—h ~Yrs.
n
tv.
„ and chamber^
Fairfax
11
Fairy.
F A I [4°
advance in their paflage up and dotvn j fo tliat if any
veiTels are ancliored therein, they are laid to lie in t \t
, fair-way. .
FAIRFAX, F.DWARD, natural fon of Sir I nomas
Fairfax, was an Englilh poet who lived in the reigns
of Elizabeth and James I. He wrote feveral poetical
pieces, and was an accomplilhed genius. Dryden in¬
troduces Fairfax with Spenfer, as the leading writers
of the times *, and even leems to give the preference
to the former in the way of harmony, when he obferves
that Waller owned himfelf indebted for the harmony
of his numbers to Fairfax’s Godfrey of Boulogne. He
died about the year 1632, at his own houfe called New-
hall, in the parilh of Fuyfton, between Denton and
Knarelhorough, and lies under a marble done.
Fairfax, Sir Thomas, general of the parliamen¬
tary forces againft Charles I. in 1644. See {frlijlory
of) Britain, N° 127. etfeq. He refigned in 1650;
after which he lived privately, till he was invited by
Geiteral Monk to aflift him againft Lambert’s army.
He cheerfully embraced the occafion} and, on the
third of December 1659, appeared at the head of a
body of gentlemen of X orklhire; when, upon the
reputation of his name, a body of 12,000 men for-
fook Lambert and joined him. He was at the head
of the committee appointed by the houfe of commons
to attend King Charles II. at the Hague, to defire
him fpeedily to return to England 5 and having rea¬
dily aflifted in his reftoration, returned again to his
feat in the country j where he lived in a private^ man¬
ner till his death, which happened in 1671, in the
60th year of his age.—He wrote, fays Mr Walpole,
Memorials of Thomas Lord Fairfax, printed in 1699*,
and was not only an hiftorian, but a poet. In Mr
Thorefby’s mufeum were preferved in manufcript the
following pieces : The Pfalms of David, the Can¬
ticles, the Songs of Mofes, and other parts of Scrip¬
ture, verfified , a poem on Solitude j Notes of Ser¬
mons, by his lordlhip, by his lady daughter of Ho¬
race Lord Vere, and by their daughter Mary the wife
of George fecond duke of Buckingham: and a Trea-
tife on the Shortnefs of Life. But of all Lord Fairfax’s
works, fays Mr Walpole, the moft remarkable were
the verfes he wrote on the horfe on which Charles II.
rode to his coronation, and which had been bred and
prefented to the king by his lordlhip. How muft that
merry monarch, unapt to keep his coutenance on more
ferious occafions, have fmiled at this awkward homage
from the old victorious hero of republicamfm and the
covenant ! He gave a collection of manufcnpts to the
Bodleian library.
FAIRFORD, a town in Gloucefterlhire, with a
market on Thurfdays. It is remarkable for the church,
which has curious painted glafs windows. They are
faid to have been taken in a fhip by John lame,
Efq. towards the end of the 15th century, who built
the church for their fake. T-hey are preferved entire,
and the figures are extremely well drawn and colouied.
They reprefent the moft remarkable hiftories in the
Old and New Teftament. They are frequently vifited
by travellers, and many go on purpole to view them,
as one of the greateft curiofities in England. 1 he
painter was Albert Durer. W. Long. 1. 46. N. Lat.
51. 42. '
FAIRY, in ancient traditions and romances, fig-
V&L. VIII. Part II.
]
F A I
nifies a fort of deify, or imaginary genius, converfant
on the earth, and diftinguilhed by a variety of fantal-
tical aftions either good or bad.
They were moft ufually imagined to he women of
an order fuperior to human nature, yet fubjeCt to wants,
paflions, accidents, and even death j fprightly and bene¬
volent while young and handfome ; morofe, peevith, and
malignant, if ugly, or in the decline of their beauty j
fond of appearing in white, whence they are often called
the white ladies. _
Concerning thefe imaginary beings, no lets a. perton
then Jervaiie of Tilleberry, marfhal of the kingdom
of Arles, who lived in the beginning of the 13th cen¬
tury, wTrites thus in a wrork infcnbed to the empeior
Otho IV. “ It has been afferted by perfons of un¬
exceptionable credit, that fairies ufed to choofe them-
felves gallants from among men, and rewarded their
attachment with an affluence of wordly goods*, but
if they married, or boafted of a fairy’s favours, they
as feverely fmarted for fuch indifcretion.” The like
tales ftill go current in Languedoc *, and throughout
the whole province, there is not a village without fome
ancient feat or cavern which had the honour of being
a fairy’s refidence, or at leaft fome fpring where a.
fairy ufed to bathe. This idea of fairies has a near
affinity with that of the Greeks and Romans, concern¬
ing the nymphs of the woods, mountains, and fpnngs }
and an ancient fcholiaft on Theocritus fays, “ The
nymphs are demons which appear on the mountains
in the figure of women and what is more furprifing,
the Arabs and other orientals have their ginn and peri,
of whom they entertain the like notions.
But fairies have been likewife defcribed as of either
fex, and generally as of minute ftature, though^ capable
of affuming various forms and. dimenfions. The moft:
charming reprelentation imaginable of thefe children
of romantic fancy, is in the Midfummer Night's Dream
of Shakefpear *, in referring to wdiich, wTe no doubt
have been anticipated by the recolkaion of almoft every
reader.
Spenfer’s Faery Queene is an epic poem, under the
perfons and chara£ters of fairies. I his fort of poetry
raifes ^ pleafing kind of horror in the mind of the read¬
er, and amufes his imagination wTith the ftrangeuefs
and novelty of the perfons who are reprefented in it j
but, as a vehicle of inftru£lion, the judicious objeft to
it, as not having probability enough to make any moral
impreffion.
The belief of fairies ftill fubfifts in many parts of oiyr
own country. The
“ Swart fairy of the mine”
(of German extra&ion), has fcarce yet quitted our fub-
terraneous works j (vid. next article.) Puck, or Ro¬
bin Good-Fellow, ftill haunts many of our villages.
And in many parts of Scotland, new bom children
are watched till the chriftening is over, left they Ihould
be ftolen or changed by fome of thefe fantaftical
exiftences. #
Fairy of the Mine; an imaginary being, an inhabitant
of mines. The Germans believed in two fpecies j one
fierce and malevolent: the other a gentle race, appear¬
ing like little old men dreffed like the miners, and not
much above two feet high. Thefe wander about the
drifts and chambers of the works j feem perpetually
j E employed,,
F A K r 402 ] FA K
employed, yet do nothing \ Tome feem to cut the ore,
or fling what is cut into veltels, or turn the windlafs :
but never do any harm to the miners, unlefs provoked ;
as the leniible Agricola, in this point credulous, relates
in lus book tic Animantibus Subterraneis.
Fairy Circle or Ring, a phenomenon pretty fre¬
quent in the fields, &x. fuppofed by the*vulgar to be
traced by the fairies in their dances. There are two
kinds of it 5 one of about feven yards in diameter, con¬
taining a round bare path, a foot broad, with green
grafs in the middle of it. The other is of different
bignefs, encompaffed with a circumference of grafs.
Meff. Jefl'op and Walker, in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, aferibe them to lightning 5 which is thought to
be confirmed by their being moil frequently produ¬
ced after ftorms of that kind, as well as by the colour
and brittlenefs of the grafs roots when firil obferved.
Lightning, like all other fires, moves round, and
burns more in the extremity than in the middle : the
fecond circle arifes from the firft, the grafs burnt up
growing very plentifully afterwards. Others maintain
that thefe circles are made by ants, which are fre¬
quently found in great numbers therein.—Mr Cavaiio,
in his treatile on ele&ricity, does not think that light¬
ning is at all concerned in the formation of them :
“ They are not (fays he) always of a circular figure ;
and, as 1 am informed, they feem to be rathqr beds of
muflirooms than the effedls of lightning.” »
We have frequently obferved beds of muflirooms ar¬
ranged in a circular form like -what are called fairy
rings •, but it will be difficult to account for the mufli-
room feed being difpofed in this manner. It is prob¬
able that the feed is difperfed over the whole field, and
remains dormant till it is afted on by fome flimulus to
excite its vegetating pow’ers. Perhaps this ftimulus is
atmofpheric electricity, which acting on particular fpots
only, produces on them an abundant crop of mufhrooms,
wffiile none appear in other places.
FAITH, in Philofoplnj and Theology, that affent
which we give to a propofition advanced by another,
the truth of wffiich we do not immediately perceive from
our own reafon or experience } or it is a judgment or
affent of the mind, the motive wffiereof is not any in-
trinfic evidence, but the authority or teftimony of fome
other who reveals or relates it. Hence, as there are
two kinds of authorities and teftimonies, the one of
God, and the other of man, faith becomes diilinguilhed
into divine and human.
Divine Faith, is that founded on the authority of
God •, or it is that affent wre give to what is revealed
by God.
The objedts of this faith, therefore, are matters of
revelation. See Revelation and Religion.
Human Faith, is that whereby we believe what is
told us by men. The objedl hereof is matter of human
teftimony and evidence. See Metaphysics.
Faith, in pradlical theology, makes the firft of the
theological virtues or graces.
Faith in God, in this fenfe, denotes fuch a convic¬
tion of his being, perfedlions, charadler, and govern¬
ment, as produces love, trull, worftiip, obedience, and
relignation.
Faith in Chrill, as it has been defined by fome, is a
mere affent to the gofpel as true ; according to others,
it fignifies fuch a perfuafion that he is the Meffiah, and
fuch a defire and expectation of the blefiings which he F
has promiled in his gcfpel to his fincere difciples, as
engage the mind to fix its dependence upon him, and ,  
fubjedt itfelf to him in all the ways of holy obedience.
See Theology.
Faith, likewife, in refpedt to futurity, is a moral prin¬
ciple, implying filch a convidlion of the reality and im¬
portance of a future Hate, as is fufficient to regulate the
temper and condudt.
Faith, or Fidelity (Fides), was deified by the an¬
cient Romans, and had a temple in the Capitol confe-
crated to her by Attilius Catalinus. Her priefts wore .
white veils : unbloody facrifices wrere offered to her,
and the greatell oaths were taken in her name. Ho¬
race clothes her in white, places her in the retinue of
Fortune, and makes her the filler of Juliice, Od. 24,
35. 1. i. Public Faith is reprefented in a great number
of medals) fometimes with a balket of fruit in one
hand, and fome ears of corn in the other ; and fome¬
times holding a turtle-dove. But the moll ufual fym-
bol is two hands joined together. The inferiptions are
generally, Fides Augujli, Fides Fxercitus, or Fides Mi-
hturn, &c. .
FAITHFUL, an appellation affirmed by the Ma¬
hometans., See Mahometans.
FAITHORN, William, an ingenious Englifli ar-
till, a native of London, w’as the difciple of Peak the
painter, and worked wfith him three or four years.
At the breaking out of the civil wrar, Peak efpouied
the caufe of his fovereign : and Faithorn, who ac¬
companied his mailer, was taken prifoner by the re¬
bels at Baringhoufe, from whence he was fent to Lon¬
don, and confined in Alderfgate. In this uncomfort¬
able fituation he exercifed his graver; and a fmall
head of the firil Villars duke of Buckingham, in the
ftyle of Melan* is reckoned among his performances at
that time. The folicitations of his friends in his fa¬
vour at laft prevailed j and he was releafed from pri-
fon, with permiflion to retire to the continent. In
France he found prote£lion and encouragement from
the Abbe de Marolles ; and it was at this time that
he formed an acquaintance with Nanteuil, from whofe
inltrublions he derived very confiderable advantages.
About the year 1650 he returned to England, and
foon after married the filler of a Captain Ground.
By her he had twTo fons } Henry, who was a bookfel-
ler, and William an engraver in mezzotintd. Fai¬
thorn opened a Ihop near Temple-Bar, wffiere he fold
not only his owm engravings, but thofe of other Eng¬
lifli artills, and imported a confiderable number of
prints from Holland, France, and Italy. About the
year 1680, he retired from his (hop, and refided in
PrintingTIoufe Yard 5 but he Hill continued to w-ork
for the bookfellers, efpecially Royllon, Martin, and
Peak the younger, his former mailer’s brother. He
painted portraits from the life in crayons 5 which art
he learned of Nanteuil during his abode in France,
He alfo painted in miniature; and his performances
in both thefe ftyles were much elteemed. His fpirits
were broken by the indiferetion and diffipation of his
fon William ; and a lingering confumption put an end
to his life in 1691. He wrote a book Fpon Drawing,
Graving, and Etching, for which he was celebrated by
his friend Thomas Flatman the poet.
FAKIRS, Indian monks or friars. They outdo
thp
F A . L c 4
Fakirs, tlie ieventy and mortification of the ancient Ancho-
1 aIa“ia', rets 01* Solitaries. Some of them make a vow of con¬
tinuing all their lifetime in one pollute, and keep it
effeclually. Others never lie down ; but continue in
a Handing pollute all their lives, fupported only by a
Hick, or rope under their arm pits. Some mangle
their bodies with fcourges and knives. They look
upon themfelves to have conquered every paflicn, and
triumphed over the world j and accordingly fcruple
not, as if in a Hate of innocence, to appear entirely
naked in public.
The common people of EaH India are thoroughly
perfuaded of the virtue and innocence of the fakirs ;
notwithflanding which, they are accufed of commit¬
ting the moll enormous crimes in private.
They have alfo another kind of fakirs, who do'not
pra&ife fuch feverities : thefe Hock together in com¬
panies, and go from village to village 5 prophefying,
and telling fortunes. They are wicked villains, and it
is dangerous for a man to meet them in a lone place:
neverthelefs the Indian idolaters have them in the ut-
moll veneration. They make ule of drums, trumpets,
and other mufical inllruments, to roufe their fouls, and
work themfelves up to an artificial ecHafy, the better to
publiHi their pretended prophecies.
Some of the votaries of thefe fages moH devoutly
kifs their privy parts ; and they receive this monHrous
declaration of refpefl with a kind of ecHatic pleafure.
The moil lober and difereet Indians confult them in
this prepoHerous attitude ; and their female votaries
converfe with them a confiderable time with the mod
indecent freedom.
The fire they burn is made of cows dung, dried in
the fun. When they are difpofed to fleep, they repofe
themfelves on cows dung, ahd fometimes on ordure
itfelf. They are fo indulgent towards every living
creature, that they fuffer themfelves to be overrun
with vermine, or Hung by infers, without the leafl re-
lu&ancy or complaint.
It is more than probable, thofe Indian friars have
fome fecret art to lull their fenfes afleep, in order to
render themfelves in a great mealure infenfible of the
excedive torments they voluntarily undergo. Oving-
ton alfures us, that “ as he was one day in an affem-
bly of fakirs, he obferved, that they drank opiates in-
lufed in water ; the intoxicating virtue thereof was
enough to turn their brain.”
The garment of the chief fakirs confills of three or
fqur yards of orange-coloured linen, which they tie
round them, and a tiger’s Ikin, which hangs over their
Ihoulders. Their hair is woven in trefles, and forms a
kind of turban. The luperior of the fakirs is dillin-
guilhed from the reft by having a greater number of
pieces in his garment, and by a chain of iron, two yards
long, tied to his leg. When he defigns to red in any
place, a garment is fpread upon the ground ■, on which
he fits and gives audience, whilit his difciples publifh
his virtues.
_ Some perfons of quality in India have become fa¬
kirs : among others, five great lords belonging to the
court of Schah Gehan, Mogul of the Indies. It is faid,
there are about two millions of fakirs in the EaH In¬
dies.
FALASHA, a people of Abyflinia, of Jewifh ori¬
gin, deferibed by Mr Bruce, who was at great pains to
03 ] F a L
acquaint himfelf with their hiflory by cultivating the Falafr.
friendfliip of the mofi learned perfons among them he
could meet with.
According to the accounts received from them, the
Falalha are the defeendants of thofe Jews who came
from Palefline into Ethiopia, as attendants of Menilek
the fon of the queen of Sheba or Saba by Solomon.
1 hey agree in the relations given by the Abyflinians
of that princefs, but deny that the poilerity of thofe
who came with Menilek ever embraced the Chriilian
religion, as the Abyflinians fay they did. They fay,
that at the decline of the Jewifli commerce, when the
ports of the Red fea fell into the hands of other na¬
tions, and no intercourfe took place betwixt them and
Jeruialem, the Jewilh inhabitants quitted the fea coafls
and retired into the province of Dembea. While they
remained in the cities on the Red fea, they exercifcd
the trade of brick and Tile making, pottery, thatching
houfes, &c. and after leaving the lea coafls, they choie
the country of Dembea on account of the plenty of
materials it afforded for exerciling the trades they pro-
feffed. Here they carried the art of pottery to a
great degree of perfeftion, multiplied exceedingly,
and became very numerous and powerful about the
time that the Abyflinians were converted to Chriflia-
nity. As this event was accounted by them an apof-
tafy from the true religion, they now feparated them¬
felves from the Abyflinians, and declared one Phineas,
of the line of Solomon, their kiug. Thus they fay,
they have Hill a prince of the houfe of Judah for their
fovereign, though their affertion is treated with con¬
tempt, and a nickname beflowed on the Falalhan fa¬
mily by the other Abyflinians. About the year 960,
the queen of this people, after extirpating the Abyfii-
nian princes on the rock Damo, affumed the fove-
reignty of the whole empire, which they retained for
fome time , but their power being by degrees reduced,
they were obliged to take up their relidence among the
rugged mountains of Samen ; one of which they chofe
for their capital, and which has ever fince been called
the Jew's Rock. About the year 1600, they were al-
moli entirely ruined by an overthrow from the Abyfli¬
nians, in which both their king and queen were flain ;
fince which time they have been in lubje&ion to the
emperors of that country, but are Hill governed by their
own princes. When Mr Bruce was in Abyflinia they
were fuppofed to amount to about 100,000 effeclive
men. Gideon and Judith were the names of the king
and queen at that time ; and thefe, according to our
author, feem to be preferred to others for the royal
family.
I he language of this people is very different from
the Hebrew, Samaritan, or any other which the Jews
ever fpoke in their own country. On being interro¬
gated concerning it by Mr Bruce, they faid, that it
was probably one of thofe fpoken by the nations on the
Red fea, among whom they had fettled at their firfl
coming. They arrived in Abyflinia fpeaking Hebrew,
and with the advantage of having books in that lan¬
guage ; but had now forgot it, which indeed is not to
be wondered at, as they had loll their Hebrew' books,
and were entirely ignorant of the art of writing. At
the time of their leaving jerufalem, they were in pof-
feflion both of the Hebrew and Samaritan copies of
the law j but when their fleet was deffroyed in the
3 E 2 time
F A L
t 4°4 J
F A L
Falcade time of Reiioboam, and no fartlier communication with
H Jerufalem took place, they were obliged to ufe tranf-
rakon- ktions of the Scriptures, or thofe copies which were
m poffeflion of the fhepherds, who, they fay, were all
Jews before the t me of Solomon. On being aiked,
however, where the fliepherds got their copy, and
being told, that, notw'ithftandxng the 111 valion of II-
gypt by Nebuchadnezzar, there was Hill a commu¬
nication with Jerufalem by means of the Ilhmaelite
Arabs through Arabia, they frankly acknowledged
that they could nor tell : neither had they any memo¬
rials of the hiftory either of their own or any other
country j all that they believed in this .cafe, being de¬
rived from mere tradition, their hiftories, if any ex-
iPed, having been deftroyed by the famous Moorilh
captain Gragne. They fay that the firlt book of Scrip¬
ture they received was that of Enoch , and they place
that of .1 ob immediately after it, fuppofing that patriarch
to have lived foon after the flood. They have no copy
of the Old Teftament in the Falalha language,, what
they make ufe of being in that of Geez. This is fold
to them by the Abyflinian Chriftians, who are the only
{bribes in that country. No difference takes plaoe
about corruptions of the text j nor do the Falafha know
any thing of the Jewilh Talmud, I argum, or Cabala.
See Abyssinia.
FALCADE, in the manege, the motion of a horfe
when he throws hiipfclf upon his haunches two or three
times, as in very quick curvets *, which is done in form¬
ing a flop and half Hop. See Stop.
FALCATED, fomething in the form of a fickle :
thus the moon is faid to be falcated when ftie appears
horned.
FALCO, the £agle and hawk, a genus of birds be¬
longing to the order of accipitres. See Ornithology
Index,
FALCON, or Faucon, a bird of prey of the hawk
kind, fuperior to all others for courage, docility, gen-
* Sec Fates, tlenefs, and noblcnefs of nature *. Several authors
take the name falcon to have been occafioned by its
crooked talons or pounces, which refemble a falx or
fickle. Giraldus derives it a falcando, becaufe it flies
in a curve.
The falcon, or falcon gentle, is both for the fill and
for the lure. In the choice, take qne that has wade
noftrils, high and large eyelids, a large black eye •, a
round head, fomewFat full on the top j barb feathers
on the clap of the beaks, which fhould be fhort, thick,
and of an azure colour j the breafl large, round, and
flefhy j and the thighs, legs, and feet, large and ftrong,
with the fear of the foot foft and bluifh : the pounces
fhould be black, with wings long and croffing the train,
which ftiould be fliort and very pliable.
The name falcon is reftrained to the female : for the
male is much fmaller, weaker, and lefs courageous,
than the female-, and therefore is denominated7^/,
or tircelet. The falcon is excellent at the river, brook,
and even field j and flies chiefly at the larger game, as
rvild g|?ofe, kite, crow-, heron, crane, pye, flioveler,
See. ^ For farther particulars, fee Falconry and
Hawking.
The cuflom of carrying a falcon extended to many
countries, and was efteemed a diftinftion of a man of
rank. The Welfli had a faying, That you may know
a gentleman by his hawk, Ijorfe, and greyhound. In
fadl, a perfon of rank feldom went without one on his
hand. Harold, afterwards king of England, is painted
going on a mofl: important embaffy, with a hawk on
his hand and a dog under his arm. Henry \ L is re-
prefented at his nuptials, attended by a.nobleman and
his falcon. Even the ladies were not without them in
earlier times for in an ancient fculpture in the church
of Milton Abbas, in Dorfetfhire, appears the confort
of King Athelftan with a falcon on her royal fill tear¬
ing a bird.
FALCONER, a perfon who brings up, tames, and
makes, that is, tutors and manages, birds of prey j as
falcons, haw-ks, &c. See Falconry.
The grand fignior, it is faid, ufuahy keeps 6000 fal¬
coners in his fervice.—The French king had formerly
a grand falconer, which w:as an office difmembeied from
that of great hunter, grandnueneur. Hiftorians take no¬
tice of this poll as early as the year I 250*
A falconer fliould be well acquainted with the qua¬
lity and mettle of his haw’ks, that he may know which
of them to fly early and which late. Every night aftei
flying he fhould give them calling j one while plumage,
fometim.es pellets of cotton, and at another time phyfic,
as he finds neceffary. He ought alfo every evening to
make the place clean under the perch, that, by her caft-
mg he may know whether the wrants fcouring upwards
or downwards. Nor muff he forget to water his haw k
every evening, except on fuch days as fhe has bathed ^
after which, at night, fhe flould be put into a warm
room, having a candle burning by her, where fhe is. to
fit unhooded, if file be not ramage, that fhe may pick
and prune herfelf.——A falconer ftiould always carry
proper medicines into the field, as hawks frequently
meet with accidents there. Neither muff; he forget to
take with him any of his hawking implements j and it
is neceffary he fhould be fkilful in making lures, hoods
of all forts, jeffes, bewets, and other, furniture. Nei¬
ther ought he to be without his coping irons, to cope
his hawk’s beak when overgrowm, and to cut her
pounces and talons as there fhall be occafion. nor
fliould his cauterizing irons be wanting.
Falconer, William, an ingenious Scots failor, who,
about the year 1762, came up to London with a pretty
pathetic poem, called the Shipwreck, founded on a dif-
after of his own experience. The publication of this
piece recommended him to the late duke of York j and
he would in all probability have been fuitably preferred,
if a fecond fhipwreck, as may be fuppofed, had not
proved fatal to him, and to many gentlemen of rank
and fortune with whom he failed. In 177°5 be went
out a volunteer in the Aurora frigate, lent to carry
Meffrs Vanfittart, Scrafton, and Ford, the fupervifors
appointed to regulate our Eaft India fettlements y which
veffel, after it had touched at the Cape, of Good Hope,
was never more heard of. Before his departure, he
publifhed a very ufeful Marine Dictionary, in one vo¬
lume 410.
FALCONRY, a kind of fport or amu.fement, re-
fpefting the antiquity of which different opinions have
been entertained by the learned. It is denied by
Blondus, Laurentius Valla, and others, that the an¬
cient Greeks knew any thing about falconry but the
learned Profeffor Becknvmn, on the moff unequivocal
authority, maintains that they did. He admits that
they might be ignorant of the art of hawking, or of
chafing
Falconer*.
Falconry.
•m
I' A L [ 40
Falconn-. dialing game with birds trained for that purpofe j but
1-“—v——1 he contends that they employed fome fpecies of the moft
rapacious of the winged tribe in hunting and fowling.
In the days of Ctefias, the Indians hunted hares and
foxes by means of rapacious birds } and Ariftotle fays
exprefsly, “ In Thrace, the men go out to catch birds
with hawks. They beat the reeds and bulhes which
grow in marfhy places, in order to raife the fmall birds,
which the hawks purfue and drive to the ground, where
the fowlers kill them with poles.”
Refpecting Thrace, which is fituated above Amphi-
polis, a wonderful circumtlance is related, which to
many may appear almoft incredible. We are informed
that boys went into the fields, and purfued birds by the
afliftance of hawks. When they found a convenient
place for their purpofe, they called their hawks by their
particular names, which came immediately on hearing
their voices, and purfued the birds into the bulhes, where
^ the boys killed them with flicks, and thus made them
their prey. When the hawks themfelves laid hold of
any birds, they threw them to the fowlers, and recei¬
ved, for their fidelity, a lhare of the game. If we add
the fpaniel, now employed to find out the game, the
hood placed upon the head of the hawk, and the thong
for holding it, we may clearly perceive in thefe ancient
accounts the pra&ice of modern times. Falconers ftill
give a portion of the game to the hawk, as was the
ufual practice of the boys at Thrace.
According to the teftimony of Phile, Pliny, TElian,
and others, the birds were fometimes driven into nets
by the hawks employed in 'thefe fports. From India
and Thrace, therefore, it feems manifeft, that the
Greeks obtained their firft information as to the method
of fowling with birds of prey •, but they themfelves do
not appear to have adopted the prattice at a very early
period. In Italy, however, it muft have been extremely
well underftood, fince it is mentioned by Martial and
Apuleius as a thing everywhere known. After be¬
ing once known, it was never totally forgotten ; but it
Ihared the fate of other inventions in this refpecfl, that
it was originally admired, and afterwards much negledl-
ed, by which means it received no material improve¬
ments for a confiderable time ; yet it was at length
brought to the utmoft perfeftion. We find mention
made of this fport in the Roman laws, and in many
authors of the fourth and fubfequent century. In the
time of Conftantine the Great, Julius Firmicus Mater-
nus aflures us, according to the fuperftitious notions of
that period, that fuch as are born under certain figns,
will become great fportfmen, and keep hounds and fal¬
cons. Sidonius, who flourilhed about the end of the
fifth century, praifes Herdicius, the brother of his wife,
becaufe he was the firfl in his territories who pra&ifed
hunting and fowling with dogs and hawks.
Falconry appears to have been carried to the greateft
perfe&ion, and to have been much efteemed at the chief
courts of Europe, fo early as the 1 2th century, for
which reafon fome have aferibed the invention to the
emperor Frederic I. whereas he appears to have been
only the firft who introduced the pra6!ice into Italy,
according to the teftimony of Rodericus and Collenuc-
cio ; and Frederic II. wrote a book entitled, De arte
venandi cum avibus, to which the practice has been
much indebted. Falconry has had a number of admi¬
rers among the fair fex, perhaps in a fuperior degree to
5 1 F A L
any other fport or amufement whatever of a fimilar na- Falconry
ture 5 but their attachment was deftroyed by the inven- 1 ,”'y '
tion of gunpowder, which was accompanied both with
alarm and danger. We conclude our remarks on the
hiftory of falconry with an obfervation of Demetrius,
who flouriflied in the 13th century, and who exprefsly
•wrote at large upon this fubjeft. He defires fportfmen to
fay their prayers (T«* Sitv iTrixctterxims) before they go
out to the field, which appears wholly incompatible with
the pradtice of modern times, and feems as impious as
to crave afliftance of God when preparing for a piratical
expedition.
Falconry, the art of training all manner of hawks,
but more efpecially the larger ones called fa/cons, to the
exercife of hawking. See Hawking.
When a falcon is taken, (he muft be feeled in fuch a
manner, that, as the feeling fiackens, fire may fee what
provifion lies before her j but care ought to be taken,
not to feel her too hard. A falcon or hawTk newly ta¬
ken firould have all new furniture, as new jelTes of good
leather, mailled leafires with buttons at the end, and
new bewets. There Ihould alfo be provided a fmall
round ftick, to ftroke the hawk •, becaufe, the oftener
this is done, the fooner and better will fire be manned.
She muft alfo have two good bells, that fire may be
found when fire fcattereth. Her hood flrould be well
fafhioned, railed, and emboffed againft her eyes, deepr
and yet ftrait enough beneath, that it may faften about
her head without hurting her 5 and her beak and talons
muft be a little coped, but not fo near as to make them
bleed.
If it be a foar-falcon, which had already palled the
feas, fire will indeed be harder to reclaim, but will prove
the beft of falcons. Her food muft be good and warm,
and given her twice or thrice a-day, till fire be full gor¬
ged : the beft for this purpofe is pigeons, larks, or other
live birds j becaufe fire muft be broken off by degrees
from her accuftomed feeding. When fire is fed, you
muft hoop and lure, as you do when you call a hawk,
that fire may know when you intend to give her meat.
On this occafion Ihe muft be unhooded gently 5 and
alter giving her two or three bits, her hood muft be
pur on again, when (he is to get two or three bits more.
Care muft be taken that ihe be clofe feeled ; and after
three or four days, her diet may be lefiened : the falco¬
ner letting her every night to perch by him, that he
may awaken her often in the night. In this manner
he muft proceed, till he find her to grow tame and
gentle; and when Ihe begins to feed eagerly, he may
give her a Iheep’s heart. He may now begin to unhood
her in the day time $ but it muft be far from company,
firft giving her a bit or two, then hooding her gently,
and giving her as much more. When Ihe is lharp fet,
he may now unhood her, and give her fome meat juft
againft his face and eyes, which will make her lefs a-
fraid of the countenance of others. She muft be borne
continually on the fill, till Ihe is properly manned, cau-
fing her to feed in company, giving her in the morning,
about funrife, the wing of a pullet; and in the evening,
the foot of a hare or coney, cut off above the joint,
flayed and laid in water, which being fqueezed, is to be
given her with the pinion of a hen’s wing. For tw7o or
three days give her walhed meat, and then plumage in
more or lefs quantity as Ihe is thought to be more or
lefs foul within. After this, being hooded again, Ihe
is
Falconry,
Falerii.
F A L [ 406 ]
is to get nothing till ftte has gleamed and call, when a bies, (Servius).
little hot meat may be given her in company} and, to¬
wards evening, Ihe may be allowed to plume a hen’s
wing in company alfo. Cleanfe the feathers of her call¬
ing,0 if foul and flimy ; if Ihe be clean within, give her
gentle callings 5 and when Ihe is reclaimed, manned,
and made eager and lharp fet, he may venture to feed
her on the lure.
However, three things are to be confidered before
the lure be Ihowed her } 1. That Ihe be bold and fami¬
liar in company, and not afraid of dogs and horfes.
2. Sharp fet and hungry, having regard to the hour
of morning and evening, when you would lure her.
3. Clean within, and the lure well garnilhed with meat
on both fxdes; and when you intend to give her the
length of a lealh, you mult abfcond yourfelf.
She mull alfo be unhoodcd, and have a bit or two
given her on the lure as Ihe fits on your fill} afterwards
take the lure from her, and hide it that lire may not
fee it} and when Ihe is unfeeled, call the lure fo near
her, that Ihe may catch it within the length of her
lealh, and as foon as lire has feized it, ufe your voice as
falconers do, feeding her upon the lure, on the ground,
with the heart and warm thigh of a pullet.
Having fo lured your falcon, give her but little meat
in the evening ; and let this luring be fo timely, that
you may give her plumage, and a juck of a joint next
morning on your fill. When Ihe has call and gleamed,
give her a little reaching of warm meat. About noon,
tie a creance to her lealh j and going into the field,
there give hen a bit or two upon her lure : then unwind
the creance, and draw it after you a good way 5 and
let him who has the bird hold his right hand on the
talfel of her hood, ready to unhood her as foon as you
begin to lure } to which if flie come well, floop round¬
ly upon it, and haflily feize it, let her call two or three
bits thereon. Then, unfeizing and taking her oft the
lure, hood her and give her to the man again 5 and,
going farther off, lure and feed her as before.
In this manner is the falconer to proceed, luring her
every day farther and farther off, till ihe is accuflomed
to come freely and eagerly to the lure} after which fhe
may be lured in company, taking care that nothing af¬
fright her. When ftte is ufed to the lure on foot, fhe
is to be lured on horfeback j which may be effecled the
fooner, by cauftng horfemen to be about her when Ihe
is lured on foot.
When Ihe has grown familiar to this way, let fome-
body on foot hold the hawk, and he on horfeback mull
•call and cafl the lure about his head, the holder taking
off the hood by the taffel ; and if fhe feize eagerly on
the lure without fear of man or horfe, then take off
the creance, and lure her at a greater diflance. And
if you would have her love dogs as well as the lure, call
dogs when you give her her living or plumage. See
Hawking.
FALERII, in Ancient Geography, a town of Etru¬
ria, on the weft or right fide of the Tiber •, Falifci, the
people of the town and territory. The territory was
famous for its rich paftures 5 hence the gramen Falifcnm
in authors. Eutropius and Frontinus call the town Fa-
lifei; which, according to the laft, was furnamed Colo-
via Junonta. The Falifci are called JEqui by Virgil 5
bec aufe thev afforded fupplemental laws to the 12 ta-
F A L
Here they made an excellent faufage, FaWnirs
czlltd Venter Falifcus (Martial). . Falkirk.
When the Falifci were befieged by Camillus, a v ... ,
fchoolmafter went out of the gates of the city with his
pupils, and propofed to betray them into the hands ot
the Roman enemy, that by luch a poffefiion lie might
eafily oblige the place to furrender. Camillus heard
the propofal with indignation, and ordered the man to
be ftripped naked, and whipped back to toe. town, by
thofe whom his perfidy wifhed to betray. This inftance
of generofity operated upon the people fo powerfully ^
that they furrendered to the Romans.
' FALERNUS, Mans MaJJicus fo called, (Martial) ;
Falernus ager, a diitrid at the foot of Mount Maflicus
in Campania j famous ror its generous w ines, (Hoi ace,
Pliny). Now called Monte MaJJico.
FALISCI. See Falerii.
FALKIA, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria clafs. See Botany Index.
FALKIRK, a town of Stirlingfhire in Scotland,
fituated in W. Long. 3- 4^- Lat. 56. 20. It is. a
large ill built place, and is fupported by great fairs
for^black cattle from the Highlands, it being comput¬
ed that 24,000 head are annually fold there. A great
deal of money is alfo got here by the carriage of goods
landed at Carron wharf to Glafgow. Ibis town is re¬
markable for a battle fought in its neighbourhood
between Edward I. of England, and the Scots com- __
manded by the fteward of Scotland, Cummin of Ba-
denoch, and Sir William Wallace. Ihe lattei had
been invefted with the fupreme command 5 but perceiv¬
ing that this gave umbrage to the nobility, he refigned
his power into the hands of the noblemen above men¬
tioned, referving to himfelf only the command of a
fmall body who refufed to follow another leader. The
Scots generals placed their pikemen along the front,
and lined the intervals between the three bodies of which
their army was compofed, wdth archers: and dreading
the great luperiority of the Englifti cavalry, endeavour¬
ed to fecure their front by palliladoes tied together w ith
ropes. The battle was fought on the 22d of July 1 298.
The king of England divided his army likewife into
three bodies 3 and by the fupenority of his archers, de¬
feated the Scots with great daughter. Wallace alone
preferved entire the troops he commanded ; and retiring
behind the Carron, marched leifurely along the banks
of that river, which protefted him from the enemy.
In this battle fell John de Graham, a gentleman much
celebrated for his valour, and ftyled the right hand of
the gallant Wallace. His epitaph is ftill to be feen on
a plain ftone in the churchyard of ialkirk. On the
1 8th of January 1746, a battle was fought here between
the king’s forces commanded by General Hawley, and
the Highlanders headed by Charles Stuart. The for¬
mer wTas feized wdth a panic, and lied : but Colonel
Hulk with tw'O regiments, who kept their ground, pre¬
vented the Highlanders from purfuing their vitfory.
Extenfive ruins are perceived in the neighbourhood of
this town, fuppofed by fome antiquarians to have been
the capital of the Picftifli government •, but others be¬
lieve them to be the remains of fome Roman ftations.
FALKLAND, a fmall town of Fifelhire in Scot¬
land, made a royal burgh by James II. in 1458. ' Here
flood one of the feats of the Macduff's earls of Fife. On
the
2
F A L [ 407 ]
the attainder of Munro Stewart, the 17th earl, it be¬
came forfeited to the crown in 1424. James V. who
grew very fond of the place, enlarged and improved it.
The remains evince its former magnificence and ele¬
gance and the fine tafte of the princely arcjiitea. The
gateway is placed between two fine round towers j on
the right hand joins the chapel, whofe roof is of wood,
handfomely gilt and painted, but in a moft ruinous con¬
dition. Beneath are feveral apartments. The front
next to the court was beautifully adorned with ftatucs,
heads in bafs relief, and elegant columns, not reducible
to any order, but of fine proportion, with capitals ap¬
proaching the Ionic fcroll. Beneath fome of thefe pil¬
lars was infcribed I. R. M. G. 1537. or Jacobus Rex,
Maria de Guife.—This place was alfo a favourite refi-
dence of James VI. on account of the fine park and
plenty of deer. The call fide was accidentally burnt m
the time of Charles II. and the park ruined during
Cromwell’s ufurpation, when the fine oaks, were cut.
dowrn in order to build the fort at Perth. Ibis place
gives title of vifcount to the Englilh family of Carey ;
Sir Henry Carey being fo created by James \ I. 1620.
His fon was the celebrated Lucius, who facrificed his
life in a fit of loyal defpair at the battle of Newbury,
and from whom the prefent family is lineally de-
fcended.
Falkland, Lord. See Carey.
FALL, the defcent of a heavy body towards the
centre of the earth. It is alfo the name of a meafure of
length ufed in Scotland, containing fix ells.
Fall of Man, in {acred hiltory, that terrible event
by which fin and death were introduced into the world.
See Adam, and Antediluvians, and Original. Sin.
The account which Moles gives of this tranfaftion is
extremely brief and concife. The ferpent, he informs
us, being mere fubtle than any beaft of the field, alked
the woman, whether it was true that God had not
granted her and her hufband leave to eat of ever^y tree
in the garden ? She anfwered, That God had allow’ed
them to^eat of all, except only the fruit of the tree
in the midlt of the garden ; which he commanded they
ihould not tafte, nor fo much as touch, left they fhould
die. The ferpent replied, That they fhould not die j
for God knew the virtue of the tree j and that, fo foon
as they ate of it, their eyes w'ould be opened, and they
would' become like gods, knowing good and evil..
Eve, feeing the fruit tempting to the view, took of
the fruit and ate j and gave alfo to her hufband of it,
and he did eat. Immediately the eyes of both were
opened ; when perceiving they were naked, they fewed
fig leaves together and made themfelves aprons.. A-
dam and Eve, hearing the voice of God walking in the
garden in the cool of the day, hid themfelves among
the trees } but, on God’s calling for Adam, he excuf-
ed himfelf for not appearing, becaufe he was naked.
God demanded of him, who it wras that told him he
was naked j and whether he had difobeyed Ins com¬
mand, in eating the forbidden fruit ? Adam confeffed
that the woman had offered him the fruit, and he had
tailed it. She, being examined likewife, acknow¬
ledged what fhe had done 5 but faid, the ferpent had
feduced and deceived her. God then proceeded to
judgment ; he firft curfed the ferpent above all beafts,
and condemned him to go on his belly, and eat the
duft ; adding, that he would put enmity between him
nnd the woman, and their offspring ; that the feed of
the woman fhould bruife the lerpent’s head, who fhould
bruife the other’s heel. The woman was fubje&ed to
the pains of childbirth, as well as to the dominion of
her hufband j and as to the man, God curfed the
ground for his Eke, declaring, that it fhould bring
forth thorns and thirties, and he fhould earn his bread
by the fweat of his brow, till he returned to the duft,
from whence he was taken. At laft, having clothed
them both with fkins, he turned them out ol the gar¬
den, left they fhould take of the tree of life, and
eat, and live for ever : then, to prevent any attempt
to return to their former habitation, he placed cherubims
at the eaft of the garden, and a flaming fword which
turned every way, to guard the paffage to the tree of life.
This concife account being, at firft view, encumber¬
ed with fome difficulties, feveral learned and pious
men have been inclined to believe the whole ought to
be taken in an allegorical fenfe, and not according to
the ftri&nefs of the letter : they allege, that the an¬
cients, and particularly the eaftem nations, had two
different ways of delivering their divinity and philolo-
phy, one popular, and the other myfterious •, that the
Scripture ufes both occafionally ; fometimes accommo¬
dating itfelf to the capacities of the people, and at
other times to the real but more veiled truth 5 and
that, to obviate the many difficulties which occur in
the literal hiftory of this fad cataftrophe, the fafeft way
is to underftand it as a parabolical ftory, under which
the real circumftances are difguifed and concealed, as
a myftery not fit to be more explicitly declared.
Though it cannot be denied that fome of the an¬
cient philofophers affe&ed fuch an allegorical way of
writing, to conceal their notions from the vulgar, and
keep their learning within the bounds of their own
fchool ; yet it is apparent Mofes had no fuch defign j
and as he pretends only to relate matters of fa£l, juft
as they happened, without art or difguiie, it cannot be
fuppofed but that this hiftory of the fall is to be taken
in a literal fenfe, as well as the reft of his writings. It
is generally agreed, that the ferpent which tempted
Eve was the devil, who envying the privileges cf man
111 innocence, tempted him, and was the came of his
forfeiting all thole advantages which he had received
from God at his creation •, and that to this end he af-
.fumed the form of a ferpent. Thefe interpretations
are fupported by many paffages of Scripture, where
the devil is called the ferpent, and the old ferpent, (St*
John viii. 44. 2 Cor. xi. 3. and Rev. xii. 9.) Some be¬
lieve that the ferpent had then the ufe of fpeech, and
converfed familiarly with the woman, without her con¬
ceiving any diftruft of him ■, and that God, to puniih
the malice with which he had abufed Eve, deprived
him of the ufe of fpeech. Others maintain, that a
real ferpent having eaten of the forbidden fruit, Eve
from thence concluded, that fhe too might eat of it
without danger •, that in effe£t fhe did eat of it, and
incurred the difpleafute of God by her difobedience.
This, fay thefe laft authors, is the plain matter of fad
which Mofes w^ould relate under the allegorical repre-
fentation of the ferpent converfing with Eve.
The opinion of fuch as believe this rvas not a real
ferpent, but only the devil under that name, is no let
H&dIc '•
Fallacy
.11.
Fallopian.
F A L
liable to exception than any of the reft
the devil is frequently ftyled in Scripture the ferpsnt,
and the old ferpent, yet why he ftiould be called the
mojl fubtle beaft of the field, we cannot conceive •, neither
will the punilhment intlicled on the ferpent fuffer us
to doubt, but that a ferpent’s body at lead; was employ¬
ed in the tranfaclion.
The nature of the forbidden fruit is another circum-
ftance in this relation that has occafioned no lefs va¬
riety of conjectures, ihe Rabbins believe it was the
vine ; others that it was wheat ; and others, from the
circumftance of Adam and Eve’s covering themfelves
with fig leaves immediately after their tranfgreflion,
tell us, that this fruit mult have been the fig 5 feme
think it was the cherry *, and the generality of the
Latins will have it to be the apple.
Thofe who admire allegorical interpretations, will
"have the forbidden fruit to have been no other than the
fenfual act of generation, for which the punilhment. in-
flifted on the woman was the pain of childbearing.
But this opinion has not the leaft foundation in the
■words of Mofes, efpecially if we confider that Adam
knew not his wife till after their expullion out of Pa-
radife.
Many have been the fuppofitions and conjectures
upon this fubjeft in general j and fome have fo far in¬
dulged their fancy in the circumftances of the fall,,
that they have perverted the whole narration of Mofes
into a fable full of the moft lhameful extravagancies.
FALLACY, a deception, fraud, or falie appear¬
ance.
The Epicureans deny that there is any fuch thing as
a fallacy of the fenfes : for, according to them, all our
fenfations and perceptions, both of fenfe and phantafy,
are true 5 whence they make fenfe the primary criterion
of truth.
The Cartefians, on the other hand, maintain, that
we fhould fufpeef as falfe, or at moft as dubious, every
thing that prefents itfelf to us by means only .of the
external fenfes, becaufe they frequently deceive us.
They add, that our fenfes, as being fallacious, were
never given us by nature for the difeovery of truth, or
the contemplation of the principles of things; but only
for pointing out to us what things are convenient or
hurtful to our bodies.
The Peripatetics keep a middle courfe. They fay,
that if a fenfible objeef be taken in its common, or ge¬
neral view, the fenfe cannot be deceived about it; but
that if the objeft be taken under its fpecific view, the
fenfe may be miftaken about it, from the want of the
difpofitions neceffary to a juft fenfation, as a difor-
der in the organ, or any thing uncommon in the me¬
dium : thus, in fome diforders of the eye, all objeCts
appear yellow, a ftick in Water appears broken or
crooked, &c.
FALLING sickness, or Epilepsy. See Medi¬
cine Index.
-Falling-Stars. See Star.
FALLOPIAN tubes, in Anatamij, two duffs arif-
ing from the womb, one on each fide of the fundus,
and thence extended to the ovaries, having a confider-
able lhare in conception. They are called tubce, from
their form, which bears fome refemblance to a trum¬
pet t and thpir denomination Fallopinnce, they take
r 408 ] f a l
For though from Gabriel Fallopius, mentioned in the next luficie.
See Anatomy Index.
FALLOPIUS, Gabriel, a moft celebrated phyfi-
cian and anatomift, was born at Modena in Italy, in
the year 1523, and defeended of a noble family. He
made feveral difeoveries in anatomy, one of which was
that of the tubes, called from him the Fallopian tubes.
He travelled through the greateft part of Europe, and
obtained.the charaffer of being one of the ableft phy-
ficians of his age. He was made profeffor of anatomy
at Pifa in the year 1548, and at Padua in the year
1551 : here he died in 1562, aged 39. His writings
which are numerous, were firft printed feparately, and
afterwards collefted under the title of .“ Opera genui-
na omnia, tarn pradlica quam theoretica, in tres to-
mos diftributa.” They were printed at Venice in 1585
and in 1606, at Franc-fort in 1600, cum operum ap-
pendice ; and in 1606, in folio.
FALLOW, a pale red-colour, like that of brick ,
half burnt *, fuch is that of a fallow deer.
Fallovt Field, or Fallow ground; land laid up, or
that has been untilled for a confiderable time.
FALLOWING of Land, a particular method of
improving land. See Agriculture Index.
FALMOUTH, a port town of Cornwall in Eng¬
land, fituated in W. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat. 50. 15. on
a fine bay on the Englilh channel. It is the richeft and
moft trading town of the county, and larger than Sny
three of its boroughs that fend members to parliament.
It is fo commodious a harbour, that ftrips of the great-
eft burden come up to its quay. It is guarded by the
caftle of St Mawes and Pendennis, on a high rock at
the entrance : and there is fuch Ihelter in the many
creeks belonging to it, that the whole royal navy may
ride fafe here in any wind, it being next to Plymouth
and Milford-Haven, the beft road for {hipping in Great
Britain. It is well-built} and its trade is confider-
ably increafed fince the eftabliftiment of the packet-
boats here for Spain, Portugal, and the W eft. Indies,
which not only bring vaft quantities of gold in fpecie
and in bars, on account of the merchants in London 5,
but the Falmouth merchants trade with the Portuguefe
in fhips of their own, and they have a great {hare alfo
in the gainful pilchard trade. The cuftom-houfe for
moft of the Comifti towns, as well as the head collec¬
tor, is fettled here;, where the duties, including thofe of
the other ports, are very confiderable. It is a corpo¬
ration, governed by a mayor and alderman. Here is
a market on Thurfday, and fairs July 27. and Otto-
ber 30.
FALSE, in general, fomething contrary to truth,
or not what it ought to be : thus we fay a falfe ac¬
tion, falfe weights, falfe claim, &c.
False Aflion, if brought againft one whereby he is
caft into prifon, and dies pending the fuit, the law
gives no remedy in this cafe, becaufe the truth or falfe-
hood of the matter cannot appear before it is tried :
and if the plaintiff is barred, or non-fuited at com¬
mon law, regularly all the puniftiment is amerce-
ment. .
False Imprifonment, is a trefpafs committed againft
a perfon, by arrefting and imprifoning him without
juft caufe, contrary to law ; or where a man is un¬
lawfully detained without legal procefs: and it i? al-
f*
1
falfe
il
Fama.
F A M [
fo ufed for a writ which is brought for this trefpafs.
a perfon be any way unlawfully detained, it is falie
imprifonment 5 and conlideraole damages are recover¬
able in thofe a&ions.
False News, /^reading of, in order to make difcord
between the king and nobility, or concerning any great
man of the realm, is punifhable by common law with
fine and imprifonment ; which is confirmed by ftatutes
Weftm. I. 3 Edw. I. cap. 34. 2 Ric. II. flat. 1. cap.
5. and 12 Ric. II. cap. tl.
False Oath. See Perjury.
False Prophecy. See Prophecy.
False Quarter, in Farriery. See (Quarters, Far¬
riery Index.
False Bay, a bay lying to the eaftward of the Cape
of Good Hope •, frequented by veffels during the pre¬
valence of the north-wefterly winds, wdrich begin to
exert their influence in May, and render it dangerous
to remain in Table bay. It is terminated to the eaft¬
ward by Falfe Cape, and to the weftward by the Cape
of Good Hope. It is ,8 miles wide at its entrance,
and the two capes bear due eaft and welt from each
other. . .
FALSI CRIMEN, in the civil law, is fraudulent iu-
bomation or concealment, with defign to darken or
hide the truth, and make things appear otherwife than
they are. The crimen falfi is committed, I. By words,
as when a wdtnefs fwears falfely. 2. By writing, as
when a man antedates a contract, or the like. 3- dly
deed, as when he fells by falfe weights and meafures.
FALSIFY, mLaw, is ufed for proving any thing to
be falfe. Hence we find,
Falsifying a record, for fhowing it to be erroneous.
Thus lawyers teach, that a perfon purchaling land of
another, who is afterwards outlawed of felony, &c. may
falfify the record, not only as to the time wdierein the
felony is fuppofed to have been committed, but alfo as
to the point of the offence. But wThere a man is found
guilty by verdicf, a purchafer cannot falfify as to the
offence ; though he may for the time, where the party
is found guilty generally in the indi&ment, becaufe the
time is not material upon evidence.
FALSTAFF. See Fastolff.
FALX, in Anatomy, a part of the dura mater, de-
fcending between the two hemifpheres of the brain, and
feparatmg the fore part from the hinder. It is called
falx, i. e. “ fickle,” becaufe of its curvature, occafioned
by the convexity of the brain. It divides the brain as
low as the corpus callofum.
FAMA CLAMOSA, in the judicial procedure of the
church of Scotland, a ground of affion before a prefby-
tery againfl one of its members, independent of any
regular complaint by a particular accufer. See Pres¬
bytery.
Any perfon who is of a good charafter, may give
to the prefbytery a complaint againft one of their
members •, but the prefbytery is not to proceed to the
citation of the perfon accufed, until the accufer under
his hand gives in the complaint, wfith fome account of
its probability, and undertakes to make out the libel,
under the pain of being confidered as a flanderer. W hen
fuch an accufation is brought before them, they are
obliged candidly to examine the affair. But, belides
this, the prefbytery conflders itfelf obliged to proceed
againff any of its members, if a fama clamola of the
Vql, VIII. Part II.
409 ] F A M
If fcandal is fo great that they cannot be vindicated un-
lefs they begin the procefs. This they can do with¬
out any particular acculer, after they have inquired in¬
to the rife, occafion, and authors, of this report. It
is a maxim in the kirk of Scotland, that religion muft
fuffer if the fcandalous or immoral actions of a mini-
Iter are not corredted. And wherever a minifter is re¬
puted guilty of any immorality (although before the
molt popular preacher in the kingdom), none almcfl
will attend upon his miniltry. Therefore the preibyte-
ry, for the fake of religion, is obliged to proceed againft
a minifter in cafe of a fama clamofa. This, however,
is generally done with great tendernefs. Alter they
have confidered the report railed againft him, then
they order him to be cited, draw out a full copy of
what is reported, with a lift of the witneffes names to
be led for proving this allegation. He is now to be
formally fummoned to appear before them ■, and he
has warning given him, at leaft 10 days beiore ths?
time of his compearance, to give in his anfwers to
what is termed the libel-, and the names of the witneffes
ought alfo to be fent him. If at the time appoint¬
ed the minifter appear, the libel is to be read to him,
and his anfwers are alfo to be read. If the libel be
found relevant, then the prefbytery is to endeavour to
bring him to a confeflion. If the matter confefled be
of a fcandalous nature, fuch as uncleannefs, the prefby¬
tery generally depofe him from his office, and ap¬
point him in due time to appear before the congrega¬
tion where the fcandal was given, and to make public
confeffion of his crime and repentance. If a minifter
abfent himfelf by leaving the place, and be contuma¬
cious, without making any relevant excme, a new ci¬
tation is given him, and intimation is made at his own
church when the congregation is met, that he is to
be holden as confeffed, fince he refufed to appear be¬
fore them ; and accordingly he is depofed from his of~
fice. ,
FAME, a heathen goddefs, celebrated chiefly by the
poets. She is feigned to have been the laft of the race
of Titans produced by the earth, to have her palace in
the air, and to have a vaft number of eyes, ears, and
tongues. She is mentioned by Hefiod, and particular¬
ly delcribed by Ovid and Virgil.
FAMES canina, the fame with Bulimy*
FAMIA, or Afamia, the modern name of one of
the ancient Apameas. See Apamea.
FAMILIARS of the Inquisition, perfons who
affift in apprehending fuch as are accufed, and carry¬
ing them to prifon. I hey are affiftants to the inquili-
tor, and called familiars, becaufe they belong to his
family. In fome provinces of Italy they are called
crofs-bearers, and in others xhc fcholars of St Peter the
martyr; and they w ore a crofs before them on the out-
fide garment. They are properly bailiffs of the inqui-
fition J and the vile office is efteemed fo honourable,
that noblemen in the kingdom of Portugal have been
ambitious of belonging to it. Nor is this furpnfing,
when it is confidered that. Innocent III. granted very
large indulgences and privileges to thefe familiars j and
that the fame plenary indulgence is granted by the
pope to every Tingle exercife of this office, as was
granted by the Lateran council to thofe who fuccour-
ed the Holy Land. When feveral perfons are to be
taken up at the fame time, thefe familiars are com-
r 5 p mandea
Fa ilia
jl. ,
Familiars.
FAN [ 4i'
Family tnandcd to order matters, that they may know nothing
1! of one another’s being apprehended ; and it is related,
i:‘m- that a father and his three fons, and three daughters,
who lived together in the fame houfe, were carried pii-
foners to the" inquifition without knowing any thing of
one another’s being there till feven years afterwards,
when they that were alive were releafed by an act of
faith.
FAMILY denotes the perfons that live together
in one houfe, under the direction of one head or chief
manager. It alfo fignifies the kindred or lineage of a
perfon } and is ufed by old writers for a hide or por¬
tion of land fufficient to maintain one family. See
Hide.
Family, in Natural llijlory, a term ufed by autnors
to exprefs any order of animals, or other natural pro¬
ductions of the fame clafs.
FAMINE, dearth, or' fcarcity of food. For pre-
fervatives againft hunger in times of famine, fee the
article Hunger.
FAN, a machine ufed to raife wind, and cool the
air by agitating it.
That the ufe of the fan wTas known to the ancients
is very evident from what J. erence fays,
Cape hoc flabellum, et ventulum huic fic facito ;
and from Ovid, Art. Amand. I. 161.
Profuit et tenues ventos tnovi/fe flabello.
The fans of the ancients were made of different ma¬
terials j but the moft elegant were com'pofed of pea¬
cocks Feathers, or perhaps painted fo as to reprefent
a peacock’s feather.
The cuftom which now prevails among the ladies, of
wearing fans, was borrowed from the call, where the
hot climate renders the ufe of fans and umbrellas almoft
indifpenfable.
In the eaft they chiefly ufe large fans made of fea¬
thers, to keep off the fun and the flies. In Italy and
Spain they have a large fort of fquare fans, lidpended
in the middle of their apartments, and particularly over
the tables : thefe, by a motion at firft given them, and
which they retain a long time on account of their per¬
pendicular fufpenlion, help to cool the air and drive
off flies.
In the Greek church, a fan is put into the hands of
the deacons in the ceremony of their ordination, in al-
lufton to a part of the deacon’s office in that church,
which is to keep the flies off the priefls during the ce¬
lebration of the facrament.
What is called a fan amongft us and throughout the
chief parts of Europe, is a thin Ikin, or piece of pa¬
per, taffety, or other light fluff, cut femicircularly,
and mounted on feveral little, ftisks of wood, ivory,
tortoifeftiell, or the like. If the paper be Angle, the
flicks of the mounting are pafted on the leaft ornamen-
ed Ade : if double, the flicks are placed betwixt them.
Before they proceed to place the flicks, which they
call mounting the fan, the paper is to be pjaited in fuch
a manner, as that the plates may be alternately inward
and outward.
It is in the middle of each plait, which is ufually
about half an inch broad, that the flicks are to be
pafted j and the e again are to be all joined and ri-
vetted together at the other end 3 they are very thin.
d } FAN
and fcarcely exceed one-third of an inch in breadth 3 and Fas
where they are pafted to the paper, are Hill narrower, FarJaw
continuing thus to the extremity of the paper. 1 he . ' A ..
two outer ones are bigger and ftronger than the others.
The number of flicks rarely exceeds 2 2. The flicks
are ufually provided by the cabinetmakers or toy¬
men 3 the fan-painters plait the papers, paint, and
mount them.
The common painting is either in colours or gold
leaf, applied on a Alvered ground, both prepared by
the goldbeaters. Sometimes they paint on a gold
ground, but it is rarely 3 true gold being too dear,
and falfe too paltry. To apply, the filver leaves on the
paper, they ufe a compofltion, which they pretend is
a great fecret, but which appears to be no other than
gum arabic, fugar-candy, and a little honey, melted
in common water, and mixed with a little brandy.
This compofltion is laid on with a fponge 3 then lay¬
ing the Alver leaves thereon, and preffing them gent.y
down with a linen ball fluffed with cotton, they catch
hold, and adhere together. When, mftead of Alver,
gold ground is laid, the lame method is obferved. I he
ground being well dried, a number of the papers are
well beaten together on a block, and by this means
the Alver or gold get a luftre as if they had been bur-
niftied.
Fan is alfo an inftrument to winnow corn. The
machine ufed for this purpofe by the ancients leems to
have been of a form flmilar to ours. I ne fan, which
Virgil calls tnyfica vannus lacchi, was ufed at initiations-
into the myfleries of the ancients : For as the perfons
who were initiated into any of the myfteries, wTere to
be particularly good, this inftrument, which feparates
the wheat from the chaff, was the fltteft emblem that
could be of fetting apart the good and virtuous from
the vicious and ufelefs part of mankind. It. is flgu-
ratively applied in a Amilar manner in Luke iii. 17-
FANATICS, wild, enthuflaftic, yiAonary perfons,
who pretend to revelation and infpiration.
The ancients called thofe fanatici who paffed their
time in temples (fana), and being often feized with
a kind of enthuflafm, as if infpired by the divinity,
{flowed wild and antic geflures. Prudentius reprefents
them as cutting and flafhing their arms with knives.
Shaking the head was alfo common among the fana¬
tici 3 for Lampridius informs us, that the emperor
Heliogabalus was arrived at that pitch, of madnefs, as
to {flake his head with the gaffied fanatics. Hence the
word wTas applied among us to the Anabaptifts, Qua¬
kers, &c. at their flrft rife, and is now an epithet given
to the modern prophets, Muggletonians, &c.
FANCY, or imagination. See Imagination.
FANIONS, in the military art, fmall flags carried
along with the baggage.
FANNERS, a machine for winnowing corn, or for
feparating the chaff from the grain. See, for its de»
feription, Mechanics.
FANSHAW, Sir Richard, famous for his em-
baffies and writings, was the tenth and youngeft fon
of Sir Henry Fanihaw of Ware Park in Hertfordlhire,
where it is luppofed he was born about the year 1607.
He diftinguiffied himfelf fo early by his abilities, that
in 1635 he was taken into government employments
by King Charles I. and fent reAdent to the court of
Spain 3 whence being recalled in, the beginning of the
* ' • tvqubks
Farce.
FAR [41
F.uuP.. troubles in 1641, be adhered to the royal intereft, and
11 was employed in feveral important matters ot itate.
During; his vacant hours he wrote divers poems, and
made feveral tranflations. At the Reftoration it was
expedted he would have been made one ot the fecreta-
ries of date however, he was made mailer of the re-
quefts j a ftation in thofe times of confiderable_ profit*
Afterwards, oil account of his {kill in the Latin lan¬
guage, he was made fecretary for that tongue. In
1661, he was fent envoy to the king of Portugal. In
1662, he was again fent to that court with the title ot
amba/fador, and negotiated the marriage of his matter
King Charles II. with the infanta Donna Cathenna.
Upon his return he was made one of the privy coun¬
cil. In 1664, he was fent ambaifador _to both the
courts of Spain and Portugal} at which time the foun¬
dation of peace betwixt thofe Crowns and England was
laid by him. His conduct during his former employ¬
ments in thofe courts gained him Inch high efteem
there, that his reception was magnificent, exceeding
ail that were before, which thofe kings declared was
not to be a precedent to fucceeding ambalTadors. He
died at Madrid in 1666, on the very day he had fix¬
ed for fetting out on his return to England. Befides
fome original poems, and other tranflations, he P’-'-f*"
lifhed a tranflation of Bathifta Guarini’s Pajlor tiuo^
and another of the Liifiad of Camoens. Among his
pofthumous publications are, “ Letters during his
embaflies in Spain and Portugal', with his life pie-
fixed.” k - .
FANTASIA, in the Italian mufic, fignifiesyWy >
and is ufed for a compofition, wherein the compoier
ties himfelf to no particular time, but ranges accord¬
ing as his fancy leads, amidft various movements, dif¬
ferent airs, &.c. This is otherwife called the capricious
jiyle: before fonatas were ufed, there were many of
this kind, fome of which remain even now.
FANUM, among the Romans, a temple or place
confecrated to fome deity. I he deified men and wo¬
men among the heathens had likewife xhdu fana ; even
the great philofopher Cicero ereitted one to his daugh¬
ter Tullia. _ -
Fanum Vacua o’, in Ancient Geography, a village ot
the Sabines, fituated between Cures and Mandela-,
where flood the temple of Vacuna, goddefs of the idle
or unemployed, in an old decayed ftate : and hence the
epithet putre, ufed by Horace. Nowr called Vocone, in
the Ecclefiaftic State.
FARANDMAN, a traveller, or merchant flran-
ger, to whom, by the laws of Scotland, juftice ought
to be done with all expedition, that his bufinefs or
journey be not hindered.
FARCE, was originally a droll, petty fliow, or en¬
tertainment, exhibited by charletans, and their buf¬
foons, in the open ftreet to gather the crowd together.
 The word is French, and fignifies literally, “ force¬
meat or fluffing.” It was applied on this occafion, no
doubt, on account of the variety of jells, gibes, tricks,
&c. wherewith the entertainment was interlarded.
Some authors derive farce from the Latin facetia ; o-
thers from the Celtic farce, “ mockery j” others from
the Latip farcire, “ to fluff.”
At prelent it is removed from the ffreet to the
theatre } and inftead of being performed by merry-
andrews to amufe the rabble, is acted by comedians,
t ] F A ft
and become the entertainment of a polite audience.
Poets have reformed the wildnefs of the primitive far¬
ces, and brought them to the tafle and manner of co¬
medy. The difference between the two on our ftage
is, that comedy keeps to nature and probability, and
therefore is confined to certain laws prefcribed by an¬
cient critics j whereas farce diialiows of all laws, cr ra ¬
ther fets them afide on occafion. Its end is purely to
make merry -, and it flicks at nothing which may con¬
tribute thereto, however wild and extravagant, rlence
the dialogue is ufuaily low, the perfons of inferior
rank, the fable or attion trivial or ridiculous, and na
true and truth everywhere heightened and exaggera¬
ted to afford the more palpable ridicule.
FARCIN, or Farcy, a difeafe in horfes, and fome-.
times in oxen, &c. fomewhat of the nature of a Ra¬
bies or mange. See Farriery Index.
FARDING-DEAL, the fourth part of an acre ot
land. See Acre.
FARE, moll commonly fignifies the money paid
for a voyage, or paffage by water j but, in London, i<
is what perfens pay for being conveyed, from one pam
of the town to another in a coach or chair.
FAREWELL-CAPE, the moil foutherly promon¬
tory of Greenland-, in W. Long. 50°, and N. Lat.
6o°
FAR IN, or Farm. See Farm.
FARINA, a Latin term fignifying meal, or the
flour of corn. See Corn'. _ .
Farina Facundans, among •Fotani/Is, the fuppoied
impregnating meal or dull: on the apices or antherae oi
flowers. See Poelent» __ # .
The manner of gathering the farina of plants for
microfcopical obfervations is this : Gather the flowei s
in the midfl of a dry funlhiny day when the dew is
perfectly off, then gently fliake off the farina, or light¬
ly brulh it off with a foft hair-pencil, upon a piece of
white paper ; then take a Angle talc or ifinglafs be¬
tween the nippers, and, breathing on it, apply it in-
ftantly to the farina, and the moifture of the breath
will make that light powder flick to it. If too great
a quantity be found adhering to the talc, blow a little
of it oft j and, if there is too little, breathe upon it a-
gain, and take up more. When this is done, put the
talc into the hole of a Aider, and, applying it to the
microfcope, fee whether the little grains are laid as you
defire •, and if they are, cover them up with another
talc, and fix the ring •, but be careful that the talcs do
not prefs upon the farina in fucli a manner as to alter
its form.
FARLEU, money paid by the tenants in the weft
of England, in lieu of a heriot. In fome manors of
Devonihire, farleu is often diftinguilhed to be the belt
goods, as heriot is the bell beaft, payable at the death
of a tenant.
FARM, FarIn, or Perm, (Firma), in Law, figni¬
fies a little country mefluage or diilridt, containing
houfe or land, with other conveniences j hired, or taken
by leafe, either in writing, or parole, under a certain
yearly rent. See Lease.
This in divers parts is differently termed : m the
north, it is a tack ; in Lancaihire, fermeholt; in Ef-
fex, a wike, &c.
In the corrupted Latin, firma fignified a place m-
clofed or Ihut in : whence, in fome provinces, Menage
3 Y '2 oblerveg,
FAR L 41
Farm, obferves, they call cloferie, or clofure, what in others
v ' they call ^ farm. Add, that we find locare adfirmam,
to fignify to let to farm ^ probably on account of the
iureliold the tenant here has in comparifon of tenants
at will. ’ .
Spelman and Shinner, however, choofe to derive the
word farm from the Saxon farms, ox feoi me, that is,
victus, “ provifion j” by reafon the country people
and tenants anciently paid their rents in vi&uals and
other neceffaries, which w’ere afterwards converted in¬
to the payment of a fum ot money. ^Whence a farm
was originally a place that furnilhed its landlord with
provifions. And among the Normans they ftill di-
llinguilh between farms that pay in kind, i. e. provi¬
fions, and thofe which pay in money 5 calling the for¬
mer limply ferities, and the latter blanche ferme, “ white
ferm.”
Spelman (hows, that the word firma, anciently fig-
mfied not only what we now call a farm, but alfo a
feaft or entertainment, which the farmer gave the pro¬
prietor or landlord, for a certain number of days, and
at a certain rate, for the lands he held of him. Thus
fearme in the laws of King Canute is rendered by Mr
Lambard, viBus : and thus we read of reddere firmam
nnius noBis, and redd eh at unum diem defrma; which
denote provifion for a night and day, the rents about
the time of the conqueft being all paid in provifions j
which cuftom is faid to have been firfi: altered under
King Henry I. We alfo fay to farm duties, imports,
&c.
Culture of a Farm. See Agriculture.
Farm, as connefted with gardening, and fufceptible
of embellhhment. See Gardening.
In fpeculation, it might have been expe&ed that the
firft effays of improvement Ihould have been on a farm,
to make it both advantageous and delightful ;. but the
fa ft was othemife: a fmall plot was appropriated to
pleafure ; the reft was referved for profit only. And
this may, perhaps, have been a principal caufe of the
vicious tafte which long prevailed in gardens. It
was imagined that a fpot fet apart from the reft Ihould
not be like them : the conceit introduced deviations
from nature, which w'ere afterwards carried to fuch an
excefs, that hardly any objetts truly rural were left
within the enclofure, and the view of thofe without
was generally excluded. The firft ftep, therefore, to¬
wards a reformation, was by opening the garden, to
the country, and that immediately led to afiimilating
them •, but ftill the idea of a fpot appropriated to plea¬
fure only prevailed, and one of the lateft improve¬
ments has been to blend the ufeful with the agreeable 5
even the ornamental farm was prior in time to the
more rural; and we have at laft returned to fimplicity
by force of refinement.
1. The ideas of paftoral poetry feem now to be the
-ll fam'.0" ftandard 0f t},at Simplicity ; and a place conformable
to them is deemed a farm in its utmoft purity. An al-
lufion to them evidently enters into the defign of the
Leafowes (a), where they appear fo lovely as to en¬
dear the memory of their author •, and juftify the re¬
putation of Mr Shenftone, who inhabited, made, and
2 ] F A R
celebrated the place : it is a perfeft pi&ure of his ^
mind, fimple, elegant, and amiable *, and will always
fugged: a doubt, whether the fpot infpired his verfe, or
whether, in the fcenes which he formed, he only rea¬
lized the paftoral images which abound in his fongs.
The whole is in the fame tafte, yet full of variety ; and,
except in two or three trifles, every part is rural and
natural. It is literally a grazing farm lying round the
houfe ) and a walk, as unaffefted and as unadorned
as a common field-path, is conduced through the fe-
veral enclofures. But for a detail of the plan and
fcenery, as illuftrative of the prefent fubjecl, the read¬
er is referred to the particular defcription of the Lea¬
fowes publifhed by the late Mr Dodlley. We fhall only
take notice of one or two circumftances independent on
the general delineation.
The art with which the divifions between the fields
are diverfified is one of them. Even the hedges are
diftinguifhed from each other: a common quickfet
fence is in one place the feparation : in another, it is a
lofty hedge-row, thick from the top to the bottom ;
in a third, it is a continued range of trees, with all their
Items clear, and the light appearing in the intervals
between their boughs, and the bufhes beneath them j
in others, thefe lines of trees are broken, a few groupes
only being left at different diftances } and fometimes a
wood, a grove, a coppice, or a thicket, is the apparent
boundary, and by them both the fhape and the ftyle
of the enclofures are varied.
The infcriptions, which abound in the place, are an¬
other ftriking peculiarity : they are well known and
juftly admired ; and the elegance of the poetry, and
the aptnefs of the quotations, atone for their length
and their number. But, in general, infcriptions pleafe
no more than once : the utmoft they can pretend to,
except w’hen their allufions are emblematical, is to
point out the beauties, or defcribe the effedfs, of the
fpots they belong to } but thofe beauties and thofe ef-
fecls muft be very faint, which ftand in need of the af-
fiftance. Infcriptions, however, to commemorate a de¬
parted friend, are evidently exempt from the cenfure js
the monuments would be unintelligible without them j
and an urn, in a lonely grove, or in the midft of a field,
is a favourite embellifhment at the Leafowes : they are
indeed among the principal ornaments of the place j
for the buildings are moftly mere feats, or little root-
houfes; a ruin of a priory is the largeft, and that has
no peculiar beauty to recommend it: but a multiplici¬
ty of objefts are unneceffary in the farm j the country
it commands is full of them *, and every natural ad¬
vantage of the place within itfelf has been difcover-
ed, applied, contrafted, and carried to the utmoft
perfedlion, in the pureft tafte, and with inexh audible
fancy.
Among the ideas of paftoral poetry which are here
introduced, its mythology is not omitted : but the al¬
lufions are both to ancient and to modern fables 5
fometimes to the fairies 5 and fometimes to the naiads
and mufes. The objetts alfo are borrowed partly
from the fcenes which this country exhibited fome
centuries ago, and partly from thofe of Arcadia : the
priory,
Farm,
(a) In Shropfhire, between Birmingham and Stourbridge.
Patm.
Of an an¬
cient farm.
FAR t 4i
priory, and a Gothic feat, ftill more particularly cha-
raaerifed by an infcription m obfolete language and
the black letter, belong to the one j the urns ^irgi ^
obeliik, and a ruilic temple of Pan, to the other. Al
thefe allufions and objecfs are indeed equally rural.
but the images in an Englifh and claffical eclogue are
not the fame-, each fpecies is a diftin^ imitative cha-
rafter. Either is proper j either will raife the farm it
is applied to above the ordinary level; and_ within the
compafs of the fame place both may be introduced 5
but they ihould be feparate : when they are mixed, they
counteraaone another; and no repreientation is pro¬
duced of the times and the countries they refer to. A
certain diilrid fhould therefore be allotted to each, that
all the fields which belong to the refpeaive characters
may lie together, and the correfpondmg ideas be pre-
ferved for a continuance. mi
2. In fuch an affortment, the more open and poldhed
fcenes will generally be given to the Arcadian (hep-
herd ; and thofe in a lower degree of cultivation, will
be thought more conformable to the manners of the
ancient Britifti yeomanry. We do not conceive that
the country in their time was entirely cleared, or di-
ftinaiy divided; the fields were furrounded by woods,
not bv hedges ; and if a confiderable traa of improved
land lay together, it (till was not feparated into a num¬
ber of inclofures. The fubjefts, therefore proper to re¬
ceive this character, are thofe in which cultivation (eems
to have encroached on the wild, not to have fubdued
it; as the bottom of a valley in corn, while the fides
are (till overgrown with wood ; and the outline of tnat
wood indented by the tillage creeping more or lets up
the hill. But a glade of grafs, thus circumdanced,
does not peculiarly belong to the fpecies; that may
occur in a park or paftoral farm ; in this, the paftures
(hould rather border on a wafte or a common: it arge,
they may be broken by draggling bullies, thickets, or
coppices ; and the fcattered trees (hould be befet witn
brambles and briars. All thefe are cxrcumdances
which improve the beauty of the place; yet appear to
be only remains of the wild, not intended for embelhik-
ment. Such interruptions mud, however, be lets fre¬
quent in the arable parts of the farm ; but there t e
opening may be divided into feveral lands, didmguilh-
ed, as in common fields, only by different forts of grain.
Thefe will diffidently break the famenefs of the (pace ;
and the tillage does not furniffi a more pleafing (cene,
than fuch a fpace fo broken, if the extent be moderate,
and the boundary beautiful. r
\s much wood is elfential to the char after, a (pot
may eafily be found, where turrets rifing above the co¬
vert, or fome arches feen within it, may have the re-
femblance of a cadle or an abbey. The partial conceal¬
ment is almod neceffary to both ; for to accord with
the age, the buildings mud feem to be entire; the
ruins of them belong to later days: the difguife is,
however, advantageous to them as objefts; none can
be imagined more pifturefque, than a tower bolomed
in trees, or a duller appearing between the Items and
the branches. But the fuperditions of the times tur-
niffi other objefts which are more within compais:
hermitages were then real; folitary chapels were com¬
mon ; many of the fprings of the country being deem¬
ed holy wells, were didinguilhed by little Gothic domes
built over them ; and every hamlet had its crofs, even
Farm
3 ] FA R
this, when perfeft, fet on a little ruitic pillar, and that,
raifed upon a bafe of circular deps, may in fome fcenes
be conliderabie : if a fituation can be found for a May-
pole, whence it would not obtrude itfclf on every view,
that alfo might not be improper; and an ancient cnurch,
however unwelcome it may be when it breaks into the
defign of a park or a garden, in (uch a farm as this
would be a fortunate accident: nor. would the old yew-
in the church-yard be indifferent ; it would be a me¬
morial of the times when it was uteful.
Many other objefts, fignificant of the manners of our
ancedors, might perhaps, upon recollection, occur ; but
thefe are amply fufficient for a place of confiderable
extent; and cottages mud abound in every age aod
every country ; they may therefore be introduced m
different forms and pofitions. Large pieces of water
are alfo particularly proper.; and all the varieties of
rills are confident with every fpecies of farm, from
the concurrence of fo many agreeable circumdances m
this, be the force or the effect of the charafter what it
may, a number of pleafing fcenes may be exhibited ei¬
ther in a walk or riding, to be contraded to thoie
which in another part of the place. may be Formed on
Arcadian ideas; or even to be fubdituted in their dead,
if they are omitted. . , . . . ofafumf
3. A part may alfo be free from either of thefe imita-^^.
live charafters, and laid out in a common fimple (arm.
Some of the greated beauties of nature are to be found
in the fields, and attend an ordinary date oi cultiva¬
tion : wood and water may there be exhibited m ieye-
ral forms and difpofitions ; we may enlarge or divide
the inclofures ; and give them fuch (hapes and bounda¬
ries as we pleafe; every one may be an agreeable (pot y
together, they may compofe beautiful views ; the arable,
the padure, and the mead, may fucceed one another ;
and now and then a little wild may be intermixed with¬
out impropriety ; every beauty, in diovt, which is not
tinufual in an inclofed country, whether it antes from
negleft or improvement, is here in its piace. .
The buildings, alfo, which are frequent in fuch a
country, are often beautiful objefts; the church
the manfion are confiderable : tne farm-yard itfelf, if
an advantageous (Ituation be chofen for it ; if the
ricks, and the barns, and the out-houfes, are ranged
with any defign to form them into groups, and if they
are properly blended with trees ; may be made a piftu¬
refque compofition. Many of them may be detached
from the group, and difperfed about the grounds .
the dove-cote, or the dairy, may be feparated from
the reft; they may be elegant in their forms, and pla¬
ced wherever they will have the heft effeft. A com¬
mon barn, accompanied by a clump, is fometimes
pleafing at a diftance ; a Dutch barn is fo when near ;
and a hay-ftack is generally an agreeable circum-
ftance in any polition. Each of thefe may be (ingle ;
and befides thefe, all kinds of cottages are proper.
Among fo many buildings, fome may be converted to
other purpofes than their conftruftion denotes; and,
whatever be their exterior, may within be made
agreeable retreats, for refreffiment,. indulgence, or
(belter.
With fuch opportunities of improvements, even to-
decoration within itfelf, and with advantages of pio-
fpeft into the country about it, a fimple faim may un
doubtedly be delightful. It will be particu ar y ac~
FAR [ 414 ] FAR
vliole
a vi-
he is
Of an orna-
taented
f*rm.
FafRi. 'ceptable to the owner, if it be elofe to his park or his
garden : the objecls which conftantly remind him of
his rank, impofe a kind of conftraint j and he feels
himfelf relieved, by retiring fometknes from the fplen-
dor of a feat into the limplicity of a farm : it is more
than a variety of fcene s it is a temporary change of
iituation in life, which has all the charms of novelty,
eafe, and tranquillity, to recommend it. A place,
therefore, can hardly be deemed perfedl, which is not
provided with fuch a retreat. But if it be the
oi the place, it feems inadequate to the manfion :
litor is difappointed 5 the mafter is diflatisfied ’,
not fufficiently difHnguifhed from his tenants 3 he milles
the appendages incidental to his feat and his fortune 5
and is hurt at the limilarity of his grounds with the
country about them. A pafioral or an ancient farm is
a little above the common level j but even thefe, if
brought cl»fe up to the door, fet the houfe in a field,
where it always appears to be negledled and naked.
Some degree of polilh and ornament is expected in its
■ immediate environs ; and a garden, though it be but a
fmall one, fhould be interpofed between the manfion and
any fpecies of farm.
4. A fenfe of the propriety of fuch improvements
about a feat, joined to a talte for the more Ixmple de¬
lights of the country, probably fuggeited the idea of
an ornamental farm, as the means of bringing every ru¬
ral circumilance within the verge of ti garden. This
idea has been partially executed very often $ but no¬
where, perhaps, fo completely, and to fuch an extent, as
at Woburn farm, (near Weybridge in Surry.) The place
•contains 150 acres: of which near 35 are adorned to the
highefl degree •, of the reft, about two thirds are in pa-
fture, and the remainder is in tillage. The decorations
are, however, communicated to every part: for they are
ftifpofed along the fides of a walk, which, with its ap¬
pendages, forms a broad belt round the grazing-
grounds •, and is continued, though oh a more con-
trafled fcale, through the arable. This walk is pro¬
perly garden 5 all within it is farm ■, the whole lies
on the two Tides of a hill, and on a flat at the foot of
it: the flat is divided into corn-fields *, the paftures
occupy the hill; they are furrounded by the walk,
and crofted by a communication carried along1 the
brow, which is alfo richly dreffed, and which divides
them into two lawns, each completely encompaffed
■with garden.
Thefd are in themfelves delightful ; the ground in
both lies beautifully : they are diverfified with clumps
and fingle trees *, and the buildings in the walk feem
to belong to them. On the top of the hill is a large
oclagon ftructure j and, not far from it, the ruin of a
chapel. To one of the lawns the ruin appears, on the
brow of a gentle afeent, backed and grouped with
wood 5 from the other is feen the odlagon, upon the
edge of a fteep fall, and by the fide of a pretty grove,
which hangs down the declivity. This lawn is further
embellifhed by a neat Gothic building j the former by
the houfe, and the lodge at the entrance ■, and in both,
other objedls of lefs confequence, little feats, alcoves,
and bridges, continually occur.
The buildings are not, however, the only orna¬
ments of the walk j it is Ihut out from the country,
for a confiderable length of the way, by a thick and
lofty hedge-row, which is enriched with woodbine, jef-
famine, and every odoriferous plant whole tendrils will
entwine with the thicket. A path, generally of fand
or gravel, is conduced in a waving line, fometimes
elofe under the hedge, fometimes at a little diftance
from it ; and the turf on either hand is diverfified with
little groups of ftirubs, of firs, or the fmalleft trees,
and often with beds of flowers : thefe are rather too
profufely ftrewxd, and hurt the eye by their little-
neffes } but then they replenifli the air with their per¬
fumes, and every gale is full of fragrancy. In fome
parts, however, the decoration is more chafte } and the
walk is carried between larger clumps of evergreens^
thickets of deciduous fhrubs, or Hill more confiderably
open plantations. In one place it is entirely Ample,
without any appendages, any gravel, or any funk fence
to feparate it from the lawn j and is diftinguiihed on¬
ly by the richnefs of its verdure, and the nicety of its
prefervation. In the arable part it is alio of green
fward, following the direftion of the hedges about the
feveral inclofures : thefe hedges are fometimes thicken¬
ed with flowering ftirubs •, kmd in every corner or va¬
cant fpace, is a rofary, a elofe or an open clump, or a
bed of flowers : but if the parterre has been rifled for
the embeliifhment of the fields, the country has on the
other hand been fearched for plants new in a garden :
and the ftirubs and the flowers which ufed to be deem¬
ed peculiar to the one, have been liberally transferred
to the other 5 while their number feems multiplied by
their arrangement in fo many and fuch differeot difpo-
fitions. A more, modetate ufe of them would, how¬
ever, have been better •, and the variety more pleafing,
had it been lefs licentious.
But the excefs is only in the borders of the walk ;
the feenes through which it leads are truly elegant, every¬
where rich, and always agreeable. A peculiar cheer-
fulnefs overfpreads both the lawns, arifing from the
number and the fplendor of the objecls with which
they abound, the lightnefs of the buildings, the inequa¬
lities of the ground, and the varieties of the plan¬
tations. The clumps and the groves, though feparate-
ly fmall, are often maffed by the perfpedtive, and ga¬
thered into confiderable groups, which are beautiful in
their forms, their tints, and their pofitions. The brow
of the hill commands two lovely profpedls : the one
gay and extenfive, over a fertile plain, watered by the
Thames, and broken by St Anne’s Hill and Windfor
Caltle ; a large mead, of the moft luxuriant verdure,
lies juft below the eye, fpreading to the banks of the
river ; and beyond it the country is full of farms, vil¬
las, and villages, and every mark of opulence and cul¬
tivation. The other view is more wooded : the fteeple
of a church, or the turrets of a feat, fometimes rife
above the trees 5 and the bold arch of Walton bridge
is there a confpicuous objecl, equally Angular and
noble. The inclofures on the flat are more retired
and quiet j each is confined within itfelf; and all toge¬
ther they form an agreeable contrail to the open ex-
pofure above them.
With the beauties which enliven a garden are every¬
where intermixed many properties of a farm : both the
lawns are paftured ; and the lowing? of the herds, the
bleating of the fiieep, and the tinklings of the bell-wed-
der, refound through all the plantations : even the
clucking of poultry is not omitted for a menagerie of
a very Ample defign is placed near the Gothic buildings
a
Faint,
FAR [4
Farmer, a fmall Terpentine river is provided for tlie water-fowl j
•—\   while the others ftray among the flowering ftmibs on the
banks, or draggle about the neighbouring lawn : and
the corn fields are the fubjedls of every rural employ¬
ment which arable land from feed-time to harvelt can
fumifti. But though fo many of the circumftances
occur, the fimplicity of a farm is wanting) that idea
is loft in fuch a profulion of ornament ) a -rufticity of
charafter cannot be preferved amidft all the elegant
decorations which may be lavifhed on a garden.
FARMER, he that tenants a farm, or is leflee
thereof. Alfo generally every leffee for life, years, or
at will, is called farmer. As this word implies no my-
ftery, except it be that of hufbandry, hulbandman is
the proper addition for a farmer.
Farmer, Hugh, an Engliih clergyman and a man
of literature, belonging to the proteftant nonconformifts,
was defcended from people of refpedlability in NortE
Wales, and drew his firft breath at Shrewfbury, in the
year 1714. Or Charles Owen was for fome time his
tutor, and prior to that period he was educated at a fchool
in Llanegrin. His parents from the firft having de-
figned him for the miniftry, he was fent to profecute
his ftudies under the juftly celebrated Dr Doddridge at
Northampton, in 1730. Here, by the reftitude of his
condudl and wonderful proficiency, he gained the efteem
of that great man, who always fpoke of him in the
moft refpe&ful terms. Having completed his academi¬
cal ftudies, Mr Farmer became the chaplain of William
Coward, Efq„ of Walthamftow, in the county of Effex,
and was at the fame time cholen minifter to a dilfent-
ing congregation in that village. Notwithftanding the
gratitude with which Mr Coward ought to be remem¬
bered by many for his charitable inftitutions, he had
certain peculiarities of temper wftiich rendered him a
very difagreeable domeftic. His doors w^ere (hut at an
uncommonly early hour of the night, and neither vifitor
nor conftant refident could aftenvards obtain admiflion.
Mr Farmer having one evening been detained a little
beyond that hour, found the doors ftiut againft him,
and was under the neceflity of applying to a William
Snell, Efq. folicitor, a man of eminence, and pofleffed
of many excellent qualifications, in whofe family he
remained for 30 years, living in the greateft friendfhip
and intimacy. In this gentleman’s houfe he gradually
prepared thofe valuable treatifes, and dilfertations which
were afterwards given to the public, and acquired him
fo much celebrity as a man of letters. He alfo continued
- to difcharge the duties of his minifterial function to the
people of WalthamftowT.
When a day of thankfgiving was appointed for the
fortunate fuppreflion of the rebellion in 17455 Far¬
mer preached a fermon on that occafion which was pub-
lilhed the following year. His next work -was of con-
fiderably greater importance, and wras entitled, “ An
Inquiry into the Nature and Defign of our Lord’s temp¬
tation in the wildernefs.” 8vo. In this work it was the
defign of Mr Farmer to prove that the whole was tranf-
afted in vilion, the different ftages of which were intend¬
ed to point out to him the difficulties and duties of his
fubfequent miniftry. The originality of thought and
profound erudition which this work difplayed, foon
gave it a very extenfive circulation, and called forth
the exertions of thofe who were of an oppofite opinion.
received one reply under the title of “ Chrift’s temp-
5 3 .F A. R
tations real fadfs,” which poffeffed confiderable merit, Farmer,
but much inferior to Mr Farmer’s for energy of ex- v——v—
preflion, depth of thinking, and force of argument.
But the moft mafterly, perhaps, of all Mr Farmer’s
literary produdtions, was his “ Differtation on Miracles,
defigned to fhew that they are arguments of a divine in-
terpofition, and abfolute proofs of the miflion and doc¬
trine of a prophet.” Some have believed, and perhaps
not without reafon, that this work has no proper rival,
notwithftanding the many able treatifes upon that fub-
jedl which have made their appearance in different ages.
It was firft publiftied in the year 1771. But as great
talents are frequently envied, and as this infernal prin¬
ciple is the prolific fource of calumny and detraction,
fo this fupereminent work of Mr Farmer was declared
to have been chiefly borrowed from Mr le Moine on
the fame fubjedt 5—a flander which Mr Farmer refuted
in a very able and fatisfadtory manner. In the year
1775, he publiflied his celebrated “ Effay on the De¬
moniacs of the New Teftament,” which may be con-
fidered as a mafterly completion of the defign he had
in view by his differtation on miracles. The hypothefis
he adopted had been formerly defended with great
ability by Mede, Sykes, Lardner, and others j but it
was referved for the critical acumen of Mr Farmer to
free it completely from thofe difficulties wftiich ftill
hung around it. His effay on demoniacs wras fucceflive-
ly attacked by Dr Worthington and Mr Fell, both of
them men of confiderable erudition, but much inferior
to their able antagonift.
Mr Farmer having continued for feveral years the
foie pallor of the congregation at Walthamftow, an
able colleague wras appointed him in 1761, in confe-
quence of which he became the afternoon preacher to
the congregation of Salter’s-hall, in the city of London,
and foon after the Tuefday ledlurer at the fame place.
He refigned his minifterial employments as he advanced
in years, which the people commited to his charge very
much regretted. In the year 1785 his eyes gave him
very much trouble, of the fight of which he was nearly
deprived, but by means of a furgical operation, he was
for fome time enabled to refume his ftudies. But mor¬
tality is the inevitable lot of all men, and the growing
infirmities of Mr Faraaer brought him to the grave in
1787, in the 73d year of his age.
By his laft will he had ordered all his manufcripts to
be burnt after his death, a circumftance which men oF
letters have juft reafon to lament. It is no doubt the
duty of executors to pay attention to the will of the de-
ceafed 3 yet for the benefit of the Chriftian world they-
wmuld have been juftified in taking a certain latitude in
the explanation of. his meaning 3 as it does by no means
appear probable that he meant to confign to the flames
his manufcript entitled, “ A Differtation on the ftory
of Balaam,” which appeared wnitten in a fair hand, as
if manifeftly intended for the prefs. When wre fay that
Mr Farmer wras a confummate fcholar, we truft that
his numerous and able wTorks will fully juftify the affer-
tion 3 and his talents as a preacher were equally con-
fpieuous. His voice was remarkable for its clearnefs
and harmony, and his whole manner was peculiarly im-
preflive. His piety was not morofe, his converfation was
lively, and his whole deportment was a beautiful tranf-
cript of his moral injunftions.
Farmer, Richard, D. D. a fcholar and critic cf
confiderable
F A R
[ 416 3
FAR
Farmer, coniidcrable eminence, ivas the Ton or a holier at Lei-
—^ ; cefter, at which place he was born in the year I735-
Here he received the rudiments of his education, and
was afterwards a ftudent at Cambridge, and penfioner
of Emanuel college. He was conlidered as a young
man well acquainted with books, was much efteemed
among his friends, and looked upon as poffeffed of lively
parts, even before he acquired any extraordinary repu¬
tation as a fcholar. He was made B. A. in i757> an^
M. A. in 1760. Seven years after this period, having
been for fome time a curate, he took the degree of
B. D. and became a preacher at Whitehall. Befides the
attention he paid to the Grecian and Roman authors,
he profecuted the ftudy of books in his own language,
printed on black-letter, which laid the foundation of a
work that added more to his literary reputation than
any other performance. This was “ An Effay on the
learning of Shakefpeare,” which he publilhed in 1766
Men of letters had long turned their attention to the
learning of Shakefpeare, in order to afcertain its real ex¬
tent. It could not be queftioned that he was acquainted
with the hiftory and mythology of the ancients, but it was
ftill a matter of difpute from what fources that acquaint¬
ance was derived. To obviate this difficulty, Mr Far¬
mer’s knowledge of books enabled him to demonftrate,
that tranflations of the far greater part of claffical authors
wrere to be met with in the time of the celebrated dra-
matift ; and as he proved that Shakefpeare had even
copied the blunders and errors of fuch tranllations, he
made it manifeft beyond the poffibility of a rational
doubt, that he was wholly incapable of confulting the
originals. This effay palled through three editions in
a very Ihort time ; was much admired for the fprightli-
nefs of its compolition, and the generality were perfuaded
that he had fully eftabliffied his point.
This performance brought him fo much into notice,
as to become extremely favourable to his profeffional
advancement. By the intluence of Biihop Hurd, he pro¬
cured the chancellorihip and a prebend in the cathe¬
dral of Lichfield, and in 1755 he was elefted mailer of
Emanuel college, and took the degree of D. D. He
was foon after conilituted principal librarian to the uni-
veriity, and ferved in turn the office of vice-chancellor.
He w7as made prebendary of Canterbury by Lord North,
at that time prime minifter, and Mr Pitt made him
twice' an offer of a biffiopric •, but the conllraints and
folemnity of the epifcopal charafler were not congenial
to his natural temper, on which account he declined the
offer, and having refigned his office as prebendary, he ac¬
cepted of a refidentiaryffiip of St Paul’s. T.his obliged
him to refide three months annually in London, which
he fpent with pleafure and advantage in the company
of literary characters. From nature he inherited a fund
of good humour, and wras of fuch an obliging turn, that
he buried party fpirit in the fatisfaftion which he found
in the performance of beneficent aClions. Though in
general an enemy to reforms of any kind, and anxious
to preferve things as they were, both in church and Hate,
he was inftrumental in amending the police of Cam¬
bridge, efpecially as it related to the paving and light¬
ing of the ftreets. At his mitigation alfo, monumental
fculpture was admitted into the cathedral of St Paul’s,
which will continue to exhibit a linking proof of
national gratitude, and ferve to cover the nakednefs of
$he walls,
Farmer
It was at one time the intention of Dr Farmer to pub-
liffi a hiltory of the town and antiquities of Leicelter, parJ'ibi^
the expences to be defrayed by fubfcription j but either
his independent circumltances, or a degree of native in¬
dolence, made him relinquiffi the delign, and the few
materials he had collected were given to Mr John
Nichols, at that time engaged in an elaborate work on
the fame fubjeCt. After a painful illnefs of fome length.
Dr Farmer died at Emanuel college in the month of
September, 1797, in the 62d year of his age. Dr Parr
wrote an epitaph for his tombltone, in which we find
the following teftimony to his worth. “ Vir facetus et
dulcis, feltique fermonis, Grace et Latine doCtus, in ex-
plicanda veterum Anglorum poefi fubtilis et elegans.”
He had a confiderable library, in which were a valt
number of books purchafed at the Halls of London,
and afterwards difpofed of for much more than they
colt.
Farmer, in mining, is the lord of the field, or one
that farms the lot and cope of the king.
FARN islands, two groups of little illands and
rocks, 17 in number, lying oppofite to Bamborough
cattle in Northumberland. At low water the points
of feveral others are vifible befides the 17 juft mention¬
ed. The neareit ifland to the ffiore is called the Houfe-
iJlanJ, and lies exaCtly one mile and 68 chains from the
coaft. The molt diftant is about feven or eight miles.
Their produce is kelp, feathers, and a few feals, which
the tenant watches and (hoots for the fake of the oil
and (kins. Some of them yield a little grafs that may
ferve to feed a cow or two , which the people tranf-
port over in their little boats. The largeft or Houfe-
ifland is about one mile in compafs, and has a fort and
a lighthoufe. It contains about fix or (even acres of
rich pafture j and the ffiore abounds with good coals
which are dug at the ebb of tide. St Cuthbert is faid
to have patted the two laft years of his life on this
ifland. A priory of BenediCtines was afterwards efta¬
bliffied here, for fix or eight monks, fubordinate to
Durham. A fquare tower, the remains of a church,
and fome other buildings, are ftill to be leen on this
ifland ; and a ftone coffin, which is pretended to be
that of St Cuthbert. At the north end of the ifle is
a deep chalm, from the top to the bottom of die
rock, communicating with the fea $ through which,
in tempeftuous weather, the water is forced with
great violence and noife, and forms a fine jet u eau of
60 feet high. It is called by the inhabitants of the
oppofite coaft, the Churn. One of the iflands in the
molt diftant group is called the Pinnac/es, from
fome vaft columnar rocks at the fouth end, even at
their fides, flat at the tops, and entirely covered with
guillemots and ffiags. The fowlers pafs from one to
the other of thefe columns by means of a board, which
they place from top to top, forming a narrow bridge
over fuch a dreadful gap that the very fight of it ftrikes
one wuth horror.
FARN ABIE, Thomas, fon of a carpenter at
London, born in 1575, (laid a ffiort while at Oxford j
where being enticed to abandon his religion, he went
to Spain, and was there educated in a college belong¬
ing to the Jefuits. Being weary of their fevere difci-
pline, he went with Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis
Drake in their laft voyage in 1395. He was after-
v-ards a foldier in the Low Countries : but being redu¬
ced
i'arnham,
Farnovians.
FAR t 4I’f 3
FAR
ded to great want, returned to England, wbere wan¬
dering about for feme time under the name of Thomas
Bainrafe, the anagram of his name, he fettled at Mat¬
tock in Somerfetlhire, and taught a grammar-fehool
with good reputation. He removed to London, and
opened a fchool with large accommodations for young
gentlemen. While he taught this fchool, he was made
mailer of arts at Cambridge, and incorporated into the
univerfity of Oxford. Thence he removed, in 1636,
to Seven-oaks in Kent} and taught the fons of feveral
noblemen and gentlemen, who boarded with him, with
great fuccefs, and grew rich. His wrorks gained him
reputation. Upon the breaking out of the civil com¬
motions in 1641* he w’tis call into prifon. It wra^s de¬
bated in the houfe of commons, whether he ihould be
fent to America \ but this motion being rejected, he
was removed to Ely-houfe in Holborn, and there he
died in 1647. htr Farnabie was a tfery eminent gram¬
marian j and many writers have fpoken with great ap¬
probation of his labours. M. Bayle in particular fays,
His rtotes upon liiott of the ancient Latin poet& have
been of very great ufe to young beginners $ being thort,
learned, and defigned chiefly to clear up the text.
FARNHAM, or Fernham ; a town of Surry, and
capital of the hamlet of its own name, 41 miles from
London on the Wmcheiter road. It is a large popu¬
lous place, fituated on the river Wey, and fuppofed to
have its name from the fern which abounded here. ^It
was given by the Weft Saxon king E.tnelbald to the
fee of Winchefter ; the bifhops of which have general¬
ly refided in the caftle here, in the fummer time, ever
fince the reign of King Stephen, whofe brother, its then
bifliop, firft built it It rvas a magnificent iirudlure,
wdth deep moats, ftrong Avails and towers at proper
diftances, and a fine park \ but it is much decayed.
The town, which has many handfome houfes, and wrell
]paA'«d ftreets, is governed by 1 2 mafters or burgedes,
of Avhom two are bailiffs, (chofen annually). 1 hey
have the profit of the fairs and markets, and the aflize
of bread and beer j and hold a court every three weeks,
which has power of trying and determining all aclions
under 40s. From Michaelmas to Chnftmas here is a
good market for oats $ and one of the greateft wheat
markets in England, efpecially between All-Saints day
and mid-fummer. The toll-difti here Avas once reckon¬
ed worth 200I. a-year •, but it is much diminiftied,
fince the people about Chichefter and Southampton be¬
gan to fend their meal to London by fea. But this
lofs is amply made up by the vaft growth m hops here,
of which there are 300 or 400 acres of plantations a-
bout this town, and they are faid to outdo the Kentilh
hop-yards both in quantity and quality. I his town fent
members to parliament in the reign of Edward II.
but never fince. The magiftrates have their privileges
from the bi/hop of Winchefter, to whom they pay an
■acknowdedgment of I2d. a-yefcr. The market is on
Thurfday : fairs, Holy Thurfday, June a!} and Novem¬
ber 2. Here are a free fchool, and a great market for
Welfti bofe. c n. c
FARNOVIANS, m ecclefiaftical hiftory, a feet of
Socinians, fo called from Staniflaus Farnbvius, Avho fe-
parated from the other Unitarians in the year 1 'jbB,
and was folloAved by feveral perfons eminent for their
learning. This feft did not laft long •, for having
loft their chief, who died in 1615, it 'vvas fcattered
Vol. VIII. Part II.
abroad and reduced to nothing. Famovius Avas enga¬
ged by Goneftus to prefer the Arian fyftem to that ot
the Socinians, and confequently afferted, that Chriit
had been produced out of nothing by the Supreme Be¬
ing before the creation of this tetreftrial globe. His
fentiments concerning the Holy Ghoit are not certainly
knoAvn j however, it appears that he warned his difei-
ples againft paying the tribute of religious Avorlhip to
the Divine Spiriu
FARQUHAR, George, an ingenious poet and
dramatic wTriter, the fon of a clergyman in Ireland,
Avas born at Londonderry in 1678. He Avas fent to
Trinity College, Dublin j but his volatile difpofition not
relifhing a college life, he betook himfelf to the Ua *e *,
where, haA'ing dangeroufly wounded a brother-affor m
a tragic feene, by forgetting to change his fword for
a foil, it fhocked him fo much that he left the Dublin
thfeatre and went to London. Here he procured a lieu-
tenant’s commiftion by the intereft of the earl of Or
rery ", which he held leveral years, and gave manv
proofs both of courage and conduct. In 1698, he
wrote his firft comedy called Love and a Bottle 5 w7hich,
for its fprightly dialogue and buiy feenes, was well re¬
ceived* In the beginning of the year I'joo, whicn Avas
the jubilee year at Rome, he brought out his Conitant
Couple, or a Trip to the Jubilee : and fuited Mr Wilks’s
talents fd well in the charackr of Sir Harry Wildair,
that the player gained almoft as much reputation as
the Doet* This tempteci him to continue it m snotncA
comedy called Sir Harry W^ildair, or Lhe fequel ot the
Trip to the Jubilee ; in which Mrs Oldfield acquired
great applaufe. In IJ0 2, he publilhed his Milcella-
nies, which contain a A'ariety of humorous tallies of
fancy. In 1703* appeared the Inconftant, or the Way
to Win him : in i704> a farce called the Stagc-coach
in 1705, The Twin Rival? j and in 1706, the Recruit¬
ing Orticer, founded on his own obfervations Avhile on
a recruiting party at Shrewfbury. His laft comecy
AA’as the Beaux Stratagem, of which he did not live to
enjoy the full fuccefs. Mr Farquhar married in 17^3;
Before that time his manner of life had been rather dif-
fipated. The lady, therefore, who afterwards became
his Avife, having fallen violently in love with him, but
judging that a gentleman of his humour would not ea-
ftly be draivn into the trammels of matrimony, contri¬
ved to have it given out that (he was poffeffed of a large
fortune ; and finding means aftenvards to let Mr Far¬
quhar knoAV her attachment to him, intereft and A'anity
got the better of his paffion for Aioerty, ana the lady
and he Avere united in the hymeneal bands. But how
great was his difappointment, when he found afl his
profpedfts overclouded fo early in lue (for he wa^ then
no more than 24), by a marriage from which he had
nothing to expect but an annual increaie of family, and
an enlargement of expence in confequence of it far be¬
yond what his income would lupport. V et, to bis ho¬
nour be it told, though he found himfelf thus deceived
in a moft eflential particular, he never was- known once
to uphtaid his Avife with it ; but -gencroully forgave an
impofition which love for him alone had urged her to,
and even behaved to her with all the tendernefs and de¬
licacy of the moft indulgent hufband. Mrs harquhar,
however, did not very long enjoy the Happiness ihe had
purchafed by this ftratagem •, for the eircumftances that
attended this union were in fome refpect perhaps the
3 G meafts
FAR [ 4L
Farquhar. means of fhortening the period of the captain’s life,
v-"—' ;Forj finding himfelf confiderably involved in debt in
confequence of their increafing family, he was induced
to make application to a certain noble courtier, who
had frequently profeffed the greateft friendlhip for him,
and given him the ftrongeit alfurances of his intended
fervices. This pretended patron repeated his former
declarations j but, expreffing much concern that he had
nothing at prefent immediately in his power, advifed
him to convert his commiflion into money to anfwer his
prefent occafions, and allured him that in a Ihort time
he would procure another for him. Farquhar, who
could not bear the thoughts of his wife and family
being in diftrefs, followed this advice, and fold his com-
FARR
INTRODUCTION.
