nations of antiquity,
their intercourfe with thofe nations made them almoft
unavoidably acquainted with the philofophy which was
cultivated among the Chaldeans, the Perfians, and the
Egyptian Greeks ; and ingrafting many of the opinions -
derived from thofe fchools upon the doftrines of Mofes
and the prophets, they corrupted their own religion
while
(c) We beg leave to recommend to our readers this author’s excellent expofition of the apoftle’s creed, as a
work which will render them great affiftance in acquiring juft notions of the fundamental articles of the Chriftian
faith. They will find it, we think, a complete antidote againft: the poifon of modern Unitarians and modern Tri-
theifts •, of whom the former teach that Jefus Chrift was a mere man, the fen of Jofeph as well as of Mary 5 while
the latter, running to the other extreme, maintain, that, with refpeft to his divinity, he is in no fenfe fubordinate
to the Father, but might have been the Father, the Son, or the Holy Ghoft, according to the good pleafure of
the eternal three. We have been at fome pains to prove his divinity, and likewife his eternal generation 5 but in
foch a ftrort compend as we muft give, it feems not to be worth while to prove his miraculous conception. That
miracle is plainly affeited in the New Teftament in words void of all ambiguity 5 and as it is furely as eafy for God
to make a man of the fubftance of a woman as of the duft of the earth, we cannot conceive what ftiouid have in¬
duced any perfon profefiing Chriftianity to call it in queftion. The natural generation of Chrift is a grcundlefr
fancy, which can ferve no purpofe whatever, even to the Unitarians,
376 T H E O
Theology while they improved trial of their neighbours. Hence,
harT Cliri" ^ t^ie t^me that Chrift came among them, they had
aftfan'iri"made the word of God of none efteft through a number
i—-v——i of idle fancies which they inculcated on the people as
166 the traditions of the elders 5 and as they had attached
Cf°thUPJ °n themfelves to different mailers in philofophy, their un-
at the time’autk°r'fed opinions were of courfe different according to
of his co- the different fources whence they were drawn. The
ming. peculiar tenets of the Essenes feem to have .been a
fpecies of myflic Platonifm. The Pharisees are thought
to have derived their origin from a Jewifh philofopher of
the Peripatetic fchool j and the refemblance between the
dodlrines of the Sadducees and the philofophy of Epi¬
curus has efcaped no man’s obfervation.
Though thefe feels maintained mutual communion in
public worfhip, they abhorred each other’s diflinguifhing
tenets } and their wranglings had nearly banifhed from
them every fenliment of true religion! They agreed,
however, in the general expectation of the Meffiah pro-
•snifed to their fathers 5 but, unhappily for themfelves,
expeCled him as a great and temporal prince. To this
miflake feveral circumflances contributed : fome of their
prophets had foretold his coming in lofty terms, borrow¬
ed from the ritual law, and the fplendor of earthly mo¬
narch?. The neceffity of cafting this veil over thole
living oracles we have fhewn in another place (fee Pro¬
phecy, N° 17.). At the time when the predictions
were made, the Mofaic fyflem had not run out half its
courfe, and was therefore not to be expofed to popular
contempt by an information that it was only the harfh
rudiment of one more eafy and perfeCt. To prevent,
however, all miltakes in the candid and impartial, when
the Meiliah Ihould arrive with the credentials of mira¬
culous powers, other prophets had deferibed him in the
cleat eft terms: as having no form nor comelinefs, as a
Iheep dumb before his Ihearers, and as a lamb brought
to the flaughter •, but the Jews had fuffered fo much
from the Chaldeans, the Greeks, and other nations by
whom they bad been conquered, and were then fuffer-
ing fo much from their mafters the Romans, that they
could think of no deliverance greater than that which
fhould refeue their nation from every foreign yoke.
What men earneftly wilh to be true, they readily be¬
lieve. Hence that people, lofing fight of the yoke un¬
der which they and the whole human race were brought
by the fall of Adam, miftaking the ftnfe of the blefling
promifed to all nations through the feed of Abraham,
and devoting their whole attention to the moft magni¬
ficent deferiptions. of the Mefliah’s kingdom, expeCfed
in him a prince who fhould conquer the Romans, and
eftablifh cn earth a univerfal monarchy, of which Jeru-
167 falem was to be the metropolis.
The ob- as our Saviour came for a very different purpofe, the
Stw 8Aobi,a of H3m:ffion was to reCtify the notions of his
*ire C erring countrymen, in order to fit them for the deliver¬
ance which they were to obtain through him. Accord¬
ingly, when he entered on his office as a preacher of
rigbteoufnefs, fie embraced every opportunity cf inveigh¬
ing againft the falfe doftrines taught as traditions,of.the
elders’, and by his knowledge of the fecrets of all
hearts, he expofed the vile hypocrify of thofe who made
a gain of godlinefs. The Jews had been led, by their
feparation from the reft of the world, to confider them-
felves as the peculiar favourites of Jehovah •, and the
cenfequence was, that, contrary to the fpirit of their
4
LOGY. ' Part II.
own law, and the explicit doCfrines of fotne of their pro- Theology
phets, they looked on all other nations with abhorrence,
as on people phyfically impure. Thefe prejudices the iar^-arim~
bleffed Jefus laboured to eradicate. Having defired a u—v-... j
lawyer, by whom he was tempted, to read that part of
the law of Mofes which commanded the Ifraeliles to
love their neighbours as themfelves, he compelled him,
by means of a parabolical account of a compaffionate
Samaritan, to acknowledge, that under the denomina¬
tion of neighbour the divine lawgiver had comprehended
all mankind as the objeCls of love *. The importance * St Luke
in which Mofes held the ritual law, and to which, asx- 25—33-
the means of preferving its votaries from the contagion
of idolatry, it was juftly intitled, had led the Jews to
confider every ceremony of it as of intrinfic value and
perpetual obligation : but Jefus brought to their recol-
leflion God’s declared preference of mercy to facrifice ;
fnewed them that the weightier matters of the law,
judgement, mercy, and faith, claimed their regard in
the firft place, and its ceremonial obfervances only in
the fecond •, and taught them, in conformity with the
prediftions of their own prophets f, that the hour was f Jeremiah
about to come when the worlhip of God ftiould notxxxi. 31,
be confined to Jerufalem, but that “ true worftnppers&c’
fliould everywhere worlhip the Father in fpirit and in
truth 4.” I John iv*
It being the defign of Chrift’s coming into the world 25—:17’
to break down the middle wall of partition between the
Jews and Gentiles, and to introduce a new difpenfation
of religion which (hould unite all mankind as brethren
in the worlhip of the true God, and fit them for the
enjoyment of heaven he did not content himfelf with
merely reftoring the moral part of the Mofaic law to its
primitive purity, difencumbered of the corrupt gloffes of
the Scribes and Pharifees, but added to it many fpiritual
precepts, which, till they were taught by him, had
never occurred either to Jew or Gentile. The Hebrew
lawgiver had prohibited murder under the penalty of
death ; but Chrift extended the prohibition to caufelefs
anger, and to contemptuous treatment of our brethren,
commanding his followers, as they valued their everlaft-
ing falvation, to forgive their enemies, and to love all
mankind. Adultery was forbidden by the law of Mofes
as a crime of the deepeft dye ; but Jefus faid to his dif-
ciples, “ that whofoever lookelh on a woman to lull
after her, hath committed adultery with her already in
his heart,” and is of courfe liable to the Divine ven¬
geance. The /fx talionis was in force among the Jews,
fo that the man who had deprived his neighbour of an
eye or a tooth, was to fufiFer the lofs of an eye or a tooth
himfelf; but this mode of punilhment, which inflifted
blemifl: for b/emijh, though fuited to the hardnefs of
Jewilh hearts, being inconfiftent with the mild fpiiit of
Chriflianity, was abolilhed by our blefled. Lord, who
feverely prohibited the indulgence of revenge, and com¬
manded his followers to love even their enemies. Per¬
jury has in every civilized nation been juftly confidered
as a crime of the higheft atrocity, and the Mofaic law
doomed the falfe witnefs to bear the punilhment, what¬
ever it might be, which he intended by fwearing falfely
to bring on his brother ; but the Author of the Chriffian
religion forbade not only falfe fwearing, but fuearir g at
all, except on folemn occafions, and when an oath fhould
be required by legal authority. See Oath.
By thus reftoring the law to its original purity, and
in
i6S
In which
he execu¬
ted the of¬
fice of a
prophet.
| Deut.
xviji. ij.
xdp
His ftriift
Part IT. r H E O
Theology in many cafes extending its fenfe, the blefled Jelus exe-
more pecu- cuted L|ie 0ffice Qf a Prophet to the loll (beep ot the
liarly Chri- jlou^. 0£ I£rat;j . but had he not been more than an ordi-
, nary prophet, he could not have abrogated the molt tri¬
vial ceremony of it, nor even extended the ienfe of any
of its moral precepts for their great lawgiver had told
them, that “ the Lord their God would raife up unto
them’ but one Prophet, like unto him, to whom they
(hould hearken That Prophet was by themfelves
underftood to be the Mtfliah, whom they expecfed to
tell them all things. It was neceffary therefore that
Jefus, as he taught fome new' doarines, and plainly in¬
dicated that greater changes would foon be introduced,
Ihould vindicate his claim to that exalted character w Inch
alone could authorife him to propofe innovations. I his
he did in the ampleft manner, by fulfilling prophecies and
working miracles (fee Miracle and Propheci ) } fo
that the unprejudiced part of the people readily acknow¬
ledged him to be of a truth » that prophet which ihould
come into the world—the Son of God, and the King o
Ifrael.” He did not, however, make any change in the
national worfliip, or affume to himfelf the fmalleft civil
authority. He had fubmitted to the rite of circumcifion,
Obedience and flriftly performed every duty, ceremonial as well as
the law. moral, which that covenant made incumbent on other
Jews 5 thus fulfilling all righteoufnefs. 1 hough the re¬
ligion which he came to propagate was m many rejped.s
contrary to the ritual law, it could not be eftabhfhed,
or that law abrogated, but in confequence of his death,
which the fyftem of facrifices was appointed to prefigure j
and as his kingdom, which was not of this world, could
not commence till after his refurreamn, he yielded
during the whole courfe of his life a cheerful obedience
to the civil magxttrate, and wrought a miracle to obtain
money to pay the tribute that was exafted of him. Be¬
ing thus circumflanced, he chofe from the loweft and
leait corrupted of the people certain followers, whom he
treated with the moft endearing familiarity for three
years, and commiflioned at his departure to promulgate
fuch do&rines as, confidently with the order of di¬
vine difpenfations, he could not perfonally preach him¬
felf. With thefe men, during the courfe of his mimdry
on earth, he went about continually doing good, heal¬
ing the fick, calling out devils, railing the dead, reprov¬
ing vice, preaching righteoufnefs, and inftruamg his
countrymen, by the mod perfeft example which was
ever exhibited in the world, of whatfoever things are
true, or honed, or jud, or pure, or lovely, or ol good re¬
port. The Scribes and Pharifees, however, finding him
not that conqueror whom they vainly expe&ed,
ing envious of his reputation among the people, and be¬
ing filled with rancour againd him for detecting their
hypocritical arts, delivered him up to the Roman gover¬
nor who, though convinced of his innocence, yielded
to the popular clamour, and crucified him between two
thieves, as an enemy to Csefar. . . .
jud before he expired, he faid. It is fimfhed, intima¬
ting that the purpofe was now fulfilled for which he had
come into the world, and which, as he had former y
told his difciples, “ was not to be minidered unto, but
Out w to minider, and to give his life a ranfom for many |J.
a Maun.xx. ^or blood> as he affured them at the mditution of
the Eucharift, “ was to be died for the remdTion of
fins.’VThat Chrift died voluntarily for us, the jud for the
unjuft, and that “ there is none other name under hea-
Vol. XX. Part L
LOGY. 377
ven given among men whereby we muft be faved,” is Theology
the uniform dodrine of the prophets who foretold his
coming, of John the Baptift who was his immediate har-' ‘ ltjan/
binger, and of the apollles and evangelifts who preached  
the gofpel after his afcenlion into heaven, ihus Ilaiah i?0
fays of the Meffiah *, that “ he was wounded for our
tranfgredions, and bruifed for our iniquities; that the £or us>
chaltilement of our peace was upon him, and that with * chap*
his ftripes we are healed \ that we had all like ftieep goneliii.
allray, turning every one to his own way, and that the
Loid laid on him the iniquity of us all } that he was
cut out off out of the land of the living, and ftricken
for the tranlgreflion of God’s people; that his loul or hie
was made an oftering for fin ; and that he core the fin
of many, and made interceflion for the tranlgreffors.”
The Baptift, “ when he faw Jefus coming unto him, faid
to the people, Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh
away the fin of the world plainly intimating that hi*
death was to be a facrifice, fince it was only as a iacnfice
that the Jews could form any conception of a lamb ta¬
king away fin. I he epiftles of St Paul are fo full ot
the doflrine of Chriil’s fatisfa&ion, that it is needlefs to
quote particular texts in proof of it. He tells the Ro¬
mans, that Jefus Chrift was fet forth to be a propitiation
through faith in his blood ; he was delivered for our of¬
fences, and “ raifed again for our juftification ; that he
died for the ungodly ; and that God commendeth his
love towards us, in that while we were yet finners Chrilt
died for u$.” He affures the Corinthians that Chrift
died for all j that they who live fhould not henceforth
live unto themfelves, but to him who died for them and
rofe again ; and that God made him to be fin for us, who
knew no fin, that we might be made the righteoufnefs of
God in him.” He informs the Galatians, that Chrift
“ gave himfelf for our fins, that he might deliver us
from this prefent evil world, according to the will of
God and our Father; and that he redeemed us from the
curfe of the law, being made a cprfe for us.” St Peter
and St John fpeak the very fame language ; the former
teaching us, that “ Chrift fuffered for us, and bare out-
fins in his own body on the tree f ; the latter, that the f. 1 Peter
blood of Jefus Chrift cleanfeth us from all fin, and that^21’ an
he is the propitiation for our fins ; and not for our fins
only, but alfo for the fins of the whole world J.” That j i John u
he came into the world for the purpofe of fuffering, ap-7- u- 2-
pears from his own words : for “ no man (faid he § ) ta- § St Joh*
keth my life from me, but I lay it down of myfelf: lx. 18.
have power to lay it down, and I have power to take
it again. This commandment have I received from my
Father.” And that he voluntarily laid it down for
mankind, is evident from his calling himfelf the Goody 7^
Shepherd, and adding, that “the Good Shepherd gi-ver ir.
veth his life for the (beep jj.”
That Chrift died for the benefit of the human race,
a truth fo apparent from thefe texts, that no man profef-r£fpe(ain»
fing Chriftianity has hitherto called it in queftion. Very the nature
different opinions have been formed indeed concerning and extent
the nature and extent of that benefit, and the means by
which it is applied ; but that the paflion and death of the ^Uflora
bleffed Jefus were effential parts of his miniftry on earth,dead*-
has feldom been controverted. That on the crofs he
made fatisfa£Hon to his Father for the fins of the world,
is the general belief of Chiiftians ; but prefumptuous
men, aiming at being wife beyond what is written, have
darted a thoufand idle queftions concerning the neceflitv
^ B ot
378
T H E O
-theology of fucli fatisra&ion, ana tlie manner In which it was
lu'iiVchri- macle* Sonic limiting the power and mercy of the Om-
ftian. nipotent, have dared to affirm that God could not have
'—-y——/ pardoned man without receiving full fatisfaflion for his
offences j that nothing but the (bedding of the blood of
Cmift could make that iatisfacflion j that his death was
indeed fufficient to atone for a thoufand worlds j that,
however, he did not die for all mankind, but only for a
chofen few, ordained to eternal life by a ferret decree
before the foundation of the w:orld j and that the reft
ot tne race are pafled by, and doomed to eternal perdi¬
tion, for the glory of God’s juftice. Oihers, convinced
by every thing around them that the Creator and Gover¬
nor of the univerfe is a being of infinite benevolence,
whole only end in giving life muft have been to com¬
municate liappinefs, have contended, that no atonement
whatever could be neceflary to obtain from him the for-
givenefs of fin on fir-cere repentance ; that it is con¬
trary to all our notions of juftice to puniih the innocent
for the guilty ; and that therefore the death of Chrift,
though the eflential part of his miniftry, could not be
neceffary, but at the moft expedient.
We enter not into thefe debates. The Scriptures have
nowhere find what God could or could not do ; and on
this fubjedt we can know nothing but what they have
taught us. J hat. “ we are reconciled to God by the
ceath of his Son,” is the principal dodfrine of the New
1 eftament j and without prefuming to limit the power,
the mercy, or the w fdom, of him who created and
fuftains the univerfe, we (hall endeavour to ftiow7 that it
is a dodtrine worthy of all acceptation. In doing this,
we (hall ftate impartially the opinions which pious men
have held refpedting the form or manner in which Chrift
by his death made fatisfadfion to God for the fins of the
wo.sld j and we hope that our readers will embrace that
opinion which (hall appear to them moft confionant to
I?4 the general fenfe of (acred Scripture.
Opinions ne ftridteft adherents to the theological fyftem of
of the Cal- Calvin, interpreting literally fuch texts of Scripture as
vimfts fpeak of h:s being made fin for us, of bis bearing our
fins in his own body on the tree, and of the Lord’s lay¬
ing on him the iniq ity of us all, contend, that the fins
°f the eledt were lifted off from them and laid on Chrift
by imputation, much in the fame way as they think the
fin of Adam is Imputed to bis pofterify. “ By bearing
* ffdy °f the fins of his people (fays Dr Gill*) he took them off
Divinity,
vol. ii.
booh iii.
chap. v.
3 4-
fiom them, and took them upon h mfelf, bearing or
carrying them, as a man bears or carries a burden on
his (boulders. I here was no fin m him inherently, for
if there had, he would not have been a fit perfon to
make fatisfadfion for it ; but fin was put upon him by his
Divine Father, as the fins of ffie Ifraelites were put upon
the fcape-goat by Aaron. No creature (continues he)
could have done this; but the Lord hath laid on him,
or made to meet on him, the iniquity of us all, not a
fingle iniquity, but a wffiole mafs and lump of fins col-
ledted together ; and laid as a common burden upon
b m . even the fins of all the eledl of God. 'Phis < hrafe
of laying fin on Chrift is expreffive of the imputation of
it to him j for it w7as the wall of God not to impute the
L ° G Y. Fart It.
tranfgreffions of his elecl to themfelves, but to Chrift, Theology
w-hich w7as done by an act of his own 5 for he hath mademore Pecn-
him to be fin for us, that is, by imputation, in which^ar,p
way we are made the righteoufnefs of God in him ; that ■ ltl‘a‘' ■
being imputed to us by him as our fins were to Chrift.
i he ienfe (fays cur author) is, a charge of fin was
brought againft him as the furety of his people. He was
numbered with the tranfgreffors j for bearing the fins of
many, he w7as reckoned as if he had been a (inner him-
felf, fin being imputed to him ; and he was dealt with
as fuch. Sin being found upon him by imputation, a
demand of fatisfadtion for fin was made, and he anfwered
it to the full. All this was with his own confent. Fie
agreed to have fin laid upon him, and imputed to him
and a charge of it brought againft him, to which he en¬
gaged to be refponfible ; yea, he himfelf took the fins
of his people upon him ; fo the evangelift Matthew has
it, ‘ Fie himfelf took our infirmities, and bore our fick-
nefiesf.’ As he took the nature of men, fo he took f Chaw
then fins, which made his flefli to have the lihenefs oyOV/.viii. 17.
fulflejh, though it really was not linful. What Cnrift
bore being laid upon him, and imputed to him, were
fns of all forts, original and adtual; fins of every kind,
open and fecret, of heart, lip, and life 5 all afts of fin
committed by his people, for he has redeemed them
from all their iniquities j and God, for Chrifl’s fake
forgives all trefpaffes, his blood cleanfes frcm all fin. and
his righteoufnefs juftifies from all j all being imputed to
him as that is to them. Bearing fin fuppofes it to be a
bin den j and indeed it is a burden too heavy to bear by
a fenfible (inner (e). When fin is charged home upon
the conicience, and a faint groans, being burdened with
it, what muft that burden be, and how heavy the load
which Chrift bore, confiding of all the fins of all the
eleft from the beginning of the world to the end of it ?
and yet he funk not, but flood up under it ; failed not,
nor was he difcouraged, being the mighty God, and the
IVIan of God’s right hand, made ftrong for himfelf.”
To the Arminians or Remonftrants, this dodfrine ofobjedled
the imputation of the fins of men to the Son of God ap-to.J
pears as abfurd as the fimilar doflrine of the imputation
of the fin of Adam to his unborn pofterity 5 and it is
certainly attended with confequences which have alarm¬
ed ferious Chriftians of other denominations.