I
Origin of rT',HE term farrier is probably a corruption of fcrrier,
•oAtrv*1 Er.^/ernznx, from the verb ferrer, to Jhoe a horfe ;
' all thefe words being derived from the Latin ferrum,
“ irony There is no doubt that the word farrier was
at firft ufed to denote a perfon who Ihod horfes, but as
thefe perfons were for a long period the only horfe-
cloBors, the term was foon ufed in the more extenlive
fenfe of horfe-doBor or horfe-leech ; and hence far¬
riery came to lignify the art of curing the difeafes of
horfes.
There can be little doubt that the word farrier was
originally fpelt ferrier or ferrer; as we meet with this
latter orthography in fome of our older writers. Thus
Blundeville,who wrote in the time of Queen Elizabeth,
in his “ Addrefs to the Gentlemen of England,” book iv.
has the following fentence.
“ All horfes, for the moll part, do come into their
decay, fooner than they Ihould do, by one of thefe four
waies j that is to fay, either for lacke of being well
bred, or through the rafhnefs of the rider, the negli¬
gence of the keeper, or elfe through the unlkilfulneffe
of the ferrery
Again, the fame author mentions, “ Martin Ghelly
of Alton, called Martin Alman, chiefe ferrer to the
a. queen’s magiftie.”
v'eterinary Farriery, in the ufual acceptation of the word, forms
only a part of that more general art, which has been
commonly called the veterinary art; by which is under-
llood the art of medicine as applied tq the inferior ani¬
mals, which has been long called by the French /’ art
veterinaire, or medicine veterinaire. This word veteri¬
nary is of very ancient date, being derived from'the
Latin veterinarius, which is ufed by Columella to de¬
note a horfe-doclor, or cattle-doBor. The term veteri¬
nary, being derived from veterinus, qu. veheterinus, a
vehendo, carrying, is properly applicable only to beafts
of burden •, but veterinary medicine is now commonly
employed in a more comprehenlive fenfe, to denote the
art of curing the difeafes of domejlic animals in general.
Term ex- The French, who appear to have firlt ufed the term
Sended. in this general fenfe, ufually diftinguilh that part of the
ajt v^hich we call farriery by the appellation of Hip-
8 ] FAR
million j but, to his great mortification and difappoint- Farrier.
ment, found, on a renewal of his application to this in- w—
human nobleman, that he had either entirely forgotten,
or had never intended to perform, the promife he had
made him. This diilrafting frullration of all his hopes
fixed itfelf fo ftrongly on our author’s mind, that it foon
brought on him a lure, though not a very fudden, de-
clenfion of nature, which at length carried him off the
ftage of life in 1707, before he arrived at 30 years of
age.—His comedies are fo diverting, and the charadlers
fo natural, that his plays ftill continue to be repre-
fented to full houfes.
FARRIER, one whofe employment is to Ihoe hor¬
fes, and cure them when difeafed or lame.
I E R Y.
piatrique, from a horfe, and phyjiciatu ■
Thus, they have a Cours d'HippiatriqUe, a Diciionaire
d'Hippiatrique, &c..
As there are confiderable advantages attending the
confideration of the difeafes of the feveral domeftic ani¬
mals in the fame treatife, we propofe, in the prefent
article, not to confine ourfelves to the medical treatment
of tire horfe, but to extend our views to the difeafes of
Rich other of the domellic animals, as are of moll im¬
portance to man, particularly the ox, Iheep, and dog.
The difeafes of the hbrfe, as they are better known,
and more interefting, than thofe of the other domellic
animals, will of courfe occupy the greatelt lhare of our
attention. The difeafes of the dog have been as yet too
little inveftigated for us to give a very fatisfadtory ac¬
count of them } but as the fubjeCl of veterinary medi¬
cine has of late been much cultivated, it is probable
that thefe, as well as fome other obfeure difeafes of ani¬
mals, may ere long receive fome elucidation. If any
confiderable improvements or difeoveries lhall be made
before the completion of our work, we lhall notice them
under Veterinary medicine.
It may be thought, that, confidering veterinary medi- Obje&ioirr
cine in this extenfive point of view, it would have been anfwered*.
more corredl to defer the fubje£t to the article Veteri¬
nary j but moll of our readers who have been ac-
cuftomed to fee in our dictionary the article Farriery,
will expeft an account of, at leaft, the difeafes of the
horse, under this article, and would probably not be
pleafed to have this delayed till nearly the end of the
work y befides, it is of little importance under which
article the difeafes of animals are treated of, as, when
we have once defined our terms, wTe cannot be mif-
underftood, provided we always employ them in the
fenfe of the definition. Again, as the term veterinary
has departed from its original lignification, there can be
no objeftion to our employing the vrord farriery, a
term that is more familiar, in the fame general fenfe.
In fad, it has been fo employed by a late writer on
the fubjeCl, Mr Feron, who has entitled his wTork, “A
new Syllem of Farriery,” though he profefles to treat in
it of*the horfe, ox, and Iheep.
In this article, then, wre lhall ufe farriery as fynony-
mpus writh veterinary art, and lhall confider both as
the
Inportance
of the fub-
je<3
6
To the ve¬
terinary
pra<5lition-
7
To the
farmer and
country
gentleman.
8
To the me¬
dical prac¬
titioner.
FARR
t/ie art of preferring the health and curing the difeafes of
domeftic animals.
'i^he ftudy of veterinary medicine muft be an intereft-
ing objedt to every perfon, whofe profeflion, or iituation
in fociety, requires him to attend to the comforts and
difeafes of domeftic animals.
To the veterinary pra&itioner, the ftudy of the prin¬
ciples of his art, the hiftory of the difeafes which he is
called on to relieve, and the methods of treating them
that have been found moft fuccefsful, are as effential,
as the ftudy of the human economy, and the difeafes to
which it is expofed, are to the medical praftitioner. A
farrier who has ftudied his art fcientifically, is as much
fuperior to the ignorant empiric, to whofe mercy the
lives and limbs of horfes and cattle are ufually intruft-
ed j as the regular phyfician to the illiterate quack,
who puffs off his pernicious noftrums in every news¬
paper, and enriches himfelf, by impoftng on the credu¬
lity and folly of the public. The neceffity of a regular
education to the farrier, as well as to the furgeon or phy¬
fician, which had long been feen, has led to the inftitu-
tion of veterinary fchools ; at firft in France, and with¬
in thefe few years in England. Of thefe we ftiall pre-
fently give an account.
To the farmer and country gentleman this fubjecl
rmift be highly interefting. They will find their ac¬
count in being able themfelves to fuperintend the ma¬
nagement of their horfes, dogs, fheep, and cattle, fo as
beft to preferve their health, and relieve their difeafes,
without relying implicitly on their grooms, huntfmen,
and farriers, herdfmen and cattle-doftors, who are pro¬
bably, either notorioufly ignorant, or are induced from
interefted views, or a fellow-feeling, to prolong the cure,
and pick the pockets of their mafters (a). Thefe
gentlemen therefore cannot employ a part of their
leifure time to greater advantage than in acquiring a
knowledge of the difeafes of domeftic animals.
The medical pradlitioner who wifhes to derive an
advantage from analogy in fome of the obfcure difeafes
to which the human frame is fubjeft, and wdiich would
probably receive confiderable elucidation from a com-
parifon with fimilar difeafes that affefl the inferior ani¬
mals, muft engage with peculiar intereft, in a refearch
that promifes fo w-ell to repay his labour. “ It is not
a little remarkable, (fay the editors of a wcll-condmfted
medical journal), that the difeafes of horfes, cattle, and
flieep, which occur fo frequently, and are fo ferioufly
lamented, (hould be fo imperfectly underftood. No
greater benefit could be conferred on phyfical fcience
than a complete hiftory of the difeafes of our domeftic
animals, efpecially if given by any one endowed by na¬
ture with fuperior acutenefs, and a talent for obferva-
tion, improved by habit and experience *, who could
defcribe the fymptoms and appearances of the different
diforders, point out the analogies wdth thofe incident to
the human body, deteCt thofe minute circumftances
I E R Y, 419
which ferve to diftinguiih them, clafs them under their IntroHuc-
proper heads, and correct all the confuiion in which ,
they now lie involved. Veterinary medicine has lately
occupied fome fhare of attention, chiefly as relating to
horfes, and as a diftinct purfuit from the general ftudy
of all the difeafes of animals, but confidered apart
from any relation or inquiry concerning the treatment
of the morbid ftates of the human fyrtem. It is in this
laft point of view, that comparative pathology feems to 1 ^ 'fn<*
rr r r . • n , 1 • n •r • , 1 Sur.Journ.
oner 10 many luDjects worthy mveltigation j and, .whenv,j j
looked upon in this light, it ftrikes us as one of thofe p. 440.
itudies qua: ad nos pertinent, et qace nefcire malum ejl*. 9
We (hall fee, from the hiftorical {ketch of farriery, Farriery
which will immediately be given, that the art never ™u<:h ln"
made any confiderable progrefs, or affirmed any thing
like a fcientific form, till it attracted the attention ofiritn>
men who had made the human economy their ftudy.
Almoft the only rational improvements, that have been
made in the art, were either fuggefted or carried into cffecl
by medical men 5 and nothing will contribute fo much to
its perfection as the intereft which the profeflion has
lately {hewed to it, and the attention that has of late
been paid to the ftudy of comparative anatomy and
pathology. _ .is
The healing art in general muft profit by this. Analogy
There is not only an intimate connection between the het„
ftruflure of man and that of the inferior animals 5 but, ,
efpecially in thofe that have been domefticated, the dif-0f anjma[s>
eafes of both are nearly allied.
The murrains, that in the early part of the laft cen¬
tury fo frequently attacked the horned cattle through¬
out almoft all Europe, nearly depopulating moft of the
farms, are very analogous to fome of the epidemic dif¬
eafes of man ; and peftilential difeafes among cattle,
have not unfrequently been the forerunners of fimilar
epidemics among the human race. Homer, in de-
fcribing the plague that haraffed the Grecian camp, in
confequence of the affront given by Agamemnon to the
prieft of Apollo, fays that the domeftic animals were
firft affefled.
Ovgvxs ftw vgcolcv i7rd%Clo. xou xv'jx; dgyaj,
Avlai> i/refl ccirrew /SsAes epttis,
II. i. 50.
“ On mules and dogs th’ infe&ion firft began,
“ And laft the vengeful arrows fix’d in man.”
Pope.
The plague of boils that raged among the Egyptians
(Exod. ix. 10.) affefted both man and beaft. Similar
inftances are related both by facred and profane hifto-
rians.
Almoft the whole tribe of inflammations, even the
gout (according to Van Swieten), are found to affedf
the domeftic animals, are produced by the fame caufes,
3 G 2 and
(a) It may be thought by fome, that we have gone too far in accufing the farriers and grooms, &c. of having
a fellow-feeling ; but, when it is known,, that “ a part of every {hilling paid to common farriers, is in jbme
fhape returned to the groom, as a fee or perquifite j” that “ the fervant receives at leaft five per cent, froth the
farrier on every bill paid by his mailer $” and that “ if a horfe dies under the care of a farrier, he generally be¬
comes the property of the groom j” (See Veterinary Tranfa&ions, N° 1. Introduction) j it will be allowed that
there is Ernie ground for the furmife.
IT
A farrier
Oiouid be
acquainted
■with me¬
dicine.
FARR
and yield to the fame treatment as in the human
fyftem.
Domeftic animals are fubjeft to eruptive difeafes,
both chronic, and fuch as are attended with fever ; and
both are very fimilar to thofe by which man is affected.
It is pretty certain that the fmallpox fometimes rages
among flieep, as we fhall fee hereafter-, and a com-
pla'nt very like the mealies often attacks fwine. Some
of them are transferable to man and to this trans¬
ference in the cafe of the cowpox, a bleffing which will
render immortal the name of JENNER, we owe the
probable annihilation of one of the moft dreadful peffs
that ever affedled the human race.
Scrofula and confumption attack monkeys. Apo¬
plexy, epilepfy, and many others of what are called ner¬
vous difeafes, indigeftion, and even mental derangement,
are not uncommon among domeftic animals \ fpafmodic
affeflions are very frequent among them, and it is faid,
that for one cafe of tetanus or locked jaw among the
human fpecies in thefe climates, there are ten or twenty
among horfes.
The analogy might be purfued much farther ; but
what has been ftated is fufficient to ftiew the advantages
that medical men may derive from the ftudy of veteri¬
nary medicine. Many obfeure and dangerous difeafes
may thus in time be illuftrated or mitigated j and the
effeft of doubtful remedies may be afeertained by ex¬
periments on the inferior animals. For, though there
are a few inftances of different efte&s following the ex¬
hibition of the fame medicines in man and animals
ybt, on the whole, the analogy is nearly as complete
with refpedft to remedies as difeafes (b).
It will appear, from what has been faid, that the
reafoning, and much of the treatment, in the difeafes of
animals mull be nearly the fame as in man, and, of
courfe, that the veterinary practitioner will gain much
by acquiring a knowledge of human medicine. Were
the practitioners in farriery generally inftruCted in the
principles of medicine, little more would be required,
in a treatife on farriery, than to point out the difference
in the ftruCture and functions of domeftic animals, to de-
feribe the difeafes peculiar to thefe, and to mark the
varieties that it is neceffary to obferve in the treatment
of difeafe and the adminiftratiem of remedies. But, as
many of thefe gentlemen have not the opportunity of
attending medical leCtures, and moft of them have not
received an education that would enable them to under-
iland the language in which medical writings are ufual-
ly’compofed j it becomes neceffary in. a treatife of this
kind to accommodate the language to the tafte and
capacity of general readers, and to introduce much
that will be found in other articles on fubjeds jconneft-
ed with medicine. To prevent repetition, as much as
poftible, and to avoid fwelling this article to a greater
length than is neceffary, we lhall, however, where the
i E R Y.
fimilarity of the fubjecl will admit of it, occailonally Introduc*
refer to fome of the medical articles in this didionary. , tl°n- ,
The fuccefsful praCtice of farriery, like that of me- I2
dicine in general, requires that the praClitioner fhould Knowledge
poffefs a confiderable fhare of knowledge. It is not fuf- requifite fof
ficient to have been long in the habit of managing ve^e^‘
borfes and cattle j this indeed, to a perfon of a ftrong
mind, and attentive obfervation, will furniih a coulider-
able number of faCts, with ref^eCl to the fymptoms and
progrefs of the difeafes to which domeftic animals are
fubjeCt. But, to mark the minute differences between
fuch as referable each other, to inveftigate their caufes,
and to contrive a rational mode of treatment, requires
a much greater Ihare of abilities, and much mor^ ex-
tenfive information, than we can exped to find among
grooms and fhepherds, or falls to the lot of moft of
thofe, w-ho call themfelves farriers and cattle-dodors.
It muft be obvious to every thinking mind, that no Anatomy
pradice either in medicine or farriery can be rational, phyk-*
but fuch as is founded on a comprehenfive knowledge0 °§1'
of the ftrudure and fundions of thofe animals, the
treatment of whofe difeafes is the objed of that prac¬
tice. The firft thing, therefore, neceffary to the vete¬
rinary praditioner is, to acquire fome idea of the ana¬
tomical ftrudure of the domeliic animals. We have al¬
ready, in the fecond part of the article Anatomy, giv¬
en a general account of the ftrudure of quadrupeds j
and in exemplifying this, in the chapter on the ana¬
tomy of a dog, we pointed out the moft ftriking pecu¬
liarities that are to be found in this animal , as we
have done with refped to ruminating animals, viz.
the cow and ftieep, in the fucceeding chapter of that
part. To that article we muft refer our readers for the
anatomical part of our fubjed, as far as relates to the
ox, the flieep, and the dog. It will naturally be ex-
peded, that a defeription of the ftrudure of the horfe
ftiould be given in this article but this defeription
muft, in general, be concife, as the nature of our plan
prevents us from enlarging on the fubjed, excepting in
thofe parts where a pretty minute knowledge appears
to be neceffary.
Thofe who wifti to ftudy the anatomy of the horfe
minutely, may eonfult Vitet’s Medicine Veterinaire-,
tom. i. 5 Blaine’s Outlines, and Stubb’s elegant work-
on the anatomy of the horfe.
The praditioner fhould take every opportunity of in-
fpeding the bodies of thofe animals that die of difeafes,
which are very important, or which are not very well
underftood. Morbid diffedions often throw confider-
able light on the nature and treatment of difeafes j and
it fortunately happens, that with refped to domeftic
animals, thefe diffedions are very eafy, and are not ob-
ftruded by thofe abfurd prejudices, which, efpecially in
this country, are oppofed to the diffedion of human bo¬
dies. In treating of the difeafes of domeftic animals, in
a
/ F> j One of the moft remarkable cafes of anomaly in the effed of remedies is that of arfenic, which, in the
quantity of a few grains will prove a deadly poifon to man and moft animals, but may be given vith impunity to
. Jborfes to the amount of two drams or more. The ftory of the different effeds of antimony, on hogs and monks,
is well known. See Antimony. As to the example of white vitriol, (fulphate of zinc), which proves emetic in
the human fubjed, but produces no fuch effed in the horfe 5 it is owing to the different ftrudure of the ftomach
in this animal, by which he is incapable of vomiting. Colocynthis, or hitter apple, is well known to be a molt
violent purgative to man, but in the horfe it has produced no effed, in the enormous dofe oifour ounces*.
FARRIERY.
Introduc¬
tion.
14
Natural
feiltory.
*5
Giemiftry
a future part of this article, we (hall give a concife
view of the appearances on diiledlion, as far. as tney
have been afcertained, whenever they tend to illuftrate
the nature, caufes, or treatment of the difeafe under
confideration. .
The ftudy of the functions of domeftic animals ought
to go hand in hand with that of their ftruaure j and
the ftudent will hnd it of confiderable advantage to
compare the funftions of thefe animals with thofe of
mam This comparative view will be given in fome fu¬
ture article. In the prefent treatife, we can only/peak
of the functions of domeftic animals, as fat as it is ne-
ceffary to illuftrate the nature or the treatment of their
' The natural hiftory of thefe animals ought to form a.
part of the ftudies of the veterinary practitioner. It is
a fubiedt that is not only highly curious and intereft-
ing, but extremely ufeful. We find, that thefe ani¬
mals, in their native fields, enjoy a ftate of health and
vigour, which is interrupted only by thofe accidents to
which a life of liberty and wildnefs may expofe them.
It is only when they are received under the protection
of man,* that they become fubject to difeafe. It is
therefore an interesting inquiry, to examine into their
native habits •, as, in our endeavours to preferve their
health, we ihould, as nearly as is compatible with conve¬
nience’and economy, imitate the habits that are found to
prevail amongft thefe animals in a ftate of nature. It is
the province of the naturalift to defcribe the external con¬
formation of thefe animals, and the advantages, and de¬
feats dependant on it, that fit or diiqualify them for
the various purpofes, for which they are deftined^ under
the fervice of man; it is his bufmefs to defcribe the
methods of breeding thefe animals- in a ftate of nature,
and how far this may be improved for the purpofes of
domeftication, and to detail the method of training and
managing them. Many of thefe circumftances are
treated of by fome of the writers on the veterinary art,
in a complete fyftem of which they ought not proper¬
ly to be omitted. We (hall, however, not treat of them
in this article, as, according to the plan of our work,
they more properly fall to be confidered under the ar¬
ticle Mammalia, in which will be given the natural
hiftory of all quadrupeds.
Chemiftry muft form a neceffary part of the ftudies
of every man who engages in the praftice of medicine,
whether human or veterinary, as, without a knowledge
of its principles, neither the funftions of the animal
economy, the intimate ftrufture of its component parts,
nor the aftion of many remedies, can be properly un-
derftood. In the article Chemistry, we have pre¬
pared abundant matter for the reader to make himfelf
acquainted with the elements of that admirable fci-
42?
immediately after treating 01 the anatomy of the
horfe. '  J
It is of confiderable confequemce, that the perion ^
who undertakes the management ot domeftic animals, Hygeiology
ihould make himfelf acquainted with thofe circumftan¬
ces which experience has (hewn to be moil favourable
to the prefervation of their health, and the prevention
of their difeafes. This fubjeft forms what may be cal¬
led veterinary hygeiology ; and will be. confidered at
fome length in the fourth part of this article. iS
Before the praftitioner can attempt to remove or al-Matena
leviate the difeafes to which-domeftic animals aie fuo- v
jeft, he muft acquire a competent knowledge of the re¬
medies employed for that purpofe, their nature, ufes,
and dofes, as adapted to the different animals, in vari¬
ous fituations, and various difeafes ; with the methods
of preparing and compounding them into, the leveral
forms that are ufually employed *, and with the beft
means of adminiftering them. This comprehends what
is called the veterinary materia medico7 and will form
the fubjeft of our fifth part.
With this previous knowledge, the veterinary flu- lattice,
dent is prepared to enter on the confideration of the
difeafes, which will be treated of in the fixth part of
our article. He muft be particularly attentive to the
fymptoms of each difeale, as, on an accurate knowledge
of thefe, will depend the means of diftinguiftiing thofe
complaints, which upon a fuperficial view.bear con-
fiderable refemblance to each other, but which require
a very different, and perhaps oppoiite mode, of treat¬
ment. He muft attend to the greater or lefs violence
of thefe fymptoms, to the nature of the. part which
they attack, and to the greater or leis rapidity of their
progrefs ; as thefe circumftances muft confiderably in¬
fluence the judgment he is to form of the danger, and
probable termination, of the difeale. He muft, as far
as poflible, inveftigate the caufes, that appear to have
produced the difeafe in queftion, or which leem to- ag¬
gravate or keep up the morbid fymptoms } as on the
removal or mitigation of thele caufes, muft depend the
only rational and fcientific method of cure. Laltly,
he muft make himfelf acquainted with the treatment
that experience has found moft fuccefsful in the cure of
each particular difeale, as well as with tnat which haS
been found to be attended with little or no advan-
tage. # _
As the proper means of attaining the beft informa¬
tion is of the greateft importance, we fhall here give
Mr Blaine’s inftruftions on this point.
u The mode in which any art is attained, muft be in a.
great meafure direfted by the future views of the.
It appears to me that there are three diitinft
16
Surgery.
ence.
ners.
The praftitioner, whether of human or veterinary me¬
dicine, who is a proficient in anatomy, wants but a
little manual dexterity, and fome praftical experience,
to make him a tolerable furgeon. The operations to be
performed on brutes are few, and thefe are in general
very clumfily executed. Humanity, however, as well
3s prudence, will readily point out to the farriei tne ne-
celfity of learning the beft methods of performing thele
operations with dexterity and defpatch, fo as to give
the leaft pain to the unfortunate animals that are placed
under his care. We fhall defcribe \he ufual operations
clafies of perfons, who are likely to ftudy this.branch of
ufeful knowledge. The firft are perfons of enlarged
minds, and extended fortunes. I he fecond are bur¬
geons, whofe fituation in country villages may render
their fervices in this art highly ufeful, upon occafions
when no farrier is at hand, or, in the end, in cafes in
which farriers of the common clafs are unable to judge.
The third are farriers themfelves, or perfons intending
to profefs veterinary medicine.
Gentlemen and amateurs, who wifh to accumulate
information on this curious and interefting fubjeft,
within the reach of the veterinary college, will find
their account in attending a courfe of leftures there y it
not-,
422 FARR
IntroduC- not, they fliould apply themfelves to the ftudy of the
, tl°n' more general parts of the body, both of the human and
animal 5 the latter, I hope, they may attain by the fol¬
lowing (beets. They may diredl the collar-maker,
huntfman, or tanner, to cut up their dead horfes in
their prefence. They may (tudy phyfiology in a plea-
fant and interefling manner, from the ingenious work
on this fubjeft by Mr Saumarez. The lighter parts of
the veterinary art may be acquired with pleafure, from
the elegant publication of Mr Richard Lawrence of
Birmingham, and a courfe of chemiftry will amply re¬
ward them (or their pains in acquiring it.
“ A good furgeon has travelled three-fourths of the
road towards making a good veterinarian, but he rnuft
diligently travel the remainder to arrive at excellence.
He mud by no means fit down contented with the ana¬
logy between the human and brute ; which, if he does,
will lead him into very great error 5 for though this
analogy is in mod cafes very driking, yet there are
others in which the fimilarity fails, and he is left to aft
upon other principles. Hence in thofe difeafes that are
conquered or mitigated by vomiting in the human 5 in
the horfe he muft-purfue another mode of treatment.
In acute difeafes removed by purging in the human, his
attempts on the horfe would probably fail j as before
the effefts were produced, the animal might be pad re¬
lief. It mud be remembered that the operations of me¬
dicines are very different in the one, and the other. It
is not fufficient that a furgeon has an intimate acquain¬
tance with the human framej he mud be equally conver-
fant with the animal he treats, or he will treat in vain ;
particularly thofe difeafes originating in a peculiarity of
form from the human, as all the difeafes of the feet.
He (houldmake himfelf particularly converfant with the
fpecific difeafes of the horfe, which bear no analogy to any
thing in the human body ; as farcy, glanders, llrangles,
greafe, &c. From the great drength of the arterial
iydem, he mud ever be aware how prone the difeafes
of the horfe are to a rapid termination, and hence that
his treatment mud be decifive and energetic •, therefore,
in all cafes, he mud be very attentive to diagnodics.
But what will much embarrafs a furgeon in praftifing
the veterinary art, will be a want of knowledge of the
general ufages, nomenclature, and idiom, if I may fo
exprefs it, among grooms and farriers ; without an ac¬
quaintance with which, thefe people at once deleft and
defpife the praftitioner. It diould be the bufinefs there¬
fore of the furgeon, with his other acquifitions, to learn
their manners, and to make himfelf acquainted with
their terms. X lie third clafs of perfons, either farriers
already praftifing, or perfons intending to praftife, will
eafily gain that. When it is in their poiver, I would ad-
vife their taking the advantage of the veterinary col-
lege } but when they cannot, I would recommend the
profecution of their dudies in a regular manner. Begin
by fird reading fome general defcription of the human bo¬
dy, fuch as Symond’s Anatomy, or the anatomical
part of the prefent work, carefully ; let them pay atten¬
tion to the funftions and ufes of the parts, particularly
where the fame ufes are brought about by a variation in
drufture j this enlarges the mind, and prepares it to re¬
ceive the benefits of difleftion, which (hould now be
proceeded to. Any fmall animal may be fird diffefted,
to enable the learner to ufe his indruments properly.
He may then proceed to diffeft the horfe with fome
4
I E R Y.
authorities by him, which will affid him at fad to make Introduce
out parts, but too fcrupulous an attention to numerous t'on-
defcriptions will only bewilder. The neceffary indruc- ‘ 
tions for diffeftion, and the prefervation of parts, may
be gained, by a recourfe to Poole’s Anatomical Indruc-
tor, which is. profeffedly written to indraft the pupil
in thefe particulars. When he is well acquainted
with the appearance of the animal in health, he (hould
take every opportunity of examining difeafed appear¬
ances, which are feldom wanting at the tan-yard or the
kennel. He diould nowrmake himfelf acquainted more
intimately with phyfiology, for which purpofe he may
read Haller’s works j there is at prefent a trandation
of Cuvier’s I reatife on Comparative Anatomy, which
he may likewife avail himfelf of. When he has become
acquainted with pathology, as at prefent received, he
may perufe the older authors on farriery*, to this drould
fucceed a knowledge in chemidry, preceded by an ac¬
quaintance with the materia medica $ the proper works
for which he may fee by a reference to that article, and * Blaine s
nothing wall now be wanting, but experience and prac- 0u*Una’
tice to perfeft him*.” vo '1-
, Since the edablidrment of a veterinary fchool in Bri- Me am of
tain, little is wanting to promote the progrefs and im-Promolin£a
provement of the veterinary art, as far as relates to the knowl.edge
difeafes of horfes. But the art, with refpeft to the me- of farner^
dical treatment of other animals, is dill in the mod de¬
plorable date of imperfeftion. Propofals have been
made for improving cattle medicine j and among thefe,
w*e think the following of Mr John Lawrence, entitled
to attention j though, probably the propofer’s lid of
works may be much improved and enlarged, by refer¬
ring to the account of authors which will be immediate-
!y given. 2r
Mr Lawrence’s propofal is (Imply, “ that the affair of Mr Law¬
providing the country with regular-bred furgeons, for 1 enCe'i pm-
the praftice of cattle medicine, be immediately under- P°^ak
taken by the agricultural focieties $ at lead, that the
experiment be made by fome of the mod confiderable
each fociety engaging a gentleman of that defcription’
at a fufhcient and relpeftable annual dipend. The con-
traft may run in fuch form, that (hould the furgeon’s
annual emolument from praftice come diort of the
fiipulated dim, the deficiency (hould annually be made
up by his patrons the fociety. No perfon to be engaged
on any pretence, but who (hall have received the ufual
education of a furgeon, and have attended the hofpitals
the ufual length of time. A feleftion of Veterinary
text-books to be made, and the books purchafed for the
ufe of the furgeon, but to remain the property of the
fociety. This may confid of Gibfon’s lad edition, two
vols. Bracken, Bartlett, Ofmer, Layard, with our late
w nters j and Lafoile and Bourgelat from the French
with whatever may have been publilhed fince their time[
by authority of the French veterinary fchools. All the
members of the fociety and their conneftions, as far as
their influence may extend, to entrud the care of their
difeafed animals to the furgeon appointed, at a fair and
liberal charge for his attendance and medicines. The
furgeon to keep a regular hidoiy of all the cafes which
(hall come under his infpeftion, including the prefumed
caufes and iymptoms of the difeafe, wdth the probable
methods of prevention, his mode of treatment, a particu¬
lar detail of the medicines prelcnbed, their operation,
with every relative and ufeful remark which may occur!
A
Part I. FAR R
Hiftory. A clear written copy of fucli veterinary tranfaftions, to
*■ 'f—1 be delivered annually, and on a certain day, to the fo-
* L^r ciety» to remain at their difpofal
ix ' ^ is of conliderable confequence for the praftitioner
Importance to be informed of the rife and progrefs of the art
of being ac-w]dch he profefles, and to be acquainted with the prin-
l ; C1'pa' authors that have written on the fubjeft. We
f 5 hi all here, therefore, give a brief iketch of the hiftory of
Farriery, with a concife view of the writings that have
I E R Y.
423
appeared from the earlieft authentic records to the pre- Hiftory.
fent time (1806.) |—y—.
Though we ftiall enumerate all the authors that
have written profeiTedly on this fubjeft, who appear
deferving of notice, 'we lliall here charadfterize only
the general treatifes, referving our remarks on fuch
works as have appeared on individual difeafes, &c. to
that part of our treatife, in which we (hall confider thefe
fubjedts.
PARTI. HISTORY.
*3.
Early hi¬
ftory of the
art very ob-
feure.
„ *4
Coltimella.
Celius.
Vegetius.
*7
Ruelli’s
eolledtion.
THE early hiftory of farriery, as of every other art
and fcience, is involved in great obfeurity. We (hall
not attempt to penetrate the cloud that hangs over the
ancient ftate of the art, or to fupply the want of fadls,
by conjedlures, which, however rational, can lead to no
certain or ufeful concluftons.
There feems no doubt that in the time of Hippo¬
crates, and probably long before, the medical practi¬
tioner exercifed his office in favour of the domeftic ani¬
mals, as well as of man ; and Galen feems to have been
well {killed in the knowledge and treatment of fome of
the difeafes of animals.
Perhaps the earlieft authentic writings on the fubjedt
of the veterinary art, now extant, are to be found in the
works of Columella, the celebrated Roman author on
huffiandry, who, in his work De Re Rijlica, has given
many feniible directions for the management of hoffes
and cattle. Columella lived about the fecond'century,
under the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius, or, as
fome fay, of Claudius Caefar.
It is underftood that Celfus, the elegant imitator of
Hippocrates, who lived fome time before Columella,
wrote much on the difeafes of animals 5 but none of his
waitings on this fubjeCt have furvived the general wreck
of fcience and literature that accompanied the fall of
the Roman empire.
We have no certain accounts of any author who
wrote exprdfsly on this fubjeCt earlier than Vegetius,
who llouriffied, as is fuppofed, fometime in the fourth
century, and probably during the reign of the em¬
peror Valentinian the third. The work of Vegetius, De
Arte Veterinarian is ftill confidered as extremely valu¬
able, as it has handed down to us the only certain ac¬
count of the opinions and pra&ice of the early practi¬
tioners in this art; The body of the work appears to
have been compiled from the moft celebrated Greek
writers on the fubjeft. It is divided into four books j
the prefaces or introductory chapters to which are
written in very elegant language.
An edition of Vegetius was publiffied at Bafil, in
1574 j arid the work has been tranflated into feveral
modern languages. Such of our readers as wiffi for a
particular account of the contents of Vegetius’s treatife,
will find a copious analyfis of it, in the third volume of
M. Vitet’s Medicine Veterinaire.
A collection of fragments of ancient writers on the
veterinary art, was made by Ruellius, phyfician to
Francis I. king of France. It was firft publiffied in
Latin, in the year 1530-, and afterwards, in 1637, the
original Greek tvas publiffied. The y/riters who con~
tributed to this collection were chiefly Abfyrtus, Eu-
melus, Hierocles, Petagonius, and Theomeftus. Some
part of this collection is tolerably good} but, on the
whole, it appears to be a ftrange jumble of good, bad,
and indifferent, collected without judgment, and ar¬
ranged without tafte. 2s
It is laid that Xenophon, who lived three or four Xenophon,
hundred years before the Chriftian era, wrote a fmall
treatife in twelve chapters, on the training, manage¬
ment, and external figure of horfes} but, as he fays
little or nothing with refpeCt to their difeafes, he cannot
properly be ranked among the writers on veterinary me¬
dicine.
A blank of more than a thoufand years now occurs Dark ages,
in the hiftory of farriery. During this long period of
darknefs, ignorance, and barbarity, the veterinary art,
like moft others, rather went back than advanced.
During fome part of this gloom, however, the art of
fhoeing horfes with iron appears to have been invented 5
an art which feems to have contribute 1 not a little to
throw the management of this noble animal into the
hands of a fet of errant blockheads, wffio wrere now firft
called farriers. We cannot here enter on a difeuffion
of the medical pretenfions of thefe guardians of the
health of horfes. They have been amply commented
on, by fome of the beft writers on the fubjeft of far¬
riery, as Gibfon, Bracken, Lafoffe, and particularly
Mr John Lawrence, to wffiofe ufeful and humane trea¬
tife on horfes we refer our readers for fome very fpirited
remarks on the fubjeCt,
The firft modern writer on farriery, whom we can Ruini,
mention, is Carlo Ruini, an Italian, who, in 1618, pub-
liflied at Venice his Anatomia del Cavallo. This work,
of which very few copies are now to be found, is em-
belliffied with many copperplates, which, for the time
when they were engraved, are very elegant. It is faid
that many fucceeding writers on the anatomy of the
horfe have been indebted to them for moft of their
figures. 31 ->
We now come to a period at which the veterinary Prog refs of
art began to affume fomething of a fcientific form. I:|rn':ry
Many writers of eminence began to appear both in * ‘dnCe*
France and England, countries which have been the
moft diftinguifhed for their attention to the manage¬
ment and difeafes of domeftic animals. As the French
writers were the firft, who did any thing coniiderable
towards the improvement of farriery, we {hall trace the
progrefs of the art in that country, before we examine
the improvements it has received in England.
In 1698 Solleyfel publiffied his grand work, “ Le Solleyfel.
parfah
FARRIER Y-
Part I.
33
Appear¬
ance of the
murrain in
-Europe.
34
Sauvages.
35
Eftablilh-
ment of
veterinary
fchools.
3*
Bou«gelat.
barfait tiarechal? the Complete Borfemm, a work,
which pained its author a high reputation, and was
long the only guide, as well in farriery as m the ma-
M Solleyfel was principal riding-mailer in France,
this fituation led* him to pay much attention to tue
difeafes of horfes •, and being a man ot conliderab .
Cities, and enlightened underftandmg, he law toe
errors that prevailed in his time y and his genius and
experier ce led him to expoft and to correa them H.
praftical obfervations and remarks, which it would be
out of place to particularize m this early pert of our ar¬
ticle, in general merit conliderable attention. His ob¬
fervations on the external figure of the bor e, and of
his blemilhes and defecls, are alfo very valuable. It *s
much to be regretted that this ingenious author had
fiot ftudied the anatomy of the horfe, as he would then
have avoided many errors and much fabe re^on S»
into which his ignorance of anatomy betra> e - .
Solleyfel’s work palled through many editions, and was
tranllated into moll of the modern languages,
lion of it into Englith was executed by Sir William
Hope, one of his pupils, early in the i8th centui>;
The dreadful havock committed by the murrains or
•epidemic difeafes among horned cattle that ravaged
Europe during the firll half of the 18th century, at¬
tracted the attention of medical men, and thus led t e
wav to a greater improvement m the veterinary art,
than it had ever before experienced. Thele epidemic*
were firll defcribed by two Italian phyficians^ Ramaz-
zini, in a treatife Dc Contagione Epidermca ; and La -
cifi, phyfician to the pope, m a treatife De Bovina Pejle.
But the moll celebrated works on FevJum§ eP^
demic feem to have been written by the f^u 7
France. Among the firll appeared a memoir by M.
Hermant, phyfician to the king. r nr i
In 1746 was publilhed a memoir Sur la Mafadie Ep.-
demiquedes Boeufs du Vivarais, by the celebrated no o-
l08AWAe middle of this century, the *rft “'g w'£
taken towards the eftabMrment of fchools for the
public inftruaion of praflitioners m farneiy. One o
the mod celebrated of thefe was the veterinary college
°f Over'this inftitution prefided the famous Bourgelat,
an^e that will be ever refpeaable m of
farriery. Befides his office of profeffor at Lyons, he
.vas infpeaor general of the veterinary fchools m
France •, commiffary general to the royal IHbles •, ho¬
norary member of the Royal Acad^iy of Pans and
member of the Royal Academy of Berlin. M Bour¬
gelat was a voluminous writer, and moll of his vorks
are IliU in much repute. In 1752, ^ P^ffied E/e-
mens d'Uippiatrique, “ Elements of Farriery,
o vois. The firll volume is divided into eight chapters,
comprehending the knowledge of the boric, as far as
regards his external form. The firft chapter treats of
the denomination and divifion of the parts that compo e
the body of this animal-, the fecond treats of the
beauties and defe&s of the fore part of the horfe or
what the French writers call I'Avant Main the third
treats of the beauties and defers of the feveral parts o
the body -, the fourth, of the beauties and defers of the
hind part of the horfe, or PArnere Main ; the fifth,
different marks of horfes the fixth, of the m«ans
o'f afeertaining the age of horfc j the feventh, of the
geometrical proportions of the hone , and t e eg.*,
The fecond volume deferibes the anatomy of the
horfe, as far as relates to the bones, the integuments,
t ie mufcles, and blood-veffelsaiffi the third volume
concludes the anatomy with ^ a defcnption of -he part,
that conipoie the head and chell.^ f , r f
In M; Bourgelat’s materia medica, for the u e ot
the veterinary pupils, came cut. Soon after was pubhlhed
his Elementary Treatife on the Anatomy of tne Horfe,
which is the moll complete work of thd kind that has
ever vet appeared. In 1766 he publilhed his Element¬
ary Botanical Demonftrations, tor the ufe or the pupil*
of the veterinary college. He hkewiie gave *0 the
world a treatife on bandages applicable to the hm .
M. Bcurgelat alfo furniihed many tne bell articles
on farriery for the French Encyclofedie. 37
Aoout this time appeared a number of works on the Buffon and
manege, and on natural hiltory, particularly a work by Eaubenton.
M. de la Guerincere, entitled Ecole de Uvalene, and
the celebrated natural hiftory by M de Buffon and
Daubenton-, but as thefe works have little connedion
with the difeafes of animals, which they mention only
incidentally, we (hall not h*re particularize their con-
^Contemporary with Bourgelat, and equal to him in Lafle the
celebritv, flourilhed Lafoffe the Elder, a member of Elder.
Royal Academy of Sciences at Pans, and fauier to
the king of France. He made many difcoveneS, and
introduced feveral valuable improvements in the art ot
farriery, particularly an improved method of Ihoemg
and a treatife on the glanders. Thefe were at fiift
communicated in the form of memoirs to the Fienc
academy, and publilhed in their annals. They were
afterwards collected in 1754 into one volume under
the title of Obfervations et Decottvertes Faitesfur des
thevaux i “ Obfervations and Difcovenes on Hor es.
We fliall have occafion, in future parts of our afticw, o .
confider the merits of thele memoirs which were well
received, and have contributed much to the advance¬
ment of farriery.
The elder Lafoffe alfo wrote fome of the articles on
farridry in the Encyclopedie. T f ffu 39
He was foon followed by his fon Lafoffe the L,,f0(fethl
Younger, who occupied the fame poll as his_ lather, younger
and has acquired much refutation, by followng his
fleps, and extending his improvements. He pnouthed
in j 766, his Guide de Marecha!; or Farrier s Guide ,
a work well known in this country though it has
never, we believe, appeared in an Enghflt drefs. It is
divided into five parts, treating, ill. Of the means of
afeertaining the age of horfes, and a iuccma enumera¬
tion of the feveral parts; 2d, Or the blunders and
tricks of farriers; 3d, Of the internal difeafes of the
horfe ; 4th, Of the external difeafes, and the mod im¬
portant operations ; and, 5th, 01 ihoemg. m
is charaaerized by M. Vitet as one of tne moll accu¬
rate, iimpleil, and moll/.cccVe, that had ever appeared.
The anatomical part of the work is Ihort, but compre.
Wive, and is illuftrated bv fome tolerably good pla es
It apueats to have been a lort of text-book to a courle
of leftures on farriery, which were afterwards, in 17,,,
publilhed in a fuperb form, with 65 colouied plate ,
under the title of Ceuri de Htppmtrujue; 01 Lourle
Part T.
FARE.
Hiftory.
. 43
Garfault.
41
Ronden.
*2r
La maifon
ruftique.
Vitet.
of Farriery,’? This work is extremely fcarce in
Britain, where, according to Mr Blaine, there are only
three copies of it 5 one of which belongs to the Medi¬
cal Society of Woolwich 5 another is in the hands of a Mr
Mathaila, ci-devant pupil of the Veterinary College 5
and he believes Mr Morecroft has a third.
But the principal work of the younger Lafofl'e is his
Ditfionaire d' Hippiatnque, in four volumes, which is
little known in this country, and which we have not
feen. Mr Blaine calls it “ the bell praftical fyftem of
farriery that had ever appeared.”
In 1803 was publiihed an abridgement of M. Lafoffe’s
Guide, of which an Englifh tranflation has lately ap¬
peared under the title of The Veterinarian’s Pocket
Manual. It is a ufeful little book, but it is a pity that
the author or tranflator had not obferved a more me¬
thodical arrangement.
Though, for the fake of uniformity, we have men¬
tioned the younger Lafoffe immediately after his fa¬
ther ; there were many works publiihed in France be¬
tween the Memoirs and the Guide.
In 1755, M. Garfault publiihed his Nouveauparfait
Marechal, an improvement on the Parfait Marechal of
Solleyfel. It is divided into feven treatifes j on the
Conformation of the Horfe 5 on Haras, or on the Me¬
thod of Breeding; on Stables 5 on the Difeafes of
Horfes $ on Operations ; on Shoeing ; and on Horfe
Medicines. This work is not without defefts, but, for
the moll part, it is very good, and by no means de-
ferves the brief chara&er given of it by Mr Blaine in
his Hiltory of the Veterinary Art, that it “ does not
feem to merit any diftindtion in this place.”
The articles on farriery in the Encyclopedic that
had been written by Bourgelat and Genfon, called forth
a wTork from M. Ronden, fenior, farrier to the larger
ftables of the king •, who, in 1759, publilhed Obferva-
tions fur les Articles de /’ Encyclopedic concernant la
Marechallerie. They appear to be ingenious, and con¬
tain much practical information.
In 1763 there appeared at Paris a work on agricul¬
ture in two volumes 4to, entitled, La Nouvelle Maifon
Rufiquey which contains much ufeful matter refpedling
the breeding, management, and difeafes of domeftic
animals, as well fowls as quadrupeds.
The contagious epidemics among horned cattle Hill
appeared occalionally in France and other parts of
Europe j and many eflfays were written on them by va-.
rious phylicians, particularly by M. Bovand of Befan-
9011, in 1766; by M. Leclerc and M. Barbaret, of
Paris, in the fame year.
In 1768 Daubenton, the celebrated naturalilf, al¬
ready mentioned, publiihed a memoir on the mechanifm
of rumination in Iheep ; and in 1769, appeared a fmall
volume entitled La Medicine des Betes a Laine ; 11 the
Medical Treatment of Sheep.”
Between 1776 and 1782, M. Vitet, a phylician at
-Lyons, publhhed his Medecme Vetennaire, in 3 vols
8vo. of which the firft contains a pretty full account
of the anatomy of the horfe and ox, with fome judici¬
ous remarks on the beauties and defects of both, and on
fome of the more important operations to which they
are expofed ; the fecond treats of the difeafes of horfes,
fheep, and cattle^ and the third gives an account of the
remedies employed in veterinary medicine j and ends
with a copious analyfis of moft of the continental writ-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
44
1 E R Y.
ings, and a few Englilh, that had appealed on the fub*
jedf, from Vegetius to 1770.
M. Vitet’s work is, for the mod part, a compilation
from the bed writers who have gone before him ; but
as he had read much, and appears to have feledted with
judgment, his book is one of thofe which may be con-
fulted with advantage. We know that it bears a high
charafter in France, and is often quoted with rel'pech
We are therefore difpofed to rate it at a higher value
than a late writer has done •, and are inclined to lufpeft
that fome of thofe who a dec! to think lightly of it are
indebted to it for much more than the “ names of many
of thofe who have written on this fubjeft.”
Much about this time, but in what precife year we Rozier.'
cannot fay, the abbe Rozier, well known as the editor
of the early volumes of the journal de Phyfquey publiih¬
ed his Cours d' Agriculture et de Medicine Veterinaire ;
a work of much reputation in France, but, we believe
little known on this fide the water. 45
Another work appeared about this time on the epi-
demies among cattle, entitled Recherches Hifloriques et «
Phyfques fur les Maladies Epixootiques ; “ Hidorical
and Philofophical Refearches relpefting Epizootic Dif¬
eafes,” by M. Paulet. It contains an abridgement of
almoll all that had been written on the fubjefr, and is
particularly valuable.for the account of the morbid ap¬
pearances that were difeovered on diife&ion.
We diall finilh our account of French writers in the
words of Mr Blaine.
“ After the death of Bourgelat and Lafofle, we hear Hazard
of no character of any great eminence for fome years $anc* G11*
but it appears, that fince the revolution, the fubjedf hasbert’
again been more diligently dudied, and the names of
Chabert and Hazard dand forward. Soon after, or
about the time above alluded to, there appeared a con-
fiderable wrork, called, The Rational Didtionary of
Medicine, Surgery, and Farriery, in fix volumes j and
very foon after, a Veterinary Didtionary, by Buchon ;
but it has no merit fuperior to that of Lafofle. In
1787, M. Chabert publilhed a Treatife on the Mange
of Horfes 5 fince which he has likewife publifhed upon
the peripneumonia of black cattle. There has alfo ap¬
peared an Elfay on the Greafe of Horfes, which gained
the prize medal of the ., fociety for the promoting the
health of animals ; to which is joined a report on thick
wind and on broken wind j but we are not aw are who is
the author. In 1788, there came out a treatife on the
haras, with the method of Ihoeing, cutting, and all the
lefier operations, tranfiated from the Spanidi of Hart¬
mann, by Huzard. Likewife “ Indrudlions and Obfer-
vations on Domedic Animals, with remarks on the
breeding, rearing, buying and felling ; with an analyfis
of previous authors, by Chabert,-Handrin, and Huzard.
The above authors have alfo publiihed, conjointly, a
Veterinary Almanack, containing the hidory and pro-
grefs of animal medicine, fince the edabliihment of the
veterinary fchools. In 1791, M. Lampagieu Lapole,
veterinary furgeon, publifhed obfervations on the health
of the animals of St Domingo, dedicated to the veteri- » stained
nary college at Alfort. In 1797, M. Chabert and Outline'*
M. Huzard publifhed, by order of government, a treatife vol. i.
on afeertaining the exidence of the glanders, the means ^ 47.
of preventing it, and dedroying the infection.” * famer Son
Before we detail what has been done in Britain for,ht conti-
the advancement of the art, we mud take a curforynent.
3 H view
43
GoeLcke.
49
Saunier,
So
Jiinnaeus.
e,h
Ilaftfer.
52
Reynier,
S3
iljlrunan!
54
fianaper.
FARR
view of tlie principal writings that appearec daring tne
18th century in the reft of Europe. _
In 1730, Goelicke, a German, publifhed a treatile
in uto, De Lue Contagiofa Bovium ; “ On the Contagi¬
ous Difeafe of Cattle in which the fymptoms ol the
murrain that raged in Flanders about that time are well
defcribed j and there are added the appearances on dn-
feftion. t j
In 1734, appeared at the Hague a work^entitled
La parfaite Connoiffance des Chevaux ; “ The Complete
Knowledge of Horfes j” by John Saunter, and Gaipard
his fon. The latter boafts of this work, that it was
drawn up from the lectures of his father, an experi¬
enced man ; and that it contains the refult of numerous
experiments on fubjefts of every defcnption, and dil-
eafes of every fpecies j that it is the labour of the hie ol
two men, the offspring of their continual application
and ftudy. After all their boafting, however, the work
©f Mynheers Saunier is little worth.
In 1745 and 1746, appeared two other treaties on
the epidemic of cattle by Mau'chard and Ens.^ ^
Pa 1740, the illuftrious and indefatigable Einno
publifhed at Upfal his Pan Suecicus, in which there is
little that relates to our fubjecl, if tve except a table ol
fuch plants as are eaten or refufed by the domeltic ani¬
mals, which is curious and ufeful.
Some time before 1756, Frederic Haftfer, a Swede,
publiihed Inftruclions for Improving the Breed ol
Sheep, which was in much repute, and was tranilated
into French.
In 1762, M. Reynier of Laufanne publilhed a trea¬
ts fe on a contagious* inflammatory diforder that raged
among horfes and cattle, and wdiich the Genevefe call¬
ed la louvet. This will be confidered hereafter.
In the fame year there appeared at Vienna a work
on the epidemic of cattle by Dr Pleneiz 5 and in 1765
Mich. Sagard of the fame city publiflied a work on a
contagious diftemper that the year before attacked the
cattle in the circle of Iglaw in Moravia; and was at¬
tended with an appearance of aphthous crufts in the
. ^ Of late veterinary medicine has been much cultivat¬
ed in Spain, where the works of Hartmann are held m
much efteem. In that country, it is faid, a work on
farriery in nine volumes has been lately publilhed ; but
of this we know nothing. - . .
We muft not clofe our account of continental writers
without mentioning the name of the illuftrious Camper,
whofe works were lately colle&ed and publiflied at Pans.
Befides along defeription of the ftructure of the oran-ou-
tang, andfome leffer effays on comparative anatomy, thele
volumes contain an elaborate hiftory of the epizootic
difeafe that raged among the cattle on the continent m
the middle of laft century, in the form of lectures.
We ftiall fpeak of this work hereafter.
We have thus brought the hiftory o. this art on the
continent in a concife manner, down to the prelent
time ; and from it may be learned what improvements
have originated there, and at what periods. It would
appear, that when the fcience began to command at¬
tention, from the exertions of Francis^ the firft, and
Vegetius became ftudied, had it progreflively improved
in the degree it might be fuppofed to be placed by a
converfance with this author, it would ere this have
been more approximating to perfection : but mftead oi
1 e r Y.
proceeding on the rational ivftem of Vegetius it dwmd- HUtor?*,
led again into ignorance of barbarity j and the recipes -
of manege-matters, and the operations of blackfmiths,
were the only oftenlible marks of its afliftance. From
this ftate the practitioner became in fome degree roufed
by the improved fyftem of Solleyfei 5 but he could only
combat prefent errors, he could not point the way to
future improvement, for he w7as ignorant of the ground¬
work whereon to build it, i. e. the anatomy of the ani¬
mal. This defeft was only in a fmall degree fupphed
by the labours of Ruini, and in fome meafure faither
affifted by the demonftrations of Bourgelat. Many of
the remaining errors were combated by Lafofle w ith
great advantage 5 and his experiments and difeoveries
on glanders, the rationality and improvements of his
mode of (hoeing, entitle him to great merit. Yet,
though by thefe exertions, and by the eftabhfliment of
veterinary feminaries, the art affumed a more regular
and fcientific form, its attainments were by no means
adequate to its opportunities *, which vras almoit wholly
owing to an obftinate adherence to the humoral patho-
logy, by which the treatment of internal and acute
difeafes continued inert and unfuccefsful. I heir pre-
feriptions were filled with decodions of fimples, and
they wrere utterly unacquainted with the medicinal vir¬
tues of the more active remedies in ufe among us. Un¬
der an opinion that the blood and humours w ere the
conftant (eat of difeafe, they wrere continually wattling
them fweet with correctors; entirely ignorant or un¬
mindful of the derangements of the folids, and of the
connexions between living blood and living. veffels.
Nor did this influence only their treatment of internal
and acute difeafes -j but even of local and chronic affec¬
tions : hence their mode of treating farcy, greale, and
other complaints of a fimilar nature, wTere equally inert,
and all evinced an erroneous pathology. Upon 51 care¬
ful and unprejudiced review of the ftate of farriery a-
mong ourfelves, and on the continent of Europe, we
are not inclined to think it had any advantages of mo¬
ment at the beginning of the war in their favour j
though it muft be allowed, wTe are indebted^ to them for
many improvements, and for the firft hints towards
the eftablifhment of a regular fchool of the art among
us. Since the war, our means of communication are
fo few, that we are not aware of what is doing among
our neighbours. But though farriery, as a branch of
veterinary medicine here, has kept nearly equal pace
with its continental improvements, I do not think (days
Mr Blaine,) the treatment of other animals, particular¬
ly of oxeny cows, and Jheep, has been equally attended
to; and, in this particular, I am difpofed to think we
are behind hand with them. Their fevere vifitations of * Blaitu>s
the epizootic diftemper have made them more attentive Outline,.
to this branch of the art.” * , ^ . o SSr
In taking a view of the hiftory of farriery, or.
ninary medicine in general, in our own country, it bmajn,
be feen, that we were much longer in improving the
art and reducing it under a rational and fcientific form,
than our neighbours on the continent. Our earlieft
writers on the difeafes of horfes and cattle, were deplor¬
ably ignorant, not only of all principles of general me ¬
dicine and found practice, but even frequently of the
common appearances of the difeafes, which they profei-
fed to cure. ' s,5
Our firft writers on the treatment of the difeafes of
JiQlfiCSj
57
5®
Markham.
* 59
Baret.
6o
Duke of
Newcaftle.
6i
Snape.
62
Gibfon,
FARR
horfes, were, as in France, chiefly riding-mafters ; and
of thefe, the firft that feems worthy of notice is Blun-
deville, who lived, as we have already obferved, in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth. His work appears to have
been principally compiled from the writings of Vege-
tius, and other ancient writers1, and it contains little
that can entitle it to any diftin&ion, as a work of uti¬
lity. It may, however, be perufed as a literary curio-
fity.
The names of many writers, after Blundeville, are
mentioned by thofe who have written on the hrftory of
farriery ; but they are all ftill inferior to Blundeville,
except perhaps Burden, on whqfe work, notes were
written by Dr Bracken.
About the end of the 17 th century, lived Gervafe
Markham, a name in high repute amongll grooms and
farriers, even to this day. He publilhed a work on
Farriery, which he called his Mai/ier Peecef and which
is one of the ftrangeft compounds of nonfenfe and abfur-
dity that has ever appeared on the fubjedf.
In the opinion of Mr Lawrence, Markham was no¬
thing more than a mere vulgar and illiterate compiler ;
and his works, fome few things excepted, are fluffed
with all the execrable tralh that had 'ever been invented
by any wTriter, or pra&ifed by any farrier, ancient or mo¬
dern, on the fubjedf of horfes. It is neceffary, how¬
ever, that wTe do juftice to the chara&er ©f Gervafe
Markham 5 he certainly poffeffed a fpecies of merit
wThich has not defeended to all his fucceffors, the copy-
ifts and plagiarifts ; he very honeftly gives the names
of thofe authors from whom he derives his know¬
ledge.
Some years after Markham, Michael Baret publifli-
ed a book, which he called the Vineyarde of Horfetnan-
fhip. This wre have never feen, but it appears to be of
fome repute. The next writer on this fubjeft, is the
duke of NewTcaftle, who gave to the wTorld a moft fu-
perb work on an improved method of breeding and ma¬
naging horfes. This work bears a very high character,
not only from the name of the illuftrious perfon by whom
it wras compofed, but from its owm intrinfic merit. The
duke is quoted with refpedt by moft fucceeding writers;
and his work has been tranflated into French, German,
Dutch, and Italian. It chiefly relates to horfemanlhip,
but as it contains fome excellent obfervations and max¬
ims on the breeding of horfes, it naturally comes to be
confidered here.
In the latter end of the 17th century, Andrew Snape,
■who was farrier to Charles II. publilhed a large work
on the anatomy of the horfe, illuftrated with many cop¬
perplates. Thefe plates appear not to have been taken
from his own diffeeftion, but are moftly copied from
preceding authors, efpecially from Ruini. Mr Blaine,
however, is miftaken in afferting that fome of them are
copied from Saunier, as Snape’s work wras publilhed in
1683, whereas Saunier’s did not appear, (according to
Vitet) before 1734. It is faid that Snape had projeft-
ed a larger work on the difeafes of horfes, but this he
did not live to execute.
Early in the 18th century, farriery experienced a
conliderable improvement from the writings of Mr
William Gibfon. This gentleman had been a furgeon
in the army, but relinquifhed that fituation for the prac¬
tice of farriery, which he probably expedted to find
mere profitable. Mr Blaine places this writer in the
I E R Y. 427
middle of the laft century but his firft work entitled Hiftory.
“ The Farrier’s New Guide,” was certainly publilhed
previous to the year 1721, as w'e have feen a feeond
edition of it advertifed in that year. This wras the moft
fcientific work on the difeafes of horfes, that had then
appeared in the Englilh, or perhaps any language.
The detail of fymptoms is in general juft, accurate, and.
the plan of treatment advifed is for the moft part very
judicious. The anatomical part of Mr Gibfonfs work
is not fo valuable, being frequently incorredf, and evi¬
dently not the refult of his own obfervation. The
Farriers Guide was foon followed by The Farriers Dif-
penfatory, containing an account of the remedies em¬
ployed in farriery, and the means of preparing and ex¬
hibiting them. This work is far inferior to the former*
and is now of little ufe. In 1721, Mr Gibfon publilh¬
ed a fmall work on The True Method of Dieting Horfes*
which contains fome judicious remarks on the means of
preferving the health of this ufeful animal j as alfo on
the breeding of horfes : with fome obfervations on their
external form, their fagacity, and habits. This book
mull have been very valuable at the time of its publica¬
tion, but is now in a great meafure fuperfeded by Clark
and other later writers.
About 1750, Mr Gibfon publifhed a larger work,
On the Dileafes of Horfes, in which he has brought to¬
gether the fubftance of his former works on farriery,
■with fome improvements. There is, we believe, a later
edition of it in two vols. Mr Gibfon mull be conlider-
ed as oi>e of thofe to whom farriery is moft indebted
for its improvements. He was almoft the firft, at leaft
in this country, to refeue the art from the hands of the
illiterate empirics, to point out their blunders, and cor¬
rect their errors. Mr John Lawrence, who has given
a very full account of Mr Gibfon in the firft volume of
his treatife on horfes, perhaps goes too far in ranking
him on an equality with fome of our prefent writers ;
while thefe again have erred as much on the other fide,
in detracting from the merits of a man to whom they
are all more or lefs indebted for much of their moft
valuable matter.
Gibfon was followed in his plan for the improvement Bnckea.
of farriery by Dr Bracken, a phyfician at Lancafter,
and a pupil of Boerhaave, who publilhed a -work called
Farriery Improved. “ Bracken (fays Mr Blaine) was
phyfician of great abilities and extenfive knowledge in
his profeflion j a man of confiderable erudition, a fportf-
man, and a wit of a peculiar caft. His works have by
fome been as much admired and read for the peculiar v
ftyle in which they are written, and that peculiar free¬
dom and non-obfervance of rule or form, as for the real
information they contain.
Though there is great ingenuity in his writings, and
though in many refpeCts he improved upon Gibfon, yet
as a praftical work it was much inferior ; nor was his
information given in a way that could benefit the gene¬
rality of his readers : independent of his ftyle being too
peculiar, and his reafoning too abftrufe for farriers, his
manner of purfuing his fubjeCl wTas fo defultory, that
few readers had patience to follow him. Neverthelefs
his works, which were feveral, and paffed through many
editions, have raifed him a fame that can only die with
the fcience.”
Thefe two writers may juftly be confidered as the
fathers of Englilh farriery •, they eftablilhed their fyftem
3 H 2 on
\
64
Bartlct.
Dfmer.
66
Brocldefby
67
Layard.
dark.
FARR
on the only fare foundation, the analogy which prevail¬
ed between the ftrudlure, economy, and difeafes of man
and of brutes. The belt pradtice irf this country has
been derived from their iniimetions •, and their works
formed an example, by following which, later writers
have greatly improved the art.
The next writer of reputation was Mr John Bartlet,
alfo a medical man, who about the middle of the laid
century publiihed his, Gentleman’s I arriery, and after-
wards his Veterinary Pharmacopeia. Bartlet had for¬
med himfelf on the model of Gibfon and Bracken, the
belt parts of whofe writings he has given in his farriery,
condenfed into a more compendious view. He alfo en¬
riched his work by the molt material improvements of
LafoiTe, whofe memoirs on Ihoeing and on glanders,
he tranllated into Englilh.
Soon after Bartlet, appeared Mr William Ofmer, a
furgeon and a fportfman, who pradtifed farriery in Ox¬
ford Itreet, London. He was the principal means of in¬
troducing into this country the French mode of (hoe¬
ing, which, in his treatife on the lamenefs of horfes, he
adapted to the Englilh manners, fo as to render of fer-
Tice, what had been before nearly ufelefs and impracti¬
cable. Mr Ofmer’s mode of (hoeing will be mention¬
ed hereafter. From the above wTorks many compilations
were foon made 5 thefe were generally below medio-
crity, amongft which, one called the Farrier’s Dic¬
tionary, though a very wretched compofition, met with
a very rapid iale. We muft except from thefe a fmall
treatife by a Mr Blount, furgeon, which is above the
common clafs, and worthy of notice, from an ingenious
contrivance, illuftrated by a plate, for fecuring a frac¬
tured limb.
In the year 1746, Dr Richard Brocklelhy, a friend
of Dr Mead, publiihed a pamphlet on the diforder that
^uft before raged among horned cattle. It (liould feem
that this book is very little known beyond the circle of
medical men, as we have not feen it referred to by any
writer on the difeafes of cattle.
Brocklefby was followed on the fame fubjeft by Dr
Layard. We (hall fpeak particularly of thefe two
authors, when we come to treat of the murrains.
About 30 years ago, Mr James Clark, farrier to his
majefty for Scotland, publifhed an ingenious Treatile on
Shoeing, and on the Difeafes of the Feet of Horfes.
This was foon followed by his Treatife on the Preven¬
tion of Difeafes Incidental to Horfes. By this latter
work Mr Clark has acquired much reputation, as a
feientifre farrier, and a fenfible wrriter. It contains
fome judicious obfervations on (fables, diet, and exercife,
on blood-letting, rowels, and fetons ; with remarks on
the ufes and adminiilration of the more common reme¬
dies. Mr Clark’s book is in general .well calculated to
produce a more judicious and humane method of treat¬
ing horfes, than ufually prevails. But it would have
been more ufeful, had the author omitted much of the
theoretic difeuflion, into which he has entered on fome
parts of the animal economy, on the nature of difeafe,
and on the adtion of remedies. Mr Clark is a good
practical writer, but his theory is often very lame, or
I E R Y. Parti.
very obfeure. He had an eafy opportunity of attending Hi (lory.
the medical lectures, which were taught at Edinburgh v
in his youth, when the humoral pathology and the
theory of Boerhaave were in full vogue. Mr Clark
has here and there interfperfed among his practical re¬
marks much of this old leaven. But as he probably
had not received fuch a previous liberal education as
might (it him for the judicious application of what he
heard, he is often deficient in that theoretical know¬
ledge which he takes fo much pains to difplay. ^
Some years before the publication of Mr Clark’s laft Lord Pets-
mentioned treatife, viz. in 1778, Lord Pembroke favour-broke,
ed the public with his excellent differtation on the
management of dragoon horfes, with fome remarks on
(hoeing. This work is entitled, Military Equitation,,
or a Method of Breaking Horfes. Though the obfer¬
vations, contained in his lordihip’s work, were intended
for the ufe of the Britifh cavalry, they are for the mod
part applicable to horfes in general, and well merit the
attention of farriers and others concerned in the manage¬
ment of horfes. We do not well underftand what Mr
Blaine means by afferting that Lord Pembroke derived
the principle of his medical hints from Mr Clark. If
he means that his lordlhip borrowed any thing from
Mr Clark’s treatife on preventing the difeafes of horfes,
he is certainly miftaken, as the firft edition of this
treatife, which rve believe has not been reprinted, ap¬
peared in 1788, and in it Mr Clark often quotes Lord
Pembroke’s wTork (c). 70
Much about this time Mr Stubbs publilhed his ele- Stubbs,
gant plates of the anatomy of the horfe, of which work,
as the produftion of an artift, we cannot fpeak too high¬
ly. Mr Stubbs is a very eminent painter of animals,
and to much profeffional excellence in this capacity, he
has added a confiderable (hare of anatomical know¬
ledge. Hence his figures are in general extremely
correcf, and will be found very ufeful to thofe who
have not the opportunity of availing themfelves of real
fubjedfs. . . 71
One of the lateft writers on the fubjedl of farriery isTaplm.
Mr Taplin, who for fome time enjoyed a confiderable
reputation, both as a practitioner and as a writer. But
this reputation has been materially fuMied, fince it was
difeovered, that Mr Taplin is not only ignorant of the
anatomy of the horfe, but has liberally copied from
thofe very writers whom he takes every opportunity to
vilify and abufe. As from his flagrant plagiarifm and
arrogance, Mr Taplin has well deferved the dr effing
which he has recently received from feveral late writers,
we (hall turn him over into the hands of one of his
rivals, who does not feem difpofed to (how him any
mercy.
“ This gentleman likewife began his career as a fur¬
geon, but turned afide to the then more profitable track
of farriery. Mr Taplin fet out by decrying all that
had gone before him, all that were in pradiice with him,
and in fadt every thing that has been done by any one
fince. Yet Mr Taplin’s works are faid to be compila¬
tions from thofe very authors whom he abufes ; and, in
fome inftances, after abufing egregioufly, he copies liter¬
ally.
(c) We find that Lord Pembroke’s work was firlt publifhed about 1761. I he edition mentioned in the text is,
we believe, the feeond,
\
Fart 1. FARR
Kiftory, ally. Unfortunately for this gentleman, from fome late
1 1 " v' improvements, the people of this country have learned
to diftmguifh in this art, as well as in others, between
fcientific inveftigation and verbofe quackery. Had Mr
Taplin fet out by ftudying the llrudlure and economy
of the animal, he might, and undoubtedly would, have
proved an ornament" to the profeffion ; but when he
permits his works to go through fo many editions, in
the face of criticifms from all quarters, with a chapter
on difeafes of a part that has no exiftence in the jiorfe,
i. e. the gall bladder, we muft be aware that he is en¬
tirely ignorant of that, upon which every pretenfion to
grofefftonal merit muft be grounded. Mr Taplin in¬
dulges himfelf in the molt unreftrained freedoms in
fpeaking of thofe who have gone before him, yet copies*
verbatim from them *, he cannot wonder, therefore,
that he has been treated with confiderable feverity by
later writers j nor can he be furpnfed that a practice fo
» Blaine's begun and fo continued has ended as his has
Outlines, Mr Taplin is the author of feveral works on farriery,
-vol. i. p. 63. pjjs £1.q; publication was, we believe, The Stable Di-
reftory, which had a great fale. He next publilhed a
larger work, m two volumes, and lately he has fent
out a fmall pamphlet called Multum in parvo, which is
fuppofed to be merely intended to advance the fale of
72 his prepared horfe medicines.
London vo The end of the 18th century will ever be memora¬
terinary ble in the hiftory of farriery, for the eftablilhment of
codege- an inftitution for the public teaching of the veterinary
art in England, in imitation of thofe fchools in France
of which we have already fpoken.
St Eel. The veterinary college owes its origin to M. St Bel,
a French gentleman, born at Lyons, and who was firft
junior affiftant to the profeffor of the Royal Veterinary
College there, and afterwards profeflbr of anatomy at
the veterinary college of Montpelier. I his gentleman
came to Britain in 1788, and publifhed propofals for
eftablifhing a veterinary fchool in this kingdom. Thefe
propofals did not, at that time, meet with encourage¬
ment ; but two years after, when M. St Bel, driven
from his native country by the horrors of the revolu¬
tion, again vifited England, his propofals were taken
again into confideration by an agricultural fociety at
Ockham in Hampfhire. It had been the intention of
this fociety, to fend two young men to France, to ftudy
the veterinary art fcientifically *, but on hearing the pro¬
pofals of M. St Bel, they abandoned this idea, and ap¬
pointed a committee to confult with him on the beft
means of forming a fchool for teaching the art in this
kingdom. To this fchool they gave the name of the
Veterinary College of London ; and M. St Bel was ap¬
pointed the firft profeflbr.
The following gentlemen were appointed to tlie mar
nagement of this inftitution.
His Grace the Duke of Northumberland, Prefident.
Earl Grofvenor,
Earl Morton,
Earl of Oxford,
Lord Rivers,
Sir George Baker, Bart.
Sir T. C. Bunbury, Bart. M. P.
Sir W. Fordyce,
John Hunter, Efq.
> Vice Prefid-
I E R Y. 429
Sir John Ingleby, Bart. M. P. j Hiftory.
Sir H. P. St John Mildmay, Bart. u-—
G. M. Afcough, Efq.
Mr John Baynes,
Mr J. Burgefs,
Rev. T. Burgefs,
Rev. J. Cook.
Dr Adair Crauford,
John Gretton, Efq.
Dr Hamilton,
Mr Rennet,
Dr D. Mapleton,
Granville Penn, Efq.
Mr William Stone,
Richard Tophane, Efq.
Dr Williams,
J. Wollafton, Efq.
Meffrs Ranfom,
Moreland,
and Hammerfly,
A houfe wras taken, for the purpofe of the inftitu¬
tion, and pupils were admitted to board in the houfe.
The fuccefs of this inftitution, at firft, by no means-*
anfwered the expectations of the founders. It appears
that M. St Bel was prevented, by the embarrafled ftate
of his circumftances, from executing the office of pro¬
feflbr, with that ardour and aCtivity, which was necef-
fary to the reputation of the infant fchool j and indeed
it feems, from the fpecimen he has left us of his pro-
feffional abilities, that thefe wrere not adequate to the-
office he had undertaken. He poflefled confiderable in-
duftry, and it is probable that, had he lived, he w-ould
have fucceeded better than his outfet had promifed.
But, in the year 1793, he was attacked with an iilnefs,
which proved fatal in about a fortnight.
M. St Bel left behind him feveral w*orks, viz. An
Eflay on the Geometrical Proportions of Eclipfe. Lec¬
tures on the Elements of Farriery. The art of Horfe-
fhoeing, wdth Obfervations on the Difeafes of the Feet.
And a volume of pofthumous works.
We do not pretend to give our own opinion as to
the merits of thefe works, as we have not feen them.
But it is faid that the Eflay is merely an application of
the proportions long ago laid down by Bourgelat in his
Elemens d'Hippiatrique, to a particular cafe 5 and that
many of his meafurements are incorreCl. Mr Blaine
roundly taxes him with tranflating Lafofle to furniffi
matter for his Elements, and refers for proof of this to
the defeription and treatment of quittor in St Bel’s E-
lements, and Lafoffe’s DiBionaire d'EUppiatrique.
Mr Blaine brings many other inftances of M. St Bel’s
want of information and fcience, for which we muft re¬
fer our readers to Mr Blaine’s Outlines of the Veteri¬
nary Art.
On the death of M. St Bel, there appears to have W'
been a competition for the vacant chair, between two -
gentlemen, who were both well qualified to fill it, Mr
Edward Coleman and Mr Morecroft. Both of thele
gentlemen had been bred to forgery-, and the former
had acquired much reputation by an ingenious Eflay
on Sulpended Refpiration. The latter was lately re¬
turned from France, where he had been ftudying the
veterinary art. We are not acquainted with the parti¬
culars
Directors.
Treafureni*.
75
Mr Cole¬
man ap¬
pointed
profeffor.
7*.
Examining
^committee.
FARR
culars of this competition ; but the choice of the fub-
fcribers fixed on Mr Coleman, under whofe manage¬
ment the college has acquired confiderable reputation.
The election of Mr Coleman was followed by fome
new regulations. An anatomical theatre was fitted up,
with difledling rooms for the ufe of the Undents. A
medical committee wras alfo appointed for the purpofe
of examining the pupils, who had completed their
education at the college, previoufiv to their receiving
a diploma as veterinary furgeons. This committee, in
1801, was compofed of the following gentlemen.
Dr Fordyce, fenior phyfician to St Thomas’s hofpital.
Dr Relph, phyfician to Guy’s hofpital.
Dr Babington, Do.
Dr Bailie, phyfician to St George’s hofpital.
Mr Cline, furgeon to St Thomas hofpital.
Mr Home, furgeon to St George’s hofpital.
Mr Aftley Cooper, furgeon to Guy’s hofpital.
Mr Abernethy, furgeon to Bartholemew’s holpital.
Mr Wilfon, lecturer on anatomy and furgery ; and
Mr Coleman, profelfor of the college.
The following are the regulations of this ufeful infti-
tution as publiftied in the year 1801.
Regulations The fubfcribers of the veterinary college pay two
ot the col- gUineas per annum, or twenty guineas for life. For
ie^e* this fubfcription each fubfcriber is entitled to fend,
when fick or lame, any number of horfes to the vete¬
rinary ftables, where no charges are made for medi¬
cines, attendance, or operations. The fubfcriber pays
only for the keep and fhoeing of his horfe, which is
generally lefs than the adtual expence incurred by the
college. A committee of ftablers is appointed to exa¬
mine the quality of the forage, and to regulate the
price of the keep of horfes. For fome years pad, the
fubfcribers paid only 2s. 6d. per night; but in confe-
quence of the great advance in hay, corn, and ftraw,
and the college, by this moderate charge, having fuf-
tained a confiderable lofs, the keep of horfes is now fix¬
ed at 3s. per night. A feparate committee infpefts the
accounts of the college, and three times in the year
reports to the general meeting the date of the finances
of the college. No horfes but thofe the property of
fubfcribers are admitted into the veterinary dables ; but
the profeffor is allowed private practice, and horfes not
belonging to fubfcribers may be fent to the college for
the profeffor’s opinion.
The horfes not intended to be left in the dables of
the college may be fent for the profeffor’s advice on
Mondays, Wednefdays, and Fridays, from twelve to
two o’clock. Where medicines are requifite, they are
prepared for fubfcribers horfes at very reduced prices j
and the college receives all emoluments which may
arife from the fale of horfe medicines.
The expences incurred by fubfcribers, for Ihoeing, for
the keep of horfes, or for medicines, mud be paid for
before the animal be taken from the college. And as
fome Ioffes have been fudained from the drift letter of
this regulation not having been always attended to, the
clerk has now received pofitive orders from the commit¬
tee, not to allow any horfe, before all the expences are
paid, to be taken from the college. The horfes are pla¬
ced under the direftion of the profeffor, who refides on
the fpot, and the medicines he preferibes are compound¬
ed by a proper perfon employed for that purpofe.
4
I E R Y.
Part It
As the great objeft of the veterinary edablilhment Hiftory.
is to form a national fchool for the improvement of far- )r~~~
riery, pupils paying twrenty guineas are admitted into
the college to learn the veterinary art.
Leftures are given by the profeffor o#i the forma¬
tion, economy, and difeafes of horfes, and other do-
medic animals j and mod of the eminent medical
teachers in London, with a liberality peculiar to them-
felves, have allowed the veterinary pupils to hear their
leftures without any fee or reward. The veterinary
dudents attend leftures on human anatomy and phyfio-
logy, on the principles a!nd praftice of furgery, on the
materia medica, and chemidry, and praftice of phyfic.
The period requifite for obtaining a competent know¬
ledge of the veterinary art, is regulated by the talents,
previous information, and indudry of the individual pu¬
pil. The dudents continue to attend the college until
they are examined and approved by the medical com¬
mittee. Thofe pupils who are duly qualified receive a
diploma; but thofe who are found on examination to be
deficient, are rejefted. There are four general exa¬
minations in the year. When examined and approved,
if no objeftions are made to their conduft, during their
dudy at the veterinary college, they may be recom¬
mended to any regiment of cavalry, not already provi¬
ded with a veterinary furgeon.
No fees of any kind are allowed by the college to
any of the fervants of fubfcribers; neither are the fer-
vants of the college permitted to receive any perqui-
fites from the fubfcribers.
A veterinary college has alfo been edablilhed near.
Birmingham, and it is faid that others are in contem¬
plation in other parts of the empire.
The advantages that have already accrued from this
edablidiment, to veterinary medicine in general, and
to our national cavalry in particular, are very confider¬
able. Almod every regiment of cavalry has been fup-
plied from the college, with a veterinary furgeon 5 and
many of thefe gentlemen have publiihed works which,
for the mod part, do much credit to themfelves and
their academy.
In 1798, Mr Coleman publidied the fird volume,
and in 1802, the fecond, of Obfervations on the Struc¬
ture, Oeconomy, and Difeafes of the Foot of the
Horfe. This is a mod ufeful and valuable wrork, but
it is too fplendid and codly, efpecially the fecond vo¬
lume, for general circulation. The fird volume con¬
tains a very full account of the method of dioeing
praftifed at the veterinary college, of which we diall
give an abdraft hereafter.
About this period, appeared alfo a pamphlet by Mr
Coleman, On the Formation and Ufes of the natural
Frog of the Horfe, with the defeription of an artificial
Frog.
In 1801, appeared the fird number of the Veterinary
Tranfaftions, publiihed by order of the fubfcribers.
This pamphlet commences with a long introduftion,
dating the objeft of the inditution, the progrefs which
it had made, and the caufes that tended to prevent its
complete fuccefs. Thefe originate partly in the party
oppofition of the common farriers, wbo deem it theit
intered to do all in their power to circumvent the viewTs
of the fubfcribers: but they have dill more been derived
from the underhand malice of grooms and fervants, with
whofe intered the inditution, from the liberal manner in
which
Part I.
Hiftory.
73
Bracey
Clarke.
. .79
Riding.
So
Denny.
8r
White.
9i '
Richard
La whence.
FARR
which it ib conducled, muft certainly clafh. ’Ihe body
of the pamphlet is occupied with a very neat view of the
confequences and treatment of wounds of joints, and
other circumfcribed cavities, and it is concluded by an
account of the regulations of the college (fee N° 77.) the
lill of the medical committee, a lilt of the examined
and approved veterinary furgeons that had at that time
palied at the college, and lifts of the then managers
and fubfcribers to the inftitution.
The firft pupil of the college, as we believe, who
diftinguiftied himfclf as an author, was Mr Bracey
Clarke •, who, in the third volume of the Linnean
Tranfaftions, publilhed a very ingenious paper on the
bvtts in horfes and cattle, of which we {hall fpeak here¬
after.
About the fame time appeared a fmall volume on
Veterinary Pathology, by Mr Riding, veterinary fur-
geon to the 18th regiment of dragoons.
In 1802, Mr John Denny, of the 10th dragoons,
publilhed a fmall volume on the Difeafes of Horfes.
In this work. Mr Denny has in general given the prin¬
ciples and pradlice of the veterinary college, and has
illuftrated and confirmed thefe by his own attentive ob-
iervations and long experience.
* In the fame year appeared a very neat Compendium
of the Veterinary Art, by Mr James White of the
1 ft Dragoons. This is only a pocket volume, and of
courfe is very concife ; but the author has given a very
comprehenfive view of the nature and treatment of dif¬
eafes, and of the late improvement in the art of (hoeing
introduced into the veterinary college 5 and the work
will be found an ufeful companion to the young prac¬
titioner. This volume alfo contains the fubftance of a
former work, by the fame author, on the Anatomy and
Phyfiology of the Horfe’s Foot. In the year 1804, Mr
White publilhed the Veterinary Materia Medica, con
taining a brief defcription of the various fubftances em¬
ployed in farriery,,with an account of their particular
effefts on the body of the horfe. He occafionally in¬
troduces fome pertinent remarks on the difeafes of the
horfe ; and in the latter part of the volume, comprifing
the veterinary pharmacopeia, he has given a number of
the beft and moft fcientific recipes that he had feen.
This work may be confidered as the fecond volume of
Mr White’s compendium j and the author conlidered
the two volumes, as forming a complete fyftem of the
veterinary medicine. Though we are difpofed to think
very favourably of thefe volumes, as a practical com¬
pendium, we cannot help thinking that Mr White
might have contented himfelf with that modeft title
without affuming the more pompous one of a fyftem..
We muft alfo remark, that the materia medica, which
is not large, is unneceffarily fwelled by the admiftion of
many articles that feem to have been introduced mere¬
ly- to tell us, that they are never ufed in the veterinary
pra&ice.
Mr White is alfo the author of an Addrefs to the
RoyaT Firft Devon Yeoman Cavalry refpe&ing the
management of their hprfes, when employed on atftual
fervice.
In the year 1802, or we believe a little earlier, a
work of confiderable elegance was publilhed by Mr
Richard Lawrence, veterinary furgeon at Birmingham.
As we have not feen this work, we mult copy the fol¬
lowing account of it from Mr Blaine. “ It is much
I E R Y. 431
to be regretted that a gentleman who poffeiTes fo much Hiftory.
ingenuity, fhould pafs over fubjects of Inch importance
in fuch a light curfory manner. The defeription and
treatment of fome difeafes occupy fewer lines than (to
treat the fubjeft in fuch manner as to prove ufeful)
they would require pages. The plates are elegant, and
extremely wTell defigned, particularly thofe that regard
the proportions and paces of the horfe } thofe that re¬
gard the internal llruclure and difeafes are not fo happy.
The didlion is very fuperior. As a cabinet work, it is
molt certainly elegant and interefting} but as a ufeful
aftiftant to the art itfelf, it does notrank 10high.” S3t
In the fame year was publilhed the firft part of a Eo^rdmac^
dictionary of the veterinary art by Mr Thomas Board-
man of the third regiment of Dragoons. This work
was intended to be completed in lixteen parts. The
author feems to have availed himfelf of the lateft and
beft information on the feveral articles that compofe his
work •, and he has introduced into it a variety of fub-
jeCts on the principles of general medicine.- 84,
One of the lateft publications by pupils of the veteri- Feroifi-
nary college, is a new' fyftem of farriery by Mr John
Feron, veterinary furgeon to the thirteenth regiment of
Light Dragoons. This work is printed in quarto, and
affords a good inftance to what an extent a fmall quan¬
tity of matter may be carried by the modern typogra¬
phical improvements of large type, broad margins,
wide fpaces, and frequent breaks. The work is indeed
very elegant both in type, and in plates. It alfo con¬
tains fome ufeful information on the external ftruclure
of the horfe, with a view to point out and illuftrate
tyhat appeared to the author to be the moll perfedl
form of a blood horfe, with the blemilhes and defefts
which appeared moll likely to impede his velocity.-
This appears to be the beft part of the work, and is ■
wrell illuftrated by the plates. The latter half of the
book is occupied wfith the confideration of difeafes ^ and
here w-e are led, from the author’s title page, to expedl
an account not only of the difeafes of horfes, but of the
principal epidemics to which cattle, Iheep, &c. are fub~-
je£l. Thefe epidemics are however dflcuffed in the
courfe of feventeen pages $ but wre are given to un~
derftand that the author intends in a future publican
tion to give a full comparative defcription, wuth the
proper mode of treatment of every difeafe that affebls
domeftic animals. Mr Feron’s obfervations are render¬
ed of much lefs utility than they would otherwife have
been, by the want of a proper index, or table of con¬
tents.
Thefe are, we believe, the principal publications Frecmae,
that have proceeded from the pupils of the veterinary
college. A few other works on veterinary medicine
Hill remain to be confidered. In 1796, a very elegant
work on horfes was publilhed by S. Freeman, E.fq. whofe
character is given by Mr Blaine as an amateur in the
manege, and a gentleman of fortune, learning and great
ingenuity.. This publication confilled in a defcription of
the fmilure and economy of the foot, accompanied with
a fet of plates highly finilhed in Skelton’s bell llyle..
The fubjefts were diffected under the infpebtion of Mr
Home, or an alhllant j and except fome flight errors in
the ligaments of the navicular bone, appear very cor-
re6t. This publication, for the elegance of its engra¬
vings, and the general fpirit of the whole, will be long
without a competitor. It recommends a very ingen;-
OU#v
43^
Hiftory.
John Law-
raiCe.
87
’tJowning.
83
Impeifec-
tion of
works on
cattle me¬
dicine.
F A U K
ous mode ot (hoeing, and tfae economy of the foot is
likewife very ingenious.
About the fame time Mr John Lawrence puhlifhed a
fmall volume on horfes, chiefly compofed of extradls
from St. Bel, Ofmer, Clarke, and Lord Pembroke •,
and in 1798, this gentleman brought forward his phi-
lofophical and practical treatife on horfes, a work which
is as remarkable for the good fenfe and humanity of
the author, as for the whimfical eccentricity and angry ir¬
ritability which he occafionally difplays. The work
embraces n great variety of fubjedts. It commences
with an account of the prindpal former writers on far¬
riery, in which high eulogies are paid to the memory of
Gibfon and Bracken, and a very violent attack is made
on the ill-ftarred Mr Taplin. The latter part of the
work contains Mr Lawrence’s fyllem of veterinary prac¬
tice, which is chiefly taken from his favourite authors,
as Mr Lawrence feems at that time not to have had
much pradlical experience. The work alfo contains
fome remarks on the difeafes of horned cattle, on the
treatment of cows, and on calving,
Mr Lawrence has fmee, in 1805,-publiflied a fepa-
rate treatife on cattle, in which the management of neat
cattle, (beep, and fwdne, are handled in a mafterly man¬
ner ; and a much fuller account of difeafes and their
treatment is given than could be expedled in his former
treatife. We venture to recommend Mr Lawrence’s
works as amongft the mod inftrudlive and moil enter¬
taining that we have met with.
Some years ago there appeared a wrork on the de-
feription and treatment of the difeafes of cattle, by a
Mr Downing, a profefifor of cattle medicine ; w-hich,
though very expenfive, fold very fad, and was very ge-'
nerally edeemed amongd farmers and graziers. We
have not feen this work •, but from the account of it
that is given by Mr Blaine in his outlines, it fhould
feem that it abounds with important errors, and frequent¬
ly inculcates a dangerous mode of praftice. We can¬
not here enumerate the particular examples brought by
Mr Blaine in proof of his alfertions, but we fliall notice
the mod important of them under their proper heads.
Perhaps no part of veterinary medicine has been fo
little cultivated in this country, as that which confiders
the difeafes of cattle. There is fcarcely a work on this
fubjecl in the Englifh language that is worth perufal.
We cannot give a better idea of the little value that
mud be placed on thefe works than by the following ex-
tradf from Mr Lawrence’s treatife on cattle.
“ I have never yet feen any of thefe cattle doBor-
ing books y which appeared to me to be written bora fide.
Well-intentioned ignorance, if not entitled to refpeft,
is at lead venial ; but the flighted examination of mod
of thefe printed guardians of the health of cattle, by a
perfon qualified to judge, will evince, that they are pre¬
meditated impodures, goods merely varniflied up for
fale. They have either the names of living men tack¬
ed to them, who, in the dronged probability, never ei¬
ther did, or could write a line of them, or they are
publilhed in the name of fome one of the mighty dead,
among coiv-doflors, who mod unfortunately died at lad,
•after fixty years pra&ice. One would expecd to find
fomething original and valuable, from this long-con¬
tinued and extenfive praftice *, but the difappointment
is always complete. The chief of that which we meet
with, confids of tranferiptions from former writers, in-
3
I E U Y. Part I.
terlarded with learned, medical, and phyfical difTeita- Hiftory.
tions, perhaps found anc good enough in their place, to y-—
which are loofely and clumiiiy tacked the mod nonfenfical
and burlefque appendages by Mr Editor. The medi¬
cinal forms in thefe books, are frequently th« flranged
jumble that imagination can conceive. Articles of a
dire&ly oppofite nature and intention, are blended in
one mafs, which mud inevitably act upon the animal
fydem wfith an effeft limilar to that of two men pulling
at oppofite ends of a cord. We find balfam of Peru
and Glauber’s falts married together, the intent of
which, no doubt mud be, as a Suffolk farrier once de-
feribed to the late Mr Rufh, “ a kind of heater, and a
kind of cooler.” Indeed the far greater number of the
preferiptions wear rather the appearance of having been
fabricated for the ufe of the book, than of having ever
been ufed and approved in real pradlice. One truly
laughable cudom was introduced by the book publifhed
under the name of Topham’s old one. It was to fub-
join to every prefeription of note, a fet character, con¬
ceived in the mod high founding terms of panegyric, at
the fame time, with a choice of words, at once fo droll,
and fo gravely profeffional, with fo formal an arrange¬
ment, that he mud be a man far furpaflfmg me in gravity,
grave as I naturally am, who can perufe them without
burding into laughter. It mud not be denied, howr-
ever, that thefe books contain a number of ufeful hints,
relative to the management and dieting of cattle, whe¬
ther or not fuch may have originated with the doclor,
or have been introduced by the editor. They may al¬
fo, to a certain degree, be confulted as to the fymptoms
of difeafes, although by no means to be implicitly re¬
lied on even in that refpe£L So far they have their
ufe. With regard to doftoring, as it is termed, or
preferibing medicines to cattle, they are mod truly
blind guides 5 and when, unfortunately, they are fet to
lead the blind, the fate of both parties may be very
readily anticipated. I am fpeaking of books, which
have been publilhed within the lad half century. As
to the ancient veterinary ’ivtiters, none of them, not
even the celebrated Vegetius, wrere medical men, and
their medical praflice is utterly beneath modern notice.
The fame kind of books of our old Englifh writers,
confid of a ((range medley of ancient pradbice with va¬
rious fage additions of their own. A rational man can¬
not read over fome of their preferiptions without a-
mazement, nor a humane one without extreme pity for
the haraifed vidlim of fuch mondrous pradlice. By the
way, they who, for intereded purpofes, fabricate pre¬
tended cattle medicines, of the effedls of which they are
carelefs or ignorant, commit an adt of grofs inhumani¬
ty and crime, in too probably adding to the load of fuf-
ferings of a helplefs animal already tortured by difeafe.
One of the greated curiofities wTe meet with in the old
books, is their grand, univerfal fpecific. It feems as
though they judged by a kind of compound arithmeti-
co-medical logic, that all medicines being conjoined * L
and multiplied one into the other, the produdt mud ne-c/I Cattle, "
ceffarily be the prevention or cure of all difeafes.” * g„
Mr Lawrence has excepted from the above general Cniley.
condemnation, a work lately publifhed by Mr Gulley,
of Northumberland ; which, he fays, ought to be in the
hands of every farmer in Great Britain. He confiders
it as the only original work in our language, and, as
containing in a fmall compafs, a mod valuable fund of
inforndttion,
Part II. FARR
Hiftory. information, chiefly from the author’s own experi-
' ■ "» 1 ence.
90 In the year 1800, Mr Morecroft, the rival candidate
Morecroft. Coleman for the profefforfhip of the veterinary
college, publifhed a fmall pamphlet containing a cur-
fory account of the various methods of ftioeing horfes,
with incidental obfervations. This work difplays con-
fiderable ingenuity. We (hall notice Mr Morecroft’s
91 method of (hoeing by and by.
Blaine. In 1802, appeared Mr Blaine’s Outlines of the Vete¬
rinary Art, or the Principles of Medicine as applied to a
knowledge of the ftrufture, funftions, and economy of
the horfe, the ox, the (beep, and the dog *, and to a
more fcientific and fuccefsful manner of treating their
various difeafes •, in two volumes. Mr Blaine is well
known as a pra&itioner of veterinary medicine, and as
the advertifer of a fpecific againft the diftemper in dogs.
In his Outlines, Mr Blaine, after giving a (ketch of
the hiftory of medicine in general, enters on the hiftory
of veterinary medicine in particular, which he details
at confiderable length j not however, without feveral
errors, fome of which we have already pointed out.
He next proceeds to lay down very briefly what he con¬
ceives to be the proper means for the attainment of the
veterinary art. Then follows a long fection on a fub-
jedf which we (hould fcarcely expedt to find in a work
of this kind, the hiftory of chemiftry. The firft part
concludes with a (ketch of comparative anatomy, in
which the ftrufture and economy of the ox, (beep, and
dog are paffed over much too lightly. i he (econd
part, which occupies the reft of the firft volume, and
one-half of the fecond, is taken up with a very minute
account of the anatomy of the horfe, with fome obfer¬
vations on the economy and ufes of the feveral parts.
We confider this as the beft part of Mr Blaine’s book }
but we think that he has made it unneceffarily prolix,
as by carrying it to fuch an extent, he has not left room
for a fatisfaftory account of difeales, which occupy the
reft of the fecond volume. Here we cannot but con¬
fider the author as very defective. Neither the fymp-
toms nor the treatment are given with that accuracy or
precifion, which the public had a right to expert from
a pra&itioner of Mr Blaine’s long experience. Many
of the difeafes of cattle, (beep, mid efpecially of dogs,
are palled over in a manner that is by no means fatisfuc-
tory. The work is written in a very flovenly manner,
and is everywhere filled with an oftentatious parade of
medical phrafeology that muft render it nearly unintel¬
ligible to the generality of readers. In his receipts,
Mr Blaine has for the mod part adopted the new no-
' menclature, which, however we may approve in medi¬
cal formulae, we cannot think calculated for the meri¬
dian of farriers. We, however, by no means intend to
infinuate that Mr Blaine’s work is without merit : it
I E R Y.
certainly contains much valuable matter j but we muft
repeat that it is not what we (hould have expected from
the advantages of information and experience which
Mr Blaine appears to have pollefled.
In the following year, Mr Blaine publilhed a fmaller
work, which he calls a Domeftic Treatife on the dif¬
eafes of horfes and dogs, which appears to be chiefly
an abridgement of the Outlines, with a fort of advertife-
ment for the fale of Mr Blaine’s patent medicine.
In 1802 appeared a General View of the Agricul-Findlater.
ture of the county of Peebles, by the Rev. Charles Find-
later, mmifter of the parifh of Newlands, in that coun¬
ty. This work, though intended merely as a local fur-
vey of the (late of agriculture and improvements in a
fmall diftrict, abounds with much excellent matter that
muft prove of general utility. Befides the obfervations
which the ingenious author has made, on the general
management of live (lock, in the body of his work, he
has added in one of'his appendices fome valuable infor¬
mation refpe&ing fome of the moft important difeafes
of fheep, which are partly furnKhed from the communi¬
cations of Dr Gillefpie, late phyfician in Edinburgh,
and Dr Coventry profeflbr of agriculture in that univer-
fity, and partly derived from his own experience. 93
In 1803 was publiflaed an elegant work on practical
agriculture by Dr R. W. Dickfon •, the fecond volume
of which contains much ufeful inftruftion refpedting the
choice, breeding, feeding, &c. of all the fpecies of live
ftock employed on a farm j with a few veryumncife re¬
marks on the difeafes of each fpecies. But as thefe are
merely pra&ical hints, they cannot be of much ufe, ex¬
cept to thofe who are already tolerably acquainted with
the fubject. 94
In the fame year, the Rev*William Daniel perform-Daniel,
ed a talk, which, however ill fuited to the chara&er and
avocation of a clergyman, muft be highly grateful to
every lover of the fports of the field, in the publication
of his Rural Sports, which contains perhaps the moft com¬
plete account of every thing relating to dogs that is to
be found in the Englifh language. Among other fub-
jefts connefted with the management of this favourite
companion of man, the reverend author takes occafion to
treat pretty fully of his difeafes. On this fubjeft, Mr
Daniel has not only collected matter from what he con-
ceives to be the beft fources, but, what is more ufeful,
as well as more to be depended on, he has added much
from his own obfervation and experience. p-
One of the lateft works on the difeafes of domeftic Hamfoa.
animals, which we have feen, is An Enquiry into the Rot
in Sheep, and other animals, by Dr Edward Harrifon, a
refpedftable phyfician of Horn-caftle, in Lincolnfliire.
Of this pamphlet, we (hall fpeak at large, when we come
to treat of the difeafe, whofe nature and caufes it is in¬
tended to illuftrate.
PART II. ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE.
IN the (ketch which we are to give of the anatomy
of the horfe, we muft very lightly pafs over fuch parts
as appear not to be of immediate importance in the prac¬
tice of farriery, in order to dwell more minutely on thofe
organs that are of greater confequence. Thus we '(hall
content ourfelves with giving a tabular view of the
Voi,. VIII. Part II.
bones and mufcles •, we (hall entirely omit the brain and
nerves *, but we (hall deferibe fome of the other vifeera,
as the ftomach, and the bowels, fomewhat more mi¬
nutely. We (hall be moft particular on the anatomy of
the extremities, efpecially of the feet, as on an accurate
knowledge of thefe parts depend the principles of (hoe-
3 I ing>
434
F A R R I E
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
97
Importance
of an accu¬
rate know¬
ledge of the
anatomy of
tlie foot.
* Colunan
cn the
Jtlorfi s
Host, vol.ii.
93
ing} which, without i'uch knowledge, cannot be pro¬
perly underflood, or rationally pradlifed.
On the fubjeft of the anatomy of the foot, we lhall
be particularly indebted to the writings of Mr Cole¬
man j and we cannot Ihew the importance of the fub-
jedt in Ihoeing better than by the following remarks of
that gentleman. "
“ The organization and fundlions of the foot of the
horfe will be found rather complicated 5 but it is of
confiderable importance to thofe who with to invelligate
the principles, as well as the practice of Ihoeing, to
be well acquainted with every part of that organ.
The practical part of Ihoeing is often -v^ell executed
without an accurate knowledge of the contents of the
hoof.
“ But, in many cafes, it is very neceffary to be well
acquainted with the llrudture and fundtions of the deep¬
er feated parts, and is molt particularly ufeful for the
removal of many difeafes incident to the foot. The im-
menfe weight fupported by the feet of the horfe, and
the rapidity with which this great animal is conveyed
from place to place, without violence to the external or
internal parts of the foot, naturally excite a delire to
afcertain the ciufe of fo wonderful an effedt. If the
human foot fupported the fame weight as the foot of the
horfe, the fenfible parts would be deltroyed. Without
fprings, no external covering could effedtually fupport
the weight, and prevent the foot from being fmalh-
ed. The phyliologill will receive infinite fatisfadtion
in the invelligation of the fundtions of this complicated
organ •, he will find as much order and beauty, as much
wifdom and utility, in the formation and economy of the
foot, as ever was difplayed in the itrudture and ufes of
any animal. It will be feen in many initances, that
the fame part performs various fundtions, and all of thefe
fundtions well •*
In our defcription of the ftrudture of the horfe, we
ihall, as far as pollible, employ Englilh names to de¬
note the parts defcribed or enumerated, as we think the
writers on this fubjedt have done wrong in giving to
the parts of the horfe the Latin names that are employ¬
ed in the human anatomy j and we have no doubt that
the generality of veterinary Undents mult, from this cir-
cumltance alone, be in a great meafure deterred from
paying the necelfary attention to fo important a fubjedt.
But, that wre may avoid alfedtation, we lhall, wherever
it appears neceffary, add the correfponding Latin name,
and fome fynonyms of the more refpedtable writers on
the anatomy of the horfe.
Chap. I. A Sketch of the Bones of the Horfe.
R Y.
1. Bones of the Head. A. *
c, Half of the frontal bone, which in the horfe is al- ,
ways compofed of two pieces.
e,f One of the two parietal bones.
g, b, z, k, The occipital bone, with a procefs at k, that
in peculiar to the horfe.
/, m, The temple, or temporal bone, of one fide 5 n, the
cheek-bone of one fide.
0, One of the fmall bones wdthin the focket of the
eye, that anfwers to the os unguis in man.
p, p, Bones of the nofe.
q, r, r, The upper jaw-bone.
t. The intermaxillary bone, or what is ufually called
by veterinary writers the inferior jaw-bone. This is not
found in the humar^ Ikeleton.
u, v. The polterior maxillary bone, whicU anfwers- to
the lower jaw-bone in man.
Bones of the Spine. B.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, The feven vertebrae of the neck.
a, The atlas; b, the fecond vertebra, called in human
anatomy, dentata; d, e,f its tranl’verfe procefs; e, its
oblique procefs; f its ridge, anfwrering for a fpinous pro¬
cefs ; g, h, 1, k, l, m, n, third cervical vertebra; g, itV
body ; above the letter is the hole for the tranfmiffion
of the vertebral arterfes and veins; i, k, anterior and po-
llerior tranfverfe proceffes; /, a protuberance in the fore
part of the body.
8—25,The eighteen vertebrae of the back; zz,the body
of each; b, the tranfverfe proceffes that articulate with the
ribs ; c, the oblique proceffes ; d, the fpinous proceffes.
26 to 30, The five vertebra; of the loins, which have
very long tranfverfe proceffes, though thefe are not very
eafily diltinguilhed in the figure, from its having a fide view.
x, x, The facrum bone, compofed of five pieces, as in
man.
From 31 to 43, the 13 bones compofing the tail, an-
fwering to the os coccygis in man.
Bones of the Trunk. C.
a, b, J, 9, The true ribs ; 10 to 18 the falfe ribs;
a, the head articulating with the tranfverfe procefs
of the firlt dorfal vertebra ; under is feen the lower
branch of the head that unites with the feventh cervical
and firlt dorfal vertebra; c, the end that unites with the
Iternum or brealt-bone ; a, b, c, d, e,f, g, the two hip¬
bones, anfwering to the of a innominate in the human
anatomy; a, b, c, the ilium, with its tuberofity a,
forming the haunch or hip ; e, f the ifehium ; g, g,
the pubis with its junfture or fymphyfis between the
two* letters.
Fart IX.
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
Skeleton. When we take a general view of the Ikeleton of the
horfey.fuppofed to Hand before us, we lhall obferve that,
excepting the head and forepart of the neck, the Ikele¬
ton forms nearly a fquare, and approaches more nearly
to this form, as the body of the animal is more exadtly
proportional. We remark this for the fake of painters
and fculptors, who commonly err confiderably with re-
fpe£t to their proportion of length and breadth in their
figures of the horfe.
We Iball divide the Ikeleton into the head, the fpine,
the trunk, and extremities. See Plate CCXI. fig. 1,
Bones of the Fore Extremity. D. D.
e, f, g, h, i, l, m, The fcapula or blade-bone ; e, it§
neck, below which is feen its glenoid cavity ; f, ante-
fpinatus foffa ; h, its fpine, which in the human ends in
the proceffus acromion, but as there is no clavicle in the
horfe, it ends by a tuberofity ; i, coracoid procefs ; be¬
tween m and z, the anterior colta; /, between this and
e, polterior colta ; between rn and /, is its bafe, and the
line above it marks the extent and fituation of the car¬
tilage of the fcapula ; n, 0, p, q, humerus or arm ; n, its
neck, above which is feen its head ; 0, its anterior
head, forming, the point of thelhoulder, as it is commonly^
cadled
Part II. FARR
Anatomy called in tlie liorfes, />, its tuberofity; q, its lower head,
of the behind is feen the cavity for the reception of the olecra-
, non j r, r, ulna 3 the upper part forms the olecranon
or elbow, the lower part is united by ligamentous
fibres to the radius 3 s, s, the radius 3 I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
the carpus or knee 31, 1, pifiform 3 2, 2, fcaphoid 3
3,3, lunar 3 4, unciform 3 5, magnum 3 6, cuneiform 3
7, trapezoid 3 w, metacarpus 3 J, canon 3 w, two fmall
metacarpals 3 v, w, x, y, z, phalanges 3 t;, fy-ft pha¬
lanx or paftern 3 to, fefamoids; x, coronet-bone, or
little paftern 3 y, coffin 3 navicular or j^it-feone.
Bones of the Hind Extremity. E. E.
/, /, ?w, Thigh-bone 3 //, the neck, above which is
the head received into the focket of the pelvis 3 z, great
trochanter 3 £, the outer trochanter 3 /, /, the inner tro¬
chanter 3 m, m, the anterior condyles j «, zz, the pofte-
rior ditto 3 />, />, femilunar cartilage ; 0, <?, knee-pan or
patella 5 tibia or leg-bone, commonly called the
thigh 3 r, fibula 3 the tibia is feen terminating in its
maleolijto articulate with the t vfus; 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
tarfus or hock ; I, 2, I, 2, calces, forming the point of
hock, in man the heel 3 3, 4, aftragalus 3 5, 5, great
cuneiform bone 3 6, cuboid bone 3 7, middle cunei¬
form bone ; 8, fmall cuneiform bone 3 x, x, V, /, meta-
tarfus 3 x, x, canon or (hank 3 /, twro fmall metatarfals 3
z/, paftern 3 “u, fefamoids 3 to, coronet-bone or "lefler
paftern 3 .y, y, coffin-bone 3 y, navicular or nut-bone.
Of the Teeth.
A male horfe has 40 teeth, when he has completed
his full number. The mare has ufually but 36.
They are divided into three kinds 3 the cutting teeth
or nippers 3 the cufpidatae or tufhes, and the molares or
grinders. A knowledge of the horTe’s teeth and of the
changes which 4hey undergo, from their firft appear¬
ance, is of the greateft ccmfequence, as from it we de¬
rive the fureft marks of the age of the Korfe 3 at leaft,
till he is eight or nine years old.
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, ffiew the appearance of the
teeth from their firft cutting to the age of eight years.
Fig. 2. fhews the appearance of the colt’s teeth at
the age of three weeks 3 fig. 3. that of the colt’s teeth
at three months. Fig. 4. fhews the ftate of the teeth
from three months to about four or five years, wffrere
a, a, are the pincers or nippers 3 b, v.hat are called
the feparators ; c, c, the corners, or the laic of the front
teeth at that age 3 </, z/, the tufks. Fig. c. fhews the
appearance of the teeth at the age of five years, and
figs. 6, 7, and 8, their appearance at the refpective ages
of fix, feven, and eight years.
Means of The age of a horfe is eafily known by his mouth, till
afcert-.ining he comes eight, after which the ufual marks wear out.
Ai afe ^ ^ ^or^e’ bke many other brute, animals, has his teeth
4 vl ' divided into three ranks j viz. nis fore-teeth which are
fiat and fmooth, his tufhes, and his back-teeth. His
back-teeth or jaw-teeth are called his grinders, being
thofe by which a horfe chews and grinds his provender,
and are 24 in number, 1 2 above and I 2 below' : they
are ffrong double teeth, with fharp edges; but when a
horfe grows old they wear much fmcother.
The firft that grow are his foal-teeth, wffnch begin to
appear a few’ months after he is foaled : they are 1 2 in
number, fix above and fix below 3 and are eafily dif-
100
Teeth.
I E R Y.
#
tinguifhed from the teeth that come afterwards by their
fmailnefs and whitenefs, not unlike the fore-teeth of a
man.
When the colt is about twd years and a half old
he calls the four middlemoft of his fo il-te“th, viz. two
above and two below : but fome do not call any o‘ their
foal-teeth till they are near three years old. The new
teeth are eafily diftinguifned from the foal-teeth, being
much ftronger, and always twice their fize, and are call¬
ed the incifbrs or gatherers, being those by which a
horfe nips off the grafs when he is feeding abroad in the
fields, or in the houfe gathers his hay from the rack.
When a horfe has got thefe four teeth complete, he is
reckoned three years old.
When he is about three and a half, or in the fpring
before he is four years old, he cafts out four more of his
foal-teeth, viz. two above and two below, one on each
fide the nippers or middle teeth : fo that when you look,
into a horfe’s mouth, and fee the two middle teeth full
grown, and none of the foal-teeth except the common
teeth remaining, you may conclude he is four that year
about April or May. Some indeed are later colts, but
that makes little alteration in the mouth.
The tuihes appear near the fame time wuth the four
laft mentioned teeth, fometimes fooner than thofe, and
fometimes not till after a horfe is full four yeajrs old ; they
are curved like the tuihes of other beafts 3 only in a young
horfe, they have a lharp edge all round the top and on
both fides, the infide being fomewhat grooved and flat-
tilh, inclined to a hollownefs.
When a horfe’s tuihes do not appear for fome time
after the foal-teeth are call and the new ones come in
their room, it is generally owing to the foal-teeth having
been pulled out before their time by the breeders or
other dealers in horfes, to make a colt of three years
old appear like one of four, that he may be the more
faleable 5 for when any of the foal-teeth have been pull¬
ed out, the others foon come in their places 3 but the
tuihes having none that go before them, can never make
their appearance till their proper time, viz. when a horfe
is about four or coming four 3 and, therefore, one of the
fureft marks to know a four years old horfe is by his
tuihes, which are then very fmall and lharp on the top
and edges.
When a horfe comes five, or rather in the fpring be¬
fore he is five, the corner teeth begin to appear^ and at
firft but juft equal with the gums, being filled with fleih
in the middle. The tuihes are alfo by this time grown
to a more diilincl fize, though not very large 3 they
likewife continue rough and lharp on the top and edges.
But the corner teeth are now moft to be remarked 3
they differ from the middle teeth in being more flelhy
on the infide, and the gums generally look rawilh upon
their firft Ihooting out 3 whereas the others do not ap¬
pear in this way. The middle teeth arrive at their full
growth in lefs than three weeks 3 but the corner teeth'
grow leifurely, and are feldom much above the gums
till a horfe is full five : they differ alfo from the other
fore-teeth, in this, that they fomewhat refemble a Ihell;
and thence are called the Ihell-teeth, becaufe they en¬
viron the fleih in the middle half-way round 3 and as
they grow, the llelh within difappears, leaving a diltinft
hollownefs and opennefs on the infide. When a horfe
is full five, thefe teeth are generally about the thicknefs
of a crown-piece about the gums. From five to five
3 I 2 ' and
< 435
Anaf.nn.y
of the
Horfe.
#
FARRIERY.
Part II.
and a half they will grow about a quarter of an inch
high, or more 5 and when a horfe is full fix, they will
be near half an inch, and in fome large horfes a full
half-inch, about the gums.
The corner teeth in the upper jaw fall out before
thofe in the under, fo that the upper corner teeth are
ieen before thofe below j on the contrary, the tufhes
in the under gums come on before thofe in the upper..
When a horfe is full fix years old, the hollownefs .
on the infide begins vifibly to fill up, and that which
was at firfl: fleftiy, grows into a brownilh fpot, not un¬
like the eye of a dried garden bean, and continues fo
till he is feven ; with this difference only, that the tooth
is more filled up, and the mark or fpot becomes faint,
and of a lighter colour. At eight, the mark in moft
horfes is quite worn out, though fome retain the veltiges
of it a long time j and thofe who have not had a good
deal of experience, may fometimes be deceived by taking
a horfe of nine or ten years old for one of eight. It is
at this time only, "when a horfe is paft mark, that one
can eafily err in knowing the age of a horfe *, for what
practices are ufed to make a very young horfe or colt
appear older than he is, by pulling out the foal-teeth
before their time, may be difcovered by feeling along
the edges where the tufhes grow, for they may be felt
in the gums before the corner teeth are put forth ;
whereas, if the corner teeth come in fome months be¬
fore the tufhes rife in the gums, we may reafonably fuf-
pe£t that the foal-teeth have been pulled out at three
years old.
It will, perhaps, be needlefs to mention the tricks
that are ufed to make a falfe mark in a horfe’s mouth,
by hollowing the tooth with a graver, and burning a
mark with a fmall hot iron ; becaufe thofe who are ac¬
quainted with the true marks, will eafily difcover the
cheat by the fize and colour of the teeth, by the round-
nefs and bluntnefs of the tufhes, by the colour of the
falfe marks, which is generally blacker, and more im-
preffed than the true mark, and by many other vifible
tokens, which denote the advanced age of a horfe.
After the horfe has pafled his eighth year, and fome¬
times at feven, nothing certain can be known by the
mouth. It muft, however, be remembered, that fome
horfes have but indifferent mouths when they are young,
and foon lofe their markq others have their mouths
good for a long time, their teeth being white, even,
and regular, till they are 16 years old and upwards,
together with many other marks of frefhnefs and vigour •,
but when a horfe comes to be very old, it may be dif¬
covered by feveral indications, the conftant attendants
of age, viz. his gums wear aw7ay infenfibly, leaving his
teeth long and naked at their roots. The bars of the
mouth, which, in a young horfe are always flefhy, and
form fo many diftinft ridges, are, in an old horfe, lean,
dry, and fmooth, with little or no rifing. The eye-pits
in a young horfe (except thofe come of old ftallions) are
generally filled up with flefh, look plump and fmooth •,
whereas in an old horfe, they are funk and hollow, and
make them look ghaftly, and with a melancholy afpeft.
There are alfo other marks which difcover a horfe to be
very old, viz. gray horfes turn very white, and many of
them all over flea-bitten, except their joints^ This,
however, happens fometimes later and fometimes fooner,.
according to the variety of colour and conflitution.
Black horfes are apt to grow gray over their eye-brows,
and very often ovej a good part of their face, efpecially
thofe who have a ftar or blane fringed round with gray
when they are young. All horfes, when very old, fink
more or lefs in their backs ; and fome horfes, that are
naturally long-backed, grow7 fo hollow writh age, that
it is fcarce poflible to fit them with a faddle. Of this
kind are feveral Spanilh and Barbary horfes, and many
Danith and Flanders breed. The joints alio grow lliff
with old age, and their knees and hocks bend fo, that
they are apt to trip and Humble upon the leaft defeent,
though the way be fmooth and noways rugged. After
which they can be of little ufe to the owner *.
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
* Board-
man s Dic¬
tionary.
Chap. II. Principal Mufcles of the Horfe.
102
Mul'cies
We fltall here only enumerate the mufcles of the
head, neckr and trunk, as being of lefs importance
than thofe of the extremities. Of thefe latter we lhall
give a table, exprefling, befides their ufual names, their
origin, infertion, and ufes.
Mufcles of the “Eyelids and Eye.
Orbicular of the eyelids.
Elevator of the upper eyelid, tf, b, fig. IC
Elevator of the eye.
Deprelfor of the eye.
Adduftor of the eye.
Abduftor of the eye.
Trochlear mufcle of the eye.
Obliquus jnajor.
Leffer oblique.
Retra&or of the eye.
Mufcles of the Mouth and Jaws..
Orbicular, g, i, fig. 9. 0, fig. 10.
Buccinator, r, fig. 9. r, fig. 10.
Elevator of the corner of the mouth, m, n, fig. 1 o»
Long nafal of the upper lip,. /, 0, fig. 9,
Maffeter, />, y, fig. 9.
Ciliares, zq w, fig. 9.
Temporal, 2, 3, fig. 9^
Canine, 6, 7, fig. 9. m, », fig. 10.
Depreffor of the lower lip, 9, 10, fig. 9. r,
fig. 10.
Elevator of the chin, 12. fig. 9.
Dilatators of the noftrils, abed, gf fig. 9.
Mufcles of the Neck.
Sterno-maftoid; a^b^.c, fig. 9.
Coraco-hyoideus, f f fig. 9. and a, by c, dy
fig. 10..
Sterno-hyoideus; g, fig. 9. f g, fig. .10.
Sterno-thyroideus j by z, k, fig. 10.
Tranfverfals^ /z, z, fig. 9. A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
fig. 10.
Trachelo-maftoid; M, O, P, Q, S, fig. 10.
Re&us internus major capitis; z;z, zz, fig. 9. and to, x,
yt fig. 10.
Intertranfverfales minores colli; 0, fig. 9.
Long
Part II.
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
FARR
Long mufcle of the neck ; q, %. 9. X, Y,
fig. 10.
Splenius; r, /, fig* 9-
Hyothyroidseus ; y, fig. 9.
Cricothyroidaeus j 55, fig. 9.
Lower confiriftor of the pharynx.
Reaus capitis pofticus major j /, «, fig. ir.
minor ; a, to, fig. 11.
Superior oblique of the head j «, U, fig. 10.
Inferior ditto j W, W, fig. 10.
Intertranfverfales pofteriores colli y L, &.c. M, &c.
fig. n.
Intervertebral mufcles.
Multifidae fpinae y c, d, fig. 12.
Spinales cervicis y R, T, U, fig. 11.
I E R Y.
Mufcles of the Trunk.
External oblique y I, K, L, M, fig. 9.
Obliquus internus y s, t, u, w, a, y, fig. IO.
Redus abdominis y fig. 10.
Tranfverfalis abdominis y />, y, r, fig. II.
External intercoftals j 1, 2, &c. fig. II.
Internal, ditto ; 3, 4, &c. fig. 11.
Semifpinalis and ipinalis dorli y a, b, crd, e,f fig 11.
Longiflimus dorfi y g, h, z, hy fig. 11.
Sacrolumbal •, /, m, ny &c. fig. 11.
Elevators of the ribs y a, b, fig. 1 2.
Lateral of the tail j e,f fig. 12.
Iiitertranfverfals of the tail j g, &c. fig. 12^ N
Elevator of the tail-, z, fig. 12.
DepreiTor of the tail y kr fig. I 2.
437
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
IO^
Table of
the mul'cles
of the ex-
tfemities.
Table of the Mufcles of the Extremities.
1. Mufcles of the Tore-leg and Foot.
Flame.
Trapezius.
Larger rhomboid.
Rhomboideus major,
a b, fig. 9.
Triangulaire Vitet.
Leffer rhomboid.
Levator fcapulce.
Leffer peaoral.
Depreffor fcapulce.
c, d, e,f fig. 9.
Triangular.
Anterior ferrated.
Serratus anticus.
g, /z, z, k, /, 0, pt fig. 9*
Ante-fpinatus.
a, b} c, dy e,f, fig. 9.
Poft-fpinatus.
/z, k, l, n, fig. 9.
Extenfor of the ligament.
Latiffimus dorfi.
r, j, t, u, w, fig. 9.
Common mufcie.
Levator humeri.
Subfcapular.
rz, by fig. II.
Origin and Infection.
From the 4th, 5th, and 6th cervical vertebrae j
from the firft 1 2 or 13 dorfal vertebrae y- and
from the cervical ligament, into the fpine
of the blade-bone.
From the 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th dorfal verte¬
brae, below the cartilage of the blade-bone,
into the whole length of that cartilage.
i
From the ligament of the neck, at about the
2d vertebra, into the cartilage of the blade-
bone.
From the lateral part of the breaft-bone, into
the upper and fore part of the blade-bone.
From the 4th, and 5th vertebrae of the neck,
into the upper and fore part of the blade-
bone, above the pe&oral.
From the true ribs, and from the 6th and 7 th
cervical vertebrae, into the laft cervical ver¬
tebra..
From the ante-fpinatas foffa, by two tendons,
into the two tuberofities of the head of the
fhoulder-bone.
From a foffa, fo called, into the outer-fide of
the fhoulder-bone.
From the coracoid procefs of the blade-bone,
into the whole of the capfular ligament.
From all the dorfal vertebrae connefted with
the mufcles of the back, and with the
flefhy pannicle, into the inner tuberofity
of the fhoulder-bone, below the blade-
bone.
From the tuberofity of the temporal bone,
and from the four firft cervical vertebrae,
into the upper and outward part of the
arm.
From the hollow of the blade-bone, into the
inner fide of the fhoulder-bone.
Vfe.
To raife and draw backwards1
the blade-bone.
To raife the blade-bone, and
draw it a little forwards.
To draw the blade-bone for¬
ward, when the neck is fix¬
ed, or vice verfa.
To draw the blade-bone down¬
wards.
To draw the blade-bone for¬
wards.
To conned! the blade-bone
with the cheft, and to draw
it downwards, and fometimes
to aflift other mufcles.
To extend the fore-leg and
move it forwards.
To move the fore-leg outward^
and away from its fellow.
To prevent the ligament from
being pinched between the
bones.
To draw the fore-leg back¬
ward, and towards the cheft.
To raife the arm, and when-
that is fixed, to draw the
head and neck downwards.
To move the arm towards its
fellow.
Larger-'
F A
Anrtomy
of the
Horfe.
Name.
Larger peftoral.
* 2 3 4 5 fig- 9-
Sterno-brachial.
Coraco-bracliial.
Adduftor of the {boulder.
Teres major.
fig- II-
\
It F. I E R Y.
Origin and Infertion.
From the fide of the breaft-bone, and the
cartilages of the fix laft true ribs, into the
inner fide of the ihoulder-bone.
From the fore part of the breait-bone, into
the inner and lower part of the ihoulder-
bone, and conneded by expaniion with the
radius.
From the coracoid procefs of the blade-bone
into thd' lower and back part of the fiioulder-
bone.
From the upper part of the pofterior edge of
the blade-bone, into the inlide of the Ihoul-
der-bone.
t
Long abdu&orof the (boulder.
Teres ininor.
fig- 9-
Short abdudor of the (boulder.
Anterior radial flexor.
Flexor longus.
Biceps in human anatomy,
i, k, /, ?n, n, fig. io.
Oblique brachial flexor.
From the pofterior edge of the blade-bone in¬
to the outer tuberofity of the (houlder-
bone.
Below the laft mufcle, between the laft and
the fubfcapula.
From the tuberofity of the blade-bone, above
the glenoid cavity, into the inner tuberofity
of the radius.
✓ '
From the neck of the (houlder-bone into the
inner tuberofity of the radius.
Fafcialis cubiti.
Extenfor longus. t
From the pofterior edge of the blade-bone in¬
to the olecranon, or elbow.
\
Biceps extenfor cubiti.
N, O, P, fig. 9.
Internal brachial.
a, b, c, fig. 11.
Intermediate extenfor.
Large extenfor of the canon.
Radial extenfor of the canon.
b, c,d, fig. 10.
■External flexor of the canon.
/, m, fig. 11.
Liner flexor of the canon.
nop, fig. 11.
Flexor of the carpus.
«
Anterior long extenfor of the
foot.
The lateral extenfor of the foot.
Perforated flexor of the foot.
Perforating flexor of the foot.
From the whole length of the pofterior edge
of the blade-bone into the olecranon.
Below the inner fide of the head of the
(boulder-bone, into the inner and upper
part of the olecranon.
From the neck, and fomc part of the (houlder-
bone, into the olecranon.
From the outer condyle, and tuberofity of the
• (houlder-bone, into the anterior tuberofity
of the canon-bone.
From the fide of the radius downwards from
the middle, into the fmall inner metacarpal
bone.
From the outer condyle of the (houlder-bone,
at its back part, into the pifiform, and
fmall outer metacarpal bones.
From the inner condyle of the flioulder-bone,
into the back part of the canon.
From the inner condyle of the (houlder- bone,
at its back part, into the pififonn bone.
From the lower and outer head of the
(houlder-bone, and upper part of the ra¬
dius, into the anterior protuberance of the
coflin-bone.
From the outer head of the radius, pafiing
over theicnee through an annular ligament,
into the upper and back part of the bone
down to the foot.
From the inner condyle of the (houlder-bone
palling behind the knee, into the arch of
the coffin-bone.
From the olecranon and the fhoulder-bone
at the back part, into the arch of the
coffin-bone.
' Part IT.
Ufe. Anatomy
To draw the fore-leg down- of tlie
wards and backwards. Ho^e- r
To draw- the fore-legs together,
and to aifill the laft: in re-
fpiration, when the fore-leg
is .fixed.
To draw- the arm forwards and
outwards.
When the blade bone is fixed,
to draw the fore-leg up¬
wards and inwards, and vice
verfa.
To drawr the fhoulder-bone up¬
wards and cutw-ards.
To turn the arm.
To bend the arm.
To turn the fore-arm, and
aflift the former in bending;.
it.
To bind down the mufcles,
and aflift in extending the
arm.
To extend the arm.
To oppofe the oblique flexor.
To aflift in extending the arrfh
To extend the canon.
To aflift the former, and turn
the foot outwrards.
To bend the canon.
To afiift the former.
To bend the carpus, and ex¬
tricate the ligament.
To extend the foot.
To aflift the former, if
To bend the foot.
To aflift the former.
2. Mufcles
F A K R
I
Part II.
Anatomy
ot the
Horfe.
Name, is'c.
Pofterior gluteus, m, n, o, p,
fig. 9*
Tenfor vaginae femoris.
Fafcia lata.
a, b, c, c, D, ej, g, h, fig. 9.
Semimembranofus. 17, 18, 19.
fig- 9-
Eiceps flexor cruris. 3, 4, 5
—11, fig. 9.
Pofterior flexor of the leg.
The large gluteus. <7, £), r, s,
t, fig. 9.
Capfular.- a,b,c, fig. 12.
Gracilis. e, f, fig. 9. u, w,
fig. II.
Sartorius.
AdduBor longus.
A A r, s, fig- ii- 1, ",
fig. 12.
Large pfoas.
Larger internal iliac, e, fig. 10.
Leffer internal iliac.
PefHneus. j-, fig. 12.
Triceps addudftor femcris.
Vaftus extemus. «, 0, p, r, j-, t,
fig. 10.
Straight mufcle of the leg.
Rutus cruris,
g, h, i, k. fig. 10.
Vaftus internus. b, c, fig. 10..
€ rural. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, fig. 11.
External, obturator.
Square mufcle of the thigh.
d^uadratus femoris.
Gemini, f g, fig. i0.
E R Y,
2. Mufcles of the Hind Leg or Foot.
Origin and Infertion.
From the interior and pofterior angles of the
ilium, into the little trochanter of the
thigh-bone.
From the ^apterior angle of the ilium, into a
tendinous expanfion over the thigh.
From the tuberofity and lower angle of the
ifchium, into the fore part of the thigh¬
bone, and into the tibia.
From the tuberofity of the ifchium, and be¬
ginning of the tail, into the inner fide of
the fpine of the tibia.
Like the former, into the inner condyle of
the thigh-bone and upper end of the tibia.
From the vertebrae of the loins, and from the
facrum, into the great trochanter of the
thigh-bone.
Rifes from the brim of the acetabulum, into
the outer fide of the thigh-bone.
From the pubis and ifehium, into the fafcia
1 of the thigh and the inner fide of the head
of the tibia.
From the inner edge of the brim of the pelvis,
into the inner head of the tibia..
From the three laft dorfal, and four firft
lumbar vertebrae, and from the two laft
falfe ribs, into the inner trochanter of the
thigh-bone.
From the inner furface of the ilium, into the
lefler trochanter of the thigh-bone'.
From the inner furface of the ilium, into the
leffer trochanter of the thigh-bone.
From the fymphyfis pubis, inferted below the
laft.
From the inner edge of the pubis, from the
anterior branch of the ifchium, and from
its tuberofity, into the back, of the thigh¬
bone, the upper and inner part of the
tibia, and the tuberofity of the thigh-bone.
From the great trochanter, and the outer fide
of the thigh-bone, into the fide of the knee-
pan.
From the ilium above the focket, and from
the upper part of the thigh-bone, into the
upper part of the knee-pan.
From the neck, inner tuberofity, and whole
inner part of the thigh-bone, into the in¬
ner fide of the knee-pan.
From the fore part of the thigh-bone, into the
inner fide of the knee-pan.
From the inner part of the ifchium, into the
hollow of the great trochanter.
From the lower part of the tuberofity of the
ifchium, into the thigh-bone below the
great trochanter.
From the ifchium and pubis, one above the.
other, inferted into the thigh with the laft.
439
Anatomy
©f the
Horfe.
Vfe.'
To extend the thigh, and draw
it outwards.
To ftretch the fafcia of the
thigh, and draw it inwards.
To draw the thigh outwards.
To bend the leg, and draw it
inwards.
To bend the leg.
To extend the thigh, and draw
it backwards and outwards.
To extricate the capfular liga¬
ment.
To make one thigh approach
its fellow.
To affift the former.
To bend the thigh.
To affift the former.
To aflift the former,
To bend the thigh.
To draw one thigh towards fta
fellow.
To extend the leg.
I
To extend the leg ftrongly.
To affift the vaftus externus,
and laft mufcle.
Ditto.
To roll the thigh-bone.
Aflifts the former.
Oppofe the laft.
Inner -
4^0
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
Name, b'c.
Inner obturator. I,
/ 2.
Prjrifortn.
2, 3> %
Popliteus. 28, 29, fig. II.
1 Tibialis anticus. 14.
Gaftrocnemius.
Plantar. 40’, fig. 9.
Perforated flexor of the foot.
Larger perforating flexor of
the foot.
Leffer perforating flexor of the
foot.
The long extenfor of the foot.
Lateral extenfor of the foot.
Leffer extenfor.
farriery.
Origin and Infertion.
From the edge of the thyroid hole, into the
thigh with the preceding.
From the facrum within the pelvis, inferted as
the laft.
From the external condyle of the thigh-bone,
into the tibia.
From the fore part of the external condyle of
the thigh-bone, into both canons by two
portions.
From each condyle of the thigh-bone, into
the hock.
From the upper part of the fpine of the tibia,
inferted as the former.
From the hollow between the condyles of
the thigh-bone, into each fide of the paf-
tern-bone.
From the back and outer part of the head of
the tibia, into the arch of the coffin-bone.
From the back part of the head of the tibia,
inferted with the preceding.
From the tendon of the extenfor of the ca¬
non, in the anterior protuberance of the
coffin-bone.
From the outer head of the thigh-bone, and
from the head of the fibula, inferted with
the laft.
From the tendon of the long extenfor to the
lateral extenfor.
To affift the gemim.
Ditto.
To draw the leg inwards.
To bend the leg ftrongly.
To extend the(canon.
To bend the pattern and foot.
To bend the foot.
To affift the former.
To extend the foot.
Ditto.
Part II.
Anatomy
of the
Hoi fe.
To draw the tendons of the
long and lateral extenfors to¬
gether.
The four figures to which we have referred alfo re-
prefent the following parts.
The broad ligaments of the eyelids} s, t, fig. 9.
Alee narium j 2;, fig. 9.
Angular vein j 14, fig. 9.
Angular artery } 15, fig- 9.
Parotid gland 5 26, fig. 9.
In the Neck.
Common jugular vein ; I, fig. 9.
External anterior jugular j 2, fig. 9. .
Pofterior external jugular ; 3, fig* 9«
Part of the carotid artery 5 4, fig. 9.
Branches of the cervical arteries and veins 5 1,2, fig. 10.
Thyroid gland •, a, fig. II.
Gullet ; f, fig- II.
Windpipe j k, fig. 11.
Cervical nerves •, 2, fig. 11.
Ligament of the neck 5 5, fig. 11. > 7* fig* I 2.
External carotid artery j 1, fig- I2*
In the Trunk.
Epigaftric artery 5 w, fig; 11.
External iliac } y, fig- H*
The diaphragm j m m, fig. 12.
Intercoftal artery 5 />, fig. 12.
In the Fore Extremity.
Internal plantar vein •, r, fig. 9.
Coronary ligament of the foot j 13, fig. 9.
Cartilages of the coffin-bone j r, u.
- 4
In the Hind Extremity.
Vena faphaenaj 21, fig. 9.
Capfular ligament of the knee5 3, 4, fig', ic:
Sciatic artery *, 34, fig. II.
Gluteal artery •, 35, 35, fig. II.
Crural vein •, 38, fig. II.
Popliteal artery J 39,52, fig- II*
    vein; 53, fig. II.
Crural nerve ; 35, fig* 12.
Chap. HI* Of the Stomach and Bowels.
i°4
In the horfe there is but one ftomach, which is very Suucture
fmall in proportion to his general bulk; and is partly of the
membranous, partly cuticular, and partly mufcular.ltomac '
It is fituated immediately behind the diaphragm, in the
left hypochondrium, and in part of the epigaftrium,
with its expellent orifice extending acrofs the fpine to
the right, which is the reafon that lying on that fide is
judged more wholefome than fleeping on the left. It
has two furfaces, which may be called its fides, though
one is pofterior, and the other anterior ; and two ex¬
tremities, a large and a fmall; the fuperior furface of
which receives the gullet, and is called its cardiac ori¬
fice; while the former ends in the duodenum, and is
termed the pyloric orifice; this extremity, when the
ftomach is diftended, is the moft. pofterior of the two:
The hollow part fituated fuperiorly, only forms its
lejjer curvature, as the lower portion forms its great
curvature. • . %
Thus when the ftomach is moderately diftended, it
lies in an obliquely tranfverfe direction, with its great
extremity a littie forwards, and its two orifices ffiperi-
or
* Blame i
Outlines,
vol, ii.
Part II. FARR
Anatomy or, but the cardiac the moft fo, with the lefTer ex-
Horfe6 tremIt5r rat^er pofterior to the other, and the great
t curvature inferior. It is evident that the fituation of
the ftomach muft vary much with, its diftenfion : the
foregoing defeription anfwers to it when moderately
diftended only ^ but where it is very much filled, the
left extremity will prefs upon the diaphragm, and the
right will be carried more pofteriorly. In oxen and
Iheep, where the firft ftomach is large, it is found, when
diftended, to have its left extremity carried quite into
the left iliac region j in which part it is ufually pundur-
ed, when they are hoved : but fuch an idea of the
ftomach of the horfe would prove very erroneous } for
this animal has a very fmall one, and therefore its fitu¬
ation can never be fuch *.
From a diftended ftomach prelling upon the dia¬
phragm, we are at no lofs to underftand, why breathing
is impeded after a foil meal, when a horfe appears to
labour for breath; for he is forced to ufe the intercoftal
mufcles, and the mufcles of the ftioulder and fore ex¬
tremities, to open the cheft, the pofterior enlargement
being prevented from the diaphragm being fixed by the
preffure of the ftomach ; hence we fee the great impro¬
priety of galloping horfes after watering, to warm it in
their bellies, as it is fooliftily termed. Horfes, when
grazing, if they drink, are never obferved to do this $
if it was neceffary, nature would diftate it to them.
How hurtful it is likewife to ride hard, after a horfe
has been full fed, is equally evinced. The ftomach
has externally a covering from the peritoneum, which
adheres clofely to it, by means of its cellular portion j
and which portion is dipping in between the mufcular
fibres. Its middle portion is made up of mufcular fibres,
which are more numerous in this animal, than in the
ruminant j making this kind of ftomach a medium be¬
tween the membranous one of feme animals, and the
true mufcular ftomach of others. The direction of
thefe fibres is various ; but they may principally be
referred to a longitudinal and a tranfverfe order,
though neither of them are regularly fo, and are inter¬
mixed with others, whofe direction is very oblique, and
interlaced with each other. The longitudinal plane is
the moft external of the two, and appears a con¬
tinuation of the external plane of the cefophagus, with
fome original fibres, which fpread over the leffer cur¬
vature, being carried obliquely round, and likewife
oyer the great extremity, forming themfelves into a
kind of vertex, whofe centre is in the middle of that
extremity. The inner plane is by much the larger,
and is not quite circular, but {lightly oblique, crofting
the obliquity of the longitudinal plane. This circular
plane is very thick and ftrong round the cardia, or
that extremity into which the oefophagus terminates.
They are here fo very thick as to form a true fphinc-
Reaions foi ter 5 and to this it is in fome meafure owing, that a
aot vomit- ^orfe cannot vomit; for when the circular and longi-
ing. tudinal fibres are afting from the pylorus to the cardia,
by any irritation that reverfes the ufual motion, pro¬
ducing an effort to vomit, the circular and longitudinal
fibres of the cardia being infinitely ftronger and more
numerous, are contrafting this orifice (efpecially the
circular), as the others are contracting the other parts ;
for as the mufcular fibres exift equally throughout the
ftomach, by which the motions are effected, it cannot
be limply from the exiftence of the circular covering to
Vol. VIII. Part II,
105
I E R Y.
the firft portion of his ftomach, that he cannot vomit;
for it is reafonable to fuppofe the fibres a£t throughout
the ftomach by the common confent of parts; nor do
they of actual neceflity want an immediate ftimulus to
their furfaces; for were this the cafe, the fibres of the
oefophagus would not by the prefence of the mafticated
bolus be ftimulated to contract through the cuticular
coat, which equally here lies over the fibres ; neverthe-
lefs, the cuticular coat of the ftomach is probably afliit-
ing in this difficulty to regurgitate: it does it by leffening
the liability to naufea, which feldom takes place in the
horfe ; and as vomiting is only an effort to remove nan-
fea or its caufe, fo nature not having given the dif-
eafe, has not provided the means for its removal. As
likewife vomiting appears to be a reverfing of the peri-
ftaltic motion of the ftomach ; which motion, in its na¬
tural ftate, begins from the cardia, and ends at the py¬
lorus ; fo in this reverfed ftate, it commences at the
pylorus, and ends at the cardia, thus regurgitating its
contents; fo it is very probable that the cuticular
covering may leffen this inverted periftaltic motion in
the upper portion, though it cannot wholly deftroy it;
and hence cannot be the only, or the principal realon
of the impoffibility, or rather of the difficulty with
which this animal vomits ; for inftances have occurred
where it has taken place. A horfe in Suflex was feen
to regurgitate a large quantity of grains, and we have
heard of one or two other inftances ; but thefe muft be
regarded as very rare occurrences.
It is not, therefore, that the ftomach of the horfe
cannot be irritated to make an attempt to vomit, that
no fuch effedt generally takes place ; for though it is
but very feldom that naufea occurs, and perhaps never
in a ftate of nature, yet it may be excited by means of
aconite, hellebore, and fome other fubftances, which
have caufed fruitlefs efforts to vomit. But the true
and principal reafon that a horfe may be faid, naturally
not to be able to vomit, arifes, in that nature has wife¬
ly fo conftrudted the parts, that the very effort to it
increafes the refiftance by the very ftrong fphindter
placed at the mouth of the cardia. Had this refiftance
not been placed, and every means taken to increafe the
almoft impoffibility of vomiting in a liorfe, it is evident
that from the curtain of the palate flopping the open¬
ing of the mouth, this aftion, had it taken place, would
have occafioned fuffocation. The inner coat of the
ftomach is compofed of two portions, the one cuticular
and the other villous. This fpecies of cuticular cover¬
ing to nearly one half of the ftomach, is peculiar to
fuch animals as appear deftined to live on grain, as
horfes, affes, rats, and mice ; and this forms a third
fpecies of ftomach between the true membranous one of
graminivorous animals, and the mufcular of the carni¬
vorous tribes, and it may be confidered in a flight de¬
gree, as a fpecies of gizzard, refembling the ftrubture of
thofe animals, as fowls, who have organs to make up
for the want of teeth. For a horfe has not the means
of re-maftication, as in oxen or Iheep, nor does he ufual¬
ly mafticate his food at firft fufficiently to comminute
it j for the wants of the conititution ftimulate him to a
hafty deglutition of his food, which, if there was not
fome other ftnnfture than that common to ftomachs in
general, would not be fufficiently digefted : for the food
is (olid, and the ftomach fmall; therefore this cuticular
coat may be ui’eful, as its infenfibility allows it to prefs
3 K in
441
Anatomy>
of the
Horfe.
io£»
44'
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
* Blaine s
Outlines.
107
Bowels.
F A R II
in a fmall degree upon the food, and perform a flight
trituration upon it. This cuticular coat is fpread over
the firft portion of the ftomach, taking in all the great
extremity, and forming between a third and half of its
extent. "it is formed into folds at the cardia in the
fame manner as at the internal part of the oefophagus}
but as foon as it has palled this orifice, thefe folds take
an irregular direftion, but are lefs than thofe formed on
the villous furface.
The villous or fenfible portion of the ftomach, though
it occupies more of the length of the ftomach, yet per¬
haps in real extent is little more than half of its furface.
It unites with or is connefted to the cuticular. Its ex¬
ternal furface is firm, and appears as it were a diftindf
portion, but is only denfe cellular fubftance, which has
given rife to the defcription of four tunics to the
ftomach. The tunica vil/ofa is fo called from its re-
lemblance to the pile of velvet 5 its fine villi are pro¬
bably the extreme fine ends of velfels fecreting the gaf-
tric juice. The villous coat being much larger in ex¬
tent than the mufcular, is thrown into folds, which are
more confiderable than thofe of the cuticular coat.
Thefe are largeft at the portion toward the great extre¬
mity, and are irregularly waving : towards the duode¬
num they become lefs, and when at the pylorus they
form a fold that makes a kind of valve to this part of
the ftomach, preventing the return of the food, and its
too fpeedy pafiage out. The folds not only hinder the
too fpeedy paflage of the food, but by this means apply
the gaftric juice more certainly to all the parts} but the
principal end is to increafe the feereting furface, which
is here more extenlive than thofe of the human *..
The remainder of the alimentary canal is continued
from the lower orifice of the ftomach, to the anus, or
end of the paffage, forming a long canal of different di-
menfions, called mteftines. T hey are ufually divided
into fmall and large. In fome animals they hardly
merit this diftinclion, there being but little difference
in point of fize : but in the horfe, the proportion is very
different; the fmall inteftines being not much larger
than the human, but the large of an immenfe bulk.
This canal is connected through its wdiole extent to
membranous produftions of the peritoneum, efpecially to
thofe called mefenlery and mefocolon. The whole canal
varies in point of length in different fubjefts ; but is
feldom lefs than 24 yards, and often more. The in¬
teftines are contained within a prolongation of the peri¬
toneum, which arifes in moft inftances from the mefen-
tery : the two folds of this membrane feparate and fur-
round the inteftines, forming their external coat. The
next coat is mufcular, and formed of two layers of fibres,
a longitudinal and a circular ; the latter are in greater
proportion, and by the contratlion of thefe the vermi¬
cular motion, called periflailic, is performed, from the
longitudinal fibres flightly fhortening them, and the
circular diminifhing their fize. Within this mufcular
coat there is a quantity of cellular membrane rather
more denfe than in fome other parts \ and this ufed to
be regarded as a coat, and w7as called the nervous, but
is only a layer of cellular membrane. The third and
inner coat of the inteftines is the villous, wdiich is very
vafcular and fenfible. There are no confiderable folds
of the inner tunic of the inteftines, as in the human. In
this animal thefe are rendered unneceffary by the great
I E R Y. Part II.
length of his inteftines, and the flow paffuge of the ali- Anatomy
ments through them by this length and his pofition. H^fe
The firft portion of the bowels, which anfwers to the l —,
duodenum in man, though in the horfe it is nearer 20 108
inches than 12, is attached to the ftomach, having its Firft por-
pyloric orifice ending in it j its courfe in the horfe isb°n'
rather different from that in the human, and by this it
acquires a more complete covering from the peritoneum.
It hangs loofe and pendulous, being attached to the
concave furface of the liver, where making a turn, it
is fixed to the vertebrae: it then takes the name oijeju¬
num. It appears rather larger in circumference than
the other fmall inteftines, and is remarkable for having
the pancreatic and biliary duels penetrating it, fometimes
entering it obliquely clofe together, and fometimes at a
diftance from each other. . 109
The jejunum and ilium differ very little from the fame Je.iunuin’
bowels in the human ipecies. no
The great inteftines are very properly fo called in Large m-
the horfe ; and as they have very little relemblance to1"' mes*
the human large inteftines, they require a particular de¬
fcription. 111
The ccecum is fituated in the back part of the belly,C3ecum’
and is a very large canal, which is entered abruptly
by the ilium. The fore part of this canal proje&s for¬
ward two or three feet, into a fort of bag of the fame
ftze of the colon ; but the back part terminates in
what is called a blind end. I he Ccecum ufually occu¬
pies the right fide of the belly, and appears imme¬
diately on opening the peritoneum, with its commence¬
ment from the colon and ilium in the right iliac region,
extending forwards to the right fide, with its blind
end clofe to the diaphragm and liver. This termi¬
nation is not furniftied, as in fome animals, with an
appendix vermiiormis, but terminates by a fimple
blind end. Through the peritoneal covering are feen
four mufcular longitudinal bands, extending from the
extremity along the mufcular coat, and dividing tne
gut into four longitudinal portions. One or two of
thefe are ufually covered with fat, and are not fo re¬
gularly longitudinal as the others. The internal mem¬
brane is folded up between the longitudinal bands, and
by interfering them forms numerous cavities called
the cells.
On the flighteft inipeftion we fee a great peculiarity
in the form of the caecum of the horfe j and in a more
accurate view, are ftruck with the importance of the
ftru£lure to this animal, and are led to confider the caecum
as little lefs than a fecond ftomach. This is in fact the
cafe ^ for the food coming in a macerated mafs from the
fmall inteftines, is mixed in the caecum, with the bile,
and pancreatic juice, and here undergoes a farther change,
to which the ftrufture of the caecum is evidently favour¬
able, as it is fitted to retain the mafs for a confiderable
time within it, and to circulate it through all its parts.
It has twro blind ends, one forming its bafis, and near
this enters the ilium ; the other forming its point, and
extending up towards the diaphragm. From one part
of the bale the colon commences by a very contracted
portion, for the purpofe of preventing the entrance
of the contents of the ilium, till they have paffed
through the caecum. In many animals the caecum is a
very inconfiderable part; in fome it has one or more
appendicles; in others it is almoft entirely wanting ;
and
of the
Hcrfe.
H*
Colon.
Part II. FARR
Anatomy and in all but the horfe its ufe is oblcure, and apparent¬
ly not very important •, but in the horfe it is certainly
little lefs than a fecond ilomach, for its whole Urufture
proves, that it is purpofely deligned that all the food
taken in (hall be poured into the bafe of this gut, by
the contraction of which it fhall be forced towards the
apex, and either in its paffage or return ihall be de¬
tained in the cells to be in fome way farther acted upon,
and to undergo fome change neceffary to the fyftem.
Having undergone this change, whatever it is, it is
forced into the colon.
The colon commences fmall from the fide of the bafe
of the caecum y and as the ilium cannot be faid to enter
it together with the csecum, as in fome animals, there is
in the horfe no fuch part as the valve of the colon pro¬
perly fo called. The ilium has, however, a fort of pro-
trufion with its inner membrane, by which in fome mea-
fure it prevents the return of the contents of the
csecum. As the colon paffes, it is farther contracted,
and then enlarges into a very long and large canal,
which, after having made nearly the 1x11016 circumfer¬
ence of the belly, is again {lightly contracted. It then
again enlarges, paffes again round the belly, and is a
third time contracted, juft where it ends in the reCtum
or ftraight gut. The fmall inteftines reft on the turns
of the colon and on the caecum. The colon is furnifli-
ed with four ligamentous bands in its large portion, but
there are only two in the fmall portions y thefe form
longitudinal fraena, which are interfeCted again by in¬
ternal folds, fo as to form the cells of the colon. It is
connected and fupported in its fituation by that portion
of the mefentery termed mefocolon. This inteftine is
very different- in the horfe to what it is in moft other
animals, in confequence of its variations in fize, being in
moft other inftances of one general fize y it is likewife
this gut and the caecum that are the principal feat of
the inflammation arifing from violent purging medicines.
Tire recium is the continuation of the colon, and
paffes backwards from the lumbar vertebra2 to the anus.
Its mufcular coat is thicker than that of the other in¬
teftines, and it is thrown internally into cavities by the
inner membrane, in fome manner fimilar to the cells of
the colon, though lefs y were it not for this, the inteftine
might be too conftantly ftimulated to expel its contents,
but by this means the faeces are received and retained
till they are collected in a confiderable quantity, when
they are expelled. The reClum is attached to the fpine
and facrum by the peritoneum, is here called meforec-
tum y but the true fold of peritoneum does not invert
its whole portion, but leaves it as it approaches the rec¬
tum, wdiich is at this place only covered writh the cel¬
lular part of it. The mefentery bands of the re&um are
very ftrong, and terminate at the anus in a kind of li¬
gamentary expanfion attached to the os coccygis.
The anus is the termination of the reClum, and is
opened by the force of the periftaltic motion and the
confent of the parts, and (hut by a mufcular band
round the extremity of the gut called the fphin&er. It
is likewife elevated and retracfed by two pair of mufcles.
Chap. IV. Of the Foot.
Ik our account of the anatomy of the horfe’s foot, it
will be neceffary to defcribe only one foot, as thdfe be-
longing to both extremities are limilar in ftruchire.
1 *3
Re<ftum.
443
Anatomy
of the
Hori'e.
114
”5
I E R Y.
The bones which compofe the foot of the horfe are
lix in number, confidering the foot as commencing at
the fetlock joint. Of thefe fix bones two are included
within the hoof, viz. the coffin-bone, and the navicular-
bone y and four are lituated above the hoof, viz. the Bones,
large paftem-bone, the fmall paftem-bone, and the two
fefamoid bones.
We (hall begin from above, with the large paftem-
bone, as this contributes to form what is called the large
paftern joint.
The large paftern-boney (1, fig. 13, 14, and 15.) is Large paf-
of an oblong cylindrical form, and, as is the cafe withtern ^one*
all fuch bones, is fmaller in the middle than at either
extremity. It articulates above with the lower head of
the canon-bone, and belotv with the upper head of the
fmall paftern-bone. At its upper extremity there are
three depreifions, one on each fide, large and fuperficial
(<7, c, fig. 13.) to receive the outer and inner convexi¬
ty of the lower head of the canon-bone, and one in the
fiddle, b, for receiving the middle narrow convexity of
the fame bone. The fore part of this bone is {lightly
rounded, and rough towards its upper extremity, as at
d d, for the firmer attachment of ligaments. Behind, at
its back part, it is flatter y and here there is a rough de-
preflion (C, fig. 14.) alfo for the attachment of a liga¬
ment that is deep feated, and is fixed to the two fefa¬
moid bones. At the lower extremity the large paftem-
bone is convex on each fide (D, E, fig. 14.) for enter¬
ing into two concavities of the {mall paftem-bone y and
there is a depreflion {/, fig. 13.) for the attachment of
a tendon. At the lower extremity there is alfo a rough-
nefs oji each fide at e e, for the infertion of ligaments.
Both extremities are covered wTith very fmooth elaftic
griftle, which is kept conftantly moift -by the fyno-
via or joint oil.
At the upper end of the large paftern-bone, towards
the back part, are placed the two fefamoid bones, AA
(fig. 14.). Thefe are of an irregular wredge-like form,
and are covered with cartilage, articulating both with
the canon-bone, and on the back part they are very
fmooth to admit of a tendon readily Aiding over them.
The upper edges of thefe bones on each fide have a
rough irregular furface, into which is inferted a ftrong
ligament that comes from the upper and "back parts of
the canon-bone, is faftened feparately to each of the
fefamoid bones, from which it proceeds downwards and
obliquely forward to be inferted into the tendon of the
large extenfor mufcles, (fee a a a, fig. 16.) a little be¬
low the large paftern-joint. Thefe fefamoid bones are
of confiderable ufe in the mechanifm of the large
paftern-joint. “ In confequence of their forming the
back part of the large paftern-joint, and articulating
with the lowrer and pofterior part of the canon, they
contribute very effentially, by always receding when¬
ever the foot comes in contact with the ground, to a£l
as a fpring to the animal, and to prevent concuflion.
All the wreight received by the upper head of the large
paftern-bone is conveyed to bones below ; but a con¬
fiderable portion of the burthen is received by the fefa¬
moid bones. While the animal is at reft, and alfo dur¬
ing motion, thefe bones fuftain part of the weight; and
where the partem bones are long and oblique, the fefa-* Ctltntd',
moids often receive fo much of the weight as to put the on tf)e
ligaments violently on the ftretch, and occafion lame- Horfe t
nefs * Foot^ vol, in
The
3 K 2
444
FARRIERY.
Part II.
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
II7
Small paf-
nS
Navicular
bone.
The fmall paftern-bone (2, fig. 13, 14, 15.) is about
half the length of the large one, and is as broad as it is
long. Befides the two concave depreffions, (Z-, /i, fig.
13.) mentioned before, there is a ridge between them, f,
that enters a correfpondent depreffion, ^ in the lower
tern bone, head of the large paflern-bone. The fmall paltern-
bone has at the back and upper part (F, fig. 14.) a
fmall projeftion, for the infertion of a long ligament,
that comes from the fefamoid bones. The lower arti¬
culating furface is more extenfive than the upper, as it
is connected with the upper furface of two confiderable
bones, viz. the navicular and coffin-bone. It is of
great confequence to underftand the mechanifm of the
joints that are formed by this connection, as it is on
this part that the principal Itrefs of the animal falls.
The union of the fmall pattern-bone with the navicular
and coffin-bones, forming wffiat is called the coffin-joint,
is one of the principal methods provided by nature to
prevent concuffion.
The navicular-bone (3, fig. 13, 14, 15.) is connedt-
ed above with the back part of the frinfll pattern-bone,
and the lower edge of this bone is attached by a large
ligament to the back part of the coffin-bone. The na¬
vicular-bone is llightly concave, to receive the back
part of the lower head of the final! pattern-bone. The
upper edge of the navicular-bone behind is rough
fig. 14.) and thick, for the attachment of the upper liga¬
ment ■, and the lower edge of the navicular-bone receives
at the back part a Itrong flat ligament from the coffin-
bone, immediately above the infertion of the flexor-ten-
cion. The lower furface of the navicular-bone is cover¬
ed by cartilage, and has a fmall ridge in its centre, (/,
fig. 13.) to be received into a correfponding depreffion
in the long flexor-tendon. This bone may be confider-
ed as forming two diftindl joints, one of which is com-
pofed by the connedtion of one^part of the bone wTith
the tendon of the flexor-mufcle, and the other is form¬
ed by the connedtion of another furface of the navicu¬
lar-bone.
The whole weight of the animal, fupported by the
finall paftern-bone, is thrown upon the coffin and navi¬
cular bones. Of this weight the coffin-bone receives
the greater lhare ; but the navicular-bone receives a
confiderable portion of it, though this bone does not
contribute to prevent concuflion fo much as Mr Freeman
has endeavoured to prove. The navicular-bone, when
the hoof touches the ground, defcends a little, and thus
prevents that concuffion which the horfe’s body would
have received if this bone had been immoveably fixed j
and when the hoof is again raifed from the ground, the
elafticity of the parts below the navicular bone lifts up
this bone into its former pofition, thus adfing as a fpring
in facilitating the motion of the animal. As the
weight fupported by the navicular-bones of the hind
feet is lefs than that fupported by the fame bone of the
fore feet, their defcent in the former is lefs than in the
latter. The organs connedfed with the navicular-bones
of the hind feet are alfo lefs fubjedt to difeafe*
The coffin-bone (4, fig. 13, 14, 15.) is fo named
from its being concealed, or as it were buried within the
hoof. It is alfo fometimes called the foot-bone. On
its fore part it is rounded, having very nearly the ffiape
of the external hoof. Its upper furface is flightly hol¬
lowed (m, m, fig. 13.) to receive the lower end of the
fmall paflern-bone, with the fore part of which it arti-
119
Coffin-bone.
culates, as it does behind with the fore edge of the na- Anatomy
vicular-bone* At the back part the coffin-bone ends ^
in twm procefles on each fide, the upper of wffiich are . ^ ' 1
tipped with cartilage. At the upper part of the front
of the coffin-bone there is a fmall protuberance,
(m, fig. 13.) extending upwards above the joint, and
ferving for the infertion of the tendon of the muf-
cles that extend the foot. Below this the coffin-
bone is extremely porous, for the paflage of nerves and
blood-veflels ; and towards the lower part in particular
there are about 13 holes, for the tranfmiffion of con¬
fiderable arteries, which go to fupply the fenfible foie.
At the heels and quarters the coffin-bone is Hill more
porous, and is fupplied with a greater number of ar¬
teries, but thefe are proportionally fmaller. The lowT-
er furface of the heels of this bone is alfo very porous,
where it unites with the fenfible foie, but the reft: of
lower furface is generally fmooth. There are here two
hollow furfaces, which receive two correfponding
rounded parts of the fenfible foie. They are unequal,
the foremoft being the larger. Into the holkuv on the
back part, the tendon of the flexor-mufcle is inferted.
(A, fig. 16.) _ . i20
I here are feven ligaments belonging to the coffin Ligaments,
joint, of which there are three pairs, and one Angle.
The firfl; pair of ligaments take their origin from the
heels of the coffin-bone on each fide, and pafs obliquely
upwards as high as the middle, to which they are at¬
tached, and at which part of the fmall paftern-bone
(B, fig. 16.) they are blended with the fibres of the la¬
teral ligaments of the fmall paftern-joint. The fecond
pair of ligaments on each fide arife from the edge of
the coffin-bone, near the heels, and pafs obliquely for¬
ward to be inferted into the middle of the fmall paftern-
bone (C, fig. 16.) near the attachment of the extenfor-
tendon. The third pair take their origin from the
lateral edges of the anterior procefs of the coffin-bone,
and are inferted into the edges of the cartilages. The
ufe of thefe ligaments is to unite the cartilages more
firmly to the coffin-bone. The extenfor-tendon being
inferted into the upper edge of the anterior procefs of
the coffin-bone, prevents the neceflity of a ligament
at this part. The fingle ligament of the coffin-bone is
conne&ed with the poftenor and inferior concave fur¬
face of the coffin-bone, immediately above the infertion
of the flexor-tendon, and alfo with the lower edge of
the navicular bone. Befides this ligament there is ano¬
ther attached to the wffiole of the upper and back part
of the navicular-bone, by wffiich means that bone is en¬
abled to fupport a greater lhare of the weight that refts
upon it. By means of thefe ligaments this important
joint is rendered very ftrong, while by the elafticity of
the cartilages, and the conftant fupply of lubricating
fluid within the joint, all the motions of the animal are
rendered fafe and eafy.
The fmall paftern-joint is alfo well fecured by means
of ligaments, and by the ffieath of the flexor-tendon.
There are alfo ligaments proceeding from the fefamoid
bones, which enter the ftieath of the flexor-tendon, and
are attached to the fmall paftern-joint. (c, a,«, fig. 16.)
“ The weight which the fefamoid bones, by means of
ligaments fuftain, is very different in different horfes}
and bears no proportion to the bulk and weight of the
animal. The paftern joints of large horfes deftined for
flow motion, are conftrufted very differently from thofe
of
Part II.
FARR
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
* Coleman
on the
Horfe.
of blood horfes. Their paftern bones are fhort, and the
joints nearly ftraight; but thorough-bred horfes of
light weight have long and very oblique paftern joints 5
and, as in proportion to the obliquity of the large
paftern, or fetlock joint, the canon conveys more of the
weight to the fefamoid bones, the ligaments that fup-
port the fefamoids are neceffarily put into motion, and
more on the ftretch, as the weight preffes down the
lower and back part of the canon on the fefamoid
bones. Short paftem joints are as much adapted to the
frame of heavy horfes as longer 'joints are to that of
lighter horfes. The ligaments that fupport the fefa¬
moids above alfo contribute to aflift the flexor mufcles
and tendons in preferving when at reft, and in motion,
the large paftern-joint in its proper place.” *
Before we proceed in defcribing the ftrufture of the
Footi vol. ii.foot, it will be proper to fhew how the hoof is formed,
121 and how it is connefted with the parts within.
ofThe'hoof h°0f °f the horfe forms a fort of organized ftioe,
’ which is adapted to the foot with the greateft nicety ;
fo that every part of the cavity is completely filled,
without the foot’s being fubjected to any unequal pref-
fure.
A correct knowledge of the natural form and ftruc-
ture of this part of the horfe’s foot, and of the deformi¬
ties produced in it by improper Veatment, is of the ut-
moft importance ; as on this muft depend the moft ad¬
vantageous method of flioeing, and the only rational
means of correfting the unnatural deviations. It will
be obvious, that, in order to form a juft idea of the ori¬
ginal fhape of the hoof, we muft examine it before any
fhoe has been applied to it; for, unlefs this fhoe has
been fo conftrmfted and fitted to the foot, as to preferve
unaltered the original form of the hoof, this will be fo
changed, that we cannot recognize from it what was
the original ftiape. That the methods of fhoeing ufual-
ly employed are calculated rather to deform the hoof,
than to preferve its original figure, will appear pre-
fently.
A vertical fe&ion of the hoof ihows it to be nearly
conical 5 the broadeft part of the cone being next the
ground. This inferior furface, in a hoof that has not
been ftiod, efpecially in the fore foot, appears nearly
circular or the diameter, from fide to fide, is nearly
equal to the diameter from toe to heel, (fee fig. 17.)
The hoof is compofed of a horny fubftance that is
entirely without fenfation. It is divided into* cruft,
foie, frog, and bars.
The cruft furrounds the foot on the fore part, and
on the fides, like a wall (A, A, fig. 17.) It grows
obliquely downwards from the coronet, and becomes
broader as it approaches the ground. It is thicker at
the toe, than at the quarter *, and the outer quarter is
thicker than the inner. On the outfide it is fmooth and
rounded, but within hollow and laminated (B B, fig.
15.) to unite with the coffin-bone. The cruft is the
only part into which nails can with fafety be driven in
flioeing.
The horny foie (B B, fig. 17.) unites with the lower
part of the cruft, and is fituated below the coffin-bone 5
but between it and the coffin-bone, there is a vafcular
fubftance to be prefently defcribed, called the fenjiblefoie,
from the blood-veffels of which the horny foie is form¬
ed. On the outfide next the ground, the horny foie is
hollow, but rounded within next the coffin-bone. The
122
Graft.
123
Horny foie.
1 E R Y. 445-
horny foie protects the fenfible foie from injury, and in Anatomy
the horfe’s motions it embraces the ground, acfting as a of the
flop. When the laminated fubftances of the hoof length- ^
en, the horny foie defcends, and thus affifts in prevent¬
ing concuffion. I2^
The bars, or binders, (C C, fig. 17.) are two horny Bars,
fubftances placed between the foie and the frog, and
forming at the heels a clofe folid union with the cruft.
The fmall part of the bars called the toe, fometimes
reaches almoft as far as the toe of the frog. Within
the frog, the bars are laminated like the inner part of
the cruft, and are clofely united to the horny foie. The
bars on the outfide keep the horfe’s foot extended, and
within, they tend to prevent the feparation of the fen¬
fible foie from the horny foie. In the natural ftate of
the hoof, there is a confiderable cavity between the
bars and the frog on each fide.
The frog (D D, fig. 17.) is that hard rounded pro-Trog.
tuberance, which we obferve in the middle of the lower
part of the hoof, pointed towards the toes, and expand¬
ed towards the heel like a wedge. In the middle of
this broad part, there is a fiflure (E, fig. 17.) The ex¬
ternal frog is united within the hoof to a narrow fub¬
ftance of a fimilar fhape, but of a more elaftic ftrudture,
and poffefllng fenfation, and therefore called the fenfible
frog. This fubftance is conne&ed above with the
navicular bone, towards the back part} and at the ex¬
tremity of the heels, it is united with cartilages on each
fide. The toe of the fenfible frog is united to the cof¬
fin-bone, but by far the greater part is behind this bone.
The back part of the frogs being united with elaftic
and moveable fubftances, admit of confiderable motion,
the frog rifing when the hoof touches the ground, and
defeending when the foot is raifed. By the afeent of
the frog, the heels are prevented from contradling, and
the cartilages are expanded, fo as to afford the horfe a
confiderable fpring, whilft the form of this part fits it
for embracing the ground, and thus prevents the
horfe from flipping. The convex form of the frog clear¬
ly ihows that it was always intended to touch the ground,
and experience has fully proved, that, unlefs this con-
tad! takes place, the healthy ftate of this organ cannot
be preferved. It has- been fuppofed that the frog is in¬
tended to defend the principal tendon or back finew }
but Mr Coleman has ihown that this is a miftake. 126
The weight of the horfe is chiefly fupported by the Weight oi'
cruft, and not by the foie or frog } for when thefe parts t*‘e *?or,e
have been removed, or by being difeafed, become foft j™rteTby
and fungous, and thus incapable of refiftance, it is found the foie and
that the cruft is ftill competent to bear the whole of the hog-
weight. If the foie and frog really fupported the
weight, it is evident that when thefe parts are removed
or difeafed, the foot would flip through the cruft. 127
The union of the fenfible frog with the horny frog, Importance
and the connexion thus formed between the fides 0fof the flo£s
the fenfible frog and the lower cartilages, effedlually preffureS
prevents diflocation. When the homy frog touches the
ground, both that and the fenfible frog afeend*, but
when by any means the horny frog is prevented from
preffing on the ground, its proper functions are fufpend-
ed. The cartilages partake of the motion of the frog}
and, in proportion as this receives preffure, they recede
from each other, and allow the fenfible frog to afeend
between them. But when the cartilages are rendered
immoveable by becoming bony, or by contraction of
the
FARR
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
a ■ i 11 ■~^r—   *
is8
Senfibie
foie.
129
Coronary
is^amcnt.
tlie foot, tlie fenfible frog is much confined in its mo¬
tion. By this immobility of the cartilages, the horfe
is deprived of a powerful fpring. When the frog does
not prefs on the ground, and confequently the carti¬
lages are deprived of motion, the moifture of the cruft
evaporates j and hence the quarters and heels of the
hoof become contracted much more than the fore part
of the cruft, and this contraction is increafed by the
frog not being allowed to rife between the cartilages.
Thus, the natural circular Ihape of the hoof is deftroyed
by the frog not receiving preffure.
Fig. 18. reprefents the lower part of a horfe’s hoof,
as it is ufually lengthened or contracted by improper
Ihoeing.
We have not yet defcribed the fenfible foie. This is
fituated between the horny foie and the coffin-bone,
and is united to the lower cartilages immediately be¬
hind the latter (C C, fig. 15.). Its lower edge is firm¬
ly connected with the fenfible laminae, at the lower
edge of the coffin-bone ; but at the extremity of the
heels, the laminae are continued for about an inch,
forming what are called the fenjible bars. Fhe fenfible
foie is well fupplied with blood-veffels, but when thefe
are emptied, it appears of a ligamentous texture, from
the veffels of this part, the horny matter of the horny
foie and bars is formed and renewed.
The only other part of the foot that we ffiall defcribe,
is an important ligtctnent, which furrounds the junftion
of the coffin-bone with the hoof, and is called the co¬
ronary ligament, (D D, fig. 16.) Ihis ligament is at¬
tached at its upper part, to the anterior protuberance of
the coffin-bone, and to the lateral cartilages^ and ex¬
tends a little above the coffin joint, being united on its
outfide to the fkin. Below it is united to the fenfible
laminae, at their origin. On its outfide it is convex,
and is received into a correfpondent hollow in the cruft,
called the coronary ring. It is ultimately inferted into
the heels of the lenfible frog. The ufes of this liga¬
ment are very important. By its union with the fen-
■ fible laminae, lateral cartilages, fenfible frog, and cof¬
fin-bone, it affifts the aCtion of all thefe parts, increafing
their ftrength and conneclion and in particular, pre-
ferves the proper fituation of the cartilages, and pre¬
vents their being diflocated, to which they would other-
wife be liable, by being feparated by the rifing of the
fenfible frog between them, when the horny frog
touches the ground.
We have thus defcribed the ftrufture and functions of
the foot and hoof, as far as appeared to us to be abfolute-
ly neceffary for underftanding the principles and praCtice
of {hoeing. The names, infertions, and ufes of the
mufcles of the foot, have been already concifely given
in the table of the mufcles of the extremities (fee page
437.) The blood-veffels, nerves, and abforbents are
well defcribed, and moft beautifully figured in Mr
Coleman’s elegant work on the ftruCture, economy,
I E R Y. Part II.
and difeafes of the foot of the horfe 5 to which, and to Anatomy
Mr Freeman’s work on the fame fubjeCt, we refer
fuch of our readers as wiffi for a complete and accurate , *
account of that curious and important piece of mechan-
ifm, the foot of the horfe.
We ffiall conclude this chapter with a fummary reca¬
pitulation of the more important circumftances that
have been mentioned, as we ffiall immediately apply
them in defcribing the moft; approved method of {hoe¬
ing j and they will be the better underftood, and the
more eafily remembered, by being brought together in
a comprehenfive point of view. It appears then, 130
“ That the natural form of the hoof of the fore feetR-603?1^*
of horfes, before any art has been employed, approaches tlon•
to a circle j and,
“ That the internal cavity of the hoof, when cir¬
cular, is completely filled by the fenfible parts of the
foot.
“ That the hoof is compofed of horny infenfible
fibres, that take the names of cruft, foie, bars, and frog.
“ That the cruft is united wdth the laft bone of the
foot, by a number of laminated elaftic fubftances.
“ That the ufes of the laminae are to fupport the
weight of the animal, and from their elafticity to pre¬
vent concuffion.
“ That the horny foie is externally concave, inter¬
nally convex, and united by its edge with the inferior
part of the cruft.
“ That the ufes of the horny foie are to a6f as a
fpring, by defcending at the heels to preferve the fen-*
fible foie from preffure, and (with its concavity) to form
a convexity of the earth.
“ That the external bars are nothing more than
a continuation of the cruft, forming angles at the heels.
“ That the internal bars are a continuation of the
laminae of the cruft, attached to the horny foie at the
heels within the hoof; and that thefe infenfible laminae
are intimately united with fenfible laminated bars, con¬
nected with the fenfible foie.
“ That the ufe of the external bars, is to preferve
the heels expanded 5 and the ufe of the internal horny
bars, to prevent feparation and diftocation of the horny
foie from the fenfible foie.
“ That the external frog is convex, and of an infen¬
fible homy elaftic nature.
“ That the internal fenfible frog is of the fame
form, very highly elaftic, and united with twm elaftic
cartilages.
“ That the frogs are not made to proteft the ten¬
don, as Mr St Bel and other writers have fup-
pofed.
“ That the ufe of the frog is to prevent the horfe ^
from flipping, by its convexity embracing the ground li™**
and from the elafticity of the fenfible and horny frogs }j0Tj-e',
they aft as a fpring to the animal, and keep expanded jFW, vol. i
the heels” *.
PART
FARRIERY.
Part III.
Operations.
447
Operation*,
PART III. OF THE OPERATIONS USUALLY PERFORMED ON DOMESTIC
ANIMALS.
Chap. I. Of Shoeing.
131 The principles and praftice of ihoeing are ufually
explained at the end of treatifes on the veterinary art,
immediately after defcribing the ufual furgical opera¬
tions. We think it better, however, to treat on the
fubjeft of (hoeing in th’s part of our article, immediate¬
ly after having defcribed the anatomy of the horfe’s foot 5
the neceflity of underflanding which has been fully ex¬
plained in the lad chapter.
132 It is very uncertain at what period mankind fir ft be¬
gan to fhoe their horfes with iron *, but it is probable
that this praflice commenced as foon as they were fuf-
ficiently civilized, to have fuch roads as were compofed
of folid, hard materials, fitted for the purpofes of con-
ftant traffic. In many countries where fuch kind of
roads are not required, as in the deferts of Arabia, and
in many eaftern countries, we know that to this day the
horfes are not ffiod ; and we have been affured, that
fome years ago, when the roads in moft of the United
Provinces of America were not fo hard as they are at
prefent, horfes were fhod only on the forefeet (d).
We fhall firft briefly defcribe the mode of (hoeing
commonly practifed by the frniths of this country, and
(hall then give a ihort account of the moft important
improvements that have been made in the art, from the
time of Lafoffe to the prefent method employed at the
veterinary college.
In the common mode of (hoeing, the bars are totally r33
cut away, and the frog is confiderably pared down, ^7 ^^h'od'of
means of a cutting inftrument called a butteris. The fhoeing,
reafon afligned for cutting away the bars, or opening
the heels, as it is called, is, that the heels may not con-
trad!, and that the (hoe may not prefs upon the foie,
and occafion corns. The hoof being thus prepared, the
(hoe is to be applied. The common form of this (hoe ’
is nearly elliptical, being broader at the fore part, and
grooving narrower towards the heels, where it is thick¬
er than at the toe. It is convex on its outer furface
where it is to touch the ground, and concave on its in¬
ner part, which is applied next the hoof. It is faften-
ed to the hoof by means of eight nails, four in each
quarter; and the heads of thefe nails are nearly cubi¬
cal, (landing out a little beyond the (hoe. This fhoe
is commonly applied nearly red-hot, in order, as we
fuppofe,
(d) Attempts have been made to prove that the ancients underftood the ufe of iron (hoes, and paflages have
been quoted both from Greek and Roman writers to fupport this affertion. But wre think that the learned Beck¬
man has fully demonftrated the fallacy of this opinion, and has (liown, that although leathern (hoes were fome-
times employed on the feet of horfes and other beads of burden, the ufe of iron horfe-ftioes w’as entirely unknown
both to the Greeks and Romans. Indeed, if fuch (hoes were in ufe among them, the ancient authors who have
treated on horfemanftiip, hufbandry, and the veterinary art, as Xenophon, Julius Pollux, Columella, and Vegetius,
could not poftibly have omitted to notice them. It cannot be fuppofed that thefe writers wrould have been filent
with refpeft to the Ihoeing of horfes, when they treat fo particularly of the breeding and rearing of thefe animals,
and prefcribe remedies for the accidents and difeafes to which they are fubjedft.
Beckman is of opinion that iron horfe-lhoes were ufed in Europe as early as the ninth century, for in the works
of the emperor Leo, who lived about that period, they are exprefsly mentioned by the name of g-sAevco* <r^>ga„
The emperor alfo fpeaks of horfe-ftioe nails by the appellation of and mentions that a certain number of
pounds of iron ftrould be given out from the imperial (lores to make mXiyxix, and other horfe furniture. The an¬
tiquity of horfe-ftioes is alfo confirmed by their being fpoken of in the "writings of Italian, French, and Englifti au¬
thors of the fame century. “ When Boniface marquis of Tufcany, one of the richeft princes of his time, went to
meet Beatrix, his bride, mother of the well-known Matilda, about the year 1038, his whole train were fo magni¬
ficently decorated, that his horfes were not (hod with iron, but with filver. The nails were even of the fame me¬
tal ) and when any of them dropped out, they belonged to thofe who found them. The marquis feems to have
imitated Nero ; but this anecdote may be only a fiiftion. It is related by a cotemporary writer, but unfortunate- -
ly, his account is in verfe 5 and the author, perhaps, fenfible of his inability to make his fubjeft fuffieiently intereft-
ing by poetical ornaments, availed himfelf of the licence claimed by poets to relate fomething fingular and uncom¬
mon. However this may be, it is certain that the (hoes of the horfes muft have been faftened on with nails, other-
wife the author could not have mentioned them.
“ Daniel the hiftorian, feems to give us to underftand, that in the ninth century, horfes were not (hod always,
but only in the time of froft, and on other particular occafions. The pra&ice of (hoeing appears to have been
introduced into England by William the Conqueror. We are informed that this fovereign gave the city of Nor¬
thampton as a fief, to a certain perfon, in confideration of his paying a dated fum yearly for the (hoeing of horfes j
and it is believed that Henry de Ferrers, or de Ferriers, who came over with William, and wffiofe defendants
(till bear in their arms fix horfe-fhoes, received that furname, becaufe he was entrufted with the infpedlion of the
farriers. We may here obferve, that horfe-ftioes have been found with other riding furniture, in the graves of
fome of the old Germans and Vandals in the northern countries} but the antiquity of them cannot be Acer-
tained.” Beckman on Inventions, voL ii.
448
Operations
*34
Defe&s of
the com¬
mon mode.
FARRIERY.
Part III.
, 135
"Latofle's
jinethod.
136
Ofmer’s
■method.
m
Lord Pem¬
broke’s me
•thod.
• fuppofe, to adapt it better, and make it fit clofer to the
hoof. — •
The confequences of this method of {hoeing muft be,
t. That the funftion of the bars, whatever it may be,
(and we have {hewn that they are intended to prevent
contraction of the feet,) muft be deftroyed. 2. That cut¬
ting away the frog, expofes this part to injury, and is
■productive of many difeafes. 3. That the heels of the
ilioe being higher than the toe, will prevent the frogs
from embracing the ground, for which we have (hewn
■they were naturally intended. 4. That by making the
{hoe concave at the quarters, and placing the nails near
the heels, the growth of the cruft in thefe parts is im-
■peded, and thus the foot is contracted, and its proper
Ihape deftroyed. 5. That by faftening the {hoe near the
infenfible frog at the heels, the proper aCtion of the
frogs and foie, as a fpring to aflift the motions of the
animal, is deftroyed. 6. That by putting on the ihoe
hot, the moifture of the crufts is dried up, and thus the
contraction of the foot is {till farther increafed j and, 7.
That by making the flioes rounded next the ground,
the fure footing of the horfe is greatly leffened, much
to the danger of his rider.
The firft modem writer who attempted to reform the
common mode of {hoeing, appears to have been La-
foffe. It is true that an excellent mode of {hoeing was
recommended about 300 years ago by Caefar Fiafchi, an
Italian writer on horfemanftiip; but his plan never came
into general ufe, and Lafoffe appears to have all the
merit of the improvement, as it is more than probable
that he had never feen Fiafchi’s work. The {hoe re¬
commended by Lafoffe was what he called the half¬
moon Jlooe, being nearly femicircular, and reaching little
further than to the middle of the foot ; the nails being
placed round the toe. Lafoffe’s {hoe was never very
generally employed in this country, even though the
improvement was rendered familiar by Bracken and
Bartlet, who, as we have faid, tranflated Lafoffe’s
treatife into Englilh. It has been confidered as ufeful
in fome cafes of difeafed feet, and for ftrong feet which
have begun to contraCl, or appear likely to do fo, pro¬
vided fuch horfes are not employed on very hard, rough
.roads; but it is by no means applicable to the majority
of our horfes. Its principal difadvantages appear to be,
that the heels wrear too faft, and that in running, horfes
are apt to flip with it.
Mr William Ofiner, whofe work on {hoeing we have
mentioned in N® 65. improved confiderably on the {hoe
of Lafoffe. He forbade the frogs and bars to be cut
away, except when they were ragged. He however,
remarks, that the feet of all horfes ftiould be pared ac¬
cording to their length j the cruft being made perfectly
fmooth by paring or rafping. His ilioe was everywhere
of an equal thicknefs, rather narrower behind than be¬
fore, of a flat furface next the ground, and bevilled
away from about the middle of its breadth inwards,
leaving a flat furface for the cruft to reft on.
The next improver of {hoes was Lord Pembroke,
■though Mr Blaine moft unaccountably places him after
Mr Clark. Lord Pembroke’s remarks on flioeing are
exceedingly ingenious. He obferved that the weight
of lhoes muft, in a great meafure, depend on the qua¬
lity and hardnefs of the iron. If the iron be very good
it will not bend, and in this cafe the flioes cannot oof-
fibly be too light ) care, however, muft be taken, that
I
they be made of a thicknefs fo as not to bend, for Operations,
bending would tear out the nails, and ruin the hoof. y-—
That part of the flioe which is next the horfe’s heel,
muft be narrower than anywhere elfe, that ftones may
be thereby prevented from getting under it, and flick¬
ing there, which otherwife would be the cafe, becaule
the iron when it advances inwardly beyond the bearing
of the foot, makes a cavity, wherein ftones being
lodged, would remain, and by preffing againft the foot,
lame the horfe. The part of the ftioe which the horfe
walks upon, ftiould be quite flat, and the infide of it
likewife *, and only juft room enough ftiould be left next
the foot, to put in a picker, (which ought to be ufed
every time the horfe comes into the liable, and often on
marches) and alfo to prevent the flioe’s preffmg upon the
foie. Three, or at moft four nails of a fide, hold better
than a greater number, and keep the hoof in a far bet¬
ter ftate. He advifes that the toe of the horfe be cut
fquare and ftiort, and that no nails be placed in that
part. By thefe means narrow heels are prevented, and
many good effects produced. His lordftiip advifed the
hinder feet to be ftiod in the fame manner as the fore¬
feet, except in hilly and flippery countries, where the
ftioes on the hinder feet may be a little turned up be¬
hind.
The utmoft feverity, (fays Lord Pembroke), ought
be infli&ed on all thofe who clap {hoes on hot. This
unpardonable lazinefs of farriers in making feet fit {hoes,
inftead of making ftioes fitting feet, dries up the hoofs
and utterly deftroys them. Frequent removals of flioes
are detrimental, and tear the foot, but fometimes they
are very neceffary. This is an inconvenience which
half {hoes are liable to (though excellent in feveral
other refpefls), for the end of the {hoe being very
fliort, is apt to get foon into the foot, and confequently
then muft be moved. 138
The ihoe recommended by Mr Clark did not differClark's
very much from that of Ofmer. He does not, how~met*loc1‘
ever, recommend the hollowing of the furface of the
fhoe next the foot. Mr Clark recommended that the
hoof and frog fhould not be pared or cut away without
neceflity, and was much againft railing the heels with
calkins ; to the ufe of which he preferred that of an ice
nail. He, however, admits, that fliarp calkins may
be neceffary in hilly countries. ^
The ihoe originally ufed at the veterinary college by Method of
the fixft profeffor, was very fimilar to that of Ofmer 5 the veteri-
but when Mr Coleman fucceeded to the profefforftiip *lary co'-
he adopted the half-moon ftioe introduced by Lafoffe. °
This was, however, foon given up, as experience {hew¬
ed that it was not adapted to the generality of horfes in
this country. Within thefe few years, a method of
flioeing has been introduced by Mr Coleman, which
appears in moft inftances preferable to any former me¬
thod. We Ihall therefore confider it pretty much at
large.
Mr Coleman has laid down two general principles, I4°
by which the praftice of (hoeing for all horfes, in every
country, muft be invariably followed. “ So long as
nails and iron are employed to protedl the hoof, the
cruft is the part that Ihould receive the nails, and the
prefllire of the ftioe} and the foie of every horfe em¬
ployed for every purpofe, is a part that fliould not be
in contact with the flioe.” Thefe are Mr Coleman’s
general rules, and to thefe it muft be added, that the
free
Part III. FARR
Operations, frog Hiould, in almofl every cafe, be allowed to come
'""""V" in contact with the ground, where this is practicable,
whenever the horfe fets down his foot.
Two general circumftances are to be obfefVed in
fhoeing j the cutting of the hoof, artd the application
of the ihoe. Some parts of the hoof require to be re¬
moved, before the (hoe can be applied j while others
mult be carefully preferved. Thefe circumltances are
at lealt of as much confequence as the form of the fhoe,
but are not in general fo fully attended to.
In Mr Coleman’s method of fhoeing, he firft recom¬
mends that a part of the homy foie between the whole
length of the bars and cruft, be pared away with a
drawing knife, as the heels of the foie cannot receive
the preflure of the fhoe, without corns being produced.
The foie muft therefore be laid hollow, that it may
not come in contaCl with the Ihoe. This he confiders
of the greateft confequence. The heels of the fhoe
muft be made to reft on that part of the hoof where
the bars unite with the cruft. See fig. 19. If the heels
have been previoufly lowered by means of the butteris,
there may perhaps not be left fufhcient foie to admit of
the application of the drawing knife, without penetra¬
ting to the fenfible foie ; fo that it is better, firft to cut
the foie, as it may then be eafily determined how far
the heels may be lowered, and the toe Ihortened, with
propriety. When the hoof is cut in this way, the foie
readily defcends when the hoof touches the ground,
without being obftrutfted by the fhoe ; and ftones, or
other foreign bodies that have gotten between the fnoe
and the hoof, are thus readily pufhed out. It is found
by experience, that the foie never fuffers from ftones
and gravel, when there is fufhcient fpace left between
the bars and the cruft. The cavity between the foie
and ftioe fhould alio be left fufftciently wide after
the ihoe is applied, to admit of the introduction of a
large horfe-picker, efpecially between the bars and the
cruft. If the foie fliould be naturally concave, a
ihoe that has a flat furface next the hoof will not touch
any part of the foie when applied to the cruft ; and
even fhould the foie be flat, or rounded in the middle
or towards the toe, yet the quarters and heels may
generally be made fufhciently hollow by the drawing
knife, to avoid preifure on a flat ihoe.
I41 If it is found that a ihoe with its upper furface flat,
does not leave a fpace large enough to admit the picker
between it and the foie, it is neceffary to make either
the foie or the fhoe a little holloiv. Sometimes the
foie appears ragged and in flakes, and of conflderable
thicknefs. It is then proper to make the whole of the
lole hollow with the drawdng knife, before attempting
*0 lower the heels or fhorten the toe. When the foie
is made hollowq the fhoe will reft only on the cruft ;
but if we cannot hollow the foie, we muft, to prevent
preiTure, make the upper furface of the ihoe hollow.
As the hoof .is aftvays growing, and is preferved from
friftion by the fhoe, it is neceffary to pare the toe of
the cruft about once in every month. The more we
can remove from the toe of the. cruft, in hoofs that are
not well ihaped, the fooner we fhall be able to apply a
fhoe of the proper form and thicknefs.
Bars and “ f)ars an(f frog fhould never be removed,
hog not to Where there are ragged and detached parts of the frog,
be cut it is better that they ihould be cut with any fmall knife,
awrfy. by the groom, than by the farrier; for if the latter is
Vol. VIII. Part II.
I E R Y. 449
Once allowed to touch the frog, the found parts a*e Operations,
generally deftroyed. Where the frogs are not large 1 " —
and projecting, and the heels are higher than the frogs,
then it is advifeable to lower the heels, which may be
done by a rafp, or the butteris 5 for in every cafe we
are to endeavour to bring the frog in contaCf with the
ground. We fhould never lofe fight of this principle,
that the frog muft have preffure, or be difeafed. If the
frog does not touch the ground, it cannot perform its
ufe 5 and no organ can be preferved in health, that
does not perform the funftions for which it wras made.* £0
Neverthelefs, w'here the frog has been difqnalified for 0„ ^
its fun&ions for a confiderable period, and become io{tr Horn's
it muft be accuftomed to preffure by degrees.” * vol. i.
When it is neceffary for the horfe to work, though
his frog is foft and difeafed, it muft be gradually accuf¬
tomed to preffure, by cutting down the hoof about one-
tenth of an inch at every frelh Ihoeing, that the frog
may become hard, and equally protuberant with the
heels. If the horfe be not required to labour, much
advantage will be derived from allowing him to ftand
in the ftable without fhoes. 144
The feet of moft horfes have been deformed by bad Shoe to be
management. It will therefore be neceffary to ufe a aclaPted
particular fhoe to each particular form of hoof. Anyt^'' hoot'
one form employed indiferiminately for all feet, can¬
not be alike fuccefsful for all. It is from not having
fufficiently attended to this fimple faCt, that the fhoe
recommended by the veterinary college has not been
more generally adopted. It is therefore neceffary to
vary the length, breadth, and thicknels of the Ihoe,
according to the form of the hoof to which it is to
be applied. If the heels or fore-feet are two inches
and a half or more in depth ; if the frog be found
and prominent, and the roads dry, the toe of the
hoof only requires to be fhortened, and afterwards
covered by a fhort fhoe, which may be^ made of the
ufual thicknefs at the toe, but muft be thinner gra¬
dually towards the heel. The proportional thick¬
nefs of a fhoe of this kind for a common faddle-horfe,
as recommended by Mr Coleman, is three-eighths of an
inch at the toe, and one-eighth at the heel. By means
of fuch a fhoe the frog is completely brought in con-
tad! with the ground ; the heels are expanded ; and
corns, thrulhes, and canker are prevented. The horfe
may continue to wear fuch a ihoe as long as the wea¬
ther is warm, and the ground dry.
Race-horfes, who generally have the heels high, and 145
the cruft thicker and ftronger than heavy horfes, may
generally wear fhort fhoes, at leaft on the fore-feet-
But fuch as have weak legs, bent knees, long pafterns,
or low heels, muft not wear fuch a fhoe. r .
A long fhoe is neceffary in wet weather, and even in changes to
fummer, when the heels of the hoofs are low. In win-be made
ter, when the heels are too high, they fhould be lower- gradually,
ed by means of a rafp, rather than fuffered to wear
down, by being expofed to the ground with a fhort
ihoe 5 for moifture is very dpftrudlive to the hoof j and
thus as great a part of it may be removed as is necef¬
fary. Befides, when a horfe has been accuftomed to
high-heeled fhoes, if he was fuddenly made to wear
thole with thin heels, the frog might be bruifed or in¬
flamed, and the mufcles and tendons of the leg confi-
derably drained. It is therefore neceffary to bring the
heels of the fhqe to the proper degree of thinnefs gra-
3 L dually,
\
fucceeding
*47
148
450 F A
Operations, dually, obferving that the heels of each
*Y-f^oe be made fomewhat thinner than thofe of the iaft.
In general, as much as poffible of the homy part of the
hoof next the toe is to be removed, and as little iron
employed next the heels every time of fhoeing, till the
feet be brought as nearly as may be to their natural
lhape.
In horfes that have been accudomed to wear Ihoes
of an equal thicknefs all round,, and where the frog is
healthy, we may in general apply a (hoe, much thicker
at the toe than the heel, by paring dorm the toe, and
taking nothing from the heel j and if a horfe appear to
fufter no inconvenience from a thin-heeled ihoe, during
the firft month after it is applied, it may be continued
with fafety, and will greatly improve the hoof. In
young horfes, however, that have never been fhod, and
in horfes jult taken up from grafs, the toe feldom ad¬
mits of being pared down, and a thin-heeled (hoe can¬
not be applied at once.
In all cafes where the frog does not embrace the
ground with a thin fhoe, the heels mult be lowered ;
and if the horfe has been accuftomed to wear high-
heeled fhoes, both the (hoe and the hoof muft be gra¬
dually lowered, till the frog can fafely and eafily per¬
form its proper funftion.
A few horfes require to be (hod in a manner differ¬
ent from that which we have deferibed, but ftill de¬
pendant on the fame principles.
Different weights of fhoes are required for different
horfes. Mr Coleman lays down the following propor¬
tions, for horfes of various deferiptions.
A moderate-fized coach-horfe will require a weight
coach-horfe of fhoes and nails, from eighteen to twenty ounces 5 an
inch wide, and half an inch thick at the toe, and three-
fourths of an inch wide, and one-fixth of an inch thick
at the heels.
An ordinary faddle-horfe will require only from 12
to 14 ounces; and the fhoe may be three-fourths of an
inch wide at the toe, and half an inch at the heel, and
three-eighths of an inch thick on the outfide of the
toe, but only one-eighth at the infide of the toe, and at
the heel.
The fhoe mofl recommended by Mr Coleman, is
concave on its upper furface, where the foie is flat or
convex, but it is flat on the reft of the upper furface ;
but if the foie admits of being hollowed, the whole up¬
per furface may be flat. It is regularly concave on its
lower furface next the ground *, and it is faftened to the
cruft by means of eight nails placed round from the toe
backwards, fo as to leave a part of the fhoe about an
inch and a half from the heel. Hunting-horfes ufually
require an additional nail on each fide, next the quar¬
ter. The nail-holes are made with a punch of a wedge¬
like form, and to correfpond to this the heads of the
nails are made conical, fo that as long as any part of
the head of- the nail remains in the hole, the fhoe can¬
not eafily come off.
For hunters, and fuch horfes as run in fhafts, it is re¬
commended by Mr Coleman to turn up the outer heel j
but, as in this way there is often fome inequality of po-
fition, the outer heel of the foot is to be lowered, while
the inner heel of the fhoe is fomewhat thickened. By
thtfe means cutting is avoided.
In fuch horfes as have weak low heels, Mr Cole¬
man recommends the «fe of the bar-jhoe, as the bar a£-
II R I E R Y.
Part HI.
149
Weight of
Sioes.
*5
For a
151
A faddle
horfe.
IS*
Coieman’s
ordinary
fhoe.
*53
C'4
fords a fupport to the frogs, without wearing out the Operations
heels. When the bar-fhoe has been employed long —y——
enough to admit of the heels growing to the proper
fize, the ordinary thin-heeled fhoe may be adopted.
The method re«ommended by Mr Coleman, as de¬
feribed above, has been for fome time followed with
confiderable fuccefs by the board of ordnance, whofe
horfes, as well as thole of the Britilh cavalry in gene¬
ral, are now fhod after this manner. The method has,
however, met with confiderable oppofition, partly from
fuch as do not underftand the principles on which it is
founded, and partly from its having been too haftily
adopted, in cafes to which, as Mr Coleman himfelf allows,
it is not generally applicable;
Fig. 19. and 20. illuftrate Mr Coleman’s method of
fhoeing.
Fig. 19. reprefents the hoof turned upxvards, to (hew
the manner in which the fhoe is applied. It may be
feen from this figure that the wreb of the fhoe is hollow;
that the heels at a a are narrower than the other parts
of the fhoe, and that the nails are placed all round from
the toe backwards. Fig. 20. fhews that the heels of
the fhoe are much thinner than the point, and alfo fhews
the manner in which the nails are rivetted or clinched
on the outfide of the hoof round the toe and cruft. r
The only remaining method of ihoeing that we fhall jyfr r!^.re_
here mention, is that of the ingenious Mr Morecroft. This croft’s me-
gentleman has acquired much celebrity by his invention tbod.
of cajUng fhoes, by finking them in dies, by which
means horfes may be fitted with any fhoes beft adapted
to their hoofs. Mr Morecroft’s fhoe differs from Of-
mer’s, in being concave within for more than half its
width. He condemns the ufe of calkins, on the prin¬
ciple that the public roads are now much mftre folid
than when calkins were in general ufe $ and, confe-
quently, that inftead of finking them into the ground,
they rather tend to raife the heels above it, and thus the
frog is prevented from receiving the neceffary preffure.
Mr Morecroft, however, allow-scalkins to heavy draught-
horfes, for whom he recommends two on each fhoe j
but in lighter horfes of the fame defeription, one on the ,
outfide of each fhoe. The latter is alfo recommended
for hunters, but for other riding horfes, he forbids the
ufe of calkins. The number of nails in Mr Morecroft’s
fhoe is ufually eight, but in heavy draught-horfes they
are noi to be placed on the fides of the ftioe, but all
round at equal diftances, leaving a fpace at the heels of
about two inches or two inches and a half. In frofty
weather, Mr Morecroft recommends nails with a lo¬
zenge head, or a double counterfink, terminating in an
edge inftead of coming to a point, which greater breadth
of furface prevents its being rubbed away fo faft as a
point. The thicknefs in the middle gives it ftrength,
and the regular taper to the fhank caufes it to apply
exadfly to the fide of the hole in the fhoe, by which
it is equally fupported, and prevented from bending or
breaking. ,
Mr Coleman confidering preffure as neceffary to the Coleman’
healthy aftion of the frog, has contrived a method of artificial
affording this preffure in thofe cafes in which, from dif-h'°g.
eafed feet, or bad management in fhoeing, it cannot
naturally receive it j and where, if the heels were
lowered, in order to bring the frog in contact with the
ground, there wnuld be danger of draining the tendons.
Mr Coleaiaii’s patcat artificial frogs, are intended to pro¬
duce
/
Part III. FARR
Operations, duce preffure oh the natural frogs, while the horfes are
  ftanding in the liable, and thus to give time for the
growth of the heels, and to avoid the evils that would
arife from lowering thefe too fuddenly, or from allow¬
ing the frog to remain elevated above the ground. For
the particulars of this ingenious invention, we mult re-
157 fer to Mr Coleman’s pamphlet.
Shoes for Where oxen are worked in farming bufmefs like
*A!sn’ horfes, it is generally thought neceffary to defend their
hoofs in a fimilar manner by means of iron fhoes. The
form and manner of fitting thefe do not appear to be
univerfally the fame in all places •, nor are we acquaint¬
ed with the methods ufually praftifed. We know that
M. St Bel recommended the following methods; either
to flioe the ox with a flat plate of iron, having fix or
feven nail-holes on the outer edge, accompanied with a
projection of four or five inches of iron at the toe, which
pafling the cleft of the foot, is bent over the hoof: or
with eight flioes, one under each nail 5 otherwife with
four, one under each internal nail *, or only two, one un-
- der the external nail of each fore-foot.
Chap. II. Of Cafing.
15S
Galling. There are feveral tedious and painful operations
that we are fometimes obliged to perform, and which it
wrould be difficult, or impoflible to execute, were the
animal left at full liberty to refill us. It is, therefore,
neceffary to render ourfelves completely mailers of him,
by throwing him down on the ground, and in a conve¬
nient fituation, fo as not to expofe him or ourfelves to in¬
jury. This operation is called cafing, and is ufually thus
performed.
The firfl: objeft is to prepare a thick bed of ftraw or
litter, not lefs than eight feet fquare, to prevent the
animal from being hurt in the fall. If the liable be
fufficiently large to admit of the bed being made there,
it is to be preferred, as, during the operation, to pre¬
pare for which calling is neceffary, the parts operated
on will fuffer lefs from expofure to the air in the liable,
than without doors.
But, if there is not room in the liable, the bed mult
be made in the liable-yard, or rather, if poffible, in fome
field or park adjoining.
The animal is now to be brought to one fide of the
bed •, a ilrong leather ilrap, with a buckle at one end,
and having an iron ring fixed to it, at a convenient dif-
tance from the buckle, is to be fixed round the paltern
of each of the four legs, in fuch a way, that the rings
of the Itraps that are round the fore-feet ihall be di-
redled backwards, and thofe of the ftrans on the hind-
feet Ihall be oppofite to thefe ; while the buckles point
oiUwards, to prevent hurting the animal. A pretty
flrong cord, ten or twelve feet long, is to be fattened
to the ring of that Ilrap that has been placed on the
fore-foot on that fide of the animal which is farthell
from the bed : from this ring it is to pafs through the
ring on the hiud-foot, on the fame fide, from which it
paffes through the ring on the other hind-foot, then
. through the ring on the other fore-foot, and laft-
ly, through that to which it was firil fattened. The
animal being thus fettered, a number of men are to place
themfelves befide him, fo that he may be between them
and the bed, while others are to Hand on the oppofite
fide of the litter. Now, the men that are befide the
I E R Y. 451
animal, laying hold of the end of the rope, are to pull Operations.-
gradually with confiderable force, fo as to bring the
four feet of the animal as near as poffible together.
When this is done, the men on the other fide, ftanding
in a row, one at the head of the animal, another at his
chell, a third at his haunches, a fourth at his tail, &c.
pull the animal toward them and complete his fall.
It is neceffary to obferve that the men who pull the
rope, and thofe who receive the animal on the bed, mutt
not adl at the fame time ; as in this cafe the Ihock
would be fo great and fudden, as probably to occafion
fome accident, either to the men or to the animal. It
is alfo proper to remark, that the animal mutt be call
in fuch a manner, that the part to be operated on may
be fully in the view and reach of the operator.
When the animal is once on the bed, his head mutt
be held down by a man, and it will be proper to cover
his eyes. Another affillant mull Hand by the cord,
which for greater fecurity, Ihould be fattened with a knot
at the firft ring.
There are fome little niceties to be obferved in call¬
ing an animal, according to the operation that is in¬
tended to be performed on him ; but of thefe we Ihall
fpeak, when we defcribe the operations themfelves.
Chap. III. Of Bleeding.
159
Bleeding is diftinguilhed into general and local. Bleeding.
General bleeding is performed for the purpofe of taking
away a quantity of blood from the general mafs, and
confitts in opening fome large vein, or fome confider¬
able branch of an artery. The vein ufually opened, in
horfes and cattle, is the vein that runs along the neck,
and which is called the jugular vein. This vein may
be eafily felt, as it is generally confiderably raifed above
the mufcies.
The vein is ufually opened by means of a fleam, which
is forced into the vein, by ilriking it with a fmall wrood-
en mallet, called by farriers a blood-Jlich. There are
many objedlions to this mode of bleeding. In the firll
place, it is extremely clumfy ) and, if the vein happens
to roll, which is very commonly the cafe, a large wound
may be made in the fldn, without drawing blood.
Again, thefe animals, efpecially horfes, are ealily fright¬
ened by any fudden motion of the hand ; and fome per-
fons have a w-ay of ffiaking the blood-ftick before they
give the ftroke ; and, in doing this, they often ufe more
exertion than is neceffary. The animal alarmed at
thefe ftrange motions, toffes up his head, and thus rend¬
ers the llroke uncertain.
Many prefer the ordinary lancet ufed by furgeons $
and, in feveral cafes, particularly of local bleeding,
this is the moll convenient inftrument. But in •open¬
ing the jugular vein, we do not confider it as much
fuperior to the common fleam. When this latter is
employed, the back of it Ihould be made of confider¬
able thicknefs, as, when it is too narrow, as is commonly
the cafe, when the inftrument is ftruck with the Hick, it
finks into the channel of the vein, which is often not open¬
ed, as the prominent mufcies of the neck recei ve the ftroke.
For moll purpofes of bleeding, we would recommend
the fpring-fleam, as being eafily applied, and much ^^ ^
more certain in its effefl. tiling a li¬
lt is a common praflice with grooms and farriers, gature
to tie a rope or other ligature about the nfeck of the about the
3 L 2 animal,tieclc*
.452 . FARR
Operati< n1;. aiiiinal, previous to the bleeding in the jugular vein.
* They do this from a fuppohtion that the vein will thus
fwell the more readily, and that it -will be opened with
greater certainty. But this ligature is in molt cafes
unneceffary, and will at fome times be highly dangerous.
Where exercife is not improper before bleeding, it
will be fufficient that the animal be gently trotted pre¬
vious to the operation, as thus the circulation will be
promoted, and the fuperficial veins will be fufficiently
filled with blood. Where general exercife is improper
or inadmiflible, the filling of the vein may eafily be pro¬
moted by brifldy rubbing the neck for fome time with
a wifp of ftraw or hay •, and juft before applying the
fleam, it wall be proper to prefs with one finger upon
*that part of the vein that is between the fhoulder and
the place where the fleam is applied. •
The danger of a ligature will appear both from rea-
fon and experience. When the ligature is faftened
round the neck, it produces a fweliing of the vein
on each fide 5 and thus the circulation being in a great
meafure impeded, and the return of much of the blood
from the head prevented, an accumulation of blood
takes place in the veffels of the brain. If the ligature
be continued round the neck, which muft happen when,
by wrant of dexterity of the operator, or by the horfe
being, frightened, the vein has not been opened at the
firft attempt, the ftagnation of the blood in the head
goes on to an alarming degree, and the horfe not un-
irequently falls down in ah apoplectic fit. “ In fuch
cafes, (fays Mr Clark), I have obferved the operator
greatly difconcerted, and defift from any further at¬
tempts to draw blood at that time, being prepofleffed
with the idea that the horfe was vicious and unruly,
although the very treatment the horfe had juft under¬
gone rendered bleeding at this time the more neceflary,
in order to make a fpeedy revulfion from the veffels of
the head j therefore a ligature or bandage ought never
to be ufed till fuch time as the opening is made into
the vein, and even then it will not be neceflary at all
times, if the horfe can ftand on his feet, as a moderate
preflure with the finger on the vein will make the blood
flow freely $ but if the horfe is lying on the ground, a
ligature will be neceflary.”
But further, the concufliotv or ftiock the horfe re¬
ceives from his falling down, in the above fituation,
which will always happen if the ligature is too long
continued, may caufe a blood-veflel in the head to burft,
and death may be the confequence.
The place wdiere the vein is to be opened is of fome
confequence, as, when the opening is made too far from
the head, where the vein lies deep among the mufcles,
both the vein is not fo eafily opened, and the wound is
not fo readily healed. The moft proper place for open¬
ing the jugular vein is about an inch below the joining
of the fmall branches that come from the lower jaw.
This is generally about a hand-breadth from the head,
but it may be eafily feen by the fweliing of the vein
when preflure is made on its trunk.
before opening the vein, it is ufual to wet the hairs
that lie above it, and to. ftroke them in the direftion
gf the intended orifice. This is a good praftice, as
the inftrument thus pafles though the ikin more readily,
not having to overcome the refiftance of the hair. In
mentioning the direction of the orifice, it is wrorth while
to remark, that this fhould neither be longitudinal nor
I E R Y.
Part III.
XSt
Place
where the
vein is to
fce opened.
diredlly acrofs the vein, but rather oblique ; as the flow Operations-
of blood from an oblique orifice is moft eafily flopped. ” '
When the vein is opened, it is highly proper in
cafes to catch the blood in fome convenient veflel. It t0
is a very abfurd practice, although it is commonly
adopted, to allow the blood to flow at random on the
ground or on a dunghill, by which means no precife
eftimate can be made of the quantity of blood taken
away. This may either be fo fmall, as to be of no ad¬
vantage •, or it may be fo confiderable as to produce
fainting, before the operator thinks of flopping the ori¬
fice.
For the purpofe of meafuring the quantity of blood
taken away, Mr White recommends a graduated tin
veflel, capable of containing five quarts y every pint
being marked on the infide of the veflel, fo that the
quantity of blood that is taken off may be exactly
known. The blood fhould always be preferved, that
we may judge from its appearance of the nature of the
difeafe, and whether it is proper, or not, to repeat the
operation. If the blood continues fluid for a confider¬
able time, it fhows that there is an inflammatory ftate
of the body y and if a jelly-like fubftance, of a whitifh
or light buff colour, and rather firm confiftence, ap¬
pears on the furface after the blood has cooled, and
efpecially if the furface is hollowed, we may be cer¬
tain that the animal’s complaint is of an inflammatory-
nature, that the bleeding has been proper, and muft be
repeated, if the fymptoms continue or increafe y but if
the blood coagulates quickly, is. uniformly of a dark
liver colour, loofe, and eafily broken,, with a confidet-
able quantity of water upon its furface,^ it. denotes de¬
bility, and fhews that the difeafe arifes from a weaknefs
of the fyftem y that inftead of bleeding, tonic and cordial * White i
medicines are to be employed,, with every thing that
may tend to reftore the animal’s ftrength *.
When a fufficient quantity of blood has been taken gecuriI1g
away, it is for the moft part neceffary to fecure the ori- the orifice,
fice, in order to prevent future accidental bleeding.
This is ufually done by thrufting a common pin through
the lips of the wound, and twining about it a little
horfe hair. As in this way the wound often rankles,
and becomes a fore difficult to heal, which we are
difpofed to attribute to the brafs pin employed, as often
as to any other caufe y we would recommend a pin of
filver, or at leaft of polilhed fteel. The pin need not pafs
through more than the Ikin, and in fome cafes when the
horfe can conveniently be faftened to the rack after
bleeding, the pin may be entirely difpenfed with.
As it is often required to bleed on either ftde of the
neck, or on both fides, it is proper that the operator
ftiould be able to bleed with either hand. This is in¬
deed not quite fo neceflary in bleeding horfes and cattle,-
as in the human fubje£t y but it will be often found
very convenient in both.
In fome cafes, efpecially in inflammation of the brain,
where a fudden and copious lofs of blood is required, it the tempo-
becomes neceflary to open the temporal artery. Thisral artery,
is eaflly effe&ed, as the artery is fttuated very fuperficial-
ly, about an inch and a half backwards from the upper
and outer corner of the eye. It is moft conveniently
opened with a lancet* and when a fufficient quantity of
blood has been drawn, the flow is in general very eaflly
flopped by making continued preflure upon the artery y
or, if this ftiould not fucceed, and a dangerous effuflon
of
1<>S
Cafes re¬
quiring
bleeding.
* White's
ZuTnieria
I/Iedica.
166
Cautions.
Part III. FARR
Operations, of blood fliould be apprehended, this may be effe&ually
prevented by completely dividing the artery.
General bleeding is one of the moft efficacious re¬
medies in moil of the acute difeafes to which horfes
and cattle are fubjeft. “ When a herfe appears dull and
heavy, (fays Mr White), and indifferent about his food,
by bleeding we often prevent a fever. If a horfe is
bled at the commencement of a cold, the complaint
generally proves moderate, and of fnort continuance.
In all cafes of internal inflammation, or fymptomatic
fever, bleeding is the mod effential remedy, provided the
operation be performed at an early period, and the
blood drawn in fufficient quantity. In fuch cafes I
have often taken away five quarts, and repeated the
operation the. following day, when it.appeared necef-
fary. By bleeding copioufly at firfl, thefe formidable
difeafes are cruffied at once ; while by fuffering them to
proceed, or become at all violent, which they wTill
do, unlefs this praftice is adopted (or if only a fmall
quantity of blood is drawn) they generally prove fatal;
nor w ill bleeding then be of any fervice
Mr Clark very juftly remarks, “ that although the
cafes which may require bleeding are numerous, yet
there is one general caution to be obferved, viz. never
to take away blood but when it is abfolutely neceffary j
as it is a fluid that may be eafily taken away, but can¬
not be fo eafily replaced ; befides, that the praftice of
bleeding frequently, or at Hated times, is exceedingly
improper, as it difpofes the body to become lax, wreak,
and plethoric.
“ In bleeding, therefore, a due regard mufl: always
be had to the conftitution, age, ftrength, &c. of
horfes, and the ftate or habit of body they are in at the
time.
“ It is commonly faid that the taking away a little
blood from horfes, even when they are in health, or
when they are in the leafl: indifpofed, will do no harm :
this in one fenfe may be allowed to be literally true j
but why draw' blood from them on every trifling oc-
cafion, unlefs there may be fuch fymptoms attending
as may require it ? I have obferved in many horfes
who have been very frequently blooded, and which
may be eafily known, from the cicatrices or marks on
the neck veins, that their blood had loft much of its
tenacity, together with a coniiderable portion of its
florid and red colour. Butchers who flaughter calves,
may find their account in bleeding them frequently, as
it renders their flefh white, by taking away the red par¬
ticles of the blood. But in horfes it is quite otherwife 5
as they are deftined for hard labour and active exercifes,
it impairs their conftitutions, fubjecls them tb difeafey
and haftens a premature old age.
u As the blood of horfes, more efpecially thofe who
are conftantly employed in hard labour, or in a£Iive
exercifes, when drawn from a vein, appears of a dark-
ifh or deep red colour, even in the higheft ftate of
health, it is commonly faid to be bad blood, and more
fo when a thick yellow or buff-coloured cruft forms on
the furface after it is cold hence thefe appearances are
faid to require repetition of bleeding ■, for it very un¬
luckily happens, that moft of the difeafes to which
hfrrfes are fubjeft are thought to proceed from feme im-
* Clark .on purjties or humours, as they are called, in the blood,
which require to be drained off by bleeding, and other
Mr}//. ^ evacuations V’
1 E R Y. 453
Topical bleeding is ufeful in feveral cafes, as in in- Operations,
flammatory affedfions of the feet, which are often relieved ' '
by opening the coronary veins, or the vein that encir- j0pjcai
cles the coffin-bone j in inflammation of the eyes, in bleeding.
Vvhich blood may be often drawn, from the angular
veins, with confiderable fuccefs; and in affedfions of
the mouth, where it is fometimes ufeful to draw blood,
by fcarifying the bars of the mouth, or even, in fome
urgent cafes, by opening the veins of the palate. To¬
pical bleeding is beft performed with a lancet.
Almoft the only method that is pradlifed for bleed-'
ing ftieep, or dogs, is to cut off a joint or two of the
tail j and this is certainly often produdlive of good eom
fequences, as the flow of blood is fometimes pretty con-
ftderable. Unfortunately, however, w'e can feldom have
recourfe to this mode of bleeding more than once or
twice, wffiereas cafes often occur in which it is necef¬
fary to repeat the bleeding. It is alfo a cruel method,
and we fee no reafon why the veins in thefe animals may
not be opened like thofe of hories and cattle. In the
fheep, indeed, the thicknefs of the wool will common¬
ly prevent bleeding in the neck, but the temporal ar¬
tery and the veins of the foot may be opened without
difficulty 5 and in moft dogs w^e may bleed in the jugu--
lar-vein with nearly as much eafe, as in the horie or'
cowr.
Chap. IV. Of making Rowels and Setons.
168
Rowels in horfes and cattle are much the fame asRowellirg
iffues in the human body. The operation confifts in defciibed
opening the fkin, fo as to infert between it and the cel¬
lular membrane fome foreign body, which is kept there,
in order to produce and keep up a fup.puration, or run¬
ning of purulent matter. The operation is ufually per¬
formed in the following manner. An incifion is made
through the Akin by means of a very {harp pair of feif-
fars, or what appears better, a (harp knife. 'Ihe finger
is then introduced below the {kin, to as to feparate it
from the ftefti all round, as far as the finger will reach.