Were it poffible in the nature of things, fays the Ar-
minian, to transfer the guilt of one perfon to another,
and to lay it upon him as a burden, it could not be done’
without violating thofe laws of equity which are efta-
blifhed in the fcripture and engraven on the human
heart. But this is not ^ poffible. To talk of lifting
lumps of fin, or transferring them like burdens from the
guilty to the innocent, is to titter jargon, fays he, which
has no meanings and we might with as much propriety
fpeak of lifting a ffiarlet colour from a piece of cloth and
laving i on the found of a trumpet, as of literally lift,
in? the fins of the eleft from them and laying them on
Chrffi. Guilt is feated in the mind ; and" no man can
become a finner but by an a£l of volition. If Chrift
therefore really^ took upon him the fins of his people, he
muft have deliberately formed a wifh to have a&ually
committed
(e) By the phrafe a fenfble fnner,
fcience alive to the fenfe of remorfe.
the learned author means a finner who is not paft feeling, but has a con.
Part II. T H E O
Theology committed all thefc fins ; but fuch a wuh, though it
more pecu- Would have made him inherently guilty, and therefore
^ncaPa^^e °f fatisfying for fin, could not have cancelled
l„ ' deeds that were done before he was born, or have made
thofe innocent w'ho really had been finners. A deed
once done cannot be undone j a volition w’hich has been
formed cannot be annihilated. By fincere repentance,
the habitual difpofitions are indeed changed, and thofe
who have been finners become objects of mercy; but no
power can recal the hours that are part, or make thofe
actions which have been performed to have been not per¬
formed. To remove guilt from the finner and lay it on
the innocent may therefore be lafely pronounced impof-
fible even for Omnipotence itfelt, for it implies that a
thing may be and not be at the fame inftant of time ;
and the doftrine which teaches that this removal was
made from the ele£t to Chrill, is an imagination of yef-
terdav, which has no countenance from fcripture, and is
contrary to the eftablifired conftitution of things. Thofe
who imagine that guilt may be propagated from father
to fon, have fomething like an argument to urge for the
imputation of Adam’s fin to his numberlefs pofterity ;
for all the men and women w7ho have by ordinary gene¬
ration been introduced into the world, have undoubtedly
derived their nature from the primeval pair. But Chrift
did not derive bis nature from the eleEl, that their fins
ftiould be communicated to him ; nor, as he was mira-
culoully conceived by the Holy Ghoft, can wre attribute
to him any degree of that taint which is fuppofed to
have been conveyed from Adam to all the other genera-
tionsofmen.
Texts on Nothing more, therefore, can be meant by “ Chrift’s
which they ijeJng ma(le fin for us,” and “ bearing our fins in his
are built own body on the tree,” or by God’s “ laying upon him
cxpiaint . ^ iniqUity of us all,” than that by his fufferings we
are freed from the puniftiment of our fins ; it being in
fcripture a common figure of fpeech, as even Dr Gill
has fomewhere acknowledged, to denote by the wordyfo
the confequences of fin. That this figure is ufed in thofe
texts from which he infers that Chrift took the fins of the
eledl: on himfelf, is evident from the verfe which he quotes
from the '-ofpel of St Matthew ; in which it is faid,
tliat “ himlelf took our infirmities and bore our ficknef-
fes.” The ficknefies and infirmities there alluded to are
the leprofy, the palfy, the fever, and demoniacal pof-
feflions : but when our bleffed Lord cured tbefe difeafes,
furely he did not by his omnipotent word lift them oft
from the patients and take them on himfelf, fo as a£tu-
ally to become a leper, a paralytic, and a daemonic, or
even to be reckoned as fuch either by the multitude, or
by the priefts, whofe duty it was to take cognizance of
•* Levit. every illegal uncleannefs * And if his inveterate ene-
xiii. mies did not impute to him the leprofy when he removed
that plague from others, why fhould it be fuppofed that
his own Father, to whom he was at all times well-plea-
fiug, imputed to him the fins of which, by bis fuffer¬
ings, be removed the puriftiment from thofe who were
guilty ? To impute to a perfon any aftion, whether vir¬
tuous or vicious, which he did not perform, can proceed
only from ignorance, or malice, or partiality; but God
is no refpedler of perfons, and from ignorance and ma¬
lice he is removed to an infinite diftance. It is indeed
an undoubted truth, that “ the Lord Jefus, by his per-
fe£t obedience and facrifice of himfelf, which he through
the eternal fpirit once offered up unto God, hath fully
LOG Y. 379
fatisfied the juftice of his Father ; and purchafed not
only reconciliation, but an everlafting inheritance in the
kingdom of heaven for all thofe whom the lather hath fiian.
given him f ;” but that he actually took on himfelf the > 
fins of mankind, or that thofe fins were imputed to him t ConfeJJioti
by God, who puniftied him as a perfon whom he confi-®/^1^
dered as guilty, is a dodlrine equally injurious to the i 5j'
juftice of the Father and to the immaculate purity ofJ
the Son. , I7S
The earnefinefs with which this doclrine was inculca- They have
ted by fome of the earlieft reformers, and the impoffibi- ^“^butcd
lity of admitting it, which every reflifting and unpi e" to make
judiced mind muff feel, was probably one of the caufes Socinus
which drove Socinus and his followers to the other ex-deny the
treme of denying Chrift’s fatisfadlion altogether, and re(jeinp_
confidering his death as nothing more than that of _antlon<
ordinary martyr, permitted for the purpofe of attefting
the truth of his do&rine, and paving the way for his
refurre&ion, to confirm the great promife of immorta¬
lity. According to thefe men, forgivenefs is freely dif-
penfed to thofe who repent, by the effential goodnefs of
God, without regard to the merit or fufferings of any
other being ; and the gofpel is laid to lave from fin, be-
caufe it is the moft perfo£i leffon of righteoufnefs. The
great objection ol Crelhus to the doctrine ot the fatisfac-
tion is, that it is* a hinderance to piety ; for if Chrift
has paid the whole debt, he thinks that he mull have
nothing to do, as nothing more can be required of
us. And if it were indeed true that our fins are impu¬
ted to Chrift, and his righteoufnefs imputed to us, this
cbjeftion wotild be infurmountable ; for God could not
juftly exatt a double punilbment for the fame fin, or in-
flidft mifery on thofe to whom he imputes perfeft righ¬
teoufnefs. But as to this imaginary transferring of vir¬
tues and vices from one perfon to another, the fcriptures
give no countenance ; fo they nowhere call the death ot
Chrift a fatisfaBion for the fins of men. The term has
indeed been long in ufe among divines, and when pro¬
perly explained it may be retained without any danger ;
but in treating of this fubjeft, it would perhaps be more
prudent to reftrift ourfelves to the ufe of fcripture lan¬
guage, as the word fatisfaBion carries in it the ideas of
a debt paid and accepted ; whereas it is faid by Si Paul,
that “ eternal life is the gift of God through Jefus Ch.ift
our Lord; and that we are juftified freely by his grace
through the redemption that is in Jeius Chn'l, whom
God hath fet forth to be a propitiation through faith in
his blood.” _ 176
To clear up this matter, and attain adequate notions ofThe death
redemption and juftification, it will be neceffary to look^
back to the fall of our firft parents; for the great pur-J^ind
pofe for which Chrift was pvomifed, and for which he wiiat they
came into the world, was, by bruifing the head of the had loft in
ferpent, to reftore mankind to the inheritance which
they had loft through the tranfgreflion of Adam. This
is apparent not only from the original promife made to
the woman, but alfo from different paffages in the
epiftles of St Paul, who exprefsly calls Chrift the fecond
Adam, and fays, that, “ as by the offence of one, judge¬
ment came upon all men to condemnation; even fo by
the rigbteoufnefs of one, the free gift came upon all
men unto juftification of life ;” that “ as by one man’s
difobedience many were made finners, fo by the obedi¬
ence of one fhall many be made righteous;” and that,
** as in Adam all die, even fo in Chnft iliall all be made
3 B 2 al^ve.’,
3«o
Theology
more pecu¬
liarly Chri-
ftian.
■f Ch. i. ver,
a 3.
* Heb. ix.
26. x ThelT.
v 10.
Titus ii.
U-
| Rom. v.
10. 2 Cor.
V. ICf.
177
Moderate
Calvinilts
and Re-
irionltrants
cf the lame
Opinion.
T78
X)o6trine of
the more
zealous Ar-
ijiinians.
T H E O
alive.” Hence it was that John the Baptift, when he
law Jefus coming to him, faid to his difciples f, “ Behold
the Lamb of God which taketh away, not ihe jins, but
the Jin of the world,” evidently alluding to Adam’s fin
and its confequences, fince no other fin was ever com¬
mitted of which the confequences extend to the whole
world. %
This being the cafe, it is undeniable, that whatever wTe
loft in the firft Adam is reflored to us by the fecond 5 and
therefore they wrho believe that the puniihmentdenounced
againft eating the forbidden fruit was death corporal, fpi-
ritual, and eternal, muft believe that we are redeemed
from all thele by Chrift j who having “ appeared once
in the end of the world to put away fin by the facrifice of
himfelf, died for us, that whether we wake or deep, we
fhculd live together with him If the image of God
in which man was created was loft by the breach of the
firft covenant, it is more than reftored to us “ by the
Mediator of a better covenant, which is eftablifhed upon
better promifes 5” if by the fin of Adam we were utter¬
ly indifpofed, difabled, and made oppofite to all that is
Ipiritually good, and wholly inclined to all evil, and
that continually, we are freed from that dreadful curfe
by “ our Saviour Jefus Chrift, who gave himfelf for us,
that he might redeem us from all iniquity, and purify
to himfelf a peculiar people zealous of good works f
and if for our fhare in the firft tranfgreflion we be jultly
liable to all punilhments in this world and in that which
is to come, the apoftle affures us, that “ when we were
enemies we were reconciled to God by the death of his
Son, becaufe that God was in Chrift; reconciling the
world to himfelf, not imputing their tretpafles unto
them J.” As Jefus is “ the Lamb 11 ain in the divine
decree from the foundation of the world,” thefe bene¬
ficial confequences of his death have been extended by
a retrofpeclive view to all in every age wLofe names
are written in the book of life, though it is abfurd to
luppofe that he literally took their fins upon him, and
impious to imagine that he fullered under the imputation
of fin.
Such is the general doflrine of redemption, as it is
taught by the more moderate Calvinifts and more mode¬
rate Remonftrants ; for moderate Chriftians of all deno¬
minations, though they exprefs themfelves differently,
have nearly the fame views of the fundamental articles
of their common faith. It muft not, however, be con¬
cealed, that many divines of great learning and piety
contend ftrenuoully againft the dodlrine of vicarious
atonement for a<ftual tranfgrcfiions of the moral law.
Thefe are the more zealous Arminians, who deny that
we inherit ary mortal taint or intelleftal weaknefs from
our firft parents, whom they believe never to have been
in a Hate of greater perfeftion than many of their pofte-
rity who are called degenerate. According to them, we
loft nothing by the fall of Adam but our title to eter¬
nal life or perpetual exiftence, together with thofe graces
of the Holy Spirit which were bellowed under the firft
covenant to train mankind for the fociety of heaven ;
and as eternal life and fupernatural grace conftituted
one free-gift, not due to the nature of man, or indeed
of any created being, they might, when forfeited, be re¬
ftored by any means or on any condition which Ihould
leem expedient to the all-wife Donor. Thefe means,
and that condition, human reafon cannot indeed difco-
rer j but it feems very fit that they Ihould be different
LOGY. Part II.
from the means by which moral agents under the law Theology
of nature can fecure to themfelves the favour of their I?ore pecu-
Creator, or recover it when occafionally loft. The in¬
former depends on arbitrary will and pleafure, or at leaft ■ u‘^r>'
on no other principles difcoverable by us; w'hile the
latter arifeth out of the eitabliihed and wrell-known con-
ftitution of things. Thus moral virtue, comprehending
piety, was the condition of that favour and protedfion
which man, in his original ftate, could claim from his
Maker j but obedience to a pofitive command w?as the
condition of the free gift of immortality conferred on
Adam on his introdudion into paradife. The claim
arifing from the relation between the creature and the
Creator is indiffoluble, becaufe that relation cannot be
diffolved : fo that the man who, by a tranfgreffion of
the moral law has forfeited the favour of God, may rea-
fonably hope to recover it by fincere repentance and a
return to his duty : and nothing but fuch repentance
and reformation can recover it; becaufe, in a moral
agent, nothing can be agreeable to God but moral dif-
pofitions, w'hich cannot be transferred from one perfon
to another, and for the want of which nothing can
atone. Our virtues are not required nor our vices pro¬
hibited, as if the one could profit and the other injure
him who created us; for “ is it any pleafure to the Al¬
mighty that we are righteous ? or is \t gain to him that
we make our ways perfed ? Will he reprove us for
fear oivisV' No! He commands us to be virtuous,
and forbids us to be vicious, only becaufe virtue is ne-
ceffaiy to our own happincfs, and vice produdive of
evetlafting mifery.
Were an immoral man to be introduced into the fo¬
ciety of angels and juft men made perfed, he would
not experience in that fociety what we are taught to
expedt from the joys of heaven; becaufe to fuch joys
his acquired difpofitions would be wholly repugnant.
Nor could the fufferings of any perfon whatever, or the
imputation of any extrinfic righteoufnefs, make that
mind which had long been immerfed in the grofieft fen-
fuality relifh the intelledual and refined enjoyments of
heaven ; or the man who had been the habitual Have of
envy, malice, and duplicity, a fit inhabitant of that
place where all are aduated by mutual love. On the
other hand, fay the divines whofe dodrine we are now-
detailing, it is impofiible to fuppofe that the Father of
mercies, who knows whereof we are made, fliould have
doomed to eternal mifery any moral agent who had la¬
boured through life to ferve him in finceiity and in
truth ; or that any atonement could be neceffary to re¬
deem from the pains of hell the man whofe pious and
virtuous difpofitions have through penitence and prayer
become fuited to the fociety of heaven. Unfinning per-
fedion never was nor ever could be expeded in man.
He is brought into the wmrld free indeed from vice, but
equally deftitute of virtue ; and the great bufinefs of his
life is to guard his mind from being polluted by the
former, and to acquire difpofitions habitually leading to
the pradice of the latter. Till thefe habits be fairly-
formed, it feems impoflible that Ife Ihould not fometimes
deviate from the paths of reditude, and thereby incur a
temporary forfeiture of the divine favour ; but the very
conftitution of his mind, and the purpofe for w-hich he
is placed in a ftate of probation, (how that the divine
favour thus forfeited can be recovered only by repent¬
ance and reformation.
Widely
1
Part II. T H E O
Theology Widely different, however, is the cafe with refpect
more pecu- t0 the forfeiture and recovery of a free gift, to which
liarly Chn- man j)as no natural claim. When the condition is
. lt^n’ , broken on which fuch a gift was bellowed, repentance
1?9 can be of no avail; it mult be either irrecoverably loft,
That chrift or reftored by the mere good pieafure of the giver.' Ira-
died to re- mortality or perpetual exiftence is a gift which upon
from1 the certain terms was freely bellowed upon the human race,
pwer of and forfeited by the tranfgreflion of their firft parent
the grave, violating thofe terms. It was reftored by the free
grace of God, who was pleafed to ordain, that “ ftnce
by man came death, by man ftiould alfo come the re-
furredtion of the dead ; for as in Adam all die, even fo
in Chrift Hi all all be made alive. “ Hence the apoftle,
writing to the Romans of the benefits ot being the chil¬
dren of God, and joint-heirs with Chrift, fummeth up
thofe benefits with refurreflion from the dead.” For
the creature, i. e. mankind, was made fubjedl (fays
* Rom. viii. he *) to vanity or death, not willingly, but by reafon
ac—24. of him who hath fubjetted the fame in hope : becaufe
the creature itfelf alfo ftiall be delivered from the bon¬
dage of corruption into the glorious liberty of the chil¬
dren of God. For we know that the whole creation
groaneth, and travaileth in pain together until now :
and not only they, but ourfelves alfo, who have the firft
fruits of the fpirit, even we ourfelves groan within our¬
felves, waiting for the adoption, viz. the redemption of
eur body (f). That this the redemption of our body js
the confequence of the facrifice of Chrift, is taught in
the moft explicit terms in the epiftle to the Hebrews ;
of which the infpired author informs us, that “ ioraf-
much as the children are partakers of flelh and blood,
he alfo himfelf likewife took part of the fame \ that
through death he might deftroy him that had the power
of death, that is the devil ; and deliver them, who
through fear of death were all their lifetime fubjeft to
# Heb ii bondage A vicarious atonement made with this
*4,15/' view, the divines, whofe theory we are now confider-
ing, acknowledge to be perfe£lly rational and confiftent
with the ftrifleit juftice. “ The law of nature (fay
, , they +) allows not of vicarious atonements •, but ordains
IoZTdZ' the man who tranfgreffeth (hall himfelf bear the
Leg. b. ix. punifhment of his iniquity *, a puniihment which no man
and Law's deferves for the faults of another, unlels he be partaker
Confidera- of the by joining in the tranfgreflion.” And in
tions °^^proof 0f this their opinion, they appeal to the words of
ReUgim, God himfelf, declaring to. Mofcs,—“ Whofoever hath
part iii. finned againft me, him will I blot out of my book J.”
$ Exod. g,lt when the free gift of immortality was loft, it was
xxxii. 31— wJth great wifdom, fay they, that God reftored it
34' through a Mediator who fhould make atonement by his
blood for the breach of the firft covenant fince fuch a
mediation implies that the gift reftored is merely of
grace, to the attainment of which man could no further
l8o co-operate than by his hopes and wifties.
An objec- To this viewr of redemption, and indeed to every view
♦ton.
LOGY. ...
of it which we have yet taken, an obje£Uon forces itfelf Theology
upon the mind. Throughout the New Teftament LIFE
AND IMMORTALITY are confidered as a FREE gift, and ftian
called io in exprefs words by St Paul*, do the fcheme 1 ■■ -■ v —" *
under confideration it is elTential to confider them as * Rom. r.
fuch j and yet we know that a large price was paid for IS-
them, as St Paul likewife acknowledges, when he
twice tells the Corinthians that they were bought with af 1 9or' %i*
price f* . 181
“ To clear up this matter (fays Bilhop Warburton), obviated,
and to reconcile the apoftle to himlelf, who certainly
was not defeftive either in natural fenfe or artificial lo¬
gic, let us once again remind the reader, that life and
immortality bellowed on Adam in paradife was a FREE
gift, as appears from the hiftory of his creation. As a
free gift, it was taken back by the Donor when Adam
fell j to which refumption our original natural rights
are not fubjett, fince natural religion teacheth, that fin-
cere repentance alone will reinftate us in the pofleflion
of thofe rights which our crimes had fufpended. So
that when this free gift, forfeited by the//y? Adam,
was recovered by the fecond, its nature continuing the
fame, it muft ftill remain a free gift—a gift to which
man, by and at his creation had no claim } a gift which
natural religion did not bellow. But if mifled by mea-
furing this revealtd mystery of human redemption by
the fcant idea of human tranfaflions, where a free gift
and purchafed benefit are commonly oppofed to one an¬
other, yet even here we may be able to fet ourfelves
right, fince, with regard to man, the charafter of a
free gift remains to immortality refored. For the price-
paid by forfeited man was not paid by him, but by a Re¬
deemer of divine extraftion, who was pleafed, by parti¬
cipating of man’s nature, to (land in his Head. Hence
the facred waiters feeing, in this cafe, the perfect agree¬
ment between a FREE GIFT and a PURCHASED POSSES-1 -Dw. Lcg»
SION, call it fometiraes by the one and fometimes by c
the other name J.” 182
A reftoration to life and immortality from that ftateThe death
of unconfcioufnefs or extindlion, to which all mankind
were doomed in conlequence of the fall, is that great
falvation which we have obtained through the blood of in(jiredtiy
our Redeemer; and according to the theologians whofe for adluai
theory we are now confidering, it was the only thing in fin.
the divine intention when the promile was given to the
firft mother that the feed of the woman ftiould bruife
head of the ferpent. But though they contend that the
death of Chrift does not operate direElly as an atonement
for the aBual fins of men, they admit that it does fo in-
direBly and by neceflary confequence, fince it gives op¬
portunities for repentance and newmefs of life, which un¬
der the firft covenant they did not enjoy. Had a man
under that covenant tranfgreffed any moral precept, he
would have forfeited the favour of his God, and either
been fubjefted to puniihment or to a long courfe of re¬
pentance j but fuppofing the efficacy of repentance un-
(f) That by the words creature and creation the apoftle here means all mankind, and by vanity and corruption,
death, the reader will find proved by Dr Whitby, in his note on the place, with a ftrength ot argument which,
cannct be fhaken j and that the whole creation, the Gentiles as well as the Jews, groaned and travailed in pmn to¬
gether under the apprehenfion of death, is apparent from tfie writings of Cicero, who .always feems ouoi u w
ther death be a good or an evil \ and from the lamentation of Hezekiah, when delired by the prophet to ^
Jioufe in order becaufe he Ihould die and not live.
382 T H E O
Theology der tbe law oF nature to be what they fuppofe it to be,
■Tarf chri' before it was perfected have lolt his exiftence
)aiftian.1U' ^ t^le ea^ng t!ie forbidden fruit 5 and thus his peni-
tence or punithment have ended in everlaliing death.