A piece of leather, about the fizeof a crown-piece, and
of a circular form, with a hole cut in the middle, is
then inferted between the {kin and mufcles, having
been firft anointed with fome ftimulating ointment. A
fmall piece of tow or caddice fpread with the fame oint¬
ment, is put over the hole in the centre of the leather ;
the Ikin is laid down over all, and the part is covered
with a pledget, alfo covered with ointment, to keep out
the external air.
The leather is left in this Situation for two or three
days, during which the parts adjoining the rowel fwell,
and at the end of the time there appears a difeharge of
a yellowiih matter, which gradually becomes thicker
and whiter. In three days at fartheft the part mufl; be
examined, and the plug removed from the central hole,
to allow the matter to flow out, dhe rowel is now
complete, and may be continued as long as {hall be
found neceffary. The aftion of the rowel is eafily ex¬
plained ; the leather introduced excites a degree of in¬
flammation between the {kin and the flelh, and no
means being taken to check this, it goes on, like moft
other inflammations of flelhy parts, to fuppuration.
Thus a difeharge is produced ffom the part, which is
found to have confiderable effe6! in checking inflam¬
mation of feme more important organ near which the
rowel
169
Situations
proper for
rowels.
170
When im¬
proper.
454 F A II H
Operations, rowel has been xnferted. Thus, in fnflammation of the
~ Inngs, after copious bleeding, a rowel in the cheft, like
a bliiler in the human body, is found to have confider-
able effect in checking the progrels of the difeafe.
Rowels may be placed in moft of the ilefhy parts 01
the body ; but they are moft commonly inferted in the
belly, the bread, the infide of the thighs, the outfrde
of the fhoulders, and the hips. They are fometimes
placed between the jaw-bones, below the tongue; but
this is very improper, as a good fuppuration can feldom
be brought on in this place.
It is fometimes found neceffary to make feveral rowels
at the fame time; but they fliould always be placed, as
nearly as poflible, to the feat of the affedtion which
they are intended to relieve.
Befides dangerous inflammations, rowels are found
feryiceable in large fwellings of the hind legs, in ob-
ftinate cafes of greafe, and in drains of the ihoulder.
Though rowels are thus found extremely ufeful in
many cafes, they are, like many other operations per¬
formed on brute animals, fbmetimes made where they are
unneceflary or improper. Where there is confiderable
debility, the infertion of a rowrel would be very injudi¬
cious, as it would not fuppurate kindly, and as the dif-
charge produced would tend ftill farther to increafe
the debility. The difeharge in thefe cafes is ufually
thin and ichorous; fometimes they are perfectly dry,
and not unfrequently a mortification is produced.
When a rowel is found to be attended with any of
thefe effedls, it muft be immediately removed, and the
parts muft be fomented with a warm decoftion of the
chamomile-flowers, and fome ftimulating herbs j or
jnuft be bathed with fpirit of wine or oil of turpentine.
If gangrene fliould have come on, it will befides be ne-
ceflary to adminxfter cordial and ftrengthening reme¬
dies.
Setons are inferted through an opening made in two
oppofite parts of the fkin, and the extraneous body in¬
troduced is a cord.
The opening is made by means of a fharp-pointed in-
ftrument with an eye at the other end for receiving the
cord. The fides of the inftrument muft be proportion¬
ed to the opening to be made, and the ftze of the cord
to be inferted.
Setons are particularly ufeful for. the, purpofe of gra¬
dually draining off matter from abfeeffes or fuppurating
tumours, that are either fo deeply feated as not to be
eafily opened in any other rvay, or fo large that the
fudden difeharge of matter from them while opened by
the knife, would be attended with bad confequences.
They are beft employed in large abfeeffes of the back
withers, and the upper part of the neck behind the
ears. Setons are alfo attended with the advantage of
draining off the matter without expofing the infide of
the abfeefs to the air.
The method of inferting the feton for the purpofe of
opening an abfeefs is this. Wrhen it is found that there
is a confiilerable accumulation of matter, the needle,
fumiihed with a cord of the proper fize, is to be intro¬
duced at the higheft part of the tumour, and brought
out towards its loweft part, fo that the matter may more
eafily drain off. The cord, which muft previoufly be
rubbed with ftimulating ointment, is now to be cut
from the eye of the needle, and then faftened together
at both ends, to prevent its being pulled out j but if
S
171
Setons.
172
Their ufe.
Mode of in'
troducing
them.
I E R Y. PartHI.
the cord fnould not admit of being thus tied, a fmallOperations'
button of wmod may be faftened on each end. It is  v -1
better, however, if pcilible, to tie the ends together, as
every time the lore is dreffed, the feton requires to be
drawn a little round. When the difeharge appears to
be nearly flopped, except what evidently arifes from the
prefence of the cord, this may be gradually removed,
by drawing out a Angle thread of it at every drefling.
In introducing the needle, great care muft be taken
to avoid large blood-veffels and nerves; and wdiere
there is a danger in encountering thefe, it is better to
pals the needle through a {heath. This may eafily be
done, by firft making a fmall opening with a lancet at the
upper part of the tumour 5 and through this introducing
the ftieath, which is to be puftied down till it reaches
the part at which the needle is intended to come out.
The needle in this way will pafs through the (heath
without danger of wounding any important nerve or
veffel.
CHAP. V. Of Ftring.
# x 74
This operation confifts in applying to the Ikin, or Firing,
other parts of the body, a metallic inftrument heated
to a greater or leffer degree of rednefs. The inftru¬
ment is called a cautery, and the operation w’as wrell
known among the ancient furgeons,' by the name of
the adtual cautery.
The inftruments employed for firing are ufually made
of iron, fometimes of copper j but iron is to be preferred.
They are of various forms, according to the part to
which they are to be applied, and the purpofe for which
the operation is to be performed. Thefe will be con-
fidered in deferibing the cafes to which firing is appli¬
cable.
The operation is found of ufe on feveral occaiions : jt5
1 ft, In order to oppofe the progrefs of mortification.
With this view a cautery fhaped like a knife, with a
blunt edge and a thick back, is to be employed. This
form will alfo anfwer for many other cafes. There
fliould be feveral inftruments of the fame kind, that
wThen one becomes too cool, another may be ready of
the proper degree of heat. 1 he heat of the iron in¬
tended for the prefent cafe fliould be that of a cherry-
red. In applying the iron, the parts adjoining to the
mortified place are to be paffed over with the edge of
the inftrument in fucceffive parallel lines, fo as the heat
may penetrate to the living parts, and thus produce
fuch a degree of healthy aftion as may enable them to
throw off the mortified flough. When the iron has
been applied for a fufficient time, which muff be regu¬
lated by the nature of the part, and the extent of mor¬
tification, the wound is to be covered with a pledget
fpread with fome ftimulating ointment.
2d, Firing is employed to brace the {kin, and to
ftrengthen the finew'S. The inftrument above deferibed
is ufed on this occafion, but its heat muft be fomewhat
greater. The mode of applying it is to pafs the edge
lightly and quickly over the {kin, deferibing parallel
lines from one end of the part to the other. When one
iron has been ufed in this way, a frefh one is to be
taken, and made to retrace the lines firft formed, be¬
ginning w’here the laft iron left off \ and this is to be
repeated as often as appears neceffary, taking care not
to deftroy the texture of the ikin. It is recommended
Part III.
FARR
Operations, by Tome to apply the hot iron, To as to burn away the
' » hair, for fome time previoufly to firing the ikin ; as
much time is otherwife loll before the proper impreflion
can be made by the iron. After firing a blitter is fome-
times applied, as this is thought to increafe the good
effeft produced by the iron. When firing is employed
on the hind legs, or on any part where the operator
would be expofed to danger from the horfe’s kicking,
it is necefiary to confine the legs by means of fetters.
3d, This operation has been found ufeful in fpaving,
ring-bones, old callous fwellings of the back finews;
and in wind-galls. For this purpofe the irons are ufed
as already dire6ied. It is the cuftom with fome far¬
riers to apply a blifler in thefe cafes before firing, in
order to reduce the fwelling; as they fuppofe that firing
employed 'without this precaution would tend to fix the
fwelling, and render it incurable. There is probably
little foundation for fuch an idea.
4th, Firing is very frequently had recourfe to by
way of a flyptic in flopping or checking profufe bleed¬
ings, from accidental wounds, or furgical operations.
The iron employed with this view has generally a
rounded extremity, except in the operation of docking,
where an iron in the form of a ring is generally em¬
ployed.
5 th. Another ufe of firing is in wounds of the joints,
or other circumfcribed cavities, where it is employed
to promote a kindly circulation, and confequent granu¬
lation of healthy fleih. It has been employed in thefe
cafes by Mr Col eman, with confiderabie fuccefs.
6th, Firing has been found one of the moft effedhial
remedies in thofe fuperficial ulcers that accompany
farcy or glanders in the horfe j and,
Laftly, The ufe of the hot iron has been found the
only certain means of preventing the dreadful effects
arifing from the bite of a mad animal, when properly
applied after cutting out the bitten part.
Chap. VI. Of Docking.
Docking The honour of having introduced this mofl ufeful
firft ufed and humane pradlice, belongs, we believe, folely to this
in England, country. It appears that it was in ufe in England, fo
long ago as the end of the eighth century; for at a
council held there, about that time (concilium Calcliu-
tenfe, or council of Calchute), there was a canon enadfl-
ed, exprefsly forbidding this praflice, as indecent and
abominable.
It does not appear that this operation is performed
among the Arabians, or other eaftern nations 5 or at
leaft, if it be, it is not intended as an ornament to the
animal, but either from neceflity, when the tail is dif-
eafed, or by way of mark, to diftinguilh fome particular
horfe.
Docking has been pra£lifed in Germany for about
300 years ; and probably much longer in France. It
was certainly unknown to the Italians at the latter end
c£ the fifteenth century j for we are told, that when the
army of the emperor Maximilian was in Italy in 1497,
the Italians were much furprifed to fee his cavalry
I?7 mounted on docked horfes.
Itsabfurdi- It is ftrange that prejudice and falfe tafle fliould lead
ty* mankind to deprive their horfes of a part, which, to the
eye of reafon and unfophifticated nature, muft appear
not only an ornament to the animalj but as defigned by
I E R Y.
455
the Creator as a protection againft flies, gnats, and innu- Operations-
merable other winged enemies, which harafs them in 1 
the fummer months. It is true indeed, that in Britain,
where the fummer heats are in general not fo lafting, or
fo violent, as in the more fouthern countries of Europe,
thefe infects are not always fo troublefome as they are
found in thofe climates. But even here they are fuf-
ficiently fo, to render the protection of the tail necef-
fary j and when our cavalry are unhappily fent to the
continent, the lofs of the horfes tails proves a very feri-
ous obftacle to the fuccefs of the troops. More than
one inflance of this has occurred. At the battle of
Dettingen in 1743, great part of the Britifh cavalry
were abfolutely difmounted, from the death of the
horfes, occalioned in a great meafure by the torment
which they experienced from the bite of gad-flies, and
other infehls j and at the battle of Minden, in the feven
years war, the cavalry of the allies were thrown into fo
much diforder by thefe petty enemies, that they had
nearly loft the battle. Lord Pembroke declares, that
he has feen the cavalry horfes belonging to our army,
fweating, ruftiing againft each other, refufing their food,
and abfolutely devoured by flies, for want of their tails
to brufh them oflT j while thofe of the horfes of the fo¬
reign cavalry that had not been deprived of this necef-
fary defence, were cool, tranquil, fed well, and were in
good condition. From the inconveniences which our
cavalry have fuffered from the want of the horfes tails,
it has been for fome years the cuftom to employ long¬
tailed horfes.
The principal reafons that have been aftigned for
this abfurd praClice, are, that a long tail is extremely
inconvenient to both horie and rider, -when travelling
through dirty roads and buftiy forefts ; and that when
the tail is of its ordinary length, the animal cannot car¬
ry it in that fine, arched, cocked-tail diredtion, which
feems to form one of the chief beauties of the modern
racer.
We apprehend that few horfes enjoy fuch an ample
length of tail as that of the redoubted Hudibras j of whofe
horfe we read that,
“ His draggling tail hung in the dirt,
“ Which on his rider he would flirt,
“ Still as his tender fide he prickt
“ With arm’d heel, or with unarm’d, kickt.”
As to the beauty of a cocked-tailed horfe, -we pro-
fefs ourfelves not competent to judge 3 but with due de-
ference to the gentlemen of the turf, and the refpddtable
fraternity of jockies, we ihould humbly conceive (we
fpeak with fubmiflion) that a horfe with a long tail is a
much finer object than one that is perpetually perking
and wriggling his tail in the air, and expoling his bare
breech to the broad flare of open day.
Docking is ufuaUy performed on horfes, by laying the Mode of
tail upon a block, and chopping off the part by means peiforming
of a cleaver or hatchet ftruck with a mallet. Perhaps ^ °Fera-
it would be rather lefs bungling to perform the opera-tl0n*
tion by means of a knife, and it would not take up
much more time. When this is done, the hair muft be
previoufly clipped awray, that the knife may cut more
eafily j and previous to making the incifion, the fldn
Ihould be drawm up forcibly towards the rump. The
mcifion may be made by beginning on one fide, and
cutting round from below upwards, fo as to perform the
whole
456 F A II R
Operatioris. wliole as nearly as poiiible at one flroKe. 'When tne
fkin and mu Teles have been completed divided, the
part of the tail.is to be cut off at the joining of two of
the bones as nearly as poffible to the edges^ of the
wound, Hill keeping the (kin drawn up. When the
part has been removed, the flefli is to be feared all round,
with a hot iron, to flop the effulion of olood. I Tm iron
employed in Ifrance for this purpole is formed like a
ring, To that it is eafily applied to the ileih without in¬
juring the bone. The wound muff be covered from
the air, and the animal muff live rather low to prevent
inflammation.
The practice of nicking, or cutting acrofs the mufcles
that draw down the tail, fo that thole which pull it up¬
wards may exert their full power, is ftill more inhuman
and abfurd than that of docking •, and as we will con¬
tribute nothing towards extending this abominable
practice, we fliall omit the operation altogether.
. Chap. VII. Of Cropping.
Cropping. % Taste and fafhion have introduced another opera¬
tion, by which the ears of horfes and dogs are changed
from their natural fhape and lize, to thofe which are
confidered by their owners as more handfome or agree¬
able. The ears of the horfe and the dog are feldomof
"fuch a fhape or fize, as to render them inconvenient to
the animals, or to unfit them for the purpoles for which
nature has defigned them. J his may, however, fome-
fames happen j and there are fome cafes of wounds or
rtifeafes that may render cropping neceffary: but in per¬
forming this operation, it fhould always be kept in mind,
that as no part of the animal is made in vain, no more
of the ears fhould be taken away than what is abfolute-
ly neceffarv. We not unfrecpiently fee horfes and dogs
cropped clofe to their head, a praftice which is cruel
and abfurd, and w7hich is always followed by more or
lefs deafnefs, and* expofes the animals to much incon¬
venience from the weather. In thofe dogs that are em¬
ployed in rabbit warrens, or for fimilar purpofes, where
they are required to enter burrow-s, cropping is attended
with the worfl effefts, as the ears of the dog are una¬
voidably expofed to the particles of fand and earth that
he brufhes away in his paffage through the burrow.
The operation of cropping fcarcely requires deferip-
tion. In the dog it is ufually performed by means of a
pair of feiffars, but thefe fhould be very fharp. In the
horfe, more nicety is required j and a particular inilru-
ixient, called the cropping iron, is required, and a fhape
of the fize of which it "is intended the ear fhall be, is
applied to the ear, to mark the line of feetion. After
the ear is cut, the fkin and mufcles recede confiderably
from the griflly part 5 but this feems of little confe-
quence, and the wound heals in a few days without
any other attention, than confining the animal within
doors, .and keeping him on a moderate, cooling diet.
Horfes ears are fometimes trimmed, as the grooms call
it j that is, they are deprived of the fine foft hair that
lines the infide of the cavity. I his praflice is equally
abfurd with cropping, as wall appear from the following
obfervations of Mr Clark.
i8o_ u qphe ears of horfes, as of other animals, (fays Mr
onrTm-17 Clarke), are covered on the infide with a fhort down,
ming fiorffs intermixed with long hairs, which line the external ca-
ears.
4
I E R Y. Part III.
vity of the ear, which feems defigned by nature to pre- Operation;
vent harfh founds from making too great an impreffion' ~v '
upon the brain, and likewife to prevent the cold air,
rain, dull, flies, &c. from annoying the internal ear.
The means commonly ufed to remove this down, &c.
is by the feiffars, the flame of a candle, or that of a
burning torch. Both the latter are cruel and barbar¬
ous, and caufe a deal of pain to the animal, not only
from the bliilers that fometimes rife on the ears after
this manner of fmging them, but likewife from the
means that are ufed to make horfes fland with patience
to undergo the operation, that is a twitch on the nofe p
and perhaps, if he is troublefome to the operator, one
put on the ear. It is to be obferved, that horfes
are very much guided or directed by the fenfe of hear¬
ing. This is obvious in thofe that hear diftindtly, from
the motion of their ears, and the diredtion they give
them to whatever quarter any found comes from, the at¬
tention they pay to what paffes around them, or to what
is fpoke to them. Many of them, particularly the
fineft kind, as they only are liable to this kind of treat¬
ment, have the fenfe of hearing confiderably blunted, if
not rendered quite deaf from the above operation.
As this operation is generally firft performed on
young horfes at the time they are breaking, it is the
more hurtful; as the uncommon founds, as the rattling
of carriages, drums, &c. which are entirely new to
them, and to which they are then more expoled on the
roads or in ftreets, mull make the greater impreffion
on the fenfe of hearing 5 and perhaps it may be owing
to the above caufe only, that many horfes are timorous
to pafs carriages, and remain fo ever afterwrards.
Another difadvantage which attends this operation
upon the ears of horfes, is, that they will not go on
cheerfully when travelling in oppofition to the wind,
more efpecially if it rains 5 for as the wind and rain
get free accefs into the ears, they are continually fliak- *
ing their heads and endeavouring to turn from it j and
thofe who are of a more impatient temper, will wheel
fuddenly round, in order to avoid what gives them fo
much uneafinefs. They are then faid to be reftive 5
the whip and fpurs are applied by w7ay of chaftifement
for a fuppofed fault only.
From what has been faid, it will be obvious, from
the practice of taking away the natural covering
from the infide of the ears, that the internal ear mult
be expofed to be confiderably injured, particularly from
cold, dull, &c. which blunts the fenfe of hearing, and
perhaps caufes deafnefs 5 for it is obferved in thofe hor¬
fes who have been much ufed to this treatment, that
they lofe that lively, active motion of the ears, and ap¬
pear dull and inattentive to what paffes around them,
and even to the voice of their keeper *.
Chap. VIII. Of Caf ration.
xSi
It is found of ufe to deprive the males of feveral ofCaftration
the domeftic animals, efpecially of horfes and cattle, of
the means of propagation, either to render them more
mild and tra&able, or, in the cafe of cattle, to promote
their fattening, and render their flefh lefs rank. It has
been difputed whether the caftration of the ftallion is
productive of fuch advantages as are not counterbalan¬
ced by the lofs of ftrength and fpirit, which the animals
fuftain
Part III.
FARR
Operations, fuftain by the operation. It is not our intention to dif-
l_ 1 v cufs this point, and we iliall here only defcribe the ufu-
jSs al modes of performing the operation.
Mode of The molt prudent mode of caltrating an adult or
caftrating. gr0wn horfe, appears to be the following. Let him be
thrown on fome convenient fpot, on the off fide, and
when dowrn, let the off hind leg be drawn towards the
neck, by which the fcrotum will be fairly expofed.
Holding the fcrotum firmly, make a cut at once through
it, not of too great length, but fufficient to admit the
tefficle being preffed out j this being done, apply the
clams or a pair of nippers on the cord within an inch of
the teflicle, and hold the clams fufficiently tight to flop
the How of blood, but not to bruife the cord j the done
may then be cut off with a fcalpel, or it may be feared
off with a burning knife. If it is cut off with a fcalpel
immediately before the clams let go their hold, fear the
end of the cord. Some apply a little powdered refin
on it before fearing, after which the clams may be
loofened. When this is finifhed, proceed to remove the
other in the fame manner.
After both are removed, a pledgit of lint, wetted in
warmed fpirits, may be introduced juft within the edges
of each wxound 5 but no fait fhould by any means be
introduced, as is the pradlice of fome farriers ; nor wall
any kind of bandage be ealily retained, and if any thing
of this kind is ufed, it fhould be very loofely applied, fo
as not to irritate.
When this operation is performed on a full grown
horfe, if he is at all fat, he fhould be previoufly bled,
and kept rather low 5 and it will be prudent to choofe
mild weather for the operation ; and the place likewdfe
he is put into after the operation, fhould be of a moder¬
ate temperature.
Sometimes there is a confiderable degree of inflam¬
mation, and when this happens, it is by no means pro¬
per to trot the horfe about as is commonly done, but to
bleed and purge, and apply a folution of fugar of lead
to the parts. It will alfo be of advantage to infert a
feton fmeared with bliftering ointment into the infide of
the thigh.
Some operators feparate the epididymis from the tef-
ticle and fuller it to remain, by which means they think
that a portion of the animal’s fpirit is retained. A fimi-
lar cuftom is faid to prevail in France ; but the French
operators objeft to it, on the idea that it produces fiftu-
lous fores in the part. The fa6t is, that when any por¬
tion of the tefticle is fuffered to remain, though it can¬
not fecrete femen, yet it has fome action going on with¬
in, by which it produces fome influence both on the
mind and form j and as fuch, the future growth of the
animal may perhaps be flightly affefted by it, and per¬
haps his temper too, but the addition to the latter may
probably not be a very favourable one *.
Where the operation is to be performed, the beft
peiforming tjme probalfty when the foal is about three months
old, though fome prefer a much more advanced age, as
fix, or even 12 months, and more in fome cafes. In
all animals there is, however, the leaft dangej of in¬
flammation while they are young in performing fuch
operations. Befides it is better to cut colts before they
have any propenfity to hanker after mares, and get bad
habits. When the foals are early, and the weather is
not too hot, the latter end of May or beginning of June
may be a good and proper feafon.
Vol. VIII. Part II.
* Blaine.
Outlines^
vol. ii.
i83
Time of
it,
1 E R Y. 457
Some of the Yorkfhire breeders, however, think that Operations.
they find advantage in deferring the operation till the '    
horfes are two years old, as they fuppofe they become
the ftronger and handfomer for it. And where the ope¬
ration is performed at one year old, they find that the
foals have not recovered the check they fuftained by
weaning before they experience another in this operation.
They experience no greater difference in their recovery
at two years old than one. . The foals fhould be kept
up fome time before the gelding is to be performed. * * Didfon's
The caftrating of male lambs is performed at dif- Agricult.
ferent periods in different diftri&s; but it feems the moftvoJ‘ u*
proper to be done in the firft fortnight in the ftronger
fort of lambs, and in thofe of the weaker kind from a
fortnight to three weeks, or a month old, according to
circumftances. Some, however, advife its being done
at a much later period. When done early, there is,
however, the leaft danger of too much infiammation
coming on, if the lambs be in a healthy condition.
When performed while very young, on tender, delicate
lambs, mortification may fometimes be apt to come on
and deftroy them, f \ Hid.
Chap. IX. Of Spayhig.
. . ,s4
Spaying is an operation performed on the females,Spaying.
chiefly on cattle and dogs, to prevent their producing
young. It confifts i n taking away the ovaries, or thofe
appendages to the womb in which are formed the rudi¬
ments of the young. It is fuppofed that it is attended
with confiderable advantage, in cows of heifers, as it
greatly promotes their fattening. In bitches, it is ge¬
nerally employed to prevent the unpleafant circum¬
ftances that often occur in the time they are in heat.
Spaying is ufually performed after the animal has
been newly impregnated, as at that time the ovaries are
larger than before impregnation, and are of courfe more
eafily difcovered. In performing the operation, a cut
is made through the integuments of the belly, between
the haunch-bone and the laft ribs, and through this
opening the fingers are to be introduced. If the animal
has not been impregnated, a roundilh hard fubftance
wall be felt attached to the loins. This is to be drawn
out and cut off, and that on the other fide is now to be
felt for, drawn out, and cut aw^ay. The ovaries, as has
been faid, wall be much more readily found, efpecially
the inmoft one, when the animal is impregnated, as the
young within the horns of the womb afford a good di-
reclion to the finger. It is fometimes neceffary, when
the animal is not in a ftate of impregnation, to make an
opening on each fide of the belly, one for the extrac¬
tion of each ovary ; but when this is found requifite,
it will be better to delay the fecond operation till the
animal is in fome meafure recovered from the firft.
When the ovaries have been cut away, the openings
muft be clofed by means of a ftitch through the in¬
teguments of the belly, and muft be carefully cover¬
ed with flicking plafter, to prevent the adrniiiion of the
external air.
Mr Daniel remarks, that this operation does not al- *85
ways fucceed in bitches, unlefs done by a fkilful perfon,
w?ho can be relied upon. If it be ill done, although
the bitches can have no puppies, they will notwdth-
ftanding go to heat, wdiich defeats the purpofe. There
is a difference of opinion, whether a bitch Ihould be
3 M fpayed
458 FAR R
Operations, {payed before or after foe has had a litter of whelps ;
v—-y—j j)anjei} however, has tried, and found both periods
to anfwer. The bed time is 14 or 15 days after lire
has taken the dog, and wrhen the puppies juft begin to
b« knotted within her. All the roots of the veins
fhould not be taken away ; her ftrength and fwiftnefs
will be injured by fo doing. They ftiould be kept low'
for feveral days before the operation is performed, and
* Daniel's fed on thin meat for fome time after *.
Rural
Sports. Chap. X. Of Delivery in Difficult Labours.
igg
Deliver}'. In general, Nature is all-fufficient for bringing forth
the young of domeftic animals, and man has little to do,
except to take care that tbe females be not in fuch a fi-
tuation as may expofe themfelves or their young to injury.
It is proper always to watch a mare, or a cow, that is
near the time of bringing forth j and to be at hand, to
afford afliftance where neceffary. Mares do not often
require afliftance, as with them, difficult labour is un¬
common. Where this does occur, the diredlions we
are about to give for the cow', will in general anfwer for
the mare.
Cows, particularly the fhort-horned fpecies, often
need the afliftance of the accoucheur. The natural
prefentation of the calf, is with its head and fore-feet,
the nofe between the feet, and the back upwards.
Downing enumerates feven preternatural pofitions :
namely, ift, Reverfe prefentation, or tail firft. 2d,
Fore-feet, no head appearing. 3d. Side-belly upwards,
head reverfed over one {boulder, legs appearing. 4th,
Fore-feet, with head under the briiket. 15th, Head
alone, or one fore-leg only with it. 6th, Head and
one leg, or head alone. 7th, Calf lying on its back, its
four legs folded nearly together, and clofe up to the
cow’s back •, the head appearing, or doubled back,
even with the ribs, on one lide or other ; one hind-leg,
jgy perhaps, appearing.
Dirrftions The following general rules are given by Mr Law-
for deliver- rence.—Timely afliftance before the cow is exhaufted.
ing cows in Extra£lion never to be attempted in an improper pofi-
tiotis^01" ti°n. Supple the hand and arm with warm water and
frefh lard. Examination beft made, the cow {landing,
and in the interval of pains. In pulling at the feet, in-
clofe the claws in the hand, that the horn may not
bruife the cow'. Navel ftring burfting, and the ufual
flux of blood, of no confequence. Inftruments to be
r ufed only in the laft refort, and by experienced and
fteady perfons only. The proper hook is of hard iron,
four inches l6ng, with a loop for the cord at the ftraight
end.
In a natural pofltion, if the cow fhould want help,
the pofition of the calf may be afcertained after the wa-
t«rs have been feen. A cord ought to be in readinefs,
to attach to the fore legs of the calf, in order to aflift
each natural exertion. The head to be kept clear of
• obftruclion.
Preternatural pofition. N° 1. as above. No at¬
tempt to turn the calf (this pofition being favourable for
extraftion), but ufe expedition, for fear it be fuffocated.
Prefs the haunches back with the palm of the hand,
take hold of the bend of the hough of one leg, pull at
it, and reach the foot; both feet may thus be brought
lorth. N° 2. Reduce the head to its proper fituation,
between the fore-legs, either by hold of the jR>fe, or the
I E R Y. Part III.
face-bone. A long arm is needful, which muft be kept OperatioRs.
to the full extent in the body, that inftant advantage
may be taken of every throe, the fingers being proper¬
ly fixed. N° 3. Gently move the calf back, and bring
the head forth to the legs. N° 4. Pufh the calf back
to find the head 5 pull at the nofe j this requires ad-
drefs, but it is ufelefs to employ force, until the head be
in its proper place. N0 5 and 6. Pufti the calf back
againft the Ihoulders and briiket 5 the feet wall be found
folded tinder the belly; bring the feet forward, one at a
time, the hand being gently placed on the bend of the
knee. Should the head be too much fwelled and
bruifed, to be returned, it muft be Ikinned and ampu¬
tated. Diffecl in a ftraight line from the poll to the
nofe, force the {kin back over the firft joint of the neck,
divide the head from the body, puftiing the latter back
to obtain hold of the knees. The loofe {kin muft be pre-
vioufly wrapped over the ragged bone, and an affiftant
ftrould have fall hold, in order to guide it clear of the
haunch-bones of the cow ; fhould it hitch there, put
back inftantly. N° 7. If one hind-leg appear, put it
back ; the calf cannot be brought forth with a hinder
and fore-leg together, and the difference between the
knee and hough will be immediately difcovered. The
head being doubled back, muft of courfe be reduced to
its proper place. The cow being ftrong and quiet, the
bufinefs may be effedted with care and patience 3 but
ftiould the hook be pofitively neceffary, hold mull be
taken, either in the fockets of the eyes, cavity of the
ears, or in the jaw. The cafe of dropfy in the calf will ^ ^
be fufficiently apparent by its preternatural fize 3 ufe^ hTtP-T*
the knife carefully, Ihould that be neceffary, to pierce voit jp *
the belly of the calf. 188
There is a very material obftrudlion which frequent-1° preter-
ly happens to the calving of cow's. It is called a hom-™^^.^
ing of the lye or calf-bed, when the paffage of it is con-of the paf.
tradled into a very fmall ©ircumference, infomuch, thatfagC.
at the full time of geftation, it will not admit fo much
as the fmalleft hand, and grows fo finewy or horned, as
renders it utterly impoflible for the cow to calve with¬
out afliftance, and many cattle have died under this
dreadful inconvenience, when it might have been eafily
prevented 3 but fo little has been known hitherto of the
difeafes peculiar to bhck cattle, that many thoufands
have fallen vidlims to untimely death, that a Ample
remedy or operation might have faved.
In the cafe before obferved, it muft take a confider-
able length of time, before it is contracted, as it is often
found 3 but no fufpicion or dread can reafonably take
place, until near the time when the beaft has arrived
at the end of nine months, her full time of bearing
young: when they generally make a regular prepara¬
tion, or falling of the parts of generation, for a few
days, or weeks before calving 3 but in cafes of this 4
hornednefs of the calf-bed, it is obferved that they are
backward in making thefe neceffary alterations, pre¬
paratory to the approaching change 3 and when this is
noticed, more than ufual obfervation ought to be taken,
for w'hen they do not prepare in a regular manner, they
feHom have the efforts of nature in due courfe, for the
delivery of their burthen.—But when the beaft is ob¬
ferved lick for calving, and has reached the end of her
time, and any dread of this apprehended, there is no
danger or impropriety in fearching with the hand, in
ojofcr to fce fatisfied* whether that part is open, or
grown
PartIV. FARR
Hygeiology grown up, as previoufly defcribed j yet the greateft care
'“’Y"-'"' is neceflary, that the inquiry be made with judgment,
and the hand that is introduced mull be well lathered
with foap and water, or greafed with tallow, frefh butter,
or fome fuch thing, that will not caufe irritation in the
neck of the womb.
Now, if it be found in the ftate defcribed in any de¬
gree, and a certainty of the beaft being at its full time,
with the common ficknefs and fymptoms for calving, no
time fhould be loft until the animal be relieved. The
difficulty greatly depends on knowing to what degree
it is grown up ; it is fometimes fo ftrait as not to admit
the end of a finger, but with fome exertion, it may give
fo much way as that a fmall knife may be introduced,
whofe blade ftiould not be above an inch and a half in
length, and very (harp, with a hollow' on the back part
of the point, for the end of the fore-finger to guide the
knife when cutting, and to cover the point and edge,
when introduced, which muft be covered as much as
poflible with the hand. Its handle ought to be fliort,
and the fore-finger of the operator fliould always be
kept forw-ard on the knife, to prevent any danger that
might arife from the edge of it. The homy circle is
fometimes fo hard and griftly, that it takes more exer¬
tion than may have been expelled from the nature of
the place •, but as foon as it is cut through, the beaft
will find a very material difference, and ftrive to void
her burden, if poffible, when every exertion of art
I E R Y.
ought to be ufed for her relief,
fered the beaft, fo difordered, to
before their eyes, without offering to render her any
afliftance, and fome have attempted to take the calf out
at the fide of the animal, a pra&ice commonly known
by the name of the Caefarean operation j but the other
method is to be preferred, when the obftruflion is the
refult of hornednefs. But operations of this kind in
general fail, from neglefting the attempt until every
natural hope is gone, and the patient fo much weaken¬
ed, as to die under the hands of the perfon who has un¬
dertaken the talk. It is, therefore recommended, that,
no time be loft in afcertaining the caufe of any delay in
calving, and that every exertion be ufed, wffiile the ani¬
mal has ftrength to undergo the operation, and to fecond
the attempt. When the bufinefs is happily over, the
wounded parts within muft be taken care of, by pro¬
viding one pint of re£lified fpirit of wine camphorated,
to anoint the wound, and any other parts which may
have been expofed to the air, bruifed, or over diftended.
This may be conveyed up the neck of the wmmb by a
fyringe, fpunge, or linen rag filled with it, and carried
thither by a fmall hand, urell fomented with fome of the
foregoing articles for that purpofe. Let the beaft be
kept moderately warm, and in a comfortable fituation,
allowing her at all times a plentiful fixpply of good, dry,
and fweet litter. We have taken the above from Row-
lin’s Complete Cow-doftor. *
4
Many people hare fuf- Hygeioiogy
die a milerable death
PART IV. HYGEIOLOGY; OR, THE MEANS OF PRESERVING THE
HEALTH OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
tSp Before we enter on the confideration of the difeafes,
that affeft domeftic animals, whofe medical treat¬
ment is to form the fubjeft of the remaining part of this
article j it will be proper to lay down fome inftru&ions
for the management of thefe animals in a ftate of health,
with a view to that moft important object, the avoiding
of the caufes of difeafe. The prefervation of health
muft ever be confidered as one of the principal objects
of the medical praftitioner, and has exercifed the pens
of fome of the moft eminent phyficians in all ages. But
the confideration of this fubjefl is ftill more neceffary in
the treatment of the inferior animals, than in that of
man. In the former the cure of difeafe is rendered
much more difficult and precarious, on account of the
obfcurity in which the fymptoms are often hid, and the
difficulty which we frequently experience in inveftigat-
i9« ing the caufes of morbid affeftions.
Habita. The management of domeftic animals in a ftate
tions. 0f heait;b, chiefly refpefts the habitations in which they
are placed, when taken from their native fields j their
food and drink j cleanlinefs, and exercife.
Chap. I. Of Stablesy Cow-houfeSy and Kennels.
In a ftate erf nature, all the animals at prefent under
our confideration, are conftantly expofed to the open
air, and only feek for fhelter from the inclemencies of
the weather under woods and thickets. The young of
all thefe animals when domefticated, except the dog,
are for a long time left in a fimilar ftate, till, for the
convenience of their mafters, it is found neceffary t»
place them in habitations. The ftru&ure of thefe, that
is of ftables, cowhoufes, and kennels, and the method of
treating the animals confined in them, is of the utmoft
confequence j as on thefe the animals health and com¬
fort muft in a great meafure depend.
I. Of Stables.
Stables fhould be built on a dry foil, that is fome-shoidd be
what elevated y or, at leaft, they muft not be built in a built on a
hollow, or in the neighbourhood of boggy or marlhydry and
land. The damp cold air, arifing from moift, low fitua-e!evate<1
tions, is extremely prejudicial to the health of all ani- CC*
mals, particularly horfes, and, as we fhall fee hereafter,
to Iheep. It renders them fubjeft to colds, rheumatifm,
and not unfrequently to fever. Stables built in thefe
fituations are therefore always dangerous j and more
particularly fo, when the animals return to them after
having been heated by violent exercife or labour. r ,
Stables fliould be roomy in proportion to the number Should be
of horfes that it is propofed they ftiould contain. Per- roomy,
haps no liable ftiould be made to hold more than five or
fix horfes, as many inconveniences arife from keeping
too many of thefe animals in the fame apartment. Not
only is the air thereby much more vitiated, but the reft
and deep, fo neceffary to repair the fatigues of the day,
are thus prevented or difturbed. Some horfes will not
deep, or even lie down, if not perfedlly at their eafe j
and hence, in large ffables, that are made to contain a
dozen or more horfes, as is often the cafe in livery fta-
3 M 2 hies*
ov
460
F A 11 R
Hygeiology bles, and fucb as are attached to large inns, the frequent
v' entrance of grooms, oftlers, and other penons ^ with
lights, into the liable, and even the reftlefs noife oi
fome of the horfes, who are more watchful, or have
been lefs fatigued than others, mult be a great distur¬
bance to thefe latter. Where necellity requires a long
range of Itables, it is better to have them divided, by
thick partition walls, into Separate apartments, each made
to contain not more than lix horfes. I he additional ex¬
pence of this would be trifling, compared to the greater
eafe and comfort of the animals.
It is ufual in large llables, for the fake of keeping
more horfes conveniently under the fame roof, to make
them double-headed, as it is termed ; that is, to have a
range of Halls along each wall, with a fpace between,
for perfons to pafs to and fro. Stables of this kind are
very improper; the fpace between the two ranges is
often fo narrow, that when the oppolite Halls are oc¬
cupied at the fame time, the horfes can reach each other
193 with their hind feet, especially when Handing, as they
Double fta- 0f^en at the full length of their halter. Hence, in
bles impro- ^ contefts tbat often arife between quarrelfome or met-
-er" tlefome horfes, very fevere bruifes, and even lamenefs,
are not unufually the confequences of the animals being
within each others reach. The danger that threatens
paffengers in thefe narrow fpaces is alfo not fmall j we
have often trembled, when obliged to pafs between two
rows of horfes, kicking and wincing under the curry¬
combs, where the intermediate fpace did not exceed
three or four feet. If double-headed Hables muH be
ufed, the fpace between the ranges of Halls fliould be at
l()A leaH eight feet.
Root Ihould The roof of Hables fliould not be low j for, as the
not be lc%v. foul an(J vitiated air, generated by refpiration and the
exhalations of animal bodies, naturally afeends to the
highefl parts, the horfes, who ufually carry their heads
very high, are, when the ceiling of the flable is low, ful¬
ly expofed to the noxious influence of this vitiated at-
mofphere. This is not the place to enlarge on the
vitiation that the air undergoes from the aftion of the
animals that are confined in it j this fubjedl has been al¬
ready fully confidered in the article Chemistry when
fpcaking of refpiration 5 and, from wdiat has been there
delivered, the reader will fee the neceflity of pure air
to horfes and other animals as well as man, and will be
able to judge of the propriety of the above maxim, and
fome others which we fliall prefently lay down.
The walls of the Hable ftiould be of Hone or brick,
and by no means of wood 5 they ftiould alfo be left
bare, or at leafl only covered with plaifler. 1 he tem¬
perature of the air, in buildings of Hone or brick, is
much more equable than in thofe built of wood, they
are not fo eafily penetrated by the heat of fummer, m
the cold of winter, and they are alfo attended with
another important advantage, that they refifl the fpread-
ing of fire.
The Halls in which the horfes are to Hand fliould be
divided from each other by Hrong wooden partitions,
that ftiould rife fufficiently high to prevent the horfe
from Hep ping over, but not fo high as to impede the
free circulation of air, and admiflion of light from one
Hall to another. The breadth of each Hall fliould be
fuch as will freely admit of the horfe turning himfelf,
and ft retching at his full length when he lies down j
but they ihould not be fo wide as to allow of his kick-
I E R Y.
Part IV.
*95
Stalk.
ing againft the partition. The floor of the Hall fliould Hygeiology
have a gentle declivity, from the manger backwards.
This allowrs the urine and water to run eafily oh } it ai-
fo relieves the fore quarters of the horfe, and adds
much to the grace of his appearance behind. Too
great a flope, howrever, muft be avoided, as when the de¬
clivity is too rapid, all the weight of the horfe is thrown
on his hind legs 3 and, as it is extremely uneafy for the
animal to remain long in this pofition, he is obliged to
prefs his body forward, which he cannot accomplifti,
without keeping the hind legs always on the Hretch 3
the paftern-joint, from its fituation, receives the whole
additional weight, and the ligament which connecls it
is invariably ftrained in all horfes wfliich are kept in
this fort of liable for any length of time.
A flope of one inch in fix feet will be fufficient to
anfwer every purpofe.
This declivity Ihould terminate in a hollow fpace a
few inches from the end of the Hall, forming a fort or
gutter, extending the whole length of tne Hable, and
palling out through the wall at each end, where iron
bars fhould be placed, to admit of the water, &c. paf-
fing out of the ftable, which is the intention of this
gutter, but preventing the intrufion of rats, and other
noxious animals. *9®
The floor of ftables is commonly paved with Hone, Floor,
or hard bricks made for that purpoie. Hhis kind of
flooring has the advantage of being _ more durable than
any other 3 but it is not wuthout its inconveniencies.
The Hones or bricks become fmooth by wearing, and,
when the ftable is wet, the horfe, efpecially if he be
very frilky, is apt to flip, and endanger ftraining or
otherways injuring his limbs. Again, by the pawing,
or ftamping, to wfliich thefe animals are often lubjctf,
the pavement may be loofened or broken. For thefe
reafons, it would perhaps be better that at leaft the
Halls Ihould be floored with ftrong oaken planks well
feafoned, and laid acrofs the Hall, with their extremi¬
ties below the partitions, and having their joining edges
accurately adapted to each other. A flooring of this
kind has the advantage of being more elaftic, and of
prefervmg a more equable temperature than pavement 3
and it is not liable to the inconveniencies which we
have mentioned, as attending this latter. A wTooden
flooring is indeed expenfive, but this is more than
counterbalanced by the advantages to the horfe. It is
of little confequence how the reft of the ftable is cover¬
ed 3 fome gentlemen floor their ftables with a fort of
cement which in courle of time becomes as hard as
Hone, and has the advantage of being perfeftly fmooth
and even. The gutter fliould of courfe be well paved. Ip7
The manger for receiving the horfes corn ftiould be Manger,
about a foot broad, and five or fix inches deep. _ The
manger is ufually made of wood, and wflien this is the
cafe, the boards compofing it ftiould be fo clofely join¬
ed, that the corn cannot get through between them.
The front of the manger fliould rife about three feet,
or a little more, from the ground 3 fliould flope a little,
and fliould terminate above by a ftrong rounded border.
This if the manger be made of wood, ftiould be
covered wflth tin plate, or white iron, as horfes are very
apt, wflien without food, or when allowed to remain
long in the ftall, to bite the front of the manger, and
thus acquire a very bad habit, which farriers call crib-
biting. Some chufe to make the manger of ftone,
which
Part TV. FARR
Hvgeiok sr which has' the advantage of wood in being more durable
v—““V J and cleanly, wood acquiring by ufe an unpleafant fmell,
and being foon rotted by the moifture of the food,
which it often receives. The bottom of the manger
fhould Hope a little forwards.
The manger is fometimes made to extend the whole
length of the liable, when it is in general divided into
feveral cavities, one for each horfe. It is of little con-
fequence whether it be one continued cavity, or
whether there be a feparate manger for each ftall; but
the manger Ihould by no means be fupported on legs,
fo as to make it moveable, as is fometime's done ; as
this prevents the litter from being conveniently flowed
below the manger, and expofes the horfe or the manger
to accidents. It ftiould therefore be firmly fixed at the
back to the wall of the liable, and to each partition of
the ftall. Sometimes a hollow is made at one end of
the manger, or at one end of each divifion of it, for
the purpofe of holding water. When this is done,
there Ihould be a hole in the bottom of this cavity
fitted wdth a plug, to draw off the water when the
horfe has done drinking, or when the manger has been
walked.
In the middle of the front of the manger, in its thick
edge, there is ufually fixed an iron ring, turning eafily
in an eye bolt, for the purpofe of palling through the
halter, by which the horfe is faftened. Sometimes, in-
ftead of this ring, a hole is made through the border of
the manger for the halter to pais through •, but as the
halter does not flip backwards and forwards eafily through
fuch a hole, and wears very fall by rubbing againft the
wood, the iron ring is to be preferred. The horfe
Ihould always be faftened in fuch a way, as that the
halter ftiall Aide backwards and forwards with every
motion of the horfe’s head; and he Ihould on no account
be tied by the halter, as this expofes him to accidents,
198 by twilling the halter about his neck or legs.
Rack. T he rack Ihould be placed at fuch a height above
the manger, as that the horfe can eafily-reach it, to pull
out the hay; it Ihould be very ftrong and firmly fixed,
and Ihould incline a little outwards from the wall of
the liable. The bars of which it is compofed, Ihould
not be above four or five inches afunder, that the hay
may not fall out and be willed.
One circumftance particularly to be attended to in
the conftrudion of llables is, to preferve a free circula-
tion of air.
Stables The generality of ftables are by much too dole and'
fhould not warm j not a chink is left for the free admiflion of air j
be too clofe. ^ joor> an(j w;nclows (if there are any), are made fo
clofe, as perfe6tly to exclude the air 5 or, if this is not
the cafe, the crevices are frequently Hopped with hay,
under the idea that the horfes cannot be kept too warm.
This is a moll abfurd and miftaken notion ; and is con-
tradi£led both by reafon and daily experience. When
we confider that horfes in a Hate of nature, or even in
their ufual paftures, are perpetually expofed to the open
air. and that, under thefe circumftances, they are more
vigorous and active than under the moll attentive care
of their mailers, we mull be convinced of the improprie¬
ty of keeping them for hours together in the foul and
heated atmofphere of the ordinary clofe ftables. Who¬
ever enters one of thefe ftables when the door is firft
opened in the morning, after it has been clofely ftiut up
all night, will be able to judge from his own fenfations,
I E R Y. 461
whether fuch an atmofphere can be wholefome to the Hygeitflowy
animals that breathe it. Eelides the great heat of the "■'* "h
liable, which, if many horfes have been ihut up in it all
night is nearly intolerable, the air will be found highly
impure from the continued refpiration of fo many ani¬
mals, and the Hearns arifing from the exhalations of
their bodies, which have probably fweated profufely
from having been fo long confined in an atmofphere lo
foul and heated. Add to this the impregnation of the
air by the effluvia ariiing from the litter, &c ; and it is
not eafy to conceive a mere unhealthy lituation for an
animal, who, to perform the offices required of him
with a£livity and vigour, Ihould be in the full poffeffion
of all his ilrength. Now it may eafily be fuppoled,
that fuch an air as we have deferibed, cannot be calcu¬
lated to ftrengthen the body of the horfes. On the
contrary, it muft be in a high degree weakening and
relaxing. In this relaxed ftate, the horfe is probably-
taken out immediately into the open air, whatever may
be the feafon or weather, and made to enter on his
daily talk. The cfleft which fuch a Hidden change
muft have on the conftitution of the ftrongeft horfe, need
not be deferibed. The Hidden adlipn of the cold and
probably moift air on a body that has been expofed for
fo many hours to the heated air of the liable, muft be pro¬
ductive of the worft confequences to the health and vigour
of the animal. Accordh gly, fevers, colds, rheumatiftii,
afthma, and a number of other formidable difeafes, may
be traced to this debilitating fource.
We Ihould think, that the analogy of nature would
have taught men to avoid fuch abiurdities. We learn
from thofe authors who have written on the natural hif-
tory of the horfe, that the Arabians, who live in tents,
and are extremely careful in the management of their
horfes, allow them to Hand all day, when not employ¬
ed, at the door of the tent ; and at night bring them""
within the tent, where they lie down in the fame apart¬
ment with their mafter and family, Iheltered indeed
from the dews of the night, but freely expofed to the
circulation of air that muft conftantly prevail in thefe
temporary dwellings.- 2oo'
To avoid the inconveniences arifing from confined Mode of
air, the liable fhould be made high and roomy j the ventila-
door and windows ftiould not be made too dole 5 andtl0n'
the liable fhould be provided with proper ventilators.
Perhaps a good method of preferving a free circulation-
of air in the liable at all times, would be to carry up a
flue diagonally through the wall at each extremityj.
terminating above in a fort of chimney j and below, -
within the liable, in an opening fufficiently wide in
any part of the wall that is not immediately within the
Hall. zcit
The free admiffion of light into ftables is nearly of Windows,
as much confequence as that of air. It is a very errone¬
ous opinion which is maintained by fome grooms and
liable-keepers, that horfes feed bell in the dark. Thefe
animals naturally love the light, and are much more
cheerful and fpirited in ftables where this is freely ad¬
mitted, than in the dark and difmal hovels that we
fometimes find attached to inns and farm houfes. There
is one bad confequence that follows keeping horfes in
a dark liable, which does not appear to be fufficiently
attended to. By being kept fo long excluded from the
light, the horfes eyes become weak, and unable to fup-
port the full glare of open day. The pupils being, fo
long.;
.462
FARRIERY.
Part IV.
Hygeiology long habituated to an tmufual degree of dilatation, do
' not readily contrafl when the animal is brought out in¬
to the open air j hence his eyes being offended with
the ilrong light, to which he is fo little accuitomed, are
perpetually winking and watering; the horie appears as
if half blind, and Harts and Humbles at almoft every Hep.
The liable Ihould, therefore, be fumilhed with glaz¬
ed windows, in number proportioned to the fize of the
building. In general, no {tables fliould have fewer
than two windows ; and they Ihould be placed in fuch
H fituation, as that the horfes may not receive the ray*
of light too direftly on their eyes. Where the liable
has only one range of flails, this point can be ealily ef¬
fected, and in fuch llables, the windows ihould always
be placed at the back of the horfes. But in double
flables it is not eafy to place the windows fo as not to
incommode fome of the horfes, lince, on whichever lide
of the liable they are made, the horfes on that lide are
expofed to the full glare of the light ; another argu¬
ment again!! double llables. The windows Ihould by all
means be falhed; and Ihould be made to draw down from
the top, as well as to be thrown up from below. They
Ihould not be made too fmall, and Ihould be carried up
as near the ceiling of the liable, as is compatible with
the llrength and fymmetry of the building. Windows
conltrufted in this wray not only add much to the ap¬
pearance of the llables and to the comfort of the
horfes; but they afford one of the bell means of pro¬
moting a free circulation of frelh air through the liable.
For by throwing one of them up, and drawing another
down, the ventilation becomes nearly as complete as
poffible.
Nothing has aftonilhed us more, when viewing the
handfome offices attached to fome of the gentlemen’s
houfes in this country, than to fee the deficiency of the
llables in the article of windows. When viewing them
from without, we have congratulated the animals con¬
fined in them on the comfort of light and air, which
they mull enjoy from the fine falh-windows, which
we faw on each fide of the liable door. How great has
been our aftonifliment on entering the building, to find
all gloomy and dark within; and that the fine falh-win¬
dows which we thought we had feen at a diltance, were
nothing but efforts of the painter to deceive our fenfes,
and to prefent an appearance of what certainly ought
to have been a reality !
We mull be permitted here to draw7 what wre hope
will not be confidered as an invidious comparifon be¬
tween the Scotch and Englilh method of lodging their
horfes. In England we have rarely feen fuch miferable
hovels as, in many parts of Scotland, are ufed to fup-
ply the place of llables. We have indeed in the for¬
mer country feen the {tables fometimes very fmall, or
even confining of a thatched building not very well de¬
fended from the weather; but they are for the moll part
tolerably wrell ventilated, and w7e believe fcarcely ever
without windows.
jLolts above It is a common practice to build llables of two Ho¬
nes, the upper Hory forming a loft for the purpofe of
keeping the horfe’s hay and com ; and in gentlemen’s
{tables, where the building is fufficiently large, it is
ufual to have apartments on the upper flory for the
grooms and other fervants employed about the flables to
fleep in.
The apartment employed as a hay loft has u{daily a
3
tbe liable
. improper.
vacancy in-that part of the flooring which is immediate- Hygeiology
ly over the rack, for the purpofe of more conveniently —v—~l
fupplying the horfes with hay. This mode of building
Rabies has its convenience in an economical point of
view7, and thefe apartments in the upper flory add much
to the {howy appearance of the building ; but there
are feveral material objections to this oonftruClion.
x. The hay and corn being kept immediately over
the liable, are conflantly expofed to the foul and heat¬
ed air and putrid fleams riling up from the flails through
the rack, and are thus rendered liable to be heated and
mildewed; while the dull riling from the lhaking of
tile hay into the rack is very prejudicial to the lungs of
the horfes. On this account it is much better, where
this can be conveniently done, to keep the hay and com
in fome place dillinft from the liable, and bring
from time to time a fufficient quantity of hay nearly to
fill the rack, into which it might be put while the horfe
is abroad.
2. Another ferious objeCtion to having lofts and
chambers above the liable, is that the building is thus
much more expofed to accidents from fire, owing to the
carelefl'nefs of the fervants. And,
3. Thefe apartments above the liable render the latter
much too clofe and warm.
Where, from convenience or fancy, a gentleman
choofes to build his flables in the manner which we have
juft deferibed, it will be advifable to have the flooring
above the liable made as clofe as poflible, and covered
with thin bricks or Hones for the purpofe of checking
the progrefs of fire; and for preferving the hay and com
as much as may be from the fleams of the liable, a parti¬
tion wall may be raifed from the extremity of the floor¬
ing immediately over the rack all the way to the roof
of the loft, wdth a door opening over the rack in each
flail. The entrance to the hay loft or chambers above
the liable Ihould be without, and by no means, as is
generally the cafe, by a trap door and ladder within
the liable. If, as we frequently fee in gentlemen’s of¬
fices, the {tables are built on each fide of the coach-
houfe, the entrance to the rooms above may be con¬
veniently made by a flair from the coach-houfe.
The building of wffiich the liable forms a part, {hould
be as much as poffible detached from other buildings,
fo as to admit of a free circulation of air all around. 2C3
It is a vile praftice which is common on many farms Stable
and in fome inns, to have the dung-hill or midden, ftould be
clofe to the liable. This nuifance Ihould be removed ^rom
as far as poffible from the door and wrindows of the un^“
liable, as the heat and noifome vapours arifing from
the fermenting dung impregnate the air to a confider-
able extent. 201
It is of great confequence that the liable be kept Neceffity
fweeped and clean. It fhould therefore be regularly °* cleanii-
fwept every morning, and every part of the litter thatne *
is wet and dirty Ihould be removed to the dunghill,
while what is clean and dry Ihould be put up clofe be¬
low the manger, unlefs where the hovfe is lame, or has
any affeflion of the feet or limbs, which renders it ne-
ceffary for him to ftand upon foft litter. Where the
horfe is perfectly healthy, no litter Ihould 'be allowed
in the day time, much lefs Ihould the flail be crammed
with litter, as is often done, and is fuffered to remain
in this fituation for many days, for the purpofe of in-
creafing the quantity of manure. Nothing injures the
feet
£04
Clothing.
Part IV. FARR
Hygeiology feet of horfes mare, or more frequently produces foft-
nefs of the hoof, canker, and greafy heels, than allow¬
ing them to iland night and day on hot, fermenting
dung. It is alfo impoflible for the horfe to lie ^down
in comfort in fuch a hot-bed ; and if the poor animal
is obliged to recline himfelf for a time, he is foon com¬
pelled to rife again, and repeatedly making the fame
attempt at reft, and finding it impra&icable, he is for¬
ced at length to ftand altogether, perhaps Ihifting his
legs from one part of the ftall to another, to avoid the
heat of the dung.
Lord Pembroke is of opinion that after working,
and at night of courfe, as alfo in lamenefles and fick-
nefles, it is good for horfes to ftand on litter j it alfo
promotes Haling, &c. At other times it is a bad cuf-
tom 5 the conftant ufe of it heats and makes the feet
tender, and caufes fwelled legs. Moreover it renders
the animal delicate. Swelled legs may frequently be
reduced to their proper natural fize, by taking away
the litter only, which, in fome ftables, where ignorant
grooms and farriers govern would be a great faving of
phyfic and bleeding, befides ftraw. “ I have feen,
(fays he), by repeated experiments, legs fwell and un-
fwell, by leaving litter, or taking it away, like mer¬
cury in a weather-glafs.”
It is a very common pra&ice to keep horfes, while
in the liable, covered up with warm cloathing. This
is in fome cafes necelTary, efpecially when they are un¬
der a courfe of phyfic, or are othenvife fo delicate, as
that they would be liable to injury from too much ex-
pofure to the air. But its indifcriminate ufe is highly
improper, as it tends to render the horfe too delicate,
and expofes him to the danger of catching cold when¬
ever he goes out into the air. While a horfe is in com¬
plete health, and Hands idle, he requires very little, if
any covering, unlefs the liable be extremely cold, or ill
flickered. When indeed he comes into the liable,
much heated by violent exercife or hard labour, it may
be proper to throw over him a Angle cloth, that he may
cool gradually. Some grooms think it neceffary, be-
iides enveloping the horfe with body clothes, to gird
them fall round his belly with tight rollers} and this is
done with the view of taking up the horfe’s belly, as
they term it. The praftice is exceedingly abfurd, for
thefe tight rollers impede the circulation in the fuperfi-
cial veins, produce difficult breathing, and if they be
applied, as is often the cafe, after eating, they greatly
obftrufl digeftion.
To finiih the fubjefl of liable economy, we have
only to make a few remarks on currying, or drefling
horfes.
Fridlion employed on the horfe’s fldn is not only ne¬
ceffary to keep him clean, and to promote the infenfi-
ble perfpiration, by freeing the Ikin and hair from im¬
purities, but it is exceedingly ufeful wdien confidered
as a kind of exercife. It promotes the free circulation
of the blood, which is much impeded by the horfe
Handing long idle in the liable ; and it much improves
the appearance of the horfe’s coat. Horfes Ihould
therefore be regularly dreffed, at leaft twice a-day.
There are, however, fome cafes in which general
fridhon ought not to be employed-, fuch are cafes of
internal inflammation, efpecially of the bowels; or
when there is a difeharge of iharp ichorous matter from
any part, efpecially the legs and heels. In thefe cafes
I E R Y.
46.
soj
Drefling.
the affe&ed parts flrould not be rubbed, as it would HygeiologT
tend to increafe the pain and diftrefs arifing from the
inflammation.
2. Of Cow-houfes, or Byres.
206
After what we have faid on the conllruclion of fta-Gow-houfes,
bles, we need not here enlarge on that of cow-- houfes01 byres’
or cattle byres, as thefe buildings, fo far at leaft as re-
. fpecls their outfides, are conftrufted on fimilar princi¬
ples. We lhall take occafion, when treating on the
manner of feeding cattle, to deferibe a byre that ap¬
pears to us to afford a good model for buildings^of
this kind.
It is of material importance in the wintering of young
Hock, to keep them more warm, and fheltered from
wet, than is ufually done, as by this means they thrive
fafter, with a lefs confumption of food, than in the con¬
trary circumftances. This may be effedled, either by
tying them up in Halls, in houfes for the purpofe, or
by keeping them in good Iheds in well inclofed yards. 207
The queilion of feeding the cattle tied up, or loofeProPr.iet?’
in the yards, in winter, has not been yet decided. °at^ns
Each method has probably advantages. In the firft,
the cattle thrive better than wdren left at liberty to run
about the yards. Mr Marfhall found that in York-
fhire, cattle kept tied up, and regularly fed with ftraw
in a moderate proportion, did better than in the fouthern
parts of the iftand, where left loofe in the midft of greater
plenty. Whether this effedl is to be aferibed to the.
greater warmth, the refting better, or the being fed
more regularly, a/uf eating with an appetite, he cannot
determine. Some experiments cf Mr Young’s alfo
lead to the conclufion that cattle Hock thrive better
when tied up. They likewife Ihow that the practice
of tying up is the oaly one that can be had recourfe to,
where llraw is not in great plenty, and the quantity of
the flock very inadequate to its confumption.
In the latter method there is the advantage of a
large fupply of manure, efpecially w-here the farmer has
the convenience of litter. Where however the farmer
has convenience, the former method is probably in ge¬
neral the moil beneficial- In either mode of manage¬
ment much attention is neceffary to keeping the flock
conftantly fupplied in an evenly proportioned manner, *
as in this way there will be great advantage, both in
the faving of food, and the condition of the animals.* °
The neceflity of proviJing ftielter for cattle in badox-houfes*
w-eather, is now- w-e believe pretty well underftood by
every intelligent farmer j and experience has proved
that proper buildings eredled for winter feeding are at¬
tended with confiderable advantages. The erection for
this purpofe at Hafod in Wales, the refidence of Tho¬
mas Johnes, Efq. M. P. for the county of Cardigan,
and one of the moft eminent improvers of the prefent
time, feem to be calculated upon a moderate feale.
The whole length of the building is fifty feet, the roof
(helving, its chief height being fourteen feet, the lower
extremities, one feven and a half, the other fix feet.
A (lone wall running up to the fummit, parts the feed-
ing-houfe from the other and fmaller apartment, which
is a receptacle for dung. Width of the feeding-houfe,
nineteen feet within-fide. Stalls each twelve feet long
by four feet two inches wide. Gangway three feet and
a half, at the heels and tails of the cattle, leading from
the doors, the firft door being for the cattle, the other
for
464 FARR
Hygeiology for tlie attendants. Similar doors at the oppofite ends
 of the building. Running water in troughs, with racks,
and mangers. The cattle lie on wooden platforms,
perforated for the paffage of the urine. The urine
runs, and the dung is pulhed through apertures in the
wall, each of which is two feet fquare, and one be¬
tween every two Halls. 1 here are I 2 wooden flaps or
windows to give light and air, to each flail. The
dung pit is about twelve feet wide, funk fome feet
deep in the earth, extending the whole length of the
building. The walls are built partly with ftone, and
in part wdth wood, the noof with larch wood, as an ex¬
periment of its durability in that expofure.
According to Mr Lawrence, the round or quadrangu¬
lar form might perhaps, either of them, be more economi¬
cal as to fpace and materials for a building to contain a
confiderable number. The oxen would moft convenient¬
ly ftand around with their tails toward the wall, contrary
to the ufual praftice, for the more eafy throwing out
the dung from a gangway, through apertures purpofely
made in the wall, into a pit, under cover, funk around
the building. The area within would, of courfe, be
for feeding, and every neceffary purpofe of attendance.
A ftore-chamber above completes the building, the chief
objedtion to the form of which, is the greater expence
attendant upon the reverfed pofltion of the cattle, which
perhaps is compenfated by the great faving of labour,
in the more eaflly getting rid of the dung. The gang¬
way will in courfe be fufficiently wide to admit the
beafts to and from their flails •, the dung aperture in
the wall may be clofed in cold weather.” *
Sheep-cots. Of all domeftic animals, Iheep are the moft expofed
to the inclemencies of the weather. This arifes chiefly
from their numbers, which renders complete fhelter
very diflicult \ but even in the cafe of a fmall flock, the
prejudices of many feeders have prevented their procuring
proper ftielter for their (beep, under the idea that it would
render them too lazy to provide for themfelves. Thefe
prejudices, however, are gradually wearing away, and
few fheep-farrcs are at prcfent unprovided with fhelter,
either of trees or buildings. Mr Findlater, in his able
furvey of Peebles, ftrongly recommends fhelter for
fheep. “ It -would be (fays this gentleman) for the in-
tereft of every proprietor of fheep farms, to encourage
the farmer to rear fhelter of trees, by allowing him the
weedings of the plantation, and becoming bound to
pay the farmer, at the rate of perhaps eight-pence or
ten-pence a piece, for every tree left Handing at fpecifiecl
diftances, at the expiry of his leafe •, fuch an intereft
communicated to the farmer, would give the moft ef¬
fectual fecurity for the protection of the trees. Shel¬
ters are alfo procured by buildings, enclofing a fquare
open area in the middle, furnifhed with fhades, on every
fide. Stells (that is circular fpaces of area, propor¬
tioned to the fize of the flock, enclofed by a five or fix
feet wall of ftone, or lod, without any roof) were the
primeval fhelters invented by our forefatfcers. The cir¬
cular figure of the building caufes the drifting wind in
fnow ftorms to wheel round it, without rifing over it,
and depofiting the fnow in the calm region within.
The fheep are fed, in wdnter ftorms, with fuch provi-
ficn as can be procured, under the trees, in the fheds,
and within the circles. Even where no feeding is ad-
ininiftered, much advantage refults to the animals, from
I E R Y. Part IV.
mere defence againft the weather'j and they arc much Hygeiology
the more alert in fearching for natural food, fo loon as ' ■'
the ftorm ceafes. T he mode of aCting of tne fheep
gives a pretty certain indication of the wreather to be
expeCted: Upon the near approach of a ftorm, thofe ac-
cuftomed to fhelters are obferved to make for their
fhelters. Upon the near approach of thawq their pre-
fentiment leads them to be lefs induftrious in digging
the fnow for food, as if confcious that fuch labour was
no longer neceffary.” * * Findlater^t
According to Mordaunt, who wrote about the mid- Survey,
die of laft century, fheep pens and houfes, were then?*
not uncommon in Effex and Gloucefterfhire. He direCts
the pens to be made at fome convenient corner of a
pafture, or where feveral fields, commons, or paftures
meet, fo as to be common to them all. They fhould
alfo be ereCted on a dry fpot of ground, and ftones laid
at the bottom to keep the fheep dry and clean, whilft
under examination. The pens to be divided into parti¬
tions to hold about forty fheep.
“ The fheep-houfes, for warmth in the winter feafon,
are made low, and a third part longer than broad, and
rather large, the fides lined with furze or boards, for
warmth j the bottom laid wdth large ftone flabs, and
very level, that the urine run not away, but foak into
the litter. It wrculd be proper to have the funny fide
well lined with moveable hurdles, that when the fun
fhines it may be laid open to give the fheep a refrefh-
ment, by letting them into fome clofe or croft, where¬
in the fheep-houfe Hands: the houfe to be well cover¬
ed.”
3. Of Dog-kennels.
It is ufually recommended to ereCI a particular ^og-ken
building, for the foie purpofe of a kennel} and certain- nels*
ly where the proprietor’s fortune will admit of it, fuch
an appropriate building is to be preferred. A com¬
mon barn has, however, often been employed as a
kennel ; and Mr Daniel fays, that the excellence of
the hounds kept in fuch a building has been rivalled
by few that were lodged in the moft fumptuous edi¬
fices.
Whatever may be the form or original intention of
the building, cleanhnefs is abfolutely neceffary, both to
the nofe of the hound and the prefervation of his
health. The fenfe offtJielimg is fo exquifite in a hound,
that every flench muft be fuppofed injurious to it j
upon that faculty all our hopes depend, and noftrils
clogged with the effluvia of a dirty kennel, are ill
adapted to carry the fcent over greafy fallows, or guide
one through the foil of deer, or over ground tainted by
fheep. Dogs are by nature cleanly \ where they lie,
if they can avoid it, they feldom dung. Air and frefh
ftraw are effential to preferve them healthy. They are
fubject to the mange 5 naftinefs very much contributes
to this, and although at the firft appearance it may be
eafily checked the remedies that are ufed are in them-
felves ftrong in their operation, and will do no good
to the hounds conftitution. Let the clcanhnefs of the
kennel, therefore, be carefully attended to j a refort to
thefe remedies will then be unneceffary, and all injury
to hounds from this fource will be prevented.
On the prefumption that a kennel is to be ere&ed,
its fite is ftrongly pointed out by Somerville.
Upon
4
Part IV.
Hygeiology
211
Size.
FARR
Upon Tome little eminence erect
“ And fronting to the ruddy dawn, its courts
“ On either hand wide opening to receive
“ The fun’s all-chearing beams, when mild he fliines
“ And gilds the mountains tops.”
But this feleftion of a high lituation is incompatible
with a running brook j and as thefe two advantages can¬
not be united, wrater is to be preferred, with the afpedt
to the morning fun as much attended to as poflible.
The-number of its inmates mull determine the fize
of the kennel; and the architecture fhould be neat, with-
2II out being ufelefsly expenfive. The molt magnificent is
Duke of the duke of Richmond’s at GoodwTood, which oolt
Richmond’s ipj0ool. and is fufficiently extenfive for two packs of
Lennei. hounds. The building comprifes five kennels, two 36
by 15, three 30 by 15, and two feeding rooms 20 by
15 feet, with ftoves to wTarm the air, when too cold.
The huntfman and whipper-in have each a parlour,
kitchen, and fleeping-room.
The nearer to the houfe the kennel is placed the bet¬
ter. There are reafons againft its too clofe approach,
but they yield to others which forbid a great diftance.
To mention one, derived indeed from a vulgar faying,
“ that the mailer’s eye makes the horfe fat j” recolledl
that the infpediion of the kennel, is even more needful
than that of the liable ; for in both, cleanlinefs is n6
lefs effential than food.
The kennel Ihould be of fufficient dimenfions at its
firlt building; room for twro kennels Ihould be under
the fame roof j when there is but one, it is feldom
fweet; and when walhed out, the hounds, particularly
in winter, not only fuffer during the time of cleaning,
but as long afterwards as it remains wet. The fecond
kennel alfords opportunity for drafting the hounds in¬
tended to hunt the next morning. In a few days
they wall be drafted with little trouble, will readily
anfwTer to their names •, and with equal eafe as a Ihepherd
numbers his Iheep, you may count your hounds into the
hunting kennel.
In a morning, upon the feeder’s firll entering the
kennel, he Ihould let the hounds into the outer court j
the door of the hunting kennel, when not occupied by
the drafted hounds for that day’s hunting, Ihould be
opened in bad weather to Ihelter them •, the lodging-
room Ihould then be thoroughly cleaned, the windows
and doors opened, the litter well fhaken, and the ken¬
nel made fwTeet, before the hounds are again fhut into
it. Every omiffion prejudicial to the hounds fhould be
immediately pointed out to the feeder, who mufl be
made to remedy it 5 and alfo obferve that the great
court and the other kennels are equally objects of his at¬
tention.
The lodging-room fhould be bricked, and Hoped on
both fides to the centre, where fhould be a gutter to
carry off the water, that when wrafhed, the floor may
be equally dried : but flag-ftones, or large fquare bricks
termed parsimonds, are far preferable \ there are fewer
interflices, and confequently lefs filth or water can
there accumulate, and the furface is fooner dry. Let
the floor be kept in thorough repair, that no water may
remain in any cavity, until the mafon can be had, when
at any time wanted j let the flagnant w'ater be carefully
flopped up •, for nothing is more hurtful to hounds,
VOL. VIII. Part II.
-*3
214
Lodging-
room.
I E R Y.
465
than damp, or more refrefhing than warmth after hard Hygeiology
work. v
The kennel fhould have three doors ; two in front
and one behind j that in the back to have a lattice
window in it, with a wooden fhutter, which is to be
kept always clofed, except in fummer, when' it fhould
be left open the whole of the day. This door has a two¬
fold utility, it ferves to carry out the dirty flraw, and
being oppofite to the window, will admit a thorough
air, when the lodging-room is cleaned, which will
much contribute to render it fweet and w'holefome^
The front doors wall be ufeful in drying the room when
the hounds are out; and as one is to be ihut and the
other hooked back, fo as to allow a fingle dog to pals,
they are not liable to any objection. The large centre
window fhould have a folding fhutter, which at night,
according to the wreather, may be wholly or partially
clofed ; and thus the warmth of the kennel may be re¬
gulated as is judged moll falutary. The two great
lodging rooms are exadlly fimilar, and having a court
belonging to each, are diflincl kennels fituated at the
oppofite ends of the building. In the centre of the
boiling-houfe and feeding-yard, a leffer kennel, either
for hounds that are drafted, off, hounds that are fick
and lame, or for any other required purpofe, is on eacli
fide *, at the back of which, it being but half the depth
of the two larger kennels, are places for coals, &c. for
the ufe of the kennel. There is allp a fmall building
in the rear for hot bitches. Ii5
The inner-court floor fhould be bricked or flagged, Inner couiw
and flop'ed towards the centre like thofe of the lodging-
room j and water brought in by a leaden pipe, fhould
run through the channel in the middle. In the centre
of each court is a well fufficiently large to dip a bucket
for the purpofe of cleaning the kennel. To keep thefe
from wanting repair, they fhould be faced with flone,
and to that of the feeding-yard a wooden cover fhould
be fixed. The benches, wffiich n\ufl be open to let the
urine through, fhould have hinges and hooks in them
all, that they may fold up when the kennel is wrafhed.
They fhould be made as low as poffible, that when a
hound is tired, he may have no difficulty in jumping
up, and at no time be able to creep under them. Re-
collefl that if, owing to the fmallnefs of the hound, as
in beagles, it fhould be difficult to make the benches
fufficiently low, it will be proper to nail a lodging pro¬
jecting downwards in the edge, or the benches may be
faced with boards at bottom, to prevent the hounds
from creeping under.
A large bricked court in front, having a grafs court
adjoining, and a brook running through the middle of
it, completes the kennel. This court fhould be plant¬
ed round, and alfo have fome lime trees and fome horfe
chefnuts near the centre for ffiade. Some polls bound
round with Itraw, rubbed with galbanum, may be placed
fo as to prevent the hounds from making water againfl
the trees. The brook may be ufed as a cold bath for
hounds lamed, in the flifle, in drains, or for other pur-
pofes for which the cold bath is required. A high pal¬
ing fhould inclofe the wffiole, and which, to the height
of four feet, ffiould be clofe, the remainder being open,
with an interval of two inches between the pales. At
the back of the kennel ffiould be a thatched houfe,
fenced at the fides, to contain at lead; a load of draw,
3 N a
466
Hygeiology
FARRIERY.
Part IV.
217
* Daniel's
Rural
Sports,
•vol. i.
21S
Diet
219
Pood of
horfes.
a pit for receiving the tlung, and a gallows for the
flefh. If a piece of ground adjoining to the kennel can
conveniently be enclofed, for keeping fuch horfes as
may be brought alive for the ufe of the hounds, it
would be of great fervice, as the diforders of condemn¬
ed horles are not always afcertained } and an opportu¬
nity may thus be offered of inveiligating their nature
and progrefs, which may prove advantageous in future
fimiiar cafes. The hounds may alfo be brought into
this field, to empty themfelves after feeding ; and the
draught for the next day’s hunt can be here made with
greater accuracy than when they are confined to the
kennel.
Stoves are ufed in fome kennels ; but a good feeder,
and the mop properly applied, render them unneceffary.
Should ticks prove troublefome at any time, the wulls of
the kennel fhould be well wafhed ; and if that Ihould
fail to dellroy the ticks, they mufl be white-wafhed with
lime.
When the hunting feafon is over, one kennel will be
fufficient, and the other with the grafs-yard adjoining to
it may be allowed to the young hounds. This fepara-
tion, which fhould continue till the feafon commences,
is neceffary for preventing many accidents that might
otherwife happen at this time of the year. Should there
be conveniences, it will be proper to keep the dogs fe-
parate from the bitches during the fummer months.
When hounds are very riotous, the feeder may fleep in
a cot in an adjoining kennel ; if the dogs are well
chalufed at the firfl quarrel, his voice will afterwards
be fufficient to keep them quiet *.
Chap. II. Of Diet,
In preferving the health of domeftic animals, much
will depend on the quantity and quality of their food,
and on the manner in which they are fupplied with it.
This fubjeft, therefore, requires fome lhare of our at¬
tention. We have already, in the article Agricul¬
ture, treated pretty much at large on the different
kinds of food that are molt proper for horfes, Iheep, and
cattle; and have here little to add on that head. Our
principal objeft in this chapter will be, to confider the
bell means of difpenfing food to the different claffes of
domeftic animals, and to defcribe wdiat are confidered
the moft beneficial methods pf preparing the food in
thofe cafes where its preparation appears to be necef¬
fary.
The natural food of the horfe is the Ample herbage
of the field, and on it alone he can be conftantly kept
in a high ftate of health and vigour, fo long as he lhall
not be required to labour ■, and whilft he is employed
in labour, grafs in fome form, either dried or green,
feems abfolutely neceffary to his maintenance in a
healthy ftate. Hay, ftraw, and corn of various kinds
have been, from the earlieft time, the common food of
hcrfes ; but in Britain, and indeed in France and Ger¬
many, during later periods efpecially, they have re-
jedled all other fpecies of horfe-corn; from a well-
grounded preference in favour of oats and beans ; the
latter for draught-horfes chieriy, or as fubftantial auxi¬
liaries to the oats, imparting as ftrong a nourifhment as
the conftitution of the horfe will properly bear, and at
the fajne time of a cieannng nature j and are, moreover,
the beft and cheapeft in-dcor fattening for almoft alllHygeioIogy
domeftic animals. v
The fpecies of corn ufually given to horfes in many
countries is barley, the bulky provender is ftraw, both
of which in warm climates, are faid to be nearly equal
in nutriment to our oats and hay. With us, barley is -
apt to fcour horfes, and make their urine red, elpecially
at its firft being given. Wheat is often given to horles of
the great upon the continent •, it is faid when Philip of
Spain was in this country, his jennets were- fed upon
wheat during the time of icarcity, and this gave great
umbrage to the people.
There feems to exift no particular difference of qua¬
lity between the white and the black oats, they being
equal in weight and thinnels of hulk : thefe criteria, and
their being Ihort, are the beft marks ol their goodnefs.
It is equally well known that they ftrould be fome
months old when ufed, as new oafs are apt to fwell the
belly and produce gripes. 22J
New beans are improper for horfes, for the fame rea-Egang,
fon. The beft remedy is to dry them in a kiln. Old
beans fhould be fplit, and given either with bran or
chaff; or the beft way would be to break them in a
mill. Mr Lawrence fed cart-horfes with beans for
nearly feven years, without experiencing any ill effedl
from fuch food; but the horfes laboured very hard.
Beans contain more folid nourifhment than oats, but of
a lefs falubrious nature.
Grains conftantly loofen a horfe, and impoverifh his
blood 5 bran fcours and v,weakens the entrails ; both of
them are good occafional dietetic alteratives. 223
Carrots are faid to purify and fweeten the blood, to Carrots.'
amend the wind, and to replenifh after the waftings
occafioned by difeafe or inordinate labour. Mr Lawr-
rence informs us that he has been accuftomed to ufe
them for years in all forms, and to all deferiptions of
horfes. They are either given in fpring or autumn to
high-fed horfes, as a change of diet, at the rate of one
feed per day, in lieu of a feed of corn, or as full fubfift-
e»ce to others. They ought to be wafhed clean, and,
if large, cut into flat and lizeable pieces. The quantity
of carrots for a feed is from half a peck to a peck. ^
The ufual periods of feeding with corn are in this Times5of
country, morning, noon, and night. The quantitiesfeeding»
each time either a quarter or half a peck, with or with¬
out about two handfuls of beans-, according to the
horfe’s ftate of body. Much greater care than is com¬
mon ought to be taken in ftfting the oats clean from duft,
and the dung of mice. Water fhould be allowed with¬
out fail twice a-day. There is an error not tmfrequent
among liable people, who fuppofe water to be at beft
but a kind of neceffary evil to borfes, and therefore'
think it a point gained whenever they can find an op¬
portunity to abridge the quantity. But how well fo-
ever a horfe may fhift with little or no water while in
the field, and while feeding on fucculent meat, much
mifehief may enfue from its being withheld j and this
may produce coftivenefs, gripes, inflammation of the
bowels, perpetual longing, and a danger of drinking to
excefs on every opportunity. 224
The well-known ufe of hay is to dilate the body of Hay.
the horfe, to fatisfy his appetite with bulk and quanti¬
ty, as corn does with compact and folid nourifhment.
Britilh hay, the beft in th§ world, contains great
nourilhmentj
Part IV. FARR
Jlygeiology nouriiljmeftt, and will keep a horfe and even fatten him $
lj" v but he is unable to labour upon hay alone, and experi¬
ence has ftiewn that Bracken’s obfervation of the con-
ftant ufe of hay injuring the fight of horfes, particular¬
ly if fuddenly put on fuch food after good keeping, is
Very juft. -Hard upland hay is the heft for. race and
coach horfes j and it ftiould be of a fine, greenifti colour,
fragrant feent, and full of flower. It is faid that horfes
and cattle prefer fuch hay as has been fweated, or which
has undergone a partial fermentation : and it is even
thought that they grow much fooner fat on heated hay
than on fuch as has been gotten up dry and cool.
There can be no doubt that fweated hay contains a
confiderable quantity of fugar, formed during its ftate
of fermentation; this may render the hay more pala
table to the beafts, but we have fome doubt whether it
be fo wholefome as frefh well-coloured hay. Clover-hay,
and hay of artificial graffes, from its grofsnefs, is appro¬
priated to cart-horfes. Without attempting to afeertain
the precife quantity, it may be laid that hay Ihould be
given as often as a horfe has a keen appetite for it;
but great care Ihould be taken that fo much be never
allowed at once, as that he lliall leave it, and blow
upon it. At night a confiderable quantity of hay is
ufually left in the rack, and this is no doubt abfolutely
neceflary for horfes who are hard worked during the
day, as night is their moft leifure time for'feeding ; but
•Lawrence it admits of doubt whether horfes who live in a ftate
p« Horfes, of luxury, and are but little worked, Ihould be indulged
xrQ in much hay at night *.
It will obvioufly occur to moft people, that the quan¬
tity and quality of a horfe’s food ftiould be proportioned
to his labour ; that horfes who are lightly worked,
will not in general require fo much or fo nouriftiing
food, as thofe who are conftantly kept to hard labour.
It is evident that when horfes ftand idle, and are at the
fame time high fed, they are expofed to many dangerous
difeafes, as inflammation, flaggers, arifing from a too
full habit of body ; and thefe difeafes will be more like¬
ly to come on when a horfe that has been thus fed is
fuddenly put to hard labour, or obliged to make any
unufual or violent exertion. But this muft not be
carried too far. Horles fhould not, becaufe they have
little work at the time, be entirely confined to grafs, or
grafs and hay, unlefs they are at pafture, and are never
worked. For 'while a horfe ftands in the liable, and is
liable to be called upon on any emergency, his diet
fhould be fo regulated, as that he ftiall neither be fo fat
and full of blood, as not to perform occafional wrork
without difficulty and danger, nor on the other hand,
fo poor and wreak, as to be incapable of fupporting ex¬
ertion without injury to himfelf or rider/ All horfes
that are fed on grafs and hay alone, are too weak to
perform a good day’s journey without Humbling. A
moderate quantity of corn or other hard food, ftiould
therefore be allowed to fuch horfes as Hand conftantly
in the liable, or w ho, wffiile at palture, are occafionally
w'orked.
Mr Clark obferves, that throwing great quantities of
clean grain before horfes at one time is very improper ;
as they eat it too greedily, and fwallow whole mouth¬
fuls of it almofl dry. The moillure in the ftomach, or
water drunk immediately after eating, caufes the grain
to fwell, and thus the llomach is greatly diilended, and
lofcs its contra cling power on the food. By the preffure
1 E It Y. 467
of tiie full itomacii on tne mteltines, the paliage ot the Hygeiologv
food backwards is obilrufted, and the confined air, "‘"'V'"'—'
arifing from the indigefted food, not having a ready
pallage backwards, and horfes not pollening the power
of belching, the air becomes rarefied to a great degree,
the horfe is feized with colic pains ; as thefe increafe
he becomes convulfed, and in many cafes the llomach
bur Its. Out of a number of cafes where the above was
dftcovered on diffeding the bodies, Mr Clark mentions
the twro following.
/‘ A young draught-horfe was fed in the morning
with too great a quantity of barley mixed w ith pealed
and had been allowed to drink water immediately
thereafter. He was yoked to a two-wheeled chaife, in
order to travel a few miles, and wras obferved about the
middle of the day to be very uneafy, frequently at¬
tempting to lie down. A.s foon as he was unyoked he
lay dowrn and tumbled about, frequently lying on his*
back, Halting up fuddenly and turning his head to¬
wards his belly. He continued thus in great agony
till towards next morning, when he died. Upon open¬
ing his body, the ftomach wras found burft, the barley
and peafe moftly entire, only greatly fwelled, and the
whole contents of the ftomach fpread through the abdo¬
men.
“ The other cafe wTas a horfe who had been fed with
too great a quantity of oats and barley, and had been
allowed to drink water freely afterwards. He was
feized with griping pains, fo that he frequently lay
down and tumbled, feemingly tortured with the moil
acute pains. He died next day. Upon opening his
body, the ftomach was found diilended to a moil enor¬
mous fize, but, was not burft. Its coats were fo very
thin, from the great diftention it had undergone, that
its coheiion was almofi deftroyed, and had more the ap¬
pearance of a coat of mucus, or flime, than the fto¬
mach. The oats and barley were for the mofl: part
entire as they w?ere fwallowed, only greatly fwelled
from the moiiture they had imbibed.
“ From the cafes now related, it will appear howr ne*
ceflary it is not to allow horfes to eat too grest a quan¬
tity of clean grain at a time, but to give it in fmall
quantities, and repeated the more frequently. At the
fame time, it will fhow the propriety of mixing with
it a little chopped ftrawq or hay, in order to make
them chew it the more thoroughly before they fw-al-
low it. This procefs alfo prepares the food for being
properly digefted, and not a fingle grain of it is loft * C/aj-/
The method of feeding horfes with bruifed grain Lrcvtniion,
and Cut ftraw is recommended by the earl of Pembroke,
in his excellent treatife on horfes, as exceedingly proper.
“ Every grain (fays he) goes to nouriihment: none is
to be found in the dung j and three feeds of it go
further than four as commonly given which have not
been in the mill. But wffieaten ftraw, and a little
hay fometimes mixed with it, is excellent food. To a
quantity of corn, put the fame quantity of ftraw. It
obliges them to chew their meat, and is many other
ways of ufe f.” _ ' f Military
Mr Lawrence difapproves of the ufe of ftraw, as Equitation.'
containing no nouriihment. In this he probably goes
too far, as both horfes and cattle are in draw-yards
often fed with little elfe. He prefers chaff, ax cut
clover hay, to mix with the corn, efpecially for cart-
horfes. Mr Lawrence, however, allows that cutting
3 N 2 up
468
Hygeiology
saS
Of grinding
coin for
horfes.
F A R R I. E R Y.
Part IV.
219
Lawfon’s
food for
Jiorfes and
tattle.
^3°
pood of
cattle,.
up unthrafhed oats for food is a good praftice, particu¬
larly when hay is fcarce 5 as thrafhing and drefling of
the oats are thus faved, and it is an economical expendi¬
ture of the oats, which are moreover very frelh, and
agreeable to the horfe.
It has of late been recommended to bruife the corn
in a mill, before giving it to the horfe, and it is certain¬
ly a good praftice, as there is thus little danger of its
paffing through the bowels undigefted. It is ufual
only to bruife the corn, but Mr Lawrence thinks that
it is better to grind them as fine as poffible. Whole
corn, -with whatever it may be mixed, will, much of it,
be fwallowed in that Hate; a great deal only half mafti-
cated, which will elude the digeflive powers of the ani¬
mal, and be eje&ed from his body crude and unbroken.
This is particularly the cafe with brood-mares and
young flock, the bellies of which are full of flippery
grafs ; fuch fliould ever have ground corn, and malhes
ihould always be made with it. Ground buck-wheat
<J*groes well enough with horfes, but that^lpecies of corn
is the leaft fubftantial.
Mr Lawfon, a merchant of London, has lately
publilhed an vffay, on the ufe of Mixed and Compref-
ed Cattle Fodder, intended as food and fattening for
horfes, oxen, ftieep, and hogs. His plan is, to grind,
cut, mix and comprefs, all the articles in prefent ufe,
as food for cattle, rvith fome additional ones of his own
recommending } and to keep the mafs flowed in cafks,
or other clofe ftowage. He gives a detailed account
of all the inftruments neceflary in the procefs, the moft
commodious methods according to his own praftice, and
various tables of expence and quantities.
With refpeft to the drink of horfes, we have little
to remark. Their water fliould be as pure as poffible,
as muddy and hard water is not only very unpleafant
to the horfe, but probably lays the foundation of gra¬
velly complaints. It is a very abfurd cuftom, which is
however very prevalent, to gallop the horfe after water¬
ing, with the view, according to the groom’s idea, of
warming the wTater in his belly} for if the boric has
drunk heartily, as he is very often improperly allowed
to do, any violent exertion immediately after cannot
but occafion great uneafinefs. It is, however, a good
pra&ice to ride the horfe moderately before watering ;
but care fliould be taken, not to throw him into a per-
fpiration, as drinking cold water in this ftate is attend¬
ed with confiderable danger.
The feeding of cattle is of confiderable importance
to the farmer, and has of late been much improved.
Both the food and the manner of adminiftering it muft
be different according to the age of the cattle, the fea-
fon of the year, and the purpofes for which the cattle
are fed.
It has been well obferved in a late ufeful practical
work, that in the winter the yearlings ihould “ be fed
with hay and roots, either turnips, carrots, or potatoes •
and they fliould be thoroughly well fed, and kept per-
fe&ly clean by means of litter. At this age it is a
matter of great confequence to keep fuch young cattle
as wrell as poflible ; for the contrary practice will ine¬
vitably flop their growth, which cannot be recovered
by the beft fummer food. If hay is not to be had,
good ftraw muft be fubflituted \ but then the roots
ftiould be given in greater plenty, and with more at¬
tention! To fleers and horfes two years old, the pro¬
per food is hay, if cheap, or ftraw, with baits of turnips, Hygeiology
cabbages, Sec.*”
juagwc, - . * Dickfon s
Mr Donaldfon thinks the advantages of green win- AgricJulturet
ter food for live flock, fo great, that there is no way invo^ q.
which it can be applied with greater benefit than “ by
giving the young cattle a daily allowance during the
firft two or three winters.” Whenever ftraw is employ¬
ed as fodder for young flock, without the above forts
of food, if it be not very good, or flightly mixed with
fome graffy material, a little hay ftiould always be
blended with it, in order that it may be preferved in
proper condition. It is alfo of confequence that the
animals be ferved with this fort of fodder, in a regular
manner, as where too much is given at a time, Mr
Marftiall has remarked, that they do not thrive_fo well.
The following obfervations of Sir John Sinclair merit
every attention. _ . 23J
“ Some intelligent graziers recommend the following Sir John
mode of feeding "and fattening cattle. Suppofe there Solan’s
are four inclofures, of from fix to ten acres each, onerema
of them ftiould be kept quite free from flock till the
grafs has got up j and then the prime or falling cattle,
ftiould be put into it, that they may get the beft of the
food: the fecond beft ftiould then follow 5 and the young
ftore after all, making the whole feed over the four in¬
clofures in fucceffion, as follows.
ift Inclofure. Free from foch^ till ready for the heji
cattle.
2d ditto. For the bef cattle, tillfent to N° 1.
3d ditto. For the feccnd bef, tillfent to N° 2.’
4th ditto.* For the young cattle, tillfent to N°
N° 4. is then kept free from flock till the grafs gets
up, and it is ready for the prime cattle. The proper
fize of inclofures has never yet been afcertained by ex¬
periment j probably from 10 to 30 acres is the beft j
but the fize fliould be various, as fmall ones are better
calculated for grafs, and large ones for corn. Probably
the beft plan to adopt is, to feed cattle entirely in the
houfe, or foiling them as it is technically called. In
that cafe, fmall inclofures muft be preferred, as the ftiel-
ter they afford is extremely favourable to the growth of
the herbage.
The larger a bullock is, he muft take the more food 235
to fupport him. It is defirable to change his food of¬
ten, and to give him frequently, but little at a time,
which makes him more eager to eat. After his kid¬
neys are covered with fat, he will take lefs meat every
week. It is better, therefore, to afcertain the quantity
he eats, by the week, than by the day. ^
Fatting cattle, to be fold immediately from the far- ^
mer’s houfe, and not fent to market, Ihould be kept
moderately warm. If kept too hot it makes them per-
fpire, and their fldns to itch : this vexes them, and they
rub themfelves againft any wall or poll; •within their
reach, which is much againft quick feeding. Currying
and combing them are ufeful pradlices 5 and walking
them, at leaft once a-week, is of great fervice. Bleed¬
ing is now exploded, as an old and unneceffary practice.
In feme parts of the kingdom, the whole attention
of the farmer is dedicated to fuckling, or, in other words,
to feeding calves, for fupplying the market with veal.
In Eflex, this plan is reckoned more profitable than
the dairy, and next to grazing. But the profit there
xnuft depend much upon the immediate- neighbouihood
of
PartlV. F A 11 R
Hygelolo^y of that country, to fo great and certain a market as-
23S
Effex moele
of rearing
calves.
■*' Farm.
Mag. vol.
iii. 163.
236
Mr Hun¬
ter’s feed¬
ing byre.
London.
e particulars connefted with this branch of rural
economy, will, it is probable, be fuliy detailed, in the
improved Agricultural Survey of Eflcx, in 10 far as re¬
gards that and the neighbouring diftri&s. But as the
mode of fuckling, adopted in fome parts of Scotland, is
extremely different, it may not be improper to give a
Ihort account of it in this place. As foon as the calf
is dropped, it is put into a box made of coarfe boards,
four feet and a half or five feet long, and four feet, or
four feet and a half high, and about two feet wide, ac¬
cording to the fize of the calf. H he boards are not put
fo clofe but that a fufficient quantity of air is admitted 5
light is, however, carefully excluded ; and the box has
a cover for that purpofe. 1 he box ftands on four feet,
wrhich, at one end, are four inches high, but at the
other, only two inches} and, as there are holes at the
bottom, all w'etnefs is drained off. The bottom is alfo
covered with ftraw or hay, which is changed twice a-
week. For feven or eight days, milk is but cauticufly
given, for unlefs a calf is fed moderately at firft, it is
apt to take a loathing to its food. It ihould be bled in
about ten days; and afterwards, as much milk given it
frefli from the cow, either twice or thrice a-day, as it
will take. The bleeding fhould be repeated once a-
week 5 and at all times when a calf loathes its milk, and
does not feed wTell, bleeding ought to be repeated.
Thefe frequent bleedings prevent difeafes from plethora,
to which calves are fubjeft, even when not fed fo high,
and ftill more fo when they are. A large piece of chalk
ihould be hung up in the box, which the calf wTill lick
occafionally : this contributes nothing to the whitenefs
of the veal ; but it amufes the animal, and corredls that
acidity in the ftomach which might otherwife be en¬
gendered, and which certainly often takes place. A
cow calf is reckoned the beft veal •, if a bull calf is
fuckled, he ought to be cut when about a week old,
otherwufe the veal will neither be fo good nor fo white.
By this mode of treatment, calves are kept clean, quiet,
warm, and dry ; the veal they furniih is excellent, and
they are foon ready for the market 5 and, on the whole,
it feems to be preferable to the pra&ice of ftupifying
them with fpirits, or with laudanum, fo common in other
places where a different fyftem is purfued.
The fuppofed neceffity of beginning, to feed oxen at
an early age, is a great objedlion to their being gener¬
ally ufed, as they are hardly trained properly to work,
before it is thought neceffary to fatten them, after
which they do very little work } but, in confequence of
the improved mode of fattening by oil-cake, &c. there
is no difficulty to fatten oxen* even at twelve years of
age, which is a material circumffance in their favour
It is now very generally underftood, that the more
cleanly and comfortably cattle are kept, and the cleaner
and better the order in which their food is prefented to
them, the better they will thrive, and confequently the
focner they will fatten, and the heavier they will be.
With thefe views, and with the additional view of
faving a greater proportion of the dung and urine of
the cattle than is ufually done, fo as to increafe the
quantity of manure as much as poffible, a byre has been
conilrudled by Mr Hunter of Blacknefs in Forfarfhire,
which has been found on trial, completely to anfwer
the ends propofed. The byre confuls of two apart-
I E R Y. 469:
ments, an inner apartment, or byre for feeding the Hygeiology
cattle, and an outer apartment or barn for containing v
the turnips and fodder.
At the proper feafon when the turnips are complete¬
ly ripened, and the turnip feeding commences, the tur¬
nips are gathered together on the field in large quanti¬
ties, and two or three men with coarfe turnip knives
made from old fcythes, cut cffi the whole of the roots,
carefully cleaning the turnips at the fame time, from
any earth which may adhere to them. Ihe turnips are
then carted to the turnip barn, the door of which is
wide enough to allow the carts to back in, and throw
them down. Here the men with their turnip knives
are again ready immediately to cut off the whole green
tops or ffiaws of the turnips, and thefe green tops are
immediately given to cows, young wintering cattle,
fheep, &c. who readily eat them when frefh. The tur¬
nips, now quite clean, are piled up in one end of the barn
like cannon balls, and will keep in excellent order lor
months together. Should the winter ftorm fet in, a
fmall quantity of clean dry ftraw laid over them, will
effedually preferve them "from being injured by the
froft. lire other end of the barn receives the ftraw
and litter for the ufe of the byre. The advantages pro¬
pofed to be derived from this method of treating the
turnips are, 1. The prefervation of a great many of the
beft turnips, which, if allowed to remain on the field
during winter, are unavoidably fpoiled by the effects or
the weather, and the alternate operations of fnovv, rain,
and froft, 2. The green tops being cut off frelh and
good, are immediately con fumed, in place ot being en¬
tirely loft if allowed to remain on the field. 3. It
faves much labour and trouble, both to men and horfes,
to lay in a ftock of turnips at once, in place of going
to the field every day, whether good or bad, and when,
as the fields are neceffarily wTet and foft, the horfes,
carts, and harnefs, are feverely drained, and the fields
poached and cut up.
Laftly, By having a couple of months fupply of tur¬
nips in the barn, you are never under the neceffity ot
ufing frofted turnips, which are often little better than
lumps of ice. And even if you Ihould not incline, or
find it convenient, to lay in lo large a ftock of turnips
at once, ftill you can take the advantage of any good
frelh day, as it occurs, to add to your ftock of turnips
in the bam.
At right angles to the turnip barn, ftands the feed¬
ing byre, conftru&ed as follows. At the diftance of
about three feet and a half from the great fide wall
of the byre, there are conftrufted on the ground, in a
ftraight line, ten troughs for feeding ten large cattle j
thefe are of hewn pavement on all fides, and at the bot¬
tom j and they are divided from each other by divifions
or bridges, likewife of hewn pavement. Thefe troughs
are fo conftrudled, that there is a fmall and gradual de¬
clivity from the firft or innermoft, to the laft and outer-
moft one; and the bridges feparating them, being made
with a fmall arch at the bottom, a pail or bucket ot
water poured, in at the uppermoft, runs out at the un~
dermoft one, through a ftone fpout palling through the
wall, and a fweep with a broom, carries off the whole
remains of the turnips, &c. rendering the whole troughs
quite clean and fweet. The whole iood of the cattle is
thus kept perfe&ly clean at all times.
In a.line.with the feeding troughs, and immediately
ove*
470 F A' R R
Hygeiology over them, runs a large flrong beam of wood, from one
w fcncj 0£ the byre to the other, which is ftrengthened by
two flrong upright fupporters to the roof, placed at e-
qual diilances from the ends of the byre, and the main
beam is again fubdivided by the cattle flakes and chains,
fo as to keep each of the ten oxen oppofite to his own
feeding trough and flail.
The three and a half fett of fpace betwixt the feed¬
ing troughs and outer wall of the byre, lighted at the
farther end by a glazed window, is the cattle-feeder’s
walk, who paifes along it in front of the cattle •, and,
with a bafket, depofits before each of the cattle the
turnips into the feeding trough of each.
To prevent any of the cattle from choaking on fmall
turnips, or pieces of large ones, as they are very apt to
do, the chains at the flakes are contrived of fuch a
length, that no ox can raife his head, too high when
eating *, for, in this wTay, it is obferved, cattle axe ge¬
nerally choaked. However, in cafe it flill fliould hap¬
pen, that an ox choaks on a turnip, the cattle-man, or
feeder is provided with a ramrod,, made of a piece of
ftrong .fliff rope, with a fmall round poliihed wooden
head at the end of it; this he introduces into the mouth
of the ox, and fo gently knocks the turnip down his
throat, without either difficulty or danger to the ani¬
mal. That the cattle-feeder may be always at hand to
attend his cattle, a fmall apartment with a window in
it, in which his bed is placed, is conftrufted immediate¬
ly off the corner of the byre, fo that he is ready, even in
the night-time, in cafe of any accident happening, to
give afliflance.
At the diflance of about fix feet eight inches from
the feeding troughs, and parallel to them, is the dung
groop and urine gutter, neatly and fubftantially built
with hewn flone. Here, too, like the troughs, there is
a gradual declivity from the inner and upper to the out¬
er and lowrefl end ; fo that the moment the urine paffies
from the cattle, it runs to the loweft end of the gutter,
whence it is conveyed through the outer wall of the
bywe in a large flone fpout, and depofited in the urina-
rium outfide of the wall. At this place is a large in-
clofed fpace, occupied as a compoft dung-court. Here,
all forts of fluff are collecled for increafing the manure;
luch as, fat earth, cleanings of roads, ditches, ponds,
&c. rotten vegetables, &c. *, and the urine from the
byre being caufed to run over all thefe colle61ed toge¬
ther, wdiich is done very eafily by a couple of wmoden
fpouts moved backwards and forwards to the urinarium
at pleafure, renders the wdiole mafs in a fbort time, a
rich compoft dunghill j and this is done by the urine
alone, vyhich in general is totally loft. The dung of
the byre again is cleaned out feveral times each day, at
the twro front doors of the byre oppofite to the groop,
and depofited in the dung-court; fo that, in this wray,
too, the byre is kept in as good order as any liable, and
the cattle as clean as horfes. Along the edge of the
dung-court, a few low fheds are conilrucled, in which
young beafts, fheep, pr fwine, &c. are kept 5 and thefe
confume the refufe and remains of the turnips from the
great feeding byre.
In the fide wall of the byre, and oppofite to the
heads of the cattle, there are conftrufted three vents,
or ventilators ; thefe are placed at the diftance of about
two feet four inches from the ground in the infide of
the byre, and come out immediately under the eafing
I E R Y. Part IV.
of the fates on the outfide. The infide openings of HygeiologJ
thefe are about 13 inches in length, feven in breadth, v"—-'
and nine in depth in the wall; and they ferve two good
purpofes. 1. The breath of cattle being {pacifically
lighter than atmofphedc air 5 the confequence is, that,
in fome byres, the cattle are kept in a conftant heat and
fvveat, becaufe their, breath and heat have no way to
efcape j whereas, by means of the ventilators, the air of
the byre is kept in proper circulation, which conduces
as much to the health of the cattle as to the preferva*
tion of the walls and timber of the byre, by drying up
the moifture produced from the breath and fweat of
the cattle, which is found to injure thofe parts of the^j jf 8.° ’
building *. 237
The method of giving cows their food by the milk- London
farmers in the vicinity of the metropolis, where this bufi- ™°^.e °*
nefs is carried on upon the moft extenfive fcale, is thus a
ftated in the valuable Agricultural Survey of that di-
ftridl. “ During the night, the cows are confined ini
falls ; about three o’clock in the morning, each cow
has a half-bufhel balket of grains; when the milking is
finifiied, a bufhel balket of turnips is given to each
cow 5 and very foon aftenvards they have an allotment
in the proportion of one bufs to ten cows, of the moft;
graffy and loft meadow hay, which had been the moft
early mown, and cured of the greened; colour. Thefe
feveral feedings are generally made before eight o’clock
in the morning, at which time the cows are turned into
the cow-yard. About twelve o’clock they are again
confined to their Halls, and ferved with the fame quan¬
tity as they had in the morning. When the afternoon
milking, which continues till near three, is finilhed, the
cows are again ferved with the fame quantity of tur¬
nips, and about an hour afterwards with the fame diftri-
bution of hay, as before defcribed. This mode of feed-
ing generally continues during the turnip feafon, which
is from the month of September to the month of May.
During the other months of the year they are fed with
grains, cabbages, tares, and the other foregoing pro¬
portion of fecond cut meadow hay, and are continued
to be fed with the fame regularity until they are turned
out to grafs, when they continue in the field all night ;
and even during this feafon they are frequently fed with
grains.”
As the grains employed in feeding cattle cannot al¬
ways be procured frelh as they are wanted, it becomes
a defirable objeft to preferve them for a length of time.
They are preferved in fome places by putting them into
pits dug in the earthy into which they are trodden
down, and afterwards covered to a moderate depth
with dry earth. In this Way being defended from the
a£lion of the air, and thus prevented from fermenting,
they may be kept for a confiderable time during the
months of fummer, when brewing is not carrying on j
they may alfo be kept by preffing them down into
calks placed upon Hands, fo as to elevate them a little
from the ground, and having their bottoms pierced
with holes, to cany off the fuperabundant moifture.
Food of Dogs.
238
A good feeder is very effential. He fliould be Food of
young, a61ive, induftrious, and good tempered, for thedogs-
fake of the animals entrufted to his care, who, however
they may be treated by him, cannot complain. He
muft ftridlly obey any orders that his mafter may give,
both
239
Cleanlinefs.
240
Of vege¬
table food.
241
Oat meal.
Part IV. FARR
jftygeioiogy both with regard to the management and to the breed-
ing 0f tbe hounds, and he muit not confider himfelf as
folely under the direction of the huntfman. This is a
neceifary hint, as it has fometimes happened that a pack
of hounds apparently belonged entirely to the huntf¬
man, when the mailer had little more authority over
them than if h® were a perfect llranger.