This can never be the iffue of things under the new co¬
venant, which, by the death of Chriii, lecures immor¬
tality to man, and gives to him opportunities, as long
as he fliall be in a itate of probation, of recovering the
divine favour when forfeited, whether by a moral tianf-
greflion or a temporary violation of the peculiar condi¬
tion of the covenant. Hence they admit the truth of
the apotlle’s dodtrine, that we are gainers by the fall of
Adam and the redemption wrought by Chrill ; which
will appear when we come to conlider their notions of
jullification. In the mean time it may be proper to ob-
ierve, that they confider it as no fmall confirmation of
their opinion, that it tends to put an end to the long
agitated difputes concerning the extent of redemption,
and to reconcile paflages of fcripture which, on the com¬
monly received theories both of Calviniits and Armini-
ans, feem to be at variance with each other.
AccorcHng ^ we^ known to be one of the fundamental doc-
to the Cat- trines of the Calviniftic fchool, that “ none are redeemed
vinitts by Chrift, effedluaily called, juifified, adopted, fandli-
Chnft died. fied, and laved, but the eledf only * 5” and if the no-
el-ct 01 "1 ^°nS re(^en:iPt‘on> which, in the end of the 17th cen-
* Confeffir.n tui7> were very generally embraced, be admitted as
of Faith o/tjuft, it will not be eafy to overturn the arguments by
the Church, which that dodhine is fupported. Such of them as are
c(1h^,COnneaed w’tb the great queftion of eledlion and repro-
' bation, and enter into the decifion of it, we have Hated
in another place (lee Predestination, N° 14 ) ; but
it is farther argued f, that the dodtrine ot univerfal re¬
demption refledls on the wifdom, the juftice, and the
power of God, and robs him of his glory.
The fcriptures affure us that all men lhall not be
faved ; but hotv can this be, if Chrift died for all, and
the fcheme of ialvaiion by his death was formed by infi¬
nite wifdom ? The Arminians indeed fay, that thole who
fail of falvation, fail through their own fault in not per¬
forming the conditions required of them \ but God ei¬
ther httew or knew not that fuch men would not per¬
form t >ofe conditions. If he knew it not, his know¬
ledge is limited ; if he did know it, where was his wif¬
dom in providing a fcheme of redemption for men to
whom he was aware that it would be of no benefit ?
“ God, we are told, is righteous in all his ways, and
holy in all his works 5” but there is no righteoufnefs in
making Chrift bear the fins of all men, and fuffer the
punilhment due to them, if any one of thofe men lhall
be afterwards punilhed everlaftingly. If Chrift has al¬
ready paid the debts of the whole world, it cannot be
juft to call a fingle inhabitant of the whole world into
the prifon of hell, there to be detained till he lhall
again have paid the uttermoft farthing. “ The Lord’s
hand is not Ihortened that it cannot fave j” for he is and
always will be the fame Almighty power that he was
from eternity 5 but if by the divine decree Chrift died
for all men, and yet all men lhall not be faved, it
would appear that man is mightier than his Maker !
1 he ultimate end of God in the redemption of man is
.admitted to have been his own glory ; but if any indivi¬
dual of the human race, who was redeemed by Chrift,
Ihall not be faved, God wall fo far lofe his end, and be
deprived of his glory. For, if this were the cafe, where
i Gill's
Body oj
Divinity,
voL ii. book
*3- cb- 3-
I' O G Y. Fait II.
would be the glory of God the Father in forming a Theology
fcheme which, with refpedl to multitudes, does not luc-ITK:>r(- petu-
ceed ? and where would be the glory of the Son of^' ^-f;,^a
God, the Redeemer, in working out the redemption of i ,---1 ,«
men who are yet not to be faved by him ? and where
would be the glory of the fpirit of God, if redemption
wTere not by him effedlually applied to every individual
for whom it w as wrought'? Ey fuch arguments as thefe
do the Calvinifts oppole the fcheme oi univerfal redemp¬
tion, and contend that Chrift died only for the elecl, or
fuch as lhall be placed on his right hand at the day of
judgement. This notion of a limited redemption, as
they think it more worthy of the fovereignty of God,
they believe to be taught by our Saviour himlelf, when
he faith *, “ All that the Father giveth me lhall come* r 1
tome; and him that cometh to me, I will m nowile 37_^0.
call out. for I came down from heaven, not to do
mine own will, but the will of him that fent me. And
this is the Father’s will who hath fent me, that of all
wdiich he hath given me I Ihculd lofe nothing, but
Ihould raife it up again at the laft day.” lS^
Ihe Arminians, on the other hand, contend, that it According
is impious to limit the eft'eds of Chrift’s death to a cho-t0 Ar-
fen few, fince it appears from fcripture, that by the de- rrnifians h®
cree and intention of his Father he tailed death for^^,/01 aU
every man, that all, without exception, might through
him obtain remiflion of their fins. Thus our Lord him-
felf told Nicodemus f, that “ as Mofes lifted up the f John iii,
ferpent in the wildernefs, even fo muft the Son of Man 14—xS.
be lifted up; that whojoevcr believeth in him, Ihculd
not perilh, but have everlafting life. For God fo loved
the vjorid, that he gave his only begotten Son, that
wFoioever believeth in him Ihould not perilh, but have
eveilafting life. For God fent not his Son into the
world to condemn the world,, but that the luor/rf ihrough
him might be faved.” In perfedl conformity with the
doftrine of his divine Mailer, St Paul teaches J, that f 2 Cor. v.
“ Chrift died for all; that God was in Chrift reconcil- 1.—ro.
ing the world to himfelf, not imputing their trefpaffes 1
unto them that “ he will have all men to be faved,‘f-7’Iieb’
and to come unto the knowledge of the truth that
“ Chrift gave himfelf a ranfom for all and that “ Je-
fus was made a little knver than the angels, that by the
grace of God he Ihould tafte death for evertf man?'
The very lame thing is taught by St Peter and St John,
when the former fays §, that “ the Lord is not willing r „ Peter
that any Ihould perilh, but that all Ihould come to re-iii. p.C
pentance 3” and the latter ||, that “ Jefus Chrift the(|iJohni,
righteous is the propitiation for our fins; and not for I/ 0i n n'
our’s only, but for the whole world."
On thele texts, without any commentary, the Armi¬
nians are willing to reft their do&rine of univerfal re¬
demption 3 though they think that a very ftrong additional
argument for its truth arifes from the numberlefs abfur-
dities which flow from the contiary opinion. Thus,
lay they *, the apoftles were commanded by our Savi- ■* Lim-
our f to “ go into all the world and preach the gofytlborch's
\.o every creature" and all wdro hear it preached areTheologia
required to believe it: but no man, ,a! the Caiyinifts^Tri
themfelves corftefs, can bebeve the gofpel as a Chnftian,book 4.
without believing that Chrift died for him ; and there-ch. 3.
fore, if it be true that Chrift died only for the eledl, at ^ Mark
great part of mankind are required to believe a lie, andxvl‘ Ii’ I<7,
a falfity is made the objeft of divine faith ! Again, if
Chrift did not die for r?//, then no man can be fure that
he
Part II.
T H £ O
* St John
iii.. iS, rp,
and 36.
the modern
Arminians,
Theology he is bound to believe in Chrift when preached to him ;
j?olje nor can any man be judiy condemned tor infidelity :
itian" which is not only abfurd in itfelf, bat direft’y contrary
to what we are taught by our bleffed Lord, who affures
us *, that unbelief is the caufe of condemnation. Laitly,
if Chrift died not for a//, then is it certain that he can¬
not claim dominion ovi’r ait in confequcnce of his death
f Rom. xiv. and refurre&ion ; but S. Paul fays exprefsly f, that “ to
51 this end Cnriit both died, and rofe. and revived, that he
might be the Lord both of the dead and living.'1'1 The
Arminians acknowledge, that though Chrift died for
all, there are many who will not be faved \ for, lay
t Wells's the death of Chrift did not literally pay the
Di-v. Laws debts incurred by finners, but only obtained for them
an i Cove- tire gracious covenant of the gofpel, by which all who
^ ke^eve in him, and fincerely endeavour to work out
*" their own falvation with fear and trembling, are entitled
lSe. to forgivenefs of fins and eternal life.
Difficulties Such is the ftate of this controverfy as it was agitated
removed by between the Calvinifts and Arminians of the 17th cen¬
tury ; but the prefent leaders of this latter ichool are
of opinion, that it never could have been rtarted, had
not both parties miftaken the purpofe for which Chrift
died. It is not conceivable, fay they, that any thing
for which the eternal Son of God took upon him hu¬
man nature, and in that nature fuffered a cruel and ig¬
nominious death, {frail not be fully accomplifired ; and
therefore, if in the divine intention he died to make
atonement for the fins of man aftual as well as original,
we muft of neceflhy conclude, that thofe for whom he
died (hall certainly be faved. Yet we learn from fcrip-
ture that many (hall go away into everlafting puniftr-
ment, though the fame fcripture repeatedly affures us
that Chrift gave his life a ranfirm for a//, and that he is
the propitiation for the whole world. To reconcile
thefe different paffages of fcripture is impoflible, if w7e
fuppofe that he laid down his lire to atone for the aBual
tranfgreftions of men ; but if the direfl purpofe of the
Godhead in forming this ftuDendous plan of redemption
■was, that the death of Chrift fhould be the ranfom of
all from the grave or utter extinction, every difficulty is
removed ^ for we know that all, the wicked as well as
the righteous, ftrall through him be raifed to life at the
laft day. That this was the purpofe for wdrich he died,
they think apparent from the very words quoted by the
Calvinifts to prove that redemption was not univerfal ;
for he declares that it was his Father’s will, “ that of
all which had been given him he fhould lofe nothing,”
not that he Ihould fave it all from future punijhment,
but only that he “ (hould raife it up at the laft day.”
When St John calls him a propitiation for our fins,
which, as we have feen, the divines whofe dodlrine we
are now ftating hold him to be indireblly, he does not
add, as in our tranflation, for the fns of the whole
world, but oXov tw Kta-^ov, for the wThole world,
which, by bis death, he redeemed from that vanity and
corruption under which, according to St Paul, it had
groaned from the fall till the preaching of the gofpel.
Hence it is that our bleffed Lord calls himfelf “ the re¬
furre&ion and the life,” and always promifes to thofe
who flrould believe in him that though they rvere dead,
yet {hould they live, and that he would raife them up
at the laft day.
Among thefe various opinions refpe&ing the deftina-
tion of the death of Chrift, it belongs not to us to de-
L O G Y.
383
cide. The ferious reader, divefting himfelf of prejudice Theology
in favour of the fyftem in which he has been educated, “10r,e
will fearch the fcriptures, and adopt the theory w'fncii ”
he fhall find moft explicitly taught in that facred vo-1 y— '
lume ; but as in every fyftem it is admitted, that one j ig
purpofe for which Chrift died -was to redeem mankind One pur-
from the everlafting power of the grave, and bring toPoie lor
light life and immortality, it is of the utmoft importance ^
to know whether that purpoie has been fully attained. wais tou
Death we lee ftill triumphing over all the generations brin" to
of men j and as the fcriptures give us no hopes of being light life
refcued irom its dominion but through the medium of aant? iminor-*
relurre&ion, loine fenfible evidence feems neceffary t'jt‘uit'V’
evince that a general refurre&ion fhall a&ually take
place. This w*e are promifed as one great benefit pur-
chaled for us by the lufferings of Chrift facrificed on the
crofs. And fince the price has been paid, and paid thus
viftbly, the nature of the covenant requires that the be¬
nefit ihould be as viftbly enjoyed by the perfon whofe
fuff-rings obtained it for his brethren. “ If the Re¬
deemer himfelf had not been feen to enjoy the fruits of
the redemption procured, what hopes could have re¬
mained for the reft of mankind ? Would not the natural
conclufion have been, that the expedient of redemption,
by the death and facrifice of Jefus, had proved ineffec¬
tual ?” This is the conclufion which St Paul himfelf
draws: “ It Chrift be not rifen (fays he *), then is our -* 1 Cor.
preaching vain, and your faith is alfo vain; ye are yetxv. 1^—23.
in your fins. Then they alfo, who are fallen afleep in
Chrift, are periftred—ccttuXoHo—are loft, as if they had
never exifted. But now (adds he) is Chrift rifen from
the dead, and become the firft fruits of them that fept.
For fince by man came death, by man came alfo the rc-
furreBion of the dead : For as in Adam all die, even fo
in Chrift ftiall all be made alive.'1'’—So neceffarily con-
ne&ed, in the opinion of the apoftle, is the refurre&ion
of Chrift with the very effence of Chriftianity j Warbur-
We have in another place (fee Resurrection, ro«’.< .?«?/-
N° 50.) ftated fuch arguments for the truth of this fun- mon on Me
damental article of our common faith, as muft carry !jef,ir,'ec-
convi&ion to every mind capable of eftimating the force
of evidence ; we {hall not here refume the fubje&.
Archbiihop King has fuppofed J, that the human will f Origin of
is a faculty diftin&from the underftanding and the appe- Lyil, 4th
rites ; that a&ivity is effential to it; and that previous
to an ele&ion formed, it is equally indifterent to all ob- (-e^‘
je&s. Pie thence infers, that a man may choofe, and 4.
even take delight in, what is not naturally agreeable to
any of his appetites ; becaufe when the choice is made,
a relation is formed between the will and the obje& of
choice, which, from being originally indifferent, now
becomes a favourite obje&. But neither his Grace,
nor any other afferter of human liberty, has ever affirm¬
ed or fuppofed, that any man or body of men could de¬
liberately cboofe evil for its own fake, or enter zealoufly
upon a tedious and difficult enterprife, from which no
good could pofjibly arife, and from which unmixed mi-
fery was clearly forefeen as the necejfary refult of every
ftp of the progrefs. Such, however, muft have been
the choice and the condu& of the apoftles, when they
refolved to preach a new religion founded on the refur¬
re&ion of Jefus, if they did not certainly know that
Jefus had rifen from the dead. And this condu& muft
have been adopted, and, in oppofition to every motive
which can influence the human mind, have been per fe¬
vered
3S4 T H E O
Theology vercd in by a great number of men and women, without
more peer- the fma]leit contradi£lion having ever appeared in the
liaftLnhn" va“ous teftimonies, which at different times, and under
■ V ■ the cruellelt tortures, they all gave to a variety of cir-
cumtlances, of wrhich not one had its foundation in
truth. He who can admit this fuppolilion, will not
furely objeft to the incredibility of miracles. The re-
furreftion of a man from the dead is an event fo differ¬
ent indeed from the common courfe of things, that
nothing but the molt complete evidence ettn make it
an objett of rational belief", but as the refurredtion of
Jcfus has always been faid to have had God for its Au¬
thor, it is an effeft which does not exceed the power of
the caufe afligned, and is therefore an event poffible in
itfelf and capable of proof. It is a deviation from the
laws of nature, but it is not contradictory to any one of
thofe laws. *
That a great number of men and women fliould deli¬
berately form a plan of ruin and mifery to themfelves,
without a profpedt of the fmallelt advantage either in
this world or in the next, is as different from the com¬
mon courfe of things as the refurredlion from the dead",
and therefore in itfelf at lealt as great a miracle : but
that they fliould perfift in profecuting this plan in the
midft of torments 5 that they fliould fpread themfelves
over the whole world, and everywhere publifli a num¬
ber of falfeboods, without any one of them contradi&ing
the reft ; that truth ftiould never efcape them either in
an unguarded moment, or when lingering on the rack,
and yet that all their lies ftiould be in perfeft agreement
with each other; that they ftiould every one of them
court fufferings for a perfon whom they knew to be an
impoftor 5 that not one of the number—not even a Angle
woman—ftiould have fo much compaflion for a fellow-
creature, as to refeue him from the flames by confefling
a truth which could injure nobody—not even the. fuffer-
ing deceivers themfelves 5—all this is not only different
from the common courfe of things, but diredlly con¬
trary to the moft known laws of nature, and is therefore
not miraculous, but may be pronounced impoflible.
Yet this impoflibility we muft admit, or acknowledge,
that as Chrift died for our fins, according to the Scrip¬
tures, and was buried ", fo he rofe again the third day
according to the Scriptures 5 that he was feen of Ce¬
phas, then of the twelve ; after that of above ftve hun¬
dred brethren at once j after that of James j then of all
the apoftles j and that he was laft of all feen of St
* 1 Cor. paui wh0 was converted by the viflon to preach the
XV. 3—9. fjflth which till then he had perfecuted.
Hence we Thus are we affured, that “ thofe who have fallen
are affured afleep in Chrift are not loft, Ance he is rifen from the
©f our own dead, and become the Arft fruits of them that flept.
refurrec- For pince man came death, by men came alfo the re-
tl0n' furreftion of the dead. For as in Adam all die, even
fo in Chrift ftiall all be made alive. But every man in
his own order: Chrift the Arft-fruits, afterwards they
that are Chrift’s at his coming", for all that are in the
graves fliall hear his voice, and fliall come forth ; they
that have done good unto the refurreftion of life, and
they that have done evil to the refurredlion of damna-
f 1 Cor. tion f.” # . .
XV. 30 24. Our bleffed Lord having converfed familiarly with
and St John eieven ap0fties for forty days after his refurrettion,
v. 28, 251. jnflru&ing them in the things pertaining to the king¬
dom of God j having extended their authority as his
X
LOGY, Part IT,
minifters, by giving them a commiflion to teach all na- Theology
tions, and make them his difciples, by baptizing them ™01’c P^cu.’’
in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the 1Hr^an_ n“
Holy Ghoft 5 and having promifed them power from u—-y— i
on high to enable them to difeharge the duties of fo la¬
borious an office—led them out as far as Bethany, that
they might be witneffes of his afcenAon into heaven.
“ When they therefore were come together, they afked
of him, faying, Lord, wilt thou at this time reftore
again the kingdom to Ifrael ? And he laid, it is not for
you to know the times and the feafons, which the Fa¬
ther hath put in his own power. But ye ftiall receive
power after that the Holy Ghoft is come upon you ;
and ye lhall be witneftes unto me, both in Jermalem,
and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the utter-
moft parts of the earth. But tarry ye in the city of Je-
rufalem, until ye be endued wdth power from on high j
and he lift up his hands and bleiled them j and it came
to pafs while he bleffed them, he was parted from them,
and a cloud received him out of their Aght. And
while they looked ftedfaftly towards heaven, as he went
up, behold, two men flood by them in white apparel j
who alfo faid, ye men of Galilee, why ftand ye gazing
up into heaven ? This fame Jefus, who is taken up * §t Luke,
from you into heaven, lhall fo come, in like manner asxxiv. 49—*
ye have feen him go into heaven. And they wor-S3-ai}d
Ihipped him, and returned to Jerufalem wdth greatAas> i-
j°y • # . 188
That our bleffed Lord afeended into heaven, will proofs of
fcarcely be denied in the prefent age by any one who Chrift’s af-
admits that he rofe from the dead. The afcenAon wasctflfio**
indeed the natural confequence of the refurreftion ; for
we cannot fuppofe that a man would be called back
from the grave to live for ever in a world where all
other men fall in fucceffidn a prey to death. The pur-
pofe for which he died was to recover for the defend¬
ants of Adam every privilege which they had forfeited
through his tranfgreffion ; and if, as has been generally
believed, mankind were by the terms of the Arft cove¬
nant to enjoy eternal life in heaven, fome proof was ne-
ceffary that Chrift by bis death and refurreftion had
opened the kingdom of heaven to all faithful obfervers
of the terms of the fecond. Hence it was propheftedf f pf. lxvii»>
of the Meffiah, in whom all the nations of the earth i8; at. 1.
were to be bleffed, that “ he fhould afeend on high, Micah u.
lead captivity captive, and At on the right hand of God Ij‘
until his enemies ffiould be made his footflool.” It was
therefore of the greateft importance to the apoftles to
have fufficient proof of their Mafter’s exaltation to the
right hand of the Majefty on high ; for otherwife they
could neither have looked for an entrance into heaven
themfelves, by a new and living way, as the author of
the epiftle to the Hebrew's exnreffes it, nor have preach¬
ed Jefus as the Meffiah promifed to their fathers, Ance
they could not have known that in him thefe prophecies
were fulAlled. But the proof vouchfafed them was the
moft complete that the nature of the thing would bear.
The fpeftators of the afcenAon were many ; for, ac¬
cording to the hiftory of St Luke thofe who returned j Afts 'u
from the Mount of Olives to Jerufalem, and prepared 12—-16.
themfelves for the coming of the Holy Ghoft, were in
number about Ax fcore ", and to fuch a cloud of witneffes
the evangelift wTould not have appealed, had not the
fa£t he was recording been very generally known.
Yet thefe were perhaps but part of the witneffes; for
fince
v
Part II. . ... T H E 0
Theology fince Chrift had told to lais difciples that he was to ai-
more pecu-cencj to father and their Father, to his God and
their God, and that he was going to prepare a place
for them, that where he is there they might be like-
wife ; we can hardly doubt but that all who believed
in him as the Redeemer of the world would take care
to be prefent, not only to view their Mailer’s triumph
over all his enemies, but alfo to have a fight of that
glory which awaited themfelves. It was on this occa-
lion probably that he was feen after his refurreftion by
above five hundred brethren at once, of whom the
greater part were alive at the writing of St Paul’s firft
epiftle to the Corinthians.
Rut though fuch multitudes of people fawr Jefus lifted
up from the mount, and gradually vaniih out of their
fight, fome other evidence feemed neceflary to certify
them of the place to which he had gone. Two angels
therefore appear, and atteft what human eyes could not
fee, but what was indeed the conftquence of what they
had feen. They atteif that Chrift had afeended to
heaven, not to defeend again till the laid day 5 and fure-
ly, with refpedt to this point, the citizens ol heaven
were the moft unexceptionable witneffes. We mult
theiefore acknowledge and confefs, again!! all the wild
herefies of old (K), that Jelus Chrift the Son of God,
who died and role again, did with the fame body and
foul with which he had lived upon earth afeend up “ in¬
to heaven, there to appear in the prefence of God for
us Having in the outward tabernacle of this world
once offered up himfelf a pure and perteff facrifice for
the expiation of our fins, he entered within the veil in¬
to the moft holy place, there to prefent his blood be¬
fore God himfelf, in order to obtain mercy for us, and
reftore us to the Divine favour. So that, “ if any
man fin, wre have an advocate with the Father, Jefus
Chrift the righteous, who is the propitiation for our fins,
and not for ours only, but alfo for the fins of the whole
world y and he is able to fave to the uttermoft thole that
come to God by him, feeing he ever liveth to make in-
terceftion for us.” “ Seeing then that we have a great
high-prieft, who is paffed into the heavens, Jefus the Son
of God, we may through him come boldly unto the
throne of grace, that we may obtain mercy, and find
grace to help in time of need.”
But it is not the office of a prieft only that our Lord
difeharges in heaven •, he is reprefented as fitting on the
right hand of God. to denote that regal authority with
which he is now veiled*, “ angels, and authorities, and
powTers, being made fubjeft to him *J.” Hence it is,
that after his refurreHion, he faid of himfel “ all
powrer is given unto me in heaven and in earth for,
as St Paul informs us§, “ becaufe he humbled himfelf
and became obedient unto death, even the death of the
crofs, therefore God hath highly exalted him, and given
him a name which is above every name : that at the
Vol. XX. Part I.
* Heb. ix.
24.
189
In heaven
our Savi¬
our exe¬
cutes the
office of a
'prieit
190
and a king.
f 1 Peter
iii. 22.
r Matth.
xxviii- 18.
§ Phil ii.
S, 9, 10.
LOGY.
385
name of Jefus every knee Ihould bow, of things 'n hea- Theology
ven, and things in earth, and things under L.ie earth.” Pe^1!"
And this fubmiffion is due to him, becaule “ God railed 1 ^.jan>
him from the dead, and fet him at his own rit h hand ——v—-■ ■<
in the heavenly places, far above all piincipai.ties and
powers, and might, and dominion, and every i.a ne that
is named, not only in this world, but alio in tha. which
is to come ; and hath put all things under his feet, and
gave him to be head over all things to the ch r.h *..
As God, Chrift poffelled a kingdom, which, as it haa '
not a beginning, can never have an end : but the do¬
minion, of which the apoftle is here treating, was con¬
ferred upon him as the mediator ot the new covenant,
and will no longer continue than till his enemies lhall
be fubdued.; for we are told, that “ he mull r ign till
he ftath put all enemies under his feet ; and that the
laft enemy which lhall be ddiroyed is death.” “ Pie
will ranlom his iubje&s from the power ot the grave *,
he will redeem them from death, O death, he will ^e r
thy plague; O grave, he will be thy dellru6tion f.’
The trumpet lhall lound, the graves ihail be opened, ail
the Tons and daughters of Adam thall return to life, and
death fhall be fwallowed up in viclcry. “ Then c<yneth
the end, when the office of mediator ceafing, he lhall
have delivered up the kingdom to God, even the Fa¬
ther, when he lhall have put down all rule and all au¬
thority and power. For when all things lhall be fub-
dued unto him, then lhall the Son alfo himfelf be lubjecft
unto him that put all things under turn, that God may
be all in all J.” _ ^ f 1 Cor.
The firft confpicuous proof which our bleffed I^ord *v —
gave of being veiled with fupreme power, and made2,3'^
head over all things to the church, was on the day ofDefceilt 0f
Pentecoft. He had told the apoftles that he would the Holy
pray the Father to give them another comforter, who Ghoft on
Ihould abide with them for ever, even the Spirit ofj’j^P0*
truth, which Ihould teach them all things, and bring
all things to their remembrance which he had faid unto
them. He had affured them, that it was expedient for
them that he himfelf Ihould go away ; “ for if I go not
away (faid he *), the Comforter will not come unto * John xvi.
you ; but if I depart, I will fend him unto you.” At7*
his laft interview with them, juft before his afeenfion, he
had defired them to tarry at Jerufalem till they Ihould
be endued with power from on high, before they enter¬
ed upon their great work of converting the nations.
Thefe promifes were amply fulfilled ; for “ when the
day of Pentecoft was fully come, they were all with one
accord in one place. And fuddenly there came a found
from heaven as of a rulhing mighty wind, and it filled
all the houfe where they were fitting. And there ap¬
peared unto them cloven tongues, like as of fire, and it
fat upon each of them. And they were all filled with
the Holy Ghoft, and began to fpeak with other tongues,
as the Spirit gave them utterance. And there were
3 C dwelling
(h) There was one Apelles in the primitive church, who was condemned as a heretic for teaching that Chrift’s
body was diffolved in the air, and that he afeended to heaven without it. The opinions of this man and his follow¬
ers are Hated at large and confuted by Tertullian, Gregory Nazianzen, and Epiphamus ; and the reader who thinks
fuch ridiculous notions worthy of his notice, will find enough faid or them, in the Notes to the fixth arlicle ol Pear-
fon’s Expofition of the Creed. Perhaos it may be from a hint communicated in thefe Notes, that our gieat mo¬
dern corrector of the evangelifts has difeovered, if it be indeed true that he pretends to have difeovered, that Jefus
Chrift is ftill upon earth.
i
336 T H E O
Theology dwelling at JerufaJem Jews, devout men, out of every
liTr'i6 elm"nalion under heaven. Now when this was noifed
ftian. " abroad, the multitude came together, and were con-
u~—y—founded, becaufe that every man heard them fpeak in
his own language. And they were all amazed, and
marvelled, laying one to another, Behold, are not all
thefe who fpeak Galileans ? And how hear we every
man in our own tongue, wherein we were born ? Par-
thians, and Medes, and Elamites, and the dwellers in
Mefopotamia, and in Judea, and Cappadocia, in Pontus
and Alia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, in Egypt and in
the parts of Libya about Gyrene, and ftrangers of Rome,
Jews and profelytes, Cretes and Arabians—we do hear
them fpeak in our tongues the wonderful works of God.
And they were all amazed, and were in doubt, faying
f Acts u. one to anotller? What meaneth this f ?”
That thole who heard the apoftles fpeak fo many dif-
Certainty ferent languages were amazed, is what we Ihould na-
of that mi- turally fuppofe ; but that a fingle individual among
rade. them remained unconvinced, is aftonilhing ? for the
gift of tongues on the day of Pentecoft is one of the
moft palpable miracles that was ever wrought. It is
likev.ife one of the belt authenticated miracles; for the
book entitled the ABs of the Apojiles was written not
more than 30 years after the event took place (fee
Scripture, N° 168.) ; and it is not conceivable that,
within fo ihort a period, St Luke, or any man of com¬
mon fenfe, would have appealed for the truth of what
lie recorded to fo many inveterate enemies of the Chrift-
ian name, had he not been aware that the miraculous
gift of, tongues was a fa£l incontrovertible. We all
know how defirous the Jewilh rulers were to flop the
progrefs of the faith, by whatever means; but if this
miracle was not really performed, they had now an op¬
portunity of doing it effeftually by means to which truth
and honour would give their approbation. Thoufands
muft have been alive in the city of Jerufalem wrho were
men and women at the time wdren the apod/les were faid
to have been thus fuddenly infpired with the tongues of
the Parthians, Medes, and Elamites, &c.; and as thefe
foreigners xvere themfelves either Jews by defeent, or at
lead profelytes to the Jewlfh religion, furely the chief-
priefts would have found multitudes ready, both at home
and abroad, to contradift this confident appeal of St
Luke’s if contradiftion had been poflible. We read
however of no objeftion whatever being made to this
miracle. Some of the audience, indeed, when the
apoflles addreflfed people of fo many nations in all their
refpe&iye languages, not undfcrftanding what was faid,
and taking it for jargon which had no meaning, con¬
cluded, not unnaturally, that the fpeakers were full
of new wine, and mocked them for being drunk fo
early in the day ; but this is a circumftance which, fo
far from rendering the miracle doubtful, adds much
to the credit of the hiftorian, as it would hardly have
occurred to the waiter of a narrative wholly falfe, and
would certainly not have been mentioned, had he known
that the apoftles really attempted to impofe on the mul-
193 titude unmeaning founds for foreign languages.
The gift As it is thus certain that the apoftles were miraculoufly
of tongues furnifhed with the gift of tongues, fo the elegance and
with the propriety of that miracle to atteft the real defeent of the
apoftles. Spirit of truth, who vras to teach them all things, and
endue them with power from on high to convert the na¬
tions,. can never be enough admired by the pious
L O G Y. Part IT.
Chriftian ; for words being the vehicle of knowledge, Theology
an ability to fpeak the different languages of the earth inol'e Peap
was absolutely neceffary to enable thole who had beenllarl? Clin'
originally filhermen to go into all the world and preach Ll~~n' .
the gofpel to every creatuie. Yet there have been
writers *, who, though unable to call in queftion the*J5r7k?zV/-
reality of the gift of tongues on the day of Pentecoft,
have contended, that it was a gift “ not lafting, buttejbury^'
inftantaneous and tranfitoiy ; not beftowed upon them J
for the conftant work of the miniitry, but as an occa-
ftonal fign only, that the perlon endowed wdth it was a
chofen minifter of the gofpel ; which ftgn, according to
them, ceafed and totally vanilhed as loon as it had
ferved that particular purpofe.” The chief argument I94
upon which this opinion is attempted to be built, is Objedlions*
drawn from the feripture Greek, which is faid to be
“ utterly rude and barbarous, and abounding with every
fault which can poflibly deform a language ; whereas
we fhould naturally expeft to find an infpired language
pure, clear, noble, and affefting, even beyond the force
of common fpeech ; lince nothing can come from God
but what is perfeft in its kind. In ftiort, we Ihould ex-
pe£f, fays the objebter, the purity of Plato and the elo-.
quence of Cicero J.” _ _ u,AEJdy
In reply to this objeftion, it has been well obferved J, o« the Gift
that it fuppofes what is called the purity, elegance, and0/ Tongues.
fublimity, of language, to be fomething natural and ef-1 Warbur-
fential to human Ipeech, and inherent in the conftitution ton’s ^oc~
of things. “But the matter is far otherwife. Thefe
qualities are accidental and arbitrary, and depend on 195
cuftom and fafhion ; modes of humanity as various as Anfwered*
the differing climes of the earth ; and as inconftant as
the tempers, genius, and circumftances, of its inhabi¬
tants. For what is purity, but the ufe of fuch terms
and their combinations as the caprice of a writer or
fpeaker of authority hath preferred to their equals ? what
is elegance, but fuch a turn of idiom as a fafliionable
fancy hath brought into credit r and what is fubhmity,
but the application of fuch images as arbitrary and
cafual conneflions, rather than their own native gran¬
deur, have dignified and ennobled ? The conicquence
of this is, that the mode of compofition which is a model
of perfeffion to one pation or people, has always appear¬
ed either extravagant or mean to another. Afiatic and
Indian eloquence was efteemed hyperbolical and unna¬
tural by the Greeks and Romans, and is lo efteemed by
us; whilft the Greek and Roman eloquence in its turn
appeared cold and infipid to the waim inhabitants of
the eaft; and ours would appear perhaps ftill colder.
But the New Teftament was defigned for the rule of
life to ail mankind. Such a rule required infpiration ;
and infpiration, fay the objefters, implies the moft per-
feft eloquence. What human model then was the
Holy Ghoft to follow ? for a human model it muft; have
been, becaufe there was no other ; and if there had, no
other would have anfwered the purpofe, which was to
make a due impreflion on the mind and affeiftions.
Should the eaftern eloquence have been employed ?
But it would have been too fwelling and animated for
the weft. Should the weftern ? This would have been
too ftill and inaftive for the eaft. Or fuppofe us only
felicitous for what we beft underfland ; which fpecies
of this latter genus ftiould the facred writers have pre¬
ferred ? The diffolute foftnefs of the Afiatic Greeks,
or the dry concifenefs of the Spartans ? The flowing ex¬
uberances
Fait n.
THEOLOGY.
Theology uberances of Attic eloquence, or the grave feverity of
iTaTchrt1116 R°mm '
1 ftlan. “ But are there not fome general principles of elo-
<, quence in common to all the fpecies ? There are. Why
then fhould not thefe have been employed to credit the
apoftolic infpiration ? Becaufe the end even of thefe (re¬
plies our author), is to miflead reafon, and inflame the
paflions; which being abhorrent to the truth and puri¬
ty of our holy religion, were very fitly rejected by the
infpired penman. Befides, it might eafiiy be known
to have been the purpofe of Providence, though fuch
purpofe had not been exprefsly declared, that the gofpel
fhould bear all poflible marks of its divine original, as
well in the courfe of its progrefs as in the circumftances
of its promulgation. To this end, the human inftru-
ments of its conveyance were mean and illiterate, and
chofen from among the lowed of the people, that when
the world faw itfelf converted by the foolijhnefs of
preaching, as the only learned apodle thinks fit to call
it, unbelievers might have no pretence to afcribe its fuc-
cefs to the parts, or dations, or authority, of the preach¬
ers. Now had the language infpired into thefe illiterate
men been the eloquence of Plato or Tully, Providence
would have appeared to counteraft its own meafures,
and to defeat the purpofe bed calculated to advance its
glory. But God is wife, though man is a fool. The
courfe of Providence was uniform and condant: It not
only chofe the weaked indruments, but carefully kept
out of their hands that powerful weapon of words
which their adverfaries might fo eafiiy have wreded to
the dilhonour of the gofpel. Common fenfe tells us,
that the dyle of an univerfal law fhould retain what is
common to all languages, and negleft what is peculiar
to each. It fhould retain nothing but clearness and
precision, by which the mind and fentiments of the
writer are intelligibly conveyed to the reader. This
quality is effential, invariably the fame, and independent
of cudom and fafhion. It is the confequence of fyntax,
the very thing in language which is lead pofitive, as be¬
ing formed on the principles of philofophy and logic :
whereas all befides, from the very power of the ele¬
ments and fignification of the terms to the tropes and
figures in compofition, are arbitrary j and, as deviating
from thefe principles, frequently vicious. But this qua¬
lity of clearnefs and precifion eminently didinguifhes the
writings of the New Tedament j infomuch that it may
be eafiiy fhown, that whatever difficulties occur in the
facred books do not arife from ahy imperfeft informa¬
tion caufed by this local or nominal barbarity of dyle ;
but either from the fublime or obfcure nature of the things
treated of, or from the intentional concifenefs of the
Writers; who, in the cafual mention of any thing not
effential to the difpenfation, always obferve a dudied bre¬
vity.”
After much ingenious and found reafoning on the
nature of language in general, our author concludes,
that the STYLE of the New Tedament, even on the
truth of what has been faid to its difcredit, is fo far
from proving the language not to be divinely infpired,
that it bears one certain mark of that original. “ Every
language confids of two didinft parts, the Angle terms,
and the phrafes and idioms. Suppofe now a foreign
language to be inflantaneoufly introduced into the minds
of illiterate men like the apoflles ; the impreffion mud
be made either by fixing in the memory the terms and
587
Angle words only with their fignification, as, for in- Theology
dance, Greek words correfponding to fuch or fuch Syriac If!ore Pecu-
or Hebrew words \ or elfe, together with that Ample lar^a^iri"
impreffion, by enriching the mind with all the phrafes > .
and idioms of the language fo infpired. But to enrich
the mind with the peculiar phrafes and idiom of a
foreign language, would require a previous impreffion
to be made of the manners, nations, fafhions, and opini¬
ons, of the people to whom that language is native ; be¬
caufe the idiom and phrafes arife from and are depend¬
ent on thefe manners. But this would be a wade of
miracles without fufficient caufe or occafion ; for the
Syriac or Hebrew idiom, to which the Jews were of
themfelves enabled to adapt the Greek or any other
words, abundantly ferved the ufeful purpofes of the
gift of tongues, which all centered in thofe tongues,
being fo fpoken and written as to be clearly un¬
derstood. Hence it follows, that if the dyle of
the New Tedament were indeed derived from that
language which was miraculoufly impreffed upon the
apodles on the day of Pentecod, it mud be jud
fuch a one as in reality we find it to be j that is, it
mud confid of Greek words in the Syriac or Hebrew
idiom.”
196
The immediate author of this gift, fo neceflary to the Divinity
propagation of the gofpel, was the Spirit of truth, or0^1^ Ho*
the Comforter, who is the Holy Ghod and the third^ ^ °^*
perfon in the bleffed Trinity. That there are three
perfons in the one Godhead, has been fliewn at large
in a former feftion of this article; and that the Holy
Ghod is one of thefe three, might be fafely concluded
from the form of baptifm inflituted by Chrid himfelf.
But as more plaufible objections have been urged againd
his divinity than any that we have met with againlt the
divinity of Chrid, it may not be improper to confider
thefe before we proceed to give an account of the graces
which he imparted to the infant church, and of the
apodles preaching under his influence. By the Arians
the Holy Ghod is confidered as a creature; by the So-
cinians and modern Unitarians, as they call themfelves,
the words Ho/y Ghojl are fuppofed to exprefs, not a per¬
fon or fpiritual fubfidence, but merely an energy or ope¬
ration, a quality or power, of the Father, whom alone
they acknowledge to be God. If this doClrine can be
confuted, the Arian hypothefis will fall to the ground of
itfelf 5 for it is not conceivable than any infpired teacher
ffiould command his followers to be baptized in the
name of the felf-exident God and two creatures.
It is admitted by the Socinians themfelves, that in0bjeaiOnjr
the Scriptures many things are fpoken of the Holy
Ghod which can be properly predicated only of a per¬
fon j but the inference drawn from this conceffion they
endeavour to invalidate by obferving, that in fcripture
there are likewife expreffions in which things are predi¬
cated of abdraft virtues, which can be literally true
only of fuch perfons as pra&ife thefe virtues. Thus
when St Paul fays *, that “ charity fuffereth long and *.? Cor'
is kind, charity envieth not, charity vaunteth not itfelf,X1U* 4
is not puffed up, &c.” we cannot fuppofe his meaning
to be, that thefe adfions are performed by charity in the
abdraft, but that every charitable perfon, in confe¬
quence of that one Chridian grace, fuffereth long and
is kind, envieth not, vaunteth not himfelf, and is not
puffed up, &c. In like manner, fay they, perfonal
aftrons are attributed to the Holy Ghod, which itlelf is
3 C 2 no
389
Theology
more pe cu
liarly Chn
ftian.
f Arts
xiii. 2>
198
Anfwcred.
t Rom.
viii. 26,
37-
§ St John
xiv 26.
XV 26.
xvi. 13, 14
J5‘
|j Fa uft.
Sorinus in
Ji»p 'id
fVickam,
cap. 10.
no perfon, but only the virtue, power, or efficacy, of
God the Father ; becaufe God the Father, who is a
penon, performs fuch actions by that power, virtue, or
efficacy, in himfelf, w’hich is denominated the Holy
Ghoft. Thus when we read * that “ the Spirit faid un¬
to Peter, Behold three men feek thee j arife therefore
anti get thee down, and go with them, doubting nothing,
for 1 have fent them we mult underftand that God
the Father was the perfon who fpoke thefe words and
fent the three men; but becaufe he did fo by that vir¬
tue in him which is called the Spirit, therefore the
Spirit is faid to have fpoken the vvoids and fent the men.
Again, when “ the Holy Ghoil faid f to thofe at An¬
tioch, Separate me Barnabas and Saul for the work
whereunto I have called them w'e are to conceive
that it was God the Father who commanded the two
apoftles to be feparated for the work to which he had
called them •, but becaufe he had done all this bv that
power within him which is called the Holy Ghoft,
therefore his words and actions are attributed to the
Holy Ghoft, juft as long-fuffering in men is attributed
to charity.
ihis reafoning has a plaufible appearance, and would
be ot much force were cl/ the aftions which in fcripture
are attributed to the Hrly Ghoft of fuch a nature as
that they could be iunpofed to have proceeded from the
perfon of God the Father in confequence of any parti¬
cular power or virtue in him ; but this is far from be
ing the cafe. Thus “ Spirit is faid J to make intercef-
fion for us but with whom can we fuppofe God the
Father, the fountain of divinity, to intercede ? Our Sa-
viom allured § his difciples, that the Father would, in
his name, fend to them the Holy Ghoft, who is the
Comforter ; that he would himfelf fend the Comforter
unto them from the Father j that the Comforter fhould
not fpeak of himfelf, but fpeak only what he fhould
hear ; and that he fhould receive of Chrift’s, and fnevv
it unto them. But we cannot, without blafphemy and
abfurdity, fuppofe that the Father would, in the name
ot Chritt, fend himfelf*, that the Son would fend the
Father from the Father j and the Father would not
fpeak of himfeb. but fpeak only what he heard j or
that either the Father in perfon, or a quality of the Fa¬
ther, fhould receive any thing of Chriit to fhew unto the
apoftles.