On the exquiiite fenfe of fmelling fo peculiar to the
hound, our fport entirely depends 5 care mull therefore
be taken to preferve it, and the furell method of doing
fo is, to obferve the utmod cleanlinefs; to keep the ken¬
nel fweet, is a point that cannot be too much recom¬
mended, and wThich mult on no account be neglefted.
This mull therefore be inculcated on the feeder, and
the proprietor (hould fee that his orders in this refpedl
are carefully obferved.
Oat meal is by far the heartied and bed food ; for
hounds will run more iloutly with that, than on any
other meal, or than even on oat meal mixed with any
other. In point of expence, as w’ell as for the greater
benefit of the hounds, the mod advantageous method is
to grow one’s own oats, and have them properly dried,
and broken at the mill into meal that is not too fine.
A fufficient quantity Ihould be ground, to ferve for 1 2
or 18 months confumption ; the older the meal, fo
much the better ; but unlefs it is kept by one, there is
fcarcely any mode of procuring it fufficiently old. It
ihould be kept in bins, in a dry granary, and the meal
Ihould be trodden into the bins as clofely as podible.
Should there be no granary near, fugar hogdieads wall
anhver the purpole, but the meal mud be prefled into
them very firmly, and it mud be kept dry. Thefe hogf-
heads ihould be placed upon dands, like beer dands, by
wdiich means vermin will be prevented from getting at
the meal unobferved.
Barley meal is ufed in many kennels, being cheaper
than oat meal, but it is faid to be much more heating,
and lefs nourilhing j or as the huntfmen exprefs them-
felves, there is lefs proof in it.
It is well known that the principal animal food giv¬
en to hounds, is the flefh of horfes, which Ihould be
boiled. The boiler employed for this purpofe Ihould be
made of cad iron, and its fize Ihould be in proportion to
the number of hounds in the kennel. The flelh mull
be thoroughly boiled, and mud then be taken out of
the broth with the drainer, and a proper quantity of
oatmeal mud be put into the broth. When this has
been boiled lufficiently, which will require from three
quarters of an hour to an hour, the fire may be with¬
drawn. As it cools, it thickens into a pretty firm jelly,
and for hunting hounds it cannot be too drong. Five
cr fix pecks of good oat meal will be fufficient to make
a boiler of broth that wall furniffi 30 couple of hounds
for twro feeds fufficiently thick. Some are of opinion
that oat meal and barley meal in equal quantities make
the bed food for hounds. The oat meal is tCK.be fird
fctiiled for half an hour, the fire is then to be extinguiffi-
ed, and the barley meal put into the copper, and both
mixed together. The reafon for not putting both kinds
of meal into the boiler at the fame time is, that the
boiling which thickens the oat meal, makes the barley
meal thin. When barley meal alone is ufed, it ihould
not be put into the boiler at all, but ffiould be
fcalded with the hot liquor, and mixed up in a large
Jub, capable of containing at lead half a hogdiead.
I E R Y.
471
242
Barley-
meal.
243
Mode of
preparing
the food.
244
245
We mud however remark, that barley meal fho'uld Hygeiology
never be given by itfelf to hunting hounds during the —v—
hunting feafon, as its heating quality renders them ex¬
ceedingly thirlly •, and when out, they take every op¬
portunity to lap water.
The meat ffiould never be given to the dogs too hot,
and diould be mixed up to as thick a confidence as may
be. The feeding troughs ffiould be wide at the bot¬
tom, and have wooden covers, and they ffiould not be
made too long; five or fix troughs that are eafily moved,
are better than two or three that are unwieldy.
The boiling for the hounds, mixing of the meat, and
preparing it fqr them at proper hours, will of courfe be
taken care of by the huntfman. He mud condantly
attend the feeding of the hounds, who ffiould be
draughted according to the date they are in at the
time. Some hounds are better feeders than others, and
fome require lefs meat than others j a nice eye and great
attention are required to keep them all in equal fiedi.
This is wffiat eonditutes the merit of the huntfman, and
ffiews him to be wTell qualified for his office ; but few
are fufficiently attentive to this. The hounds are. fed
in a hurry, without examining them before they begin.
To afeertain properly the condition of a pack of hounds
requires no fmall circumfpedflion.
The huntfman Ihould call each hound by name, let-Mode of
ting him in to his food as he is called j this ufes them to.admjnifter*
their name, and teaches them obedience. A houndin^ lt‘ *
diould always approach him who calls on him ; and if
he touches him with a dick, he ffiould follow wherever
he is led.
The thin and tender feeding hounds being fird turn¬
ed out to the feeding room, will have the opportunity of
picking where they choofe. Such hounds as are in low
condition, had better be drafted off into a feparate
kennel. Thus felecling thofe- that are poor, we proceed
to the feeding of the red with lefs trouble and more ac¬
curacy ; but thofe that are drafted off, when more
fleffi is mixed with the meat, mud be let in to feed one
by one as they anfwer to their names j or they may be
better fed than taught. Thus the hounds who want
fleffi, wall all have a ffiare of it j and if any of them be
much poorer than the red, they ffiould be fed again, as
fuch hounds cannot be fed too often. Unlefs peculiarly
good, a foft wadiy conditutioned hound will fcarcely
ever be worth the attention that is given him ; and af¬
ter a hard day is frequently unferviceable for fome time.
It mud be recolleiled, however, that fuch hounds as are
tender, or lean feeders, cannot be fed too late, or with
too rich meat. Should any hounds appear to get too
fat, they mud not be differed to eat their fill, but the
rell may eat as much of the meat as they pleafe.
Once a week, or fortnight at mod, during the hunt¬
ing feafon, the hounds ffiould have a pound of fulphur
given them in their meat; and when the feafon is over,
they ffiould have half a pound of antimony added to the
dilphur, and well mixed with the meat. On thefe days,
the hounds ffiould all be let in to feed together, and
fuch as require fleffi, have it given to them aftenvards.
Greens boiled in their meat once a week, is likewife
proper. A horfe killed and given to hounds w'hilll
warm, after a very hard day’s hunting, will make an
excellent meal, but they ffiould not hunt again till three
days after it. The benes broken are good food for
poor houndsj as there is coruiderable nouriffiment in them .
Sheeps
246
, FARR
4 /z , . .
illygciology SVieeps trotters are alio very fAeet food, and in a fcarci*
'---v—“ ty of horfe flefli, bullocks paunches may be employed
with advantage.
It is cuftomary with feme to fhut up the hounds for
two hours after they have returned from hunting, be¬
fore they are fed, and the other hounds are Chut up with
them to lick them clean •, but probably this prafticc
does more harm than good, as the idle hounds will dif-
turb the tired dogs more by their licking, than this will
make amends for. Befides, hounds Ihut up on their re¬
turn from hunting, will not afterwards readily quit
their benches, as, if much fatigued, they will feek repofe
rather than food. It is therefore a better way when
the hunt is nearly over, to .fend forward a fervant to fee
the meat prepared, that the dogs may be fed immediate¬
ly on their return. If they have had a fevere day, they
Ihould be fed again afterwards. When hounds are fed
twice, they fhould be kept feparate from the hounds that
were left "at home, till after the fecond feeding, and it
will be Hill better if they are not put together till the next
% morning. It is the belt plan to feed the hounds that
have been out twice. Some hounds will feed better
the fecond time than the firft, and befides, the turning
them out from the lodging houfe refrefhes them, aiftl
allows them to ftretch their limbs ; and if the kennel is
cleaned out, and the litter well lhaken up, they will af¬
terwards fettle themfelves better on their benches. It
is at all times proper, after feeding, to turn out the
dogs into the grafs court, as this contributes very much
to the cleanlinefs of the kennel.
Chap. III. Of Exercife.
248
Exercife. Nature didlates the neceflity of exercife to almoft
every animal, and a greater or lefs proportion of it is
neceffary to enable them to perform their functions with
health and activity. The proportion requifite for this
purpefe is, however, not the fame in all animals. ^ Sheep
and cattle require but little exercife, much of which, in¬
deed, appears to be incompatible with the manner of
their eating*, for, as they require a fecond maftication of
their food by rumination, a confiderable time is necef¬
fary for this procefs, which cannot be properly perform¬
ed, unlefs the animal be entirely at its eafe. It is found,
however, that fuch of thefe animals as are kept without
exercife, or are wholly cooped up in houfes, for the pur-
pofe of fattening them more fpeedily, are neither fo
healthy, nor afford fuch fine and wholefome meat, as
thofe which are permitted to rove at large in their na¬
tive paftures. It is to the horfe and dog that exercife
feems the moil effential. Thefe animals require the
greateft proportion, and are moil injured by the wrant
of it. The obfervations w*e are about to make will
chiefly apply to the horfe.
, Such horfes as are conftantly employed in adlive la¬
bour have, of courfe, fufheient exercife 5 but it often
happens that thofe which are kept by gentlemen, for
their pleafure or convenience, are, when their labour is
not required, permitted to Hand whole days in the
liable, without any other exercife than being ridden
perhaps twice a day to a neighbouring pond. In cities
and large towns, even this exercife is often not permit¬
ted them. They are in the mean time plentifully fed
with rich, hard food, and thus pampered, they are ren¬
dered liable to the attacks of many acute difeafes; and
I E R Y. Part IV.
when their exertions are required, they cannot perform Hygeiqlogy
their ufual labour with their ufual eafe. It is therefore v '
neceffary that fuch horfes as are not regularly worked
(hould receive daily a moderate proportion of exercife,
and ihould be accuftomed to fuch a degree of labour as
may counterbalance the effedl of high feeding, and en¬
able them to undergo occafional exertion. A horfe who
is kept in the Hate of regular labour is faid to be in wind.
The exercife of a horfe that is not conilantly work¬
ed Ihould not, however be exceflive, or be carried be¬
yond the commencement of fatigue, as this would wear
out the horfe without neceffity. It is an abfurd prac¬
tice which feme people purfue, to fend out their horfes
every day to be galloped and rattled along the roads,
or perhaps over the ftreets, for the purpofe of keeping
them in wind. This is wrong, even where the horfe is
in good health and found condition j but when it is
praclifed with finew-ftrained, or foundered horfes, as is
not uncommon, it muff be produdlive of confiderable
mifehief.
In general, two hours a-day will be fufficient for
the purpofe of preferving the health of the horfe, and
this may be taken at once or twice in the day, as may
be moll convenient. If poflible, the owner fhould ride
his own horfe on thefe exercifing jaunts, for the
groom will probably do the horfe more injury than
benefit.
Some horfes require more exercife than others.
Gentlemen’s horfes that are merely kept for light riding,
will do with but little 5 but hunters and racers require
a greater proportion, and fhould feldom have lefs than
three hours a-day. This, however, muff depend in a
great meafure on the quantity and quality of their food,
as the food and exercife mull in general be proportion¬
ed to each other; but in all cafes care muff be taken
that the horfe’s labour do not exceed his flrength.
Young horfes are not equal to much exertion, and
fhould therefore be exercifed but lightly. Many horfes
have been deflroyed by the negled of this precaution,
efpecially in the army, where it is not unufual to re- .
ceive horfes as recruits of four or even three years of
age. Thefe horfes, wdien they reach the regiment, to
which they are probably brought from a confiderable
diftance, are in general weak and in low condition,
and are probably fuffering from feme acute difeafe,
brought on them by expohire to cold and wet during
their journey. They are of courfe very unfit for labour,
and require at leaf! three or four wTeeks reft, before
they can with propriety be brought to go through their
exercifes in the riding fchool. According to Mr
White, however, they are feldom allowed the half of
that time, but are brought too haftily into the fchool,
without refleding that, as they are unaccuftomed to
fuch exercifes, or indeed at that early age to any kind
of work, it muft become exceedingly fatiguing to them 5
and to young horfes in a ftate of debility, efpecially if
they are not immediately attended to, when brought
fweating from the riding fchool, fuch labour muft often
be followed by the worft confequences.
Where a horfe cannot be conveniently taken out to
the fields or roads, for the purpofe of exercife, ex¬
pedients have been thought on to exercife them within
the liable, or in a yard adjoining. The liable can
anfwer for this purpofe only when it is very large, and
he may then be made to trot backwards and forwards
till
PartV. FARR
Materia till he begins to fweat, with fome advantage. We have
. Mgdica‘ heard of the governor of a certain town, who fell on a
good expedient to exercife the horfes of a large body of
cavalry that had been received into the town, juft be¬
fore the enemy laid fiege to it. As there was no pofli-
bility of riding out the horfes, he caufed a number of
the troopers to ftand about the horfee, two or three at
each horfe, and whip them fo as to make them fly from
one lide of the ftall to the other, till both men and
horfes were fuflicifintly heated. It is faid that by this
means the horfes were kept in a pretty good ftate of
health, whereas they would otherwife have been much
difeafed.
When a horfe comes in from wrork in a profufe per-
fpiratian, he ftiould not be fuffered to ftand to cool at
the liable door, but ihould rather be walked gently a-
bout, if the weather will permit of it, or elfe be tied up
in his ftall with a cloth thrown over him. If he is in a
violent fweat, it is a good praflice to ftroke off the
fweat with a lharp-edged flick, as is ufually performed
on race-horfes immediately after running the courfe. If
he is much fatigued, it will alfo be not amifs to give
him a little ftrong beer, a fmall draught of which will
conliderably refrelh him. The French commonly give
wine in thefe cafes j but their wine is very weak, and is
probably not fo wholefome for horfes as our ale.
It is very common with the drivers of coaches, and
many grooms, to throw cold water over the legs of
horfes, when they come to the end of their journey,
fweating and fatigued. Some even ride them into the
water on thefe occalions, or throw it over a great part
of their body. This is a very dangerous praftice, and
gives occalion to feveral difeafes of the legs, joints, and
feet. It is more efpecially to be avoided when the
horfe has been long fweating, as when in this ftate he is
too much weakened to bear the Ihock of the cold water
with impunity. When a horfe is overheated without
much fweating or fatigue, the pradlice would probably
not be attended with danger, and bathing him with
cold water at that time would perhaps be even bene¬
ficial, efpecially if he were immediately rubbed dry,
and covered with a light cloth. But as it is difficult to
hit this nice point, this practice muft be employed with
caution, and ffiould never be trufted to the indiferimi-
nate prudence of a groom or coachman. The inftances
of horfes having been plunged into cold water when
overheated, without fuftaining any injury, are ealily ex¬
plained from the above remark.
M. Lafoffe makes the following remarks on the ex-
I E R Y. 47
ercife of horfes. “ A horfe on a journey may travel Materia
five hours at a time, if not hurried onwards ; a manege ^Iecilca-
horfe one hour j a cavalry horfe may manoeuvre two v
hours 5 a coach horfe, at a flow pace, fix hours. But it
is proper that faddle horfes ffiould not be overloaded,
and that the load of a horfe in harnefs Ihould be in
proportion to his ftrength, in order to perform thofe
proportions of labour, to eftabliffi which is a difficult
point 5 all depends on quicknefs. We will fay general¬
ly, that a faddle horfe, well formed, and mufcular, may
thus carry at a flow rate, two-thirds of his own weight,
and run in a chaife, with double and one-half of his
weight. It is eafy to fee from this, that the load of a
faddle horfe ftiould be lefs if he is put on the trot, and
lefs ftill if he is made to gallop. The draught horfe,
on the contrary, lightens his load by fpeed, which,
however, he cannot long continue without tiring, and
being out of breath.
“ The diforders which proceed from hard work are,
founder, fret, and moft inflammatory difeafes. There
are others that proceed from hidden tranfitions from
heat to cold, or, on the contrary, fuch as inflammation
of the lungs, colds, glanders, rheumatifms, and dropfy
of the breaft. Thefe are particularly frequent and dan¬
gerous to cavalry horfes. They have exifted at all times;
but the prefent fyftem of manoeuvres renders them much
more common than formerly ; they are a fpecies of en-
demial diforders, which alarm many regiments, and
make them dread the confequences. But there can
be no doubt they may be avoided in a great degree.
1. By taking no horfe into a regiment under four
years old, and thofe only which are well formed.
2. By giving them forage of good quality.
3. By airing them in the liable, and
4. By avoiding to put them in a fweat, which is a
ftate contrary to nature. This forced perfpiration dries
up and impoveriffies the blood, fpoils the finer fibres,
the veffels lofe their re-a£fion; hence the ftagnation of
the humours, which produce tumours and farcy. It
would be advifeable then to avoid accidents after a re¬
petition of military exercifes by walking the horfes
quick, and afterwards flowly, until they have regained
their natural warmth. By this means a repercuffion of
the humours may be avoided. For the lame reafon, a
horfe ffiould neither be watered, fed, or dreffed while
fweating; on the contrary, if he muft be put into the
liable, take off the faddle, rub him down with ftraw,
and cover him with a cloth * Veterina¬
rian's Poc¬
ket Manual,
p. II.
PART V. VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.
949 IN treating of the fubftances employed in the cure
of the difeafes that affefl domeftic animals, we lhall
firft deferibe the ufual forms in which they are admini-
ftered, with the moft approved methods of exhibiting
each, in the various cafes to which they are applicable.
We ffiall then enumerate the remedies themfelves, ar¬
ranged under certain heads or claffes, as is ufually done
by writers on the materia medica; for the fake of
bringing together under one view, thofe articles which
are fuited to the fame purpofes. We ffiall not at pre-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
fent, however, deferibe the articles made ufe of, as
moft of them are employed in general medicine, and
a particular account will be given of them in the arti¬
cle Materia Medica. Our objeft here will be to
point out the dofes required for the animals of whofe
difeafes we are about to treat ; and the particular cafes
to which they are adapted. To each clafswe ffiall fub-
join a number of receipts to which we ffiall have oc~
cafion to refer, when we come to the treatment of the
difeafes.
3 O
The
m FARR
Ma’eria The mofl: ufual forms in wlifch medicine is exhibited,
Medica. to horfes and cattle, are thofe of powder, ball, drench,
clyfter, ointment, poultice, and fomentation.
Powders.
There are not many fubftances which admit of be¬
ing adminiitered in the form of powders j for as it is
neceffary to mix thefe with the food of the animal, they
mull of courfe be compofed of fuch articles as do not
impart to the food any very ftrong or difagreeable tafte.
The fubftances chiefly given in the form of powders
are antimony, fulphur, nitre, and fome of the aromatic
feeds, &c. They fhould be reduced to the fineft
powder, and fnould be thoroughly mixed with the corn
or bran that is placed before the animal. Thole
powders which do not readily diffolve in water, fuch as
antimony, fulphur, and the powder of feeds, fhould be
moiftened before mixing with the food, as in this way
lefs of the medicine will be wafted. Emetic tartar, and
all articles that require to be given in a fmall deter¬
minate dofe, cannot properly be adminiftered in this
form.
In giving powders mixed with the food of horfes,
much will depend on the delicacy of the animal’s tafte,
and on the Hate of his ftcmach at the time. Some
horfes will readily take their food mixed with medi¬
cinal powders, while others refufe every article offered
to them in this form. When this is the cafe, or when
the medicine thus adminiftered appears to dilagree with
the animal’s ftomach, this mode of giving it muft not
be repeated ; but the medicine muft be adminiftered in
fome other form.
Powders are alfo fometimes ufed externally either
to fores and ulcers, or blown into the eyes.
Balls.
Balls. The form of ball or bolus is one of the moft com¬
mon in which internal medicines are adminiftered in
farriery. It is extremely convenient, as there are very
few articles that do not admit of being givfcn when
mixed up into a ball ; as they are, from the peculiar
conformation of the animal’s throat, more eafily admi¬
niftered than any other form that can be given by
the mouth. Some articles, however, efpecially fuch as
eaflly evaporate at the ufual temperature of the air, as
ether and volatile alkali, and fuch as fpeedily liquefy
or deliquefce by expofure to a moift atmofphere, are
not fo properly given in the form of balls. Subftances,
too, which require a very large dofe, do not eafily ad¬
mit of this form, and are beft given in infufion, or mix¬
ed with wrater in the form of a drench.
It is bell to prepare balls as they are required, or at
leall not many days before they are needed, as by ex¬
pofure to the air they become hard, and do not eaflly
diffolve in the fiomach ; they may even pafs through the
bowels nearly unchanged. But what is of ftill more
confequence, giving a hard ball may endanger the ani¬
mal’s life, by its flicking in his throat. Mr White fays,
that he has known feveral inflances of horfes being de-
Itroyed in this way. Sometimes the horfe’s jaw’s are fo
narrow as not to admit of introducing the hand between
them. In this cafe, the ball may be fixed lightly on
the end of a ftick or cane, moderately pointed} or, what
250
Forms.
251
Powders.
I E R Y. PartV.
is ftill better, placed loofely in a kind of cup fixed on Materia
luch a ftick or cane y and thus thruft to the back of the Jwe^lca‘ .
tongue. 253
The ball fliould be made not round, but nearly of Mode of
the ftiape of an egg, and rather lets in fixe. The mode adminifter-
of adminiftering balls to horfes requires fome dexteri-ing
ty. To give a ball with eafe, the operator fhould ex¬
tend his fingers fo as to furround one end of it, wdiile
the whole hand and the thumb oppofite to the finger
that furround the ball muft be contracted into as fmall
a fpace as poflible, as tbe fmalier the hand, the greater
will be the eafe with which the operation is performed,
both to the farrier and the horfe. The animal’s mouth
is ufually kept open by means of an inftiument called a
balling iron, that is formed like a ring, with an opening
fufficiently large to admit the hand, and which is cover¬
ed with cloth, and placed between the horfe’s jaws;
thus preventing him from fhutting his mouth, or hurt¬
ing the operator wdth his teeth. When the ball is
held in this way, in the right hand, the tongue of the
animal is to be drawn out with the left hand towards
the left fide, and the ball is to be adroitly placed be¬
yond the root of the tongue, and immediately on quit¬
ting the ball, the tongue is to be let go, and the horfe
allowed to raife his head. The ball is now in fuch a
fituation that it cannot be thrown back, and will be
gradually fwallowed. In holding the tongue, it is pro¬
per to keep it pretty firmly againft the lower jaw, as
this pofition greatly facilitates the operation. Balls
are ufually wrapt up lightly in paper, to prevent their
difagreeable trifle, but the paper fhould be very thin
and delicate, that it may eafily give way when the ball
enters the ftomach. Wafer paper, which is employed
for adminiftering bolufes in the human fubjecf, would
be an improvement in farriery, which may be eafily
adopted, as it is by no means expenfive.
When the balls are compofed of very hot or ftimu-
lating ingredients, it is proper to give the hoife drink
before adminiftering them. It is beft: to give the
drink firft, as hories in particular will not readily
drink after receiving a ball. If the ball has been com¬
pofed of any medicine that poffeffes a corrofive quali¬
ty, or is otherwife very irritating, as arfenic, corrofive
fublimate, blue vitriol, or the like, it is neecffary to
give the animal, previous to the operation, a confifter-
able quantity of fome mucilaginous drink, as of water-
gruel, or linfeed tea.
When a ball is properly adminiftered, it gives the
animal very little fatigue, and may be repeated much
more frequently than any other form of medicine. It
is therefore extremely convenient.
The ingredients compofing a ball fhould be mixed
up with fome fugary fubftance, as molaffes, honey, or
extraft of liquorice foftened in water, rather than with
any gummy or mucilaginous fubftance, as thefe latter
foon become hard by expofure to the air.
When a number of balls of the fame kind are made
at once, great care fhould be taken in mixing the
ingredients in the moft accurate manner, other-
wife a much greater quantity of the aftive part of
the medicine will be found m fome of the balls than in
others.
Though we have mentioned the ufe of the balling
iron, in adminiftering balls to horfes, fome grooms and
farriers are vtry expert in giving the ball without this
inftrument.
Part V. FARR
Materia inflruiftent. WKere tins can be done, it is certainly
, Mecll<-i1, preferable, as the life of the iron is very apt to alarm a
v horfe.
Drenches.
254
Of drenches This form is chiefly fuited to thofe remedies that are
eafily foluble in water, or which readily mix with that
fluid, and which have not any very difagreeable tafte.
Hence all mucilaginous fubftances, fome refms, and
many of the aromatics, may be given in this form. It
is proper, in compounding a drench, that the fubftances
compoftng it be thoroughly mixed with each other.
It not unfrequently happens, that oils or balfams are
given by way of drench, without any pains having been
taken to combine them fully with the watery part of
the medicine ; and when fubftances that would admit
of being finely powdered, are adminiftered in this way,
the careleflhefs of grooms or farriers is too often fuch as
to give them in a very coarfe ftate. In the former cafe
the oil or balfam fwimming in the liquid hangs about
the mouth and throat of the animal, and by its unplea-
fant tafte renders him averfe to the repetition of the
medicine , in the latter cafe, it is evident that the re¬
medy is not reduced to that ftate in which it is capable
255 of exerting its full effeib.
Mode of Drenches are ufually adminiftered by means of a
adminiftcr- horn, wThich is that of an ox or cow, with the larger
end cut into the form of a ipout. Sometimes when a
horn is not at hand, a bottle is employed *, but this is
very improper, as iri the horfe’s ftruggling, which
often happens in adminiftering a drench, the neck of the
bottle may be broken, and occafion much mifehief.
In giving a drench by means of the horn, the ani¬
mal’s tongue is to be held down with the left hand, as
in giving a ball; and when his head is fufficiently
raifed, the drench is to be poured cautioufly into his
mouth. Every liable fhould be provided with a drench¬
ing horn.
In preparing drenches, farriers almoft always make
life of ale or beer, as the menftruum or diluent ; but
this is often very abfurd, and can be proper only in the
preparation of cordial drenches. Thofe of a cooling
fiature fhould be mixed, either with common water, or
with fome mucilaginous infulion.
Drenches are feldom given with dexterity, and thus
a confiderable quantity of the medicine is frequently fpilt.
1 his circumftance renders them often very inconveni¬
ent, particularly in cafes where there is any fwelling or
painful affedlion either of the mouth or throat. Under
fuch circumftances it is fcarcely advifable to adminifter
medicine in the form of a drench 5 as, independently
of the refillance given by the horfe, which will certain¬
ly wafte much of the medicine, the forcing of a drench
down his throat, when it is in an inflamed or irritable
ftate, may be followed by very unpleafant confequences.
Mr Clark fays that he has frequently obferved a Ample
folution of nitre in water, fweetened with honey or
molafles, when given in cafes luch as we have deferibed,
to occafion violent coughing, trembling and panting,
iniomuch that the poor animal was like to drop down,
merely from the acute pain he fuffered, from a medicine
being adminiftered to him in the form of a drench at
fuch a critical period.
Even the pofltion in which the horfe’s head is placed
I E R Y.
to receive a drench may, in theie cafes, excite the moft
violent pain, from the diftention which the mufcles of
the throat undergo, when the head and tongue are held
in fo awkward a lituation.
475
Materia
Medu a.
The great advantage of a drench is, that remedies
exhibited in this form produce their effedl much more
fpeedily than when given in the form of a ball, which
may take a confiderable time to be diffolved in the
juices of the ftomach. Drenches are therefore particu¬
larly fuited to urgent cafes, in which it is neceflary to
give immediate relief.
Clysters.
256
This form is fuited to a great variety of purpofes,Of Clyfters.
and is not adminiftered fo often as with propriety it
might be given. Not only purges, which are very
commonly adminiftered in this way, but alfo every clafs
of remedies, may be exhibited in the form of a clyfter.
The clyfter Ihould be compofed of no fubftances that
are not either entirely foluble in water, or may be fo
thoroughly mixed with any watery fluid, as to pafs
readily through a flender tube.
'1 he inftrument employed for adminiftering a clyfter
is, as in the human fubjecl, a pipe and bladder, but
the bladder ftiould be that of an ox, and of the largeft
ftze j to the extremity of which tnuft be fitted a pewter
pipe about a foot long, and about half an inch in dia¬
meter, having the extremity which is to enter the gut
made completely fmooth, that it may not injure the
internal coat of the bowel. ^
Previous to adminiftering a clyfter, it is often necef- Back-i ak-
fary to free the great gut from a quantity of hardened ing'
excrement which it may contain. This is beft per¬
formed by means of the hand, and the operation is call¬
ed raking, or back-raking. The hand is eafily intro¬
duced, as the diameter of the great gut is in the horfe
very large. Care muft be taken before introducing the
hand, to greafe it well with oil or hogs lard, and to
have the nails cut perfedlly clofe, for fear of injuring
the gut. This mode of extracting the hardened excre¬
ment is frequently required, and will fucceed when
medicine would probably only ferve to increafe the
animal’s diftrefs.
Large fyringes are frequently employed for the pur- 258
pofe of adminiftering clyfters •, but fuch imftruments are
exceedingly improper, as their tubes are very ftrort,
and they are very difficult to manage, efpecially if the
animal fhould prove reftlefs from pain, as frequently hap¬
pens in cafes of colic \ where, as we ihall fee, clyfters
are very frequently required.
Clyfters are peculiarly requifite in thofe cafes where
medicine cannot be conveniently given by the mouth j
as in locked-jaw, or when there is any obftruClion in the
throat, or wound of the tongue. In fuch circumftances
horfes may frequently be kept alive for many wreeks, by
the frequent exhibition of nourifhing clyfters.
Ointments.
25£ -
Ointments are employed in farriery, merely as an an-Ointments,
plication to fores, or in fome cafes of eruptions of the
fkin. They cannot be employed as in the human
body, to introduce remedies into the fyftem; as on ac¬
count of the hair that covers the body of quadrupeds,
3 O 2 long-
E R Y.
476 FARR
Materia long-continued friclion in tkis way cannot eafily be em ■
_ Medica. ployed.
Poultices.
Poultices. Poultices are frequently employed, either for the pur-
pofe of maintaining a long-continued heat and moifture
about a part in which we are delirous to produce fup-
puration, or for correfting the unpleafant Imell that
Sometimes arifes from foul ill-conditioned ulcers 5 or
laftly, they are applied to check inflammation. In the
firfl cafe they are always applied warm, and fhould be
renewed repeatedly, till the proper eM is produced ;
as if old poultices are fuffered to remain long on a fup-
purating part, they tend to check the fuppuration in-
Head of affifting it. In the two latter cafes poultices
are ufually applied cold.
Poultices fhould always be compofed of fuch fub-
ftances, as admit of being reduced to a foft mafs, either
by boiling or pounding, as Otherwife they would fret
and irritate the parts to which they are applied. _ This
muff be particularly attended to in fuch poultices as
are laid over large open ulcers, or any part that is high¬
ly fenfible.
Fomentations.
Fomenta- Thefe are intended to relax and foften the parts to
t:ons. which they are applied, and in this circumitance they
nearly refemble the firft kind of poultices, only that
fomentations are always in a liquid form, being com¬
pofed of fome infufion or decodion of herbs. The
mode of applying a fomentation is, by wetting a large
flannel cloth in the warm liquor, wringing it {lightly,
and then applying it as warm as can eafily be borne
over the part to be fomented.
162 In the following lift of the articles of the veterinary
materia medica, we fhall call the fubftances by thofe
names by which they are ufually known to the common
people ; but we fhall add by way of fynonyms the
fcientific names, as derived from the modern fyftems of
natural hiftory and chemiftry. In fixing the dofes of
each article, we fhall, unlefs particularly mentioned to
the contrary, only fpecify the dofe proper for horfes
and cattle ^ but it would be proper for the reader to
keep in remembrance, that the dofe for a flieep or a
dog will be about one-half or one-third of that for a
horfe or cow.
In clafling the remedies we fhall adapt the arrange¬
ment given in a late compendium of the materia medi¬
ca. Moft writers on the materia medica of horfes,
have arranged their articles in alphabetical order. Mr
White has done this, in his excellent veterinary mate¬
ria medica and pharmacopeia. Such an arrangement
does very well, if intended to anfwer the purpofe of a
dictionary •, but for practice, it is better to have the
articles clafled according to the fenfible effects which
they appear to produce in the fyftem} as in this way
the practitioner has before him all thofe remedies that
are of the fame nature, and may felect from among
them fuch as he thinks will belt fuit the particular cafe
that he has in hand.
It may be neceffary to obferve, that the weight in¬
tended in this part is troy weight divided according to
the apothecaries, and the meafure Englifh wi#e mea-
fure.
I
Part V.
Materia
i. Emetics. Medica.
It will have appeared from our defcription of the £inet^s.
ftomach of the horfe, that this animal is in general in¬
capable of vomiting. Emetics, therefore, as calculated
for him, form no part of the veterinary materia medica.
We do not know that emetics are given either to fheep
or cattle, but to dogs they may be often given with
advantage. A few fubftances, however, will anfwer
this purpofe, as in general a little grafs, or a little
muftard mixed with warm water, will be fufficient to
vomit a dog. The following fubftances may be rank¬
ed in this clafs for dogs.
a. Antimony. Sulphuret of Antimony.
Emetic Tartar. Tartrate of Antimony and
Potafh.
Dofe from two to four grains.
b. Antimonial Powder. Oxide of Antimony with
Phofphate of Lime. James's Powder.
Said to have been given with fuccefs in the dif-
temper.
Dofe from eight to ten grains, repeated every three
or four hours, according to the evacuation produced.
c. Mercury.
Turbith Mineral. Yellow Sulphate of Mer¬
cury.
Ufed alfo for the diftemper, and in cafes of recent
poifoning.
Dofe about half a drachm. Alfo recommended in
canine madnefs.
Receipt. _ 264
1. Take of turbith mineral, five grains j
And emetic tartar, one grain.
Give in a little milk after bleeding.
2. Expectorants.
255
Thefe are remedies that are calculated to produce or Fxpeftor-
keep up a difcharge of mucus from the lungs, or wind- ants*
pipe, and are thus fuited to relieve coughs and thicknefs
of wind, or afthma.
a. Ammoniac. Gum Ammoniac.
A gum-refin, Dofe from three to five drachms, in
the form of ball. Commonly combined with fquill, or
fome other powerful expectorant, preceded by a pur¬
ging medicine. Particularly fuited to chronic coughs.
b. Asafoetida. Ferula afafoetida. Lin.
A gum refin j dofe about half a drachm, in a ball.
c. Balsam of Peru. Myroxilon Peruiferum. Lin.
Dofe from one to two drachms in combination in a
ball, aflifted with other expe&orants. In chronic
coughs.
d. Balsam of Copaiva. Copaifera balfamum. Lin.
Dofe about an ounce, in the fame form and cafes as
the laft.
e. Balsam of Sulphur.
Dofe from half an ounce to an ounce.
/. Barbadoes
Part V. F A P R
Matena f. BaRBADOES TaR. Petroleum Barbadenfe. Lin.
Me4'c*- Employed fometimes in chrotiic cough j but not fo
' ^ ' good as other expedlorants.
g. Garlic. Allium fativum. Lin.
The cloves of the root beaten to a pafte \ dofe from
one to two ounces ; made into a ball with liquorice
powder, or boiled in water into a drench. In fimilar
cafes.
h. Squill. Sc ill a maritima. Lin.
Dried root powdered •, dofe about a drachm, in a
ball, with other mild expectorants.
i. Storax. Sty rax ojjicinale. Lin.
Strained ftorax. Dofe two drachms, in a ball. As a
fubftitute for balfam of Tolu, in obftinate coughs.
^ Receipts for ExpeSlorants.
Receipts. 2. Take of gum ammoniac, three drachms j
Caftile foap, two drachms *,
Powdered fquill, a drachm.
Mix with honey or molaffes into a ball.
3. Take of camphor j powdered fquill, each a
drachm j
Balfam of copaiva, half an ounce j
Aromatic powder, two drachms.
With honey, mix into a ball.
4. Take of balfam of fulphur, four ounces j
Barbadoes tar, two ounces 5
Oil of anifefeed, two drachms j
Powdered liquorice root, enough to make a mafs,
to be divided into balls, each weighing about
an ounce and a half, for a dofe.
5. Take afafcetida, half an ounce $
Powdered ginger, a drachm and a half $
Prepared ammonia, half a drachm j
Honey, &c. enough to make a ball.
3. SuDORIFICS.
Sudorifics. Thefe are fuch medicines as are intended, either to
keep up or bring back the infenfible perfpiration, or
to excite profufe fweating. They are alfo called dia¬
phoretics. See Materia Medica.
Few medicines are employed in farriery with a view
to excite fweat. In the dog, it is well-known that
this effe£t can fcarcely be produced by any means; and
in the horfe it is found extremely difficult to produce
any fenfible fudorific effect by means of medicine.
This may indeed be excited by violent exercife and
warm clothing ; but thefe are ill fuited to the cafes in
which fweating would be molt delirable. The infen¬
fible perfpiration may, however, be gently encouraged
by fome powerful fweating medicines j and in cattle
thefe may not unfrequently be given with advantage.
a. Ammonia.
Mindererus’s Spirit. Acetate of Ammonia.
Recommended by Mr White as a gentle diaphore¬
tic. Dofe from eight to ten ounces in form of a drench.
In febrile complaints.
b. Camphor. Laurus camplwra. Lin.
Dofe from one to two drachms, in form of a ball.
In fevers.
I E R Y 47.7
c. Antimony. Sulphuret of Antimony. Materia
Very commonly given to horfes for the purpofe of Medica. *
improving the finenefs of their- coat. Dofe about an v
ounce, in powder mixed with the food.
d. Emetic Tartar. Tartrate of Antimony and Pot*
afh.
Dofe from one to two drachms ; in a ball or drench.
Antimonial Powder. Oxide of Antimony with
Phofphate of Lime.
Dofe about two drachms.
e. Unwashed Calx or Oxide of Antimony.
Dofe two or three drachms, in compofition as below. 9
f. Nitre. Nitrate ofPotafh.
Dofe about one ounce in a ball, with one or two
drachms of camphor j or alone in a drench.
g. Opium. Papaver fomniferum. Lin.
Seldom given alone, though it might probably be
adminiftered with great propriety, in dofes of two
fcruples to a drachm.
Receipts for Sudorifcs.
26S
6. Take of nitre half an ounce $ Receipts,
Camphor, a drachm and a half ;
Calomel, powdered opium, a fcruple ;
Molaffes, enough to make a ball. In fever.
7. Take of unwaffied calx of antimony, two drachms y
Camphor, a drachm j
Opium, half a drachm $
Compound powder of tragacanth, two drachms.
Honey enough to make a ball.
In fever. To be repeated occafionally.
8. Take of emetic tartar from one drachm to two j
Compound powder of-tragacanth, three drachms j
Honey enough to make a ball.
9. Take of emetic tartar, a drachm and a half y
Ginger, two drachms j ^
Camphor, half a drachm 5
Opium, a fcruple j
Oil of caraway, ten drops.
Molaffes enough to make a ball.
For horfes that are hide-bound, and have unhealthy
looking coats.
10. Take of antimonial powder, twTo drachms j
Caraway feeds powdered, half an ounce j
Ginger, a drachm y
Oil of anifefeeds, twenty drops.
Honey enough to make a ball.
11. Take of unwaffied calx or oxide of antimony, two*
drachms;
Prepared ammonia, ginger, of each a drachm 5
Opium, half a drachm j
Powffiered anifefeeds, half an ounce j
Molaffes, enough to make a ball.
4. Diuretics.
Thefe are remedies that are intended to produce a Diuretics,
more than ordinary difcharge of urine. See Materia
Medica,
Diuretics-
47s ' F A‘ ,11 R
Materia Diuretics are frequently given to horfes, not only in
. Me^ica- cafes of dropfical fwellings, efpecially of the legs, but
in greafe, and in many eruptive difeafes j in running
thrufhes, crack, or ulcers about the heels j in baldnefs
of different parts of the body j and in fome cafes where
there appears to be a difficulty in Haling.
They are ufually given in the form of balls, but
fome of them by way of powder mixed with the food.
Before exhibiting diuretics, bleeding is fometimes re-
quifite. Thefe cafes will be Hated in their proper place.
It is alfo proper, during the ufe of diuretics, that the
animal ffiould take regular exercife; and occalional
drink ffiould be given, to promote their operation. The
ufe of them ffiould not be continued too long, as they
are found to produce confiderable weaknefs.
a. Balsam of Copaiva. See Expectorants.
This medicine, when given as directed under expefto-
rants, frequently afts as a diuretic.
b. Camphor. See Siutorifics.
Dole about two drachms, mixed with nitre in a ball.
In fpafmodic difficulty of Haling.
c. Nitre. Nitrate of Potafh.
Dofe about one ounce, in the form of powder, bail,
or drench. In fevers and Hrangury.
<i. Potash. Subcarbonate of PotaJ}), or Vegetable
Alkali.
Dofe a drachm or two.
e. Rosin.
Dole from two to four drachms repeated occafionally,
in the form of powder with the food.
Rofin is a good diuretic in cafes of fwelled legs and
greafy heels, but is feldom given, except to cart-horfes.
f. Soap. Cajlile Soap.
Dofe from two to fix drachms, in compofition.
i. Oil or Spirit of Turpentine.
Dofe from one ounce to two.
Receipts for Diuretics.
12. Take of CaHile foap, powdered rofin, of each
three drachms ;
Nitre, half an ounce j
Oil of juniper, a drachm.
Firff beat the foap and oil of juniper together, and
then add the other ingredients, to make a ball.
13. Take of nitre in powder, half an ounce j
Camphor, oil of juniper, of each one drachm ;
Caflile foap, three drachms.
Rub the camphor and oil together, then add the
foap and nitre, and as much Hour as is fufficient to
make it into a ball.
Take of rofin and nitre, each half an ounce.
Mix into a powder, to be taken with the food.
I E R Y. Party,
„ ^ Materia
5. Purges. Mcnca.
Thefe medicines are well known. They are gene-' J
rally confidered of two kinds; laxatives, or fuch as gen-pur&e _
tly move the bowels, and are intended merely to empty
them of excrement; and purges, or fuch as, befides
this effedl, are intended to flirnulate the exhalent vef-
fels of the intefiines, and produce a confiderable dif-
charge of liquid ffools, (See Materia Medic a. As
either order may in general be given fo as to produce
either of thefe effects, according to the quantity in
which it is adminiffered, we Until confider them to¬
gether.
Purgative medicines are. given with confiderable ad¬
vantage to all the domeflic animals, in many cafes of
difeafe, which will be pointed out hereafter. They are
very commonly, howTever, given to horfes, by grooms
and ordinary farriers, by way of alterative or preven¬
tive of difeafe ; or in order, as they think, the better
to prepare them for fome unufual exertion. The rea-
fon given for this pra&ice is, that the horfe is foul in
the body, or full of humours, and the purgatives are
given to expel this morbid accumulation of humours. 2-1
“ This fort of evacuation (fays Dr Bracken, who is Impropriety
one of the firfl that pointed out the abfurdity of thisof. *nalfcri*
pradice), feems very much to quadrate with the oui-plirging ;n
ward fenfes, and makes the ignorant part of mankind,horfes.
whofe heads are fuller of humours than their horfes,
imagine that purging medicines carry off the offending
matter in moH diforders; never conlidering the general
rule, wffiich ought Hill to be kept in mind, viz. that
in proportion to any one evacuation being heightened or
increafed, moff or all of the other natural evacuations
are proportionally diminiffied.
It muff be remembered that the inteflines of the
horfe are exceedingly long, and the large inteffines are
fo conffru&ed as in many cafes to retain the food or ex¬
crement for a very confiderable time. Purgative medi¬
cines given to a horfe are often retained for 24 or 30
hours; and if thefe have been of an irritating quality,
it is evident that the unneceffary exhibition of them
may often produce confiderable mifchief. Mr Blaine
fays, that when horfes die after the exhibition of ffrong
purges, wffiich according to him is not unfrequently the
cafe, he has always found the large inteHines more or
lefs inflamed.
It is found that after giving a horfe a flrong purge,
he is often incapable of returning to his ufual work for
many days ; it is even faid for a month. Hence it will
eafily appear how abfurd is the pradlice of thofe who
phyfic their horfes without neceffity. Mr John Law¬
rence is, however, Hill an advocate for purging horfes
now and then, and is of opinion that the mifchief done
by purges is tp be attributed to the coarfenefs of the
medicine, rather than to its purging effeft. He de¬
clares, that after 30 years experience, he has never
known purging do harm, if the aloes employed was of
the finer fort.
Veterinary pra&itioners differ with refpe£l to the
time of adminifiering a purge. Mr Blaine recommends
it to be given in the morning, when the horfe is to be
allowed to faff from 9 or 10 o’clock to 1 2 or 1. Then
a lock or two of hay, or about twro handfuls, is to be
given him, and after this he is to have the ball, with a
horn
g. Tobacco. Nicotiana tabacum. Lin.
Sometimes given by grooms for fining a horfe’s coat.
h. Turpentine.
a. Common turpentine.
b. Venice turpentine. Dofe from half an ounce to
an ounce ; in the form of emulfion.
2
Part V.
FARR
Materia
Medica.
272
Strong ex-
ercife be¬
fore purg¬
ing, impro¬
per.
horn full of warm ale, or water-gruel, immediately af¬
ter it. He is then to fail for another hour, when he is
to be allowed the moderate ufe of hay. He IhouLd
have all .his drink a little warm ; fhould be walked a-
bout gently during the remainder of the day, and
fhould have a warm mafh at night. Next day he is to
be again moderately exercifed at intervals, till the purge
begins to operate ; but if the weather is fevere, he mull:
be covered with body clothes, and care muft be taken
not to have the ftable too warm when he returns. Mr
Clark recommends a mafh of bran to be given about
an hour before the ball, and fays that in this way he
has always found the medicine to operate in a gentle
and eafy manner.
It is a common pra&ice with many people to ride
their horfes very hard before giving them a purging
medicine, with the view, as they term it, to ftir up the
humours, which being thus fet afloat, will more eaflly
be carried off by the purge. To fay no more with re—
fpeft to the abfurdity of the doftrine, we may remark
that the praftice itfelf is highly dangerous, as a purge
adminiftered after fuch violent exercife, will feldom fail
to produce inflammation in the bowels, fevers, or fome
other diforder, which, though it may not at the time
prove fatal, may lay the foundation of blindnefs, in¬
curable lamenefs, or fome other diforder that may ren¬
der the horfe ufelefs. Violent exercife, after admini-
ffering a purge, is equally to be avoided, as it may pro¬
duce fweating, and thus counterac! the purgative ef¬
fect •, or, what is -as bad, it will tend to increafe the
weaknefs that feldom fails to be brought on by pur-
ging.
We have been the more particular in our obferva-
tions on purging horfes, as it is a matter of confidera-
ble confequence, and as the efleet of indiferiminate
purging in this animal is little underftood.
273 a. Aloes. Aloe perfoliata. Lin.
{a. Socotorine aloes. Dofe from five to nine drachms,
b. Barbadoes aloes. Dofe from half an ounce to an
ounce.
Of thefe the latter is commonly employed for horfes.
It is bell given in form of a ball, mixed with foap, as
preferibed at prefent. In moll cafes where purges are
required.
b. Castor Oil. Ricinus communis. Lin.
Dofe from a pound to a pound and a half. In
fevers and worms. Though Mr White fays, he has
given it in the latter cafe without effe£L
c. Epsom Salt. See Sulphate of Magnefa.
d. Gamboge. Stalogmitis cambogioides. Lin.
Seldom employed in horfes, though recommended by
Mr White as a ufeful medicine in worms.
Dofe from two to three drachms, in a ball with Caf-
tile foap.
e. Jalap. Convolvulus jalapa.
Dofe in the dog twenty to thirty grains.
f. Common Salt. Muriate of Soda.
Dofe from four to fix ounces in a drench, or in a
larger dofe by way of clyfter.
g. Soap.
I E R~ Y.
Chiefly ufed to combine aloes and other purgatives
into a ball.
h. Mercury, or ^uickflver.
479
Materia
Medica.
i. Calomel. Sip-muriate^ or mild muriate of mer
cury.
Dofe from one to two drachms, ufually mixed with
other purgatives.
In liver complaints, obftinate cafes of greafe, chronic
inflammation of the eyes, and dropfical fvvellings of the
hind-legs.
h. Glauber’s Salt. Sulphate of Soda.
Dofe about a pound. Bell given in the form of a
clyfter. In fevers, and inflammatory complaints.
/. Epsom Salt. Sulphate of Magnefa.
As the laft.
Receipts for Purges.
2 74
14. Take of Socotorine aloes, five drachms 5 Rcce:pts.
Caftile foap, half an ounce j
Oil of caraway, ten drops j
Molafles enough to make a ball.
A moderate dofe for young or delicate horfe's.
15. Take of Socotorine aloes, an ounce $
Caftile foap, half an ounce j
Calomel, a drachm and a half j
Oil of mint, twenty drops 5
Molaffes enough to make a ball.
16. Take of Barbadoes aloes, half an ounce j
Compound powder of tragacanth, two drachms 5
Salt of tartar, a drachm and a half j
Syrup enough to make a ball.
This is given as a laxative by Mr. White, who de¬
clares that he never faw any ill refult from giving Bar¬
badoes ’aloes, though Mr Blaine and Mr Lawrence are
of opinion, that Socotorine aloes is always to be pre-
fered.
17. Take of water-gruel, a gallon ;
Glauber’s fait, half a pound ■,
Oil of olives, or linfeed oil, a pint.
To be given warm by way of clyfter. In fevers and
inflammations of the bowels.
18. Take of powdered jalap, a drachm ;
Powdered ginger, half a drachm 5
Syrup of buckthorn, enough to make a ball.
For dogs.
6. Errhines.
Thefe remedies are fuited to produce a confiderable
difeharge from the noftrils, and with this view are fome-
times preferibed to horfes in cafes of flaggers or violent
headaches. They muft, however, be given with cau¬
tion, and not till after bleeding and other evacuating
means have been ufed. They are always adminiftered
in the form of powder, which is blown up the noftrils,
ufually through a quill.
27S>
Errhines^-
a. Asarabacca^ Afarum Puropceum. Lin.
The dried leaves in powder.
The fnuff, ufually fold by the name of cephalic
fnuff, is chiefly compofed of afarabacca mixed with feme
aromatic
480 FARR
Materia aromatic herbs, and will anfwer the purpofe of an
t Me^ca» t errhine pretty well,
b. Tobacco.
Common fnuff.
In affeflions of the eyes.
7. SlALOGOGUES.
Sialogo* Thefe remedies are given with a view of increafing
gues. ^ow q£ faiiya or flaver. They are feldom employ¬
ed in veterinary medicine, though it is probable that
falivation might be productive of good effefts in the
locked jaw, fo fatal to horfes, and in the dijlemper in
dogs.
a. Ginger. Amomum %ingiber.
Sometimes tied about a horfe’s bit by way of a maf-
ticatory, as it is called.
b. Mercury.
Calomel is the only mercurial that can properly be
employed to excite falivation in the horfe and dog j and
it will fcarcely produce this effeCt, if given by the
mouth. It is bell to rub the gums with it twice or
thrice a day, till the proper effedl is produced. See
Stimulants.
8. Emollients.
Emollients. Thefe are fuch remedies as are calculated, either to
relax the body, or to abate acrimony. The former
are fometimes divided into diluents and relaxant^the
latter are ufually called demulcents, although diluents
are alfo commonly given to obviate acrimony.
a. Barley. Hordeum dijlichon. Lin.
The ufe of barley as an article of food, has been al¬
ready noticed. A deco&ion of it forms a part of molt
emollient drenches and clyfters.
b. Chamomile. Anthemis nobilis. Lin.
The dried flower. In infufion or decoftion by way
of fomentation.
c. Gum Arabic. Mimqfa nilotica. Lin.
In powder. Dofe two or three ounces or more, by
way of a drench.
d. Gum Dragant. AJlragalus tragacantha.
In infufion, fo as to form a mucilage. In inflamma¬
tory affedlions of the lungs, bowels, or bladder.
e. Hog’s Lard.
An ingredient in molt ointments and liniments.
f. Lintseed. Linum ujitatijjimum. Lin.
In infufion, by way of drench or clyfter. In pur¬
ging or fcouring.
g. Liquorice. Glycyrrhixa glabra. Lin.
The root in infufion, or the powder.
Seldom employed except to render drenches more
palatable, or in powder to mix up balls.
h. Marshmallows. Althea officinalis. Lin.
The dried root in decoclion, by way of drench or
clyfter. In internal inflammations, or irritation from
ftrong purges.
I E R Y. FartV.
i. Olive Oil. Materia
A principal ingredient in ointments and liniments, ^e<fca. a
and alfo frequently given by way of drench or clyfter.
k. Starch.
Very ferviceable by way of clyfter diffolved in wrarm
water, either to obviate acrimony in inflammation of the
bowels, and fcouring j or by way of nourifhment, com¬
bined with a little opium, in cafes w7here food cannot
be given by the mouth.
/. Warm Bath.
Seldom employed, on account of its inconvenience,
although it would be probably one of the beft remedies
in fpafmodic complaints.
Receipts for Emollients.
27(8
19. Take of lintfeed, four ounces j Receipts,
Boiling water, three pints.
Infufe for fome hours, and add to the ftrained li¬
quor of nitre an ounce, honey fufticient to make
a palatable drench. For twro dofes.
20. Take of marfhmallow root fliced, four ounces j
Water three pints.
Boil together till the liquor be reduced to a quart, and
to the ftrained decodiion add of
Powdered gum arabic an ounce j
Lintfeed oil two ounces j
Honey fufficient to make it palatable. For two
dofes.
The above decoftion, before the other ingredients
are added, forms a good emollient fomentation.
21. Take of ftarch, two ounces j
Water-gruel, two quarts j
Mix for a clyfter.
To be given frequently in fcouring or purging.
If they are not kept up for a fufficient time, two or
three drachms of laudanum muft be added.
9. Cooling Remedies.
279
Thefe are called refrigerants by medical writers, and Cooling re-
it is fuppofed that they a£t by diminiftiing the tempera-medies.
ture of the body. See Materia Medica. They
are peculiarly fuited to cafes of fever and inflamma¬
tion.
a. Nitre.
Frequently employed in fevers and inflammations,
except thofe of the kidneys, and in catarrh. Dofe
about an ounce, diflblved in water-gruel, or fome mu¬
cilaginous decoftion, by way of a drench.
b. Sal Ammoniac. Muriate of Ammonia.
Externally, as a lotion againft inflammation.
c. Spirit of Salt. Muriatic acid.
May be employed as a refrigerant in fevers, when
largely diluted with water, or water-gruel.
d. Sugar of Lead. Acetate of Lead.
Employed externally, diflblved in foft water j Jty way
of lotion or embrocation, for ftrains or bruifes 5 and in
the form of a poultice with oat-meal, to check inflam¬
mation.
e. Goulard’s
\
1
FARR
e. Goulard’s Extract, or Vegeto-mineral water.
Is merely another form of the fame remedy.
f Vinegar, sice tons acid.
Employed externally in fimilar cafes.
g. Vitriolic Acid. Sulphuric acid.
Gfeful in fimilar cafes with the muriatic acid, but re¬
quires to be largely diluted.
280
Receipts. Receipts for Cooling Remedies.
22. Take of nitre, one ounce j
Emetic tartar, two drachms.
Diffolve it in a fufficient quantity of water-gruel, for
a drench.
23. Take of fugar of lead, half an ounce \
Vinegar, two ounces;
Rain-water a quart.
Diffolve for a lotion.
I E R Y. 481
The root in powder, from half an ounce to an ofincej Materia
or in a larger dofe, in the form of decoftion, for a Medka.
drench. \
A powerful aftringent in cafes of purging, and re¬
commended in hemorrhages.
c. Galls, ^uercus cerris. Lin.
Nut galls.
In powder, infufed in boiling water as an external-
application.
d. Iron. Muriate of Iron.
A powerful aftringent, though rarely employed in
veterinary practice. It may be given in cafes of obfti-
nate purging, or diabetes, in dofes of a drachm or two,
by way of drench.
e. Japan Earth. Mimofa catechu.
Improperly called an earth, as it is a vegetable ex-
tra£t. Given in powder, from two drachms to four, in
purging and diabetes.
Part V.
Materia
Medic a.
24. Take of fal ammoniac, an ounce j
Vinegar, four ounces *,
Spirit of wine, two ounces j
Soft water, half a pint.
. Diflblve for a lotion.
Both thefe lotions are employed in external inflam¬
mation.
A
25. Take of cream of tartar, two drachms $
Nitre, an ounce j
Water-gruel, a quart.
For a drench in fevers.
26. Take of emetic tartar, a drachm j •
Glauber’s fait, eight ounces $
Water-gruel, a quart.
In fimilar cafes attended with coftivenefs.
To be repeated every fix hours.
27. Take of extraft of lead, half an ounce j
Diftilled vinegar,
Olive oil, of each two ounces.
Mix well together, into a liniment.
For fore backs.
28. Take of marfhmallow ointment, half a pound j
Sugar of lead rubbed fine, an ounce.
Mix for an ointment.
sSi
Aftringents 10. ASTRINGENTS.
Aftringents are fuch medicines as are fuppofed to pro¬
duce a degree of rigidity in the mufcular fibres, and
thus to increafe its power of aftion, or to prevent
morbid difcharges. Such' as are intended to prevent
unufual difcharges of blood are called ftyptics. For
the action of aftringents, fee Materia Medica.
a. Alum. Superfulphate of Alumina and Potafh.
In powder, from half an ounce to an ounce, in the
form of drench or ball.
In purging, diabetes, &c. Externally by way of
lotion, or in a fine powder fprinkled on the part. In
greafe.
h. Bistort. Polygonum biflorta. Lin.
Vol. VIII. Part II.
f Kino.
An extra ft fimilar to the former, and adapted to fi¬
milar purpofes.
g. Logwood. Hcematoxylon Campcchianum. Lin.
Extraft of logwood. Dofe from two to four drachms
in a ball.
h. Oak Bark, ^uercus robur. Lin.
In powder. Dofe about two ounces, in the form of
a ball. Externally by way of decoftion.
1. Pomegranate. Punica granatum. Lin.
The dried fruit in powder. Dofe from half an ounce
to an ounce. Chiefly given in the fcouring incident to
horned cattle.
h. Tormentil. Tormentilla erecia. Lin.
I he root in the form of decoftion, by way of a
drench. An ounce or an ounce and a half in three
pints of water, boiled to a quart. In fimilar cafes with
the laft.
/. Vitriolic Acid. Sulphuric Acid.
Diluted Vitriolic Acid.
Ufed externally by way of lotion, in obftinate cafes
of greafe, and to foul ulcers. Not given to the horfe
internally.
m. Zinc.
White Vitriol. Sulphate of Zinc.
Chiefly employed externally, in inflammations of the
eye, and as a lotion to foul ulcers, and to check inflam¬
mation. Seems to have little eflfeft on the horfe, but
may probably be given to cattle with fome advantage
in cafes of debility.
Receipts for AJlringents.
282
Receipts.
29. Take of powdered oak bark, an ounce j
Powdered ginger, two drachms j
Opium, a drachm}
Solution of glue, enough to make the mafs into
a ball.
In profufe ftaling, with a drench of oak-bark decoc¬
tion after it.
3P
3-
482
Materia
Medica.
2S3
Strengthen,
ing reme¬
dies.
F A K R
30. Take of kino, two drachms;
Alum, half an ounce j
Ginger, a drachm 5
Caflile foap foftened with water, two drachms *,
Powder of oak-bark, enough to make a ball.
In fcouring or purging.
31. Take of white vitriol,
Sugar of lead, each one drachm j
Soft wrater, half a pint.
Mix.
For eye-water, in inflammation of the eyes.
11. Strengthening Remedies.
Thefe are commonly called tonics by medical wri¬
ters. Many of them are aftringents, and have been
already enumerated.
a. Galangal. Maranta ga/anga. Lin.
The root in powder j dofe about an ounce. In wTeak-
tieis of the ftomacb.
b. Gentian. Gentiana lutea. Lin.
The root in powder j dofe from half an ounce to fix
drachms.
Extract of Gentian. Dofe, a drachm or two,
in a ball in compofition. In indigeftion and weaknefs
of the ftortiach.
c. Horse Chesncjt. Efculus hippocajlanum. Lin.
The bark in powder, or its decoftion. Dofe of the
powder about an ounce.
d. Iron.
Salt of Steel. Sulphate of Iron.
Dofe about half an ounce. Generally in compofition.
In fimilar cafes.
e. Myrrh.
A gum refin. Dofe in powrder, from two to four
drachms, in a ball. In wTeaknefs of the ftomacb, and
general debility.
f. Oak Bark, ^uercus robur. Lin.
Dofe in powder about an ounce.
In general debility, fucceeding to violent difeafes.
g. Peruvian Bark. Cinchona officinalis. Lin.
Dofe of the powder from one ounce to two. Sel¬
dom employed in veterinary practice on account of its
expence. Said to be inferior to many other tonics in
the horfe.
h. Quassia, ^uaffia excelfa. Lin.
The wood and the bark of the root. Dofe in pow¬
der two or three drachms, in a ball, or infufed in water
by way of a drench.
i. Blue Vitriol. Sulphate of Copper.
Recommended as a powerful tonic, but requires cau¬
tion in its ufc. Dofe about half a drachm, gradually
increafed according to its effefts. A confiderable quan¬
tity of drink fhould be given, either before or after it.
In cafes of debility that refill other tonics.
I E R Y. Part v.
' . T ™ > Materia
Receipts for Ionics. Medica.
32. Take of powdered gentian, half an ounce j ^
Ginger, two drachms; Receipts.
Honey or molaffes, enough to make a ball.
33. Take of powdered horfe chefnut bark, an ounce j
Myrrh, in powder,
Caftile foap, each a drachm 3
Water, enough to make a ball.
34. Take of powdered caflia buds, a drachm \
Extraft of gentian, a drachm and a half;
Honey, enough to make a ball.
35. Take of powdered oak bark, an ounce ;
Aromatic powder, two draghms j
Salt of tartar, a drachm j
Molailes, enough to form a ball.
36. Take of fait of Heel, two drachms \
Infufion of quaflia, (2 drachms to a quart of wa¬
ter) a quart •,
Diffolve for a drench.
12. Stimulants. 285
Thefe are fuch remedies as are fuited to increafe t]ie St n.ula-b..
adlion, either of the whole circulating fyflem, or of fome
particular part or organ. They are at prelent dually
divided into dijfufble and permanent, the former being
fuch as produce a confiderable ftimulating effeefl, which
is foon followed by a degree of quietnefs or torpor, pro¬
portioned to the quantity that had been adminiftered 3
as wine, alcohol, ether, and probably opium 3 the
other fort being fuch as produce no very confiderable
effeft, unlefs repeatedly exhibited for fome confiderable
time.
Moll of the ftimulants arc called cordials or aroma¬
tics ; and under this clafs, wre rank thole medicines •
which have been called carminatives, or which are cal¬
culated to expel wind from the flomach and bowels,
cpifpafics or bliftering fubftances 3 and under this clafs
w-e may alfo reckon moll; of thofe remedies that are call¬
ed alteratives, or fuch as are fuppofed to produce fome
change in the conilitution or habit of body. The ftimu¬
lating remedies employed in farriery, as in human medi¬
cine, are very numerous.
a. Ammonia, or Volatile Alkali. Prepared Ammonia.
Carbonate of Ammonia.
Dofe from half a drachm to twTo drachms, in a ball
newly prepared. In the latter ftages of fever, attended
with great debility.
b.  — Spirit of Sal Ammoniac. Water of Car¬
bonate of Ammonia.
Chiefly ufed externally.
CavJHc Volatile Alkali. Water of Ammonia.
Ufed externally mixed with oil into a liniment, in
cafes of ftrains^ bruifes and fwellings of the back
finews.
c. AnISESEED. Pimpinella anifum. Lin.
The feed in powder. Dofe about an ounce, in a
ball.
EJfential oil of anifedeed.
Dofe from half a drachm to a drachm, in the fame
form. In flatulency and indigeftion.
d. Balsam
FARR
d. Balsam of Copaiva. See Expectorants.
In flatulent colic or gripes,
e. Barbadoes Tar.
Externally mixed with oil of turpentine or fweet oil
into an embrocation. In ftrains and bruifes. <•
f. CaNTHArides, or Spanijh jly. Lytta vejicatoria.
Tinfture of cantharides. Externally by way of em¬
brocation in flmilar cafes.
Blifters are well known to be thofe remedies that ir¬
ritate the ficin to which they are applied, fo as to raife
the fcarf-lkin into a bladder containing a watery fluid,
which is the ferous part of the blood. By abftrafling
this from the general mafs of circulation, they produce
an evacuation, proportioned to their extent, from the part
to which they are applied, and are thus extremely ufe-
ful in producing a determination of blood from fome
neighbouring and more important part.
Blifters are of confiderable ufe in veterinary practice,
A ccording to Mr White they are very efficacious in
difperfing callous fwellings, the effects of drains, bruifes,
&c. Their beneficial effefts are very great in removing
the inflammation of fuch parts as are remote from the
furface. In inflammations of the internal parts of the
foot, they generally give relief when applied to the
pattern, eipecially if the auxiliary remedies are not ne¬
glected, fuch as rafping the hoof, paring the foie, foak-
ing the horny part of the foot in warm water, or by the
application of a poultice to it, and adminittering a
purging medicine. For curbs, wind-galls, fpavins, &c.
no remedy is more efficacious than blittering. It is alfo
productive of falutary effects in inflammation of the in¬
ternal organs. For inftance, when the lungs are in¬
flamed, the determination of blood to the difeafed part
is leflened by extenfive bliftering of the fides, and con¬
fiderable relief is afforded in this way.
By the unfldlful treatment of broken knees, a callous
fwelling is often left in the part, for the removal of
which it is always neceffary to have recourfe to blilter-
ing. If blifters are freed from all cauftic ingredients,
and properly made, no injury to the hair will refult
from their application } and if one ftiould fail of pro¬
ducing the defired effeft, the praftice may be followed
without danger till that objeff is attained.
g. Blue Vitriol. Sulphate of Copper.
Employed externally to foul ulcers, either in folu-
t ion, or by touching their edges with a cryftal of it; to
produce healthy granulations. Alfo in fome inflamma¬
tions of the eye by way of lotion.
h. Burgundy Pitch.
As an ingredient in ftimulating ointments and platters.
i. Capsicum, or Cayenne Pepper. Cap. annuum.
Lin.
The dried pod in powder.
Dofe about a drachm, in a ball, with milder ftimu-
lants. In flatulence and indigeftion,
h. Caraway. Carum carui. Lin.
The feeds and their effential oil.
Dofe of the oil from half a drachm to a drachm, in
a ball, as prefcribed prefently. In weaknefs of the
ftomach, flatulence, and indigettion.
Part V.
Materia
Medica.
I E R Y.
/. Cassia. Lauras eajjia. Lin.
The bark and flowering buds in powder.
Dofe, from one to three drachms. Ufed as an ingre¬
dient in many cordial medicines. Chiefly for affeftions
of the ftomach.
483
Materia
Medica.
m. Cloves. Eugenium caryophyllata. Lin.
The flowering buds.
«. Oil of Cloves. '*
Dofe, 20 or 30 drops. In gripes and ficknefs of the
ftomach.
0. Cummin. Cuminum cyminum. Lin,
The feeds and their efiential oil.
In a dofe of from half a drachm to a drachm, in fimx-
lar cafes.
p. Oil of Cummin.
Dofe, from half a drachm ta a drachm. In flatulent
Colic.
q. Fennel. Anethum fceniculum. Lin.
The feeds in powder.
Dofe, an ounce or two.
r. Ginger. Amomum %ingiber. Lin.
The root in powder. One of the moft ufeful ftimu-
lants, and preferable to moft others in veterinary prac¬
tice.
Dofe, a drachm or two. In weaknefs of the ftomach,
indigeftion, and flatulent colic.
s. Grains of Paradise. Amomum grana paradift.
Lin.
The feeds. Chiefly employed as a ftimulant lor cat¬
tle, as a cordial.
Dofe, from three to fix drachms.
t. White Hellebore. Veratrum album. Lin.
The root in powder. Chiefly ufed externally in blif¬
ters, and for diieafes of the Ikin. Formerly employed
as a purge for horfes, but now defervedly exploded, as
by far too violent.
u. Horse Raddish. Cocldearia armoracia. Lin.
The fretti root in infufion or diftilled water. Iiviktu*
lence and indigeftion.
v. Mercury.
Calomel. Dole, from 15 grains to half a drachm. In
farcy, glanders, &c.
Wherever calomel or other mercurial preparations
are given, the animals Ihould be kept warm, fliould drink
their water a little warmed, and Ihould take regular
exercife in dry weather.
w. Corrosive Sublimate. Muriate of Mercury.
Employed internally in folution, in dofes of about
15 grains, gradually increafed.' In farcy and glanders.
Externally by way of lotion, to foul ulcers and eruptions
of the Ikin.
No preparation of mercury feems to produce fo great
a degree of weaknefs in the horfe as this. Its effefts
muft therefore be carefully watched ; and befides the
regulations laid down above 5 the horfe muft be kept
on a more nourilhing diet than ufual.
x. Red Precipitate. Nitrated Oxide of Mercury.
Externally to ulcers, either fprinkled on their furface,
3 P 2 or
I
484 FARR
Materia or mixed into an ointment j in which latter form it is
, Medica. very yfeful in chronic inflammation of the eyes.
y. Nitrate of Mercury. See Receipts, N° 49.
£. Mint. Mentha fativa, Lin.
The effential oil.
Dofe, about a drachm. In weaknefs of the ftomach,
&c.
(i a. Mustard. Sinapi nigrum. Lin.
The feed in powder.
Externally mixed with water into a pafle, or flnapifm,
in cafes of internal inflammation.
«
b b. Peppermint. Mentha piperita. Lin.
The effential oil.
Dofe, about half a drachm. In fimilar cafes with
mint.
c c. Pepper. Riper nigrum. Lin.
Dofe, from half an ounce to an ounce, in powder.
In flatulent colic.
dd. Spirits. Whifky, Gin, or Brandy.
Dofe, from a gill to half a pint. To cattle in the
flatulence proceeding from eating too much green
food.
I E R Y. PartV.
42. Take of oil of turpentine, Materia
Oil of olives, each two ounces. , Me^ic>a-
Mix for a liniment.
For drains and bruifes.
1 ,
43. Take of verdigrife finely powdered, an ounce j
Venice turpentine, half an ounce ;
Olive oil, an ounce.
Melt the turpentine and oil together, and when
nearly cold, add the verdigrife.
For foul ulcers.
44. Take of hog’s lard, four ounces j
Bees wax, an ounce j
Venice turpentine, three ounces $
Red precipitate finely ground, two ounces.
Melt the three firft together, and when nearly cold,
fprinkle in the powder.
This is Mr White’s receipt for the digeftive ointment,
commonly employed by farriers for drefling rowels and
ulcers.
45. Take of camphor, an ounce j
Oil of turpentine, two ounces ;
Reftified fpirit, four ounces.
Difiblve. For old drains.
e e. Salt. Muriate of Soda.
Given with good effedt to flieep in the rot.
ff Tar.
Commonly given by country farmers to cattle wThen
hoven from clover.
286
Receipts.
g g. Turpentine.
Oil of Turpentine.
Dofe, an ounce or two. In flatulent colic. Exter¬
nally by way of embrocation. In cafes of indurated
fwellings, drains, and bruifes j and for cattle after the
bite of the gad-fly.
Receipts for Stimulants.
Cordial Balls.
37. Take of caraway feeds powdered, fix drachms j
Powdered ginger, tw?o drachms;
Oil of cloves, 15 drops j
Treacle enough to make a ball.
38. Take of powdered anifefeeds, half an ounce 5
Turmeric, an ounce}
Powdered caflia, two drachms j
Treacle enough to form the ball.
39. Take of caraway feeds, and grains of paradife,
each in powder, three drachms 5
Ginger, a drachm
Oil of mint, 30 drops ;
Honey enough to form the ball.
Stimulating Ointments and Litiiments.
40. Take of yellow bafilicon, half a pound j
Red precipitate finely ground, two ounces j
Mix well together.
For foul ulcers.
41. Take of hog’s lard four ounces 5
Oil of turpentine, an ounce.
Melt together on a flow fire.
In fimilar cafes.
Stimulating Lotions.
46. Take of blue vitriol, an ounce ;
Water, four ounces j
Vitriolic acid, 10 drops.
Mix.
For fimilar cafes, and for the mange.
47. Take of blue vitriol, half a drachm $
Water, half a pint.
Diflblve for a lotion.
In inflammation of the eyes.
48. Take of tindlure of opium, two ounces j
Water, fix ounces.
Mix for an eye water.
In fimilar cafes.
49. Take of aquafortis, two ounces 5
Quickfilver one ounce.
Diflblve in a gentle heat, taking care to avoid ther
fumes.
This forms a nitrate of quichflver, and when diluted
with a proper quantity of water, is one of the belt ap¬
plications for the foot-rot in Iheep.
I 2. AnTISPASJIODICS. 287 „
0 Antifpaf*
. -iii modics.
Thefe are fuch remedies as are calculated to remove
fpafmodic affe&ions of the mufcles, or convulfive affec¬
tions, and are therefore frequently employed in cafes of
locked jaw, epilepfy, &c. Few remedies of this clafs
are ufed in veterinary praftice. Such as are more pe¬
culiarly of this nature are mentioned below. They
generally confift of ftimulants or of anodyne remedies.
a. Camphor.
Dofe, about two drachms, in a ball combined with
opium and ftimulants. In locked jaw.
b. Ether. Sulphuric Ether.
One of the moft powerful antifpafmodics.
Dofe,
Part V. FARR
Mat :ria Dofe, about an ounce, mixed with a pint of water.
, Medica. This fliould be given as expeditioufly as poflible, other-
v wife much of the ether will evaporate. In obftinate
cafes of flatulent colic.
a38
Receipts,
The latter quantity general-
289
Anodynes.
c. Opium.
Dofe a drachm or two.
ly in clyfters.
Tincture of Opium.
Dofe, from half an ounce to an ounce, repeated oc-
calionally, in molt fpafmodic complaints.
Oil of Turpentine.
Dofe, about two ounces. In flatulent colic.
Receipts.
50. Take of camphor, a drachm 5
Eflfence of peppermint, two drachms.
Grind together, and add
Of water, a pinK 5
Ether, half an ounce.
Mix.
To be given immediately.
In violent cramp of the ftomach.
51. Take of tin&ure of opium, an ounce
Oil of juniper, two drachms j
Dulcified fpirit of nitre, a drachm }
Water, a pint.
Mix.
52. Take of tin£fure of opium, two ounces $
Cold water-gruel, a quart.
For a clyfter.
To be repeated frequently.
In locked jaw.
14. Anodynes
Are thofe remedies which are given for the purpofe
of procuring fleep, or alleviating pain. They are com¬
monly called narcotics, and many of them are by moft
medical writers denominated fedatives.
a. Fox-Glove. Digitalis purpurea. Lin.
The leaves in powder.
Dofe, half a drachm, increafed gradually according
to its effect. In violent internal inflammations and
fwelling of the legs.
b. Hemlock. Conium maculatum. Lin.
Leaves in powder.
Dofe, about a drachm, gradually increafed.
ExtraB of Hem/och.
Dofe, about a drachm.
In obftinate coughs attended with irritability.
1 E R Y. • 485
Dofe a drachm or two, in a ball. Materia
The hop has been (hewn to be a powerful narcotic, , Mechca. ^
and has fucceeded in producing fleep in fome cafes where
opium has failed. It has not yet been introduced into
veterinary practice ; but we think it deferves a trial, as
being much cheaper than opium.
e. Opium.
Dofe, about a drachm by the' mouth, and two drachms
in a clyfter.
f Poppy. Papaverfomniferum. Lin.
The dried heads boiled in water, by way of fomenta¬
tion.
Receipts.
290
Receipts.
53. Take of opium, a drachm ;
Powdered anifefeeds, half an ounce y
Caftile foap, two drachms ;
Molafles, enough to make a ball.]
54. Take of camphor, a drachm and a halfj
Opium, a drachm j
Ginger, two drachms j
Honey, enough to form the ball.
55. Take of tinfhire of opium, two drachms y
Decodftion of poppyheads, a quart.
Mix for a clyfter. *
56. Take of extra# of hemlock, two drachms y
Peppermint water, half a pint $
Ether, half an ounce.
Diffolve the extra# in the water, and add the ether
at the moment of exhibition.
For a drench.
In putrid fever, or gangrene.
57. Take of bruifed poppyheads, four ounces 5
Hemlock leaves green, a large handful.
Boil gently in a gallon of water for abo&t an hour,
and ftrain the deco#ion.
In wounds and bruifes attended with confiderable ir¬
ritability.
15. Worm Medicines.
There are few cafes in which worm medicines are
given in veterinary pra#ice. In the horfe they are fel-
dom required, and do not often prove effe#ual. In the
dog, indeed, they have been employed more frequently,
and may be ufed with more probability of fuccefs. The
remedies of this clafs are generally of two kinds, either
fuch as are violent purgatives, and in this way expel
the worms by the violence of their operation 3 or, they
are fuch as a# mechanically on thefe animals, irritating
and tearing their tender bodies, and thus forcing them
to relinquilh fheir fituation.
apr
Worm me¬
dicines.
c. Henbane. Hyofcyamus niger. Lin.
The leaves in powder, or the feeds.
Dofe, about a drachm.
ExtraB of Henbane.
Dofe, about a drachm.
A folution of this extra# has been found ufeful, ap¬
plied to the eye, in chronic inflammation.
d. Hop. Hamulus lupulus. Lin.
The dried cones in powder.
a. Castor Oil.
Dofe, about half a pound.
b. Gamboge.
Dofe, two or three drachms in a ball.
c. Mercury. Calomel.
Dofe for a horfe, two or three drachms 3 for a dog,
about half a drachm, in a ball with purgatives.
d. Salt.
Dofe,
486 FARR
Materia Dole, from four to fix ounces, in a drench, or double
, Medica. ^ t}ie qUantity by way of clyfter.
Said to have proved frequently fuccefsful in expelling
■worms, when followed by a brilk purgative.
292
Receipts.
Chemical
remedies.
e. Sal Indus.
A fait lately procured from the Eaft Indies, faid to
be fuccefsful in expelling bots from horfes 5 but Mr
White thinks that other worms have been miftaken for
bots, in the cafes where it has been fuccefsful.
Dofe, about four or five ounces in a drench.
f. Tin. Powder of Tin.
Dofe, about an ounce, mixed with honey.
This promifes to be one of the moll effedlual medi¬
cines in cafes of tape-worm, that are fo common to
dogs.
Receipts.
58. Take of calomel, jalap, each half a drachm \
Honey enough to make a ball.
Tor dogs.
59. Take of tin powder,
Quickfilver, of each two drachms.
Grind together till they be thoroughly mixed \ then
add enough of fugar to form a powder, to be made
up into a ball with caftile foap, foftened with water.
60. Take of fal Indus, four ounces;
Alum, half an ounce j
Water, a pint.
DiiTolve for a drench. For the hotts in horfes.
16. Chemical Remedies.
Many remedies are given internally, or applied ex¬
ternally, which feem to a£t merely chemically, either
by combining with an acid or alkali, and thus neutra¬
lizing it, by checking putrefadlion, or corredting the
ill fmell that is produced by it 5 or, in external applica¬
tions, by deftroying or corroding the parts to which
they are applied. This clafs will therefore compre¬
hend,
1. All thofe medicines that have been called antacids
or abforbents, which are given to corredl acidity in the
ftomach and bowels.
2. Antalkalines, or thofe acid fubftances that are
given more rarely to corredl alkalefcence.
3. Antifeptics, or thofe that are fuppofed capable of
obviating putrefaction.
4. Caufics or efcharotics, which are intended to cor¬
rode the lkin, or to take down fungous or proud fielh in
ulcers.
a. Alum.
Burnt Alum.
Sometimes applied to ulcers, to wear down proud
flelh.
b. Ammonia.
Spirit of Sal Ammoniac. IVater of Ammonia.
Dofe, a drachm or two, in a drench, for acidity in
the ftomach and bowels.
c. Antimony.
Butter of Antimony. Muriate of Antimony.
Sometimes applied to foul ulcers. A^violent cauftic.
d. Charcoal.
I E R Y. PartV.
Given internally in powder, to corredt the bad fmell Materia
in violent purging ; and when powdered fine, may be , Me^ica’ i
fprinkled on large {linking fores, with the fame inten¬
tion.
e. Lime.
Lime-water. Dofe about a quart, in acidity of
the ftomach.
f. Chalk. •
Carbonate of Lime.
Dofe, an ounce or two.
In violent purging attended with acidity.
g. Silver.
Lunar Cauftic. Nitrate of Silver.
Employed to eat down proud flefh, or deftroy horny
excrefcences.
h. Spirit of Salt. Dofe about two drachms,
mixed with a quart of water by way of drench.
. i. VinecJar.
Given internally as an antifeptic, diluted with an
equal quantity of water, or ufed externally to wafh foul
ulcers.
h. Vitriolic Acid.
Dofe, a drachm or two, as under fpirit of fait.
/. Yeast or Barm.
Employed to make fermenting poultices in cafes of
ftinking ulcers.
6 294
Receipts. Rece^tf*
61. Take of prepared chalk, an ounce j
PoAvdered ginger, two drachms ;
Honey enough to make a ball.
In purging attended with griping. -
62. Take of purified foda in powder,
Powdered gentian root, each two drachms j
Powdered caffia, a drachm j
Treacle enough to form a ball.
In indigeftion, with acidity of the ftomach and
bowels. \
63. Take of charcoal in powder,
Powdered oak bark, each an ounce j
Treacle enough to make a ball.
In violent purging, producing very fetid ftools.
64. Take of oat meal,
Powdered charcoal, of each four ounces •,
Thin yeaft, a fufficient quantity to make a poul¬
tice.
To be applied to foul uleers.
65. Take of aquafortis, an ounce ;
Filings of copper, half an ounce.
Diflblve in a gentle heat, taking care to avoid the
fumes.
For a cauftic, in canker of the foot. It may be
made into an ointment for the fame purpofe, by mixing
with hog’s lard.
66. Take of frefh burnt quicklime powdered,
Soft foap, of each equal parts.
Mix at the time of ufing.
A mild cauftic, ufeful in deftroying parts of the fkin
where neceffary.
*67. Take
2
Part V.
FARR
Materia
Medica.
295
Mifcellane-
ous reme¬
dies.
67. Take of corrofive fubilmate, half a drachm j
Ardent fpirits, two ounces.
Diffolve for a lotion.
Ufeful as an application to the callous edges of ulcers.
17. Miscellaneous Remedies.
a. Eggs. The Yolk.
Sometimes employed among the common farriers as
a remedy for broken wind, but appear to be ufeful only
for the purpofe of combining oily fubftances with water.
f>. Elecampane. JLmtla he/enium. Lin.
The root in powder. In the form of .ointment for
the itch or mange.
c. Glass.
PowTdered glafs is fometimes blown into the eyes of
horfes, to remove fpecks on the cornea.
</. Lead.
White Lead. White Oxide of Lead.
Sometimes ufed by way of ointment in fome difeafes
of the fkin.
296
Receipts.
e. Diachylon Plaister. Litharge Plaijler.
Employed in making charges or {Lengthening plan¬
ters.
f. Bays. Lauras nobilis. Lin.
Oil of Bay.
Sometimes ufed in ointments for the mange.
g. Stavesacre. Delphiniumftaphifagria, Lin.
The feeds in powder. Employed to deilroy vermin,
being fprinkled on the {kin.
h. Zinc.
White flowers of Zinc. White oxide of Zinc.
In ointment, to fores and ulcers.
Calamine. Impure Carbonate of Zinc.
Employed to make the common brown cerate*
Receipts.
68. Take of fulphur vivum finely powdered.
Pow'dered elecampane root, each two ounces j
Hogs lard, enough to form an ointment.
For the mange.
69. Take of fulphur vivum powdered, four ounces ;
Salt butter, fix ounces j
Train oil,
Oil of turpentine, each one ounce.
Mix well together into an ointment.
Thefe two ointments are ufeful applications in the
mange.
70. Take of hogs lard, four ounces }
Tar, two ounces.
Melt together into an ointment.
Employed to anoint the backs of {keep or cattle,
when bitten by the gad-fly.
71. Take of burgundy pitch, four ounces 5
B mbadoes tar,'fix ounces 5
Bees wrax, two ounces j
Red lead, four ounces.
Melt the pitch, tar, and wax together, and when the
mixture is nearly cold, {fir in the red lead, and
continue ftirring till it is firm.
This is Mr White’s receipt for making charges, or
if rengthening plafters.
In cafes of wind-galls and old ftrains.
I E R Y. 487
Before concluding this part, it will be proper to make Materia
a few obfervations, on the ctiftom that prevails fo much Medica.
among grooms and farriers, of adminiftering medicine 7 *
to horfes, by way of prefervatives of health, or prevent-impropriety
ives of difeafe. It is very common among thefe gentle-of giving
men to bleed or phyfic a horfe at leaft twice a-year,viz.medicines
in the {firing and fall, though he ■ be in never fuchn"
good health, or good condition*, to give him fulphur11
and antimony now7 and then to beep his coat fine; and
to adminifter a cordial ball, or a dofe of diapente oc-
cafionally to improve his appetite. If he is to undergo
any unuiual exertion, as riding or hunting, it isjudged
necefiary by thefe fagacious practitioners to prepare him
for the work, by bleeding, purging, and fweating be¬
low7 a load of body clothes in a dole, hot liable. In
purfuing this cullom, they indeed only imitate what they
praclHe' on themfelves on fimilar occafions. As they
deem it neceiTary to have themfelves bled every fpring
and fall, or once a quarter, to take phyfic once a month,
and to fvveat thendelves to make them ride or run more
lightly in a jockey match, they naturally conclude
that their horles flrould be treated in the fame manner,
and Ihould undergo the fame preparation.
If an animal is in a perfect {fate of health, nothing
more is required to render him capable of performing
the functions for which he is intended. It is only when
there appears fome derangement of the fyltem, or when
the Hate of the body is fuch as to threaten the attack of
fome dangerous difeafe, that it is neceflary to call in
the afiiftance of medicine. We {hall foon have occa-
fion to mention cafes of this kind, and to {hew how the
threatened danger is to be avoided. It mull; be re¬
membered that thofe fubltances that are called medi¬
cine, are fuch as produce fome effeCl on the body, that
is in general either unnatural, or is greater than what
commonly takes place in a llate of perfeCt health. If
then vve give medicines to an animal 'in this healthy
llate, we either excite the organs to fome unufual exer¬
tion, or we check thofe exertions «that are natural and
healthy ; and in either cafe, we muft do harm. Befidcs
the cuftom of giving medicines when they are unnecef-
fary, renders them lefs efficacious when they are abfolute-
ly required, to ward off or obviate aify difeafe. It is
found that moft remedies, wdien employed habitually,
require to be increafed in quantity in order to produce
the fame effedt, and if continued too long they
fometimes ceafe to produce their effedt at all. With
refpedt to fome remedies, it is found that their habitual
ufe is attended with dangerous confequences. Frequent
bleeding tends to produce fatnefs, and a plethoric ftate
of the body ; the frequent ufe of cordials and aftrin-
gents ftimulates the circulation too much, and produces
fuch a rigidity of the fibres, as lays the foundation of
apoplexy, palfy, and other dangerous diforders. It is
well known, too, that when the adlion of the ftomach is
too much excited by the habitual ufe of ftimulants, it
- in time loies its tone, and becomes incapable of
healthy digeftion, unlefs roufed by a greater quan¬
tity of its accuftomed ftimulus. It is therefore ob¬
vious that when an animal is in perfedt health, all
that is required to keep him fo, is the proper regula¬
tion of diet, exercife, cleanlinefs, and other circum{fian¬
ces that have been mentioned in the fourth pint of this
article.
2 o3
We cannot belter illuflrate the abfurdity of the ulual Cafe, *
- methods
488
FARR
Difeafes. methods of preparing horfes for a race, than by the fol-
 *   lowing cafe, which' fell under the obfervation of Mr
Clark of Edinburgh. “ Two military gentlemen bet¬
ted their horfes to run againft each other on the fands
of Leith for a confiderable fum, and this was to take
place three weeks after the bet. The horfes were to
be ridden by their own grooms. Captain R s was a
poney about 134- hands, Captain M’s was a gelding
about 15 hands high. Both grooms were bred at
Newmarket, and were keen advocates for bleeding and
purging, though both the horfes had been kept on dry
food, and in the beft order, and the interval of time
for fuch treatment wras very Ihort. This bleeding and
purging was in order to prepare them the better for
running. Captain M’s horfe was bled once, and pur¬
ged twice. Captain R’s w^as bled once, and pur¬
ged once. Both were fwreated in the liable with a great
load of clothes 5 and their ftables, though feparate, were
kept uncommonly hot, and clofely Ihut up day and
night, though it was in the midft of fummer.. From
this treatment the horfes foon loft their appetite, and
in the courfe of eight or ten days their ftrength was fo
I E R Y. Part VI.
much cxhaufted that they were fcarcely able to go DHeafes.
through their ufual exercile on the fands. In this litu- *—*”»
ation Captain R. confidered his bet as loft, and expell¬
ed nothing lefs than the lofs of his poney, on which he
fet a high value. Luckily, howrever, the groom, who
was rather corpulent, had put himfelf under a courfe of
phyfic, to bring himfelf down to the proper.weight,
and was unable to proceed in his plan of purging and
fweating the horfe. The poney was therefore provid¬
ed with another groom, and wras put under the care of
Mr Clark, who, feeing the abfurdity of the plan which
had hitherto been obferved, ordered his clothing to be
reduced to a Angle rug, and the liable windows to be
throwm open, to admit the frelh air. The poney foon
recovered his appetite ; and his adlivity, ftrength and
fpirits were in a great meafure reftored. Captain M’s
horfe in the meantime w'as continued under the debi¬
litating regimen. When the race came to be decided,
though at ftarting the odds w'ere confiderably in favoiu-
of Captain M’s horfe, yet his opponent wTon the race
with conliderable eafe.
PART VI. OF THE DISEASES INCIDENT TO DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
299
IN treating of the difeafes of domeftlc animals j we
fhall clafs them in twro great divifions : in the firft of
W'hich we lhall conlider moll of thofe morbid affedlions
which are ufually called /oca/ and jymptomatic, or in
general thofe limple affedlions of the feveral fundlions,
that are moll eafily underftood, and require the leaf!
complicated mode of treatment. In the fecond of thefe
divilions wx lhall treat of the more complicated difeafes,
or thofe in w'hich the wdiole fyftem is more or lefs af-
fedled, and of w'hich the treatment is more difficult,
300 and in general more precarious.
ClaiMca- When an animal is difeafed, he is affe6led with fome
tion of , or other of the following fymptoms.
fymptoms.
I. Of Senfation.
He labours under too acute fenlibility j or,
He is affe&ed with pain or itching.
His fenfibility is unufually diminiffied.
His fenfe of fmelling is more or lefs impaired.
He hears wuth difficulty, or not at all.
His vilion is more or lefs impaired.
He is unufually watchful.
His deep is difturbed ; or,
He is unufually heavy and drowfy,
2. Of Motion.
He is either affected with irregular, involuntary mo¬
tions or fpafms j or,
His moving powers are impaired.
301
Of fenfa-
tion.
302 _
Of motion.
303
Digeftion.
3. Of Digefion.
His digeftive organs perform their functions too quickly.
His digeftion is impaired 5 or,
He does not digeft at all.
He is affected with ficknefs,
with flatulence, or wind in the ftomach
and bowels.
4. Of Abforption*
He is unufually ; or,
unufually lean.
He is affefted with fome watery dwelling.
5. Of Circulation.
His circulation is too rapid $ or,
It is too flow'} or.
It is irregular.
He has fome effuflon of blood.
6. Of Rejpiration.
His breathing is hurried j or,
It is difficult.
He is affe&ed with cough j
with fneezing,
hickup.
His breath is hot 5 or,
It is cold.
His fldn is unufually hot; or,
It is unufually cold.
7. Of Secretion and Excretion.
304
Of ablorp.
tion.
3°S
Of circula¬
tion.
306
Of icfpira-
tion.
?c7
Of fecretisn
His fecretions and execretions are either unufually co-tjQn
pious.
He ftales profufely.
He has a purging •, or,
His Ikin is unufually moift.
The fecretions and excretions are morbidly diminifli-
ed.
He ftales with difficulty, or not at all.
He is coftive.
His lkin is unufually dry.
8.0/
Part VI.
FARR
Difeafes.
8. Of Generation.
Of genera- venereal appetite is exceflive j or,
tion. It is morbidly impaired.
He is impotent.
When a pra&itioner comes to examine one of thefe
animals whofe health is deranged, he will naturally in¬
quire into all or moft of the above particulars, and they
will in general apply to all the four animals of which
we are treating. I here are fome other queftions
which peculiarly relate to horfes, and which it more
efpecially becomes a farrier to alk ; as, Whether his
flanks work. Whether his ears are cold j or are in
conftant motion.
2^ 3°.*. In what manner he walks,
prope/to Whether he looks earneftly at his fides.
be made Whether his eyes appear drowly.
by a farrier. In what manner he carries his head.
Whether he kicks his belly.
Whether he appears delirous to lie down, but afraid to
dofo.
Whether he fometimes lies down on one fide, and then
immediately turns to the other.
Whether he lies down and flies up again repeatedly.
Whether he leans upon the manger.
Whether he Hands off- from the manger.
Whether he paws his litter.
Whether his nofe runs.
Whether or not he paffes much wind.
It will alfo frequently be of confequence to afcertain
the following particulars.
Whether the horfe is ufually in a poor condition.
How did the diforder begin ?
How long it has continued.
How long it is fince he ate or drank.
Has he ever had the diforder before ?
If he has, What was ufually given him on thele occa-
fions ?
Does the diforder come on at any particular times ?
Has he been obferved to pafs any worms ?
How long he has been bought, and what price was paid
for him.
W as he bought of a horfe-dealer, or of a private per-
fon ?
I E R Y.
to give hopes of a fpeedy or perfe& cure, it will next Difeafes.
be proper for the praftitioner to confider what is the ' v '
fpeedieft, fafeft, and cheapeft method of treatment. In
particular, he ought to confider whether any immediate
remedy be neceffary, in order to check the violence
of the diftemper j more efpecially whether any imme¬
diate evacuation is required, as bleeding, purging,
blifters, rowels, &c.
. He mull alfo be particular in examining whether the
difeafe be of a contagious or infectious nature, that the
affeCted animals may be kept in a feparate place from
thofe which have not been attacked.
As the general nature and theory of difeafe will be 311
confidered at lajrge under the medical department of
this work, we have only in this article to detail the
fymptoms as they occur in the domeftic animals; to
point out the caufes and feat of the difeafe, as far as
they have been alcertained by obfervation and difiec-
tion; and to lay down the moft approved methods of
treatment adapted to thefe animals. Obfervations with
refpeCt to the theory of difeafes would here be out of
place, and we lhall feldom hazard them, except in fome
of thofe fpecific complaints which appear to attack fole-
ly the animals of which wre are treating.
It may not be improper to remark, that difeafes, like Claffifica-
the objeCls of natural hiftory, have been arranged in fl°n ^
two methods. One of thefe is the natural method, in difeafe?-
which they are clafied according to their feat or caufes.
The caufes of difeafes are the foundation of Dr Dar¬
win’s fyftem. In the firft feClion of this part we fttall
attempt to clafs tne morbid fymptoms according to
their feat, or the functions which they attack. The
other method of arrangement, or the artificial method, is
that in which difeafes are arranged according to fome
obvious and remarkable fymptoms. This is belt calcu¬
lated for the purpofe of recognizing the difeafe when
feen, and is the method employed by moft nofologifts.
The difeafes in the fecond feCtion of this part will be
arranged in this way.
SECT. I.
Chap. I. Of Morbid Affeftions of Senfation.
Of a friend, or at the public market ?
310 Having afeertained the neceflary particulars, it is
proper to confider whether the difeafe is of fuch a na¬
ture as has in general been eafily removed ; or whether
the expence and time of cure will be fufficiently com-
penfated by the value of the horfe ; for it muft be re¬
marked, that in general a horfe or other domeftic ani¬
mal is worth no more than the price he would fetch at
the public market. Unlefs, therefore, the animal is a
favourite, or has fome particular good quality which
greatly enhances his value, it may happen that the ex¬
pence and trouble of cure may amount to more than the
animal is worth. In fuch a cafe it wrould be both pru¬
dence and mercy to kill him, unlefs we wifh to attempt
his cure for the fake of experience. Thefe obfervations
of courfe equally apply to cafes that are generally deem¬
ed incurable.
Having found that the difeafe is of fuch a nature as
VOL. 'VIII. Part II.
Most animals are occafionally fubjecl to a morbid in- Morbid fen-
creafe of fenfibility, either of the whole nervous fyf- Ability,
tem, or of fome particular organ. This morbid fenfi-
bihty is generally called by medical writers, irritabi¬
lity ; but this name is improper, as it implies an affec¬
tion of the mufcular. parts; whereas the fymptom w^e
are now confidering is an affection of the nervous fyf.
tem. J
Some horfes naturally poflefs a morbid degree of
fenfibility, which appears by their ftarting on the hidden
approach of any object, by the peculiar tendernefs of
their flan that makes -them wince and tremble under
the currycomb, and by the extreme fenfibility that
they evince at the leaft touch of the whip or fpur. Such
horfes are in general very adlive and fpirited; but they
require a cautious and prudent rider, who muft rather
endeavour to foothe and encourage them, than ufe any
barlh or violent means.
This iucreafcd fenfibility is not eafily removed by art,
3 Q. tut
49°
FARR
Difeafes. but generally decreafes .as the horfe grows older. It
"■’’'"v—““ is belt counteracted by living in a large well-aired
liable, by being kept on hard coarfe food, and by lying
with as little litter below him, as is fufficient to prevent
him from injuring himfelf againlt the pavement of the
liable. In drefiing him the currycomb Ihould not be
too Iharp, and fhould not be employed too freely.
When exceflive fenfibility arifes from a delicacy and
weaknefs of habit, ftrengthening medicines will be of
ufe, and cordials may occalionally be employed.
There is a fymptom nearly allied to this, which fome-
times appears. The animal affected gathers himfelf to¬
gether, and brings his four legs as clofe as poffible be¬
low him, and creeps as it were all on a heap. This
fymptom often attends nervous difeafes, and ievere af¬
fections of the bowels. It is generally conlidered as a
lign of great danger, and is not unfrequently the fore¬
runner of mortification.
At the commencement of feveral acute difeafes, efpe-
cially thofe of the brain, animals betray an unufual
fenfibility to the effedts of light and found. When
this happens, the place where they are kept ihould be
darkened, and they Ihould be as little as poflible dilturb-
314 ed wfith noife.
ReftlelTm f , There is a peculiar rejllejfnefs andanxietij with which
or anxiety. animals are fometimes affeCled. This is not unfrequent¬
ly their only complaint, or at lead; we cannot perceive
that they are affeCled with any obvious or well-marked
difeafe, but it is moil commonly a fymptom attending
violent diforders, efpecially of the inflammatory kind 5
and generally preceding the fatal termination of danger¬
ous chronic difeafes. Animals thus affected are con¬
tinually moving about, and often lie down j if they are
at liberty, they feek out the moll fequellered and
gloomy parts of the pailure, and frequently change
their place: if they are tied up, they appear to lillen
to, or obferve, every thing that paffes round them;
they are reftlefsly attentive to the various objeCls near
them ; but although their eyes appear fixed, and wide
open, they do not lledfallly regard any objeft ; they
are perpetually turning from fide to fide, amd if they
feel pain in any part, they often turn their heads
mournfully towards it, fometimes groaning or pant¬
ing. If this Hate has continued long, the animals be¬
come Hill more relllefs, are perpetually Ihifting about,
fcraping with their feet and pawing the litter 5 their
ears become cold, and their hairs brillle up.
Thefe latter fymptoms are confidered as denoting
great danger, efpecially wThen the animal looks lledfaltly
at his fides, or Hares with his eyes without appearing
to take particular notice of any objcft.
When anxiety appears to be the only fymptom, with¬
out any figns of inflammation or convulfive affect ion,
it is generally a mark of nervous weaknefs, and requires
cordial and ftrengthening remedies, nourifliing diet, and
gentle exercife without labour: but if it is a fymptom
of feme violent difeafe, it can only be removed by the
general treatment of that difeafe ; and in this view,
2I£. -$ull come to be ponfidered hereafter.
Deprellion ' Animals are fometimes affedled with dejedlion or
of i'pirit. l0fs of fpirit. This is not unfrequently the attendant
ie brought on by exceffive labour or unufual
•, and is therefore moft commonly feen in horfes.
Ij appears by the animal’s leaning his head on the
manger, Handing Hill in the fame place,- and appearing
3I(5
Fatigue.
of fatigi
exertion
I E R Y. Part VI,
to move with pain or difficulty. His limbs are ftiff, ^ Difeafes.
his flrin hard and dry, his eyes look lad, he has no appe- —y—'
tite for meat ; if he lies down, he remains immoveable,
or if obliged to rife, immediately falls again wdien left
to himfelf.
In general, if the fatigue produced be not extreme¬
ly great, it gradually goes off with reft and quiet, efpe-
cially if it has been found practicable to employ the
means that are prefently to be recommended j but if
the exertion to which the animal was expofed, has been
too great for its ftrength, the confequent depreflion may
prove highly dangerous, or even fatal. In this Hate
his urine is crude and watery, and, if a male horfe, he
feems fcarcely to have the power of drawing for the
purpofe of making water j and his excrements are dry
and fcanty. If taken out in this condition he moves '
wfith pain and difficulty, trots flow, or lifts his feet very
little above the ground, carries his head very low and
his ears depreffed over his forehead ; he often Humbles,
and not unfrequently falls on his knees, and appears
very little fenfible of the whip or fpur. If a horfe in
this Hate has any fores or ulcers about him, they become
hard, or flabby, affume a dull appearance, and the
matter proceeding from them becomes thick and vifeid.
Row^els very frequently dry up ; and if he is aft'eCled
wfith any eruption of the Ikin, this commonly difap-
pears.
To prevent the bad confequences that are likely to
follow the ftate whiph w^e have now deferibed, it is pro¬
per, as foon as wTe find a horfe much fatigued, to fpread
a bed of litter for him to reft on ; and as foon as pof¬
fible give him a cordial ball, or drench.- The ftrength
of this mull not, however, be in proportion to the de¬
gree of fatigue or depreflion ; as experience has ftiowm,
that wfiien a powerful cordial is given in a ftate of ex¬
ceflive weaknefs, it proves too much for the animal, and
frequently excites fevers or inflammation. The horfe’s
limbs Ihould be bathed with warm w-ater, and then rub¬
bed thoroughly dry. After this he ftiould be left to h;s
repofe, and if it be not too late at night, he may in a
few hours have a warm bran mafli. When a little re¬
covered, he muft be gently rubbed all over, but efpeci¬
ally his limbs, without currying •, he ftiould be put upon
a nourilhing diet, and exercifed but little. Thefe
means, varied according to circmnftances, will in gene¬
ral bring the horfe rounds unlefs the fymptoms are ex¬
tremely violent •, wTen they wfill commonly terminate
in fever, or in fome chronic difeafe, efpecially dropfy.
The train of fymptoms wfiiich wrc have been deferib-
ing, are moft commonly the effeft of fatigue 5 but they
may arife from other caufes. They are more or lefs
the attendants of decay, and they are generally the
forerunners of fever or inflammation of the brain.
Sometimes thefe animals are affeaed wfith a great de-Infe3nf'biI}_
gree of infenfibility or torpor 5 they are heavy and lift-ty, drowfi-
lefs ; lie much; are not eafily difturbed ; are inattentivenefs.
to the objeas around them; feem to be infenfible to
pain, and move heavily and unwillingly. Thefe fymp¬
toms require particular attention, as in moft cafes they
denote fome. dangerous affbaion of the brain, and are
very commonly followed by apoplexy or flaggers ; or
by epilepfy; or they are the attendants (efpecially in
flieep) of water in the head. Wherever they are ob-
ferved to take place in an animal that has been full fed,
with little exercife, efpecially if he appear fat and full
I
Part VL
FARR
Difeafe?
3* 3
G’ddinefs,
or turn-
fick.
.319
Blindnefs.
3 zb
Marks of a
found eye.
321
Partial
blindnefs.
of blood, and the pulfe be found full and ftrong, the
J eyes red or heavy, there is danger of apoplexy j and the
animal ihould immediately be .bled and purged, be
gradually put on a lower diet, and ufe gradually more
exercife. Thefe changes muft be made by degrees, be-
daufe too hidden changes may produce the very eftedls
againlt which we are guarding,
A great degree of torpor and infenlibility is often
produced by exceffive cold, or by being kept long in an
impure atmofphere. Where they have taken place from
either of thefe caufes to a dangerous degree, the appli¬
cation of heat muft not be too hidden, as it will tend to
extinguilh the fmall remaining fpark of life, and pro¬
duce apoplexy, or mortification, where any external
part has fuffered from cold.
The head may be aft'ecfed with dizzinefs, or giddinefs,
commonly called turn-Jick, from various caufes. It may
arife from great weaknefs, or it may be the confequence
ol plethora, or fullnefs of blood. In the latter cafe, it
is a pretty fure mark of approaching apoplexy or flag¬
gers ; and the animal muft immediately be bled, and
put on a lower diet, with gentle exercife. In Iheep,
dizzinefs is a common fymptom of fturdy, or water in
the head, a complaint which will be confidered hereaf¬
ter. It will be eyident that when this affedlion appears
in animals that are lean, meagre, and in low condition,
it ftiows the neceftity of a more full and nouriftiing
diet.
The only morbid afledlion of the external fenfes,
that we lhall here confider is blindnefs, a defect which
is of moft confequence in the horfe, though it may oc¬
cur in all the domeftic animals.
The eyes of a horfe, when perfectly found, have the
cornea or outer covering, and the humours that are feen
through it, perfeftly clear and tranfparer\t j there Ihould
be no fpecks, or dragons as they are called, in either ;
no greennefs or glaffy appearance of the pupil, and this
fhould readily contract when fuddenly expbfed to a
clear light. Buffon obferves, that in a found eye, two
or three foot-coloured fpots appear through the cornea
above the pupil.
When a horfe has a defedt in his vifion, without be¬
ing perfedtly blind, he appears dull, fearful, and reftive,
ftarts at fuddenly approaching any object, carries his
head high, or to one fide $ moves his ears alternately,
or turns one forwards, while the other is turned back-
wardsj and ufually hangs back on his bridle or halter,
and lifts his legs up very high.