1 he fagacity of Socinus perceived the force of fuch
objnbtions as thefe to his notion of the Holv Ghoft, be¬
ing nothing more than the power of the Father perfoni-
fied ; and therefore he invented another profopopeia to
ferye his purpole in the interpretation of thofe texts to
rvhich this one cannot be aoplied. “ The Spirit of
God (fays he jj) may be confidered either as a property
or power in God, or as the things on which that power
is work rig. When taken in the former fenfe, the Spi¬
rit, where any perfonal attribute is given to it, means
God the Father*, when taken in the latier fenfe, it
means the man on whom the power of the Father is
Working ; who, as long as he is affefted by that power,
is therefore called the Spirit ©f God f and he quotes,
we think molt abfurdly, the tenth verfe of the fecond
chapter 01 the firft epiftle tq the Corinthians, as a text
in which by the Spirit is meant an iiifpired man who
could fearch all things, yea, even the deep things of
God.
How his modern follotvers, who deny the plenary in-
THEOLOGY. Part ir.
fpiration even of Chrift, will reliffi fuch a degree of in- Theology
fpiration as tins, which raifes mere men to a temporaryrT10re Pecu-
equality with God, we know not; but leaving them to fet-^ar^ Chri-
tle the difpute with their matter, we fhall produce one , lh^n' .
or two paffages in which perfonal attributes are given to V
the Spirit of God, when it is impoffible to conceive that
Spirit, either as a power inherent in the Divine Father,
or as the perfon on whom that power is operating. We
need not bring new texts into view, as tome of thofe al¬
ready quoted will ferve our purpofe. When our Saviour
promites that the Holy Ghojl, the Comforter, the Spirit of
truth, ihould be fent by the Father and the Son to the
apoftles, we have teen, that by this Spirit he could not
mean the Father or a property of the Father ; neither
could he poffibly mean the apoftles themtelves, unlefs we
are to fuppofe that the Father and the Son lent St Peter
to St Peter, and that St Peter, fo fent, came to St Pe¬
ter ! Again, when Chrift faith of the Holy Ghoft, “ he
ftiall receive of mine, and lhall Ihew it unto you,” he
could not, for the reafon already affigned, mean by the
Holy Ghoft the Father 01 the power of the Father j and
furely his meaning was not, that the apoftles, under the
influence of the power of the Father, Ihould receive
fomething and fliew it each to himfelf ! The Holy
Ghoft therefore is unqueftionably a perfon; for though
there are many paflages of fcripture in which the gfts'oi
the Holy Ghoft are called the Holy GhoJ}, they are lb
called by a very common figure of ipeech, in which the
effect receives the name of its caufe : and lince this per¬
fon is joined with the Father and the Son in the formula
ot Chriftian bapdfm ; fince (hey who lied to the Holy
Ghoft are faid * to have lied unto God ; lince blafphemy * a&s v.
againit him is a more heinous offence than the fame fir* 4.
againft even the Father or the Son f •, and lince it wasf Mark iih
by the operation of the Holy Ghoft that Jefus Chrift 28, 29,
was conceived of the Virgin Mary, and even on that ac¬
count called the J Son of God—it follows that the Holy 1 Luke i.
Ghoft is God, of the fame fubftance with the Father and 35-
Son.
It was this Divine Spirit which, on the day of Pente-
coft, infpired the apoftles with the knowledge of dif- ftks mira-
ferent languages j and as thefe were given only to en- culoufly in-
able them to preach the gofpel to every creature, it Canftruc^ed in
admit of no doubt but that he, who fo amply providedthe,pril)'
the means of preaching, would take care that the gof- h,rion.° ^
pel ftiould be preached in purity. Our Saviour had told &
his apoftles, that the Comforter would guide them into
all the truth (us Trouray rw aMhixy), and bring all things
to their rememorance, whatloever he had faid unto
them j but if they had not comprehended the meaning
of what lie faid, the bare remembrance of his layings
would have been of little importance. That before tins
miraculous Ihedding abroad of the Spirit they had but a
very imperfea knowledge of h s dc&rines, and of the
purpof for which he had come into i.he world, is apparent
from that unfeafonable queftion which hey put to him
when affembled to witnefs his glorious afcenfi >n ; “ Lord
wilt thou at this time reftore again the kingdom to If-
rael ?”
Their minds ftill cheriffied with fondnefs the vain pro-
fpecft of temporal power ; but after the day or Pente-Their m
coft they were dneBed to nobler objefts. From the of fuch in-
lame Sp.nt they received diverfities of gifts bellies thatftruttion.
of language for we are affured by Si Paul *, when * x Cor.
Ipeakmg of the early converts to Chriftianity in gene- xii. S—12.
ral,
Part II.
' T H E O
Theology ral, that “ to one was given by the Suiiit the word of
more pecu- WISDOM to another the word of KNOWLEDGE by the
harly Chn-!~ame gpU-jt . to another FAITH by the lame Spirit ; to
. ian' . another the gifts of healing by the fame S irit } to
another the working of MIRACLES ; to another FRO
PHECY ; to another discerning of spirits ; to another
divers kinds of tongues j to another the INTERPRE¬
TATION of tongues and thefe gifts, which were ie-
verally divided either among private Ciiriftians or among
the inferior orders of minxtters in the church, we have
reafon to believe were all bedowed in a greater or lefs
degree upon each of the apoltles.
Men thus endowed wmre w^ell qualified to declare unto
the world all the council of God. By the word of w/f-
dotn they communicated to the Gentile nations a pure
fy item of what is called natural religion ; turning them
from the vanity of idols to the worfhip of the living
God : by the word of knowledge, they preached the
great doctrines of revelation both to Jews and Gentiles,
(hewing them that there is none other name under hea¬
ven given unto men whereby they may be faved than
the name of Jefus Chrift (l) •, and by their gifts of
healing and of miracles, Sec,; they were enabled to prove
unanfwerably, that their do&rines were divine. They
taught everywhere the unity of God, the creation of the
world, the fall of man, the neceffity of redemption, the
divinity of the Redeemer, his facrifice on the crofs to
reftore mankind to their forfeited immortality, and the
terms of the nevv covenant into which they had through
him been gracioufly admitted by God.
Such a view as our limits would admit of we have gi¬
ven of all thefe do&rines, except that which refpe&s the
terms of the gofpel covenant ; but thefe being explicitly
Hated only by St Paul and St James, we could not till
now invefhgate them, without violating the hiftorical
order into which, for the fake of perfpicuity, we have
digefted the feveral parts of this fhort fyftem. Our Sa¬
viour himfelf has indeed taught with great plainnek the
neceffity of faith and baptifm to the falvation of thofe
who have an opportunity of hearing the gofpel preached
with power ((ee Baptism) and in his fermon on the
mount, which is fuch a lefture of ethics founded on re¬
ligion as the Son of God only could have delivered, we
learn, that “ unlefs our righteoufnefs (hall exceed the
righteoufnefs of the Scribes and Pharifees, we ihall in no
cafe enter into the kingdom of heaven ; that not every
one who faith unto Chrift, Lord, Lord, fhall enter into
the kingdom of heaven, but he who doth the will of the
Father who is in heaven ; and that many will fay to him
at the day of judgement, Lord, Lord, have we not pro-
phefied in thy name, and in thy name done many won-
L O G Y. 390
derful works ?” which could not be done without faith; Theology
to vvltom he will, notwithtlanding, lay, “ Depart from*n01'e L1."
me, ye that work iniquity St Paul, however, leems
to aitribuce oui jufttneation to the bare act of believing ; <—
for he repeatedly allures us,. “ that a man is juliified by * St
faith without the deeds of the law while St James, on ^atth, v.
the other hand, affirms, “ that by works a man is judi-^,^11 aI‘
fied, and not by faith only.” This apparent difference in
the language of the two apoftlcs, has produced among
divines opinions really different refpe&iug the jollification
of Chriltians ; and the principal of thefe opinions it is
our duty to Hate. 20X
Between pardon of fin jujlijication there is fo clofe Meaning
a connebfion, that many w riters leem to conlider the of juftihea-
terms as fynonymous, and to infer, that he who is par-tlon'
doned is ipfo facia juftified. That every Chriilian, who
fiyall be pardoned at the judgement of the great day,
will likewife be jullified, is indeed true ; but in pro¬
priety of fpeech, juf if cation is a word of very different
import from pardon, and will entitle the Chriitian to
what mere pardon could not lead him to expebt. An
innocent perfon, when falfely accufed and acquitted, is
juf fed but not pardoned; and a criminal may be par¬
doned, though he cannot be jufifed or declared innocent.
A man whole fins are pardoned is free from punifhment 3
but the juffified Chritfian is entitled to everlaffing life,
happinefs, and glory. If wre were only pardoned through
Chrift, wTe fftould indeed efcape the pains of hell, but
could have no claim to the enjoyments of heaven; for
thefe, being mote than the moil perfect human virtue
can merit, muft be, what in the feriptures they are al¬
ways faid to be, “ the gift of God through Jefus Chrift
our Lord.” Hence it is that St Paul, diftinguifhing, as
we have done upon his authority, between mere remif-
fion of fins and jollification of life, declares f, that “ Je-f Romans
fus our Lord was delivered for our offences, and raifed1'i- 25*
again for our juf if cation.^
The word julfification, as ufed both by St Paul and St
James, ffias been very generally conlidered as a forenlic
term expreffing the fentence of a judge. The moft
eminent reformed divines of all denominations J, and f Lim-
even many of the Romanifts themfelves, have ftrenu-
oufly contended, that this is its genuine fenfe, when it isdi-
ftinguilhed from mere remiffion of fins, regeneration, and Beveridge,’
fanbtification ; and if fo, it will fignify God’s pronoun- Vitringa,
cing a perfonjV//#, either as being perfeftiy blamelefs, or Gill,
as having fulfilled certain conditions requited of him in
the Chriftian covenant. But that “ there is not a juft
man upon earth, who doth good and linneth not,” is
made known to us by the moft complete evidence pof-
fible, the joint dictates of our own confciences and of
divine
(l) It is not perhaps eafy to determine wffiat is here meant by the word of WISDOM and the woid of know¬
ledge, as diftinguiffied from each other. By the former (Aoyaj Biffiop Warburton underflands ail the
great principles of natural religion. “ The ancients (fays he) ufed the word m th-s peculiar lenfe ; it is
ufed in the fame fenfe by St Paul in Col. iv. 5. ; and we can hardly give it anv other in the place before us, where
we fee the word of wifdom diftinguiffied from the word of knowledge (Aoy«s yvaxrea?), _ which evidently means all
the great principles of revelation ; the term ywo-i? being as peculiaily applied by Chnitian writeis to revealed imi-
gion as ere£*<<* is bv the Gentiles to the natural. St Paul ufes the word in this lenfe in 2 Cor. xi. 6. where he Jays,
El h KU, ^0%, t&i Aay*! ctXXov r, yv*«i; and St Peter in his firft epiftle, chap. iii. verfe 7. Hence thofe early
lie’etics who fo much deformed the fimplicity and purity of the Chriftian faith by vifionaiy pretences to fupenor
knowledge of revelation, took from this word the name of Gnoftics.” See l\ arburton s Scimon on the 0ff.ee and
Operation of the Holy Ghoff,
39® ■ T H E O
i neology divine revelation ; tind therefore whofoever is pronoun-
liarlyChri Cet^ iu^ ^7 ^ie Judge of all the earth, mutt be fo, either
ftian. becaufe, though not abfolutely blamelefs, he has per-
i—y—formed the conditions required of him in the covenant of
grace, or becaufe Chrift has fulfilled all righteoufnefs in
202 his ftead.
-renfic °" ^ Scripture notion of juftification, it
term. rnuft be wholly the a6t of God, and cannot be the ef¬
fect either of our faith or of our virtue. Accordingly,
we are faid by the apoftle to be juftified freely by his
grace through the redemption that is in Jefus Chritt j
^ _ ... whom God hath fet forth to be a propitiation through
24 '’T' UI ^'s blood *. The aft of jollification therefore
proceeds from the divine philanthropy, and cannot be
performed by the inttrumentality of faith j for it is not
< God, but ma r, who believes; and man is not the jufti-
fier of Inmfelt. to talk of any kind of injltument of
j l;hcation befides the propitiation let forth by God, is
indeed to make ufe of very improper language : “ Om-
f nis caufa i umentalis (fays Bifliop Bull f), fuo modo
cap ii S ' effeau^ iufluit, eique effefti produftio proprie at-
r 5 ^ tribui poteft. Jam vero, cum juftificatio nihil aliud lit
quam gratiofus Dei aftus, quo peccata noftra nobis con-
donet, ac nos ad falutem acceptet, valde abfurdum effet
dicere, vel fidem, vel opera noftra, vel quidvis aliud
nottri aut remittere peccata noftra, aut perfonas noftras
acceptare : quod tamen, li inllrumentalis caufa juftifica-
tionis fides lit, plane dicendum effet.”
In this fentiment of the bilhop of St David’s fome of
the moll eminent divines both among the Calvinifts and
Arminians agree. Many, however, have chofen to treat
of juftification not only in the aftive fenfe, as it is the
aft of God, for all admit that it is he who juftifies ; but
likewife in a pa Hive fenfe, as it means our privilege or
poJfe[]ion holden of him, when we are faid to be juftified
by his grace. In this view of the fubjeft they may talk,
with fufficient propriety, cf an inftrument of juftifica¬
tion, not as the mean by which it is conveyed, but as
the medium through which it is received by the true
Chriftian. And hence it follows, that Waterland and
Warburton ftrenuoully maintain the doftrine of the
Weftminfter Confefiion, “ that faith receiving and reft-
ing on Chrift is the alone inftrument of juftification ;
though it cannot be alone in the perfon juftified, but
muft ever be accompanied with all other faving graces,
and be a faith which worketh by love.”
But notwithftanding this agreement between the lead¬
ers of the rival fefts, they have found abundant matter of
controverfy refpefting faith and works, in deciding the
great queftion, “ Whether, when God juftifies man, he
conliders him as abfolutely righteous on account of
Chrift’s righteoufefs performed in his ftead ; or only as
juft, becaufe he has fulfilled the conditions of the cove¬
nant of grace, which does not require of him perfeft
righteoufnefs ?” The former is the doftrine of the more
rigid Calvinifts, the latter that of the Arminians or Re-
monftrants.
J Body of “ A notion (fays Dr Gill J) obtained fome years ago,
Bivimty, a re]axation 0f the law and the feverities of it has
book iii. '3een obtained by Chrifi?; and a new law, a remedial
chap. 8. law, a law of milder terms, been introduced by him,
| 5- which is the gofpel ; the terms of which are, faith, re¬
pentance, and new obedience ; and though thefe be im-
, perfeft, yet, being fincere, they are accepted by God in
the room of perfeft righteoufnefs. But every article of
i
LOGY. Part II,
this fcheme (continues he) is wrong ; for the law is not Theology
relaxed, nor any of its ieverities abated; Chrift came Pecif~
not to deftroy, but to fulfil it; and therefore it requiresliai^ ^‘in'
the fame holy, juft, and good things, as ever. Nor is .
the gofpel a new law. There_ is nothing in it (he fays) 203
which looks like a law ; for it has no commands in it, Do<ftrine
but all promiles, being a pure declaration of grace and“fj^s^*u
falvation by Chrift; nor are faith, repentance, and a new ‘
obedience, required by it as conditions cf man’s accep-n. *
tance wdth God. Faith and repentance are gofpel doc¬
trines, and parts of the gofpel miniftry ; they are graces,
and not terms required to be performed by men of them-
felves. Faith is the gift of God, and repentance is a
grant from him. It is not true (continues our author)
that God will accept of an imperfeft righteoufnefs in the
room of a perfeft one ; nor can any thing more highly
refleft upon the juftice and truth of God, who is the
judge of all the earth, than to fuppofe that he can ever
account that as a righteoufnefs which is not one.”
Having thus proved by arguments which were almoft
in the lame words ftated long before by Bilhop Beve¬
ridge *, that the gofpei is no relaxation of the law, he * See his
proceeds to lay down his own notions of juftification, of Private
which (he fays) “ the foie matter, or that for the fake7^0/5’.^
of which a finner is juftified before God, is the righte-^ei^wn'
oufnefs of Chrift—that which he did and buffered on
earth, in our nature, in our ftead, and as our reprefenta-
tive. This is commonly called his aftive and paflive
obedience ; and when the purity and holinefs of his own
nature was added to it, the whole made up the 'tiiKouupa
rev ve/Liov, the righteoufnefs of the law, which was ful¬
filled by him as the head and reprefentative of his peo¬
ple f ; for whatever the law required is neceffary to a fin-
ner’s juftification before God, and it required of finners™1 ^
more than it did of man in innocence. Man was crea¬
ted with a pure and holy nature, conformable to the
pure and holy law of God ; and it was incumbent on
him to continue fo, and to yield in it perfeft and finlefs
obedience, in the failure whereof he was threatened with
death. Man did fail, by which his nature was vitiated
and corrupted, and his obedience became faulty and im¬
perfeft. He therefore became liable to the penalty of
the law, and ftill perfeft obedience was required of him.
To the juftification of a finner therefore is required the
mold complete obedience, aftive and paflive ; or, in other
words, purity of nature, perfeft obedience, and the buffer¬
ings of death ; all which meet in Chrift, the reprefenta¬
tive of his people, in wdiom they are juftified. There
are indeed fome divines (continues our author) who ex¬
clude the aftive obedience of Chrift from being any part
of the righteoufnefs by which men are juftified. They
alloxv it to have been a condition requifite in him as a
Mediator, qualifying him for his office; but deny that it
is the matter of juftification, or reckoned for righteouf¬
nefs to man. But without the aftive obedience of Chrift
the law would not be fatisfied ; the language of which
is, Do and live; and unlefs its precepts be obeyed, as
well as its penalty endured, it cannot be fatisfied ; and
unlefs it be fatisfied, there can be no juftification. If
therefore men are juftified by the righteoufnefs of Chrift,
it muft be by his aftive obedience imputed and made
over to them, fo as to become their’s, even as Davidde~
feribeth the bleffednefs of the man unto whom God impu-
teth righteoufnefs without fvorks J. That this is really f Rom. iw
the way in which men are juftified, our author thinks6-
evident,
Part II.
Theology
more pecu¬
liarly Chri-
itian.
* Philip,
iii. 8, p.
f Body of
Divinity,
vol. i.
13001?; ii. 5
% Rom
I7*
|| i Cor. vi.
ts.
* Body of
Praclical
Divinity,
book i.
chap. 6.
T H E O
evident, becaufe they muft be juflined either by an inhe¬
rent or by an imputed righteoufnefs *, but they cannot be
judified by their own inherent righteoufnefs, for that is
imperfect, and therefore not juftifying. Hence the
apoftle ‘ counts all things but dung, that he may win
Chrift and be found in him j not having his own righ-
teoufnefs, which is of the law, but that which is through
the faith of Chrift, the righteoufnefs which is of God bij\
faith But byTuch a righteoufnefs as this a man can¬
not be juftified in any other way than by an imputation
of it to him. Whence it follows, that ‘ as by one man's
difobedience many were made fnv.ers by imputation, lo
by the obedience of one Jhail many be made righteous, by
having that obedience placed to their own account.v
As this author properly confrders juftification as the
a£t of God, he does not approve of the language in
which faith is called the inftmment either of conferring
or receiving it. “ Faith (fays he f) is merely the evi¬
dence of jollification to the perfon juftified ; for ‘ faith
. is the evidence of things not feer,.'’ The righteoufnefs
of God, of the God-man and Mediator Jefus Chrift, is
revealed from faith to faith in the everlafting gofpel J 5
and therefore muft be before it is revealed, and belore
the faith to which it is revealed. Faith is that grace
whereby a foul, having feen its want of righteoufnefs,
beholds in the light of the Divine Spirit a complete
righteoufnefs in Chrift, renounces its own, lays hold on
that, puts it on as a garment, rejoices in it, and glories
of it •, the Spirit of God witnefting to his fpirit that he
is a juftified perfon : and fo he is evidently and declara-
tively ‘ juftified in the name of the Lord Jefus, and by
the fpirit of our God (]\ Faith adds nothing to the ejfe,
only to the bene effe of juftification j w'hich is a com¬
plete afl in the eternal mind of God, without the being
or confideration of faith, or any forefight of it. In the
account of God, a man is as much juftified before his
faith as after it j and after he does believe, his juftifica¬
tion depends not on his a£ls of faith, for though we be¬
lieve not, yet God abides faithful to his covenant-engage¬
ments with his Son, by whofe fuietylhip-righteoufnefs
the elett are juftified ; but by faith men have a comfort¬
able fenfe, perception, and apprehenfion, of their juftifi¬
cation, and enjoy that peace of foul which refults from
it. It is by that only, under the teftimony of the Di¬
vine Spirit, that they know their intereft in it, and can
claim it, and fo have the comfort of it.”
Though this language differs from that of the Weft-
minfter Confcftion, the author feems not to teach a dif¬
ferent dottrine •, for if faith be that grace by which a
foul renounces its own righteoufnefs, and lays hold of
Chrift’s, which it puts on as a garment, it muft be that
very thing which the compilers of the Confeftion meant
by their definition of faith receiving and refting on
Chrift and his righteoufnefs, when they called it “ the
alone inftrument of juftification.” Accordingly our au¬
thor elfewhere * teaches, that “ true faith in fenfible Tin¬
ners affents to Chrift and embraces him, not merely as a
Saviour of man in general, but as a fpecial fuitable Sa¬
viour for them in particular. It proceeds upon Chrift’s
being revealed in them as w’ell as to them, by the fpirit
of wifdom and revelation, in the knowledge of him as a
Saviour that becomes them. It comes not merely
through external teachings by the hearing of the word
from men *, for no man, faith our bleffed Lord, can
come to me except the Father draw him •, but fuch fouls
as are. thus drawn, having heard and learned of the
205
Faith the
inttrument
LOGY. 391
Father, believe not only in the doBrine of Chrift, but Theology
alfo in himfe/f trufting in him alone for everlafting life ^
and falvation.” ‘ ftjan
Were it not that this author, in every thing that he \ v i
writes, has an eye to the doflrine of eleftion and repro- 2.04
bation, which he carries to a greater height than almoft ot t*ie
any other divine with whofe works we are acquainted, Ar;_
he would differ little in his notions of juftification from mjnians.
the more moderate Arminians. “ Juftification (lays Lim-
borch) is the merciful and gracious aft of God, where¬
by he fully abfolves from all guilt the truly penitent and
believing foul, through and for the fake of Chrift appre¬
hended by a true faith : or gratuitoufty remits fins upon
the account of faith in Jefus Chrift, and gracioufly im¬
putes that faith for righteoulnefs.” Here indeed the im¬
putation of Chrift’s righteoufnefs is exprefsly denied ; but
Dr Waterland, who can hardly be confidered as a Cal-
vinift, feems to contend for the imputation of that righ¬
teoufnefs to the firmer, as well as for faith being the in*
ftrument by which it is received.
“ It cannot be for nothing (fays that able writer *) * Summa-
that St Paul fo often and io emphatically fpeaks of man’s ry View of
being juftified by faith, or through faith in Chrift’s blood;
and that he particularly notes it of Abraham, that he ta-
lieved, and that his faith was counted to him for juftifi¬
cation, when he might as eafily have faid that Abraham,
to whom the gofpel was preached, was juftified by gofpel-
faith and obedience, had he thought faith and obedience
equally inftruments of juftification. Befides, it is on all
hands allowed, that though St Paul did not direftly op-
pofe faith to evangelical works, yet he comprehended the^
works of the moral law under thofe which he excluded ■
from the office oijuftifying, in his fenfe of the word ju-0[ju
ftificatien. Fie even ufed fuch arguments as extended to
all kinds of works ; for Abraham’s works were exclud¬
ed, though they were undoubtedly evangelical. To prove
that he interprets the apoftle’s doftrine fairly, our author
quotes, from the genuine epiftle of Clemens of Rome, a
paffage, in which it appears beyond a doubt that this
fellow-labourer of St Paul fo underftood the doftrine of
juftifying faith as to oppofe it even to evangelical works,
however exalted. It is true (continues our author), Cle¬
mens elfewhere, and St Paul almoft everywhere, infills
upon true holinefs of heart and obedience of life as indi-
fpenfable conditions of falvation or juftification j and of
that, one would think, there could be no queftion among
men of any judgment or probity. But the queftion a-
bout conditions is very diftinft from the other queftion
about inftruments \ and therefore both parts may be true,
viz. that faith and obedience are equally conditions, and
equally indifpenfable where opportunities permit ; and
yet faith over and above is emphatically the inftrument
both of receiving and holding juftification, or a title to
falvation.
“ To explain this matter more diftinftly, let it be re¬
membered, that God maybe confidered either as a party
contrafting with man on very gracious terms, or as a
Judge to pronounce fentence on him. Man can enter
into the covenant, fuppofing him adult, only by affent-
ing to it, and accepting it, to have and to hold it on
fuch kind of tenure as God propofes : that is to fay,
upon a felf-denying tenure, confidering himfelf as a
guilty man Handing in need of pardon, and of borrowed
merits, and at length refting upon mercy. So here, the
previous queftion is, Whether a perfon {hall confent to
hold a privilege upon this fubmiffive kind of tenure or
not-?-
r
ftian.
392 T H E O
theology not ? Such alTent or confent, if he comes into it, is the
Karly'chri-Ver^ ^'hich St Paul and St Clemens call faith.
And this previous and general queftion is the queition
) which both of them determine againft any proud claimants
who would hold by a more felf-admiring tenure.
“ Or if we next confider God as fitting in judgement,
and man before the tribunal going to plead his caufe j
here the queftion is, What kind of plea lhall a man re-
iblve to truft his falvation upon ? Shall he ftand upon
his innocence, and reft upon ftridl law ? or {hall he plead
guilty, and reft in an aft of grace ? If he choofes the
former, he is proud, and fure to be call : if he choofes
the latter, he is fafe fo far in throwing himfelf upon an
aft of grace. Now this queftion alfo, which Sc Paul
has decided, is previous to the queftion, What condi¬
tions even the aft of grace itfelf finally infifts upon ? A
queftion which St James in particular, and the general
tenure of the whole Scripture, has abundantly fatisfied ;
and which could never have been made a queftion by
any confiderate or impartial Chriftian. None of our
works are good enough to ftand by themfelves before
him who is of purer eyes than to behold iniquity. Chrift
only is pure enough for it at firft hand, and they that
are Ciirift’s at fecond hand in and through him. Now
became it is by faith that we thus interpofe, as it were,
Chrift between God and us, in order to gain acceptance
by him ; therefore faith is emphatically the inftrument
whereby we receive the grant of juftification. Obedi¬
ence is equally a condition or qualification, but not an
inftrument, not being that aft of the mind whereby we
look up to God and Chrift, and whereby we embrace
the promifes.”
But though our author contends that faith is the in¬
ftrument of juftification, he does not, like the J^jitino-
mians, teach that it will fave men without works. “ The
covenant of grace (fays he) has conditions annexed to it
of great importance, for without them no inftruments
can avail. Thefe are faith and obedience, as St James
hath particularly maintained. St Paul had before de¬
termined the general and previous queftion refpefting
the plea by which we ought to abide ; and when fome
libertines, as is probable, had perverted his doftrine of
faith and grace, St James firowed that the very faith
which refts in a covenant of grace implies a cordial fub-
miflion to the conditions of that covenant, otherwife it
■would be nothing but an empty ceremony. The per-
feft agreement between St Paul and St James in the ar¬
ticle of juflification, appears very clear and certain. St
P.ml declares, that in order to come at juftification, it is
neceffary to ftand upon grace, not upon merit ; which
Si James does not deny, but rather confirms, in what
he lays of the perfeft law of liberty (James i. 25. ii. 12).
St Paul makes faith the inftrument of receiving that
grace ; which St James does not depute, but approves
by w'hat he fays of Abraham (ii. 23.) ; only he main¬
tains a’fo, that, in the conditionate fenfe, julbfication
depends equally upon faith and good works; which St
Paul alfo teaches and inculcates in <flfft, or, in other
words, through all his writings. If St Paul had had
305
Tilth and
obedience
its condi¬
tions.
LOGY. Part II.
precifely the lame queftion before him which St James Theology
happened to have, he would have decided juft as ir,ore P<-cu*
James did ; and it St James had had precisely the fame ^ar'T Gd-
quertion before him which St Paul had, he would have . U^n' ■
determined juft as St Paul did. Their principles were
exaftly the fame, but the queftions were diverle ; and
they had different adverfaries to deal with, and oppofite
extremes to encounter, which is a common cafe.
“ It may be noted, that that faith which is here call¬
ed a condition^ is of much wider compals than that par¬
ticular kind ol faith which is precifely the inftrument of
jufhfication. For faith as a condition means the whole
complex of Chriftian belief, as expreffed in the creeds ;
while faith as an inftrument means only the laying hold
on grace, and refting in Chrift’s merits in oppofition to
our own defervings : though this alio, if it is a vital and
operative principle (and if it is not, it is nothing worth),
muft of courfe draw after it an hearty fubmiffion to, and
obfervance of, all the neceffary conditions of that cove¬
nant of grace wherein we repoie our whole truft and
confidence. So-that St Paul might well iay, “ Do we
then make void the law (the moral law) through faith ?
God forbid : Yea, wre eitablilh the law*.” We ex-*Rom. iii.
empt no man from religious duties j which are duties 5 r*
ftill, though they do not merit nor are practicable to
fuch a degree as to be above the need of pardon : they
are neceflary conditions in their meafure of juftification,
though not fufhcient in themfelves to juftify, nor perfeCl
enough to ftand before God or to abide trial : therefore
Chrift’s merits muft be taken in to fupply their defedls :
and fo our refting in Chrift’s atonement by an humble
felf-denying faith is our laft refort, our anchor of falva¬
tion both fure and ftedlaft, after w'e have otherwife
done our utmoft towards the fulfilling of God’s facred
laws, towards the performing of all the conditions re¬
quired.
“ That good wmrks, internal and external, are ac¬
cording as opportuniiies offer and circumftances permit,
conditions properly fo called, is clear from the whole te¬
nor of Scripture, as hath been often and abundantly
proved by our own divines (m), and is admitted by the
mort judicious among the foreign Reformed (n). Yet
iome have been very fcrupulous as to this innocent name,
even while they allow the abfolute neceflity of good
works as indifpenfable qualifications for future bltfled-
nefs. Why not conditions therefore as well as qualifi¬
cations ? Perhaps becaufe that name might appear to
ftrike at abfolute predeftination, or unconditional elec¬
tion 5 and thc-e may lie the fcruple : otherwife the dif¬
ference appears to lie rather in words than in things.
“ Some will have them called not conditions, but
fruits or confequents of juftification. If they mean by
juftification the fame as the grace of the Holy Spirit,
and the firft grace of faith fpringing from it, they fay
true ; and then there is nothing more in it than an im¬
proper ufe of the word juf if cation^ except that from
abufe of wmrds very frequently ariies fome corruption of
dofrrine. If they mean only, that outward atfts of
righteoufnefs are fruits of inward habits or difpofitions j
that
(m) Bull. Op. Latin:^. 412, 414, 415, 430, 434, 514, 516, 544, 583, 645, 668. Edit, ult —Stillingfleet’s
Works, vol. iii. p. 367, 580. 393’ 39^’—Tillotfon’s Pofthumous Sermons, vol. ii. p. 484, 487.
O') Voflius de Bonis Openbus, Thef. x. p. 370—Op. tom. vi.—Frid. Spanhem. fi. Op. tom. iii. p. 141, 159.
2
}°7'
Objedlions
of the
more zea¬
lous Ar-
minians to
this flate-
Part II. T H E O
Theology that alfo is undoubtedly true : but that is no reafon why
mere pecu- internal a£ts, virtues, graces (good works of the mind),
^ftian n' ^10U^ not be called conditions of jultificalion j or why
t 1 the outward a6fs diould net be juftly thought conditions
of preferving it. But if they mean that juftification is
ordinarily given to adults, without any preparative or
previous conditions of faith and repentance, that indeed
is very new dodfrine and dangerous, and opens a wide
door to carnal fecurity and to all ungodlinefs.”
Such is the dodtrine of Chriftian juftification as it has
been taught by the followers of Calvin, and by fome of
the moft eminent Arminians who flourilhed in the end
of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century. They
appear not, from this view of their opinions, to differ
fo widely as fome of them have wiftied the wmrld to be¬
lieve. It is evident that Dr Waterland, though he re-
jedb-fome of the diftinguilhing tenets of Calvinifm, lays
greater ftrefs upon faith in his fcheme of jollification
than Dr Gill himl'elf; and that they both confider it as
the injlrumcnt by which the adult Chriftian muft receive
the imputed righteoufnefs of Chrift. The greater part
of modem Arminians, however, exclaim againft the im¬
putation of Chrift’s righteoufnefs, as a dodfrine falfe in
itfelf, and fraught with the moft pernicious confequences j
and they would be ready to tell Dr Gill, in his own
ment of the' words, that of his fcheme every article is wrong. It is
(fodlrine. not true (fay they) that God exadts of man, or ever did
exadl of him, an obedience abfolutely perfedt j for under
every difpenfation man was in a ftate of difeipline, and
had habits of virtue and piety to acquire •, and it is pro¬
bable that his progrefs in piety, virtue, and wifdom, will
continue for ever, as none but God is perfedt and fta-
tionary, and incapable of deviating from the line of rec¬
titude. Moft of them, after Bilhop Bull, difiike the
ufe of fuch unfcriptural phrafes as the injlrument of jujh-
fcation, applied either to faith or to works •, and think,
that by confideiing God as the foie juftifier of man,
upon certai-n conditions, they can more precifely afeer-
tain the diftindt provinces of faith and obedience in the
fcheme of juftification, than either their brethren of the
old fchool of Arminius, or their rivals of the fchool of
Calvin.
By the very conftitution of man, piety and virtue are
duties which, if he do not fincerely perform, he muft
of courfe forfeit the favour of his Maker ; but the moft
perfedl performance of his natural duties would not en¬
title him to a fupernatural and eternal reward. Eternal
life is \\\e gift of God through Jefus Chrift ; and it is
furely reafonable that we (hould acknowledge it to be
fo, and not claim it as a debt due to our merits. The
pious and virtuous man has a natural claim to more hap-
pinefs than mifery during the period of his exiftence, a
claim founded on the attributes of that God who called
him into being but he has no natural claim to a future
life, and ftill lefs to a perpetuity of exiftence. This is
a truth not more clearly taught in the holy feripture
than confonant to the foundeft philofophy : and yet, by
not attending to it, have St Paul and St James been fet
at variance, and the moft oppofite doffrines taught re-
fpefting the juftification of Chriftians.
Becaufe faith in Chrift cannot entitle a wicked man
to eternal happinefs, one clafs of divines feem to infer
that fuch faith is not neceffary to Chriftian juf if cation,
and that “ his faith cannot be "wrong whofe life is in the
right.” They proceed upon the fuppofition that man is
VOL. XX. Part I.
20S
Their own
-ftatement
®f it.
LOGY. 393
naturally immortal ; that piety and virtue are entitled Theology
to reward j and that therefore the pious and virtuous
man, whatever be his belief, muft undoubtedly inherit {Uar!,
an eternal reward. But this is very fallacious reafoning. < —~J
That piety and virtue are through the divine juftice and
benevolence entitled to reward, is indeed a truth incon¬
trovertible 5 but that man who is of yefterday is natu¬
rally immortal ; that a being who began to exift by the
mere good will of his Maker, has in himfelf a principle
of perpetual exiftence independent of that will—is a di-
reift contradiffion. Whatever began to be, can be con¬
tinued in being only by the power, and according to
the pleafure, of the infinite Creator j but it pleafed the
Creator of his free grace at firft to promife mankind
eternal life, on the Tingle condition of their firft: father*
obferving one pofitive precept. That precept was via*
lated, and the free gift loft : but the covenant was re¬
newed in Clnift, who “ by his death hath aboliftied 20g
death, and by his refurreflion hath brought to light life Faith the
and immortality.” The condition annexed to the gifl^ con*
thus reftoved was faith 5 for “ being juftified by faith *5
we have peace with God through our Lord Jefus Chvift 5cation pe-
by whom alfo we have accefs by faith into this grace culiarly
wherein we ftand, and rejoice in the hope of the Glory ChiiFian;
OF God.” Faith therefore in the Son of God and Sa- * Ram' v*
viour of the world, is not only a condition, but the foie *’
condition, of that juftification which is peculiarly Chri¬
ftian ; for fince Chrift, without any co-operaticn of ours,
hath puvehafed for us the free gift of eternal hie, we
fliall be guilty of the groffeft ingratitude to our Divine
Benefaftor, and impioutly claim an independence on
God, if we look upon that gift either as a right in¬
herent in our nature, or as a debt due to our meritorious
deeds. _ _ > ... 210
But though faith be the condition of juftification, as but not of
that implies the inheritance of eternal life, there are
other conditions to be performed before a man can be ,e'' rT,: -
put in poffeffion of eternal felicity. By a law long prior ' ‘ ‘ *
to the promulgation of the gofpe!—a law interwoven
with our very being—no man can enjoy the favour of
his Maker, who does net make it his conftant endea¬
vour “ to do juftly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly
with his God.” This law’ was in force before man fell •,
it continues to be in force now that he is redeemed ;
and it will not be abrogated even at that period when
faith ftiall give place to vifion, and hope to enjoyment.
By the grace of the Chriftian covenant, all mankind are ferent con-
rendered immortal in confequence of the death and re-ditions of
furredfion of Chrift, who is the Lamb flain, in the divine (livine
decree, from the foundation of the world ; but to obtain
immortal happinefs, they muft obferve the conditions
both of natural and of revealed religion, which are re¬
pentance from dead works, and faith in Chrift the Re¬
deemer. The former is that condition upon w’hich alone
we can retain the Divine favour, and of courfe enjoy
either prefent or future happinefs; the latter is a moft:
equitable acknowdedgement required of us, that perpe¬
tual confcious exiftence is neither a right inherent in
our nature, nor a debt due to our virtuous obedience,
but merely the gift of God through Jefus Chrift our
Lord.
“ To make the diftxnft provinces of faith and works
in the bufinefs of juftification clear, let us fuppofe (fays
Bifhop Warburton f), that, at the publication of the^^'L^*
gofpel, all to whom the glad tidings of immortality chap_
3 D were
394 T H E O
Theology were offered on tire condition of failh in Jefus had been
hMay Giri- mora^ or virtuous men, and on that account entitled (as
Ilian natural religion teacheth) to the favour of God and an
—i1 abundant reward ; is it not felf-evident, that FAITH
alone, exclulive of the condition of good works, would,
in that cafe, have been the very thing wMich jujlified or
entitled them to life everlajling ? But are good works,
therefore, of no ufe in the Chriftian fyftem ? So far
from it, that thofe only who ferve God in fincerity and
212 in truth are capable of the juflification which faith alone
Illuftrated embraces } for, to illuftrate this matter by a familiar in-
lia/exam" ^ance’ ^ppofe a-Britilh monarch to bellow,'in free gift,
ple_ ‘ a certain portion of his own domains, to which immor¬
tality may well be compared, upon fuch of his fubje£ls
as fhould perform a certain fervice to which they were
not obliged by the laws of the kingdom ; it is evident
that the performance of this laft fervice only would be
the thing which entitled them to the free gift. Yet it
is obvious that obedience to the laws, which gave them
a claim to proteftion as fubjefls, in the enjoyment of
their own property (to which the reward offered by
natural religion may be compared), would be a previous
and neceflary qualification to their enjoyment of their
new pofleffion ; fince it is abfurd to fuppofe that fuch a
gift could be intended for rebels and traitors, or indeed
for any but good and faithful fervants of their king and
country.” Well therefore might the apoftle reprove the
ignorance or licentioufnefs of certain of his converts at
Rome, in his quellion—“ Do we then make void the
LAW through faith ? God forbid ! yea, we establish
the law j” obedience to it being the previous qualifica¬
tion of all who are entitled to the fruits of jultifying
faith LIFE AND IMMORTALITY.
Had proper attention been paid to this diftindlion,
which St Paul everywhere makes between fuch duties as
are common to all religions that are true, and thofe
which are peculiar to the Chriilian revelation, many ufe-
rcfs controverfies might have been avoided refpe£ling the
inftrument of juftification and the conditions of the Chri-
ftian covenant. By not attending to it, the divines of
one fchool, who perceive that the mere belief of any
truth whatever cannot entitle a man to eternal felicity,
have almoft dropt faith from their fyftem of Chrifiianity,
and taught moral duties like Pagan philofophers j whilft
another party, who err almoft as far in their interpre
tations of fcripture, finding eternal life reprefented as
the gift of God, and faith in Chrift as the inftrument or
means by which that gift muft be accepted, have ex-
Sum of punged from their fyftem the neceflity of good works,
Ghriftiani- forgetting furely that wicked believers, like believing
hf* devils, may be doomed to an eternity of torments. But
the fum of Chriftianity, as we are taught by the beloved
difciple, is comprehended in this one commandment of
God, “ that we fhould believe on the name of his Son
Jefus Chrift, and love one another as he gave us com¬
mandment.” In perfedt harmony with him, the great
Gal. v. 6. apoftle of the Gentiles affures us *, that “ in Chrift Jefus
nothing can avail to our eternal happinefs but faith
f Chap. iii. which WORKETH BY LOVE and he informs Titus f,
9. that it “ is a true laying, and what he wills to be con-
ftantly affirmed, that they who have believed in God be
careful to maintain good w7orks.”