Partial blindnefs is a fymptom of feveral difeafes in
the horfe : it ufually attends great weaknefs, efpecially
when this has been brought on by hard work and low
feeding *, it is a common attendant on locked jaw, and
generally precedes the flaggers. It of courfe is one of
the effeifts of old age.
When proceeding from debility, it generally goes off
in proportion as the ftrength is rertored by reft and pro¬
per nourifhment j when it is a fymptom of other difeafes,
it goes off when they are removed. The blindnefs of
old age is incurable, and in the horfe we believe no
method has yet been difcovered of relieving the defect
by art.
It is generally allowed, that it 4s better to have a
horfe totally, than partially blind ; as when quite blind,
he is not liable to ftart, or be Ihy j and when fure foot-
I E R Y.
49i
ed, v?ell fhod, and managed by a careful rider, there is Bfteafes.
little danger of his ftumbling or falling. ^
Total blindnefs either proceeds from a defedt in the lYtalblind
optic nerve, by which this is rendered incapable of re- nefs.
ceiving the impreflion of light, or from an opacity or
muddinefs in the cornea or humours, by which the
tranfmiflion of light through them is obftructed. ^
The firft fpecies of blindnefs, or that depending on a Glafs eye*,
defedt in the optic nerve, is generally called by farriers
glafs eyes, and by medical workers, it is termed amauro-
fis, or gutia ferena.
It is knowm by the peculiar glaffy appearance of the
eye, which feems perfectly clear, fo that an ordinary ob-
ferver would not fuppofe that there was any defedt in
the horfe’s eye. On examining the eye however more
attentively, it will be found that the pupil is confider-
ably dilated, and preferves the fame fize in every change
of light; not contradling, as ufual, when the light to
W'hich it is expofed becomes ftronger. There is alfo a
greenifh appearance of the eye in this difeafe.
The caufes of glafs eyes are rtot well afcertalned.
It has followed a blow on the head, or inflammatory
affedtions of the brain or its membranes, but it has
come on fometimes imperceptibly, and where thefe
difeafes, or any other evident caufe has not appeared.
This difeafe in the horfe has hitherto proved incurable.
The moft common caufe of blindnefs in the horfe, is 324
an opacity of the lens, or cryftalline humour of the Cataradl.
eye. This difeafe is known by the name of cataradl,
and is fometimes called by farriers, moon blindnefs, or a
horfe that has a cataradl is faid to be moon-eyed.
It is in general eafily difcovered that a horfe labours
under a cataradt, as, wdien the difeafe is confirmed, an
obfcurity or muddinefs may be feen in the centre of the
pupil, occupying more or lefs of the opening, according
as the cataradl is more or lefs extended. The opaque
fpot is generally of a dull white or yellowafti colour.
Sometimes the cryftalline humour is fo fixed to the iris,
or that moveable coloured part in the middle of the
eye, as to obftrudf its motion, and then the pupil re¬
tains the fame fize in every light; or if the advifion is
partial, the pupil of the eye affumes an irregular fhape.
It muft be obferved, that in this difeafe, the iris is not
always fo immoveable as in glafs eyes; though when
the cataradl is fully formed, the pupil is generally en¬
larged, and contradls very little on the approach of a
ftrong light. Sometimes the lens comes through the
pupil altogether, and floats in the watery humour, in
the fore part of the eye.
The cataradt in horfes is faid to be always a confe¬
quence of inflammation in the eye, which will be con¬
fidered in the fecond fedtion of this part.
The only method that appears likely to remove the
cataradt, is an operation by which the opaque lens may be
thruft down below the pupil, or entirely extradted from
the eye $ but neither couching nor extradtion can be
recommended in the horfe, as the removal of the lens
would ftill be attended with a defedt of vifion that
would render the animal of lefs ufe, than if he were to¬
tally blind. fS .
Another caufe of blindnefs, and alfo a confequence °a
of inflammation, is opacity of the cornea. There may
be either a diffufe whitenefs or muddinefs in the cornea,
that is more or lefs extenfive j or, there may be fpecks
3 Q, 2
492
Difeafes.
326
Warts.
327
Mallenders
and Callen¬
ders.
328
Hide¬
bound.
FARR
or warts growing on tKe outHdc of this coat, fo as to ob-
ftru£t the paffage of the rays of light. Sometimes the
opacity of the cornea is only flight, producing partial
blindnefs ; but frequently it is univerfal, and then the
horfe cannot fee at all. 1 his univerfal opacity of the
cornea is fometimes, though improperly, called cataraEl.
It fometimes difappears for a time, and the eye feems
nearly as clear as ever} but it generally returns in no
long time.
General opacity diffufed through the fubftance of the
cornea, does not readily yield to remedies. Attempts
have been made, by fcarifying the veffels on the white
of the eye, or by ilimulating applications to the cornea,
to roufe into a£Uon the abforbent veffels of the eye, and
thus remove the opacity \ but thefe attempts feem to
have been attended with little fuccefs. Specks or warts
on the cornea, if they are not too large, may generally
be removed by the knife, or by repeatedly blowing into
the eye a powder compofed of powdered glafs and white
vitriol. But, if thefe fpecks are attended with any ge¬
neral opacity of the cornea, little benefit is to be expec¬
ted from thefe operations.
As the Ikin is fo intimately connected with fenfation,
we lhall here confider fome of the more fimple affections
of that organ, that are not generally attended with fe¬
ver. It is not uncommon for excrefcences or warts to
grow on the fldns of domeftic animals, particularly on
horfes and oxen. Sometimes they are hard and firm \
at others they are foft and fprouting: in fome their root
is fmaller than their head •, in others the bafe is the lar-
geft part. The fprouting kind of warts are called by
the farriers anger-berries, ambunj or ambcry, and are
not uncommon among oxen. As thefe are largeft at
the bafe, they can, like all of that defcription, be re¬
moved only by touching them daily with fome cauftic,
as lunar cauftic, or butter of antimony. Where the
wart has a fmall root, it may be beft removed by tying
a ftrong waxed thread round the root, tightening it now
and then as it gets loofe till the wart drops off. It is
in general not proper to remove warts by the knife, un-
lefs they are of fuch a firm confidence as not to bleed
on being cut, and to admit of the application of cauftic
after cutting.
There fometimes appears on the ikin of the horfe, a
fcurfy eruption at the bending of the knee, or the bend¬
ing of the hock. The eruption generally appears in
both places at once, and is called by farriers, the Mal¬
lenders and Sallenders; a term which they have borrow¬
ed from the French. When confidered feparately, the
eruption of the knee is called the mallenders, and. that of
the hock the fallenders.
Thefe eruptions may generally be traced to want of
cleanlinefs, and are, in moft cafes, eafily removed, by
Walking the parts with foap and water, and applying an
ointment, compofed of mercurial ointment and camphor}
or either of the ointments marked N° 41. and N° 70. in
the receipts.
When a horfe’s Ikin is hard, dry, and unufually tight
about the body, the animal is faid to be hide-bound.
This tightnefs about the ikin is ufually the effeft of hard
work and improper food} and commonly attends linger¬
ing difeafes, in which the fat is gradually wafted or ab-
forbed. It muft therefore be confidered rather as a
fymptom of difeafe than as a difeafe itfelf: but, as is the
cafe with molt remarkable fymptoms, it has often been
I £ R Y.
regarded as a primary difeafe ,
Part VI.
to remove which, by Difeafes.
fweating and relaxing remedies, is the principal object v
of the practitioner.
The proper remedies for this affeCtion, when it is not
a fymptom of fome lingering diforder, are nouriihing
diet, with plenty of green food, particular attention to
cleanlinefs, by frequent drefling, and the occafional ufe
of boiled barley and warm mafties.
Horfes that have a lean, unthrifty-like appearance, Surfeit,
with their coats looking rough and rufty, are faid by
the grooms to labour under a furfeit. Whence has
arifen the application of this ftrange term to an appear¬
ance that feems fo oppofite to what is generally under-
ftood by a furfeit, we are not aware } but an affeclion of
the ikin, under the name of furfeit, is thus defcribed by
Mr Lawrence : “ Its confirmed ftate is attended with
eruptions, and fometimes with fwellings of the legs and
joints, and in the latter cafe is ufually to be looked up¬
on, as the termination of fome -chronic difeafe, or a con-
fequence of the improper ufe of mercurial phyfic. Sur¬
feits are ftyled dry or wet; in the former, the ikin is
covered with a thick dry fcurf, with fcabs, and fmall
hard tumours like warbles *, in the latter, a iharp briny
ichor iffues from the poll, neck, withers, quarters, and
hinder legs, in the bend of the hock, caufing great ftiff-
nefs and inflammation ; this is probably analogous with
fcurvy in the human body, and wall often attend cart-
horfes, with foul and unwholefome blood, at ftated pe¬
riods. The too free ufe of beans will produce the wet
furfeit.
“ The cure offurfeits depends almoft entirely upon
internal alteratives, with a very fmall attention to exter¬
nal applications. As to the latter, perhaps, frequent
cleanfing, with a good ftrong lather of foap is generally
fufficient, but where the eruptions are hard and fixed,
and the fcabs do not peel off', I know of nothing bet¬
ter than to rub them frequently with the ftrong mer¬
curial unftion, keeping the horfe well clothed, and giv- * Laivreme
ing warm water in the interim. The warm bath if the on Horf‘s3
animal is ftrong vo
One of the moft common difeafes of the Ikin among Mange in
domeftic animals, is what is commonly called the mange horfes.
in horfes, cattle and dogs, and the fcab or itch in fheep.
Its fymptoms differ but little in the different fpecies of
animals, and we do not remember to have feen the dif¬
order well defcribed by any writer. The following de-
fcription of the mange in horfes by Mr Feron, is per¬
haps among the beft that have been publiftied. “ The
mange is a contagious chronical diforder which mani-
fefts itfelf in the Ikin, on which fenfible eminences of a
roundifti figure rife up } thefe being fcratched, a fluid
oozes out, of a hot and corroding quality, that excori¬
ates the found Ikin wherever it runs, in a little time
forming a dry, fcaly, crufty eruption, which in its pro-
grefs fpreads over the whole furface of the body } and
the ikin becomes unequally thick, thin, hard, and foft.
If the diforder has been neglefted, or ill-treated, the
animal falls off from his food, grows lean, and the legs
fwell} in this ftate the patient has frequent fits of ihiver-
ing and trembling, and a flight fever arifes, terminal- j per0^s
ing in farcy or the glanders, by which he is eafily de- Farriery.
ftroyed f331
A difeafe fimilar to this, if not of the fame kind, af- *n catde.
fefts cattle, efpecially fuch as are ill fed, and not kept
clean. It is commonly called by herdfmen, the fcab
33 z
la ftieep.
333
In dogs.
Part VI. . FARR
Difeafes. or fcurf; and Is thus defcribed in a popular treatife on
v~ ' cow-do£loring.
Skin ftiff, and fits fall to every part of the carcafe,
as if too fmall for the body. It makes its firft appear¬
ance about the head and jaws of the animal, with a
feurfy, pale, and dry texture \ and the bealt begins to
fcratch againft every thing that comes in its way : it
then fiiews itfelf along the back, and behind the
fhoulders; and if timely aid be not procured, the ani¬
mal will tear its fkin till it bleeds violently, which
ought to be prevented, if poflible, as the fcabs which
are the confequence of bleeding, much retard the effi¬
cacy of the ointment, and the lofs of time confirms the
diforder.
This difeafe is incident to flreep in fome particular
paftures, fituations, and leafons, more than to others.
The predifpofing caufe feems to be a relaxed habit of
body, produced by poverty or leannefs, though fome
ffieep are fubieft to it that are fat, and otherwife in
* Findlaters g00(f condition. The difeafe feldom feems to originate
Survey. with fuch theep, but to be conveyed to them by infec¬
tion. *
Dogs are exceedingly fubje£l to the mange, and rea¬
dily catch it from each other. The appearance of the
difeafe in dogs, is familiar to every one, as there are
few more common and difgufting fights than a mangy
dog. A dog in this ftate is very unfit for any active
exertion, as the affeefion of the Ikin renders him if iff
and fore even in his limbs. A friend of ours had a
greyhound, that, when he wras clean, wras one of the
fvvifteft runners in the country, and had gained the
prize in many a courfing match. This dog caught the
mange, and while in this fituation was feveral times,
fent in purfuit of a hare ; but now, pufs generally ef-
caped him.
This difeafe has fometimes been attributed to ani¬
malcule, fuch as are found in the fymptoms of the itch
upon the human ikin •, and analogy feems to be in fa¬
vour of this idea. It is, however, evidently connected
with poor living, and want of cleanlinefs.
In the treatment of the mange, we are to rely chief¬
ly on the ufe of external applications, fuch as ointments,
compofed of fulphur, of fome preparation of mercury,
or hellebore roots. The receipts marked N° 68 and
69 are well adapted to the cure of this difeafe. Some¬
times internal remedies, fuch as fulphur vnd gentle lax¬
atives, are required } and the greateft attention muff be
paid to cleanlinefs, diet, and exercife. It may be ne-
ceffary in fome cafes, efpecially v/here the animals that
have caught the difeafe, are very full of blood, to bleed
and give cooling phyiic previous to the application of
ointment •, and in all cafes the Ikin ffiould be thorough¬
ly w^aihed with foap and wTater, both before and after
anointing. The animals fliould always be confined
till they are quite free from the difeafe.
Mr Feron, who confiders the mange in horfes as a
general affefticn of the fyftem, and not merely a local dif¬
eafe of the Ikin, ftrongly recommends the ufe of blifters,
which he has feen aft as a fpecific. “ The local treat¬
ment, and the only one to be depended upon (fays this
gentleman), confifts in a judicious application of blifiers,
ufed after the following manner 5 viz. if the wffiole body
is affefted, the one half muff be blifiered one day, and
the other in three days after. This muff be done at
different times, in order to prevent the cantharides
334
Treatment.
I E R Y. 49.3
from operating too violently upon the kidneys and blad- Difeafes.
der 5 but if this happens, let the animal be bled, and—v—*'
clyiters frequently injefted. But the beft wray to avoid
this, is to leave off all kinds of internal medicines, du¬
ring the aftion of the blifters. When they begin to
operate, the ikin muft be fomented writh warm water
three tirhes a-day, in order to waffi out a quantity of
yellow matter, difeharged by the aftion of the blifters,
and to encourage the growth of new hair.” We do not
pretend to difpute the efficacy of Mr Feron’s bliftering
praftice in removing the mange, but we doubt.whether
the bliftering one half of the body with cantharides
may not be produftive of more ferious confequences
than the difeafe which it is intended to remove. At
any rate, the expence of the method, and the torment
which it muft occafion to the poor animal, muft greatly
prevent the general application of the remedy.
In Mr Findlater’s furvey, quoted above, are the fol¬
lowing judicious obfervations on the treatment of iheep
labouring under the fcab.
“ Sheep that are regularly tarred, or fmeared, are fel¬
dom infefted with this difeafe. If the difeafe be partial,
perhaps the beft remedy would be to clip the affefted parts
as bare as poffible, and rub them occafionally with the
common fmearing ointment, to wffiich may be added a lit¬
tle Venice turpentine. They ihould alfo be waffied, once
or twice a week, with black foap and water. But if this
prove ineffeftual, or if the difeafe has gone to a great
extremity, the animal ffiould firft be waffied as clean as"
poffible, in a pond, or rill of water, to purge away all
the accumulated virus, or infefting matter, from the
wool. A little black foap may be of great ufe in waffi-
ing. Then the whole body may be fmeared -with juice
of tobacco ; and after the animal becomes dry, may be
rubbed with butter mixed with powdered brimftone j or
brimftone mixed with the fmearing ointment wTould an-
fwer better. A little of the fulphur may meanwhile
be thrown down its throat. If this treatment, being
twice or thrice repeated, after an interval of feveral
day's, fhould prove ineffeftual, recourfe muft be had to
the mercurial ointment, compofed of three ounces of
hogs lard, well rubbed in a mortar, with half a drachm
of finely powdered cor-rofive fublimate} or the fame pro¬
portion of corrofive fublimate, well mixed with three
ounces of the common fmearing ointment, will anfwer
equally well. The animal being fmeared with this oint¬
ment, will foon be effectually cured. Meanwhile the
difeafed animal ffiould be invigorated or put upon fub-
ftantial food.”
In a note Mr Findlater mentions an obfervation of
Mr Loch’s of Rachan, that the matter difeharged in
the fcab mixing with the wool, and drying, forms a hard
impenetrable cruft, which he has obferved of half an
inch in thicknefs •, that it is vain to think of curing it
by any external application, till this is removed 5 and
that you might as well attempt to cure a man of the
itch, by rubbing butter and brimftone upon his coat,
inftead of his naked fkin j that the fcurf thus formed,
muft be removed by foaking and waffiing it wfith
warm lime-water and foap, and feraping it clean to the
quick with a blunt knife. It may then be fuccelsfully
cured by the ointment 5 or, what is more cleanly and
more eafily prepared, by means of a lotion made by
diffolving half a drachm of corrofive fublimate in a quart
(chopin) bottle of whilky and water. Mr Loch has
always
494
Difeafes,
. 335
Xice and
fleas.
FARR
always found tins lotion effectual, after two or three
applications.
It lias been propofed by a correfpondent of the Far¬
mer’s Magazine, to inoculate Iheep for the fcab, in or¬
der to render it milder. Even fhould inoculation have
this effeft, which is by no means certain, it does not
appear neceffary, in a difeafe that is fo eafily cured.
Befides the feveral applications that we have men¬
tioned, a variety of ointments and lotions are recom¬
mended by writers on dogs. Mr Beckford advifes that
as foon as a mangy fpot appears on a hound, it ftiould
be well rubbed with a liniment compofed of a pint
(mutchkin) of train oil, half a pint of oil of turpen¬
tine, a quarter of a pound of powdered ginger, and
half an ounce of gunpowder. It is alfo recommended
that the dog fhould have a purging ball now and then,
and fhould be kept from flefh meat. There is a variety
of the mange in dogs, called the red mange, which it
is faid is belt cured by mercurial ointments.
Molt of the domeftic animals, efpecially when young,
are troubled with lice. Calves are fometimes loufy, if
they have been hard kept during winter, by being
turned out in fevere weather, fed on poor diet, and not
kept clean. The beft means of dellroying thefe ver¬
min is by rubbing their hide with an ointment compofed
of ftaves-acre, or cayenne pepper, mixed up with hogs
lard.
Young whelps are very fubjeft to licej but they may
be eafily removed by wafhing with a lotion formed by
Beeping a pound of tobacco in three Englifh pints of
fmall beer, or by rubbing the fkin well with train-oil.
Fleas are belt deftroyed by wafhing the dogs fre¬
quently with foft foap and water.
Sheep are often infedled with vermin of various kinds,
which harafs the animals exceedingly} and not only
do much mifchief to ih.e wool, but even eat into the
animal’s fkin.
The fheep fly abounds moft in the fouthern parts of
the ifland, and is chiefly troublefome to lambs. The
mofl effectual means of protefting the lambs from the
infefl appears to be to frnear the fleece with any kind*, of
rancid oik
Another fpecies of infeffs that infeft fheep is com¬
monly called tick, or kedd, the hippobofca ovina of na-
turalifls.
The fmearing ointment generally prevents, or kills
this infeft. But if this fhould not happen, or if the
fheep are not fmeared, infefts of every kind may be ef-
feftually killed, by flightly rubbing the parts affefted
with mercurial ointment, compofed of three ounces of
hogs lard, rubbed up with half a drachm of finely pow¬
dered corrofive fublimate. To this may be added, a
little of the fpirit of turpentine. Coal-oil is powerfully
deflruftive to infefts of every kind 5 but whether it may
not prove injurious to the health or fleece of the fheep,
• has not yet been afeertained by expe lent. A decoc¬
tion or diftillation from the gall-plant, which abounds
in many moiTes and muirs, is known to be very fatal to
infefts of every kind 5 and a fheep may be fafely waffl¬
ed with this juice. The juice of tobacco is a’fo much
recommended as a poifon for thoft infefts which infeft
fheep.
' The laft fpecies of infefts are chiefly hurtful to fheep
* Findlater s q{ a year old, or more. *
Survey. ^
335
TJy.
. 337
Ticks.
I E R Y.
Among the infefts which prove moft troublefome to
horfes, fheep, and cattle, are thofe of the genus Oef-
trus, feme fpecies of which are generally known by the
name of gad-Jhj. The beft account of thefe infefts and
their effects, that we have feen, is that of Mr Bracey
Clark, publiflied in the third volume of the Linnaean
Tranfaftions, from which the following account is
chiefly taken.
Mr Clark deferibes five fpecies of Oejfrus, viz. Oe.
bovis, Oe. equi, Oe. heemorrhoidalis, Oe. veterinas, and
Part VI.
Difeafes.
Oe. ovis.
We fhall at prefent deferibe the effefts only of the
firft and lait fpecies. 338
The Oe. boviv, as its name imports, chiefly attacks Gad-fly, or
cattle, through the fkins of which it pierces, in order °eft'U3
to depofit its eggs. The pain which it inflifts in de-1*0715*
pofiting its egg, appears to be much more fevere than
what is excited by any of the other fpecies. When
one of the cattle is attacked by this fly, it is eafily
known by the extreme terror and agitation that feizes
the whole herd. The unfortunate objeft of attack runs
bellowing from among his fellows, to fome diflant
part of the paflure, or to the neareft: water, holding
his tail, from the feverity of the pain, extended ftraight
from the body, in a line with his back, with a tremu- .
lous motion, and ftretching out his head and neck to
the utmoft. The reft of the herd, infefted with the like
fear, though not attacked, fly alfo to the w'ater, or dif-
perfe to different parts of the pafture. “ Such is the
dread and apprehenfion in the cattle, for this fly, fays
Mr Clark, that I have feen one of them meet the herd
when almoft driven home, and turn them back, re-
gardlefs of the ftones, flicks, and noife of their drivers $
nor could they be flopped till they reached their accuf-
tomed retreat in the wrater.”
When one of thefe flies happens to attack oxen that
are yoked in the plough, there is often confiderable
danger, as the animals become quite ungovernable, and
will often rufh direftly forwards with the plough,
through hedges, or whatever oppofes their career.
Heifers, fleers, and the younger cattle, are in gene¬
ral moft frequently attacked by this fly j the ftrongeft
and moft healthy beafts feem conftantly to be preferred
by it, and this circumftance is faid to be a criterion of
goodnefs held in much efteem by the dealers in cat¬
tle. Tanners alfo have remarked, that their beft and
ftrongeft hides have generally 4.he greateft number of
holes in them.
The larvae of this fpecies, as of moft of thofe wTe
are to mention, are generally termed bolt, but this
name is moft frequently applied to the larvae of the Oe.
equi.
The complaint produced by the punfture of this in¬
feft in the fkins of cattle, is called puckeridge, and is
not unfrequently attributed to the bite of the goat-
fucker. For the deftruftion of the larvae thus depo-
fited, it has been recommended to infert a red-hot wire
into each of the holes made in the fkin j but this is a
formidable remedy, and will probably do as much harm
to the fkin as the bots themfelves. A more rational
praftice that is fometimes in ufe, is to prefs the parts,
and rub them wTell with a little oil of turpentine, or
fome other ftimulating application, or a little oil of tur¬
pentine may be injefted into each hole.
The
Part VI. ' FARR
Difeafes. The larae of the Oe. bovis are commonly known to
’ ' "v ' the country people by the names of wonnils, or wor-
mills) or warbles.
Oe. ovis. During the fummer, Iheep are often obferved to gather
together in clufters, endeavouring carefully to guard their
heads. Mr Blaine fays that this is to protect them-
felves againft the attacks' of this infeft, which attempts
t-o lay its eggs on the inner margin of the nofe, which
when it has effefted, thefe eggs become larvae, and
creep up into the frontal and maxillary finufes.
It is not eafy to diicover the manner in which this
infeft depofits its eggs, owing to its obfcure colour and
. rapid motions, and to the great agitation into which
the iheep are thrown by its attack ; but the fubfequent
motion of the flreep, and the manner in which they at¬
tempt to defend themfelves againft their enemy, leave
no room to doubt, that the eggs are depoftted on the
inner margin of the noftrils.
The moment the fly touches this part of the flreep,
they fhake their heads, and ftrike the ground violently
with their fore feet, at the fame time holding their
nofes clofe to the earth } they run away, looking about
them on every fide, to fee whether the fly purfues : they
alfo fmell to the grafs, as they go, left one ihould be
lying in wait for them. As they cannot, like horfes,
take refuge in the rvater, they have recourfe to a rut,
or dry dufty road, or gravel-pits, where they crowd to¬
gether during the heat of the day, with their nofes held
clofe to the ground, which renders it difficult for the
fly conveniently to get at the noftril.
Obfervations on thefe flies are beft made in warm
weather, and during the heat of the day, when by
driving the fheep from their retreats to the grafs, the
attack of the fly, and the emotions of the fheep, are eaft-
ly obferved.
The noftril from repeated attacks, and the confe-
quent rubbing againft the ground, becomes highly in¬
flamed and fore, which occafrons their touch to be fo
much dreaded by the fheep.
It is faid that this fly alfo depofits its eggs in the
- {kin of the fheep, but we are not certain how far this
has been proved by experience; although there is no
doubt that there are fometimes found in the fheep’s fkin,
maggots that muft have been produced from eggs depoftt¬
ed by fom^infeff. They prove extremely troubleiome
to the animal, eating into the fkin, and producing ul¬
cers. If not difcovered in time they may even deftroy
the life of the fheep. The remedy is to clip the in-
fefted parts bare, wafh them well with black foap and
water, and apply the fmearing ointment. If this does
not fucceed, recourfe muft be had to the method re-
340 commended, in N° 337-
Pelt-rot, When fheep have lain about for a long time in wTet
and marfhy paftures, or have been kept in woods or
copfes in a ftarving condition, their fleeces become fo
completely foaked with water, that the wool rots
oft from the fkin. This is what is called the. pelt-rot.
If fheep be fjffered to continue long in this condition,
they become heavy and low-fpirited, and will fooner or
later be deftroyed. If, however, they be attended to
in proper time, they may be faved by driving them to
a good ftraw-yard, pulling off their ragged and rotten
wool, and rubbing on a good coat of tar, greafe, and
turpentine. Care muft alfo be taken, to provide them
with plenty of good wholefomc nourifhment.
I E R Y. 495
The fkin of all animals, efpecxally on the moll; deli- t)ifeafes.
cate parts of it, is fubjecf to excoriation or chafing. v
This is of moft confequence in the backs of horfes fret- £X(f0^[a.
ted with the faddle, and the udders of cows by rub-tions, chaps,
bing againft their thighs, when they are cat-hammed, &cc.
and go clofe behind. Both the udder and thighs
of the cow are fometimes quite raw, and ulcerated.
The beft remedy in thefe cafes, is to wafh the parts
well with warm foap and wTater, and afterwards bathe
them frequently with a mixtui'e of Goulard, and cam¬
phorated fpirits.
The teats of cows are fometimes chapped, which is
commonly owing to want of cleanlinefs in the milkers.
When this happens, the treatment recommended above
for chapping may be followed, or if this does not lucceed,
the teats may be anointed with what is called unguen-
tum nutritum. If the teats are very painful, the cracks
may firft be bathed with a little laudanum, and after¬
wards filled up with finely powftered prepared chalk.
There are many other difeafes that affecft the fkin
of thefe animals 5 but fome of them are fo trifling as
not to require particular notice, and others being inti¬
mately conne&ed with fome general derangement of
the fyftem, fall more properly to be confidered in the
next fedlion of this part.
Chap, II. Morbid Jlffeclions of Motion.
♦
The fun&ion of motion may be morbidljf affefled in 343
various ways, but all thefe tend more or lefs to impede
or difturb the natural motions of the animal.
The mufcles are often affected with irregular mo¬
tions, producing violent involuntary contradions, called
convuliions or fpafms. Thefe are often fymptoms of
fome dangerous derangement of the brain or nervous
fyftem, as locked-jaw, epilepfy, canine madnefs, &c.
Convulftons of this nature, being intimately dependent
on the primary difeafe, can only be removed by fuch
means, as are calculated to carry off the difeafe, of
which they are the fymptoms. Irregular adion of the
mufcles commonly attends great debility, whether it be
brought on by hard work and low diet, or by difeafe.
In either cafe, it is commonly a very dangerous fymp-
tom. We cannot properly confider the treatment of
convulfion here 5 but it will be confidered in the next
fedion, when we come to treat of convulfive or fpaf-
modic difeafes. 343
The affedion that we are chiefly called to confider of iame=i
in this chapter is lamenefs, a very comprehenfive term,nefs.
as it includes almcft all the local affedions of the ex¬
tremities. Lamenefs is a complaint that is exceedingly
common among horfes and _dogs, efpecially the . form¬
er ; in whom if more particularly demands attention, as
it fo materially affeds the value of the animal. A
knowledge of the nature of lamenefs, and the method of
treating it, can only be acquired by an inveftigation of
the caufes by which it is produced.
The caufes of lamenefs are extremely numerous and
various. We fhall endeavour to clafs them, fo as to
render oar inquiry as little tedious and difficult as may
be. _ 544
1 ft, Lamenefs may be produced by a ftiffnefs of fome Stiffnefs,
parts of the mufcles, tendons, or ligaments, arifing
either from exceffive labour, from bruifes, wounds, or
fome dlfeafed affedion* of the joints. -
&
496 FARR
Difeafes. It is -well knoV/n, that when the muffles of an animal
> ^' are exerted for any unufual length of time, or in a
more tham ordinary degree, they become fatigued, and
cannot for fome time perform their functions wdth their
accuftomed eafe. In general, after proper reft and
careful treatment, the ftiffhefs gradually goes off; and
in a day or two the animal is able to exert himfelf as
ufual j but if care has not been taken to rub him well
down, and provide him with a well littered bed, and
efpecially if he has been expofed to cold wdrile fweat-
ing and fatigued, this ftiffnefs may continue for many
days, or may even degenerate into permanent lamenefs.
Animals that have acquired this permanent ftiffnefs of
their limbs, always move with confiderable difficulty,
when firft taken out j but in general when they have been
long in exercife, and are become wrarm, the ftiffnefs
and lamenefs in a great meafure difappear, but they
commonly return again when the exertion is over.
Where the ftiffnefs has not continued long, it may
in general be eafily removed, by frequent friction of the
limbs, firft with a wifp of hay and the bruffi, and after¬
wards with fome warm liniment or embrocation,
fuch as has been defcribed among the ftimulant re¬
ceipts.
If it does not yield to this treatment, recourfe may
be had to wrarm fomentations, and gentle exercife muft
be perfifted in. If the lamenefs fhould ftill continue,
it wdll probably be occafioned by a ftrain of fome Hga-
^45 ment, or an injury done to fome part of the limb.
Bruifes. Any of the mufcular parts may be bruifed by falls
or blows} and if the bruife takes place on the limbs,
or in their neighbourhood, lamenefs may be the confe-
quence. A bruife is almoft always followed by a fwell-
ing of the bruifed part, occafioned by the rupture of
fmall veffels, that pour out their fluids into the cellu¬
lar membrane. If the bruife is flight, ,the fwelling
will foon fubfide j but if the injury has been confider¬
able, and much blood has been poured out, inflamma¬
tion and confequent fuppuration will take place, and
the part will become an abfcefs. If the injury has been
ftill greater, and the texture of the parts has been de-
ftroyed, mortification wdll probably come on, and if
the bruife be extenfive, will be attended with confider¬
able danger.
The treatment of bruifes wdll be different according
to the degree of the injury produced. In flight cafes
the objedt w ill be to promote the abforption of the ef-
fufed blood ; and this will be beft anfvvered by bathing
the part with warm vinegar and water, or camphorated
fpirit. If there is confiderable inflammation, and it is
not judged proper to encourage a fuppuration, the parts
muft be frequently bathed with a folution of fugar of
lead, with a little vinegar 5 or, where the part admits of
a bandage, it will be better to form a cold poultice of
oatmeal mixed up with fuch a folution, and kept con-
ftantly applied to the part and frequently moiftened
with the folution to prevent its becoming hard and dry.
If a fuppuration ffiould appear unavoidable, it will be
proper to encourage it by a frequent application of
warm poultices renewed as often as they become cool,
or, whetre thefe cannot be applied, by repeatedly foment¬
ing the part with flannel wrung out of warm water.
When the fuppuration is complete, the fwelling muft
fee opened with a lancet, or by means of a feton ; and
t^te fore muft be treated as we (hall prefently defcribe
I
I E R Y.
Part VI.
with refpedl to ulcers. If mortification takes place, Difeafes.
the parts muft be frequently fomented with the fomen- v
tation directed in N° 57. of the receipts 5 and the ani¬
mal’s ftrength muft be fupported by nouriffiing food,
and the occafional ufe of cordial and ftrengthening
remedies. If the mortified part be very extenfive, it
may be neceffary to make incifions towards the edges
wdth a knife, to promote the feparation of the flough j
or firing may be employed, as directed for this purpofe
in N* 175.
It fometimes happens that after the inflammation
which attended a bruife has fubfided, a permanent hard
tumour is left, that prevents the free motion of the
mufcles of the part. This may arife either from a
thickening of fome ligament, or the cellular texture, or
it may proceed from an excrefcence formed on the
bone, in confequence of the bruife. The treatment in
fuch cafes will be prefently defcribed, when wre come
to confider fplents, ring-bones, and other tumours that
commonly produce lamenefs. 346
Horfes are very liable to receive fevere bruifes in the Tread, or
back part of the foot, either from the tread of another overreac^t
horfe, as often happens in the army, by a horfe in the
rear-rank treading on the heels of one in the front-
rank j or, by a horfe overreaching his hind foot, and
thus bruifing the heels of the fore foot. From the
manner in wffiich this accident is produced, it has re¬
ceived the names of tread, and overreach. Sometimes
the bruife is fo flight as to be produflive of no farther ill
confequence than a temporary lamenefs •, but if the
tread has been very violent, the edges of the part trod¬
den on may be fo much bruifed as to produce confider¬
able inflammations, or even a mortification. In ordi¬
nary cafes it is fufficient to waffi the part carefully with
warm water, to clear it of dirt and gravel, then apply
a pledget dipped in fpirits, and bind up the foot, fo as
to exclude the external air ; when the bruife, if flight,
will probably foon heal. But in fome cafes matter is
formed, which makes its way downwards towards the
foie, forming what is called a quittor. Quittor may
alfo take place from a pundture in the foot, by a nail
or other pointed body, the effedls and treatment of
which will be prefently defcribed. 347
In a newdy-formed quittor, it is of confequence to af- Quittor.
certain, whether it has been produced by a prick or a
tread. In the former cafe the matter ufually makes
it way upwards from the punctured part towards the
coronet 5 and here the practice generally followed by
farriers is, to fear the upper orifice with a hot iron,
which anfwers no other purpofe than to confine the
matter within the wound, where it muft produce ex¬
tenfive ulceration and deitruction of important parts of
the foot. In the latter cafe, where quittor is produced
by a tread, and where the finus formed is very fuperfi-
cial, the ufe of the cautery may be very proper j and
if it can be fo applied as to inflame the whole extent
of the wound, it may entirely carry off the difeafe.
According to Mr Blaine, there are too general methods
of curing quittor *, one by removing a part of the hoof,
cutting away the difeafed partg, or fuffering them to
flough off or exfoliate. The other, to apply cauftic
to the difeafed furfaces, introducing it within the finufes,
thus deftroying the ulcerated parts, and allowing the
healthy parts to throw them off. The latter is called
by farriers corcing out a quittor,. as they fuppofe that
the
Part VI.
FARR
Difeafes.
* Blaine's
Outlines,
vol. ii.
348
Wounds.
the core or flough that comes away formed a part
of the complaint. Mr Blaine objefts to removing the
hoof, as it would take up a coniiderable time before
new horn can be formed ; apd it is probable that in the
new hoof there will be a falfe quarter, which will ren¬
der the horfe unfound, befides that, during the forma¬
tion of the new hoof, frelh linufes may be produced.
In the method of cure by cauftic, he thinks that the
difeafe may be completely removed in three or four
weeks, whereas the other method may require as many
months. The mode of applying the cauftic is, to
examine carefully the extent and direction of the
ftnufes, and then to fill them up with powdered blue
vitriol, verdigrife, or corrofive fublimate. Mr Blaine
has found that a pafte made of corrolive fublimate,
mixed up with flour and butter, forms a very good
cauftic for this purpofe. Some at" it is to be introduced
by means of a probe, to which a piece ol fponge is
faftened, which muft be carefully introduced in every
direction, fo as to touch all the difeafed parts, after
which the whole foot is to be bound up j but the band¬
age muft not be applied too tightly. In two or three
days the dreflings are to be renewed, and this is to be
repeated at intervals till the doughs come away, when
a healthy adftion of the parts will take place, and the
cure foon be completed. Another method of introdu¬
cing cauftic, by which the finufes may be completely
filled, is to mix up the cauftic with hogs lard, and roll
the mafs into fmall pellets within gaufe-paper, which
may be eafily introduced into the cavities.
Many farriers have fallen into a miftake with vefpect
to the nature and treatment of quittor, that has been the
ruin of many horfes. They fuppofe, that during the
progrefs of this difeafe, a bone is formed which they call
a quittor bone ; and they think it neceffary to remove
this bone, before a cure can be completed. This er¬
ror feems to have arifen from an opinion of Lafofle,
wrho conceived that the derangement wdiich accompani¬
ed this difeafe originated in the cartilages being affect¬
ed ; which he affirmed were capable of being thus dif¬
eafed, but incapable either of exfoliating like bone, or
floughing like ligament ; and therefore that to promote
a cure, the whole of the lateral cartilage on the affe£t-
ed fide muft be removed. But his firft premifes were
erroneous, for cartilages are vafcular, as we know by
their being tinged with bile, and by their being at times
abforbed 5 this is particularly the cafe with the lateral
cartilages, which in almoft all old horfes are partly ab¬
forbed. As they are vafcular, they muft be capable of
living adtion j though it is flow, and hence where dif¬
eafe exifts, they will exfoliate like other parts. This
pradtice of Lafoffe has in this country been for fome
time tried among many of the more intelligent farriers,
and was ftill further propagated by the late Profeffor
St Bel. Many horfes have been ruined by this in¬
judicious pradtice 5 for the future elafticity of the foot,
which is in a great meafure dependent on thefe carti¬
lages, muft be loftj befides the neceffary removal of the
hoof to get at the cartilage, a falfe quarter almoft al¬
ways remains *.
Wounds are frequently inflidfed in the foft parts of
horfes and dogs, and thefe are more common in the legs,
feet, and joints, than in any other parts. The treat¬
ment of wounds muft depend in a great meafure on the
part where they are inflicted, and the form of the in-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
I E R Y. 49*7
ftrument that produced them. A clean cut made in Difeal'es.
the mufcular parts is eafily healed, by applying flips of * ~ J’
flicking plafter as foon as poffible, fo as to keep the
edges of the wound clofe together ; or where plafter
cannot readily be applied, by taking a ftitch or two
through the edges of the wound, and tying the firings
gently together. When the edges are found to adhere,
the firings muft be cut away, and the holes which they
made will foon fill up. If any confiderable blood-
veffel has been -wounded, it will be proper to fecure it,
if poffible, by means of ligature, rather than by apply¬
ing any ftyptic fubftance. All wounds Ihould be made
as clean as poffible, before any attempt is made to heal
them. Sometimes the wound is fo fituated that it will
not admit of being fewed up ; but in thefe cafes We
may in general pals filver or fleel pins from the edges,
at about an inch diftance from each other, and twill a
thread croflwife from one to the other, fo as to form
what is called the twijled-future. In all cafes where
futures are ufed, it will be proper to apply a flicking
plafter over the edges of the wound. If the wound
Ihould not heal by thefe means, a formation of matter
will take place, and then the fore is to be treated as
a common ulcer, taking care that its edges be always
kept as near together as may be, by flicking plafter
or a bandage.
If the wound is very large, it may excite confider¬
able inflammation and fever. In thefe cafes, if the
animal is plethoric, it will be proper to bleed him, or
at any rate to adminifter cooling remedies. If, on the
other hand, there has been much lofs of blood, or if
the wound Ihews no difpofition to heal, and the matter
formed is thin and ichorous, an oppoiite plan of treat¬
ment will be required. The animal muft be fupported
by nouriftiing food, and ftrengthening remedies.
The moft troublefome wounds are thofe of the feet
and joints, as they are in general very difficult to be
healed.
Wounds in the feet are not uncommonly produced WouruTof
by the horfe treading on ffiarp Hones, broken glafs, ^
fharp bones or nails. Thefe are generally punftured
wounds, and will be confidered prefently. Sometimes
a deep wound is made on the coronet, by a tharp part
of the heel of the flroe on the oppofite foot, or any
other fubftance penetrating downwards between the
coffin-bone and the hoof, or between the lateral carti¬
lages of the coffin-bone and the joint. Wounds of this
kind are attended with much danger, from the difficulty
of evacuating the matter that may be formed, or of
producing that healthy adlion in the parts that is ne-
ceffary to make them heal. In fuch cafes Mr Feron
recommends the application of a blifter, extending from
the fetlock to the foot, fo as to produce external irrita¬
tion, which may relieve the internal parts. In the
mean time the foot is to be kept in a veffel of warm
water all day, and a large warm poultice of bran and
water is to be applied round it at night. The inten¬
tion. of this praftice is to prevent fuppuration, but if
this fhould, neverthelefs, take place, and if matter
ftiould be formed between the hoof and the fenfible la¬
minae •, the fuppuration is to be encouraged, and we
are to endeavour to prevent the formation of finufes,
by rafping the hoof very thin, juft below the feat of the
wound, fo that we may be able to make an orifice for
the evacuation of the matter downwards. Mr Feron
3 R advifes
498
FARR
Difeafes.
Wounds of
the joints.
35*
Mr Cole¬
man’s me¬
thod of
treating
wounds of
the joints-
advifes to delay this opening as long as poffible, and
when it is performed, to take care that the laminae be
properly preffed after the operation, to prevent coming
out through the hoof, and forming an incurable fand-
crack, or falfe-quarter. The bathing the foot in warm
water, and the application of the bran poultice, muft be
continued till the foot is perfeftly healed. If proud
helh Ihould appear through the opening that has been
made in the hoof, it is to be pared away with a fharp
knife, then fired, and covered with a fmall pledget
fpread with foft ointment, on which is fprinkled a little
powdered blue vitriol. It is evident that, during the
cure, the horfe muft be kept perfectly at reft ; and it is
recommended to adminifter diuretics, and now and
then a gentle dofe of phyfic, to keep the bowels mo¬
derately open.
Wounds in the joints are commonly attended with
very ferious confequences, as it frequently happens
that the capfular ligament is divided, and in this cafe
the fynovia or joint-oil conftantly exfuding through the
opening, prevents the difpolition to heal. A wound
in the joints is common among horfes in the army, and
fuch as are employed in hunting; and a horfe that has
received fuch a wound in general becomes perfedfly
ufelefs, from the improper method of treating thefe
wounds that has in general prevailed among farriers;
By their treatment, either an incurable finus is produ¬
ced, or a fecretion of bony matter takes place within
the joint, forming what is called an ancht/lojis or JliJf-
joint. The method generally praftifed by ordinary
farriers is, to injeft within the joint a mixture of tur¬
pentine and oil of vitriol, a folution of corrofive fub-
limate and lime water, or fome other corrofive fub-
ftance. The more rational of them content themfelves
with an injecfion of tinfture of myrrh. All thefe fub-
ftances produce fuch a high degree of inflammation
within the joint, as not unfrequently to deftroy the ani¬
mal.
Of late, a much more national mode of treatment
has been adopted by Mr Coleman, and is defcribed in
the firft number of the Veterinary TranfadHons.
The following is the method recommended by Mr
Coleman for treating wounds of the joints and capfules.
44 Where a joint, a mucous capfule, or the (heath of
a tendon is opened, the firft application neceflary is the
adtual cautery. The inftrument moft proper for the
operation fliould be made of iron, two feet in length,
rounded at the extremity about the fize of a fmall but¬
ton, with a wooden handle. The temperature of the
iron fhould be moderately red. If it be black, the
heat will not be fufficient to produce a proper difcharge
©f lymph, to clofe up the wound ; and if it is white, it
will deftroy too much of the furrounding parts, and per¬
haps do mifchief to the ligament. Although the opera¬
tion in itfelf is very fimple, yet fome knowledge of the
ftrudture and economy of the parts, for the purpofe of
applying the cautery with the bed poflible effeft, is ne-
ceffary. The objedl in view is to produce a glutinous
i'ubftance to clofe up the cavity, and before the (lough
is removed, for granulations below to fupply the place
of the lymph ; but if the ligament itfelf be deftroyed
by the cautery, it muft, like other dead parts, feparate
from the living and come away, and then the joint will
ftill be opened. It is, therefore, of importance not to
deftroy the ligai»ent of joints with th? hpt iron, but.
1 E R Y.
Part VI.
confine its application to the external foft parts. In Difeafes.
thefe cafes, it is generally proper to cauterize the whole -^r-—^
external furface of the wound ; and if the difcharge is
not immediately (topped, the iron has probably not
been applied fufficiently deep, or too cold, to produce
a proper difcharge of lymph. Where a cure is poffible
to be effected, the actual cautery will frequently clofe
the cavity and (top the difcharge. Sometimes, however,
ift the courfe of one, two, or three days, the difcharge
appears again by the fides of the lymph, and then the
fame operation (hould be repeated. In fome inftances
Mr Coleman has had occafion to apply the hot iron five
or fix times, and neverthelefs fucceeded ultimately, with¬
out the lealt lamenefs. The fame treatment is likewife
to be recommended for penetrating wounds into the
cheft and abdomen. The lips of the wound (hould be
cauterized, and, if requifite, repeated in the fame man¬
ner as is recommended for wounds of other cavities.
When the cavities of veins become inflamed, fome little
variation is neceffary in the treatment, as accidents of that
nature are frequently attended with confequences dif¬
ferent from the opening of other cavities, and require u
trifling alteration in the treatment. When a hemor¬
rhage takes place, it may be very generally ftopt by the.
application of the cautery ; but if this fails, and the
parts are too much fwelled to admit of a pin, there is
no other remedy than to take up the vein by a ligature
above the difealed parts; and there may be inftances in
which it may be advifable to tie up the vein below.
In general, however, the aftual cautery will prevent
the neceffity of a ligature ; and if it fails, tying up the
vein will fucceed only in thofe cafes where the vein
above is free from difeafe. In general, the vein is thick¬
ened and inflamed, and if a ligature be applied on a
veffel in a date of inflammation, the difr- re will be form¬
ed, and the vein inflame above. In ? ae that occurred
to Mr Goodwin, veterinary furgeon at Oxford, where
the jugular vein was tied, an abfcefs took place over
the occipital bone, commonly termed the poll evil.
That difeafe, however, moft probably did not originate
in confequence of the tube being obliterated, for in moft
fuccefsful cafes of inflamed veins, the (ides of the vein
unite and deftroy the cavity. After the orifice of the
inflamed vein, from the application of the aftual
cautery, is clofed, a confiderable degree of fvvelling fre¬
quently remains, and this may be removed by a blifter.
When abfceffes form in the adjacent parts, they (hould
be treated in the fame manner as common abfceffes.”
A punfture of fome part of the lower furface of the pulfc4ured
foot is a frequent occurrence. It may arife from the wounds,
prick of a nail in (hoeing, from a nail picked up in
travelling ; or from glafs, flint, or any other (harp body.
Injuries of this kind are proportioned in their effefts,
to the parts punctured, and not entirely to the depth of
the wound. A punfture of the frog penetrating even
to the fleffiy frog, is not ufually fo ferious, as that which-
penetrates the foie ; hence a wound any where at the
hinder part may penetrate deeper with impunity than
towards the centre, and likewife in the front, though
confiderable inflammation ufually follows from this laft.
When the capfular ligament is wounded in thefe cafes,
the confequence may be very ferious, as a ftiff joint is
commonly produced. When it is found that the cap¬
fular ligament has been wounded, the external opening
muft be enlarged, and a hot iron muft be applied to
the-
Part VI. FARR
Difeates. the furface of the ikin that covers the wounded part of
    ' the ligament, in order to heal up the internal opening.
Confiderable irritation commonly attends a punctured
wound of the tendon, or its flieath j and it is bell re¬
moved by enlarging the wound that is made through
the horny part, and keeping the feet for fome time in
warm water. When matter appears in either of thefe
cafes, it mull be let out, and the wound mull be healed
in the ufyal manner.
The moll ufual cafe of punflures is that which arifes
from a nail in Ihoeing taking a wrong direction, when
inltead of penetrating the outer furface of the cruft, it
turns inwards, and thus wounds the fenfible laminae.
This is known to the fmith at the time by a peculiar
feel in the ftroke he gives, and by the flinching} when,
if the nail is immediately removed, and has not pene¬
trated far, the wound heals by the firft intention ; but
if it is fuffered to remain, it produces inflammation and
fuppuration. As foon as this is difcovered, a depend¬
ing orifice fhould be made for the matter, by making
an opening in the line of the hole at which the nail
entered. It is always prudent, when a nail has pene¬
trated, and lamenefs follows without matter appearing,
to remove the flioe, and enlarging the opening to apply
a pledget of tow dipped in fpirits of wine, which wall
frequently prevent any future effects : but whenever
matter has formed, it is indifpenfably neceffary ; for
otherwife the matter will proceed upwards, and coming
out at an opening on the coronet, it will form a quittor.
When by this treatment the matter has gained a de¬
pending fituation, and the inflammation has fubfided,
the part may be dreffed with any mild ointment; but
if the matter Ihould inereafe in quantity, it will be pro¬
per to pour a folution of white vitriol within to promote
a ftoppage of the dflcharge, and of the extenfion of the
ulcerative procefs. In every punfture, wdien the heat
and inflammation appear confiderable, bleeding at the
toe is a prudent meafure, as it unloads the veffels.
Dogs are frequently wmunded with thorns in their
feet or knees, and the thorn may be fo deeply lodged,
that it cannot eafily be extrafted. When the foot is
wounded with a thorn, the beft application is a plafter
of black pitch, which is faid to have fueceeded wThen
every thing elfe has failed. If there is much inflamma¬
tion, it will be proper to apply a poultice over the
plafter. When a dog is w'ounded in the knee, if there
is reafon to fuppofe that a thorn is left in the wound,
the fame applications wall be proper j and when the thorn
comes away, if there is ftill an oozing of fluid from the
orifice, a red-hot iron muft be applied, as in the wounds
of the joints in horfes. If no thorn is left in the wound,
a little digeftive ointment rubbed upon the part, and a
fubfequent application of a poultice made with Goulard
and crumbs of bread, with proper reft, wall probably loon
effefl a cure.
Lamenefs is not unfrequently produced by a ftiff joint,
or what the furgeons call anchylojis. This is generally
the eft eft of an injury done to the articulating furfaces
of the bones that compofe the joint, caufing the forma¬
tion of new bony matter, which gets between the bones,
and unites them together. A ftiff joint may perhaps
be fometimes prevented by the timely ufe of blifters
and firing ■, but when completely formed, the lamenefs
i$ incurable.
I E R Y. 499
2. The fecond head of caufes that produce lamenefe Difeafes.
will comprehend ftrains, fraftures, and luxations. ' v '"" " ’
Strains may take place in any of the mufcular parts^h^
or ligaments, but they molt commonly happen in the
flelhy part of the fhoulder, or in fome of the ligaments
of the feet. -
A ftrain in the mufcles of the Ihoulder, has been ge-Shoulder
nerally called a Ihoulder-flip, under the idea that the^P-
Ihoulder-bone has been disjointed, or the blade-bone
puflied out of its place ; but the ftrufture^of the parts
Ihews that the former of thefe accidents can fcarcely
happen, on account of the great ftrength of the cap-
fular and other ligaments that furround the Ihoulder
joint j and a diflocation of the blade-bone is, by the
extent and ftrength of the mufcles that unite it with the
ribs, nearly impoffible, unlefs by fuch a force as is fuf-
ficient to deftroy the texture of the mufcles, and tear the
limb from the body. A ftrain of thefe mufcles, and of
the ligaments that furround the Ihoulder joint, is, how¬
ever, by no means an unfrequent occurrence, but affec¬
tions of other parts are often miftaken for a Ihoulder
ftrain, as we fhall fee prefently. A ftrain in the flioul-
der, when firft received, is generally attended with
confiderable inflammation and fwelling of the part,
which are ufually fufticient to diftinguilh it from other
affeftions. When the ftrain has continued long, and
the inflammation has fubfided, the diftinftion is not fo
eafy.
In cafes of recent fhoulder ftrains, it will be proper
to draw blood from the plate vein, and if the inflam ¬
mation is extenfive, to adminifter a purge, and keep the
animal rather low, to keep down the inflammation as
much as poflible j and it will be proper to bathe the
parts frequently, with fome aftringent lotion, or with a
warm fomentation, as direfted under bruifes. A rowel
may alfo be placed in the chert, or a feton in the infidc
of the fore-leg. Complete reft is neceffary j and to ren¬
der this the more perfeft, the horfe ftiould be fitted with
a patten fhoe, and fhould have a bed of litter con-
ftantly below him. When the inflammation has fub¬
fided, gentle friftion, and the occafional ufe of aftringent
lotions, will in general foon reftore the ufe of the limb j
and as foon as the horfe can bear it, moderate exercife
may be employed.
Injuries done to the ligaments and tendons, are alfoinjurjes qT
ufually called ftrains 5 but if we underftand by this term, the liga-
an extenfion of the ftrained part, the appellation is im- me<ns and
proper, fince the tendons appear to be entirely without tcru*ons'
elafticity, and the ligaments nearly fo. Thefe parts
cannot, therefore, be properly ftrained, though by un-
ufual exertion, their texture may be fo far injured as
to produce ftiffnefs, inflammation, and fwelling, but
wall have the fame effeft in caufing lamenefs, as a
ftrain.
Injuries of this kind are more dangerous then mere
mufcular ftrains, their treatment is more difficult, and
the cure more tedious. The treatment ufually adopted
by ordinary farriers, is to apply the fame aftringent and
ftimulating lotions, as in ftrains •, but here they com¬
monly do harm, as they generally produce a greater
fecretion of coagulable lymph, which ftill more ob-
ftrufts the motion of the part, and renders the lamenels
permanent.
One of the worft cafes of thefe injuries, is what far-
3 R 2 riers
5 00
F A R II
Difeafes.
ftrain in
the back
iinews.
* Fcron's
Farriery,
p. X04.
ners commonly call a clap or ilrain in the back finews.
When a horfe trips or humbles, and makes an unufual
effort to fave himfelf from falling, or when the heels
are lowered in {hoeing too fuddenly, or too much at
once, fo as to throw* too great a weight upon them, there
often happens fuch a fudden or violent contraftion of
the flexor mufcles as may produce a partial laceration,
or even rupture of the flexor tendon, or its fheath.
This injury is attended with considerable inflammation,
and the confequent lamenefs is of the worft kind. A
great ftiffnefs and Swelling is produced, and there is
commonly an effufion of fluid, which is at firft ferous,
and may again be taken up by the abforbent veffels j
but if improper applications are employed, coagulable
lymph may be poured out, fo as to oblfruft the motion
of the part, and produce that Swelling, or permanent
enlargement, that w;e Sometimes See in the neighbour¬
hood of the tendon, after what is called a if rain of the
back finews.
When a horfe is {trained in the back finews, he puts
forward his leg and foot in a loofe, faint, and faultering
manner. Mr Lawrence gives the following directions
for ascertaining whether or not a horfe is injured in the
back finews. To try how far the horfe has been injured,
let him be walked about for half an hour, when the
iwelling of his legs will in all probability fubfide. If
you then obferve the tendo achillis, or main linen*, dif-
tinct from the fhank *, if, on prefiing it noth the finger
towards the bone, you find it firm and tenfe ; if you dis¬
cover by the feel, no Soft Spongy finews between the
fhank and the tendon, no extraordinary pulfation, hut
that all is w'ell braced and wiry, you may conclude the
Swellings not dangerous. A perfon of experience, with
a nice discriminating finger, will Scarce ever fail to de-
te£! lamenefs in the back finews.
Mr Feron is of opinion that the injury which we have
deferibed is not done to the flexor tendon, but to the
ligaments of the neighbouring joints. He fays, that
“ on the difiedtion of a Strain fuppefed to be in the back
finews, we difeover no affedtion in the fubftance of this
pert, which on the contrary appears perfectly found.
Eat on examining the ligaments of the fetlock, coronet,
and foot, we find them to be the feat of the difeafe 5
we find alfo, that if the accident has been violent, and
of long duration, the wdiole vafcular fyflem of the leg
is found affedted, but never, or very Seldom, the back
finews ; it is in this violent ftate that we obferve Some¬
times one or twro Swellings along the tendons. It is al¬
io on this account that the pain is fo great, and fo hard
to be cured, in confequence of the confiderable irrita¬
tion which takes place in the Surrounding parts. So
tlw increafe of thicknefs of the leg, is nothing more
than the effedl of the difeafe ; but not the difeafe itfelf,
as farriers, grooms, &c. fuppofe it to be. Neverthelefs,
we Said before that the back finews or tendons were
void of feeling in a ftate of health and incapable of ex-
ten'ion It may be very true that this injury is not
commonly Seated in the tendon ; but we cannot agree
with Mr Feron, that this part is never the feat of it,
efpecially as he himfelf allows that a rupture of the ten-
d'n may take place, of which he has Seen different in¬
stances. It is not difficult to conceive that the fame
exertion which when in a great degree is capable of
tl.’.. turing the endon, may in a Smaller degree produce
a partial laceration, or a ftiain in the back finews.
I E R Y. Part VI.
A horfe labouring under this injury, even after the Difeafes.
inflammation has Subfided, is extremely w7eak and Stiff in v—J
the joints of the foot \ but w'hen he has been for Some
time at w*ork, the lamenefs in Some meafure goes off.
This has led Some perfons to Suppofe that a {trained horfe
may be worked found ; but this is a very erroneous
opinion, and the practice of continuing to woik a horfe
that has been newdy Strained, under the idea of re¬
moving the ftiffnefs, is equally cruel and injudicious.
The treatment of ftrains or injuries of the ligaments
or tendons muft be fuch as will molt effectually prevent
inflammation, and promote the abforption of tiie effuied
fluid. Local bleeding from the veins of the part, and
w7arm fomentations frequently repeated, feem to be the
molt advifable 5 and a bandage Should be always ap¬
plied where the nature of the parts will admit oi it, and
ihould be continued till the lamenefs is removed. Various
Stimulating applications have been recommended m thele.
cafes, as foon as the inflammation has fubfided, fuch as oil
ol turpentine, camphorated fpirit, verjuice, &c. but tbele
muft not be employed w^hile any confiderableiuffammation
remains. It is Somewhat remarkable that Mr Jreron re¬
commends aftringent and ftimulating applications in the
text of his work, and fays there that they may be em¬
ployed with Safety \ but, m a note at the foot of the page,
he ipeaks of having inferted thofe aftringent preicriptions
for the purpofe of Satisfying the dillerent opinions, but
that he is fully convinced, by a long experience, that
warm fomentations and warm poultices of bran and wa¬
ter, are infinitely preferable in drains or contufions, to
thefe expenfive preferiptions, and are always to be tried
firft.
It will be proper to elevate the heels of the horfe’s
Shoe by calkins, and Mr Blaine recommends that the
heels of the hoof be encouraged to grow, or that a thick-
heeled Shoe be ufed. If there ftill remains much Swell¬
ing, firing wall prove one of the moft effectual remedies,
as it will both promote the abforption of the effufed fluid,
and will produce fuch a degree of conftriCtion of the
fkin as wall anSwer the purpofe of a permanent bandage.
In fuch cafes the cautery muft be applied, fo as to make
perpendicular lines on the fkin. ♦
Dogs are very fubjeCt to ftrains; and where thefe are s rifins of
flight, a mixture of fpirit of wine and oil of turpentine, the ftifle in
or Strong Goulard, applied before a fire, is the moft^g5*
ufeful remedy. Sometimes from blows or other acci¬
dents, fuch as flipping their hind-legs, or getting them
entangled in the bars of a gate, hounds are lamed in
\X\t\?flifle, as it is called. In general the above appli¬
cations and long reft will remove the lamenefs $ but w'hen
a confiderable quantity of coagulable lymph has been
effufed, it is not eafily re-abforbed, and the lamenefs con¬
tinues. When this happens, fome huntfmen recommend
the operation of cutting for the ftifle, and Mr Daniel
fpeaks of a huntfman who ufed to perform this operation
very dexteroufly in the following manner. The bone
is laid bare by a tranfverfe cut, and upon it is found a
fubftance like a ftift jelly, which is the caufe of the
lamenefs, and is in fad the coagulable lymph that has
been effufed. This jelly is taken aw*ay, and a wire is
run through the ball of the hind-foot on the contrary
fide, and twifted in fuch a manner as to keep that leg
from touching the ground, fo that the hound may be
compelled to ufe the ftifled leg. In this way the dogs
were always cured. The fame huntfman recommended
«JS; •
Part VI.
FARR
Difeafes
35 =
fbry iiga-
ment
that tvhen a dog had been entangled in a gate or ftile,
he ihould, as foon as releafed, be taken by the hind-
feet, and twilled round five or fix times, turning with
him 5 and it is faid that this prevented any ill confe-
quence from the bruifes that he received in the ftifle,
while endeavouring to ditengage himfelf.
Some of the ligaments or tendons of the extremities
are now and then ruptured. This is not a common cafe,
but it may happen, either to the fufpenfory ligament, or
the back finew.
Rupture of A rupture of the fufpenfory ligament is found moll
thf fufpen- likely to happen to young horfes while breaking, and
* to cavalry horfes while under training. The accident
is generally called breaking down, as, when it happens
the horfe appears unable to liipport himfelf. Ihe fet¬
lock is brought almoil to the ground, and the limb is evi¬
dently exceedingly weak ; but the horfe can bend his
foot when he rai'ies it. This circumllance diftinguilhes
a rupture of the fufpenfory ligament from that of the
flexor tendon or back linew } as, in the latter cafe, the
power of the flexor mufcle being dellroyed, the horfe is
unable to bend the foot.
It appears from the obfervations of Mr Coleman, and
fome experiments that have been made by Mr i eron,
that the flexor tendon has little or no effecl in giving
flip port to the heels *, but that this office is almoil en¬
tirely performed by the fufpenfory ligament. Hence,
when this is ruptured, the horfe lofes one of his prin¬
cipal flays, and the foot is of courfe unable to fupport
its ufual weight, whence the horfe breaks down.
A perfect cure of this accident can feldom be ex¬
pected •, and the only way to relieve the animal will be
to obviate the inflammation as much as poffible, and to
elevate the limb, and efpecially to raife the heels, in
order to relax the injured parts. An intermediate fub-
ftance will in time be produced between the two parts
of the broken ligament, that wall enable the horfe to
walk and perform fome of his funclions, but he can ne¬
ver afterwards be depended on for the road or the
field.
When it is afcertained that the back finew has been
ruptured, which is difcovered by the inability of the
horfe to bend his foot backwards, it is generally recom¬
mended to kill the horfe, as a cure is by moll deemed
impracticable. Mr Blaine recommends to bend the
limb from the ancle downwards, and to keep it in that fi-
tuation by throwing the animal, when he thinks that a
perfeCt cure might be made. There would, however,
be confiderable difficulty in keeping the limb in fuch a
confined fituation for fo long a time as would be necef-
fary to unite the ruptured tendon •, and arter all, there
is the greateft probability that a very flight exertion
■would produce a frelh rupture.
FraCtures of the bones may take place in any part of
thefe animals, but they are moft common in the feet of
horfes and the legs of dogs.
The navicular, coffin, and fmall paftern bones of a
horfe are not unfrequently fraClured, and Mr Feron
fpeaks of a fmall paffern bone being broken into feven
pieces. It is not lurprifing that thefe bones Ihould be
broken, wdien we confider the immenfe weight that is
generally futtained by them, and the great exertions
which a horfe fometimes makes to recover a falfe
flep.
Thefe bones, when broken, will be united by a cal-
35o
Rupture of
the back
finew.
361
Frasflures.
I E R Y.
Soi
lus, provided that the limb be kept in fuch a fituation Difed'es.
as to prevent motion 5 but this can rarely be effeCled, “ 'r~~'
even in cafes where the bones of the foot are fraClured,
Hill lefs in thefe cafes where a fraClure of the larger
bones has taken place-
One of the moll common fraClures of the bones in a Fractures
horfe is that of the ridge of the ilium, or haunch-bone.the
This bone, from the projecting angle formed by its
ridge, is peculiarly expofed to injury 5 and when the
ridge is unufually prominent, as fometimes happens, or
when the horfe is more than commonly lean, the pro¬
bability of fracturing this bone is Hill further in¬
creafed.
FraClures of the haunch-bone may be occafioned by
falls, by blows, which are often given by brutal oftlers
and carters, with the but end of a large whip, or per¬
haps a broomftick, and they are very commonly produ¬
ced by linking the haunch violently againft a poll, or
the edge of a wall, when the horfe turns too tharply
round a corner, or pafies fwiftly through a narrow gate¬
way.
It may be afcertained that fuch an accident has taken
place, by the pain the horfe feels in the part, and where
the fraClure is confiderable, by the cracking of the’
parts of the broken bone again!! each other, but Hill
more certainly by an evident cavity of the haunch,
from the depreffion of the ridge. The mufcles of the
belly in the upper part of the liank will appear funk in,
efpecially wThen the horfe lies down, and will form a
fort of hollow between the haunch and the ribs. 1 he
horfe, when he attempts to move, will be as lame as if
one of the bones of the leg were broken, owing to the
extreme pam that motion excites in the mufcles, tnat
belide being feverely bruifed, have loll one of their prin¬
cipal attachments.
When an accident of this kind has happened, it is-
neceffary to keep the animal perfectly at reft, as no¬
thing but repole can produce a reunion of the fraClured
bone. The parts may be gently rubbed with fome fti-
mulating liniment, as in other cafes of bruifes, and
fome recommend the application of a charge, or ftrength-
ening plafter. It fometimes happens, where only a
fmall part of the bone has been broken off, the horfe
completely recovers his former aClivity ybut more com¬
monly fuch a deformity is produced by the ridge of one
haunch remaining lower than that of the other, and '>y.
the callus that forms between the end of the divided
bone, as to render the horfe more or lefs permanently
lame.
When the legs of a dog are broken, it is eafy, by
means of fplints, to keep the limb in fuch a fttuation as ^
to efteCt a union of the broken bone ; and we have not
unfrequently met with cafes of this kind, where a com¬
plete cure has been effeCled in the courfe of a few
w7eeks.
The ribs of a horfe are fometimes broken, either by
falls, or from the brutality of their keepers, as by link¬
ing them with the heavy handle of a whip or cudgel.
If the end of the fraClured rib does not penetrate into
the cheft, fo as to wound the lungs, a cure may in ge¬
neral be readily effeCled, by faitening a bandage round
the body over the feat of the fraClured rib, and keeping
the horfe at reft and on a low diet. _ 363
Luxations or diflocations of bones are exceedingly Luxationf-.
uncommon in the horfe, owing to the great flrength of
the
y0'2
Difeafes.
3^4
3^5
Wind-galls
366
EcSg-fpavin
3^7
Thorough-
pin.
368
Capulet.
3^9
Treatment.
FARR
the ligaments tliat furround the joints. Thefe may,
however, fometimes happen, and we are by no means
of Mr Blaine’s opinion, that the immenfe ftrength of
the mufcles in a horfe would prove any obftacle to the
complete reduction of fuch a luxation. If, indeed, we
endeavoured to reduce the luxation by pulling and haul*
ing at the luxated limb, in order to overcome the power
of the mufcles, and thus produce a counter extenlion,
which is ftill, we believe, the method generally employ¬
ed by furgeons to fet a diflocated limb in the human
body, we lhall molt certainly be difappointed. But if,
inftead of this vain attempt, we place the limb in fuch a
lituation as that the power of thofe mufcles which are
the antagonifts of the mufcles that keep the limb in its
diilocated place, may be fairly exerted, there will pro¬
bably be little difficulty in replacing the bone in its
focket, as the very ftrength of the mufcles will affift us
in the operation.
3. Lamenefs is very commonly the effedl of tumours
of the mucous bags or capfules, or of excrefcences
formed on the bones of the legs and feet, or on the
hoof.
In moft of the joints there are appendages or mem¬
branous bags, called burfce mucofcc, or mucous bags, that
are filled with a mucous fluid fecreted into their cavi¬
ties, for the purpofe of aflirting the motions of the
mufcles and tendons near the joint. It often happens
that thefe mucous capfules are enlarged, either from
hard work, which is a very common caufe of their en¬
largement, or from fome injury done to the neighbour¬
ing parts. When the enlargement is but fmall, it is of
little confequence, but when the bags become unufually
diftended, their fize impedes the motion of the joints.
Thefe tumours have received different names among
grooms and farriers, according to the place where they
are feated.
When the mucous bags that are fituated near the
patterns become enlarged, the tumours are called ivind-
galls.
When the enlargement takes place in the mucous
bags on the inner fide of the hock, the difeafe is called
bog-Jpnvin.
When the tumours are feated in the upper and back
part of the hock, between the gemelli mufcle and the
tendons of the great flexor muicle of the foot, the af¬
fection is called thorough-pin.
When the fwelling is fituated at that part where the
tendon of the gemelli mufcles is inferted into the point
of the hock, it is called capulet or capped hock.
Of all the various fwellings, the wind-galls are the
moft likely to produce lamenefs, and next to them the
bog-fpavin. The capulet and thorough-pin are feldom
of much confequence.
In the treatment of wind-galls and ffimilar tumours,
the objedt is to remove the unufual fwelling, and to pre¬
vent its return. The fwelling can be removed only by
evacuating the contents of the tumour, or by promoting
its abforption. The former was recommended by Dr
Bracken, and appears to have been fuccefsful in a few
cafes. The tumour is opened with a Iharp knife j and
when the fluid has been evacuated, an efcharotic fub-
ftance compofed of burnt alum, white vitriol, and red
precipitate, is applied to the wound, to produce fuch a
degree of inflammation as may contradl its cavity. Pro¬
bably firing would have a better efteft. Mr Coleman
I E R Y. Part VI.
and the eleves of the veterinary college, are much a- Difeafes.
verfe to this operation, and certainlylvvhere it can be avoid- —v'"--*
ed it is not definable. Abforption of the accumulated
fluid may often be produced by the application of blifi-
ters, and other ftimulating applications ; but this is moft
certainly effected by producing preffure on the tumour,
by means of a bandage applied round the part, with a
bolfter or comprefs immediately over the fwelling.
When the unufual enlargement has been reduced, its
return is belt prevented by firing the fkin, fo as to
produce a confiderable degree of conftriftion.
Horfes are fubjedt to various excrefcences on thesplenn.
bones, or exojlofes, as they are called, which, when they
form near the joints, or belowT the tendons of the mufcles,
generally produce lamenefs. Thefe excrefcences have
received various names, according to their fituation.
When they are formed about fome part of the knee or
canon bone, they are generally called fplents, though
farriers often call the excrefcences at the knee ojjeletes ;
and when there are two fmall bony enlargements near
each other, they are called fu^es. The excrefcences
at the knee are not very common, and when they oc,
cur, are generally the effedl of a wound \ but fplents
about the canon bone are very common, efpecialiy a-
mong young horfes, owing to the blood-veffels in them
being larger in proportion to the abforbents than in old
horfes j and hence the depofition of bony matter may,
in certain cafes of injury, be greater than what the ab¬
forbents are able to take up again. Thele excrefcences
are eafily produced in young horfes, by any blow or
other injury that is capable of producing confiderable
inflammation j as ftriking part of the canon bone which
is the ufual feat of fplents in what is called the fpeedy
cut, or by producing unufual preffure on one fide more
than on the other. Although a fplent may not be in
the neighbourhood of any material tendon, it may ftill
produce lamenefs by the pain which it excites ; but
when it interferes with a tendon, or fome important
ligament, lamenefs muft in general be the confe¬
quence.
When an excrefcence appears on any of the bones gorie.fpa-
that enter into the formation of the hough, it is calledvin;
a bdne-fpavin. It is moft frequently found on the up¬
per and inner part of the fmall metacarpal bone, or on
fome of the wedge-like bones on the infide of the hock.
In the former fituation it is often produced in confe¬
quence of the outer heel having been raifed by calkins ;
and in what are called cat, cow, or fickle hammed
horfes, it is often brought on by their natural de¬
formity, though in thefe latter cafes the excrefcence
is moft; commonly formed on the infide of the hock.
An excrefcence fituated on the back part of the Curb'/
hock towards its point, is called a curb. This is fome¬
times formed on the bone, but it is frequently only an
unufual hardnefs and fwelling of fome of the liga¬
ments. 273
When an exoftofis forms on the leffer pattern bone, Ring-bone,
producing a hard fwelling round the coronet, it is called
a ring-bone. A depofition of bone over the lateral car¬
tilages is fometimes alfio called by the fame name.
The treatment of all thefe excrefcences is much the Treatment,
fame, and our objedl muft be, either to excite the ab-
forbent veffels to increafed aftion, fo as to remove the
bony excrefcence, or to take this away by means of an
operation. The former of thefe is not likely to be fuc¬
cefsful,
375
Corns.
Part VI. F A R R
Difeafes. cefsful, except in the early ftage of the complaint, when
' v 1 the bony matter is not completely hardened. If the
excrefcence be difcovered in time, blifters are to be ap¬
plied over the part, and repeated frequently, and ftrong
mercurial ointment, or an ointment compoled of corro-
five fublimate and bliftering ointment, is to be applied
over the part, and gentle friction ihould be frequently
employed on thofe parts of the limb that are above and
below the fwelling. By thefe means the excrefcences
may fometimes be removed •, but when they have become
too hard, thefe ftimulating applications will fcarcely ex¬
cite the abforbents to fufficient action. The only me¬
thod to which we can then have recourfe is an operation
long ago pra&Aed by the old farriers, apparently with
confiderable fuccefs. The bony excrefcence is laid
bare, by making an incifion through the integuments,
and then the excrefcence is cut off by means of a (harp
chiffel ftruck by a mallet. After this the fldn is to be
laid down over the part, and we are to endeavour to
heal the wound as foon as poffxble, by flicking plafter
and a proper bandage. Firing is much employed by
the French for the removal of ring-bones and other ex¬
crefcences. Mr Lawrence recommends that in firing a
ring-bone, the inftrument employed fhould be thinner
than ufual, and that the lines defcribed Ihould not be
more than one-fourth of an inch diftant from each other,
being croffed obliquely like a chain.
Sometimes an inflammation takes place on the lower
part of the hoof, between the fenfible and horny foies,
or between the outer cruft and the binders, producing
a flight effufion of blood, and leaving a confiderable
tendemefs in the part. When the hoof is examined,
after being perfe&ly cleaned, there is commonly feen a
difcoloured fpot, fometimes red, but more ufually blue,
or blackifh, like what is feen below one’s nail, when
the finger is jammed. The affeftion is commonly cal¬
led by farriers a corn. (In Scotland, we believe it is
called a y?offe-£7v/r), though it is by no means fimilar
to a corn in the human foot. Horny excrefcences which
might properly be called corns, are fometimes however
produced on the horfe’s hoof; and of this nature, we
fuppofe, were the corns on the feet of Ccefar's horfe.
This complaint is always owing to an improper pref-
fure on the horny foie, by which the fenfible foie is
fqueezed between it and the coffin bone. Hence a
quantity of blood is effufed from the veflels of the fen¬
fible foie, which, if it remains for any length of time,
produces an unufual tendernefs in that part of the hoof.
Corns are generally produced by fltoes that are too hol¬
low next the hoof, fo as to allow a ftone to get be¬
tween the fhoe and the foie, and thus prefs upon the
latter j or it may be produced by the fhoe being made
too fhort or too narrow, and thus indenting itfelf upon
the foie between the binders and the cruft.
The beft manner of treating a corn appears to be, to
remove that part of the foie which is immediately be¬
low the feat of the affe&ion with a drawing knife, tak¬
ing care not to cut farther than the feat of the effufed
blood j then to infert a pledgit dipped in thnfture of
myrrh, into the opening. No preffure muft be applied
upon the part, and a piece of the fhoe oppofite the corn
fhould be cut out, to prevent preffure from taking
place. The horfe muft be allowed to ftand quiet, on a
level furface, and muft not be worked till the homy part
503
Difeafes.
S?5
377
I E R Y.
of the foie that has been cut away fhall be renewed ;
and even then it would be proper to turn him to grafs
for fome time, without fltoes, or with very fmall tips of
iron at the toes.
4. Lamenefs may be produced by many injuries of
the feet, brought on by hard work, bad Ihoeing, or
other ill treatment.
When horfes are ridden hard on pavement, or hard
dry roads, efpecially if the frog has been pared down,
or even the cruft cut away too much in fttoeing, the
battering produced on the hoof frequently brings on
an inflammation of the fenfible part within. This may
happen alfo to cart horfes made to draw heavy loads,
under fimilar circumftances.
When the horfe’s hoof is not very delicate or tender, Grogginefs,
this battering fometimes only produces a ftiffnefs, or
fwelling of the legs, and contraction of the finews.
This ftate is commonly called grogginefs, or a horfe
that has his feet thus battered, is faid to be groggy.
If inflammation is excited within the hoof, a moft Founder,
painful fpecies of lamenefs is produced commonly called
founder, or the horfe thus lamed is faid to be foundered.
The complaint is alfo called foot founder, to diftinguilh
it from a difeafe which we fhall defcribe hereafter,
and to which farriers fometimes give the name of
body-founder. This inflammation may take place in
any of the feet, or in all j but it is moft commonly pro¬
duced in the fore-feet: and as, from the pain which
the horfe experiences, he endeavours to throw as
much as poflible of his weight, upon his hind-feet, and
appears unable to fupport himfelf on his fore-feet, he is
faid to be down before.
This complaint moft commonly takes place in horfes j
but it may take place in cattle or fheep, brought on by
hard driving, on hard ftony roads, when fent to fairs,
or markets. In thefe animals, however, the complaint
feldom proceeds to fuch a height as -in horfes j and it is
in them more eafily relieved.. ^79
The fymptoms of founder are thus defcribed by Mr Symptoms.-
Feron. “ Foundered horfes have a general ftiffnefs of
the fore-hand, attended with a confiderable acute pain
of the joints, ligaments, and mufcles, connedled with it.
The pain which the animal fuffers on moving the joints,
obliges him to keep the flexor mufcles in a conftant re¬
laxed ftate, which pofition ultimately produces an entire
debility and ftiffhefs of every joint which compofes the
fore extremity of the animal. If the horfe has been
negledted, or the difeafe fo rapid in its progrefs that it
cannot be removed, the fymptoms will increafe fo rapid¬
ly, that in a very little time we may obferve the cuticu-
lar veins become turgid and varicofe, fimilar to the lym¬
phatic enlargement in farcy. In this ftate, exercife
confiderably increafes the pain and violence of the
fymptoms, the animal falls off his food, his health be¬
comes very much impaired, and a general decay of the
whole limbs, particularly obfervable in the extenfor
mufcles of the fore-arm, foon renders the animal ufelefs
for aflivity * ^eron *
When the complaint affedls the fore-feet, the Farr^y' ’
horfe throws his hind-feet as far forward as poflible, p‘
which leads thofe who do not underftand the nature of
the complaint to fuppofe that the horfe is affected with
a weaknefs in his loins. When it is feated in the hind-
feet the horfe throws his body forwards, in order to re¬
lieve c
S°4
Difeafes.
3S0
Caufes.
381
Treatment.
FARR
lleve tlie hind-feet of their weight. In this cafe the
horfe is fuppofed to labour under an affeclion of the
chert, which has been called chej}-founder.
The complaint ufually comes on very rapidly, and
fometimes appears a few hours after hard riding, or af¬
ter the application of other caufes, that will immediately
be mentioned.
It may be eafily known that a horfe is foundered, as
he can fcarcely walk on firft coming out of the liable,
and evidently labours under great pain. Like many
other affettions that produce lamenefs, the horfe appears
to be relieved by exercife, but this relief is only tempo¬
rary ; and exercife only tends to increafe the difeafe.
Mr Feron fays, that, on differing the feet of found¬
ered horfes, he has frequently found the membranes of
the joints thicker than in their natural ftate, and fome¬
times a difpofition to anchylojts, or flirt joint ; which in
fome of the joints was evidently obferved.
The founder is very commonly produced by batter¬
ing the hoofs on hard ground. It may be brough. on
by any caufes, that are capable of exciting inflamma¬
tion in the internal fenfible parts of the foot. It
is frequently produced by walhing the legs of a
horfe, wdiile fweating *, and according to Mr Feron
this is fo evident, that if we obferve the horfes belong¬
ing to public coaches, in whom this pra6lice is very
common, w^e lhall fee that fixteen out of twenty labour
under the torture of this difeafe. Founder may alfo
proceed from allowing the horfe, while fweating and
fatigued, to Hand long in a cold, damp air.
In the treatment of founder, the great objeft is to re¬
move the inflammation, which is beft done by bleed¬
ing in the veins of the foot, and the application of
blifter? about the joints. The Ihoe of the affedled foot
muft be removed, and the toe of the cruft may then be
pared to the quick, in order to produce a difcharge of
blood from the veffels of the affedrted part. It will be
proper to pare the whole of the cruft as thin as poflible,
efpecially at the heels and quarters, in order to allow
the frog to come in contact with the ground. Blifters
are now to be applied round the fetlock, down to the
foot. Mr Feron recommends immerftng the feet in
warm water 24 hours after bliftering, keeping them there
all day, and applying a large warm poultice of bran and
water at night. Mr Blaine, on the other hand, advifes
the ufe of cold aftringent lotions, as Goulard or fal am¬
moniac in vinegar. Sometimes the pain in the feet is
fo violent, that the horfe can fcarcely bear to fupport
himfelf upon them, and indeed if he could remain quiet,
it would be better to let him lie down. But if he
proves reftlefs, he may be partly fupported by means of
a fheet drawn round him, with its comers pulled up to
the cieling of the liable by pulleys, fo as to let the
horfe’s feet juft touch the ground.
The horfe muft be kept rather low, and if the inflam¬
mation is very great, or if there is any fever, it will be
proper to adminifter cooling remedies, fuch as the
drenches marked 22 and 2^ in the receipts. The
belly muft be kept moderately open, and all exercile
muft be avoided.
Sometimes after the inflammation has fubfided, the
lamenefs ftill continues. This may be owing to the
formation of horny matter between the fenfible and
-horny foie. Mr Blaine recommends that this be re¬
moved by .cutting away the horny foie 3 but we much
4
I E R Y.
Part VI
doubt whether this operation w'ould be attended with Difeafes.
the defired effedb. v
Founder, properly fo called, can take place only in
thofe animals that have horny hoofs 3 but a fimilar af- teet -u
fedlion not unfrequently occurs in the feet of hounds, dogs,
after a long and fatiguing chafe. It confilts in an in¬
flamed ftate of the feet, produced by long running,
efpecially over hard or ftony ground. When the dogs
come home their feet are hurt and fwTelled, inflamed,
and fometimes cracked or chopt. The dog evidently feels
confiderable pain, and if he lies down for a little, he can
fcavcely be made to rife again. Dogs in this ftate are
faid to be flubbed in the feet, and are often fo much
lamed, that they cannot be taken out again for fome
days. *
When the inflammation is but flight, it requires but
. little attention, as the dog wall himfelf allay the fwell-
ing and pain, by conftant licking. When, however,
the feet have been much bruifed, the cracks pour out
a bloody or purulent matter, and the cafe requires
greater attention. The feet fhould firft be bathed with
warm water, and great care taken that no dirt or
gravel be fuftered to remain between the claws or in
the cracks. After bathing, the feet may be rubbed
with fome digellive ointment, and a cold poultice com-
poled of crumbs of bread well moiftened with vinegar
and w^ater, fhould be tied round the affedled foot.
The hoof of the horfe frequently becomes lengthen- Oontradte^
ed, and contrafted at the heel? and quarters. This un-feet,
natural ihape is commonly the effedl of bad ftioeing, by
which the frog is deprived of the neceffary preffure on
the ground, and thus the heels are prevented from ex¬
panding, while the nails that are fixed in the quarters
contribute to prevent expanfion there, and thus the
hoof is unnaturally lengthened at the toe. This con-
tradlion is confiderably increafed by the heat of ordi¬
nary ftables,- and by the evaporation that takes place
from the hoof wdiile the horfe Hands within doors, on
account of the vacancy left below the frog, while the
heels are elevated above the ground. Contraction of
the hoof caufes lamenefs, by producing an unnatural de¬
gree of preffure on the fenfible parts within, efpecially
on the fenfible frog, which is not unfrequently inflam¬
ed in thefe cafes.
The remedy for this defedrt is, to bring the frog gra¬
dually to prefs upon the ground, by lowering the heels 3
but as, in the very fenfible ftate to wdrich the feet are
commonly brought by contraction, it might be dan¬
gerous to apply preffure to the frog at once, it is ad-
vifable to lower the heels gradually, in the manner di¬
rected in N° 146. If the frog is much difeafed, as fome¬
times happens, a bar (hoe rhould be employed, by
w'hich means flight preflure may be made by fixing an
iron plate from the heels of the ftioe tow'ards the toe.
The beft means of producing preflure in thefe cafes
would probably be to employ Mr Coleman’s artificial
frog. The upper part of the hoof ftiould be rafped
thin, efpecially at the quartern, as thefe parts of the
hoof wall then be more eafily expanded by the motion
of the lateral cartilages. The lower part of the hoof
Ihould alfo be kept moill, efpecially the frog.
Mr Blaine remarks, that dark-chefnut horfes are
more fubjeft to contraCled feet than others, and he re¬
lates a cafe of a mare belonging to himfelf, who had all
her feet contracted. Thefe he endeavoured to expand
by
3S4
Running
thrufh.
Part VI. FARR
t Ptfeafes. by means of jointed tlioes, furnifhed with a Aiding bar,
v " ' which was kept in its fituation by means of pegs, fo
that in this way the heels of the ftioe might be gra¬
dually widened, by moving the crofs bar farther on to¬
wards the toe. This method is very ingenious, but
Mr Blaine acknowledges that it did not fully anfwer
his purpofe.
When the heels have been gradually lowered fo far,
that the frog can bear the proper preffure, the horfe
ftiould continue to wear a thin-heeled fhoe; but if he
is not required to be worked, it would be better to
fend him out to grafs without ftioes, where the pafture
is not too dry.
It often happens in cafes of contra&ed feet, and in
fome other cafes, when the frog does not receive the
due degree of preffure, that a running takes place from
the cleft of the horny frog, occafioned by a degree of
inflammation which is followed by a fecretion of puru¬
lent matter. 1 his complaint is commonly called a
running thrulh. While it extends no farther than the
horny frog, it is feldom attended with any ferious con-
fequences j but if it be negle£led, the matter extends
through the horny to the fenfible frog and fenfible foie,
and produces canker or quittor.
Some horfes have naturally a running from the cleft
of the frog j and fo long as this is flight, and the parts
are kept clean, it is of little confequence. We know
there are fome perlons who conceive a Jlight running
thrujh, as rather beneficial to a horfe, and do not elteem
it as a mark of unfoundnefs; but we cannot agree with
thefe gentlemen in either particular, as, though the
complaint does not in itfelf abfolutely render a horfe
iame, fo long as his feet are properly attended to, it
will, if negle&ed, degenerate into a foul ulcer, the mat¬
ter of which may eafily penetrate into the internal
parts of the foot. A running thrujh is very commonly
the confequence of bad grooming, and fuffering dirt
and gravel to lodge in the clefts of the frog, and it is
Hill more frequently produced in the common method
of fhoeing, by cutting and paring away the frog.
In the treatment of a running thrufli, the principal
objefts are, to remove the caufe that firft produced it,
and. to flop the difcharge of purulent matter. The lat¬
ter is .eafily effefted by applying to the part fome Hi-
mulating liniment. Mr Blaine recommends for this
purpofe a compofition of two ounces of tar, with fix
drachms of vitriolic acid, which is to be applied hot
every day, by pouring it into the cleft of the frog from
a fpoon. The difcharge, though eafily flopped in this
way, will foon return, unlefs the proper degree of pref¬
fure be given to the frog; and this is to be brought
about by proper attention to ftioeing the horfe with
thin-heeled Ihoes, taking care that the heels be lowered
gradually, and flight artificial preffure be made on the
frog, till it is become fufficiently healthy to bear the
natural preffure of the ground.
When the matter of a running thrufli infinuates itfelf
upwards to the fenfible parts of the foot, it forms what
is called canker, in which there is a confiderable in¬
flammation, producing a luxuriant unhealthy fungus,
fpringing up from all the difeafed furface that is ex-
pofed, and producing a great degree of tendernefs, and
what may be called a rottennefs of the hoof. If this
difeafe continues for any confiderable time, it attacks
the whole fubftance of the foot, extending to the ten-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
I E Pi Y.
„ 385
Canker.
dons, ligaments, and bones, till at laft the foot mav
abfolutely drop oft' with difeafe. Mr Coleman coniiders
canker as generally the effea of too much moillure
applied to the foot or hoof.
To check the progrefs of a canker, the whole of the
excrefcence that appears on the external part of the
hoof, is to be cut away clofe to the furface from which
it fprings, and luch parts of the horny foie as appear to
be detached from th£ lenfible foie, ftiould be removed,
to prevent the matter from lodging in the internal parts.
When the difeafed part is fairly expofed to view, it is to
be waftied with a folution of fome metallic cauftic, iiich
as nitrate of mercury, N° 49 of the receipts, or a fo¬
lution ot lunar cauftic, in the proportion of a drachm
to two ounces of foft water. This is beft applied by
moiftening a pledget of lint or tow, and confining this
upon the cankered furface, by applying a regular pref¬
fure by means of crofs bars of iron introduced beneath
the flioe.. A continuance of thefe applications, while
the frog is gradually expofed to preffure, will in gene¬
ral foon flop the progrefs of the difeafe, and when this
is removed, the horny parts of the hoof that had been
cut away will be gradually removed 5 and by ftioeing
the horfe properly afterwards, the difeale will be pre¬
vented from returning.
Cattle and ftieep are fubjedl to a difeafe very fimilar
to canker in the horfe, producing a difcharge of fetid
matter from between the claws of the hoof, or fome-
times from only one claw.
This affedlion in cattle is commonly called the fouls,
or the cattle are faid to be foul in the foot. Managers
of cattle commonly divide this difeafe into two kinds,
the foft, and the horny, which are faid to require dif¬
ferent modes of treatment. In the foft fouls, a running
of very offenfive matter takes place from the heels, or
between the claws of the hoof; and the animal appears
exceedingly lame. The treatment in this cafe confifts
in cutting away all the foft and fpongy parts, and then
applying a cauftic liquid, fuch as will prefently be de-
fcribed, for the foot-rot in ftieep. The parts are then
to be covered with a pledget fpread with mild oint¬
ment, or, what is very common among farmers, a piece
of fat bacon may be wrapt round the part, tied on the
foot, and fuffered to remain for two or three days. In
the mean time the animal ihould Hand very clean, and
be allowed to reft as much as poflible.
The horny fouls feem to be very analogous to corns
in horfes. The animal is very lame, and, on examining
the foot, the hoof feels very hot, and, when hard preffed,
the beaft evidently feels much pain. There will com¬
monly be found fome part of the horn penetrating into
the fofter parts of the foot, either at the heel, or be¬
tween the hoofs. In the treatment it is neceffary to cut
away thefe parts of the horn, as well as any part under
which there appears much inflammation. For this pur¬
pofe, it will probably be neceffary to call the animal,
but care fliould be taken that he be thrown on a foft
place. After the hoof has been pared away, a rag
moiftened with vinegar and water Ihould be tied on,
and the animal muft be fent to grafs in a foft fmooth
pafture. If the inflammation and pain are very great,
it may be neceffary to bleed from the veins of the foot.
I’1 Iheep it is called the foot-root, and is generally pro-P30^'
duced by their being kept on a wet foil. It is remark- eC^‘
able that fait marihes do not produce it. According
3 s 'to
387
Foot-rot ia
X,
5°6
FARE.
Difeafes. to Mr Lawrence, frequent travelling to and from the
■—'y—' fold, or by fuckling ewes from the hot dung of a fheep-
houfe, will occafion it. Some are of opinion, that it
originates from the fame caufe which occafions chil¬
blains in the human feet} and this opinion is maintain¬
ed in the effay on the difeafes of fheep, affixed to Mr
Findlater’s Survey of Peebles, where it is Hated, that the
remote caufe of the difeafe is weaknefs, and the imme¬
diate caufe caufe cold and wet, as'ftanding in cold wea¬
ther upon wet paflures, with the feet conllantly foaked
in water. Dr Wilkinfon of Enfield confiders moillure
as the predifpofing taufe, and has found the difeafe to
be produced from the fheep continuing in long grafs
during a mild winter. The fame caufe generally, al¬
though perhaps gradually, operates upon the whole Hock,
and then it has been fuppofed that the difeafe is conta¬
gious. The late Lord Somerville had a piece of paf-
ture which always produced the foot-rot on any fheep
that were put into it *, but the difeafe was entirely pre¬
vented or rooted out by a careful feleftion of the fheep
in order, by paring the hoofs of thofe that began to be
affected, and by the ufe of cauftics not too corrofive.
Thefe appeared to be the moft proper means of flopping
the complaint, and the belt cauftic application is faid to
the nitrate of mercury. It is evident, that, during the
application, the hoofs of the fheep ffiould be kept as
clean as poffible. Whether its greater or lefs prevalence
depends on the lefs or greater attention paid to the fheep,
is not perhaps fully ascertained. It is, however, certain
that the fheep of fome dillridls are entirely free from it.
We are informed, that in Tweeddale the complaint
is fcarcely known.
There is a difeafe in the horfe’s foot, in which the
coffin-bone is forced backwards, and made to prefs un¬
naturally upon the hfels, by which its edges being fub-
je£led to unufual preffure, become partly abforbed.
Hence this bone lofing its fupport, becomes preffed in
its concave part, where inflammation is produced, and
bony matter is thrown out, rendering the lower part of
the coffin-bone convex inllead of concave, and the foie is
rendered unufually thin. This difeafe is called pummiced
feet, and may be brought on in three ways; from im¬
proper ffioeing, from inflammation, as in cafe of found¬
ers, and from a natural defedl in the foot itfelf. It is
faid to be very common in wet foils. It is very common¬
ly produced by applying the ffioe red-hot to the horfe’s
foot. Its immediate caufe appears to be an inflamma¬
tion of the fenfible laminae, by which a quantity of coa¬
gulated lymph or of bony matter is thrown out, that
forces back the coffin-bone in the manner above de-
fcribed. When the difeafe is completely formed, it
does not appear capable of being radically cured, hut
only admits of palliation. Mr Blaine recommends, that
the growth of the foie ffiould be encouraged by every
means, but the foot ffiould not be kept improperly moift.
The belt means would be, the turning the horfe out
without ffioes in a dry pafture. No part of the heels or
foie ffiould be removed in this cafe, as the parts are al¬
ready too flight. A ffioe ffiould be formed, if poffible,
that prefents a hollow furface to the foot, and a plain
one to the ground. This may be done, by making
it of rather an increafed thicknefs, which will admit of
its being hollowed within, and bevilled from the outer
389 to the inner edge of the web.
Sandcracks. Sometimes perpendicular fiflures or cracks are feen in
388
Pummiced
feet.
I E R Y. Part VI.
the hoof extending between the fibres in a parallel di- Difeafes.
redtion from above dowmwards. 1 hele are called fand- ~ "-f
cracks, and generally take place near the quarter, more
frequently on the outer than the inner fide, and oftener
in the fore than the hind foot. Thefe cracks fometimes
come on fuddenly, and then generally denote a contrac¬
tion of the hoof. They are alfo faid to have arifen from
a wound in the veffel or part of the coronary ligament,
bringing on a fecretion of horny matter, which gets be¬
tween the fibres of the hoof, and caufes them to feparate.
The means of preventing the crack from extending,
are to thin the hoof where the crack has taken place as
much as poffible, and to make a tranfverfe fedfion a
little way acrofs at the upper part. If the crack ffiould
ftill continue to gape, it muft be carefully covered, and
the hoof bound round, fo as to clofe it as much as may
be, and the portion of the cruft that refts on the Ihoe
ffiould be chambered aw'ay a little, by wffiich means the
divided parts will be more likely to come together. 390
When a wound has been inffidled on the coronet,Falfe *luai>
the coronary ligament commonly becomes injured, and
its vafcular part does not fecrete fo much bony matter
as ufual. Hence there is a fpace left between the old
horny matter of the hoof, and the new that is formed
from other parts ; and this produces what is commonly
called a falfe quarter. A falfe quarter may alfo be
produced, in confequence of a quittor extending upwards
through the coronet. As the fenfible laminae within
the hoof are liable to be preffed in this vacant fpace be¬
tween the horny edges, thus caufing violent pain, the
falfe quarter is attended with a lamenefs of the w'orft
kind ; for as this interference of the lamina fometimes
takes place fuddenly, while the animal is in motion, the
pain makes him {brink, and he not unfrequently comes
down.
The only way of remedying this defeft is, to excite
fuch an action in the coronary ligament as may difpofe
it to throw out new horny matter, and thus fill up the
vacant fpace. This is belt effected by removing the
furrcunding horn, and applying blifters to the coronet,
while the part of the hoof that is oppofed to the Ihoe
ffiould be hollow-ed away as much as poffible, to admit
of the feparated parts approaching each other. 39j
When a horfe in motion, efpecially in trotting, brings Cutting,
one foot fo near another as to interfere, and thereby
graze or wound one of the feet, he is faid to cut. Some¬
times the feet of a horfe are in this w^ay feverely wound¬
ed, and temporary lamenefs is produced. In cutting,
the horfe may either wound the heels of the fore feet,
writh the toe, or fide of the hind ftioe, which is the moft
common cafe \ or he may wound the fore part of the
hind-foot, juft above the hoof, by ftriking it againft the
heel of the fore fhoe ; or, laftly, he may bring two of
the feet fo clofely together, as to wTound the inner
fide of either.
Cutting may arife from a bad habit, or from a natural
deformity of the feet, but it is very commonly the con¬
fequence of bad ffioeing. When horfes cut from turning
out their toes, which is by much the moft common
caufe, they are obferved to have the inner quarter of
the hoof lower than the outer, and the fetlock
joints are thus nearer each other than thofe of horfes
which have their limbs ftraight. Thefe fafls led far¬
riers to a conclufion, that if the inner quarters were
raifed to a level with the outer, and efpecially if made
even
Part VI. FARR
Difeafes. even higher, the fetlock joints would be thrown further
apart, fo that the foot would pafs the fupporting leg
without linking: Accordingly, it has been ufual to
make the inner quarter ©f the Ihoe higher than the
outer, and this has been the .common practice for a long
time. Mr Morecroft, by making trial of a (hoe, of a
lhape the reverfe of what we have defcribed, namely,
having the outer quarter thick, and the inner thin, com¬
pletely prevented cutting in the horfe, on whom thofe
llioes were tried, and the utility of the improvement has
been confirmed by fucceeding trials. According to Mr
Elaine, the principle on which this is fuppofed to aft is,
that when a horfe is at reft, he fupports his weight
equally on both feet; but, having his inner quarter
much raifed, in the common mode of attempting to re¬
medy the defefl of cutting, when one foot is elevated he
mull be lupported obliquely on the other, and hence
have a tendency to fall outw-ards •, to prevent wdiich he
brings the moving foot nearer the fupporting one, by
which he ftrikes it. Confidering it in this point of view,
it is not difficult to account for our author’s mode of
reafoning on his method, which, by elevating the outer
inftead of the inner fide of the fupporting foot, mull ne-
ceflarily give it a difpofition to lean iiwards, and fall to
the infide, which will throw the moving further from
the fupporting foot. But, ingenious as this mode of
reafoning may be, it is to be feared, that by thus throw-
* Blahr's *n§ an increafe of weight on the inner fide, we ftrall
Outlines, fometimes be in danger of producing evils, that will
vol. ii. counterbalance the prevention of cutting *.
39* Lamenefs may be produced by any one of the caufes
that we have mentioned, but it may happen that a com¬
bination of tw-o or more of thefe caufes takes place at the
fame time in difterent parts of the fame limb : thus the
foot may be pricked with a nail, and a ftrain may take
place, nearly at the fame time, in the finewrs of the leg,
or the ligaments of the joints 5 for the pain excited by
the nail firft makes the horfe trip or ftumble, and then,
his making a fudden exertion to fave himfelf, or eafe the
pained foot, a ftrain of the ligaments or finews frequently
takes place. A fimilar complication is often produced
in a horfe that is affected with fpavin, or other bony ex-
crefcences, as his exertion to fave the limb that feels
painful from the rubbing of the mufcles or tendons
againft the fpavin, may produce a fevere ftrain in the
mufcles of the ftroulder.
As the caufes of lamenefs are fo various, and the real
feat of it frequently very obfeure, a practitioner ftiould
be extremely cautious how he gives a decifive opinion
with refpeft to either, before he has well examined the
parts where lanenefs may take place, and enquired into
every circumltance that may affift him in forming his
opinion. For want of fuch precaution, and from a fu-
perficial examination of the part that is fuppofed to be
the feat of the afte&ion, egregious blunders and danger¬
ous miftakes are not unfrequently committed, and ap¬
plications have been made to parts that are really found,
when it is afterwards difeovered, to the confufion of the
practitioner, that the real caufe of the lamenefs was in a
different place. Nothing is more common than for or¬
dinary farriers to apply their liniments and embroca¬
tions to the ffioulder, when in fact the affeftion that
caufes the lamenefs is feated in the feet.
As, perhaps, in nine cafes out of ten, the foot is the
part that has received the injury, this ftiould firft be exa-
_ 5°7
Tlifeafes.
393
I E R Y.
mined with the ftricteft attention, the hoof ffiould be
made perfectly clean, efpecially in its under furface, to
fee whether there be any crack or fiffure, any difcolor-
ation, any particular heat, &c. The paftern and all
round the coronet ffiould be alfo carefully infpeSed $
and, if nothing is found, the examination ffiould be re¬
peated next day, or even a third time. The foot is
more particularly to be fufpected of being the feat of the
complaint, when the lamenefs makes its appearance
foon after the horfe has been ffiod, or has had his ffioes
faftened 5 as the foot may be lamed by a nail in ftioeing,
though the point of the nail has not penetrated to the
quick. The nail may be fo thick, or may pafs fo near
the quick, as to prefs in a fmall part of the hoof upon
the foft parts, thus producing exquifite pain, and perhaps
inflammation. It is therefore proper always to remove
the ftioe from the foot of the affefted limb, and if the
caufe of lamenefs is not very evident to wait a few days,
to fee wffiether the removal of the flioe has produced
any alteration for the better.
No certain rule can be laid down for judging of the
feat of lamenefs from the motion of the affedled limb,
though this is confidered by fome as one of the fureft
marks. The deranged motion in one part of the limb
very commonly arifes from fympathy with another part
that is the real feat .of the affedlion.
We have now, we believe, mentioned all the import-St. ing-halt.
ant cafes of lamenefs, except the firing-halt, or dich-
fpavin. This is an afteftion of the hind quarters, pro¬
ducing a fudden jerking of the legs upwards, when the
horfe attempts to move. It appears to be a nervous af-
fedlion, and feems to be fomewhat analogous to the
chorea, or St Vitus''s dance, in children. We do not
know that this affe£lion has ever been cured, but it is
faid that it may be palliated by allowing the horfe to
run much at large, and letting him remain untied in a
large liable. Mr Lawrence recommends that, after a
hard day’s wmrk, both hind legs be immerfed in a warm
bath up to the hocks, and kept there as long as the
water continues warm, when they are to be rubbed per-
fedlly dry, and the fame bath and rubbing repeated in
the morning. He alfo advifes anointing the back
linews, and about the hocks, with ftrong camphorated
ointment.
We have occafionally, in this and the preceding chap- uiCCrs^
ters, fpoken of abfeeffes and ulcers, and their treatment j
and we can add little here on that fubjecl, as it will be
fully treated of in the article Surgery j and the in-
llructions to be there laid down will apply nearly as
properly to the inferior animals as to man. We may
juft remark, that foul ulcers, and fuch as do not heal
kindly, are perhaps more common in fome of the infe¬
rior animals than in man •, and hence they require 1 r the
former applications of a more ftimulating nature, to ex¬
cite a proper degree of healthy adlion in the ulcerated
part. There are a few particular ulcers which call for
confideration in this article, and we cannot, perhaps,
treat of them in any part of the treatife more properly
than under the morbid affedlions of motion.
There fometimes takes place an inflammation, and
confequent fuppuration in the mucous capfules, at the
articulation of the head wfith the firft vertebra of the
neck, near the infertion of the cervical ligament. I his
affe£tion is commonly called the poll-evil. It is almoft
3 S 2 always
SOS' f; a r r
Difeafes. always the confequehce of an injury done to the back of
v—™ ■ by a horfe’s hanging back in his collar, by
linking his head againft the rack or manger} and is very
frequently produced by a blow given on the head by
brutal coachmen or carters. An ulcer in this part is
often very difficult to heal, and when it extends beyond
the Ikin, the matter lometimes inlinuates itfelf below
the ligament of the neck, and on each fide of it, and it
not unfrequently produces a caries or rottennefs of the
vertebras. The cure of the poll-evil is moll ealily ef-
fedled when the inflammation is firft difcovered, before
a liippuration takes place; as, when once matter is formed,
it commonly produces finufes in the loofe cellular fub-
Itance about that part of the head, and thefe are not
ealily healed. When, therefore, we have reafon to
fuppofe that inflammation has begun in the Ikin of this
part of the neck, every means mull be employed to pre¬
vent its progrefs towards fuppuration. A blifter Ihould
be immediately applied over the part, and when this has
done its duty, a folution of fal ammoniac in vinegar, or
vinegar and water, ffiould be applied by means of a
cloth kept conllantly wet. If a fuppuration appears
inevitable, it mull be encouraged by fomenting the part
frequently with warm water, or by the repeated appli¬
cation of warm poultices •, and when the fwelling ap¬
pears fufficiently ripe, it mull be opened, which is bell
done by introducing a feton from the highelt to the
moll depending part of the tumour, as dire£led in No.
173. The cord of the feton mull be examined every
day, wiped dry, and rubbed with a little digeltive oint¬
ment, and the fore Ihould be carefully excluded from
the air.
If the fuppuration has proceeded any length, before
it is difcovered, there will probably be a number of li-
nufes, or pipes, as they are called, wflth matter lodging
in each. If it can be eafdy effected, it would be proper
to lay thefe open, and make them communicate with
each other, or, if their direflion can be afcertained, a
feton may be palled through each. When a proper
opening has been made for the matter, and care taken
that none of it lodges, the fore will loon heal, by the
application of the proper llimulating ointments.
It is fometimes necelfary to employ the knife in this
cafe } but when this is done, the greatell care Ihould be
taken not to wound the ligament, or, as the farriers call
it, the fix-fax of the neck. The bell method of avoid¬
ing this is, to have the animal’s head faftened very high
to the rack, by which the ligament will be more flack, and
the finger can be ealily introduced below it, fo as to be
a guide to the knife.
We mentioned in No. 341. the chafing of the back
with the faddle. There is another injury of a fimilar
kind, that is often fullered by the withers, from the
faddle being allowed to prefs on them too long. This
preffure and rubbing fometiflaes produces an inflamma¬
tory fwelling, which, if it be not foon difcufled, goes on
to fuppuration, and produces a fore which farriers call
ffulous withers, or a fifula in the withers. This is
alfo a very troublefome ulcer, as the matter fometimes
penetrates below the fhoulder, and makes its way down
the bones of the fore leg •, or, by infinuating itfelf among
the vertebrae of the back, renders them carious. The
treatment in this cafe is much the fame as in the lall j
the inflammation ftrould be difcufled as foon as poffible,
and if matter forms, it fhould be evacuated by means
I E R Y.
Part VI.
396
Fiftulous
withers.
of fetons. It is frequently required to pafs a feton Difeafes.
through the tumour on each fide of the withers, in order v
to produce a proper inclination of the orifice, to carry
off the matter. When finufes form, they mull be open¬
ed, as in the cafe of poll-evil. zgy
There is fometimes a fpecies of ill-difpofcd ulcers in Ranker of
the external part of the ears of dogs, very difficult to^e ear m
heal. It is generally called catiier. Thefe, when they ^ '
heal, leave hardened edges, which frequently break out
again in the courfe of a few months. The befl appli¬
cation in this cafe is lunar cauftic applied to the edges,
to encourage them to flough off 5 but if this fhould not
be found fufficient, the beft remedy will be to fear1 off
the difeafed parts with a red-hot knife, or they may be
cut off by a Ample incifion.
Chap. III. Morbid Affections of Digefion.
39*
In order that the food may be wrell digefted, when
received into the ftomach, it is neceffary that it undergo
the previous operation of chewing j unlefs it be of fuch
a nature, as to be eafily foluble in the gaftric juice,
without this previous preparation. The latter is the
cafe only with dogs, whofe food confifling almofl entire-
ly of animal matter, requires little or no chewing. But
the food of horfes, flieep, and cattle in general, requires
to be well chewed, either when firft fwallowed, or in
fheep and cattle by fubfequent rumination. ^99
The mouth in thefe animals is fometimes fo fwelled, Sore mouth*
or otherwife affedted with fores or cracks, that it is with
difficulty the animals can chew their food. Sometimes
there are bloody chinks or chops in the palate, occafion-
ed by thiitles or other prickly plants, which are mixed
with the hay, or grow up among the grafs. Thefe
fhould be walked on their firfl appearance with fait and
vinegar, applied by means of a rag tied to a flick. If
negledled, thefe chops frequently become inflamed and
ulcerated. If pimples arife, they mufl be opened when
they begin to fuppurate, by means of a pointed cautery.
There are fometimes found within-fide the lip of cart
horfes and other ordinary cattle, foft tumours, or puf-
tules with black heads, which are called giggs, bladders,
or flips in the mouth. They do not always occafion
much inconvenience, but fometimes they grow to a large
fize, fo as to grow troublefome, and prevent chewing.
When this is the cafe, they mufl be removed, either by
faflening a thread about their roots, as direfted in the
treatment of wrarts, where they are of fuch a form as to
admit of a ligature j or by the knife, applying after¬
wards the hot iron or cautery. In performing this ope¬
ration, care mufl be taken to draw the tongue to one
fide, fo that it may not be wounded. After removing^
thefe excrefcences with the knife and cautery, the mouth
may be wafhed with a folution of white vitriol or alum.
Excrefcences of a fimilar kind, called barbs or paps,
fometimes grow-below the tongue, and mufl be removed
where practicable by means of ligature, as it is dange¬
rous to employ the knife. When thefe excrefcences
are negle£led, there fometimes arife in the mouth little
ulcers with white fpecks, very fimilar to the aphthous
crufts that form in the human mouth. It is recom¬
mended by fome writers to ufe the cautery on thefe oc-
cafions} but probably a detergent lotion, fuch as we hav^
juft recommended, will anfwer the purpofe of removing
them.
The
4oi
Lampas.
402
Choaking.
Part VI.
Difeafes. The mouth or tongue of horfes are fometimes wound-
^ J ed with the bit or curb. When this happens, a lotion
W ' Has'in ma^e with alum diflblved in water, and fweetened with
the mouth, honey, may be employed; and the bit Ihould not be
ufed again till the mouth is healed.
Many veterinary writers have defcribed the difeafe
in the horfe’s mouth called the lampas, which is ftated
to be an inflammation and fwelling of the firlt bar of
of the mouth in a young horfe, fo as to prevent his
chewing. We believe that LafolTe and Dr Bracken
were the firfl: to deny the exiftence of fuch a complaint,
which is now generally difcredited among moft of our
modern writers. We hav$ no doubt that fuch a fwelling
may take place ; but it can fearcely be attended with
the ill confequences commonly attributed to it, or re¬
quire fuch vigorous treatment as is ufually recommended.
It may happen, that any of thefe animals fhall have
a difliculty of fwallowihg, from various caufes j either
from an unufual narrownefs in the gullet, or from the
morfel attempted to be {wallowed being too large.
The latter very frequently happens to cattle who are
fed upon turnips or potatoes ; and the choaking thus
produced fometimes proves very dangerous, as, if the
obftruclion is not fpeedily removed, the animal will die
for want of breath. The method commonly employed
among country farmers for unchoaking cattle, as they
term it, is to thrufl: down the throat a large ftiff rope,
ravelled at the end, and well greafed. This often fuc-
ceeds, but it is a clumfy method ; and if the rope, by
having been long ufed, or becoming dry, fliould lofe its
ftiffnefs, it will be bent in endeavouring to force down
the obftruftion j or, if the ravelled end be not pretty
large, or the obftrufting morfel of an irregular fliape,
the rope may pafs between the lide of the gullet and
the obftructioa, without this being removed. Several
intelligent farmers have therefore laid alide the ufe of
the rope, and have contrived an inftrument fimilar to
the probang employed by furgeons. An inftrument
of this kind has been already mentioned, in the defcrip-
tion of Mr Hunter’s feeding byre in N° 236. An ac¬
count of one that appears to us to be more ufeful and
ingenious, has been communicated to us by the reverend
Charles Findlater, minifter of Newlands in Tweeddale.
It is the contrivance of Mr Charles Alexander, a far¬
mer in Mr Findlater’s neighbourhood, and has long been
employed by him for the purpofe of relieving choaked
cattle. The following is Mr Alexander’s conftrmftion
of his inftrument, as politely defcribed to us by Mr
Findlater.
Take three fmall canes, of the thicknefs of the little
finger, or thereabouts, of the length of 54 feet, that
they may reach down the throat, and into the ftomach
ander’s pro-0f largeft ox. Thefe canes are to be bound toge¬
ther by ftrong fmooth twine rolled tightly about them
(the circles of the twine touching each other), from top
to bottom. Bees wax is then to be rubbed along the
twine, to fill up any inequalities, and the whole rod is
to be well oiled before it is ufed. There is- a round
knob at each end, the larger 2.\ inches in diameter for
larger cattle •, the other lefs for leffer cattle. Thefe
knobs are formed of the twine rolled hard, and when
formed may be ftrengthened in their pofition, by being
fewed by means of a Ihoemaker’s awl or brog, and a
waxed briftled thread, fuch as they employ. The thread
knobs are made tapering up the canes from their broad
FARRIERY.
5°9
Difeafcs.
403
Mr Alex-
bang-.
extremity 3 but it muft be remarked that the furface of
this extremity is not rounded like a clue, but hollowed -y—**
into the form of a cup. The intention of this hollowed
form is, to make certain of catching hold of the ob-
ftrudling body 3 as, if the knob was round, it might
£afs by it. After the knobs are formed, they are co¬
vered wnth foft leather, which by its flexibility will
adapt itfelf to the holkw end of the knob as foon as it
reaches an obftacle. The knobs muft be fecurely fixed
to the canes, for if they fall off, they leave an indigeft-
ible fubftance in the ftomach. Such is Mr Alexander’s
probang, the only improvements on which that we
w7ould advife are, to make the knobs of fponge, firmly
faftened to the canes, by paffing twine through holes
bored in them, and adding at each end two or three
bights of twine, for the purpofe of catching hold of
any obftacle, thus making the inftrument almoft exactly
like a furgeon’s probang. We think the fponge prefer¬
able to the twine, as it -will not be fo liable to injure
the animal’s throat by its hardnefs, will adapt itfelf more
readily to the form of the obftacle, and may be more
firmly fixed to the canes.
When cattle are put into a field of young clover, or
rich grafs, efpecially if they have previoufly been kept Over-feed-
on poor or dry fodder, they are apt to eat voracioufly ing or fog-
of their new repaft, and the young fucculent food, whenhciinefs*
received into the ftomach, foon ferments, and produces
fuch a quantity of air, as to fwell the ftomach to a vio¬
lent and dangerous degree. Cattle thus affefted are
faid to be over-fed, hove, or blown 3 or the affeflion of
the ftomach thus produced, is called over-feeding, or
fometimes fog-fcknefs. If not fpeedily relieved, the
animal’s ftomach not unfrequently burfts, from the ina¬
bility to evacuate the accumulated air 3 for there feems,
in thefe cafes, to be a conftridlion of the gullet, fo
that the air cannot efcape upwards, while the number
of ftomachs, and the fpafmodic contraftion produced by
the unufual diftention, prevents its paflage by the anus.
The neceflity of fpeedily relieving the animal, promp¬
ted the employment of what muft at firft have been
confidered as a very defperate remedy 3 namely, ftabbing
the animal. An opening is made with a {harp pen¬
knife into the paunch, in the thin part between the laflr
rib and the huckle bone 3 and through this the air ra¬
pidly efcapes. Sometimes the barrel of a quill is in-
ferted into the wound, to prevent its doling before all
the air that is produced during the fermentation of the
food, has efcaped.
Stabbing the animal, is a remedy that ftiould not be
had recourfe to, but on the moft urgent neceffity 3 as
^the wound can feldom be made with fuch nicety as not
to wound fome important organ, efpecially fome large
blood-veffel. Indeed frequently the diftenfion of the
ftomach, and confequently of the Ikin and mufcles of
the belly, is fo great, that the moment the knife is in¬
troduced, a dreadful rent takes place, producing fuch a
wound, as may be attended with fatal confequences.
Happily this operation is not often neceffary, as it is
found that the adminift,ration of fome internal ftimulat-
ing medicines will check the fermentation of the green
fodder, and promote the abforption of the extricated
air. Many farmers have for fome time given tar with
this intention, adminiftering an egg fhell full to each
beaft 3 of late, howrever, the ufe of ardent fpirits has
been introduced, and it is found that a pint or mute kin
of
5IC F A R R
, -Q^eafes. of wliiiky or gin, mixed with an equal quantity of water,
v is the moft efficacious remedy. Laudanum has alfo
been recommended, but probably it is not fuperior to
common fpirits (d).
It has been the practice with fome farmers, to intro¬
duce on thefe occalions, the common rope employed in
cafes of choakmg, into the ftomach, and move it up and
down, fo as to produce a gradual evacuation of the air 5
but we ffiould fuppofe that the evacuation produced in
this way muft be extremely flow.
40- Dr Monro fenior, profeffor of anatomy in the uni-
Dr Monro’s verlity of Edinburgh, fome years ago contrived an elaftic
flexible tube, that might be .introduced down the throat into
the ilomach of the animal, and thus fpeedily and effec¬
tually evacuate the air. A defeription of this inftru-
ment, and the manner of employing it, appeared in an
Edinburgh newfpaper, we believe, with the doftor’s au¬
thority. It has fince been publilhed in a popular trea-
tife on the difeafes of black cattle, entitled “ Rowlin’s
Complete Cow-Dodtor,” from which we have taken it.
The doctor begins by obferving, that the fwelling of
the belly is owing to the diftention of the ftomachs by
'fixed air, difengaged from‘the fucculent grafs in confe-
quence of fermentation, the difeharge of which by the
mouth feems to be prevented by a fpafmodic contradlion
of the upper orifice of the ftomach. He concludes
•that the cattle may with certainty be faved, if tire air
he drawn off in due time, without injuring the ftomach
and bowels ; and he affirms that this may be done with
great eafe by palling a flexible tube dowrn the gullet
into the ftomach.
1 he tube is to be compofed of iron wire, as large as
a common flocking wire, or about one fixteenth part of
an inch diameter, twifted round a fmooth iron rod, three
eighths of an inch diameter, in order to give it a cylin¬
drical form ; and after taking it off the rod, it is to be
covered with fmooth leather.
To the end of the tube, which is intended to be paf-
fed into the ftomach, a brafs pipe, two inches long, of
the fame fize as the tube, and pierced with a number of
large holes, is to be firmly connected.
To prevent the tube from bending too much, within
the mouth or gullet, in time of palling it dowm into
the ftomach, an iron wire, one eighth of an inch diame¬
ter, and of the fame length as the tube, is put within
it, which is to be withdrawn, when the tube has entered
the ftomach.
He has found that the fpaCe from the fore teeth of
ths under jaw, to the bottom of the firft ftomach of a
large ox, meafures about fix feet, and he has paffed fuch
a tube, five feet and nine inches long into the gullet and
ftomach of a living ox. The tube ought therefore to
be fix feet long, that we may be fure of its anfwering
in the largeft oxen.
After the tube is paffed into the ftomach, it may be
allowed to remain for any length of time 5 as when it
is preffed to one fide of the throat, it does not intercept
the breathing of the animal. The greateft. part of the
elaftic and condenfed fixed air, will be readily difehar-
ged through the tube; and if it be thought neceffary,
I E R Y. part VI.
the remainder of it, or the fuperfluous drink, may be Difeafes.
fucked cut, by a bellows fixed to the upper end of the ' " -v"
tube, with a couple of valves, one at its muzzle, and the
other at the fide of it, fo difpofed as to allow the air to
pafs in the direftion from the ftomach upwards.
By means of fuch a tube, the air is not only more
certainly difeharged than by ftabbing the animal 5 but
the dangers avoided which the ftabbing occafions, not
fo much by the irritation which the wound creates, as
that the air, and the other contents of the ftomach, get¬
ting into the cavity of the belly, between the contain¬
ing parts and the bowels, excite fuch a degree of in¬
flammation as frequently proves fatal to the animal.
This tube may be alfo ufeful for the purpofe of intro¬
ducing ftimulant medicines into the ftomach, when the
contraftion at the upper orifice would prevent their be-
ing given without fome fuch contrivance.
An inftrument of this kind is fold in London, at
Macdougal’s, N® 15, Great Wind-Mill Street. It
Ihould be made of various fizes, for flieep, as rvell as
cattle. According to Mr Blaine, Mr Eages of Graffham
farm, near Guildford, has fimplified this mode of relief
much, by the invention of an inftrument, for which he
wTas rewarded by the Society for the encouragement of
Arts, with fifty guineas. This is Amply a cane of con-
fiderable diameter, and fix feet in length for oxen ; to
which is affixed a knob of w7ood, at the end to be intro¬
duced into the ftomach. That for ffieep is confiderably
fmaller, and three feet long. This inftrument, for its
fimplicity, is much to be preferred, as it is found to oc-
cafion the evacuation of the air as effectually as the
other. In cafes of emergency, and in a judicious
hand, the flexible part of a common cart whip might
anfwer the end.
Flatulence may be produced in horfes, by eating
greedily of rich food, to wdiich they have been unaccuf-
tomed, or after having faffed long *, efpecially if they
drink much water immediately after. A horfe In this
ftate fliould not be taken out to work, as, from the di-
ftenfion of the ftomach, there is danger of injuring the
horfes wind, or even in fome cafes of burfting the fto¬
mach. If the diftenfion has not proceeded to a great
length, and if the horfe is not coftive, gentle friction
on the belly, and adminiftering a ball made of fome of
the cordial feeds, will generally procure relief •, but if
the complaint proceeds to a great height, and there is
griping pain, attended with coftivenefs, it becomes a cafe
of flatulent colic ; the deferiptions and treatment of
w’hich wall be confidered in the next feCtion.
When this flatulence comes to a great height, it Acute in¬
forms the difeafe that is commonly called acute indigef-digeftion.
tion. It very commonly arifes from the horfe eating
voracioufly, after having been kept without food for
many hours ; efpecially if the food then given him be
of a flatulent kind, fuch as grains or draff, young fweet
grafs, clover, or the like. The horfe’s ftomach being
naturally fmall, is eafily diftended by an unufual quantity
of food, or by the air difengaged from fuch as eafily runs
intp fermentation. Hence arife fwelling and tightnefs
of the ftomach, and acute pain. The horfe difeontinues
eating,
(d) Lhe ufe of fpirits in thefe cafes wras, we believe, firft introduced by Dr Whytt of Edinburgh, wTho ivas in
the habit of achniniftering a pint (mutchkin) of gin on thefe occafiqns.
2
Part VI.
FARRIERY.
Difeafes.
, 4°7
ft)i£bn.
* Daniil's
Rural
Sports.
4°8
Worms.
A°9
Bots,Oe.
cqui.
eating, holds out his head, and appears exceedingly
deftreffed $ he looks anxioully and mournfully at his
lide, ftamps with his feet, and breaks out into cold
fweats. If he is not foon relieved, the head becomes
affe&ed, and there appear evident marks of preffure on
the brain. Symptoms very fimilar to thofe of flaggers
follow, and the horfe commonly dies apople&ic, or the
ffomach burfts.
As this affetlion is fo dangerous, immediate relief is
neceffary. Stimulant medicines, fuch as are called car¬
minatives, as oil of anifefeeds, effence of peppermint,
or oil of turpentine, fhould be immediately adminifter-
ed and if there appears much determination of blood
to the head, which may be known by a {'welling and
heavinefs of the eyes, and the violent throbbing of the
arteries of the temples, it will be neceffary to draw
blood pretty largely by opening one of thefe arteries.
If the horfe is bound in the belly, he muff be raked,
and have a ftrong purgative clyfter with fome aromatic
fubftance in it, as anifefeeds, or carraway feeds.
All thefe animals may occafionally fwallow poifon,
and the treatment in thefe cafes muff depend in a great
meafure on the nature of the poifonous fubftance, w7here
this can be afcertained. It is feldom that a horfe, cow,
or fheep is poifoned ; but in the dog, this may frequently
happen, either from accidents, or defign. Dogs often
pick up tiux vomica, (which is the poifon moftly ufed
by warreners,) and which ufually caufes convulfive fits,
and foon kills. Apply immediately the following reme¬
dy. As much common fait as can be got down ; hold
the head upwards, and force open the mouth, and by
fixing a flick acrofs, prevent its fhutting, whilft the
throat is filled with fait ; a fufficient quantity to purge
and vomit will foon diffolve, and be fwallowed; the
ftomach once cleared by a free paffage obtained by ftool,
warm broth fhould frequently be given to prevent the
faintnefs which might othenvife prove fatal. Two
table fpoonfuls of cajior oil, added to the fait, wTould
very much accelerate its adlion downwards.*
Arfenic is frequently given to dogs by defign, or it
may be picked up by them in places where it has been
laid for rats. If the accident is difcovered foon, the
dog may fometimes be recovered by giving him a vo¬
mit of 'white vitriol, and drenching him well with
fweet oil and milk j and when moft of the poifon ap¬
pears to have been thrown up, the reft may probably be
rendered harmlefs by repeated dofes of liver of ful-
phur.
If a horfe is poifoned, the danger is very great, as
from his inability to vomit, the ftomach cannot be clear¬
ed of the poifon. But fortunately this accident fcarcely
ever happens *, as arfenic, the moft common poifonous
fubftance, will produce little effedl on the horfe, unlefs
given in a very large dofe.
The ftomach and bowels of all thefe animals may be
infefted by worms, but thefe are moft common in the
horfe and dog.
The worms that moft commonly infeft the horfe are
what are commonly called the hots. They are not pro¬
perly worms, but are the larvae of feveral fpecies of the
Oeftrus or Gadfly mentioned in N°337-
The horfe is attacked by 2 or 3 fpecies of Oeftrus, but
more efpecially by the Oe. equi, which depofites its eggs
in fuch a fnanner as that they ihall be received into the
animal’s ftomach, where they form the bots.
The method purfued by the parent fly, in order to
lay its eggs in the moft favourable fituation for be-
ing received into the ftomach of the horfe, is extremely
curious. It is thus related by Mr Bracey Clark, who ap¬
pears to have witneffed the procefs.
“ When the female has been impregnated, and the
eggs are fufticiently matured, {he feeks among the horfes
a fubjeft for her purpofe, and approaching it on the
wing, fire holds her body nearly upright in the air, and
her tail, wdrich is lengthened for the purpofe, carried in¬
wards and upwards. In this w7ay fire approaches' the
part w7here fire defigns to cjepofit the egg, and fufpend-
ing herfelf for a few feconds before it, fuddenly darts
upon it, and leaves the egg adhering to the hair, by
means of a glutinous liquor fecreted with it. She then
leaves the horfe at a fmall diftance, and prepares a fecond
e£g, and poifing herfelf before the part, depofits it in
the fame way. The liquor dries, and the egg becomes
firmly glued to the hair. This is repeated by various
flies, till four or five hundred eggs are fometimes de-
pofited on one horfe. The fkin of the horfe is always
thrown into a tremulous motion on the touch of this in¬
feft, arifing from the very great irritability of the fkiie
and mufcles at that feafon of the year, occafioned by the
continual teafmg of the flies. The infide of the knee is
the part on wftuch thefe flies feem to prefer depofiting
their eggs, and next to this the fide, and back part of
the fhoulder. It is curious that thefe parts are what are
moft expofed to be licked by the animal. In licking,
the eggs adhere to the animal’s tongue, and are carried
into the ftomach with the faliva.
“ The bots attach themfelves to every part of the
horfe’s ftomach, but are ufually more numerous about its
farther orifice, and are fometimes, though lefs frequently,
found in the bowels. Their number varies confider-
ably 3 fometimes there are not above half a dozen 3 at
others they exceed 100. They moft ufually hang in
clufters, fixed by the fmall end to the inner membrane
of the ftomach, to which they adhere by means of two
fmall hooks.
“ The body of the larva is compofed of eleven feg-
ments, all of which, except the two laft, are furrounded
with a double row of horny briftles, direfted towards the .
truncated end, and are of a reddifh colour, except the
points, which are black. Thefe larvee evidently receive
their food at the fmall end by a longitudinal aperture
which is fituated between the two hooks or tentacula*
The lips of this aperture appear fomewhat hard, horny,
and irregular.
“ Their food is probably the chyle, which, being near¬
ly pure aliment, may go wholly to the compofition of
their bodies without any excrementitious refidue, though
on diffeftion the inteftine is found to contain a yellow
or greenifh matter, which is derived from the colour of
their food, and {hews that the chyle as they receive it is
not perfeftly pure.
“ The flownefs of their growth and the purity of their
food muft occafion, what they receive in u given time
to be proportionally fmall 3 from which probably arifes
the extreme difficulty there is found in deftroying them
by any medicine or poifon thrown into the ftomach..
After opium had been adminiilered to a horfe labouring
under a cafe of locked jaw for a week, in dofes of one
ounce every day, on the death of the animal I have
found the bots in the ftomach perfeftly alive. Tobacco
has
srr
Difeafes.
512 FA R R
pifeafcs« bas been employediin much larger quantities in the fame
'  ’ complaint, and has been alfo longer continued, without
deftroying them. They are alfo but rarely affe&ed by
the draftic purgatives, which bring away in abundance
the Ten{a; and Af^desr*
iii. p. 2pS. Clark does not apprehend they are fo very inju¬
rious to the horfes as is generally conceived. When re¬
moved from the ftomach a deep impreffion remains where
they adhered, but whether they ever irritate it fo as to
bring on a fatal fpafm of the ftomach itfelf, or of the
pylorus, or, by collecting round this paffage, prevent
the food from entering the inteftine, has never been in¬
vestigated with fufficient accuracy. The ignorant fur-
prife of farriers on opening the ftomach after death, and
being prefented with fo lingular an appearance as the
bots, has without doubt very often occafioned the death
to be attributed to thefe, though it is certain but few
horfes on our commons can efcape them.
Inftances have occurred of violent inflammation ex¬
cited in the ftomach by the bots. An example of this
is related by Mr James Clark. He was once defired by a
farrier in the neighbourhood wdio was indifpofed, to vifit
a horfe that had been a patient of his for fome days,
and report the fituation he was in. When Mr Clark
entered the ftable, the fervant was giving the horfe a
drink, wdiich he wras afterwards informed was compofed
of an infufion of lintfeed, in which was diifolved one
ounce of nitre, with honey to fweeten it; and in the laft
hornful was poured, from a fmall phial, about half an
ounce, or more, of fpirits of hartfhorn. The horfe feem-
ed very uneafy after the drink, he was foon feized with
a violent trembling and fhaking, a profufe fweat broke
.out all over his body, and run down his fades, as if wa¬
ter had been poured on him ; at the fame time his legs
and ears were quite cold} he lay down feemingly in
great agony; he was foon after convulfed all over, and
died in about half an hour from the time the drink was
fwallowed. Mr Clark obtained leave to take out his
ftomach where he was, on condition he fliould few up
the fkin afterwards, in order to prevent any bad fmell
in the ftable, till he could be carried off. On infpeding
the ftomach, the coats of it were found greatly inflam¬
ed, and a mortification had taken place on one fide,
where it appeared of a darker colour, and here there
was a fmall hole, through which a lead probe paffed in¬
to the cavity of the ftomach from the outfide ; the
coats of the ftomach were confiderably thickened, and
of a darkifh red colour refembling the liver 5 at the
fame time the ftomach was confiderably diftended and
full of food : on turning it infide out, an incredible num¬
ber of bots were found flicking all round the fades and
lower part of it, fo that it appeared entirely covered with
them, flicking as clofelyto one another as bees in a honey¬
comb •, and fo finnly were the heads of thefe vermin
fixed in the coats of the ftomach, that endeavouring to
pull fome of them off when alive, they broke in two,
and their heads remained flicking in the coats of the
ftomach.
The great irritation produced by fuch a number of
thefe worms flicking in the coats of the ftomach had no
doubt occafioned at firft an inflammation there, and
\C.arhM from :ts continuance this was tending to a aaaortification,
“ before the drench was given, and would have occafion-
Oe.H^mor.ed the horfe’s death .f
irholdaJis. Another fpecies of Oejirus, viz, the hamorrhoidalis,
l
I E R Y. Part VI.
alfo produces eggs, which when received into the fto- Difeafes.
mach of the horfe become bots. This infect has been \
termed hcemorrhoidalis from the appearance of the bots
wdaen coming out of the anus of the horfe, when they
are very like the fwelling produced by the piles or hae¬
morrhoids. It was fuppofed by Linnaeus and fome
other naturalifts, that this and the, laft fpecies introduced
their eggs into the bowels of the horfe, by eiatering the
re Bum, mire per anum intrans ; but this opinion is now
fully refuted.
The part chofen by this infeft for this purpofe, is the
lips of the horfe, which is very diftrefling to the animal
from the exceflive titillation it occafions ; for he imme¬
diately after rubs his mouth againft tlae ground, his
fore legs, or fometimes againft a tree \ or if two are
Handing together, they often rub themfelves againft each
other. At the fight of this fly, the horfe appears much
agitated, and moves his head backwards and forwards
in the air, to baulk its touch, and prevent its darting on
the lips •, but the fly, watching for a favourable oppqr-
tunity, continues to repeat the operation from time to
time j till at length finding this mode of defence infuffi-
cient, the enraged animal endeavours to avoid it, by
galloping away to a diftant part of the field. If it ftill
continues to follow and teafe him, his laft; refource is in
the water, where the Oejlrus is never obferved to follow
him.
The teafing of other flies will foanetimes occafion a
motion of the head fimilar to this \ but it fliould not
be miftaken for it, as it is ftever in any degree fo vio¬
lent, as during the attack of the Oejlrus.
At other times the Oejlrus gets between the fore legs
of the horfe while he is grazing, and thus makes its
attack on the lower lip ; the titillation occafions the
horfe to ftamp violently with his fore feet againft the
ground, and often ftrike with his foot, as aiming a blow
at the fly. They alfo fometimes hide themfelves in the
grafs j and as the horfe ftoops to graze, they dart on
the mouth, or lips, and are always obferved to poife
themfelves a few feconds in the air, while the egg is
preparing on the point of the abdomen.
When feveral of thefe flies are confined in a clofe
place, they have a particularly ftrong fufty fmell 5 and
I have obferved both flieep, and horfes, when teafed by
them, to look into the grafs, and fmell to it very
anxioufly j and if they by thefe means difeover the fly,
they immediately turn afide, and haften to a diftant part
of the field.
The eggs of^this fpecies appear of a darker colour
than the former, and we are unacquainted with the cir-
cumftances attending their paffage to the ftomach.
. The larvae of the Oejlrus haemorrhoid alls, as well as
the former fpecies, appear to have been termed among
the Romans, coJJUs, which feems to have been a general ^ „ •
expreffion for any kind of foft imperfect animal, and to TranjT. xol
haa'-e been very analogous, and as extenfively applied iii. p. 310/
as the wrord %rub\s at prefent in the Englifta language,* 411
The prefence of bots in the horfe’s ftomach and Symptoms
bowels, is not always eafily afeertained, as it is-certain that°^ b°t%
great numbers have beeaa found in the ftomach after
death, without appearing to have produced aaay unufual
fymptoms in the animal while alive. When, however,
they have colledted in any great numbers, or wheia the
animal’s ftomach is peculiarly irritable, they are attend¬
ed with the following fymptoms. The horfe has a dif-
pofitiou
Part VI.
FARRIERY.
411
Treatment
41a
Lumbrlci
Difeafes. pofition to rub his tail frequently, without any apparent
humour or eruption that Ihould make it itchy 5 he eats
heartily, and is yet always lean and out of condition.
His coat is rough and flaring, fuch as we have defcrib-
ed it to be in what is called a furfeit. There is alfo a
lickly palenefs of the mouth and tongue, attended with
an unwholefome cadaverous fmell. The horfe appears
tucked up in his flanks, which often heave j he turns
his head now and then, and ftrikes his belly with his
hind feet. Thefe latter fymptoms indeed, as they only
indicate griping pains, and often occur in ordinary co¬
lic, are not to be relied on, unlefs accompanied with
the former. In cafes of worms, it is faid that the dung
is yellowifh, like melted fulphur, or is otherwife dib
coloured and very oftenfive. The fureft mark, how¬
ever, of the prefence of bots is their being voided by
the anus, where they are fometimes found flicking.
As the bots are extremely tenacious of life, it is very
difficult to expel them, and where they do not occafion
any confiderable irritation or other bad fymptoms, it
will be better to let them alone till they come away
fpontaneoufly. But when it is judged neceflary to at¬
tempt their expullion, this may be done by adminifter-
ing the fal indus, as diredled in N° 60 of the receipts,
and after it a ftrong dofe of calomel and aloes.
We have faid the bots are not properly worms j but
there are feveral fpecies of worms that are very frequent
in dogs, and are now and then found in the horfe.
Thefe are the lumbrici, or long round worms; the
afcarides, or thread worms; and the tcenice, or tape¬
worms.
The long round worms are feldom met with in thefe
animals; but when they occur in the horfe, they pro¬
duce much uneaffnefs, and fometimes occafion colic
and inflammation of the bowels. It is very difficult to
expel thefe worms, as the only remedies by which this
could be properly attempted, fuch as powdered tin and
flrong purgatives, cannot with propriety be often given
to a horfe, as, from the ftrudlure of his ftomach, the
former might produce confiderable injury, and the latter
are extremely debilitating.
Slfcarides are now and then found in the great guts
of the horfe, and fometimes prove troublefome, but
are feldom or never dangerous. They are beft remov¬
ed by clyfters of lime-water, followed by purgative
clyflers.
The tape-worm is feldom found but in dogs, where
they are fometimes the caufe of fatal difeafes, efpecially
to puppies. The fymptoms of worms in dogs are, an
itchinefs of the nofe and at the anus, both of which they
are perpetually rubbing againft every thing j fwelling
and hardnefs of the belly, leannefs, running at the
eyes and nofe, and frequent purging of a filmy or ftrin-
gy matter. There is alfo a peculiar flaring appearance
of the hair, which points the wrong way.
Mr Blaine fays that the bowels of dogs are fo irri¬
table, that they will feldom bear ftrong phylic, and
that he knows of nothing that will certainly deftroy
the worms in their inteflines. He has tried with vari¬
able fuccefs, tin, quickfdver, pewter, calomel, and fa-
v:ne, with other fubftances, but none of them appeared
fufficiently certain to demand his confidence. When
the wTorms are early detefted, he thinks that purging
dofes of the compound powder of fcammony with calo¬
mel, prove the moft efficacious means. Mr Daniel re-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
5r3
Difeafes.
413
Afcarides,
414
1 ape-
worm.
commends aloes, hartfhorn, the juice of wormwood,
with fome flow'er of brimftone, mixed together into a
ball, about the fize of a hazel nut, which is to be wrap¬
ped up in butter, and given three or four times a-week,
letting the dog faff; for a few hours each time, which,
he fays, will deftroy the ■worms. He alfo fays that
they may be deftroyed by giving the dog as much fine¬
ly powdered white glafs as will lie on a fixpence, for
three fucceflive mornings, mixed up with butter ; and
if the worms are not voided in that time, the dofe of
the glafs is to be increafed, and it is to be repeated for
three other mornings, by which time it will fcarcely fail
of producing the defired effedl.
There is a fort of concretion often met with in the Concretions
ftomachs of cattle, and fometimes in that of horfes, in the fto-
which is partly compofed of a chalky fubftance, andinac*1-
partly, or fometimes almoft entirely, of hair evidently
arifing from the animal’s licking off their hair and fwal-
knving it with their faliva. The mafs thus received in¬
to the ftomach, being wholly indigeftible, collects
there, and forms thefe globular concretions which
fometimes grow to fuch a fize as to prove fatal.
The growth of thefe concretions is thought to be en¬
couraged by the long ufe of hard dry food, without the
animal’s being allowed to feed from time to time on
frefli green herbage. It is even thought that the time¬
ly ufe of freffi grafs may prove the means of diffolving
thefe concretions. Van Swieten, in his commentaries
on Boerhaave, when fpeaking of chalky matters found
in the liver and other organs, remarks, that fometimes
there are concretions of the like fort found in this or¬
gan, but of a more friable texture, and of a whiter ap¬
pearance, like gypfum or plafter of Paris. Such incruf-
tations w^ere often obferved by Gliffon in the pori bili-
arii, and its larger branches difperfed through the livers
of oxen that had been fed in flails with hay and ftraw
during the winter feafon and without exercife. But
then thefe concretions are very friable, and they after¬
wards diffolve again, and pafs out of the body when the
cattle come to feed upon the freffi grafs of the mea¬
dows ; for in oxen that are flain in the fpring or fum-
mer, they are very rarely to be found.
“ In diffefling horfes, (fays Mr Clark) I have fre¬
quently met with chalky concretions in their livers and
in the lungs, efpecially in thofe that have been fed long
on dry food, and likewlfe round balls in their ftomachs,
fometimes of an oval ffiape. The latter feem for the
moft part to be compofed of the duff; they lick from
their own bodies mixed with the hair. Whether the
freffi grafs diffolves them is not fo certain ; but that it
caufes thefe concretions to pafs through the inteftines, I
have had a full demonftration. In May 1786, a horfe
that had been long fed on dry food w?as turned out to
grafs ; in about eight or ten days afterwards, he was
feized with violent griping pains, which lafted for about
24 hours, when he died. As the horfe wras very fat,
the man who had the charge of him wanted to make
fomething of his greafe. In fearching for it, he obferv¬
ed a large fpace of the inteftines of a very black colour;
and on feeling it, found fomething hard and weighty
within them. He immediately cut it open with his
knife, and took out a large oval hard ball, which mea-
fured four inches in length, and three inches and a
half in breadth, and which I have now in my noilef-
fion. That this concretion was originally formed in the
3 T ftomach,
5r4
Dit'eafes.
* Clark on
Prevention,
p. 6o.
416
Lofs of ap-
getite.
FARRIERY.
Fart VI.
4T7
Foul feed¬
ing.
418
Surfeit in
dogs.
ftomach, there can be no doubt, as they frequently upon
difledlion have been found there, and nothing but its
great bulk had hindered it from pafiing through the in-
teftines.” *
The beft means of obviating thefe concretions, is to
allow the animal to feed occaiionally on frefh green
fodder $ and, according to what has been laid, this may
fometimes remove them after they are formed.
’ Horfes and other domeflic animals fometimes labour
under a lofs of appetite. Animals may eat lefs than
ufual, or they may refufe to eat at all, either from a
want of that fenfation in the llomach, which we call
hunger, or from a dillike that the animal takes at the
food that is let before him. Want of appetite is a
lymptom of feveral difeafes, particularly of fevers and
internal inflammations. When this happens, it would
be abfurd to force food on the animal’s llomach, as it
could not be digelled, and would only aggravate the
violence of the difeafe.
Want of appetite very often attends very great fa¬
tigue. It is alfo very frequently the effecl of an im¬
proper ufe of cordial and ftrengthening medicines. It
may however, be the effedl of weaknefs of the llomach,
not brought on by thofe means. In fuch a cafe, cor¬
dials and tonics are very proper, and their ufe Ihould
be accompanied with gentle exercife.
This lofs of appetite in the horfe, is commonly called
chronic indigejlion, and is ufualiy accompanied with a
roughnefs and Haring of the coat, the Ikin having the
appearance which we have defcribed in N° 328 under
hide-bound.
An affedlion of a'limilar kind takes place in cattle,
in whom it is called lofs of the cud, from their not chew¬
ing the cud as ufual. It is known by the animal’s
mourning, having no inclination to eat, or dropping his
food, without fwallowing it. It frequently arifes from
the llomach being loaded with hard food that is diffi¬
cult of digeflion, fuch as acorns, or coarfe dry llraw.
It may alfo aiife from a weaknefs of the llomach, which
is not uncommon in hot weather, and may be brought
on by confinement and wrant of frefh air. The treat¬
ment is much the fame as in horfes.
Horfes are lubjedl to an affedlion of the llomach, in
which they fometimes eat voracioully, or greedily fwal-
low fubflances that are indigeftible. Horfes labouring
under this complaint are called foul feeders, as they eat
clay, mortar, dirt, foul litter, or even the dung of other
animals.
This is properly a fymptom of indigellion, and feems
to be owing to a peculiar acrimony of the galtric juice,
and in moll cafes there is evidently an acid upon the
llomach. The bell remedies are bitters, and other
lirengthening medicines, combined wfith fait of tartar,
or fome other antacid. The receipts marked 61 and
62 are w-ell adapted to thefe cafes. Thefe remedies
Ihould be affilted by pure air and regular exercife ; and
where coltivenefs is prefent, it Ihould be obviated by
die ufe of warm laxatives. Care fnould alfo be taken
to -keep the liable clean, and to have a quantity of
clean llraw below the manger, that the horfe may not
be tempted to eat other fubllances that are more in¬
jurious.
A forfeit is fometimes occafioned by hounds eating
putrid flelh, or that of horfes that have died, or been
killed when violently afffiCled with the farcy. Arifing
from the former caufe, the fatality which attended the Difeafes.
hounds of Mr Finch in Kent, is a curious inltance. —"W
In drawing the covers, the hounds met with the car-
cafe of a difeafed bullock, with which they gorged
themfelves j the contamination was immediate through
the pack; they were generally feized w ith llaggeiing
convulfive fits, operating to io violent a degree, that
eight couple of hounds died in the field in lefs than two
hours, and it was fuppofed the whole pack would have
fallen vidlims, but for the timely application of oil and
other medicines. Mr Daniel, from feeding with the
flelh of horfes lent from a poll liable, in which the far¬
cy and the glanders had fpread their ravages, had an
opportunity of fpeaking to the latter; the hounds broke
out all over in blotches, difeharging a watery humour,
fimilar to thole occafioned by the farcy ; they caufed
great llinhefs, and were extremely painful. This inocu¬
lation took place, notwithftanding moil of the horfes
were fent alive to the kennel, and wTere properly llaugh-
tored, and none of the flelli was given raw' to the
hounds. Phyfic, and taking them frequently to the
fait w7ater, and well rubbing the lores by hand with it,
at length recovered them. For checking a common
furfeit, ox gall and train-oil, equal quantities ; the af- * Daniel's
fefted parts to be well rubbed, and fome phyfic taken D^ral
inwardly will quickly rellore them *.
There are twro difeafes that affecl the bowels, which Rupture.
wre cannot confidcr more properly than at the end of
this chapter. Thefe are rupture and falling of the fun¬
dament. Thefe may take place in any of the domellic
animals, but they are more common in horfes, as they
are molt frequently the elfebl of great exertion. Bur-
feimefs or rupture, commonly proceeds from itrains in
labour, kicks on the belly, high and difficult leaps, ef-
pecially when heavy laden. It may be produced by
the goring of oxen, by being flaked, and by various
other accidents. Gibfon fays that he has known it pro¬
duced by too deep an incifion being made in inferting a
rowel.
The bowrel may be ruptured either at the navel, or
through the rings at the back part of the belly into the
lerotum or cod. The tumour, when not too large, will
return on being prelfed, as if it wrere merely flatulent,
and the rupture or chafm may be felt. It is eafy to
conceive that fuch a defecl is incurable, excepting pof-
fibly in a very flight cafe, and a very young fubjedl ;
the intention mull be to palliate, to render the animal
as ufeful as poflible, and as comfortable to itfelf. In a
recent cafe, bleed, and give emollient and oily clyfters,
boiled barley, malt maffies, nitrated water. Foment
twice a day with camphorated fpirits, and vinegar
warm; and poultice with oatmeal, oil, and vinegar.
Falling of the fundament is fometimes occalioned by a Falling of
long-continued loofenefs, and is moll likely to be pro- the funda-
duced in fuch animals as are of a weak and delicate msnt.
conftitution, but it is frequently brought on by hard rid¬
ing or hard driving. Mr Lawrence fays, that he has fre¬
quently feen it in hard-driven pigs. According to Soley-
lel, it is in horfes fometimes the confequence of docking.
When this complaint is firll feen, it may in general
be eafily cured. The gut Ihould be returned as foon
. as poflible, by pulhing it up with the ends of twTo or
three fingers wrapt round with a piece of foft linen rag
gently greafed ; but before returning the gut it fliould
be bathed with fome affringent lotion, as a folution
of
/
Part VI. FARR
, Plfeafes- of alutn or white vitriol, or port wine and water ' and
"”^v * a little of either of thefe fliould be frequently injected.
If the gut Ihould become inflamed, it rcuft be anointed
with ferae cooling liniment, fuch as receipt N° 28. Care
mull: be taken to keep the animal’s bowels open, by
frequent bran maflies. If the complaint continues ob-
rtinate, nothing will effeclually remove it, but cutting
off a part of the protruded gut. This may be done
with a common furgeon’s knife, called a fcalpel, but
it is fometimes performed with a (harp red-hot cau¬
tery. 1 he wound commonly foon heals, but the
animal fliould not be worked for fome time after • but
ftiould be allowed a long run at grafs, or in a ftraw
yard.
Chap. IV. Morbid AffeBions of Abforption.
I E R Y.
are differed to Hand long in the liable, without being
worked, or in fome other cafes that will prefently be
mentioned. There is a fweliing of the legs that is the
consequence of hard work, drains, or other caufes, that
excite inflammation ^ but what we are now conlidennv
is a droplical fweliing, confining in an accumulation
of watery fluid below the Ikin, firnilar to the fwelled
legs of old people, and chlorotic girls. It may affect all
the legs, but it is more commonly confined to the hinder
extremities. Ihe fweliing generally takes place above
the paftern and fetlocks j but if it continues long, it ex¬
tends further up the legs, and the fldn fometimes cracks,
and there oozes out a wateJy fluid, or fometimes a pu¬
rulent or greafy matter. In this laft cafe it has de¬
generated into greafe, which will be confidered here¬
after.
515
Difeafes.
421 The abforbent veffels of the human body have been
deferibed in the article Anatomy •, and the ftru&ure
of thefe veffels, in the animals now under our confidera-
tion, is lufficiently fimilar to render a particular de-
feription of them here unneceffary. The fundHcn of
abfopption, and the derangements produced in it by dif-
eafe, will be explained under thofe medical articles that
have for their object phyftology and pathology. It will
be fufficient for us, in this place, to remark, that many
of the diforders of the animal frame, are greatly influ¬
enced by the ftate of the abforbent fyftem 5 and that
fome complaints feem chiefly to depend on the lofs of
the proper balance between the fun&ion of abforption,
and that of circulation. Sometimes the abforbent veffels
are too aftive, while the circulating fyftem is propor-
tionally languid *, at others the abforbent fyftem is
languid, while that of the circulation is either unufual-
ly aftive, or continues in its natural ftate. The former
feems to be the caufe of leannefs, coftivenefs, and fome
other morbid affedlions ; to the latter may be referred
the feveral fpecies of dropfy. We ftiall here only con-
fider two of thefe affections, leannefs, and fwelled legs,
as moft of our readers will expett coftivenefs treated 'of
as a morbid affeflion of excretion, and moft of the fpecies
of dropfy muft be confidered as general affecfions of
the fyftem; and therefore to be explained in the next
feclion.
Leannefs. unnatural degree of leanefs may take place from
many caufes $ as, ift. From the want of a proper lupply
of food, whether from this being difpenfed too fparing-
ly in proportion to the labour of the animal, or from
its not being fufficiently nouriflring. Hence we fee that
fuch horfes and dogs as are hard worked and ill fed, are
extremely lean.
2d. In ftallions leannefs is often the effeft of beina-
fullered to cover too often, or too long at one feafon.
3d. It is a common attendant on feveral acute dif-
eafes, as fevers, fome inflammations, efpecially dyfen-
tery, or what has been commonly called molten greafe.
4th. Leannefs is a common attendant on old age.
1 his fymptom requires little attention, as it is fel-
dom dangerous, except when it comes on very rapidly,
and is attended with great weaknefs, and manifeft figns
el decay, in ftallions that are too hard worked. It
commonly focn difappears after the caufe that pro-
duced it, or the complaint of which it is a fymptom, is
Swelled removed-
•legs. ^ v,\ clung of the legs is very common to horfes that
Swelled legs frequently take place in horfes that are
newly brought into the liable, or a ftraw yard j efpecial¬
ly if they are not regularly worked, and their legs re¬
gularly rubbed down, at leaft twice a day. It is more
certainly produced, if the horfe fhculd be buffered to
ftand long on hot litter. It is alfo not uncommonly
the effect of wading through fnow or cold water, efpe¬
cially when the legs are heated. It evidently depends
on a decreafed aftion of the abforbent veffels and veins
of the legs.
It may in general be prevented by regular exercife,
and frequent rubbing: but if it fliould occur in a horfe
that is too full of blood, it may be neceffary to bleed
and phyfic. If the fwelling fliould continue obftinate,
it will be proper to apply a blifter to the part, or to
rub the legs frequently with fome ftimulating liniment,
and if the complaint is of long ftanding, it may be pro¬
per to infert a rowel in each leg ; and the difperfion of
the fwelling may be aflifted by rolling hay bands round
the legs, by way of bandage. One of the moft effec¬
tual means of preventing a return, will be firing, making-
perpendicular lines w-ith the cautery from the fetlock to
the coronet. Regular exercife and friflion muft be pei*
lifted in j and if the complaint is accompanied with ge¬
neral wTeaknefs of the fyftem, a nouriftiing diet, and
ftrengthening remedies muft be added.
Chap. V. Morbid Ajfeflions of Circulation.
The pulfe in the inferior animals has been very little PullTm
attended to by veterinary practitioners ; indeed the various
common farriers and cattle doCtors fcarcely knowanimals'
whether their patients have a pulfe, or where it may be
moft readily felt.
The ftrength and frequency of the pulfe in its natural
ftate, differs very much in the feveral fpecies of the do-
meftic animats. It is in general ftronger according to
the fize of the animal ; but its frequency diminifties in
the fame proportion, it being quicker in the fmaller than
in the larger animals, even of the fame fpecies. We
cannot undertake to ftate exaClly the average frequency
of the pulfe, in the feveral animals, and the accounts
given by different authors vary confiderably. Mr Clark
iays^ that the pulfe of a horle in health, and no way
terrified or alarmed, is from 36 to 40 beats in a minute.
According to Mr Blaine, it ranges from 45 to 5 5, being
generally from 43 to 50 in large horfes, and from 50
t° 55 i° hnaller horfes. Hr Hales found that the pulfe
of an ox in health, did not exceed 38 beats in a minute.
3 T 2 Mr
425
Feeling the
pulfe.
426
4*7
Plethora.
FARR
Mr Elaine, in his firft volume, fiates the medium pulfe
of a dog at 80 or 90 •, but in his fecond volume p. 149,
he fays, that a dog has ufually from 90 to 100 or no
contr add ions in a minute, fo that we may probably take
the average at from 90 to 100. Perhaps the pulfe of a
fheep is flower by about xo beats than that of a dog.
The pulfe in the inferior animals may be moft con¬
veniently felt in the temporal arteries, which as we have
faid in N° 164 are fituated a little backwards above
the outer angle of the eye. It may be felt alfo at the
corner of the lower jaw, on each fide of the fetlock
joint, on the infide of the hock, and at the heart.
As much is to be learned from the pulfe, refpedling
the nature of many difeafes, and the degree of danger
which they indicate ; we earneftly recommend to our
praftical readers, that they take every opportunity of
examining the pulfe of thefe animals, when in a fiate of
difeafe. We cannot here enter with propriety into an
explanation of the morbid varieties of the pulfe, as it
would be only to repeat what is given in the pathologi¬
cal part of our work, to which we refer our veterinary
readers 5 as the obferrations there delivered can be eafi-
ly applied to the particular cafes of horfes, cattle, Iheep,
and dogs, by keeping in view the natural ftate of the
pulfe, in each fpecies as above laid down.
There are two general Hates of the fyftem, that may
take place in all animals, and which are chiefly di-
Ifinguiflied by the ftate of the circulation, as afcertain-
ed by the pulfe. Thefe are plethora, or fulnefs of habit}
and debility, weaknefs, or inanition. I he former is al¬
ways attended with a fulnefs, and fometimes a hardnefs
of the pulfe ; while in the latter, the pulfe is weak and
finall, eafily comprefled or ftopt by the finger, and is
femetimes flower, but oftener much more frequent than
natural.
When an animal has been kept for fome time on a
full nouriihing diet, while he is at the fame time con¬
fined within doors, and deprived of that regular exer-
cife, which is neceffary to carry off fuperfluities, he be¬
comes fat, corpulent, and full of blood, or what we call
plethoric. In this ftate the veins below the fldn, from
their being greatly diflended wnth blood, are very pro¬
minent, excepting in thofe parts where they are bedded
in fat j the pulfe, is as we have faid, full, and commonly
ftrong, but in fome cafes it feels oppreffed, as if the
quantity of blood wTere too much for the cavity of the
artery. The pulfe in thefe cafes is frequently flower
than natural. The animal becomes dull and fluggifti,
averfe to motion, and if he is obliged to exert himfelf,
evidently does fo with difficulty, pants, and labours, and
becomes foon fatigued.
This plethoric ftate is extremely common in horfes
and dogs that are pampered with high living, and little
or no work. A horfe in this ftate, though he may look
well, is far from being in good condition, and is by
no means fit for a&ive labour. In fa6I, if fuch a horfe
is put to hard wxirk, before he is properly prepared for
it, there is the greateft probability that he will be com¬
pletely ruined. Inftances occur every day of full fed
idle horfes knocking up, or even dying on the road,
and a long lift of violent difeafes is the confequence of
this plethoric ftate of body. It lays the foundation of
broken wind, inflammation of the lungs, phrenfy, and
above all of flaggers, or apoplexy. It is no uncommon
thing to fee a fat well-looking horfe, fall down in con-
I E R Y. Part VI.
vulfions, while drawing a heavy load, owing to the de-
termination of blood to the head, from fo great an exer- v
tion, wffiile the veffels are too much diftended. Moft
lap dogs and others who are parlour guefls, commonly
die of apoplexy. A lady of our acquaintance had a
fine fat lapdog, who feldom quitted the cuffiion that
formed his bed, befide his miftrefs’s chair, where he
was fed with the niceft bits from the dinner table. Jack
had been unufually heavy for a day or two, and one
morning w7as found lying dead on his cuffiion j though
he had the night before eaten a hearty /upper.
To prevent the ill confequences that muft arife from
this plethoric ftate, thefe animals fhould be regularly
exercifed, and not fuffered to eat too much. Where
the plethora has already taken place, and where no dan¬
gerous fymptoms threaten the attack of fome violent
diforder, the beft method of bringing the animal into
good condition, is to lower his diet gradually, and as
gradually increafe his exercife or labour j but where
the fymptoms are fuch, as indicate approaching apo¬
plexy, or fome other dangerous diforders, it wull be ne¬
ceffary immediately to bleed and purge, and to take
care that the animal be not put to any violent exertion,
till he be brought into good condition.
We muft here remark, that frequent bleeding wuth
a view to obviate plethora, is extremely improper, as
it tends to produce the very ftate againit which it is em¬
ployed. Bleeding, therefore, ought not to be had re-
courfe to, except in cafes of imminent danger. ^
There is a complaint that fometimes appears among Hawkes, or
cattle, when they are fuddenly put on high feeding, af- hocks,
ter having been long accuftomed to a poor and fparing
diet. It is called by the graziers, Hawkes or Hocks,
and is probably of an inflammatory nature, but as it
feems to depend entirely on a hidden diftention of the
blood veffels, and is fpeedily relieved by removing
this diftenfion, it may properly be confidered in this
place.
The complaint is faid to begin with an uneafinefs and
fwelling about the eyes, and about the glandular parts
of the throat, which extends itfelf gradually over the
whole body, to the legs and joints ; and in cows to the
barren and udder. The animal appears languid, dull,
and heavy, and (eems unwilling to ftir from the place
where he is ; and when the difeafe has made fome pro-
grefs, he will not lie down till he is relieved. The legs
become cold and numb, and as the fwelling advances
towards the hind parts, a copious fecretion of faliva com¬
monly takes place from the mouth, attended often with
a fwelling about the tongue. The difeafe is extremely
rapid in its attack and progrefs, and if it be not fpeedily
attended to, it will terminate in flaggers, or fome vio¬
lent inflammatory difeafe.
The cure of this affe&ion feems to depend entirely
on bleeding, which ffiould be performed as foon as
poffible, taking away a quart or two of blood at firft,
and repeating the operation fome hours after, if the
fwelling is not diminiffied. It is recommended to rub
the whole body well, both before and after bleeding,
and if the mouth is much affected, it will be relieved
by walking it frequently wfth fait and water. If there is
any confiderable heat, it may be proper to give a drench
with nitre every four hours. ^
Inanition is a ftate of body dire&ly the oppofite of Inaniuoe
what we have defcribed ; and is produced by very dif¬
ferent
Part vr.
F A ft R
Diieafes.
43°
Wounds of
arteries.
ferent caufes j from ftarvation, hard work, lois of blood,
or violent, or long continued difeafes.
An animal in this Hate is lank and lean j its pulfe is
fmall and weak, his eyes hollow, his Ikin dry and hide¬
bound, his excrements fmall in quantity, hard, dry, and
difcoloured, his urine thick and turbid j he takes every
opportunity of grazing by the road fide, pulling at the
hedges, or eating whatever comes in his way j he be¬
comes mangy ; and if this Hate of debility continues
long, he falls into what is called an atrophy, which com¬
monly proves fatal.
The above defcription is chiefly applicable to thofe
animals, who either from accident or neglect, are half
ftarved. The ftate of inanition produced from this
caufe, is frequently feen in horfes belonging to the lower
clafs j and it is no uncommon thing to fee dogs that
have been turned out of doors, perilhing in the ftregts
in this condition. Sheep are alfo often found in a
ftate of inanition at the end of a hard winter, after having
been left for months to ihift for themfelves among the
fnow.
On opening the bodies of fuch as have died of hunger,
we find the ftomach and bowels much contracted, and
fometimes in the former there wall be a fmall quantity
of food, fcarcely mafticated and indigelted : Sometimes
both ftomach and bowels contain balls of earth or other
indigeftible matters j the large inteftines are exceeding¬
ly diminiihed in fize, and commonly contain a quantity
of dry, hardened excrement 5 the caul and other mem¬
branes that furround the intefiines are much fhrunk, and
for the moft part appear completely divefted of fat 5 the
heart and large blood-vefiels are flabby, and filled with
a thin watery blood.
Though inanition is moft frequently the effefl of ftarv-
ing, it not unfrequently follows great lofs of blood, or
profufe difcharges from the bladder and inteftines. It
alfo not uncommonly attends an obflruclion in the gul¬
let, in which cafe the animal can take little or nothing
by the mouth, and the nourilhment which he can re¬
ceive by clyfters is little more than fufficient to fupport
his exiftence.
Inanition from the laft caufe is the moft hopelefs; for
when it arifes from ftarving, lofs of blood, or profufe
difcharges, the animal may, in moft cafes, be brought
back to good condition, by nourilhing diet and
ftrengthening remedies, with proper attention to pure
air, gentle exercife when he is able to bear it, and pro¬
per Ihelter from the inclemencies of the weather.
It is not uncommon, either from injudicioufnefs or
want of fldll in bleeding, or from accident, for an artery
to be wounded. If the wound be large, or the artery
of any confiderable fize, fo much blood may be poured
out as to deftroy the animal in a Ihort time 5 but, if the
artery be wounded by a fmall punfture, fuch as may be
made by the point of a lancet' palling through a
vein, blood is gradually effufed, and infinuates itfelf in
the cellular membrane below the Ikin. In this way a
fwelling is formed with an evident pulfation like the
beat of an artery •, and, as this enlarges, the Ikin be¬
comes difcoloured and diftended, fo as fometimes to burft
and occafion death by a hidden lofs of blood. The
fwelling produced by the blood effufed from a -wounded
artery has been commonly called a falfe aneumjm, to
diftinguifh it from what we are immediately to mention.
517
Difeafes.
I E ft Y.
The artery that is moft liable to be wounded in bleed¬
ing is the external carotid, which runs below the jugular '
vein, or fometimes a little to one fide of it. This acci¬
dent, will, however, feldom happen, except when a liga¬
ture is uledj but when this is employed, the jugular vein
is preffed fo clolely on the artery, that the point of the
fleam or lancet may eafily penetrate through the vein
into the artery. M. Huzard alleges, that in this way
even the wind-pipe may be wounded, together -with the.
artery, and that the animal may be choaked by the ef-
fufion of blood from the latter into the former.
When an accident of this kind has taken place,
whether from bleeding, from wounds, or from the ero-
fion of an artery by the acrid matter of a foul ulcer,
it is neceffary to take fpeedy means for preventing the
ill confequences that may enfue j for, though the wound¬
ed artery be not very large, fuch an effufion of blood
may take place from it, as may greatly weaken the
animal, if it Ihould not prove fatal. If the artery is
very Imall, the bleeding is ealily flopped, either by
applying fuch a degree of preffure, as may be fufficient
to obliterate the cavity of the wounded veffel, or, what
is often more convenient, by completely dividing it j
after which the divided ends will contradl fo much as
to prevent the further effufion of blood. If the wound¬
ed artery be large, it can be fecured wdth certainty only
by means of ligature. For this purpofe, preffure mult
be made on the artery, between the wounded part and
the heart, while an incifion is made through the Ikin
and mufcles down to the place where the artery has
been wounded, fo that this may ealily be difcovered.
Then a pretty ftrong thread, doubled and waxed, is to be
paffed round the artery by means of a crooked needle, with
a blunt point, and is then to be tied fall about an inch
above the wounded part. A fimilar ligature is to be fixed
upon the artery at about the fame diftance, on the other
fide of the orifice, and the artery is to be cut acrofs between
the two ligatures. Thus, the further effufion of blood
is completely prevented, and the wound may be healed
in the ufual manner. The part that was fupplied with
blood by the wounded artery, will, if the veffel w7as
pretty large, be colder and lefs fenfible than ufual, but
it will in general be fufficiently fupported by the fmall
branches of other arteries that join with the wounded
veffels beyond the ligatures 5 and thefe branches will
gradually become fo diftended as to fupply the place of
the divided artery, and reftore the part to its proper
fun£tions.
It fometimes happens, that part of an artery be- Aneurifitr,
comes unufually dilated, forming what is called a true
aneurifm. This dilatation may take place in any of the
arteries, but it is moft common in the aorta or great
artery within the body, and in the external carotid and
popliteal arteries without. An aneurifm of the external
carotid is often feen in dogs, and fometimes in horfes,
efpecially fuch as are accuftomed to draw heavy weights.
An aneurifm of an external artery is eafily diftinguiihed,
by a confiderable pulfation, which may be felt much
more fuperficially than the ordinary beat of the artery,
and is fometimes fo remarkable, that it can be diftindlly
feen by the alternate heaving and finking of the Ikin
below which the fwelling is fituated. An aneurifm of
the aorta is not fo eafily diftinguiihed in the inferior
animals. The diagnoftic marks by which it may be
known
431
432
Wounds of
veins.
FARR
known m the human body, will be given in the article
Surgery.
Thole aneurifms are attended with confiderable dan-
ger, and thole of internal arteries commonly foon prove
fatal. Aneurifms of external arteries are attended with
a wafting of the bones over which they lie, owing to
the increafed abforption of bony matter produced by the
pulfation of the dilated artery 5 and thefe fwellings com¬
monly burft in no long time, efpecially if the animal be
expofed to any great labour or exertion.
I he treatment of thefe aneurifms is exadlly fimilar to
that of a wounded artery defcribed above. It confiils
in fecuring the dilated artery, either by preflure on the
lide of the aneurilm next the heart, or by means of tw7o
ligatures, one on each fide of the tumour.
An effufion of blood into the cellular fubftance may
take place from a vein, the orifice of which has not
been properly clpfed after bleeding ; or it may happen
from the orifice in the vein not exadlly correfponding
to that in the fkin, fo that the fkin gets over the orifice
in the vein, and prevents the blood from flowing out.
In this latte1* cafe there is faid to be a thrombus of the
vein.
When fuch an effufion of blood is obferved, it is
neceffary to dilate the orifice in the fkin, and to take
away the clotted eft'ufed blood from below it. If the
vein does not appear likely to bleed again, it will be
unneceffary. to pin it up 5 but if blood fhould ftill
flow1 from it, it will be neceffary to fecure it by a
pin. I his, however, ftiould not be fuffered to remain too
long, as it may produce inflammation and ulceration
of the vein. Sometimes it is fo long before the effufion
of blood is obferved, that the fwelling is become confi¬
derable, and is attended with inflammation, or even fup-
puration. Where inflammation is prefent, but has not
proceeded to fuppuration, this latter may in general be
prevented by keeping the part moift (after taking out
the effufed blood), wfith a folution of fugar of lead in
vinegar and wrater. If matter is already formed, the
, fwelling muft be poulticed, or frequently fomented wdth
warm, liquors } and when the matter is let out, the fore
muft be treated as a common ulcer.
Sometimes the infide of a vein that has been opened
m bleeding inflames, fuppurates, and becomes a fiftulous
lore 5 and if this be neglected, the matter-may extend
to fome important organ, as to the head, when the ju¬
gular vein has been opened, and produce death. When
the vein is not very large, or the ulcerated part of it is
inconfiderable, it may commonly be healed by means of
the actual cautery, or firing, as defcribed in N° 35 I ;
but if the wound is very large, or the ulceration very
extenfive, it may be proper to fecure the vein by means
4.13 of ligatures applied on each fide of the ulcerated part.
Varixor When the enlargement of any part of a vein takes
ibavilr Placep without the vein having been wounded, the fwel-
. pawn. ling is called by medical writers varix, or the vein is
laid to be varicofe. This fwelling feldom takes place
in any of the domeftic animals except the horfe, in
whom lometim.es the fuperficial vein that paffes over the
infide of the hock fometimes becomes varicofe, and
forms what farriers call a blood-fpavin. <The enlarge¬
ment of this particular vein is always accompanied by
bog-fpavin, or an enlargement of the mucous capfules in
the fame part of the hock, and the former feems to be a
-genfequence of the latter, being produced by the com-
2
I E R Y.
Part VI.
preflion of the vein, by the fwelling of the mucous cap- Difeafcs.
fule below it, w-hence an obftrucftion of ,the blood, and *—~
a conlequent dilatation of the coats of the vein.
When the enlargement of the vein is not confiderable
it requires no particular attention 5 but if it Iheuld in-
creale fo far as to be troublefome, methods muft: be
taken for its removal. This may be effedfed, either by
producing fuch a preffure on the vein as fhall ftop the
circulation of the blood in it, or by tying up the vein
with a ligature. In applying preffure, fuch a bandage
ftiould be adopted as may furround the whole hock,
while the greateft preffure is made on the dilated vein.
Mr Elaine recommends for this purpofe a bandage in¬
cluding feveral of thofe elaftic tubes, ladies glove braces
or tops are made of, which would occafion permanent
preffure, and yet permit motion. Eut, Ihould it ftill be
found to refill, this, its removal muft be attempted. For
this purpofe, an opening Ihould be made above the en¬
largement, and then including the vein within a liga¬
ture, and an opening below likewife, including the vein
alfo at that part j the enlarged part may then be
punaured, to let out the diftending blood, and the re¬
mainder fuffered to Hough away */ . ,
Chap. VI. Morbid Affections of Refpiration. vol. ii.
Ix many complaints, efpecially fevers and inflamma- 434
tions of th& internal organs, the breathing becomes hur¬
ried, and infpiration and expiration, but efpecially the
former, are performed more quickly than in the healthy
Itate of the body. This hurried refpiration, in the infe¬
rior animals, is known by the rapid heaving of their
flanks ; and when it is attended with confiderable heat
and drynefs of the Ikin, it denotes confiderable danger.
Any particular confideration of this fymptcm will,
however, be more proper, w-hen w-e come to treat of the
particular cafes in which it occurs.
The principal affe&ions of breathing which we ftiall
here notice, are thofe in which refpiration is rendered
difficult, without being attended with fever or inflam¬
mation. Horfes are more liable than other domeftic
animals to difficulty of breathing, and one particular
modification of it, broken wind, is peculiar to this ani¬
mal.
I. here lometimes takes place within the noftrils a Snores, or
gathering of thick clotted matter, which, when it comes Nivels,
to any confiderable height, very much obftrufts refpira¬
tion, and produces a fnivelling noife w-hen the air paffes
through the noftrils. This affcaion is called the fnores,
or fnivels, and is aJmoft peculiar to cattle. It is fome¬
times mxftaken for a dilorder of the throat, where it is
imagined there is fome obftruaion j but when this
rattling noife is found to attend the breathing of cattle,
it may generally be difeovered whether or not it be the
difeafe in queftion, by a careful infpeaion of the noftrils.
I he fwrelling thus produced in the noftrils generally
goes on to fuppuration, and when it breaks the animal
is relieved. The objea of our treatment muft therefore
be to haften the fuppuration by the application of warm
ftimulating fomentations or liniments. A very com¬
mon application in thefe cafes is the oil of bays injeded
up into the noftrils; but perhaps the fleam of warm
water w ould anfwer every good purpofe, and might be
eafily applied, by putting a w-arm bran mafti ‘into a
canvas bag, and tying it to the animal’s head $ and this
may
Part VI.
FARR
Difeafes.
Chronic
oou^h.
may be repeated till tlie impofthume breaks. The ani¬
mal fhould in the mean time be kept in a vvell-fheltered
houfe, and fhould be fed on nourithing diet.
Cough is almoft a conftant attendant on colds, con-
fumptions, inflammation of the lungs, and other pulmo¬
nary complaints j and when it occurs as a fymptom of
thefe difeafes, no particular attention is to be paid to it,
as our principal object is the primary affection. It fre¬
quently happens, however, that after the inflammatory
affection is removed, an obffinate cough remains ; and
it this is attended with no conflderable difficulty of
breathing, and if the horfe eats well, and appears
thriving, the cough alone requires our attention. This
kind of chronic cough is generally more confiderable
in the mornings and evenings, and after eating, and is
generally increafed by any violent exertion.
Chronic coughs, though generally a confequence of
previous inflammation, may arife from a peculiar irritable
date of the top of the wind-pipe 5 and if this be the
cafe, the ufe of feme narcotic iubftance, as opium or
hemlock, may be proper. A very obftinate cough is
often the confequence of preceding inflammation, and is
attended with a peculiar nolle, as if the aperture through
which the air came was diminilhed. This kind of nolle
is called roaring, and it is found on diiTefiion that the
wind-pipe is contracted by a quantity of coagulable
lymph, that has been effufed during the inflammation.
Mr Blaine has feen a preparation -where the diameter of
tire wind-pipe was reduced to one-third of its original
dimenfions, and it has often ftruck him as not improbable
that the grafping the wind-pipe hard, as is fometimes
done to try the wind, may bring on inflammation, and
occaflon this affeCtlon.
Thefe chronic coughs, efpeclally the roarer, fcarcely
admit of a complete cure •, but they may in general be
mitigated, by keeping the animal warm, and by avoid¬
ing violent exertion. The food fhould be fuch as is
eafy of digeftion, and does not produce much diftenfion
of the ftomach. Tar is much recommended in thefe
cafes, efpecially for the cough, or hoofe, that fometimes
occurs in cows. An ounce of tar, with the fame quan¬
tity of vinegar of fquills, and a little oil of anifeed is to
be given every morning, in a quart or chopin of warm
Bioken One of the molt common defefts in a horfe’s breath-
wind. ^or js which is called broken wind; the nature of
which complaint has been of late much elucidated
by Mr Coleman. According to Mr Lawrence, broken
wind is difeovered by the quick and irregular heaving
of the flanks, and a more than ordinary dilatation of the
noftrils 5 fometimes alfo, by a confumptive appearance of
the body. But the ufual method of trying the foundnefs of
a horfe’s wind, is to cough him j which is performed by
preffing the upper part of the wind-pipe with the finger
and thumb. The ftrong, clear, and full tone of the cough,
prove his wind to be found if, on the contrary, the
note be fhort, whiffling, and hufl-iy, the horfe is affhmatic
and unfound. Horfes labouring under the worft ftage
of this difeafe, are ftyled, in the language of the repoff-
tory, roarers-, from the noife they make in work, of
very little of which they are capable. Broken-winded
mares are generally barren, although wTe have heard of
one which bred a whole team of horfes after fhe became
ib. In confirmed broken wind there is fometimes ob-
ferved a palpitation of the cheft, with ccnffant contrac-
I E R Y.
tion and dilatation, and now and then a confiderable
cavity or depreflion may be perceived.
The older writers had many ftrange opinions with
refpeeff to the nature of this complaint. Gibfon attri¬
buted it to an enlargement of the contents of the cheft,
and Dr Lower thought it proceeded from a rupture of
the phrenic nerve. A friend of Bartlet fuppofed the
difeafe to proceed from a morbid or obftructed ftate of
the glands and membranes of the head and throat, the
enlargement of which prevented a free paffage to the
wind. According to Mr Ofmer certain glands, which
are placed upon the air-pipe, at its entrance into the
lungs, are become enlarged, and thereby the diameter of
the tube is leffened 5 hence the received air cannot fo
readily make its efcape, nor refpiration be performed,
with fuch facility as before; from which quantity of
contained air the lobes of the lungs are always enlarged,
as may be feen by examining the dead carcafes of
broken-winded horfes.
It is now fatisfacforily afeertained, that the immediate
caule of broken-wind is a rupture of fome of the air-cells
of the lungs. The caufe that moft commonly produces
fuch a rupture is over diftenfion of the ftomach, attend¬
ed with hard and violent exertion. The horfe being an
animal that is always eating, will, when hungry, eat very
voracioufly, if he has an opportunity, and foon fills his-
ftomach j and if, in this ftate, he is exerciled violently,
the circulation and refpiration wall be increafed, hut the
lungs cannot expand fufficiently, becaufe the diaphragm
cannot defeend from the preffure of the ftomach. In
this cafe, the circulation being hurried, the lungs do
not undergo the neceffary change, in confequence of
their now being compreffed. The animal then, en¬
deavouring to take in more air, either adlually occafions
the cells to be ruptured, or fomething elfe to give way.
If the cells are ruptured, the air efcapes from them into
the cellular membrane of the lungs, and there a£ts as
foreign mattei-, or, at leaft, it cannot then produce the
neceflary change on the blood, when thus diffufed 5 in
confequence, difficulty of breathing arifes from two
caufes : iff, From the blood pafling through the lungs-
before it has undergone its neceflary alteration ; and,
2dly, from the rupture of the air-veffels. The refpira¬
tion is rendered flow, as is feen by the flanks being long
in rifing up, becaufe there is no direct communication
wfith the bronchia, as in the healthy ftate of the lungs \
infpiration is, however, in a third of the time of expira¬
tion, which is feen by the fudden defeent of the flank.
The lungs, from containing more air, are fpecifically
lighter than in the healthy ftate.
This local difeafe does not admit of a permanent cure,
at leaft no medicine has yet had any fuch effeft; but a
temporary relief may be obtained, as we fhall fee here¬
after. But we muff not omit to mention here a moft
ridiculous practice which has fometimes been tried by
common farriers, that of making an orifice above the
reftum, and then introducing a machine fimilar to a-
mufical inftrument called a flageolet, with the idea of
evacuating the fuperfluous air, or wind, which they fup-
pofe to have produced the difeafe.
Bliftering the -wind-pipe, rowelling the cheft, and a
fmall purgative of aloes and calomel now and then, have
often produced a good effedh
A pound or two of Ihot has been ftrongly recommend¬
ed to Mr Coleman^as a fpecific j but, upon trial, it hae
been
/
FARR
been found to have no obvious effect: it was thought
that the fhot would aft by its fpecific gravity inclining
the ftomach further back into the cavity of the abdo¬
men.
The treatment muft be nearly confined to diet and
exercife ; the animal (hould have little hay, and water
in particular muft be adminiftered with a very fparing
hand. Thofe fubftances which afford moft nourilhment
in the leaft compafs, as carrots, corn, fplit beans, &c.
ftiould be given 5 the horfe fhould always be worked
upon an empty ftomach ; and, upon the whole, his diet
ihould be fmall in quantity, but nourifliing. By ob-
ferving this method, a broken-winded horfe may do a
* Ferons great deal of work, and be ufeful to the owner. *
Farriery. According to Mr Blaine, internal medicines have
fometimes been found ufeful in this complaint. Lime-
water has been employed with advantage 5 and the ufe
of tar is much recommended. Mr Blaine preferibes a
mixture compofed of two gallons of lime-water, four
pounds of tar, and an ounce of frefh bruifed fquills, or
garlic, of which an Englifh pint (or mutchkin) is to
be adminiftered every morning.
A complaint fimilar to the foregoing often occurs in
the horfe, and is called thich wind. It proceeds from
a very different caufe, being always the caufe of previous
43S inflammation, during which coagulable lymph has been
Thick effufed, as in the roarer. Thick wind may be diftin-
guiflied from broken-wind, by the infpirations and ex¬
pirations being equal in the former} while in the
latter the refpiration is not fo frequent, and the principal
difficulty confifts in expiration, which is of courfe per¬
formed in longer time than infpiration.
Little can be done towards a cure of this complaint.
We may prevent the difeafe by good management in the
adminiftration of the aliments, exercife, &c. Calomel
has been employed to produce abforption, but without
any great effeft 5 a rowel under the jaw, and frequent
applications of blifters on the windpipe, are the only
methods capable of producing abforption of the lymph.
Half a drachm of the digitalis, or fox-glove, in pow¬
der, twice a day, makes an admirable remedy in this,
and local difeafes of the lungs.
439 The breathing may be completely obftrufted, either
by the want of a regular fupply of freffi air, or by the
animals being obliged to breathe fuch kinds of air, as
are unfit for refpiration. The confequence of this im¬
peded breathing, is a fufpenfion of the vital powers,
or, if the obftruftion continues long, death will fome¬
times be produced. As fufpended animation is always
attended with more or lefs of an apopleftic ftate, we
ftiall defer the confideration of thofe cafes till wTe come
to treat of comatous difeafes.
Chap. VII. Morbid AffeElions of Secretion and
' Excretion.
I E R Y.
Part VI.
wind.
A4°
The fluids that are fecreted, or feparated from the
general mafs of blood, by means of the organs called
glands, are in fome cafes fecreted in an unufual quan¬
tity, in others their fecretion is leffened, or their ex¬
cretion or paffage out of the body is obftrufted. Thus
in colds of the head, as they are called, in glanders,
and in fome other affeftiens, an unufual running takes
place from the nofe 5 in inflammation of the eyes the
(ecretion of tears is generally increafed, fometimes di-
1
minifned, while it fometimes happens that their paffage Difeafes.
from the lachrymal gland out of the eye is obftrufted.
Again the fecreted fluids may undergo various changes
in their colour, fluidity, and compofition. Thus the
urine is fometimes yellow, at others red, or blackifh *,
it is fometimes extremely watery, at others very thick
and muddy, and in one particular difeafe, the diabetes^
it feems to lofe altogether the properties of urine, and
appears like a folution of fugar, or honey.
In the prefent chapter, we ffiall confider the morbid
affeftions of the bile, and of the urine. We ffiall alfo
make fome obfervations on coftivenefs and purging.
The principal morbid affeftion of the biliary fyf- ra (
tern that takes place in the inferior animals, is theyeiiow5.
obftruftion to the paffage of the bile, from the liver
into the bowels, producing the difeafe called jaundice
in the human body, and commonly known to farriers
and cattle-doftors, by the name of the ijellows.
This difeafe feldom takes place in the horfe, for as it
is almoft always the confequence of biliary concretions,
or gall-ftones formed within the gall bladder, and as
this animal has no gall bladder, the difeafe in queftion
can feldom take place. It may however happen that
an obftruftion may take place in the common duft or
pipe, that conveys the bile from the liver, either from
concretions formed in the duft, from a fpafmodic con-
traftion of the duft, or from a fchirrous or hardened
ftate of the liver. The difeafe is however fufficiently
common in cattle and ffieep j and a defeription of the
fymptoms that mark the complaint in thefe animals
will almoft equally apply to the difeafe when it may
take place in horfes. According to Mr Denny, young
horfes are very fubjeft to a variety of jaundice.
Its firft vifible fign is a yellowish tinge in the white
part of the eyes, mouth, and tongue j the mucus and
faliva, from the noftrils and mouth, are of a greenifti
hue, bordering a little upon the yellow. The beaft is
dull, and heavy, loathing all kinds of food, eating no
more than a bare fufficiency for the fupport of nature j
the Ikin is dry and itchy, efpecially behind the ffioul-
ders, where it can fcarcely bear the touch. The beafts
have an utter averfion to exercife, or ftirring from the
place where they are, and if removed with the leaft de¬
gree of precipitation, will break into a cold fweat.
Their urine is of a deeper yellow than ufual, wffiich
has fometimes led to believe it wras red water, or bloody
urine. The dung undergoes a very confiderable alter¬
ation in all ftages of the difeafe, and its general co¬
lour is blueiffi or browm, and much refembling burnt
clay but it varies in colour according to the fubjeft,
or different circumftances and feafons. If the difeafe
continues long the beaft gradually pines away, and at
laft dies of a decline.
It is faid that horfes have fometimes died of jaundice,
in two or three days •, and in thefe violent cafes a black
fanious difeharge has taken place from the mouth and
noftrils a little before death. This is called by farriers
the black jaundice, and after death the liver is found
totally decayed. Mr Lawrence fays that he has re¬
peatedly feen cafes of this kind. Gibfon fpeaks of an
inflammatory fpecies oi jaundice, attended with delirium
and madnefs ; but this was probably a violent inflam¬
mation of the liver.
We have faid that the immediate caufe of this dif¬
eafe is an obftruftion of the gall pipe, commonly owing
to
Part VI. FARR
Dileafes.;] to the formation of gall-ftones. The formation of
t,'“ v ~ thefe concretions is moft likely to take place, when the
animals are deprived of their regular exercife, and are
at the fame time allowed too full a diet, or are given
food of an improper quality. It is faid to be very com¬
mon in fome of the cold provinces on the continent,
where the cattle are ftall fed during the winter } after
which the moft of them are attacked with it in the
fpring. It may fometimes be brought on by hard la¬
bour and poor living ; but then it probably depends on
a difeafed ftate of the liver.
In the treatment of jaundice, our chief reliance is
to be placed on the ufe of purgative medicines; and of
thefe rhubarb, calomel, and aloes, ieem to be the moft
proper-, and during their exhibition, gentle exercife
fhould be employed. Mr Denny fays that much re¬
lief is often afforded in the jaundice of young horfes,
by giving a ball compofed of an ounce of aloes, half
an ounce of Venetian foap, and a drachm of calomel;
every fecond or third night, and giving on the inter¬
vening mornings a ball of half an ounce of nitre, with the
fame quantity of powdered rofm, and of common foap.
Mafhes and warm water are to be given plentifully,
and the horfe muft be kept warm by clothing, and ful¬
ly exercifed.
In cattle, a vomit of emetic tartar may be •tried at
the firft appearance of the difeafe, as the’ effort of vo¬
miting may aflift in promoting the paffage of the gall-
ftone. If, however, the difeafe fhould arife in confe-
quence of previous inflammation of the liver, vomits
will be of no ufe, and the beft remedies will be mer¬
curial purgatives with foap. The food fliould conflft
of fucculent and watery fubftances, efpecially of frelh
gnifs; as it is found that when cattle affecled with this
difeafe are fent to pafture they commonly foon recover.
Warm malhes of bran or malt Ihould be given frequently,
both to obviate coftivenefs, and as being good articles
of diet. If the difeafe ftiould continue obftinate, and
the ufe of mercurial medicines fliould be found necef-
lary, the animal muft be confined within doors, during
night, and bad weather; and aliorfe fliould during the
exhibition of the medicines be covered with a Angle
cloth. . It will be proper, whenever the weather and
other circumftances permit, to give the animal regular
exercife in the open air; but if neceflity obliges us to
keep him within doors, the whole body, but efpecially
the belly, Ihould be well rubbed for a confiderable time,
twice or thrice a day. This fridion will be proper,
even though regular exercife can be taken in the open
air.
442 . Horfes, and fometimes cattle, are fubjed to a profufe
difeharge of urine; but as the complaint of which this
is a principal fymptom, feems not to be feated in the
urinary organs, we ftiall not confider it here, but fliall
treat of it among the general and more important dif-
eafes.
443 It often happens that there is an inability in thefe
Incontin- animals to retain their urine for any length of time j
urine.0 are e^er obliged to void it very frequently, and
in fmall quantities, or, what is more frequent, it drops
away imperceptibly and involuntarily, forming the com¬
plaint called incontinence of urine. This complaint
differs from diabetes, or profufe ftaling, in the urine
coming away by drops, or in very final! quantities it a
Vol. VIII. Part H,
i £ r r.
time, whereas in diabetes it paffes off in a full and co¬
pious ftream.
Incontinence of urine is extremely common to dogs,
and often arifes in thefe animals from exceflive venerv,
or from the violent efforts which they are fometimes.
by the brutality of byftanders, obliged to make to fe-
parate themfelves from the females. It is alfo not un¬
commonly owing to the prefence of a ftone in the blad¬
der. M. Barruel, profeffor of the veterinary fchool
of Alfort, had a little Spanifli bitch, not above five
inches high, and about feven years old, who was troubled
with an incontinence of urine, unaccompanied by any
other fymptom $ flie was fprightly and well, and was iti
good condition. Not knowing to what to attribute the
complaint, M. Barruel tried a number of remedies,
fuch as warm bathing and clyfters of various kinds,
but without effeift 5 at laft he killed the bitch, and
found in her bladder a ftone that weighed an ounce
and 40 grains, a very confiderable bulk, if we advert
to the fmall fize of the animal.
1 his complaint is lefs common in the horfe, but it
may arife in any of thefe animals from a paralytic
affeftion of the fphin&er mufcle at the neck of the blad¬
der ; which is fometimes the confequence of the bladder’s
being unufually diftended with urine. When' there is
reafon to fuppofe that it is owing to this caufe, the beft
remedy is a blifter applied above the pubis, or the fre¬
quent application of ftimulating liniments to the fame
Part- . . 444
A difficulty of making water, or even an entire fup- Suppreffion
preflion of urine, is a very common difeafe among horfes,efunne*
and frequently occurs in ftieep. rI he lymptoms accom¬
panying this afietlion, differ fomewhat according to the
eaufies which have produced it ; we fliall therefore confi¬
der it under feveral heads. 1. One of the moft com- Caufe fmm
mon caufes of a fupprefiion of urine, is fullering the ani- ovtr d ften-
mal to travel for a long time without flopping him tofionot the
allow him to ftale ; a circumftance which is often ne-^‘lc^er*
glecled by thoughtlefs people, while on a journey.
I rom the urine being fo long retained, the bladder be¬
comes exceflively diftended ; confiderable irritation takes
place, and when the diftenfion has proceeded to a great
height, the animal, though conftantly ftimiriated to re¬
lieve nature, is not able to effe& his purpefe, owing to
a paralytic affedlion that has taken place in the mufeu-
lar coat of the body oi the bladder, attended probably
with a fpafmodic contraction of the fphimfter. If the
animal be not foon relieved, a confiderable fwelling ap¬
pears above the pubis, accompanied with great uneafi-
nefs 5. the urine becomes abforbed, and is carried through
the circulation to various parts of the body, producing
an Itching of the Ikin, and generally, in no long time,
apoplexy and death.
Sometimes, however, before any confiderable abforp-
tion can take place, the bladder either becomes inflam¬
ed, or burfts, and difeharges its contents into the bellv
producing there inflammation and mortification. ^ ^
This complaint is, as we have faid, very common WatrV
among ftieep, conftituting an affettion which in Scot- brax>%
land is called the watery braxy. It is faid that young
and vigorous ftieep are moft liable to it; and according
to the writers of the ingenious appendix to Mr Findla-
ter’s furvey, the immediate caufe of the difeafe, is feed¬
ing too freely on lucculent diuretic food, and reftingtoo
3 U lon£
N
522 ■ FAR II
Difeafes. long in their laires in the morning. It has been fre-
' ' quently obferved, that this fpecies of braxy is moil apt
to make its attacks upon Sundays, becaufe ihepherds ge¬
nerally deep longer on Sunday mornings than other days
of the week, and, of courfe, allow the Iheep to remain
too long in their laires. This difeafe may be prevent¬
ed by avoiding too free a ufe of fucculent diuretic
food, and by moving the animals from their laires
early in the morning, making them walk about for
fome time, in order to encourage them to pafs their
urine and purl.
In attempting to effect a cure, it may be known
whether the bladder is affected, by a great fulnefs in
the lower part of the belly, immediately above the pu¬
bis. The feat of the diftemper being afcertained, a fe¬
male filver catheter, or one of elaftic gum, ought in-
ftantly to be paffed through the urethra into the bladder
of females. This will draw off the urine, and give im¬
mediate relief. But this will be attended with greater
difficulty in males and if attempted, mull be done with
a long and properly bent catheter or bougie. In either
cafe, when this cannot be accomplilhed, a pun£ture may
be made into the bladder with a trocar, direftly above
the pubis 5 taking care not to wound the inteftines. By
either of thefe methods, the urine may be difcharged,
. and the animal relieved. In other refpedls, with a view
to allay or prevent inflammation, evacuations fhould be
procured by clyfters and warm injections into the great
gut.
From^ 2‘ t^le C2^e we have been confidering, the
flamma’ion urinej though fecreted as ufual, could not be difcharged ;
but a fuppreflion of urine fometimes takes place from
the fecretion not going on as ufual, owing to fome affec¬
tion of the kidneys, commonly an inflammation of thofe
organs. .We can fcarcely with propriety confider this
cafe here, but fhall treat of it among the other inflamma¬
tions in the fecond chapter of the next fe&ion.
443 3. Another caufe that may produce a fuppreflion of
Stone. urine, or a difficulty in fialing, is a ftone in the bladder,
or gravelly concretions pafling from the kidneys through
the ureters or urinary pipes. We have juft feen that a
ffone is fometimes found in the bladder of dogs ; but
doubts have arifen, whether this could take place in the
horfe. Examples of it are no doubt very rare, but we
have fufficient proof that it may take place. Mr Clark
of Edinburgh mentions that he has feveral ftones taken
out of different horfes; and it is faid that Dr Mead had
in his cabinet one that weighed 11 ounces. M. Huz-
ard gives an account of a dilfeftion that he made of a
horfe that died of a fuppreflion of urine, in whom the
following appearances were obferved. The bladder
contained a conftderable quantity of red and bloody
urine. Its internal membrane was thickened, efpecially
at its lower part •, and it was alfo inflamed and gangren¬
ous in feveral points. The ureter contained at about its
middle, a fragment of a ftone that entirely blocked up
the paffage of the urine, and had no doubt been the
caufe of this fuppreflion. The ftone was imbedded in
a cavernous body like the kernel of a fruit. Within the
bladder there was alfo a Jlone about the Jvze of a -large
pullet"1 s egg, broken into two portions.
If wTe conftder that fymptoms of gravel are by no
means uncommon in the horfe, that gravel is often
found in his urine, and that calculous concretions have
been frequently obferved in his kidneys, we fhall eafdy
I E R Y. Part VI.
fee that thefe cafes are not fo extraordinary as fome may Difeafes.
imagine. There is no doubt, however, that cafes of a ftone 1 * '
in the bladder cannot fo frequently happen in quadru¬
peds, from their horizontal pofition, which prevents the
ftone from pafling from the kidney into the bladder fo
readily as in the human fubjeft. Hence the kidneys
have often been found to contain ftones of a conftdera¬
ble fize, without the horfe having been during life af-
fe61ed wnth fymptoms of calculus.
When concretions form in the kidneys, they generally
produce a great degree of irritation, and conlequent in¬
flammation j but if a horfe is affe&ed wuth a fuppreflion
of urine, there is reafon to fuppofe that a ftone is lodged
in the bladder. The certainty of this having taken place
may be very readily afcertained, by introducing the
hand within the reftum, as the ftone wall, for the molt
part, be felt below the finger.
It is not probable that internal remedies can have
any effeft in cafes of calculus in the horfe. In the be¬
ginning of the complaint, when the fymptoms are very
flight, diuretic medicines may be tried, and will perhaps
bring awray the fmall fandy particles; but if a ftone of any
confiderable fize be lodged in the kidneys, the cafe is
incurable. If the ftone has got into the bladder, it may
be extra&ed by making a cut into the bladder above the
pubis, and taking out the ftone by means of forceps,
fuch as are employed by furgeons in the operation for
the ftone. In the mean time the animal may be relie¬
ved, by drawing off the urine from time to time by
means of a catheter, wdiich is eafily ufed in the mare,
and by preventing coftivenefs. l oo much labour or
over exertion fliould alfo be avoided, and the animal
ftiould live chiefly on fucculent food. 449
4. A fuppreflion of urine may arife from an obftruc-Obftrudion
tion in or about the neck of the bladder. A curiousthe
cafe of this kind occurred to M. Huzard, and he has ie a
related the appearances on diffe&ion, which were as
follows.
There was at the bafe of the fpermatic arteries, on the
right fide, a glandulous body about the bignefs of one’s
fill, through w-hich oozed a lymphatic fluid, that was
wdiitilh and thick, in fome places appearing like pus.
The bladder was enormoufly diftended with urine, and
extended into the belly beyond its ufual limits ; it was
inflamed and thickened *, the urine was nearly in its na¬
tural ftate. The neck of the bladder was filled wdth
varicofe excrefcences, that completely obftrufted the
paflage. Thefe excrefcences were red, and fo hard as
to refill the knife 3 they contained each a fmall particle
of hardened blood, in which two parts were diftinguilh-
able. The bottom of the bladder was very black, and
its furface of a reddilh yellow 3 the whole of the ure¬
thra was red and inflamed. 450
It will be pretty evident, that, Ihould a cafe like this Bloody
occur, it is incurable. It fometimes happens that the
urine appears unufually red, as if bloody. 'This affec¬
tion may take place in any of thele animals, and it is
called bloody urine, pi fling of blood, or red water. It is
moft common among cattle. It may arife from falls
or bruifes, from overftraining at hard work, as in horfes
from a hard run heat in racing, or after any violent ex¬
ertion, fuch as a defperate leap ; or it may proceed from
inflammation of the kidneys.
When it takes place in cattle, the animals are affe£l-
cd with an almoft inceffant defire to ftale 3 fometimes
they
Part VI.
F A 11 R
Difeafes.
, 45T
Black wa¬
ter.
45*
Scouring or
purging m
horfes.
they make but little water at once; fometimes the urine
' comes away in its ufual quantity. In this latter cafe, if
the urine be deeply tinged, it is confidered as a very
dangerous fymptom, and when it happens, the hearts
leave the herd, and appear to feel confiderable pain ;
they hold up their tail, and fometimes hold their back
higher than common. In fa6l, thefe fymptoms, which
do not feem wrell underftood by the cattle doctors, indi¬
cate an inflammation of the kidneys.
When this difeafe is occartoned by ftrains, bruifes, or
any violent exertion, there is reafon to fear that inflam¬
mation may take place. This muft therefore be guard¬
ed againft by bleeding, cooling drinks, and fucculent
food ; by avoiding exercife and every thing that can
heat or irritate. It is a common cuftom to give nitre
and other faline fubftances in thefe cafes } but when
there is any inflammatory affedtion in the kidneys, thefe
falls are improper, as they tend to increafe the irritation
of thefe organs. The beft drinks in fuch cafes will
therefore be thin gruel, linfeed-tea, or bran-water.
Cattle are faid to be moft fubjedl to the red wrater in
the fpring, or fummer, wrtiile at grafs j and it is fuppofed
to be produced fometimes by fudden changes of the
weather, by wrant of water, or the ufe of fuch as is un-
wholefome. Young cattle are more fubjecl to it than
thofe of more advanced age; hence particular attention
fhould be paid to thefe young animals j as when the
affeftion has once taken place, it is conlidered as highly
dangerous. Thefe are the opinions of cattle doftors,
and we fuppofe they refer chiefly to inflammation of the
kidneys, of w’hich bloody urine is, as we have faid, a
prevalent fymptom. This formidable difeafe w'ill be
confidered more at large hereafter.
It appears that when cattle are fent from Europe, to
the Weft Indies, the bulls wrhen firft put on fhore are
extremely liable to this complaint, which often proves
fatal. It is attributed to the eager defire which thefe
animals, after having been fo long confined to a dry
diet on board, have for green fucculent food, in which
they will of courfe indulge to excefs the firft opportu¬
nity. The remedies found moft effe&ual are bleeding,
and the adminiftering of nitre and purging falts ; but
it might probably be prevented by houfing the cat¬
tle immediately after they are brought on fhore, and ac-
cuftoming them gradually to their change of diet.
Sometimes the colour of the urine in fheep and cattle
is nearly black, and they are then faid to labour under
the black water. This affection is not wrell underftood,
but it is probably a variety of the laft. It is faid to be
produced by feeding on cold, wet land, and that fimple
removal of the cattle to a more favourable fituation will
often effedl a cure. Mr Lawrence confiders the black
water as a fymptom of incipient mortification of the kid¬
neys, and commends bleeding, (unlefs in a cow), cor¬
dials and tonics, fuch as iron filings, with bark, opium,
nitre, in ftrong beer, if the progrefs of mortification
be apprehended. We may remark, that, if mortifica¬
tion of the kidneys has taken place, which may in ge¬
neral be known by the ftinking fmell of the urine ; all
thefe remedies could produce no effeft; and it would
be much better to kill the animal it once, than be at
the expence of time, labour and medicines, in attempt¬
ing to effedl a hopelefs cure.
A fcouring or purging is a very common difeafe in
all our domeftic animals; and in fome of them it is very
I E R V.
523
dangerous, and very difficult to cure. The complaint
is fomewhat different in the feveral fpecies, fo as to re¬
quire a particular defcription in each. Some horfes are
liable to be affedled with a purging from the flighteft
caufes, and on every exertion. Thefe horfes are called
by grooms wajhij horfes, and they are faid to have nar¬
rower chefts and lanker bellies than others j and it is
to this unufual deformity that the purging is generally
attributed. Some horfes are faid to labour under a ner¬
vous diarrhoea; thofe that are chiefly fubjedt to it are
young, and of a wreak and irritable habit. The com¬
plaint generally appears on them only when at work •,
and when they are fuffered to remain idle, their bowels
are fufficiently healthy. Mr Lawrence had a favourite
young horfe that was fubjedl to this nervous fcouring,
and on whom he tried a variety of medicines to no pur-
pofe, as it was found that nothing but idlenefs could ar-
reft the complaint. To ufe Mr Lawrence’s words, “ the
nag whilft at play, was always fat as bacon, and very
firm in body j but a week’s work reduced his flefti, and
caufed him to dung like a corv.” Horfes of this deli¬
cate conftitution require great care and attention, or
they will not be of much ufe to the owner. They
fhould have ftrong nourifhment, but it fhould be given
in fmall quantities at a time. Mr Lawrence recom¬
mends good old beans mixed with their oats, lucerne,
or ftrong upland hay, with rice malhes, carrots, and oc-
cafional runs of grafs.
A purging may be brought on in horfes by a Ridden
change of diet, as from hay to grafs, or from grafs to
hay. Hence, in fuch horfes as are liable to diforders of
the bowels, thefe changes fhould always be made very
gradually. It is very commonly the effedl of expofure
to cold while the body is heated, and is one of the leaft
dangerous affeflions arifing from that caufe. A purg¬
ing may alio be owing to irritating fubftances, fuch as
crude, unwholefome, or undigefted food remaining in
the bowels j and in thefe cafes it is often attended writh
pain, from the formation of an acid in the bowels.
A purging in horfes is feldom dangerous, except
when it arifes to a great height, or continues very long,
fo as to produce a great wTafte of fleih, or very confider¬
able weaknefs.
In general it is fufficient, in order to carry off a
purging in horfes, to avoid the caufes which have pro¬
duced it, where thefe can be afcertained $ to wafh away
irritating fubftances from the bowels, by giving plenti¬
fully of diluting liquors, fuch as water gruel and lin-
feed tea, or gradually to change the diet, if the purging
feems to have arifen from improper feeding. If, how¬
ever, the difeafe fhould continue obftinate, or be attend¬
ed with unpleafant fymptoms, means muft be taken for
checking or removing it. Some caution is requifite as
to the plan of treatment to be ado'U'id 5 as, if the com¬
plaint be checked too fuddenly, fome other dangerous
affedtion might be produced. Veterinary writers differ
confiderably with refpedt to the treatment of diarrhoea
in horfes; fome recommending gentle laxatives, as rhu¬
barb, which Mr Lawrence confiders as the ftieet anchor in
thefe cafes j while others as ftrenuoufly advife againft:
the ufe of purgatives, and recommend opium and aftrin- .
gents. Probably in moft cafes there is little need of
laxatives, and after plentiful diluting, one of the beft
remedies will be clyfters of ftarch or water gruel, with
a fmall quantity of laudanum. If there is acidity in the
3 U 2 ftomach
Difeafes.
FARR
ftomach and bowels, prepared chalk or lime water may¬
be given with advantage •, and if there is confiderable
weaknel's, the ftrengthening allringent medicines may,
in the latter ftages, be tiled without hefitation. We
agree with Mr Blaine, that thefe are lefs proper at the
commencement of the difeafe.
In cattle this complaint is fometimes very ferious,
ami farmers not unfrequently lofe feveral of thefe ani¬
mals by it in a feafon. This has induced them to call
it the fcouring rot. When the purging has continued
long, it produces in thefe animals a general weaknefs
and lofs of flefh. Their Ikin fometimes hangs loofe
about the body •, in other cafes they appear hide-bound ;
the hair turns fandy, or of a grayilh colour j their eyes
grow' pale } the pulfe becomes weak and irregular; their
excrements thin and (limy, and frequently change co¬
lour, efpecially in the early ftages of the difeafe j but
when the complaint is pretty far advanced, the dung
appears like half-chewed food $ and in fad, in thefe
cafes the food appears to pals through the bowels with¬
out undergoing the digeitive procefs. It is faid that
when the animals have been long affected writh this
fcouring rot, they feel a great degree of diltrefs and
pain, when grafped on each fide of the back-bone, juft
behind the Ihoulders ; and this is confidered as a fure
mark that the beaft has become tainted or unfound,
from the fcouring rot.
This complaint in cattle may arife from moft of the
eaufes that have been ftated to produce it in the horfe $
but it is conlidered as being moft commonly owing to
their being overheated in driving, and to want of fuffi-
cient nourilhment, either wuth refpecf to quantity or qua¬
lity. It may be produced in cows, by their being con-
ftantly and too frequently milked, while they are de¬
prived ef proper nourilhment j and it is not uncommon¬
ly produced by lodging on wet ground in autumn, and
feeding on a coarfe, unwholefome fog.
In the treatment of this complaint in cattle, a num¬
ber of ftrange remedies have been employed, fuch as
hogs dung, turpentine and butter-milk 5 dock root boil¬
ed in fait and water, and nettle root boiled in forge
water. Among the moft fenflble receipts that we have
feen, is one in Rowlin’s Cow-Dodor, compofed of three
aunces of bole armoniac, with two ounces of bay berries,
and the fame quantity of alum, of lhavings of ivory, and
powdered comfrey root, boiled in two quarts of Ikim-
med milk, adding while boiling a handful of ftarch.
This is to be given for a dofe, for which, however, it is
perhaps rather too ftrong. Mr Lawrence recommends
that, on the firft appearance of the fcouring, the cattle
Ihould be taken to the home fold, and put on dry food,
which will generally fuperfe^e the neceflity of medicine.
The remedy which Mr Blaine feems chiefly to rely on,
i§ a deco&ion of an ounce of ipecacuanha, a drachm
and half of mix vomica, half an ounce of galls, two
drachms of alum, and 20 grains of white vitriol, in a
quart of water boiled to a pint. Perhaps this decodtion
is rather too complex, and fome of its ingredients may
be fpared. The receipt, I*f° 30. is well fuited to thefe
cafes. It may be fuppofed that where the fcouring has con¬
tinued for any confiderable time, the bowels are become
extremely fore and tender. In this cafe, mucilaginous or
oily fubftances would be of advantage, and they fhould be
given frequently, both by the mouth and by way of
dyfter. Mr Lawrence recommends at pound of frelh
I E R Y. Part VI
mutton fuet boiled in 3 quarts of milk until the fuet is Diteafes.
diffolved, to form a drink to' be given warm. This, we k——v-”-
doubt not, will anfwer extremely well. If the difeafe
fhould go to an alarming height, ftarch clyfters with
laudanum may be given as a laft refource. Mr Blaine
remarks, that, in thefe cafes, he fhould be difpofed to
try animal food altogether j giving broth to drink, or
the blood of other animals, with meat balls forced down
the throat; as he^ thinks it not improbable that thus
a change might be effedled in the conftitution, which
might pave the way to a cure.
Dr Dickfon thinks that much advantage may be de¬
rived in thefe cafes, from a ftrong decoftion of hartfhorn
lhavings and caflia, with powdered chalk, in the pro¬
portion of half a pound of chalk, four ounces of (hav¬
ings, and an ounce of cafiia, to be boiled together
in two quarts (chopins) of water to three pints, (mutch-
kins), adding the caflia towards the clofe of the boiling.
A hornful of this mixture is to be given feveral times
in the day, fhaking it well every time.
Calves, when firft weaned, are fubjedl to a fpecies of jn cJy^s
purging which fometimes proves extremely obftinate j
and it is faid that the principal reafon of the calf-feed¬
ers giving them chalk to lick, is to prevent this purg¬
ing. It appears that this difeafe will take place in
calves, when they are fed on the milk of fome particu¬
lar cows $ and that when the milk is changed the com¬
plaint goes off. The purging may in general be check¬
ed by boiling ftarch and bean flour in their milk ; and
if it ftill continues obftinate, a little ginger and lauda¬
num may be added. .
This difeafe is extremely incident to young lambs, Pinning >.
and it is called by the fhepherds pinning> becaufe when lambs,
the purging has continued for any time, there flows from
the fundament a glutinous matter that fallens or pins
down the tail to the hips, and prevents any farther eva¬
cuation. When this is obferved by the fhepherds, they
commonly feize the lamb, and after wafhing awray the
glutinous matter from the tail, fo as to difengage it from
the hips, they rub the parts with fine earth, or other
fine pow'dery matter, to prevent their flicking in future.
Something of this kind is very proper, but hogs lard, or
any other greafy fubftance, wrould anfwer the purpofe
much better. The difeafe is faid to be produced by
wet and cold in fpring, together with the ewes eating
too greedily of foft moift grafs. It may be prevented
or cured, by removing the flock to heathy or poorer:
paftures, that abound with aftringent or aromatic
plants.