Indeed no man can have complete faith in Chrift,
who believes not the promifes of the gofpel ; but all
thofe promifes, except the fingle one of a refurrgftion
LOGY. Part II.
from the dead to perpetual confeious exiftence, are made Theology
to us upon the exprefs condition that we obey the lawmore Pec“"
of the gofpel; “ for God will render to every man ac-^1^.^11*"
cording to his deeds: to them that are contentious and < ft-' <
do not obey the truth, but obey unrighteoufnefs, indig¬
nation and wrath ; tribulation and anguilh upon every
foul of man that doth evil, of the Jew firft and alfo of
the Gentile 5 but glory, honour, and peace to every
man that worketh good, to the Jew firft and alfo to the
Gentile*.” _ ... *Rom.ii.
Such are the notions of juftification entertained by S, 9.
thofe who in the prefent age have been confidered as
the leaders f of the left of Arminians. How far they j-IV^rinr-
are juft, the reader muft decide for himfelf; but underton and
every view of this doftrine which we have taken, theLacw’
Chriftian covenant appears much more gracious than
that into which Adam was admitted in paradife : fince riieChri
it affords room for repentance, even to that man, who flian cove-
may be fo unhappy as to be drawn for a time into apof-nant more
tacy from the terms of the covenant. Whether ^racl°^S
death of Chrift therefore was a diredi atonement for the , Je-
a<ftual fins of men, or only operated as fuch indireBly
by procuring for them repeated opportunities of repent¬
ance, it is an undoubted truth, that “ if through the
offence of one many be dead, much more the grace of
God, and the gift by grace, which is by one man, Jefus
Chrift, hath abounded unto many. And not as it was
by one that finned, fo is the gift: for the judgement
w7as of one offence to condemnation, but the free gift is
of many offence to jufifcation J.” jR0m v
Thus gracioufly has the divine goodnefs difplayed it-16(
felf in the reftoration of our loft inheritance. But it
ftopt not here. The fame bountiful Lord of life, for its
further fecurity, imparts to every true believer the
ftrength and light of his holy fpirit to fupport faith in
working out our own falvation. Our bleffed Saviour
promifed, before he left this world, to fend to his
followers the Holy Ghoft or Comforter to abide
with them for ever, to guide them into all truth,
to bring all things to their remembrance whatfo-
ever he had faid unto them, and, as we learn from
other paffages of fcripture, to “ work in them both
to will and to do of his good pleafure.” How amply
this promife was fulfilled to the apoftles, wTe have al¬
ready feen ; but wTe aie not to fuppofe that it was re-
ftri&ed to them. As man is defigned for a fupernatural chdflfans
ftate in heaven, he ftands in need of fupernatural direc- fandtified
tion to guide him to that ftate. “ No man (fays our by the Holy
Saviour) can come to me except the Father draw him ; Ghoft, wh®
for as no man knoweth the things of a man fave the
fpirit of a man which is in him, even fo none knoweth
the things of God but the Spirit of God.” This om-
nifcient Spirit indeed “ fearcheth all things, yea even
the deep things of God,” and revealeth them to the
fons of men, to enlighten their underftandings and puri¬
fy their hearts. The grace which he ftieds abroad is
either external and general, or internal and particular.
The former has been extended to the whole church of
God under the patriarchal, Mofaic, and Chriftian dif-
penfations, in fuch a revelation of the divine will as was
fufficient to inftruft men unto eternal life, whether they
had a clear view or not of that ftupendous plan of re¬
demption, by which the kingdom of heaven was opened
to them after the forfeiture of the terreftrial paradife j
for there have been “ holy prophets ever fince the rvorld
began |
Part II.
T II E O
* Luke i.
70. and
1 Peter i.
tl.
ax6
regenerates
them,
* Titus i.
S, 6-
Theology began $ and prophecy came not at any time by the will
more pecu- 0f man> ]10jy men Df God fpake as they were moved
^^ri- by the Holy Ghoit Hence it is that all fcripture
•   1 was given by infpiralion of God to teach us every thing
which it is neceflary for us to know and believe } and
the fcripture is that work of the fpirit which is extended
to the univerfal church.
But the fame fpirit which thus generally reveals the
object of faith to the church, does likewife particularly
illuminate the minds of individual believers, working in
them an alTent to that which is taught them from the
written word. It was thus that “ the Lord opened the
f Ac*ts xvi. heart of Lydia f ; that lire attended to the things which
i4. were fpoken by Paulit is thus that “ the word preach¬
ed doth not profit if it be not mixed with faith in them
tHeb. iv. 2.who hear h t >” and il is lhus that “ God deals to eveiT
j| Rom. xii. ntsn the meafure of faith || •,” for “ by grace are we
3. faved through faith, which is not of ourfelves $ it is the
§ Epii. ii. 8. gift of God This illumination of the Spirit was
conveyed to the apoftles “ in a found from heaven as
of a ruffling mighty wind,'’ becaufe it was meant to tel-
tify to the world that they were chofen minifters of the
gofpel; but the ordinary Chriftian receives it “ in the
ffill fmall voice,” becaufe it is conveyed to him only to
“ open his underifanding that he may underhand the
fcriptures.”
Another operation of the Spirit on the minds of be¬
lievers Is that which in fcripture is called Regenera¬
tion ; for “ according to his mercy God faveth us by
the wafhing of regeneration and renewing of the Holy
Ghoh *, which he (beds on us abundantly through Jefus
Chrih our Lord.” To thofe who believe that we de¬
rive from Adam a corrupted nature, this particular
grace muh appear fo abfolutely neceflary, that without
it we could have no relifh for heaven or heavenly things.”
“ The natural man (we are told) receiveth not the
things of the fpirit of God j for they are foolilhnefs to
him ; neither can he know them, becaufe they are fpi-
ritually difcerned.” Indeed whatever be the powers of
our moral faculties, when compared with thofe of our
firh father, it is fo long before they be completely de¬
veloped, that we fliould infallibly be loh, if We were
not bleffed by a fupernatural guide, when reafon is in¬
capable of direfting our condudl. Our pafhons and ap¬
petites are in their full ftrength before experience has
furnifhed the mind with materials, by means of which
motives may be weighed *, and therefore it would be
ImpolTible, during the giddy period of youth, to keep,
them in due fubjeclion, or to prevent vicious habits from
being formed, were we not influenced by divine grace.
So true is it, that “ except a man be born again of wa¬
ter and of the Holy Ghoft, he cannot enter into the
kingdom of God.” This change in our difpofitions,
from an immoderate attachment to earth to a relifh for
the things of heaven, is in fcripture called “ a renexving
of our minds, a new creation, a new man in oppofi-
tion to our natural difpofition, which is called “ the^ old
man, corrupted according to the deceitful lufts.” rhe
ancient fathers of the church, as well as fome very emi-
y isiaree nent modern divines -f-, generally fpeak of baptifm as the
and fEafer-inftrument in God’s hand of man’s regeneration-, and for
the truth of their opinion they appeal to John iii. 3, 5. E-
phef. v. 25, 2.6. and 1 Cor. vi. 11. in which great llrefs
is certainly laid on the xvafning of water, as well as on
fan&ification by the word.
-f Clarke
land.
LOGY. 395
A third office of the Holy Spirit Is to lead, dire£f, geology
and govern us through all the periods of our lives.
Without luch a leader and guide, the temptations with ftian.
which w-e are furrounded would certainly overcome us/-—v—
and we fhould faint long before we arrive at the end of 217
our journey. By the very conftitution of our nature vve
are lubjefted in fome degree to the influence of fenfe, t^r0Ugh
of which the objefts are prefent, whilfl the enjoymentsiife>
of heaven are future, and ieen, as at a diffance, only by
the eye of faith j but “ the law of the Spirit of life, in
Chrift Jefus, hath made us free from the law of fin and
death 5” for God worketh in us both to will and to do
of his good pleafure } and as many as are thus led by the
fpirit of God, they are the fons of God } and while they
walk in the Spirit, they do not fulfil the luffs of the
flefh.” Without the aid of the fame Spirit, we could
not even make our prayers acceptable 5 for fince “ our
confidence in God is, that he heareth us only when we
alk any thing according to his will and fince w'e know
not what we fliould pray for as we ought, the Spirit itfelf
maketh interceffion for us with groanings which cannot
be uttered *. . * Rom. viii*
A fourth operation of the Holy Ghoft, as he is the 26.
fanclifier of Chriftians, is to join them to Chrift, and
make them members of that one body of which he is
the head. “ For by one Spirit are we all baptized into
one body fj and as the body is one and hath many ( j ?
members, and all the members of that one body being' ’2lS’
many are one body, fo alfo is Chrift.” “Hereby w7e unites them
know that God abideth in us, by the Spirit which he to Chrift,
hath given us and as, in the ordinary courfe of his
dealings with Chriftians, this Spirit is firlt given in bap¬
tifm, fo is it continued to the faithful by the inftrumen-
tality of the Lord’s fupper. That ordinance w-e have
elfewbere (fee SUPPER of the Lord) proved to be a
federal rite ; and furely no time can be fuppofed fo
highly fan&ified for the reception of the graces of the
Holy Spirit, as that in which we renew our federal
union with our Lord and Mafter in the communion of
his body and blood.
It is likevvife the office of the Holy Ghoft to give us
an earneft of our everlafting inheritance, to create in us
a fenfe of the paternal love of God, and thereby to af-
fure us of the adoption of fons. “ As many as are led
by the Spirit of God, they are the sons of God ; and
becaufe we are fons, God hath fent forth the fpirit of
his Son into our hearts. For we have not received the
fpirit of bondage again to fear ; but we have received
the Spirit of adoption, whereby we cry Abba Father 5
the Spirit itfelf bearing witnefs with our fpirit, that we
are the children of God J”. t Gal. iv. 6.
As the gifts of grace are generally annexed to means, Roi"-6V111,
to the proper ufe of the word and facraments, it is a I5,1
fixth office of the fame Spirit to fanttify fuch perfons as
are regularly fet apart for the work of the miniftry, and
ordained to offer up the public prayers of the people 5 to. 219
blefs them in the name of God ; to teach the doftrines'^^™^"
of the gofpel ; to adminifter the facraments inftituted by “
Chrift; and to perform all things neceffary “ for the tions of the
perfecting of the faints, for the work of the miniftry, minifters
for the edifying of the body of Chrift [].” The fame 0^]the g01*
Spirit which illuminated the apbftles, and endowed |KEpli< ;v>
them v/ith power from above to perform perfonally their 12_
apoftolic functions, fitted them alfo for fending others,
as they were fent by their Divine Mafter ; and for efta-
3 D 2 blifhing
395
Theology
wore pecu
i:ar!y Chri
fiian.
* Acl.» xx
ii. and
Jude ver.
Cwn trove r-
fies ocea-
ii nied by
this doc¬
trine
T II E O
bliilintg fucli a conlxltution of the church as was beft
; adapted for preferving Chriftlans in the unity of the
opuit and oond of peace. They committed a handing
' Power to a focceiTive minihry to be conveyed down to
Tie end of the world ; and thofe who are veiled with
tnat power are obliged to “ take heed unto themfelves,
ana to all the dock over which the Holy Ghost hath
made them overfeers, to feed the church of God, and
to contend earnellly for the faith which was once deli¬
vered unto the faints*.” See Episcopacy, Indepen¬
dents, Presbyterians, Pope, and Quakers.
' By thefe> and the like means, doth the Spirit of God
-andlky tne Ions of men j and in confequence of this
fanftification proceeding immediately from his office, he
is called the Holy Spirit and the Comforter. This
is fuch a provifion “ tor renewing us in the fpirit of our
minds, and enabling us to put on the new man, which,
after God, is created in righteoafnefs and true holinefs,”’
a’-, when made known by revelation appears to have
been expedient, may be conceived to have been even
neceffary, and, though reufon could hardly have hoped
for it, is contradicted by none of our natural notions
eithei of God or of man. Many, however, are the con-
trove! fies to which it has given rife in the church of
God ; fome contending that it is given only unto the
elect, upon whom it operates with refiftlefs efficacy j
others affirming that it is offered to all, but in fuch a
manner as that, by the abufe of their free will, it may
be “ refilled, grieved, and quenched j” and fome few,
bill intoxicated with the pride of Pelagius, think it is
not neceffary, and of courfe is not bellowed.
I he queftions concerning e left ion, the efficacy (if
grace, and the nnal perfeverance of the faints, we have
bated elfew-here, and given a fummary view of the ar¬
guments by which the contending parties maintain their
refpeflive opinions (fee Predestination) ; and the
221 texts or Scripture which we have juft quoted, under the
dirtutled different heads of fan&ificqtion, Ihow lufficiently that
cTewhere. the opinion of Pelagius is direclly contrary to the doc¬
trine of the apoftles. It may not be improper to en-
q-uiie whether it be as agreeable to reafon and experi¬
ence as its patrons feem to imagine.
, unieafonable to expert any affiftance from
the Spirit of God in carrying on the work of our own
lalvation, how came fo many of the wifeft and beft of
men in ah ages to believe, that he wffio fincerely endea¬
vours to difeharge his duty is fupported in that endea¬
vour by affiftance from heaven ? That fuch was the pc-
pulai belief of the early Greeks, is evident from the
poems of Horner j in which we everywhere find fome
god calming the paffions of the heroes, altering their
determinations when improper, and infpiring them with
wifdoro. Nor was this the fentiment of the poets only.
Socrates, it is wTell known, profeffed to believe that his
O'. n conduft was under the direction of a fuperior fpii it,
which he called a deemon; and Plutarch, as we find
Opm.ons of him quoted by Wollafton, fpeaks of the gods affifting
thens con- ^ “ excitinS th.e powers or faculties of the foul ;
eeniing it. ^ *uSSe“ino *ccret principles, imaginations, or thoughts;
or, on the contrary, by diverting or flopping them.”
Of the fame opinion muft Cicero have been, when he
faid, “ ftabit illud. qui : m, quod locum hunc continet,
* De Div. ftuo ag,'™us> Eeos, et eorum providentia mun-
lib. i. fedt. dum adminiftrari, eofdemque confulcre rebus humanis,
5T nec folum univerjts, verum etiam singulis *3” fo* it is
L O G Y. par|. jj
not conceivable that a particular providence can be ad- Theology
m.raftered without the influence of the JDeity on themure Pet-U-
minds of men. That the poets and philofophers of theiIarJy Chri_
heathen world derived theie notions from primeval tra- ftian'
dilion, cannot, we think, be queltioned 3 but if they v "' '
were abfurd in themfelves, or apparently contradiaory to
the laws of nature, they would not furelv have been fo
univerfally embraced; for it will fcarctly be denied,
that Socrates and Cicero were men of as great natural
fagacity as Pelagius or any of his followers. It is in¬
deed lo far from being incredible that the Father of
fpirits occafionally direds the thoughts and adions of
men, that we believe there are veiy few who have made
obfervations on themfelves and their own affairs, who
have not found, on refledion, many inilances in which
their ufual judgement and fenfe of thinys were over¬
ruled, they know not how or why; and °that the ac¬
tions which they performed in thole circumftances have
had confequences very remarkable in their general hi-
ftory. See Providence, N° 18, 19.
. ’^his being the cafe, why fliould the pride of Chri-
ftians make them heiitate to admit, on llie authority of
divine revelation, what Socrates, and Plutarch, and Ci¬
cero, and all the virtuous and wile men of antiquity, ad-
mited in effed, on no better evidence than that of
oral tradition, fupported by their own meditations on
their own thoughts, and the principles of their own
cor,dud ? Is it that they fee not fuch beneficial effeds
of Chriftianity as to induce them to believe the profef-
fors of that religion to be indeed “ chofen to falvation
through the fandification of the Spirit f ?” Let them
ftudy the practical precepts of the gofpel, confider the t
confequences which they have had on the peace and"3'
happinefs of fociety, and compare the general condud
of Chriftians with that of the Jews, Pagans, and Maho¬
metans (fee Religion), and they wall doubtlefs find
reafon to alter their opinion ; and let thofe who em¬
brace the truth, remember, that as they are the temple
of God, if the Spirit of God dwell in them, “ it is their
indifpenfable duty to cleanfe themfelves from all filthi-
nefs of the fleffi and fpirit; to follow peace with all men,
and holinefs, without which no man (hall fee the Lord ;
and to work out their own falvation with fear and trem¬
bling, fince it is God who worketh in them both to will
and to do of his good pleafure.”
From this Ihort view of the feveral difpenfations ofyJS.
revealed religion, it is evident that the gofpel is not on-the ifft re*
ly the befl but the laft gift of the kind which man has^ffi0®-
tp exped from his Maker; that the fcheme of revela¬
tion isycompleted ; and that the pretences of Mahomet
and of more modern enthufiafts to divine infpiration are
not only falfe, but fraught with contiadidions. All
thefe men admit the divine origin of the Mofaic and
Chriftian religions ; but it appears from the feriptures,
in which thofe religions are taught, that the fyftem of
revealed truths which conftitute the Patriarchal, Mo¬
faic, and Chriftian revelations, commenced with the fall
of man, and that it muft therefore neceffarily end with
his reftoration to life and immortality by the facrifiee of
Chrift upon the crofs. A new revelation therefore like
that of Mahomet cannot be admitted without rejeding
the whole Bible, though the impoftor himfelf every¬
where acknowledges the infpiration of Abraham, of
Mofes, and of Chrift. Nor is greater regard due to
the claims of Chriftian enthufiafts. Such as pretend - tp
have
Part n
Theology
rrioie pecu¬
liarly Out¬
fit^.
* Bahmen,-
Jhvtden-
bourg, and
others.
\ Cal. I 8.
T H E O
have been in heaven *, and thence to have brought
fpiritual difcoveries to the earth, have either forgotten
or never underltood, that in the fcriptures of the Old
and New Teftaments the great fcene of Providence ap¬
pears to be clofed in the full completion of its one regu¬
lar, entire, and eternal purpofe •, that St Paul has pro¬
nounced f a curfe on any man or angel from heaven
who fhall preach another gofpel than what has been al¬
ready preached by the apotlles and evangeliils 3 that in
LOGY.
397
their writings we are taught every thing which it is our Theology
duty to believe or to pra&ife in order to our own falva- I??or.e P5.cu"
tion ; and that we have the promife of our blefied in
Lord himfelf, that the Spirit of truth {hall remain1 t 1
with us to guide us into all necdlary truth, till that
great day when he (hall come again to judge the world
in righteoufnefs, and render to every man according to
his works.
THE
Theophraf- THEOPHR AS i'A, a genus of plants belonging to
^ the clafs pentandria. See BOTANY Index.
Theorem. -THEOPHRASTUS, the philofopher, was born a-
' bout 37 * yef>rs before Chrill, and was fucceffively the
difciple of Plato and of Ariftotle. He fucceeded AH-
llotle in the Peripatetic fchool, and condufted the
charge with fuch high reputation that he had about 2000
fcholars.. He is highly celebrated for his indullry, learn¬
ing, and eloquence 3 and for his generothy and public
fpirit. He is faid to have twice freed his country from
the opprdlion of tyrants. He contributed liberally to¬
wards defraying the expence attending the public meet¬
ings of philofophers 3 which -were held, not for the fake
of ihow, but for learned and ingenious converfation. In
the public fchools he commonly appeared, as Ariltotle
had done, in an elegant drefs, and was very attentive
to the graces of elocution. He lived to the advanced
Enfield's aSe °f 85 : feme fay of 107. Towards the clofe of his
Hi/lory of lile, he grew exceedingly infirm, and wras carried to the
Pbilofofhy. fch0ol on a couch. He expreffed great regret on ac¬
count of the {hortnefs of life 3 and complained that na¬
ture had given long life to flags and crows, to whom it
is of fo little value, and had denied it to man, who, in
a longer duration, might have been able to attain the
fummit of fcience 3 but now, as feon as he arrives with¬
in fight of it, is taken away. His laft advice to his
difciples was, that, fince it is the lot of man to die as
foon as he begins to live, they would take more pains
to enjoy life as it pa fifes, than to acquire pofthumous
fame. His funeral was attended by a large body of
. Athenians. He wuote many valuable works, of which
all that remain aie, feveral treatifes on the Natural Hi-
ftory of Plants and FoiTils 3 Of Winds, Of Fire, &.c. a
rhetorical work entitled “ Characters,” and a few Me-
taphyfical Fragments.
To Thcophraflus we are indebted for preferving the
works of Aridotle. See Aristotle.
THEOPOMPQ3, a celebrated Greek orator and
hiftorian, was born in the ifland Chios, and flour ilhed
in the reign of Alexander the Great. Pie was one of
the mofl famous of all the difciples of Ifocrates, and
won the prize from all the panegyrifls whom Artemifia
invited to praile Maufolus. He wrote feveral works,
which are loft.
THEOREM, a propofition'which terminates in theo¬
ry, and which confiders the properties of things already
made or done 3 or it is a fpeculative propolition deduced
from comparing together feveral definitions. A theorem
is fomething to be- proved, and a problem fomething to
be done.
T H E
THEORETIC, fomething relating to theory, or that Theoretic
terminates in fpeculation. !!
THEORY, in general, denotes any doclrine which ,Thermae.
terminates in fpeculation, without conlidering the pra£!:i- v
cal ufes or application thereof.
THEOSOPHISTS, a feft of men who pretend to
derive all their knowledge from divine illumination.
They boafl that, by rne^is of this celeftial light, they
are not only admitted to the intimate knowledge of
God, and of ail divine truth, but have accefs to the
moll fublime fecrets of nature. They aferibe it to the Ibid.
lingular manifeftation of divine benevolence, that they
are able to make fuch a ufe of the element of fire, in
the chemical art, as enables them to difeover the effen-
tial principles of bodies, and to difclofe flupendous my-
fleries in the phyfical world. They even pretend to am
acquaintance with thofe celeftial beings which form the
medium of intercourfe between God and man, and to a'
power of obtaining from them, by the aid of magic,
aftrology, and other fimilar arts, various kinds of infor¬
mation and aftiftance.
To this clafs belonged Paracelfus, Robert Fludd, Ja¬
cob Boehmen, Van Helmont, Peter Poiret, and the Ro-
ficrucians. They are alfo called FlRE-Phi/off hers,
THERAPEU1YE, a term applied to thole that are.
wholly in the fervice of religion. This general term
has been applied to particular fefts of men, concern¬
ing whom there have been great difputes among the'
learned.
THERAPEUTICS, that part of medicine which,
acquamts us with the rules that are to be obferved,
and the medicines to be employed, in the cure of dif-
eafes.
THERM/E, hot bath s or bagnios. Luxury and.
extravagance were in nothing carried to fuch heights as
in the thermae of the Roman emperors. Ammian com¬
plains, that they were built to fuch an extent as to equal
whole provinces 3 from which Valefius would abate, by
reading pifeince inflead of prone incur. And yet after all,
the remains of fome dill Handing are fufficient teflimo-
nies for Ammian’s cenfure 3 and the accounts tranfmit-.
ted of their ornaments and furniture, fuch as being laid
with precious flones (Seneca), fet round with feats of
folid filver (Pliny), with pipes and ciflerns of the fame
metal (Statius), add to, rather than take from, the cen¬
fure. The moft remarkable bagnios were thofe of Dio-
clefian and Caracalla at Rome, great part of which re¬
mains at this day ; the lofty arches, {lately pillars, varie¬
ty of foreign marble, curious vaulting of the roofs, great
number of fpacious apartments, all attradl the cuviofit y
g£.
the [ 398 ] - THE
They had alfo their fuiximer and win- tube will afcend or defcend more or lefs according to Ihertno-
Invention
of the ther¬
mometer.
JMartine's
EJays.
* Chem. I.
p. 152, 156,
f Life F.
Paul, p.
158.
| Fit. Ga-
Zi/. p. 67.
|| Corn, in
GaZen. p.
736—342.
§ De Mot.
Animal. II.
prop. 173.
f Opera
The air-
thermome¬
ter defcri-
bed.
of the traveller,
ter baths.
1HERMOMETER, an inflrument for meafuring
the degree of heat or cold in any body.
The thermometer was invented about the beginning
of the i^th century j but, like many other uleful in¬
ventions, it has been found impoffible to afcertain to
whom the honour of it belongs. Boerhaave * afcribes
it to Cornelius Drebbel of Alcmar, his own country¬
man. Fulgenziof attributes it to his mafler Paul Sarpi,
the great oracle of the Venetian republic } and Viviani
gives the honour of it to Galileo J. But all thefe are
pofthumous claims. Sandtorio [| claims this honour to
himfelf; and his aflertion is corroborated by Borelli §
and Malpighi f of the Florentine academy, whofe par¬
tiality is not to be fufpedted in favour of a member of
the Patavinian fchool.
Perhaps the belf way to reconcile thefe different
claims would be, to fuppofe that the thermometer was
Fo/f/j.p.jo.reztty invented by different perfons about the fame time.
We know that there are certain periods in the progrefs
of the arts when the iiream of human genius runs in
the fame direclion, and moves towards the fame ob-
jedi. That part of the current which reaches the ob-
jedf firft may poffefs the title 5 but the other parts fol¬
low fo rapidly and arrive fo foon after, that it is impof¬
fible for a fpedlator to decide which is firft in point of
time.
The firft form of this inftrument for meafuring the
degrees of heat and cold, wras the air-thermometer. It
is a well known fadt that air expands with heat fo as to
occupy more fpace than it does when cold, and that it is
condenfed by cold fo as to occupy lefs fpace than when
warmed, and that this expanfion and condenfation is great¬
er or lefs according to the degree of heat or cold applied.
The principle then on wdiich the air-thermometer was
conftrudled is very fimple. The air wras confined in a
tube by means of fome coloured liquor; the liquor rofe or
fell according as the air became expanded or condenfed.
What the firft form of the tube rvas, cannot now per¬
haps be well known ; but the following defcription of
the air-thermometer will fully explain its nature.
The air-thennometer confifts of a glafs tube BE,
connedfed at one end with a large glafs ball A, and at
the other end immerfed in an open veffel, or terminat¬
ing in a ball DE, with a narrow orifice at D ; which
velfel, or Ball, contains any coloured liquor that will
not eafily freeze. Aquafortis tinged of a fine blue co¬
lour with a folution of vitriol or copper, or fpirit of wane
tinged with cochineal, will anfwer this purpofe. But
the ball A muft be firft moderately warmed fo that a
part of the air contained in it may be expelled through
the orifice D ; and then the liquor preffed by the wreight
of the atmofphere will enter the ball DE, and rife, for
example, to the middle of the tube at C, at a mean
temperature of the weather ; and in this ftate the liquor
by its weight, and lire air included In the ball A, &c.
by its elafticily, rvill counterbalance the weight of the
atmofphere. As the furrounding air becomes warmer,
the air in the ball and upper part of the tube, expand¬
ing by beat, will drive the liquor into the low^er ball,
and confequently its furface will defcend ; on the con¬
trary, as the ambient air* becomes colder, that in the
ball is condenfed, and the liquor preffed by the weight
the atmofphere will afcend : fo that the liquor in the
4
Plate
DXXXIII.
Fig- 1.
the ftate of the air contiguous to the inftrument. To me er’
the tube is affixed a fcale of the fame length, divided' v
upwards and downwards from the middle C into 100
equal parts, by means of which the afeent and defeent
of the liquor in the tube, and confequently the varia¬
tions in the cold or heat of the atmofphere, may be ob-
ferved.
This inftrument was extremely defective ; for the air Its defeats,
in the tube was not only affefted by the beat and cold of
the atmofphere, but alfo by its weight.
The air being found improper for meafuring with ac-The i;r;c
curacy the variations of heat and cold according to the of wine
form of the thermometer which was firft adopted, ano-thermomt-
ther fluid wTas propofed about the middle of the iythter*
century by the Florentine academy. This fluid was
fpirit of wine, or alcohol, as it is now7 generally named.
The alcohol being coloured, was inclofed in a very fine
cylindrical glafs tube previoufly exhaufted of its air, ha¬
ving a hollow ball at one end A, and hermetically feal-
ed at the other end D. The ball and tube are filled
with reftified fpirit of wine to a convenient height, as to
C, wdien the weather is of a mean temperature, w hich
may be done by inverting the tube into a veffel of ftag-
nant coloured fpirit, under a receiver of the air-pump,
or in any other way. When the thermometer is proper¬
ly filled, the end D is heated red hot by a lamp, and
then hermetically fealed, leaving the included air of
about one-third of its natural denfity, to prevent the air
which is in the fpirit from dividing it in its expanfion.
To the lube is applied a fcale, divided from the middle,
into 100 equal parts, upwards and downwards.
As fpirit of wine is capable of a very confiderable de¬
gree of rarefa&ion and confenfation by beat and cold,
when the heat of the atmofphere increafes the fpirit di¬
lates, and confequently rifes in the tube ; and when the
heat decreafes, the fpirit defeends, and the degree or
quantity of the motion is fhown by a fcale.
The fpirit of wane thermometer was not fubjeCt to its defers,
fome of the inconveniences which attended the air ther¬
mometer. In particular, it was not affefted by varia¬
tions in the weight of the atmofphere : accordingly it
foon came into general ufe among philolbphers. It was, Martinet
at an early period, introduced into Britain by Mr Boyle.
To this inftrument, as then ufed, there are, how?ever,
many cbjeftions. The liquor was of different degrees
of ftrength, and therefore different tubes filled with it,
when expofed to the fame degree of heat, would not
correfpond. There was alfo another defeCI: The fcale
which was adjufted to the thermometer did not com¬
mence at any fixed point. The higheft term w>as ad¬
jufted to the great funfhine heats of Florence, which are
too variable and undetermined; and frequently the
workman formed the fcale according to his own fancy.
While the thermometer laboured under fuch difadvan-
tages it could not be of general ufe. f-
To obtain fome fixed unalterable point by which a Different
determined fcale might be difeovered, to which all t her-fixed points
mometers might be accurately adjufted, was the fubjeft I)[0P0,ed b7
which next drew the attention of philofophers. Mr^jj^0'
Boyle, who feems at an early period to have ftudied
this fubjeft with much anxiety, propofed the freezing of
the effential oil of annifeeds as a convenient point for
graduating thermometers; but this opinion he foon laid
afide. Dr Halley next propofed that thermometers
ftiould
T H E
[ 399 1
THE
Phil.
meter.
iliould be graduated in a deep pit under ground, where
the temperature both in winter and fummer is pretty
unifoim ; and that the point to which the fpirit of wine
(liould rife in fuch a fubterraneous place ihould be the
point from which the fcale ibould commence. But this
propofal was evidently attended with fuch inconve¬
niences that it was foon abandoned. He made experi¬
ments on the boiling point of water, of mercury, and of
fpirit of wine ; and he feems rather to give a preference
to the fpirit of wine *. He objefted to the freezing of
Tranf.Ahr. water as a fixed point, becaufe he thought that it ad-
II- 34- mitted confiderable latitude.
r I(7a,. It feems to have been referved to the all-conquering
Newton’s genius of Sir Ifaac Newton to determine this important
oil thermo- point, on which the accuracy and value of the thermo¬
meter depends. He chofe, as fixed, thofe /pomts at
which water freezes and boils ; the very points which
the experiments of fucceeding philofophers have deter¬
mined to be the molt fixed and convenient. Senfible of
the difadvantages of fpirit of wine, he tried another
liquor which was homogeneous enough, capable ot a
confiderable rarefaftion, about 15 times greater than
fpirit of wine. This wras linfeed oil. It has not been
obferved to freeze even in very great colds, and it bears
a heat about four times that of water before it boils.
With thefe advantages it was made ufe of by Sir Ifaac
Newton, wdio difcovered by it the comparative degree
of heat for boiling water, melting wax, boiling fpirit of
wine, and melting tin •, beyond which it does not ap¬
pear that this thermometer was applied. The method he
ufed for adjufting the fcale of this oil thermometer was>
as follows: Suppofing the bulb, when immerged in
thawing fnowq to contain 10,000 parts, he found the
oil expand by the heat of the human body fo as to take
Up y-.th more fpace, or 10,256 fuch parts; and by the
heat of water boiling ftrongly 10,725 and by the heat
of melting tin 11,516. So that reckoning the freezing
point as a common limit between heat and cold, he be¬
gan his fcale there, marking it o, and the heat of the
human body he made 12° ; and confequently, the de¬
grees of heat being proportional to the degrees of rare-
faflion, or 256 : 725 :: 12: 34, this number 34 will
exprefs the heat of boiling water ; and by the fame
rule, 72 that of melting tin f. This thermometer was
conftrufted in 1701.
To the application of oil as a meafure of heat and
cold, there are infuperable objecfions. It is fo vifcid,
that it adheres too ftrongly to the fides of the tube.
On this account it afcends and defcends too Howdy in
cafe of a Hidden heat or cold. In a Hidden cold, fo
great a portion remains adhering to the fides of the
tube after the reft has fubfided, that the furface appears
lower than the correfponding temperature of the air re¬
quites. An oil thermometer is therefore not a proper
meafure of heat and cold.
All the thermometers hitherto propofed were liable to
many inconveniences, and could not be confideied as
exaft ftandards for pointing out the various degrees of
temperature. This led Reaumur to attempt a new one,
an account of which was publiihed in the year 1730 in
the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences. This ther¬
mometer was made with fpirit of wine. He took a
large ball and tube, the dimenfions and capacities of
which rvere known ; he then graduated the tube, fo
that the fpace from one divifion to another might con-
f Phil.
Tranf N°
270. or
Abr. vol iv
part 2.
8
Its imper-
fcdfcions.
Reaumur's
fpint of
wine ther-
suometer.
tain ioood.h part of the liquor; the liquor containing
1000 parts when it flood at the freezing point. He ad-
jufted the thermometer to the freezing point by an ar-
tificial congelation of water : then putting the ball of_E^VJ 0«
his thermometer and part of the tube into boiling water, fie Con-
lie obferved whether it rofe 80 diviftons : if it exceededA/'w^z0” °f
thefe, he changed his liquor, and by adding water
lowered it, till upon trial it ftiould juft rife 80 divi-
fions; or if the liquor, being too low, fell fhort of 80
divilions, he raifed it by adding reftified fpirit to it.
The liquor thus prepared fuited his purpofe, and ferved
for making a thermometer of any fize, whofe fcale
would agree with his ftandard.
This thermometer was far from being perfedl. AsRs defedte.
the bulbs were three or four inches in diameter, the fur¬
rounding ice would be melted before its temperature
could be propagated to the whole fpirits in the bulb,
and confequently the freezing point would be marked
higher than it ftiould be. Dr Marline accordingly
found, that inftead of coinciding with the 3 2d degree
of Fahrenheit, it correfponded with the 34th, or a
point a little above it. Reaumur committed a miftake
alfo refpetfting the boiling point ; for he thought that
the fpirit of wine, whether weak or firong, when im¬
merged in boiling water, received the fame degree of
heat with the boiling water. But it is well known that
highly reftified fpirit of wine cannot be heated much
beyond the 175th degree of Fahrenheit, while boiling
water raifes the quickfilver 37 degrees higher. There
is another thermometer that goes by the name of Reau¬
mur's, which ftiall be afterwards defcribed. n
At length a different fluid was propofed, by which Mercurial
thermometers could be made free from moft of the de- ^^rmome'
fe£!s hitherto mentioned. This fluid was mercury,
and feems firft to have occurred to Dr Halley in the
laft century ; but was not adopted by him on account
of its having a fmaller degree of expanfibility than the
other fluids ufed at that time*. Boerhaave fays that* Pfo?.
the mercurial thermometer was firft conftrufted by Tranf. vot."
Olaus Roemer ; but the honoffr of this invention is ge-
nerally given to Fahrenheit of Amfterdam, who prefent-
ed an account of it to the Royal Society of London in
1724.
That we may judge the more accurately of the pro¬
priety of employing mercury, we will compare its qua¬
lities with thofe of the fluids already mentioned, air, al¬
cohol, and oil. 13
Air is the moft ^xpanfible fluid, but it does not re- Properties
ceive nor part with its heat fo quickly as.mercury. Al-°f a‘r al¬
cohol does not expand much by heat. In its ordinary an^ '
ftate it does not bear a much greater heat than 1750
of Fahrenheit ; but when highly rectified it can bear a
greater degree of cold than any other liquor hitherto
employed as a meafure of temperature. At Hudfon’s
Bay, Mr Macnab, by a mixture of vitriolic acid and
fnow, made it to defcend to 69 below O of Fahrenheit.
This is an inconvenience, however, attending the ufe
of this liquor ; it is not poflible to get it always of the
fame degree of ftrength. As to oil, its expanfion is
about 1 ; limes greater than that of alcohol ; it fuftains
a heat of 600°, and its freezing point is fo low that if '
has not been determined ; but its vifcofity renders it ufe-
^e^’‘ . - . 5 m j • Thermo-
Mercury is fupenor to alcohol and oil, and is much metrical
more manageable than air. 1. As far as the experi-properties.
iuents(jf mercurv..
THE F A.00 1 THE
Thermo- alrfeady made can determine, it is of all the fluids
.. nie^er~ , hitherto employed in the conftru£tion of thermometers,
Kecberches t^iat which meafures mod exa£lly equal differences of
fur les heat by equal differences of its bulk : its dilatations are
Mod. de in fa£t very nearly proportional to the augmentations of
l At mo- jlcat appiied to it (a). 2. Of all liquids it is the mod
' ,e' eafily freed from air. 3. It is fitted to meafure high de¬
grees of heat and cold. It fudains a heat of 6oo° of
Fahrenheit’s fcale, and does not congeal till it fall 39 or
40 degrees below o. 4. It is the mod fenfible of any
* Phil. fluid to heat and cold, even air not excepted. Count
TranfAot Rumford found that mercury was heated from the free-
I" ’ zing to the boiling point in 58 feconds, while water took
two minutes 13 feconds, and common air 10 minutes and
17 feconds. 5. Mercury is a homogeneous fluid, and
every portion of it is equally dilated or contrafled by
equal variations of heat. Any one thermometer made
of pure mercury is, ceteris paribus, poffeffed of the fame
properties with every other thermometer made of pure
mercury. Its power of expanfion is indeed about fix
times lefs than that of fpirit of wine, but it is great
enough to anfwer mod of the purpofes for which a ther-
^ mometer is wanted.
'Fixed The fixed points which are now univerfally chofen for
:points. adjuding thermometers to a fcale, and to one another,
are the boiling and freezing water points. The boiling
water point, it is well known, is not an invariable point,
but varies fome degrees according to the weight and tem¬
perature of the atmofphere. In an exhauded receiver,
water will boil with a heat of 98° or loo° ; whereas in
Papin’s digeder it will require a heat of 412. Hence it
appears that water will boil at a lower point, according
to its height in the atmofphere, or to the weight of the
column of air which preffes upon it. In order to enfure
uniformity therefore in the conffru&ion of thermometers,
it is now agreed that the bulb of the tube be plunged in
the water when it boils violently, the barometer ftanding Thermo-
at 30 Englifh inches (which is its mean height round meter.
London), and the temperature of the atmofphere 550. " *
A thermometer made in this way, with its boiling point
at 21 2°, is called by Dr Horfley Bird's Fahrenheit, be-
caufe Mr Bird was the fird perfon who attended to the
date of the barometer in condrufting thermometers. r.
As artids may be often obliged to adjud thermometers Rule for
under very different preffures of the atmofphere, philo- abutting
fophers have been at pains to difeover a general rule
which might be applied on all occafions. M. de Luc, in thefe.
his Recherches fur les Mod. de RAtmofphere from a feries
of experiments, has given an equation for the allowance
on account of this difference, in Paris meafure, which
has been verified by Sir George Shuckburgh * ; alfo *
Dr Horfley, Dr Malkelyne, and Sir George Shuck- Trauf for
burgh, have adapted the equation and rules to Englifli l775 :mii
meafures, and have reduced the allowances into tables1?'8*
for the ufe of the artid. Dr Horfley’s rule, deduced
from De Luc’s, is this :
-—— log. % — 92.804 =r h.
8990000 6 y r
where h denotes the height of a thermometer plunged in
boiling water, above the point of melting ice, in de¬
grees of Bird’s Fahrenheit, and z the height of the ba¬
rometer in loths of an inch. From this rule he has
computed the following table, for finding the heights, to
which a good Bird’s Fahrenheit will rife when plunged
in boiling water, in all dates of the barometer, from 27
to 31 Englifti inches j which will ferve, among other
ufes, to dire6l indrument-makers in making a true al¬
lowance for the effect of the variation of the barometer,
if they ftiould be obliged to finiffi a thermometer at a
time when the barometer is above or below 30 inches j
though it is bed to fix the boiling point when the baro¬
meter is at that height.
Equation
l.
(a) We have affirmed that the expanfions of the bulk of quickfilver by heat are nearly (for they are not flri&ly
fo) in a regular arithmetical progreflion, according to the quantity of heat it is expofed to j and fuch feems to be
the cafe according to the Table publiflied by Mr de Luc, at page 309 ot his fird volume on the Modifications of
the Atmofphere. The following extract of this table fhows thefe variations : and the fird and fecond differences are Cron/ledt's
padded, in order to render thefe irregularities more fenfible. They are fuch as can hardly be conceived from the Mineralc-
nature of any fubdance, without the influence of extraneous and accidental caufes, which may have efcaped the jy, v«l. it.
attention of the obferver; neither have they been found exa&ly true by Dr Crawford. Mr de Luc fuppofes the
wdiole heat from melting ice to that of boiling water to be divided into 80 parts ; by the fra&ional fubdivifions of
which heexpreffes the abfoluie quantities of heat, anfwering to each 5 or 10 degrees of Reaumur’s thermometer
('=22,5 of Fahrenheit’s fcale) j fo that the whole fum of thefe fradlions amounts exaflly to the affumed number
80. They are as follow7:
Reaumur's Fahrenheit's
Thermometer. Thermometer.
Degrees 80 - 212
7°   189-5
60 167
50 144*5
40 122
30 ....... . 99.5
20 •    77
10  54-5
32
Quantities
of heat.
9*44
9.60
9.70
9.86
10.08
10.20
10.38
io*74
. Eirjl
differences.
.16
.10
.16
.2 2
.12
.18
•j6
Second
differences.
4- .06
— .06
—06
+ .10
— .06
— .18
3
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