Mr Findlater remarks that among lambs fed
with their dams, upon the rich improved pafture of
Lothian parks, pinning never occurs j whence it is prob¬
able that it originates from milk concocled from poorer
pafture, which gives more curd than cream to the milk,
rendering the excrements of the lamb more vifeid.
When the mothers have little milk, the lambs are very
rarely pinned. Pinning is therefore confidered as a fa¬
vourable fymptom of the lamb’s being well nurfed. It
is not confidered as a difeafe in Tweeddale 5 though, if
not redreffed, it would be produdlive of difeafe. It is
confidered as an accident to be guarded againft, and
which, like other accidents to which flieep are liable,
requires the fhepherd to be conftantly walking through
his flock. No Tweeddale farmer would, on this account,
remove his ewes and lambs to poorer pafture, where the,
lambs,
Part VI. FAR
Difeafes. lambs would be worfe nurfed; as he knows, that if the
~v_" pinned lamb is timeoufly noticed, and relieved by pull-
4-g ing up the tail, all danger is removed.
In do^s. Dogs are alfo very fubjeft to this complaint, and it
may be brought on in thefe animals by any of the
caufes which we-have mentioned as producing it in the
other fpecies. In young dogs it is often the effect of
worms, and in this cafe the ftools are flimy, greenilh,
and fometimes bloody. Common loofenefs in dogs may
be removed by much the fame remedies as in other ani¬
mals, as by ipecacuanha, opium, with Itarch, or arrow
root clyfters, and prepared chalk, if there is any acidity
in the bowels ; but where it proceeds from worms, it
cannot be effectually removed till they are expelled.
Purging mult be carefully diftinguifhed from dyfen-
tery, or what is called bloody-flux in the human fpecies,
and brake-Jhaw in fheep, as in this latter there are
fymptoms of inflammation, and commonly more or lefs
of fever. The diftinguilhing marks of this difeafe will
be confidered hereafter, as we cannot properly treat of
457 it in this place.
Coltivenefs. Coltivenefs, or binding of the belly, occurs occalion-
ally in all thefe animals j but it chiefly calls for atten¬
tion in the horfe, as in him it is more frequent and more
dangerous. It arifes for the moft part from want of
exercife, when the horfe is kept upon hard dry food, as
oats or beans. It is a conftant fymptom of colic and
of inflammation in the bowels, and the continuance of it
always aggravates thefe complaints, and feldom fails to
produce them where they were not before prefent.
It is bell: prevented by occalional change of diet 5 by
giving the horfe barley boiled, or green food now and
then, where he cannot be frequently fent to pafture ;
and every night or two allowing him a malh of bran,
or, if he is of a very coftive habit, of malt. Regular
exercife and good drefling, efpecially friction on the
belly fome time after feeding, are alfo good preventives.
If it (hould arife to any confiderable height, the bowels
muff be emptied by back-raking, and the adminiftra-
tion of foftening, laxative clyfters, which may be repeat¬
ed every three or four hours till the bowels become fuf-
ficiently regular. Purges given by the mouth, though
they may, after fome hours, remove the coftivenefs,
feldom fail to do more harm than good, efpecially if the
complaint has continued long ; and there is confiderable
heat of the body, fulnefs of the pulfe, pain in the
bowels, or great irritation. In thefe cafes, while the
bowels are opened by clyfters, it may be proper to take
away a little blood.
Suckling calves are fometimes fubjefl to coftivenefs.
When this happens, the chalk ftiould be taken away, and
half an ounce or an ounce of magnefia be given them
in a pint of warm gruel; or if the coftivenefs continue,
a little rhubarb may be added.
Chap. VIII. Morbid Affections of Generation.
■15s It has been wifely ordained by nature, that the in¬
ferior animals {hall feel the paflion of defire only at cer¬
tain feafons •, and thefe periods are generally fo adapted,
that delivery {hall take place at fuch a time of the year
as will be beft fuited to the rearing and feeding of the
young animal. It is probable that in a ftate of nature
thefe animals, whether male or female, do not ex-
R I E R Y. 525;
perience inordinate defire, except at the proper periods ; Difeafes.
and when domefticated, the females are fcarcely ever fa-  '
lacious, except at thefe times. The males of thefe ani¬
mals, however, in the domeftic ftate, eipecially dogs, are
occalionaliy fubjedt to exceflive lull, and all of them,
during the periods affignsd by nature, become fome¬
times very unruly, if not permitted to indulge their na¬
tural appetite. Should circumftances render it necef-
fary to prevent them from indulging this propenfity,
they muft be kept on a lower diet than ulual, or have ~
fuch food as contains leaft nourifnment in the fame
quantity j and muft be made to ufe more exercife than
common. They muft alfo be kept extremely cool,
and horfes {hould at thefe times have lefs litter to fleep
on than ufual. • 4^
It is of confiderable confequence to thofe who makeInchffereneef
breeding an objedl, that the animals who are to copulate
{hould not be indifferent to the adl in which they are
to engage. It fometimes happens that either the male
or the female betrays a coolnefs or indifference, which
may defeat the objedh of the breeder. When it appears
that a ftallion or a bull regards the mare or cow pre-
fented to him with tranquil air, or turns from her when
he ought to do his duty, it is clear that fomething is
wrong, and that the iffue of fuch a forced connection
would fcarcely be worth the trouble of rearing. It is
faid that Spanifti ftallions are more fubjecl to this in¬
difference than others.
If an indifference of this kind fhould take place
in an animal that is generally keen and vigorous, it
would be wrong to employ any incitement to ftimulate
him to an adtion for which he has perhaps been unfitted-
by too much exertion of the fame kind during tke fea-
fon ; but where the animal is naturally thus cool, and
has otherwife the requifite qualities of a good ftallion or
bull, it may not be amifs to employ fome ftimulating-
means before leading him to the female. He fhould be
kept on a generous diet, and when particularly required,:
he may have a cordial ball given him, with a quart of
good ale after it. This will generally anfwer the pur-
pofe, or, if it does not, the animal is unfit for his office,
and {hould be difearded. It is a common pradtice among
fome grooms to infert a flice of ginger into the funda¬
ment of an indifferent horfe, and this is faid to have the;
eftedft of roufing his latent powers.
Indifference for coition is more likely to take place
in the females of thefe animals, and it is no uncommon,
thing for a mare or a cow to refufe the male. In ge¬
neral this is owing to a poomefs of diet’5 and thefe
females {hould, like the males, before being taken to be
covered, be put on a generous diet with moderate exer¬
cife. Probably all ftrong, ftimulating remedies, fuch
as cantharides, which are fometimes given, do more
harm than good, as they may produce inflammation of
fome internal organ, without producing completely the
defired effedt. The cordial ball and ftrong ale are the
moft innocent remedies in thefe cafes, and where nature
is tolerably fufficient, they will be the moft efficacious.
The parts of generation in thefe animals are fubjedl to1
certain accidents or difeafes, and it is neceffary that w7e
ftiould notice the more common of thefe.
The horfe is fubjedl to what is called a falling of the-p^j^,0^
penis. This confifts in a relaxation, and total weaknefs the penis
of the parts deftined to fuftain and fupport it in its natu¬
ral
FARRIERY.
Part VI.
4<Ti
•Falling of
the womb.
46*
&bortion«
ral ftate, and is in fact a kind of paralyfis of the etec-
tor and accelerator mufcles, or a total atony of the
fufpenfory ligament.
It may be produced by various caufes, as by too
great exertion in labour ; hence it is common to draught
horfes that are hard worked. It may alfo depend on a
violent fpafm of the mufcles of thele parts, as this is
always fucceeded by a proportionate relaxation and
atony. It is not unfrequently produced when a fiallion
is made to cover too many mares in one feafon.
When the cafe is flight, after returning the penis
within the flieath, which Ihould always be done, a pail
or tw7o of cold water, or of fait and water, may be
thrown over it feveral times in the day, and the mufcles
may be anointed with fome ftimulating liniment.
It has been advifed to make fuperficial punctures about
the yard with a fharp needle, and then to walh it with
diftilled vinegar 5 but we do not know whether this plan
has been attended with the defired fuccefs. If the com¬
plaint continues obftinate, the penis mufl: be bolftered
up, and a charge applied over the back part of the flieath
fo as to leave fufficient room for the horfe to make
wTater. If the complaint is attended with a general wTeak-
nefs, tonics and cordial remedies muft be applied.
When a cow has been delivered with more than
ufual difficulty, or has been very long in labour before
procuring affiftance, it not unfrequently happens that
the womb is inverted, or, as it is commonly expreffed,
the calf-bed comes down. This accident is more likely
to happen to fome cowrs than to others, and is more
efpecially incident to thofe of a weak habit of body,
and fuch as are unufually wide between the thighs. In
fuch cow7S it would be proper to pay more than ufual
attention about the time when labour is expedled to
take place, and the flail in which they are left ihould
be made very commodious, that they may frequently
lie down, as the great weight of their burden will have
moft effedl while they are Handing. When the calf-
bed is come down, it ftiould be returned as foon as pof-
flble, by the operator clenching his fift after greaflng it
and putting it to the middle part of the w'omb, which
he is thus to puffi gently into its place, and wdien it is
up, he muft take care not to withdraw his hand too fud-
denly 5 but it would be better to keep it within the
womb for a little, as it w7ill ftimulate the adjacent
mufcles to preferve the parts in the proper fltuation.
After withdrawing the hand gently, the external parts
fliotild be bathed with camphorated fpirits, and the
beaft mufl; be wutched, to prevent the fame accident
from taking place again. It is the praftice with fome
to lead the cow down a hill after returning the womb,
as it is fuppofed that this is greatly advantageous to the
parts recovering their proper pofition. If proper affift-
ance cannot foon be procured, the inverted womb fliould
be laid on a clean foft linen flieet, and carefully covered
from the air, the irritation of which, might produce an
inflammation. If the relaxation of the parts is fo great
that the wTomb ftill comes down, recourfe mufl; be had
to a flay, to put behind, to prevent the womb from fal¬
ling down $ and fome have recommended ditching it to
the adjacent parts with a wax thread. Probably this
deration would be attended with more danger than
benefit.
Cows and mares fometimes fuffer abortion, or as it is
called, flip their calf or foal, before the ufual time of
3
labour. This accident may be brought on by violent Difeafcs,
exercife, efpecially by leaping hedges and ditches j l———J
by hidden frights, knocks, or bruifes j and it is alfo faid
that it may arife from bad fmells, and ardent deiire in
the mare or cow ; but thefe latter caufes are probably
imaginary. It is advifed by fome to keep cows who
have flipt their calves as free from having any com¬
munication with the reft of the cattle as poflible, under
the idea that the accident may become infedlious 5 and
it is declared that experience has ffiown, that without
great care and management it may go through the
whole flock, and even return the next feafon, if the
fame cattle are kept. We cannot vouch for the truth
of thefe aflertions, but if true, the circumftance is very
remarkable.
When a cow or mare has flipt her young, unlefs this
accident has been occafioned by great exertion, it is a
proof that the animal is extremely weak, and ftie mufl
be put on a more nouriftiing diet, and have ftrengthen-
ing remedies j but in general little is required after fuch
an accident, but reft, and perhaps a warm bran maftu
This latter may be frequently given to mares or cows
during pregnancy, as coftivenefs may be a great means
of producing abortion.
SECT. II. OF COMPLICATED DISEASES.
Many of the difeafes, that have been treated of in 465
the laft fection, are very important, and feveral of them
highly dangerous ; but thofe which we are now to con-
fider, have a fuperior claim to our attention, either from
their fatality, the rapidity of their progrefs, or their
intimate connexion w7ith fome of the moft important or
deftrudtive maladies that affefl the human race. They
will, therefore, require a fomewdiat fuller difeuffion than
we have thought it neceffary to give to the difeafes de-
feribed in the laft fedlion.
We (hall clafs them under the feveral heads of
Fevers and Febrile Eruptions; Inflammations ;
Lethargic difeafes; Spasmodic difeafes; Dropsies ;
and Anomalous difeafes ; which will form the titles of.
as many chapters, the laft comprehending thofe affec¬
tions, of which the nature or caufes have not been ful¬
ly afeertained, with thofe that could not properly be
reduced under any of the former heads.
For the general do&rine of fevers, inflammations,
comata, fpafms, and dropfy, we muft refer to the me¬
dical articles of this woik.
Chap. I. Of Fevers and Febrile Eruptions.
All the domeftic animals may be affefted with pri- 4^4
mary fever ; and this may be either of an inflammatory In^ai?1Tia'
or putrid kind.
1. Inflammatory Fever. Synocha.
Inflammatory fever, is we believe, feldom feen as a
primary or idiopathic complaint, except in the horfe;
and to the confideration of this fever, in that animal,
we ftiall here confine ourfelves. The fymptoms are thus
deferibed by Mr Blaine :
“ It is not eafy to fay what is the firft fymptom of
fever in the horfe ; but from the effects that we fee
arife in fome cafes, it may be prefumed that it is a cold
fit. It is ufual however firft to obferve this complaint,
by
v
Part VI.
FARR
Difeafes. by tbe lofs of appetite, and dull heavy appearance of
the animal j the extremities are cold, and the trunk hot,
or the body is cold, and ears are hot. If a horfe is at¬
tacked with common fever, while he is at grafs, he is
found reftlefs, roving about the field, with an unfteady
ftaggering air, and his head held low; if in the liable,
frequently Ihifting his pofition, and is evidently refilefs
and unealy. His pulfe is generally full, frequent, and
hard, the two latter Hates of it are almoft always pre-
fent, but the former may vary. If the mouth is ex¬
amined, it will be found hot and dry, and frequently
fmells Itrong j the breath is particularly hot, and there
is often an increafed rednefs of the inner membrane of
the nofe, even though there lliould be no primary affec¬
tion of the lungs. The eyes are dull, heavy, and fome-
times inflamed, and the horfe Harts, and is at times
drow'fy, but has no regular fleep. In this fever the fe-
cretions are generally diminilhed, therefore the dung is
hard, and in fmall quantities; the urine fparingly made,
and high coloured, and the excretions from the Ikin
equally confined, giving it a dry harlh feel. The re-
fpiration is quickened, which is lhewrn by the heaving
at the flanks, and which mufl be diHinguilhed from that
difficulty accompanying inflammation of the lungs 5 in
which cafe the air appears drawn through a part too fmall
for it, as though wre were to breathe through a quill j
but in fever it is ufually* only Amply accelerated.
“ This forms the firfl Hage of the complaint, and
fometimes immediately fucceeding to this, is an attack
on fome one particular organ, as the brain, lungs,
bowels, or kidneys; in which cafe it ceafes its primary
afte£tion, and becomes fecondary and fymptomatic ;
but when it remains purely of the febrile type, as the
difeafe advances the fymptoms become mbre irregular,
feldom appearing the fame in any two fubje&s, arifing
from particular Hates m the individual bodies, varieties
in the treatment, or from fome peculiarities in the dif¬
eafe itfelf. The pulfe in this fecond flage continues
hard, but lofes fome of its fulnefs, and increafes in fre¬
quency j the fldn becomes moifler, the urine is fecreted
in rather larger quantities, and fometimes to thefe fuc-
ceeds a purging; the watchfulnefs increafes, and the
horfe is often obferved in thefe cafes to chew a lock of
hay, and let it fall from his mouth again, as though
infenfible of its efcape.
“ 1 his difeafe feldom remains very long in this Hate ;
but there either fucceeds a gradual abatement in the
hardnefs and frequency of the pulfe, the countenance
becomes more lively, the mufcular weaknefs increafes ;
but the irritability leffens ; the animal appears more
tranquil ; the fecretions gradually return to their natu-
ral Hate ; the rnouth becomes moifl, and the heat regu¬
lar and equable ; and thus is formed a refolution *of
the fever. This kind of fever, 1 believe, feldom termi¬
nates in a crifis, nor often by fiveating; perhaps, it may
fometimes by purging.
“ But when to the foregoing fymptoms, inflead of their
latter appearances, there fucceeds great refflefsnefs, or
fometimes conffant drowfinefs, the pulfe becoming very
quick, as from 70 to 80 pulfations in a minute, pre¬
ferring fome of its hardnefs, and accompanied with pro-
fufe Haling, though at others the urine remains high
* Blaine's co^oure^ aR^ fmall in quantity, and the thirff unaba-
Outlines, i tvhen to thele. are added great proHration of
vol# 1L Itrengthj & munition rosy ix? expected
1 E R Y.
527
We have faid that Ample fever is not common in Difeafes.
flreep or cattle ; but when it occurs in thefe animals, v—
the fymptoms differ little from thofe above deferib-
ed.
It muff be remarked, that though the foregoing de-
feription will apply to moH cafes in horfes, all the
fymptoms here laid down will not often be found in the
fame cafe ; but they wall vary according to the conflitu-
tion of the animal and other circumHances. Sometimes
the fever will have lefs of the inflammatory type, and
will approach to wdiat is called a low or nervous fever.
Cafes of low7 nervous fever are, however, very uncom¬
mon among horfes. Mr Blaine fays that he has met
with no inflance of this kind, but that he was affured
by a Mr Bloxham, a veterinary praftitioner of confide-
rable obfervation, that he had met with a w7ell-marked
cafe of typhus fever. In cafes that approach this low
type, the heat of the body is more irregular than in the
pure inflammatory fever, and the mouth often continues
moiff though drink be refufed; and the fecretions and
excretions are ufually not fo much affe&ed. Some¬
times there takes place a difeharge of glutinous matter
from the nofe, and the eyes are watery. The pulfe in
thefe cafes ufually ceafes to be full after the firff 24 or
3 6 hours; and though it Hill continues hard, it is more
frequent than before, and becomes fmall and irregular
as the difeafe advances. This low variety of fever is
more dangerous than the true inflammatory fever, and
requires more particular attention.
Inflammatory fever may be produced by any caufe
that violently agitates the body, and unufually accele¬
rates the motion of the blood. It may be produced by
exceffive exertion and fatigue, or by an expofure to cold
while the body is overheated. It is faid to have been
fometimes brought on by a Hidden fright. A very
common caufe in hot climates, is long expofure to the
direft rays of the fun. Pure inflammatory fever is cer¬
tainly not contagious.
In the cure of inflammatory fever it is neceffary to
draw blood as foon as poffible ; and,, the quantity of
blood taken aw7ay ffiould be in proportion to the vio¬
lence of the inflammatory fymptoms. We are difpofed,
however, to think, that a lefs quantity than is ufually
recommended, perhaps not more than twTo quarts at -
once, will be fufficient, as the weaknefs that comes on
in the latter flages of all fevers, wflll be greatly increafed
by too much lofs of blood. The blood ffiould be pre-
ferved in a proper veffel, as dire&ed in N° 162. that it
may be afeertained^ow7 far it will be proper to repeat
the operation. When blood has been drawn, the horfe
ffiould be back-raked, or a hand paffed up the return,
and the dung drawn carefully away ; after which a cly-
fler ffiould be thrown up, fuch as N° 1 7. of the receipts.
It ffiould be blood-wTarm, and ffiould be paffed up care¬
fully and gently. If there is much determination to
the head, a bliHer may be applied to the neck, or a
feton inferted as near the head as may be. Cooling
medicines may be adminiflered, fuch as the drenches, ,
N° 22. and N° 26. All heating or cordial medi¬
cines, and Himulating food fhould, in the early flage of
the fever, be carefully avoided. The diet ffiould con-
fifl of light food that is eafily digefled, fuch as fweet
hay, or, if that can be procured, lucerne or fainfoin;
bran maffies, and, by way of drink, thin gruel.
T he rational mode of treating fevers, lately introdu¬
ced .
1
52$
Difeafes.
FARR
ced into human medicine, will probably not foon be
transferred to the liable. Grooms and farriers will not
ealily believe that it is neceffary to keep a feverilh horfe
cool, and allow him to breathe a free, pure air. The
practice ufually followed in thefe cafes is to fliut up the
liable as clofely as poflible, and even to flop every
cranny in the -door and windows. This practice is not
(mly lufficient to increafe the diforder of the feverilh
liori’e, but even to excite fever in fuch horfes as happen
to be in the fame liable. It is, befides, cultomary to
cover up the horfe with a load of body-clothes, in or¬
der that he may fweat off the fever j and probably thefe
clothes are girded tight round his body by means of
rollers.
Inllead of this abfurd method of treatment, a fever-
ilh horfe fhould, if pollible, be put into a liable where
there is not more than one horfe. As thefe animals na¬
turally love fociety, it is better that he Ihould not be
quite lolitary, other wife he might be put in a liable by
himfelf. The liable Ihould be roomy and airy, and
Ihould be regularly cleaned. The horfe may have
a light cloth thrown over him, but this Ihould not be
faltened more than is fufhcient to keep it from falling
-off his body.
When the inflammatory fymptoms have fublided, and
figns of debility begin to make their appearance, as
they never fail to do in the courfe of a few days, a dif¬
ferent plan of treatment wall be required, as far as re-
Ipetfls the adminiltration of internal remedies. A horfe
labouring under fever mull be carefully •watched, in or¬
der to mark the time at which the inflammatory fymp¬
toms begin to give way to thofe of lownefs and debili¬
ty ; and as the change is often very fudden, the horfe
Ihould be vilited at lealt twice a-day, or oftener if
poffible, as were the groom or other attendant to
continue the debilitating treatment after the fymp¬
toms of debility come on, fuch a degree of weaknefs
may be produced as wull not eafily be recovered. The
change will be difcovered chiefly by the alteration of
the pulfe, which, from being hard and full, becomes
fofter, and in general weaker. This is the time to ex¬
hibit llrengthening medicines ; but thefe at firll Ihould
be of the gentler kind, fuch as Peruvian bark, or wal¬
low bark, which may be given at firll in moderate
dofes 5 and if the debility continues, the dofe mull be
increafed, and the medicine adminiftered more frequent¬
ly. During the whole treatment, care mull be taken
that the horfe be not fullered to remain cofiive, and his
bowels may be kept moderately open, by giving him a
warm math every night. If the weaknefk becomes very
great, and there appears much rellleffnefs or heavinefs,
while the pulfe continues low, it will be proper to admi-
niller fome of the more powerful llimulant medicines,
as camphor and opium, ammonia, or fnake-root,
as directed in the receipts N° 35. and 38. As the
horfe becomes convalefcent, the ftronger tonics, as oak
bark, with ginger, may- be adminiilered twice or thrice
a-day ^ and as his appetite returns, he may be indulged
with his ufual food, with gentle exercife. It will be
proper, however, to avoid any conliderable exertion for
a long time after the animal has become convalefcent,
as a confiderable period mull elapfe before the body can
recover its ufual llrength and vigour.
Inflammatory fever precedes or accompanies moll vio¬
lent inflammations, efpecially thofe of the brain and
4
I E It Y.
Part VI.
other vifeera, and it generally ulhers in feveral of the
eruptive difeafes. In fome of thefe complaints the fe¬
ver demands particular attention j but in moll of them
it is merely a fecondary fymptom, and yields to the ge¬
neral treatment of the diieale.
Difeafes.
a. Epidemic Putrid Fever. Typhus. Murrain,
Peji, Garble. Epizootee, Fr.
4<S5
Putrid fever does not commonly attack horfes, though Putnc*
it has occafionally raged epidemically among thefe ani- eve ‘
mals. Lancifi, an Italian phyfician, has deferibed an
epidemic fever that raged among horfes in Italy about
the year 1712, and Mr Ofmer mentions an epidemic of
a fimilar kind, attended with critical abfeeffes. He
calls it the diltemper, and fays that it had raged at dif¬
ferent periods for more than 50 years.
The moll ferious epidemic fevers that have ever ap- Murrain,
peared among domeltic animals, are thofe which, from
their violence and fatality, have been called murrains,
or pejls, and wfliich have raged occafionally from the
earliell hillorical accounts.
Columella mentions a contagious difeafe, vdiich he-
calls cruditas, that fcarcely differs in its fymptoms from
the murrains that wre are prefently to deferibe. The
following is his defeription. “ Crebri rudtus, ac ven-
tris fonitus, faltidia cibi, nervorum intenlio, hebitas
oculi, propter quae bos neque ruminat, neque lingua fe
deterget.” He advifes bleeding in the tail, and back-
raking, and clyllers; and if it appears that the difeafe
is contagious, he recommends the infedled cattle to be
feparated from the reft of the herd.
A limilar difeafe is alfo deferibed by Vegetius, who
recommends a limilar treatment, with the additional
advice : “ Mortua cadavera ultra fines villae projicienda
funt, et altiflime obruenda fub terris 5” To carry the
carcafes to a diftance from the farm, and bury them
deep in the earth.
Marius, a Burgundian ecclefiaftic, who wrrote in the
6th century, mentions a difeafe, which he conliders as
the fm allpox, that deftroyed great numbers of cattle.
“ Hoc anno (570) morbus validus, cum profluvio ven-
tris et variola, Italiam, Galliamque valde afflixit, et
animalia bubula per loca fuperferipta maxima interie-
runt.” * * Muir-
The firft accounts that wTe have of any diforder ofHra-
this kind, fince the beginning of the prefent century,,n th‘
are related by Ramazini and Lancili, twro phyficians
then living in Italy, where this diforder firft broke out,
in the year I711) in the territories of the republic of
Venice in the country round Padua 5 and wras faid to
have been brought from Dalmatia, a province of Tur¬
key, by fome merchants importing living cattle, ac¬
cording to their annual cuftom, from that and the
neighbouring parts. The difeafe foon fpread itfelf
through molt parts of Italy beyond the river Po, and
appeared twro years after in the duchy of Ferrara, where
it fo ravaged the country, in the years 1713 and 1714,
that Lannonius, a celebrated phyfician of that time,
informs us, it w-as a prevalent opinion, that the whole
fpecies would quickly become extinft. From Italy it
travelled through the Tyrolefe into France. Shortly
after Germany fuffered, as wrell as the low countries ■,
and from thefe parts it w-as fuppofed to have been tranfi.
ported into Great Britain and Ireland. But there is
no
ATI H IE LI Y. T’la t e C C X I.
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FAR;RJE R Y
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Plate C C X V.
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F' A H l\ I IE H Y.
Plate CCXl^X
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Part VI.
FARRIERY.
Difeafes. no record of a new infe&ion in this country fince the
'r““~ year 1714, till the middle of laft century, when we
probably received the infection from Holland, where
this diforder then reigned, having received the infe&ion
from fome of the neighbouring parts of Germany and
, Flanders.
Appear. About the year 1744, it was reported to have been
ance of the brought by fome traders into Eflex, who had purchafed
murrain in calves in Holland, or fome other of the provinces of
Britain. ^ jow countr;es> which had the infe&ion, and fpread
through feveral counties, till it became a matter of im¬
portance to the Hate j and on the 13 th of February
1745 gave occafion to the palling of an aft of parlia¬
ment, commanding that every probable, or even pofli-
ble, means Ihould be employed, by officers appointed
for that purpofe, to prevent the faither fpreading of it.
Premiums were given to thofe who killed their cattle
as foon as the infeftion made its appearance; and fines
were impofed upon every one who afted in oppofition
to the edabliffied laws, refpefting driving, expofing, or
felling cattle, fuppofed or found to have caught the
diforder. Every precaution, however, which could be
fuggefted at that time, proved ineffeftual} and freffi
orders were iffued by his majefty in council, which
for fome time were alfo found to produce very little ef-
feft. It became fo alarming to the country, that many
eminent medical charafters in different parts of Eng¬
land, clofely applied themfelves to the ffudy of reme¬
dies for this calamitous diftemper. They differed in
opinion, whether it was a difeafe of an infeftious na¬
ture, or proceeded from a malignancy in the Hate of
the atmofphere, or fome peculiarity in the nature of
their food. The contradiftory opinions which prevail¬
ed among them, nearly prevented fome of the ableft
profeffional men from appearing in behalf of the public $
efpecially Dr Barker, who wrote an ingenious pamph¬
let on the fubjeft, and whofe mode of treatment pro¬
ved more fuccefsful than that of many others, whofe
pretenfions were given to the public in a more confident
manner, and more ftrenuoufly fupported.
From the feveral hiftories that have been given of
the diforder, it appears to have differed in its fymptoms
and effefts, according to the countries in which it ap¬
peared $ the various feafons in which it commenced
its ravages, and fome other circumftances not fully af-
certained. There feems to have been no doubt that
the difeafe was infeftious, or at lead that it was eafily
propagated among the fpecies of animals which it at¬
tacked 5 but it does not appear to have been capable of
Ipreading to other fpecies 5 as men, horfes, ffieep, and
dogs, that lived in the neighbourhood of the infefted
cattle, (hewed no marks of having received the con¬
tagion.
In the hiftorical (ketch of the writers on veterinary
medicine, we mentioned feveral works on the fubjeft of
the murrains that prevailed over Europe in the laft cen¬
tury ; and of thefe it will have appeared that the great¬
er part were the produftion of foreigners. The moft
celebrated of thefe foreign publications were thofe of
Sauvages, Goelicke, and Camper. The work of the
latter upon this fubjeft is extremely valuable ; and as it
was written for the inftruftion of people in general,
having been delivered in the form of leftures before a
crowded audience, it is preferable to many others that
have appeared on the fubjeft. It is given in the third
VOL. VHI. Part II.
529
Difeafes.
A6S
volume of Camper’s works on natural hiftory, phyfiolo-
gy, and comparative anatomy, lately publifhed at Paris.
Camper delivered four leftures 5 in the firft of which
he explains^ to his hearers the ftrufture and direftion
of the principal blood-veffels of the neck and extremi¬
ties in cattle, and the natural pofition and appear¬
ance of the entrails of thefe animals. In the fecond he de-
fcribes the natural ftrufture of the four ftomachs, the
liver, and the fpleen, and of the heart and lungs. In the
third he explains the funftion of rumination, or chew¬
ing the cud, in all ruminating animals, but efpeciallv
in cattle. In the fourth lefture he gives an account of"
the feveral writings that had appeared on the fubjeft of
epizootic difeafes ; among which he particularly recom¬
mends a German work by Dr Krunetz, that of Goe¬
licke, and thofe of our countrymen Brockleffiy and
Layard. In the fame lefture he gives a very accurate
detail of the fymptoms of the difeafe as it appeared in
the province of Groningen in the year 1768, with the
appearances on diffeftion j his own opinion with refpeft
to the nature of the malady, and an account of the
moft approved method of treating it. We regret that
this work came into our hands too late for us to make
any confiderable ule of it in this article.
The medical praftitioners in England, to whom we
are moft indebted for an accurate account of the fymp¬
toms of this diforder, and a rational mode of treating it,
are Dr Brocklefby and Dr Layard. As the account
given by thefe gentlemen differs in feveral particulars,
though there can be no doubt that both defcribe the
appearances which fell under their own obfervations,
we (hall extraft a few particulars from both their pu¬
blications. The following is Dr Brockleffiy’s account
of the difeafe.
_ For ten days or a fortnight the cattle were troubled Broeklef-
with a dry cough, which is indeed not an uncommon ' 6(<
fymptom among cattle, at that time of the year, and the mur-°
therefore Dr Brockleffiy did not confider it belonging rain,
to the prefent difeafe j the hair wras rougher on the
(kin than ordinary 5 their eyes looked heavy, and,
when the principal diforder appeared, they refufed
fodder, but had an infatiable thirft for a time: The
milch-cows decreafed in their milk, which remained to a
certain quantity, fometimes for two days, before it
changed colour, but at length often dried up. • Upon
ceafing to chew the cud, a ftiivering feized them all
over, and a high fever immediately came on ; the milk,
if any remained to that time, curdled over the fire, but
did not in the firft of the diforder. At firft the belly
was coftive, but for the moft part a loofenefs fucceeded
within forty-eight hours after the ftiivering fit. The
ftools were firft green and watery, and of a (linking
fmell; their confidence, however, altered afterwards
to a vifcid, (limy matter, the purging accompanied till
about the feventh day, and about that time the excre¬
ments became thicker, in fuch as recovered ; and thefe
foon chewed their cud again, and tailed of fodder,
which they had before abfolutely refufed through the
whole difeafe. All that had not the loofenefs before
the third day died. The 'urine was very high colour¬
ed, and in fmaller quantities. The degree of fever
was obferved very high ; upon the third day the pulfe
beat near a hundred times in a minute, whereas the in¬
genious Dr Hales found a found ox’s artery not te ex-
cped 3 3 pujfes, in the fame time. At different inter-
^ X vals,
469
530
Difeafes.
FARRIERY.
Part VI.
47°
Appe ar-
ances on
-difiedtion.
.47*
His mode
of treat-
iftect.
vals, after tlie attack, they all laboured under a prodi¬
gious difficulty and panting for breath j fome fuffered
thefe after the firft day, others not before the third.
But this diforder fuffered remiffions, and feemed to be
augmented towards evening, and at night. Several
beafts difcharged, towards the fourth or fifth day, when
ill, a very great quantity of a frothy liquor from the
mouth and eyesj others ran actually purulent matter
from the noftrils. As the diforder advanced, the eyes
funk more in their orbits, and fome were obferved to
be quite blind. Towards the conclufion, the fore parts
of the body, and particularly the glands about the head,
were prodigioufly fwelled, and feveral beafts had a uni-
verfal emphyfema, or crackling of air beneath their
fkin j thofe that were not blooded, equally with fuch as
■were. Frequently one might obferve puftules break
out on the fifth or fixth days, all over the neck and
fore parts. Some cattle were raging mad on the firft
day j fuch were neceffarily killed : fome dropped down
litddenly j others died on the third, moft on the fixth
or feventh, very few alive to the fourteenth day ; be¬
fore death the horns and dugs grew remarkably cold.
The appearances in the dead bodies of eight different
cows were as follow : The fleffi was of a found colour,
and everywhere lined with fat, the cellular membrane be¬
tween the fldn and fleffi was diftended with air to above
the thicknefs of three inches. The paunch was prodigi¬
oufly diftended with food, in all of them, but it con¬
tained not any thing preternatural; nor indeed in the
reticulum or fecond ftomach, were there any morbid
appearances \ but, upon incifion of the omafus, or third
ftomach, in which the food is naturally without much
juice, a moft offenfive ftench ruffied out, with a large
quantity of thin greeniffi water.
The blood-veffels on the inner furface of the ventri¬
cle were very full. The abomafus and part of the in-
teftines difcovered the like morbid phenomena. The
liver, fpleen, and kidneys were as ufual; but the gall¬
bladder feemed to be in the greater number fuller than
ordinary j the confiftence of fome was thicker than the
reft, and the gall tailed difagreeably fweetiffi. Dr
Brockleffiy did not obferve any purulent matter inveft-
ing the inner furface of the inteftines, though other
gentlemen difcovered fuch, in fome cattle, if hew as
rightly informed •, but there appeared in fome a flimy
mucus, all along the inteftinal canal.
The lungs univerfally fliewed the ftrongeft figns of a
preceding high inflammation j moft of them were turgid
with red blood, while the Irnalleft veficles of the bron¬
chia, or air-veffels, were very much inflated. Some
few arterious veffels were replete with a gelatinous,
glairy mucus, and all the lungs appeared larger than
they do in common. The whole inner furface of the
trachea, or wind-pipe, was covered with a frothy mu¬
cus ; but he never found any ulcers wdth purulent mat¬
ter either at the root of the tongue, or in the lungs.
Upon opening two or three heads, he found large
quantities of extravafated ferum; and the blood re¬
tained fluidity in the larger veffels long after death.
The method of treating the 'cattle recommended by
Dr Brockleffiy is as follows : Before the cattle are
feized, he advifes two felons, or pegs, to be put deep
into the dewftap, and into the under part of the neck *,
and immediately upon refufing fodder, the beafts Ihould
have three quarts of blood taken away j and after
twelve hours, tvro quarts more ; after the next twelve Difeafes
hours about three pints may be let out j and after the' *
following twelve hours, diminiffi a pint of blood from
the quantity taken away at the preceding blood-letting;
laftly, about a fingle pint ffiould be taken *arvay in lefs
than twelve hours after the former bleeding ; fo that
when the beaft has been blooded five times, in the
manner here propofed, the worft fymptoms wall, it is
hoped, abate $ but if the difficulty and panting for
breath continue very great, he fees no reafon againft re¬
peating bleeding, or at leaft againft taking awTay the
fifth time, inftead of a fingle pound, twice that quantity.
In the mean time the fetons or pegs ftiould be daily
promoted to fuppuration by moving the cord ; and the
cattle ffiould have as much bran-water as they chufe to
drink luke-w?arm. This ffiould be made a little tart
or fouriffi, either with common vinegar or fpirit of vi¬
triol ; and immediately after the firft bleeding they
ffiould have a drench compofed of a drachm and a half
of camphor, well rubbed with two ounces of honey, ad¬
ding ah ounce and a half of nitre, and about a quart of
wrater-gruel.
It is extraordinary that this treatment, w-ith a little
variation in the internal medicine is recommended by
Mr Feron as the refult of his own experience, in wrhat
he calls the general inflammation of cattle. It is a
curious coincidence-, as we fuppofe that Mr Feron, from
his not noticing Dr Brockleffiy’s pamphlet, has never
feen it.
The daclor recommends keeping the cattle very
warm, and guarding againft the admiffion of any cool
air, a praftice in which he will fcarcely be followed at
the prefent day.
The fymptoms of this diftemper as defcribed by Dr 472
Layard are, on the firft appearance of the infedlion, a Layard’s ^
decreafe of appetite 5 a poking out of the neck, imply-mui.
ing fome difficulty in deglutition, a ffiaking of the head,ra;n,
as if the ears were tickled j a hanging down of the
ears, and deafnefs j dimnefs of the eyes and a moving
to and fro in a conftant uneafinefs. All thefe figns,
except the laft, increafe till the fourth day. Then a
ftupidity and unwillingnefs to move, great debility, to¬
tal lofs of appetite, a running at the eyes and the nofe,
fometimes ficknefs, and throwing up of bile, a bulky
cough, and ffiivering. The head, horns, and breath
are very hot, while the body and limbs are cold. The
fever, which was continued the three firft days, now
rifes and increafes towards evening; the pulfe is all
along quick, contrafted, and irregular. A conftan*’
diarrhoea, or fcouring of foetid green faxes, a ftinking
breath, and naufeous fleams from the Ikin, infeft the
air they are placed in. The blood is very florid, hot,
and frothy. The urine, or ftale, is highly coloured j
the roofs of their mouths, and their bafbs, are ulcerated.
Tumours, or boils, are to be felt under the panniculus
carnofus, or fleffiy membrane of the fkin 5 and erup¬
tions appear all along their limbs, and about their
dugs. If a new milch-cow be thus ill, her milk dries
up gradually, her purging is more violent, and on the.
fourth day ffie is commonly dry. There is fuch acri¬
mony or ffiarpnefs in their dung, that a vifible irrita¬
tion is to be obferved during fome time in ano. They
groan much, are worfe in the evening, and moftly ly¬
ing dowrn. Thefe fymptoms continue increafing till
the feventh day from the invafion, on which generally,
though
1
Part VT. FARRIERY.
Difeafes. though roixictinies protracted till the ninth, the crifis
   or turn takes place.
If after the feventh day from the invafion (at which
time a crifis may be expected), the eruptions, boils, or
abfceffes are decreafed in bulk, or totally difappear,
without having broken or difcharged outwardly, or an
aggravation of the fymptoms already mentioned, with
no intermiflion ; it may be affuredly pronounced, that
the bead will die.
As to the cure, immediately upon the firfl appear¬
ance of the diftemper, the beaft ftiould be put into fome
place where it may be kept clean, warm, and as free as
poffible from infectious fleams of other beafls in the
lame condition. The beaft muft be bled in proportion
to its ftrength, wafhed with warm water and vinegar,
to clear the hair from filth and infects, and rubbed
every morning and evening, for a quarter of an hour,
with a dry linen or woollen cloth, or ftraw, to promote
perfpiration. A rowel alfo is to be made in the dew¬
lap, which is to be drefled twice every day, which
rowel is alfo to be kept in a month at leaft after the
recovery of the beafl.
Should the beaft be hot, hang down his head,
breathe with difficulty after the bleeding, dung hard,
and the fkin feel tight and thick 5 then it will be very
proper to give a gentle, cooling purge in this firft ftage.
When the beaft has voided the hardened dung, or if
it Ihould not have wanted purging, the following
drench is to be given. Take of madder-root, three
ounces j of turmeric and horfe-raddiffi-root, each one
ounce} of fenugreek-feeds, bruifed, two ounces 5 of
chamomile-fiowers, dried leaves of feverfew, rue, and
fage, of each one handful. Boil them half an hour in
a gallon of fmall ale, well hopped, to three quarts ,
then ftrain the liquor, and give the beaft three pints
, in the mornipg, and the remainder in the evening.
No dry or folid fodder is to be offered till the beaft
chews the cud again. Between thefe drenches a quart
or two of diftilled vinegar-whey muft be given fre¬
quently in the day, to dilute the hard fodder, and
ftrengthen the coats of the ftomach ; and hay-water
may be alfo given. Great care muft be taken, twke
or thrice a-day, to cleanfe the mouth, barbs, and 110-
ftrils of the diftempered cattle, with fome abfterging
acidulated liquor. On the fourth day, if the beaft be
heavy, dull,, ffiivering, no pimples or knots arife, and
a purging be coming on, the following drench muft
be given at about eight in the evening, and repeated
three or four nights, as occafion requires.
Take of Virginian fnake-root, contrayerva root,
chamomile-flowers powdered, of each half an ounce j
Venice treacle, fix drachms : Mix all thefe in three pints
of vinegar-whey, and give the drench lukewarm. Let a
perfon fit up all night with the beaft, and give it fre¬
quently a quart of vinegar-whey. Venice treacle may
alfo be ferviceable •, and if there be any figns of morti¬
fication from the dark and relaxed appearance of the
mouth, the coldnefs of the ikin, the black fetid dung,
infenfibility, &c. the Peruvian bark muft be inftantly
given every four or fix hours, as occafion may require,
taking the ufual medicines in the intervals. In the laft
ftage, let the fwellings that puff up the Ikin be opened
and digefted ; and after the crifis takes place, if a
fcouring ihould enfue, it is not to be haftily flopped,
though diligently watched and reftrained, left it
weaken the beaft too much ; and to cleanfe the ftomach
and bowels, let a purge of rhubarb, fenna, &c. be
given. Dr Layard advifes to let the beaft drink wa¬
ter-gruel lukewarm, and keep it on dry meat, though
fparingly $ and at night to give an ounce of elecluary
of diafcordium, in a quart or three pints of fmall ale4
■warm. But if after the crifis the beaft is coftive, and
thb fkin dry, harffi, and tight on the fleffi ; dunging may
be procured by giving in the evening a mafh of bran,,
with a handful of beans bruifed, and an ounce of Ep-
fom fait. He recommends, however, the greateft
exaflnefs in obferving when the ciifi-i is over j for the
leaft laxative medicine, or opening food, at the height
of the difeafe, and confequently in the former ftages of
expulfion and maturation, will certainly bring on a
fcouring, attended with fatal confequences, or at leaft
very difficult to be removed. In winter time, the cat¬
tle, upon recovery, ffiould not be turned out at once to
the pafture-grounds, let thefe be ever fo dry ; but to¬
wards the middle of the day, in fair weather, turning
them out two hours, and then bringing them in again,
will gradually ufe them to the open air. In fummer,
morning and evening will be the moft fuitable times j
for the heat of the fun, or cold, may bring on other
diforders.
“ A farmer, (fays Dr Layard), loft ten head of cat¬
tle, and two more wrere dying, and feven others ill,
when I took upon me the diredlion of the feven which
were laft fallen ill. By the preceding treatment five
of thefe recovered. One cow, very near her time of
calving, died ; and the feventh was certainly loft for
want of obferving the due time of the crifis, and purg¬
ing too {bon.”
Such are the accounts given by Broekleffiy and
Layard, of the fymptoms and treatment of this deftruc-
tive malady j and it will be feen that their accounts
differ no more than what may be expefled from two
different perfons defcribing a fimilar difeafe that occur¬
red at two different periods j for the murrain defcribed
by Dr Brocklelhy appeared in the years 1744 and 1745,
while that of which Dr Layard has given an account
occurred between 1750 and 1760.
The caufes and nature of this difeafe have not been
exaflly aicertained. Some have fuppofed it connefled
with a peculiar ftate of the atmofphere, and that it did
not originate in contagion. Many confidered the prin¬
cipal caufes of the dileafe to be previous hard winter?,
obftrufled perfpiration, worms in the liver, and cor¬
rupted food.
Hard winters have been confidered as a caufe of this
difeafe, becaufe it was in 1710, after the hard w inter in
1709 that the great mortality among the cattle wras
obferved j and becaufe the hard winter in 1740 was
followed by the contagion in 1741, which fpread over
the moft part of Europe. Not to mention many others,
the murrain in 1768, followed immediately after a
pretty hard winter in 1767. On the other hand Cam¬
per remarks, that the hard winter in 1727 wras not fol¬
lowed by the contagion j from which it would appear
that the epidemic does not neceffarily depend on the
feverity or mildnefs of the preceding winter.
It was attributed by many to obftrucled perfpi¬
ration j and to prevent its attack, it was propofed tft
cover the cattle during the nights of autumn, and to
make them fleep within doors during the fpring nights.
3X2 It
551
Difeafes.
471
I
532
Difeafes.
* Oeuvres
dc Camper,
tom. iii.
p. 120.
FARRIERY. Part VI.
It may, however, be obferved, that if this reafoning
were true, the difeafe ought to have been lefs prevalent,
or ought not to have appeared at all, in thofe provinces
where, for the fake of faving the dung, they houfe the
cattle at night, even in the fummer, as well as in the
fpring and autumn. Belides it appears that the con¬
tagion was not known at Bern, though the cattle in
that diftrift lay all night in the held whenever the
weather would permit.
Camper jultly ridicules the idea of the difeafe origi¬
nating from worms in the blood, or in the liver.
“ If (fays Camper), you demand of me, to what I
attribute the firft origin of the diftemper, I fhall anfwer,
as it were to be wifhed that all naturalifts would do
in fnnilar cafes, that I do not know 5 that the fubjeft
is above my comprehenfion, and doubtlefs above that of
every man*.”
There feems no doubt, however, that the complaint
was infedlious, and that provided proper means were
taken to prevent infection, the diftemper would not
fpread. The means propofed by Dr Layard and fome
other medical praftitioners, to deftroy the contagion,
was to bury the carcafes of the infefted animals, and to
{laughter all that appeared to have received the infec¬
tion. Inoculation was propofed by fome, as a means
of diminifhing the ravages of the murrain j and is faid
to have been pradlifed in Denmark with conftderable
fuccefs : but if this be true, it is probable that the epi¬
zootic difeafe that raged in Denmark was of a different
nature from that which appeared in Britain, and on
fome parts of the continent ; as inoculation feems to
have been tried in thefe places without effect. What
probably led to the propofal of inoculation was, that
the difeafe was confidered by fome as exaftly fimilar
to the fmallpox in the human body. This opinion was
adopted by Dr Layard, and feems to have arifen from
the boils or fuppurating tumours which appeared on the
bodies of moft of the affefted cattle j but thefe tumours
do not appear to be fimilar to the eruption that takes
place in Imallpox, but rather refemble the boils or
buboes that take place in the plague and fome other
highly infeftious fevers. On the whole, it feems to
us pretty evident, that the difeafe is of the nature of
putrid fever, and wre have therefore ranked it under this
head.
It appears from Camper’s works, that inoculation
was attended with fo much fuccefs. in many cafes on
the continent, that a great number of cattle was faved
by it, who probably could not have been recovered
from the natural difeafe. The advantages attending
inoculation according'to Camper are,
Ift, That we can expofe to the danger of contagion
fuch calves and heifers only as are of a moderate price.
2d, That the heifers pafs through the difeafe before
they take the bull, and cor feq uently before they are
pregnant. This is attended with more advantage than
may appear at firft fight j for when the contagion at¬
tacks a whole herd, all at once, oxen, calves, heifers,
and cows are feized without diftin6Iion. Such cows as
are pregnant generally flip their calf, and even if they
fhould perfectly recover, their womb is fo difordered
that it‘ will never afterwards be capable of retaining the
calf 5 befides, that afterwards it is a long time before
they cd*&e in heat, fo that the proprietor is obliged to
keep them for a whole year without deriving from them Difeafes.
any benefit, except he fatten them for the butcher. *
If the fuccefs of inoculation, as well as the certainty
of the cattle being incapable of a fecond infedlion, were
fully afcertained, the plan of inoculation wrould be ex¬
tremely proper. If thefe points were fully eftabliflied,
would they not, however, militate confiderably againlt
the opinion that is entertained by the beft writers on
the fubjeft, even by Camper himfelf, that this difeafe is
an idiopathic putrid fever, and not an eruptive com¬
plaint like the fmallpox ?
Confidering the difeafe as one that is highly contagi-Means of
ous, every method ftiould be taken to check the pro-c'iecking
grefs of the infection. For this purpofe the houfes^6 conta*
o * 01 on
where the cattle are {tabled, ftiould be kept perfectly*
clean-, and well ventilated. It would alfo be proper
to fumigate thefe places twice a-day with the vapours
of fome mineral acid, fuch as the nitrous or muriatic
acids, as has been recommended by Dr Johnftone,
Guyton Morveau, and Dr Carmichael Smith. This
fumigation may be eafily eftefted by placing pipkins
of warm fand in various parts of the cattle-houfes, and
particularly at the doors, and placing on the land a
cup containing common fait or pounded nitre, on which
is to be poured a futficient quantity of fulphuric acid or
oil of vitriol, ftirring the mafs now and then with a
glafs rod, to promote the efcape of the acid vapours.
We (hall conclude this fubjeft with a feries of queries 475
that were circulated among medical men on the con¬
tinent by the Society of Medicine at Paris, for the
purpofe of gaining every neceffary information refpeft-
ing this alarming peftilence, as they may tend to diredl
the inquiries of thofe who {hall in future have an op¬
portunity of obferving the diftemper.
1. What is the fituation of the country in which the
epidemic appears, and what is the nature of the foil ?
2. Of what quality are the waters which the cattle
ufually drink, and of what dimenfions are the refer-
voirs that contain them ?
3. What is the quality of the pafturage, and what
are the plants which moft: conftantly grow in the paf-
tures ?
4. Of what nature is the fodder and the grain that
are given to the cattle within doors ?
5. Have there been any abundant rains or inunda¬
tions 5 has the water continued for a long time on the
ground, and what are the effefts it has produced on the
fodder ?
6. Or has there on the contrary been any great
drought, and how long has it continued ?
7. What has been the feafon for getting in the hay,
and for harveft : and what effect does the feafon feem
to have had on the hay and other fodder ?
8. What circumftances feem to have rendered it ne-
ceflary for the cattle to work ?
9. Has the diftemper been annouriced by any pre¬
vious fyniptoms; and what were they ?
10. Did the difeafe come on with {hivering, with
coldnefs of the hcwms and ears, and with the lofs of ap¬
petite ?
11. Did the heat come on foon after the cold fit, or
was it not preceded by a cold fit ?
12. Do the animals continue lying, without being
able to raife themfelves on their legs ?
13. When
PartVI. FARR
- Difeafes. 13. When they are lying, is their head low, or how
—v—do they hold it ?
14. Are their eyes red, watery, and hot ?
15. Are their noftrils dry, or does there ooze from
them a mucous matter ?
16. Is their tongue in the natural ftate, or is it very
red or is it covered with a yellow or brown mucus j
is it moift or dry, or are there on it any tubercles ?
17. Isrtheir throat inflamed, or are there on it any
aphthous cruds ? . /
18. Is the animal fatigued with a cough, and is this
cough very frequent ?
19. Do the flanks heave or not ?
20. Does the animal feem to feel any great pain when
he is touched in the flanks, or the belly, on the fpine,
or on the rump ?
21. Are there any puftules or tumours on the furface
of the body ?
22. Is the hair fmooth or flaring, or does it eafily
come off when the Ikin is curried, or even when the body
is rubbed with a wifp of ftraw ?
23. Does the animal feem much difordered, or does
he refufe every fort of drink ?
24. Does he chew the cud ?
25. Has he a frequent difcharge of urine, and what
is the colour and confidence of it ?
26. Has he a difcharge by flool more frequently or
lefs than ufual, and are the excrements natural, or very ,
dry or very liquid 5 what is their colour and odour, and
is their difcharge preceded or accompanied with a fre¬
quent explofion of wind ?
27. Are there to be obferved any little convulfions
below the Ikin, efpecially about the neck ?
28. Is the belly in its natural ftate, or is it fvvelled ,
is it foft, or hard and tenfe l
29. At what periods do thefe feveral circumftances
take place ?
30. How does the diftemper terminate ; what are
the fymptoms that announce a healthy termination, and
what are thofe which precede death ?
31. In what ftate after death are found the ftomachs,
the bowels, the liver, the fpleen, the lungs, the heart,
and the brain ?
3 2. What remedies have been adminiftered to the dif-
eafed beaft ?
33. What fenfible effedls have thefe remedies pro¬
duced ?
34. Laftly, what regimen has been obferved in the
. ' 6 convalefcent ftate ?
IJJfuptive The eruptive difeafes incident to domeftic animals
dufeafes. are but few, when compared with the exanthemata
that take place in the human body. Many fuch dif¬
eafes are, however, defcribed by veterinary writers,
efpecially on the continent, where they feem to be much
more prevalent than among us. In particular, it ap¬
pears, that in the fouthern parts of Europe the ftieep
are frequently affected with an eruptive diieafe that
nearly refembles the fmallpox j and, like this diieafe
in the human fubjeft, there are two varieties of this af¬
fection, a dijhnct and a corifluent. A very particular
account of this difeafe, as it occurred at Cauterets in
the department of the Low'er Pyrenees in France, was
drawn up by M. Tenon, and communicated by him to
the agricultural fociety at Paris 3 and a tranflation of it
I E R Y. 533
has been publifhed in the Farmer’s Magazine for May Rifeafes.
1804, from which we have taken it.
2. Sheep-pox. Claveau, Fr.
. . 477
This diftemper, which at Cauterets is called the Sheep-pox.
fmallpox, is contagious 3 and indifcriminately attacks
wedders, ewes, lambs, and goats, more efpecially when
fliut up during winter in confined cots, the animals are
kept very hot. It is a very Angular circumftance, that
this diftemper Ihould only appear at Cauterets, after
intervals of twelve, fifteen, or twenty years 3 while
in Guienne, and the higher Languedoc, it rages every
year. Befides, that in the former mountainous trafts,
the weather is colder than in the plains of the latter
diftri&s, the ftieep of the Pyrenees are kept more apart
from each other than in the low countries, and the
different flocks are much lefs liable to meet together,
or to pals through the fame roads, by which they
are not nearly fo much expofed to the danger of in¬
fection.
When feized with this diftemper, the Iheep become
dull and weak, and they loathe their food 3 the head,
eyes, ears, and gums, are fwelled 3 and hard white tu¬
mours appear in the groins and under the joint of the
Ihoulder. Three or four days after the appearance of
thefe tumours, pimples break out in different parts of
the body. At firft, thefe are fituated on the naked
Ikin between the thighs, and on the places where the
wool is fhort and fcanty; afterwards, they break out
about the head, and fucceflively over the whole body,
even on the eye-lids, ears, and throat. In this ftage
of the difeafe the animal Iwallows with pain, being
obliged to hold back the head, and to ftretch out the
neck for the purpofe, and it breathes- with great dif¬
ficulty. As the difeafe goes on, the pimples enlarge,
and become inflamed, particularly at their bafes 3- they
fuppurate and burft 3 the matter which runs out
mixes with the wool, and mats along with it into
hard lumps, but afterwards drys and falls to powder 3
the wool falls off in locks 3 and even the fcarf fldn
peels off in large pieces, which are full of holes. When
the diftemper begins to abate, the Iheep rub themfelves
on the polls of the racks, or any other hard fubftance
which comes in their way 3 and by this means the
wool, along with the loofe Ikin and dried pus, are rub¬
bed off. If proper precautions were not employed, this
would infallibly fpread the contagion by infecting any
other ftieep that might be brought into the fame cots:
but, on purpofe to deftroy the infe&ion, new cribs are
either fubftituted for the old ones, which are pulled
down find burnt, or elfe the infe&ed cribs are walked
wuth cream of lime, and the cots are thoroughly fu¬
migated with burning juniper and other aromatic
plants.
There are feveral varieties of this diforder. In fome
of thefe the eruption of puftules is by no means com¬
plete as above defcribed 3 fometimes the pimples grow
black, and dry up without coming to luppuration 5 at
other times the difeafe is of a complicated nature. But
as the diforder only appears at diftant periods among
the ftieep at Cauterets, we are not to expedl very full
information concerning its various degrees from the
Ihepherds of that diftri<ft:3 neither have they any de¬
cided experience of the effedls of fulphur, or fetons, or
534 FARR
, IJl^ales-, or of blifters, in the cure of this diffemper. Blifters
v" ~are faid to have fcarcely any effedf upon the {kins of
fheep. \
It is certain, that the flefli of fuch fheep, as have died
of this diforder, is very umvholefome, has a very bad
taffe, and is even dangerous to eat j and they add, that
when dogs happen to feed on it, they catch the difeafe,
and fpread it by infection. Three cats, by eating this
food, had their heads affected with an eruption of puf-
tules, by which they were firft blinded, and afterwards
loft their lives. Hence the neceflity of the precaution
which is taken at Cauterets to bury deeply the carcafes
of fheep which die of this difeafe.
I had an opportunity, fays M. Tenon, at a butcher’s
in Paris, to examine fome fheep which had died of this
diforder. d he fkins were covered with fuppurated pu-
ftules, which penetrated as far as the cellular mem¬
brane, and the fat in their neighbourhood was affedfed
for a confiderable diftance all round, being browner and
firmer than the ordinary fat j and this alteration pene¬
trated even to the flefh.
I he inhabitants of Cauterets affirm, that thefe pu-
, flules are found on the liver and other internal parts of
the body.
M. T enon made every poffible inquiry to learn whether
< this difeafe was ever communicated from the flieep to man¬
kind, but he could learn no inftances of fuch infedtion :
it is believed, however, in Languedoc, that it is com¬
municated from fheep to rabbits. He could not learn
whether the fheep were ever affedted a fecond time
with the fame diforder j but we cannot expedl informa¬
tion at Cauterets on this part of the fubjedl, fince the
difeafe only appears there for a fingle feafon, after in¬
tervals of twrelve, fifteen, or tw:enty years, while the
fheep live but eight, or at molt, ten years j fo that any
of them, which have once been difeafed, cannot be alive
when the next period of contagion comes round.
Whenever the diforder appears in the flock, the in¬
fected animals are feparated from the reft, and fhut up
in warm cots, having plenty of wheat or barley ftraw
given them for litter j they are fed with hay and after-
math which have btien made on r dry field, with
a little fait, and are allowed lukewTarnk w^ater for drink.
In the flat country at Tarbes, which is ten leagues
diftant from Cauterets, and confiderably warmer than
in the Pyrenees, and where this diftemper is much
more frequent, a different method of treatment is fol¬
lowed. At the beginning of the difeafe blood is drawn
by cutting the ear ; the cots are fumigated for five or
fix fucceffive days, by burning aromatic and ftrong
fmelling herbs, preferring the dried ftems of garlic for
this purpofe ; thefe are burnt on a large ftone in the
middle of the cot, while all the vent holes are careful¬
ly flopped, to prevent, as much as poffible, the fmoke
from efcaping. The fhepherds of Tarbes have great
confidence in the beneficial effedls of fumigating with
garlic fleams, wffiich occafions a great difcharge from
the npftrils, efpecially in fuch cafes of the difeafe as
are complicated with catarrhal diforders, and with the
Itaggers or vertigo.
At Bellegarde, negr Audi, they give to each beaft
a double handful of white mulberry leaves, wffiich they
alledge is a moft effeclual cure, and ferves excellently for
preventing the attacks of the difeafe.
I E R Y. Part VI.
When, at Cauterets, the diforder begins to abate, Difeafos.
whatever be the feafon of the year, the animals are —v——'
dipt, on purpofe to affift the drying of the pullules,
and to favour the growth of a new fleece. After this
the fheep fatten very quickly 5 and it is worth while to
remark, that the fleece which immediately fucceeds this
difeafe is finer and more filky than any former or future
fleece on the fame beafts.
Formerly this difeafe made great ravages among the
fheep at Carcaflbne, till a method wras fallen on to in¬
oculate the difeale. M. Tenon learned this fact in
1762 from Dr French, an Irifh phyfician, who lived
in Languedoc for feveral years ; but it wras not till
1763 that he received particular information on this
curious fubjeft from M. Berra, mayor of Carcaffone, to
whom he had written for information, and who pro¬
cured him a memoir on the difeafes of fheep in that part
of the country. From this memoir the following ac¬
count of inoculating the fheep-pox is extrafted.
“ The feigneur of Maux, in the diocefe of Nar-
bonne is the firft, and almoft the only perfon who has
pra&ifed inoculating the fmall-pox on his flocks j and
having been fuccefsful during ten years experience of
the pra (Slice, his wddow has ever fince continued to fol¬
low his example.
“ In the month of September, wffien the heat of fum-
mer is pall, and before there is any danger of very cold
weather j while the paftures are ftill in good order, and
the lambs, which are now fix or feven months old, are
ftrong enough for withftanding the force of the difeafe,
this feafon is chofen as the fitteft for communicating the
fmall-pox to the ffieep. For this purpofe the frefh fkin
of a fheep, either ewe, wedder, or lamb, wffiich has died
of the difeafe, or, inftead of that, one taken from a
fheep which has been killed -while aft’etled by it, is
placed on the floor of the cot. Into this cot all the
young fheep of the year are driven, and they volunta¬
rily rub and roll themfelves on the difeafed fkin. Very
foon afterwards the fymptoms of the difeafe begin to
appear ; they have a dull and heavy appearance, hold
down their heads, are fomewhat fevered, and loathe
their food. On purpofe to aid the eruption of the pu-
ftules, bread dipt in wine is given to the fheep j they
are anxioufly preferved from being expofed to great
heat or great cold, and particularly from rain. By
thefe precautions they fpeedily recover, and it very
rarely happens that even one dies out of a flock of three
hundred.
Although the diforder has often fpread over the dif-
trifts in the neighbourhood of the eftate where this
praftice prevails, there has been no inftance of a fingle
fheep, after undergoing the above deferibed operation,
having been infecled a fecond time. It ought to have
been noticed, that the inoculated flock is carefully pre¬
vented from mixing with any other fheep, by keeping
it in a feparate cot, and on a particular paflure, the
other fhepherds being forbidden to ufe either for the
flocks under their charge. By thefe precautions, the
difeafe is prevented from fpreading, and fuch proprietors
as do not wifh to have their fheep artificially infefted,
have themfelves to blame if they do not avoid the place
where the difeafed flieep are kept. Since this praftice
has been followed, it has been obferved that the dif¬
order has not returned fo frequently, but that it has not
Part VI.
FARR
Difeafes. proved in the leafl degree deftru<5Hve to the flocks which
have not been inoculated.
M. Berra adds, that the lambs never lofe their
wool under the inflance of the inoculated diforder, and
that their fleeces are equally good in every refpeft with
thofe of the uninfedled, fo that no difference can be
* Farm perceived
Mag. vul.v. ,p}1is flifcufe was once pretty common in Britain, but
is now fcarcely known among us. It is, however, juft-
ly apprehended, that importation of theep from the con¬
tinent may again introduce it ; and Sir Jofeph Banks
has taken much pains to caution the public againft the
danger of fuch an introduction.
47 S
Cow-pox,
t Jenr.fr t
Enquiry,
P-3-
4. Cow-POX, or Ktnepox. Vaccina.
A greater bleflmg was never procured to mankind
than what has been already derived, and will we truft,
be ultimately derived, from the invaluable difcovery of
the inoculated cow--pox, in preventing the perfon who
has received it from being afterwards liable to variolous
contagion. For this blefling we are certainly indebted
to the labours and experiments of Dr Edward Jenner.
There is no doubt that the difeafe was known many
years ago in fome of our principal dairy diltridts j but
Dr Jenner has all the merit of having extenfively circu¬
lated the difcovery, and of having firfl; applied it to
thofe valuable purpofes to which an almolt univerfal
experience has fliown it to be well adapted.
The fymptoms and origin of this difeafe amongft
cows, have been briefly defcribed by Dr Jenner in his
publications on the fubjedl. The firlt of thele appeared
in 1798, while Dr Jenner was pra&iling in Berkely in
Gloucefterfliire, where he had an opportunity of fre¬
quently feeing the difeafe.
“ In this dairy country, (fays Dr Jenner) a great
number of cows are kept, and the office of milking is
performed indifcriminately by • men and maid fervants.
One of the former having been appointed to apply dref-
fmgs to the heels of a horfe affe&ed with the greafe ;
and not paying due attention to cleanlinefs, incautioufly
bears his part in milking the cows with fome particle!
®f the infedflious matter adhering to his fingers. When
this is the cafe, it commonly happens that a difeafe is
communicated to the cow’s, and from the cows to the
dairy maids, which fpreads through the farm, until
molt of the cattle and domeftics feel its unpleafant con-
fequences. This difeafe has obtained the name of the
cow-pox. It appears on the nipples of the cows in the
•form of irregular puftules. At their firfl; appearance
they are commonly of a paliffi blue, or rather of a co¬
lour fomewhat approaching to livid, and are furrounded
by an eryflpelatous inflammation. Thefe puftules, un-
lefs a timely remedy be applied, frequently degenerate
into phagedenic ulcers, which prove extremely trouble-
fome. The animals become indifpofed, and the fecre-
tion of milk is much leflened f ”.
There fometimes appears another kind of eruption on
the udder of the cow, which on a fuperficial view may
be miflaken for cow-pox. It confifts of a number of white
blifters on the nipples, and thefe bliflers are filled with
a whitiffi ferous fluid. They are to be diftinguiffied
from the puftules that take place in the cow-pox, by
their not having the blueilh colour of the latter, and
by their never eating into the fleffiy parts, being confin¬
ed to the Ikin, and ending in fcabs. This eruption alfo
I E R Y.
appears to be infedlious, but not nearly in fo great a de¬
gree as the true cow-pox.
Dr Jenner confiders this fpurious eruption as being
chiefly produced by the tranlition which is made by
the cow, in the fpring, from a poor diet to one that is
more nouriftiing, by which the udder at this feafon be¬
comes more than ufually vafcular for the fupply of milk.
There is, howTever, another fort of inflammation and puf¬
tules, which appears to be not uncommon in all the dairy
counties in the weft of England. A cow intended to
be expofed for fale, and having naturally a fmall udder,
is for a day or two previoufly neither milked by the
milker, nor is her calf luffered to have accefs to her j thus
the milk is peternaturally accumulated, and the udder
and nipple become greatly diftended. The confequences
frequently are inflammation and puftular eruption. 479
As the eruption of the cow-pox difappears in a few Originate?
days, little more is required than to keep the teats clean,in Sre&fe"
and handle them as carefully as poffible during milking.
The fadl of cow-pox originating from the matter of
greafe, or of the latter being capable of producing the
former, wras, we believe, firft dilcovered by Dr Jenner 5
but the opinion was for fome time confidered as fallaci¬
ous. Many unluccefsful attempts were made by Dr
Woodville and by Mr Coleman to produce cow-pox bv
inoculating the udders of cows with matter from greafy
heels. Some experiments made by Mr Simmons
tended flill further to difprove Dr .Tenner’s opiniou.
But about five years ago, Dr John Loy publiftied a
fmall pamphlet, in which he has related fome experi¬
ments made by himfelf, with a view to determine this
controverted point. He wras led to make thefe experi¬
ments from fome cafes that fell under his obfervation, of
a difeafe very fimilar to the cow-pox appearing on per-
fons who muft certainly have derived it from the matter
of greafe. Dr Loy’s experiments fully confirmed the
opinion of Dr Jenner, and proved that the matter of
greafe would, by inoculation, produce in the human
body a difeafe exadtly refembling cow-pox, and like it
capable of protecling the inoculated perfon from an in-
vafion of the fmall pox. Dr Loy alfo proved, that in
fome cafes, the cow-pox might be produced in cows by
the immediate application of the matter of greafe, but
that this experiment did not fucceed unlefs the horfe
had alfo a general affeftion of the fyftem. This led Dr
Loy to fuppofe that there exift two fpecies of greafe, the
one merely a local affeftion, the other a general affec¬
tion of the fyftem *. * Lofs ac-
1 The reafons that induced Dr Jenner to fuppofe thateount °f ■&*
cowr-pox originates in greafe are thus ftated by on
in his fecond publication on the fubjedt of cow-pox.
Firft, He conceived greafe to be the fource of cowr- J ^
pox, from obferving that where the cow-pox had ap¬
peared among the dairies in Gloucefterfhire (unlefs it
could be traced to the introduflion of an ifffefted cow
or fervant), it had been preceded at the farm by a horfe
labouring under greafe, which horfe had been attended
by fome of the milkers.
Secondly, From its being a popular opinion through
that dairy country, and from its being infilled on by
thofe who there attend lick cattle.
Iffiirdly, From the total abfence of the difeafe in
Scotland and Ireland (as the dodlor w-as informed from
the belt authority) where the men fervants are not em¬
ployed in the dairies.
Fourthly,
536 FARR
Diieafes. Fourthly, From having obferved that morbid matter
' " y generated by the horfe, frequently communicates in a
cafual way, a difeafe to the human fubje& fo like the
cow-pox, that in many cafes it would be difficult to
mark the diftinftion between the one and the other.
The truth of this obfervation is well illuftrated by the
above experiments of Dr Loy.
Fifthly, From his being induced to believe from ex¬
periments, that feme of thofe who had been thus infect¬
ed by the horfe, refilled the fmallpox.
Sixthly, From the progrefs and general appearance of
a puftule on the arm of a boy whom he inoculated with
* Jcnner's matter taken from the hand of a man that had been
further Ob- infeCted by a horfe, and from the limilarity to the cow-
fcrvations, p0x, of the general conllitutional fymptoms which fol-
P' SIQ lowed. *
480
Le Fou vet. 5. Le Lou vet.
Continental writers deferibe a variety of eruptions
under the general name of charbon, or carbuncle, which
affect various parts of the body, and have received dif¬
ferent names according to the part wffiich they attack.
We lhall here only notice one of thefe which raged
epidemically about the middle of the lalt century in
Switzerland, where it is called le Louvet.
It affeCted both cattle and horfes, but feems to have
been attended with different fymptoms in each. Ac¬
cording to M. Reynier, a phyfician at Laufanne, who
publilhed an account of the diitemper, when an ox is
ieized with it, he fuddenly lofes his ftrength, trembles,
feems delirous of lying conftantly on the ground,
whence he feldom moves except to refrelh himfelf 5 he
carries his head low, and his ears douching 3 he is fad,
and moans 3 his eyes red, his Ikin very hot and dry,
and his breathing frequent and difficult. When the
difeafe has made fome progrefs, expiration is always
followed wdth a conliderable depreffion of the flanks 3
there is a frequent cough 3 the breath is very fetid 3
the heart and arteries beat violently ; the tongue and
palate are dry and become blackiffi 3 the animal lofes
his appetite and ceafes to chew the cud j there is con-
flderable third: j the urine is fcanty, reddiffi, and the
excrement hard and blackiffi towards the beginning of
the difeafe, and fometimes limpid and bloody. ' Cows
lofe their milk. On moft of the animals inflammatory
tumours are produced, which appear fometimes on the
cheft, fometimes on the vertebra: of the neck, and on
the belly 3 at others on the udder, and the parts of ge¬
neration. At other times they entirely cover the Ikin
in pimples, like thofe of the mange or fcab.
All thefe fymptoms do not often appear on the fame
fubjedt 3 but in proportion as more of them occur, the
difeafe is the more fatal. In general, death takes
place on the fourth day, wffien the fymptoms are vio¬
lent 3 if they pafs the fourth day, and are not worfe on
the feventh, their recovery is pretty certain, though
they are often not convalefcent before the fifteenth
day.
When the urine is turbid, and depofits a whitiffi fe-
diment 3 when the excrements are more abundant than
in the natural ftate, moifl: and not very offenfive 3 when
the fkin is black and relaxed, the pimples filled with
whitiffi matter, the third; alleviated 3 when the appe¬
tite and rumination returns, and when the puftules begin
tg dry up, a perfeft recovery may be expefted: but on
1
I E R Y.
Part VI.
the contrary, when there is much fwelling of the belly. Difeafes.
wffien the animals moan much, when there appear great
debility, tremblings, convuliions, retenlion of urine, diar¬
rhoea or dyfentery, a fatal termination may be looked for.
On opening the bodies of fuch animals as died of this
difeafe, there appear on the (kin numerous black tu¬
mours, full of a yellow ferous fluid that effervefees w ith
acids 3 the muffles are livid, foft and flaccid 3 the lungs
wafted, full of tubercles and'little ulcers, efpecially on
thofe animals which died on the fourth day. The fto-
mach and bowTels are befet with red tumours, full of a
tenacious clammy fluid.
M. Reynier confiders the predifpofing caufes of this
difeafe to be the bad quality of the water wffiich the
beafts drank, the corrupted ftate of their food, excef-
five fatigue, low and ill-aired ftables, deficiency of her¬
bage, and tempeftuous weather. Like many other
medical men of his time, he held the immediate cauffi
of the difeaff to confift in an alkalefcent ftate of the
blood. The method of cure confifted in giving drenches
of emollient deco&ions, clyfters of the fame fubltances,
with nitre and vinegar mixed with honey ; and towards
the latter ftage of the difeafe, the Peruvian bark and
camphor were adminiftered. This was a very innocent
and gentle treatment, and it is no wonder that fo many
of the cattle died.
6. Strangles .
481
The difeafe called Jlrangles in horfes, is confidered Strangles,
by Mr Blaine as a fpecific fever, accompanied wffih a
difpofition to inflammation in the glands of the head and
throat. It moft commonly attacks horfes betwixt four
and fix years of age, though it may occur at any period
before fix 3 but rarely appears after that age. Young
horfes are moft fubjeft to it when firft brought to labour,
and put on the nouriffiing diet of the liable, though Mr
Lawrence has feen it in unbroken colts in the field. It
feems that few horfes effape having it once in their life.
It commences with a confiderable degree of fever 3
the breath is hot, the eyes are heavy and languid, the
horfe Ihrufts out his nofe, has a hoarfe cough, and la¬
bours under fome difficulty in fwallowing. There foon
appears a fwelling between the jaws, or on the infide
of the lower jaw, which ufually extends to the parotid
glands. Thefe fwellings, if left to themfelves, go on
to fuppuration 3 and about the fifth or fixth day they
break and difcharge a confiderable quantity of matter;
but fometimes the heat, hardnefs, and fw’elling of the
glands continue for a long time. Theff fymptoms are
ufually attended with a running at the nofe, wffiich is
confidered as a favourable fign.
This complaint is feldom dangerous, though now and
then there is fome rilk of fuffocation, and fometimes it
degenerates into glanders. Of this Mr Lawrence has
feen feveral inftances. It appears to be contagious, and
may be propagated by inoculation, which has induced
us to coniider it among the febrile eruptions.
The writers on farriery have ftrangely differed wTith
refpe£t to the nature of this affedlion. The elder
Lafoffe confidered it as analogous to the fmallpox.
Bracken as a fpecies of cynanche, or quinfey, and it
certainly nearly refembles the cynanche parotidea, or
mumps. Others have fuppofed it to be like the chicken-
pox, or mealies.
It is not agreed on whether it is better to check the
rnflajnmatio?i
Part VI. - FARR
Difeafes. inflammation of the glands, or to encourage their fup*
‘■’“■'V 1 puration. Mr Blaine recommends the former plan,
which is bell effeaed by bleeding, purging, and the ufe
of diuretics •, while a folution of fugar of lead is applied
to the fwelling externally; ‘but if the fwellings continue
hard and hot, it will be proper to encourage fuppura-
tion by the frequent application of wrarm poultices. If
there is much forenefs and fwelling of the throat, a
large blifter fliould be applied to it. If there is much
fever, nitre or emetic tartar may be added to the
horfe’s water j for it would be wrong to give him medi¬
cine in the form of a ball or drench. He may have
frequent warm mafties*, and to encourage the running at
the nofe, there ftiould be hung to it a bag containing a
warm mafli, which fliould be frequently renewed. The
horfe’s head fliould be kept warm, and currents of cold
air ftiould be avoided. When the tumours break, the
difcharge fliould be aflifted by enlarging the open¬
ing and applying warm poultices, and the ulcers may
be dreffed with the common digeftive ointment. If the
difcharge proceeds by the mouth, the parts fliould be
frequently waftied with vinegar and water fweetened
with honey.
5. Grease. Eaux aux Jambes, Fr. Greafy heels.
482
Greafe. In the fourth chapter of the laft feclion, N° 423. we
made a few obfervations on fwelling of the legs, and
we remarked that this complaint often terminated in
greafe.
Greafe is a complaint that is extremely common a~
mong horfes, to whom it is peculiar, not being known
to affeft any other fpecies of animals, or at leaft there
is no other animal in whom that peculiar fecretion
wdiich conftitutes the matter of greafe in horfes is
found to take place. There appears to be two varieties
of greafe, the one a mere local affeftion, the other a
more general affe&ion of the fyflem attended with
fever.
The complaint fir ft appears by a flight fwelling about
the coronet and paftern, fometimes accompanied with
pain or itching, fo that the horfe rubs his feet againft
each other, or itamps and ftiifts himfelf from fide to
fide. On feeling the fwelled part, it is commonly found
much hotter than ufual, and is evidently red and in¬
flamed. Very foon there may be perceived an oozing
through the Ikin, of a yellowiih fluid that is very offen-
iive, and of an unftuous greafy feel. This fwelling gra¬
dually extends up the cannon towards the knee, and when
the horfe is taken out to work, he appears ftiflfand lame
till he becomes heated } and when he returns from
work, the leg appears hot and inflamed. The fwelling
and oozing of fetid greafy fluid gradually increafe till
cracks begin to make their appearance in the Ikin about
the heels, the hairs about thefe parts fall off, and the ikin
below appears puffy, of a whitiih or livid colour ; and
on it are generally feen little bladders, from wfliich a
matter of the fame kind as what we have defcribed oozes
out. Thefe veficles foon become ulcers, and the mat¬
ter they contain affumes the appearance of pus, which
Irritates and inflames the neighbouring parts, fretting
and excoriating the ikin. Generally a number of red
granulations or excrefcences appear within the ulcers,
and from their form are commonly called grapes } and
if the complaint continues long, the hoof becomes fun¬
gous, or there is a luxuriant growth of foft fpongy horn.
Vol. VIII. Part II.
I E R Y. 537
If the complaint be negle&ed, the ulceration of the part Difeafes.
increafes, and extends even to the bones, which become
foft, fpongy, and at laft carious.
In what is called the confirmed ftate of graafe, the
affe&ed parts are exquifitely fenfible, and they bleed
on the flighteft touch, and there are commonly produ¬
ced a number of horny excr&fcences about the fetlock.
The hair ftands ereft, and the horfe becomes lean, weak,
and exceflively irritable.
Such are the general appearances and progrefs of
greafe ; but there are often fome little varieties in both.
Sometimes the cracks appear very early in the difeafe,
and fometimes there is confiderable fever ; but whether
this precedes the appearance of the veficles, or is occa-
fioned only by the pain and irritation that accompany
the complaint, we are uncertain. It fliould feem, from
the obfervations of Dr Loy and others, that a fever,
luch as accompanies eruptive difeafes, frequently attends
greafe j and in this cafe, as we have faid, it is to be con-
fideted as a general affection. It is defcribed as fuch
by Huzard, and other continental writers 5 and they
even fpeak of the appearances that have been found on
diffeftion of horfes that have died w?hen affe&ed with
this complaint, of the repercuflion of the eruption from
cold, &o. On the other hand, there is no doubt that
fever may be excited by the irritation of the parts, ef~
pecially if the horfe is obliged to wrork. It may take
place in any of the legs, but is more common in the
hind legs.
Such horfes as have round flefliy legs, fuch as have
white hair upon their legs, and in general, fuch horfes
as are weak and phlegmatic, are more fubjedl than
others to greafe.
It may be brought on by various caufes. It is very
commonly produced by allowing horfes to Hand long
idle in the liable. In this way the circulation, which is
naturally more languid in the legs, efpecially in the
hinder legs, than in other parts of the body, becomes
fo languid in the heels, that the veins cannot readily
propel forward their contents, and confequently an ac¬
cumulation takes place in the minute capillary branchesj
W’hence fwrelling and inflammation. This accumulation
is aflifted by the perpendicular fituation of the legs, by
which a column of blood, that for want of the aftion of
the mufcles is moved wfith difficulty, continually preffes
on the lower parts. Hence we find, that when horfes
are not allowed to ftretch themfelves at their eafe, they
are extremely fubjedl to fwelled legs and greafe. The
languid circulation is ftill greater in horfes that are na¬
turally of a weak conftitution, or who have been debi¬
litated by difeafe. So great is the effe£l of diminilhed
exercife in producing fwelled legs and greafe, that fome
horfes are always affedled with this complaint when
brought into the liable, and can be preferved from it,
only by being regularly turned out into the field after
work. It is very commonly obferved, that when horfes
firft come up from pafture, or from a ftraw yard, they
are all more or lefs affefled with fwelled legs ; and if
thefe are not diligently attended to, they foon have
greafy heels. It is certain that horfes in their natural
Hate, or while kept conftantly at pafture, are never af¬
fected with greafe.
Sudden changes from heat to cold, or vice verfa%
frequently produce this complaint j but, according to
Mr Feron, it is more commonly produced by fudden
3 Y changes
53®
Difeafes.
FARR
changes from cold to heat. “ If (fays he) a colt is
taken from grafs, and immediately kept in a warm fta-
hle, after having been ufed to the feverity of the atmo-
fphere, he then gets the diforder. When old horfes are
troubled with the greafe, we {hall find that their feet
have been expofed firfl to cold, and afterwards to heat,
as when they have been in cold water or fnow for a
long time, and on coming into the liable have a large
bed of draw, or perhaps hot dung, to Hand upon. This
hidden tranfition from cold to heat, produces a weak-
nefs in the legs, particularly in the fkin 5 when inflam¬
mation and cracks, fimilar to chilblains in the human
fubjedf, take place, and are called the greafe in
horfes.”
Nothing contributes more to the produclion of
greafe than negligence, with refpeft to keeping the
legs clean, and 'rubbing them often. It is a difputed
point, whether the hair that grows about the fetlock is
prejudicial or not to horfes that are fubjeft to greafe.
It is contended by Mr Richard Lawrence, that greafe
is a very common cenfequence of removing the hair j
and confidering that the hair is a good prefervative
againft fudden tranfitions from heat to cold, we are dif-
pofed to think its removal improper, where the heels
are not already ulcerated. On the other hand, Mr
Elaine remarks, that whenever accidental wet occurs,
this hair muft retain a large quantity of it, and hence
be long in drying, occafioning a copious evaporation,
and thus producing much cold, and that the hair ren¬
ders it difficult to keep the legs fo clean, as they might
be preferved without it. Even fuppofing thefe argu¬
ments to be juft, they only fhow the neceflity of greater
care and attention in rubbing the heels dry and keep¬
ing the hair free from dirt.
Greafe may alfo be produced by too much hard work,
after which the legs fwell, and if the fwelling be ne-
gledled the heels may become greafy. This, however,
is probably not a very common caufe.
Greafe is faid to be moft common in fpring and au¬
tumn, when horfes are moulting or calling their
coats.
On the whole, it appears that this complaint may
take place in two different ftates of the body ; a ftate of
general weaknefs, the effedl of conftitution or difeafe ;
and a ftate of plethora, attended with a proportion¬
al languid circulation in the veffels of the legs or
feet.
In the treatment of greafe, we muft confider whether
it be merely a local affe&ion, or be connedled with fome
general morbid affedlion of the body; and we muft alfo
attend to the ftate of the affedtion, as the nature of the
local applications will depend much on the progrefs that
the difeafe has made.
In the early ftage of the complaint, when the inflam¬
mation is flight, and the Ikin is not yet broken, if it has
been owing to want of exercife and plethora, it may be
proper to draw bfood from the veins of the thighs, and
a diuretic ball, fuch as N° 12. or 13. fhould he gi¬
ven, pnd repeated every two or three days. The hair
muft be cut clofe, and the heels well wafhed with warm
Ibap and water, after which they muft be gently rub¬
bed till they are perfectly dry, and bathed with fome
ftimulating liniment. This plan, with gentle exercife
and a coolijig diet, efpecially bran mafties, with an
I E R Y. Fart VI.
ounce of nitre in each, every night, will probably pre- Difeafes.
vent the complaint from going any farther. If the in- —v—
flammation be very confiderable, and the horfe is ple¬
thoric, he muft be bled pretty largely from the jugular
vein, and have a mild purge. Cloths, dipped in vine¬
gar and water, or in a folution of fugar of lead,
fhould be applied to the heels after waffling, and kept
conftantly moift with the fame liquor. More than
walking exercife here will be improper j but if it is dry
weather, a run for a few hours a-day in a field will
greatly contribute to removing the fwelling. Mr Fe-
ron, who is a great advocate for warm fomentations in
inflammatory affe&ions of the feet and legs, recom¬
mends the legs to be kept the whole day in warm wa¬
ter ; and when they are taken from the bath, to be wreil
wnapt up in a warm poultice of bran and water. If by
thefe means the inflammation fubfides, the legs may be
wafhed with a folution of alum.
If cracks appear, great attention muft be paid to keep
them clean from dirt, and they fhould be frequently
wafhed with a folution of blue vitriol. If grapes ap¬
pear, they may be touched writh blue vitriol, or burnt
alum 5 or if they become large, they muft be cut aw^ay
with a fharp knife, and afterwards feared with a hot
iron. If the ulcers are foul, one of the beft applica¬
tions will be a folution of verdigrife, or the ointment
commonly called Egyptiacum, of which verdigrife forms
one of the principal ingredients.
The ftrifteft attention to diet, regimen, and cleanli-
nefs, muft be obferved during the whole treatment,
and gentle exercife muft be perfifted in. The beft diet
on thefe occafions will be cut grafs, lucerne, frefh clo¬
ver, carrots, or good fweet hay, and an occafional feed
of corn. The horfe fhould not be tied up in the flail,
but fhould ftand loofe while he is in the liable, and
fhould be allowed no litter, except at night. The
liable fhould be kept perfectly clean and well aired,
and not too warm.
Sometimes, even though the complaint fhould not at
firft have originated in debility, there will, if the dif¬
eafe is of long Handing, be produced a confiderable de¬
gree of w^eaknefs. In thefe cafes the cure will be
greatly affifted by giving ftrengthening remedies, fuch
as bark, horfe-chefnut bark, &c. And as in this wTeak
ftate of the body the difeharge from the ulcerate’d fur-
face is commonly thin and ichorous, the fore muft be
drefled with ftimulating ointment } and if there appears
a tendency to mortification, as fometimes happens, a
powder of equal parts of Peruvian bark and opium
fhould be fprinkled on the fores, before applying the
plafter. If the difeharge is very offenfive, a ferment¬
ing poultice, fuch as N° 64. may be applied over the
dreffings.
It will readily appear, that the beft means of pre¬
venting greafe, will be to give the horfe regular exer¬
cife, to drefs him well, and efpecially to keep his legs
dry and clean, and to avoid the extremes of heat and
cold.
Greafe might perhaps have been confidered under the
head of fpecific inflammation j but as it is fometimes at¬
tended with a general affeftion of the body, and is ul- ^
timately connected with one of the moft interefting
eruptive difeafes, we thought it beft to treat of it in this
place.
Chap.
Part VI.
Difeafes.
FAR
Chap. II. Of Inflammatory Difeafes,
R I E R Y.
brain.
I. I NFL am m at I o V of the Brain. Phrenitis. Mad
Staggers, Phrenzy, Megrim, or Sough. Mai de feu
ou d’Efpagne, Fr.
483 This is one of the moil ferious and fatal indamma-
Inflamma- tions which affedl the animal fyllem. It attacks occa-
tian of the fionally all the domcilic animals, but horfes and cattle
are the moft fubjeft to it. In the former it is generally
called the madJtaggers, to dil'tinguilh it from apoplexy,
or fleepy flaggers 5 when it occurs in cattle, it ufually takes
one of the other names which we have given as fynonyms.
Inflammation of the brain is fometimes preceded by
giddinefs and partial blindnefs j the animal holds his
head low, or refts it againft the manger 5 he appears
dull, heavy, and fleepy j gradually, however, thefe fymp-
toms go off, and are fucceeded by others of a very dif¬
ferent nature. His eyes appear red, fiery, and fpark-
ling j he now holds his head higher, and appears for
fome time to look conffantly at any objeft before him ;
foon he becomes very reftlefs, till by degrees he is quite
unmanageable. He fometimes lies down, and tumbles
about, and then remains quiet for a while 5 but he foon
gets up again, and is as ungovernable as before, render¬
ing it dangerous for any perfon to approach him. The
pulfe in this difeafe is full and hard, and there is confi-
derable throbbing of the temporal arteries. The pulfe
is not always the fame in every cafe, being in general
lefs frequent than in health, but fometimes more fo.
There is always a confiderable degree of fever, and the
head fecms peculiarly affedfled. The fecretions and ex¬
cretions are generally diminilhed, but it is faid that they
are fometimes increafed.
Such are the fymptoms as they generally appear in
the horfe •, thofe which take place in cattle, as they are
defcribed in the beft books on the fubject of cattle me¬
dicine, differ in a fewT particulars.
The animal is defcribed as looking frightfully, being
unufually watchful, flarting often, groaning vehement¬
ly, as if affe&ed with hidden and violent pain •, his re-
fpiration flow, but he fometimes makes very long infpi-
rations, and appears for a time as if his breathing was
entirely fufpended. Suddenly the beaft will rife, turn
about, and inftantly lie down again, (bowing marks of
great reftleffnefs and delirium. When the frenzy is
high, the eyes look red and furious; at other times
they border on languor and ftupefaftion ; but the beaft
always appears to labour under confiderable fear, and
dreads the approach of every thing ; he is often quite
ungovernable, and foarcely ever inclines to reft, except
in the latter ftage of the difeafe, when, if it has been
negle&ed, or has not yielded to the ufual remedies, a
lethargy takes place, and the animal finks. Sometimes
the urine is hot and high-coloured ; but it is faid that
before a fit of phrenzy takes place, the urine is often of
a pale colour, and thinner than natural.
When the fymptoms of fury or irritation fuddenly
ceafe, and a lethargy takes place, while the pulfe be¬
comes feeble, and the ftrength diminiflies, the cafe is
pretty certainly hopelefs j but if the fever, rednefs, and
flulhing of the eyes gradually fubfide, without the pulfe
finking, or great debility coming on, the beaft may ge¬
nerally be pronounced recovering.
On opening the head of fuch animals as have died of
this complaint, very evident marks of inflammation ap¬
pear about the membranes of the brain, and very fre¬
quently in the fubftance of the brain itfelf. All the
veflels are turgid with blood j and on cutting into the
brain, innumerable little red points are to be feen,
which do not appear in the natural date. Very com¬
monly an effufion of blood, or of purulent matter, is
found to have taken place into the cavities of the brain,
or in fome part near its furface.
The caufes of inflammation of the brain are generally
the fame that produce inflammatory fever, applied in a
greater degree; as great heat, exceflive exercife, a hid¬
den change from a poor to a rich diet.
The cure of this complaint requires the moft prompt
and decifive meafures. Blood muft be taken in large
quantities from the jugular vein or temporal artery.
Not lefs than three quarts (hould be taken from an or¬
dinary horfe, ox, or cow $ and if the animal is very
large, four may be taken ; and the bleeding muft be
repeated a few hours after, if the fymptoms do not
abate. When the beaft is very furious, it is often dan¬
gerous to bleed in a very deliberate way ; but as his re¬
covery will almoft certainly depend on a fuflicient lofs
of blood in the early part of the difeafe, it wall not be
amifs to bleed him in the manner defcribed by Mr
Blaine, as having been praflifed by an eminent veteri¬
nary furgeon, who being called to a horfe affedled with
flaggers, and in fuch a ftate of delirium that none of
the ordinary precautions for fecuring him could be
adopted, plunged a lancet into each jugular, and per¬
mitted the animal to bleed till he fainted, by which
means, though the difeafe was far advanced, he faved
the horfe. After bleeding, a ftimulant blifter (hould
be applied to the top of the head, and the fides of the
jieck (hould be well rubbed with a mixture of powdered
cantharides and oil of turpentine, and other means ufed
to promote external inflammation, for the purpofe of
determining the blood from the head. Mr Coleman is
faid to recommend in thefe cafes the pouring of boiling
wmter on the pafterns, by which means bliftering will
fpeedily be produced in thofe parts. In defperate cafes
the determination of blood to the head may be moft ef-
fe&ually flopped, by tying a ligature about one of the
external carotid arteries ; but in doing this great care
muft be taken not to include within the ligature the
nerves that run near the artery, as thefe nerves are the
principal branches that fupply the ftomach 5 ■and if they
be included in the ligature, the funftions of that organ
will be in a great meafure deftroyed. In addition to
thefe means coftivenefs muft be carefully guarded againft.
After back-raking, a ftimulating purging clyfter (hould
be injedled as foon as poflible, and if an interval of
quiet wall permit, a purging ball, fuch as N° 15. may
be given by the mouth. If the above means are adopt¬
ed in proper time, the animal will generally be faved j
but if fome days have elapfed before vigorous fteps are
taken, there can be little hope of a cure.
Mr Dowming, in his work on cattle-dotloring, men¬
tioned in N° 87, advifes a method of treating inflamma¬
tion of the brain in cattle, that is extremely contradic¬
tory and inconfiftent. He at firft very properly advifes
bleeding; but he direfts this to be followed by giving
diapente, a very powerful cordial medicine, the admini-
ftration of wrhich completely counteracts the effefts of
the bleeding. Dr Dowming deferibes a fever of the
3 Y 2 brain
539
Difeafes.
eye
540 FARR
Difeafes. brain as diiKnci from inflammation j and he then treats
v 1 of a lleepy fever. Thefe are evidently fymptomatic affec¬
tions, and fhould have been given as fuch, as well as gid-
dinefs, or fwimming in the head, which is defcribed by
Dr Downing “ as a diftemper belonging to the cavities
of the eyes and optic nerves. It gives a wavering mo¬
tion to the body. For if the optic nerve, or its expan-
fron on the bottom of the eye called retina, be agitated
by any preternatural heat or other emotion, objects will
change their fituation ; therefore, this difeafe is a fever
affecting the cavities of the eyes, or the optic nerves.”
2. Inflammation of the Eye. Ophthalmia Membra-
454 narum. Moon-blindnefs.
tiorTofthe Though in the human fubjefl there are feveral fpe-
cies of ophthalmia, in the horfe there is but one, which
is in a great meafure fynonymous to what has been call¬
ed ophthalmia membranarum by medical waiters. This
difeafe in the horfe is of confiderable importance, as it
is not merely a local difeafe, but appears to be connect¬
ed with fome conllitutional affedfion. Before we de-
fcribe the fymptoms and treatment of this complaint, it
will be proper to remark, that in the eye of the horfe
there is a firm cartilaginous fubftance, fituated at the
inner corner of the eye, the greater part of which is
hidden by the eyelids, but a fmall portion projedls beyond
them, and may be diftinguifhed by its black colour.
This is commonly called the haw, and by anatomills the
membrane niEiitans, and is fuppofed to be a produdlion
of the retradlor mufcle. Our reafon for mentioning
this part will appear immediately.
Inflammation of the eye fometimes makes its appear¬
ance very fuddenly 5 at others it is gradual in its attack.
In general, one of the earlieft fymptoms of it is a fwel-
ling of the eyelids, efpecially of the upper, which is
with difficulty held open 5 the eyes water confiderably,
and drops of tears may be feen at the extremity of the
lachrymal duff, which do not appear in the healthy
flate of the eye. The external tranfparent parts of the
eye become difcoloured and obfeured, appearing of a
blackiih glafly hue •, fometimes of a dull white, at others
brown or bluifh. Red veffels may be feen running over
the white of the eye, efpecially at the corners, and
fometimes reaching to the centre of the eye. The cor¬
nea is faid to be mofl obfeured on its upper part; but
this is probably owing to the fituation of the perfon who
looks at the eye, who being below it, fees direftly
through the lower part ®f the cornea, and but oblique¬
ly through the upper. When the eyes are in this flate,
the horfe is very impatient of light, and holds his head
down to guard againft it. The eyelids and ball of the
eye are evidently much hotter than ufual, and fome¬
times there may be feen through the cornea, a fmall
quantity of thickifh matter like pus, in the lower part
yf the anterior chamber of the eye. The cartilaginous
membrane or haw is now much more vifible, and projects
forward confiderably outward from the corner of the eye.
It not unfrequently happens, when the difeafe has
not proceeded farther than wTe have defcribed, that it
gradually, fometimes pretty fuddenly, difappears, and
is feen again in the courfe of a few weeks, although fome-
times it comes back in the courfe of a few days. The dif-
appearance of inflammation in the eye of the horfe is
fometimes fo hidden, that the eye, which one day is
confiderably inflamed, will appear the next perfedtly
1 E R y.
Part VI.
clear and healthy. Sometimes it feems to appear and D.feafes.
difappear periodically } and it has been fuppofed by ig- '
norant people, that in thefe periods it follows the
changes of the moon, whence it has received the name
of lunatic blindnefs. If the difeafe does not thus difap¬
pear, or if it appears again, and reaches the height be¬
fore defcribed, the inflammation goes on, and the cor¬
nea becomes more obfeure 5 or, what very frequently
happens, the cornea recovers its tranfparency, and the
cryitalline humour becomes opaque, forming the difeafe
already fpoken of in N° 325.
In the horfe, one eye frequently only is affedled,
whereas in man, both eyes are generally inflamed at
the fame time. This dileafe more frequently occurs in
young horfes of five or fix years old, than in thofe of a
more advanced period. It is faid that horles are never
affe£ted with inflammation of the eyes till they are bro¬
ken, or taken up from the palture where they have re¬
mained from their birth.
A plethoric ftate of the body feems very much to
predifpole to inflammation of the eye, and this feems to
account for its occurring fo frequently in horfes of five
or fix years old, as at that age they generally ceafe to
grow, and are, of courfe, more difpofed than at other
times to fulnefs of blood. Sudden changes of tempera¬
ture form a very common exciting caufe of this difeafe,
and the heat and foul air of a clofe liable frequently
produce it. Such horfes as are kept in dark ftables are
alfo more fubjedt to it, from the effedl of fudden expo-
fure to broad day-light. Want of exercife, or extremes
of idlenefs and hard work, may alfo aflift in producing
it. Mr Coleman confiders this difeafe in the horfe as
an inflammation of a fpecific nature, very different from
any that occurs in other animals. The principal reafons
for fuppofing that the conftitution is affedled are, that a
horfe affefted with an inflammation of the eye either
does not perfpire, or fweats profufely, indicating a flow
fever. If the animal is bled or purged, the eye fpeedi-
ly becomes clear j and if the fame caufes are applied,
the fame eye, or more commonly the other, becomes
inflamed, and fometimes the difeafe appears alternately
in each eye.
Provided the proper means be taken in the early
flage of the difeafe, the inflammation is commonly focn
removed ; but when the cryftalline humour becomes
opaque, no means hitherto employed have, as we fhall
prefently fee, produced any benefit.
In the treatment of this affeftion, it muff be remem¬
bered, that the conftitution is deranged, and that our-
remedies muft therefore not be confined to local appli¬
cations to the eye. General blood-letting will almoft
always be required ; but, unlefs the horfe is very fat or
plethoric, this need not be repeated. It will be proper
alfo to apply a blifter or two to the head, as near the
eye as poffible, and the veins at the corners of the eyer
fhould be opened, to draw blood from that part. The
horfe muft be put on lower diet, and fhould ufe only .
very moderate exercife j the liable fhould be kept well
aired and cool 5 and if the horfe’s eyes are very fenfi-
ble, and the liable happen to have windows, thefe-
fhould be darkened. It wall generally be advifable to
give a purgative medicine $ and the horfe may drink
frequently of fome cooling liquor, efpecially of water,
with nitre diflblved in it. Rowels have been fometimes
recommended ; and. it is faid that confiderable benefit
has»
Part VI. FARR
pifeafes. has followed the infertlon of felons as near the eye as
»—V—^ poffible. They have fometimes been palled through the
white of the eye, juft below the tranfparent cornea ;
but to this we fhould objea, as being liable to produce
fpecks that may extend to the cornea. As there is ge¬
nerally confiderable drynefs of the Ikin in this, com¬
plaint, it may be ufeful in fome cafes to adminifter a
gentk ludorific, fuch as a folution of two drachms of
emetic tartar, or N° 22. of the receipts may be given.
With refpeft to the applications to the eye itfelf,
thofe which appear the moft likely to be of advantage,
are ftimulating fubftances, fuch as tinflure of opium,
lolution of blue vitriol, red precipitate in the form of a
foft ointment, fuch as N* 40. Sometimes,, however,
thefe ftimulating applications do harm ; and it is found
that a weak folution of fugar of lead, or acetate of zinc,
as prefcribed in N° 31, are moft ufeful. We muft
here take notice of an abfurd praftice that is in ufe
among common farriers, of cutting away the haw,
which they confider as a very principal part of the com¬
plaint, There is no doubt, however, that relief may
have been procured by this operation, as it will gene¬
rally be attended with a pretty copious effufion of blood,
that will relieve the diftended veftels } but as this effu¬
fion can be more eafily produced by fcarifying the red
veffels of the white of the eye ; and, by opening the
angular veins, there is no occafion to take away a part,
which is certainly of confiderable ufe to the animal.
Sheep are fometimes affefled with inflammation of
the eye 5 but in them, as in moft other animals, it is
merely a local difeafe, and is generally relieved by to¬
pical bleeding. In the corrected agricultural report of
Perth, it is ftated, that the common praftice in that
diftrkft for relieving inflammation in the eyes of ftieep
is, to open the veins in the corner of the eye, and hold
down the animal’s head, fo as to allow the blood to get
within the eye. There is no doubt that this bleeding
does good ; and the introduftion of the blood within
the eye may, we believe, alfo be of fervice ; not,
however, in the way fuppofed by the reporter, but be-
caufe it afts as a gentle ftimulus.
We have already, in N° 3 24. made fome obferva*
tions on cataraft, and noticed the inefficacy of all the
ufual methods of treatment. It may not be improper
here to add the refult of Mr Coleman’s experimental
attempts to relieve this complaint, as ftated by Mr
Feron.
“ The profeflbr has begun with bleeding from the ju¬
gular or angular veins, and, at the fame time, employ¬
ing purgatives frequently repeated, as well as diuretics
adminiftered one after another.. After which he has
tried all the medicines of Meffrs Phipps and WTathen,
but without any degree of permanent fuccefs. The lo¬
cal and furgical treatment has been as follows, viz.
“ ill, He has ordered fcarifications, and to pafs a feton
through the membrana conjun&iva 5 but without ef-
feft.
“ idly, We have removed fome of the larger veffels
going to the cornea, and divided them with the a£tual
cautery, but with no fuccefs.
“ 3dly, We have applied leeches to the conjunfliva,
but without effefl.
“ Laftly, We have taken up both carotid arteries,
which was of no avail, from the anaftomcfes, which the
vertebral arteries form with them.
I E R Y.
54*
“ Therefore, the treatment is confined entirely to Difeaies.
bleeding, purging, and diuretics 5 fomentations of warm —v—-■
water, in order to diminilh the irritation from the tears
that run over the cheeks 5 and plenty of moderate and
continual exercife, fo as to increafe the perfpiration.”
3. Catarrh. Catarrhus. Mor Foundering, or Com¬
mon Cold. .
Catarrh has been placed by Dr Cullen among the Catarrh, or
projluvia, or fluxes attended with fever; we have ven-
tured, with fome modern authors, to rank it as an in¬
flammation, becaufe the increafed fecretion of mu¬
cus, which might entitle it to be called a profluvium^
though fometimes pretty confiderable, is not a conftant,
or often a very remarkable fymptom of the difeafe j and
in all cafes appears to be the effe£l of an inflammatory
ftate of the pituitary membrane. There are generally-
reckoned two fpecies of catarrh, fimple cold, and epi¬
demic catarrh, or injluen%a. Though in the latter of
thefe the catarrh is probably only fymptomatic, we
(hall, in compliance with the ufual cuftom, confider it
immediately after common catarrh.
This difeafe attacks all the domeftic animals ; but
hories and dogs are moft liable to it, and in them the-
fymptoms are moft fevere. It ufually commences by a
general dulnefs and heavinefs, a drynefs and increafed
rednefs of the infide of the noftrils, from which there
foon proceeds an unufual fecretibn of mucus a drynefs
of the eyes, or fometimes an increafed effufion of tears.
In a fhort time there is generally added fome degree
of cough and difficulty of breathing ; and fometimes
there is with thefe fymptoms-a confiderable degree of
heat and drynefs of the fkin \ increafed thirft, and not
unfrequently a lofs of appetite. At firff the cough is
dry, , and fometimes continues fo } but more frequently,
when the complaint has remained for fome time, a
frothy whitifh mucus is coughed up. The pulie is not
always much affedled in this difeafe ; but in general it
is fuller and harder than natural. The firft fymptom
of the difeafe is not unfrcquently a chillinefs and tremb-
ling.
The principal ctofes of catarrh in domeftic animals,
as well as in man, are hidden changes of temperature,
efpecially cold applied when the body is in a ftate of
perfpiration, or entering a warm apartment after having
been long expofed to a cold air. Drinking cold water,
when fweating, is alfo a common caufe; and thefe
caufes are the more likely to produce their efl'ebt when
the animal is in a plethoric ftate.
If neglcfted, catarrh may go on to inflammation of
the lungs j in the horfe it may produce thick wind, or
even broken wind in cattle it may end in chronic
cough ; and in Iheep it may lay the foundation of con-
fumption or pulmonic rot. It is alfo not unfrequently
followed by the complaint called glanders, .which we
are prefently to deferibe. An improper mode of treat¬
ment, efpecially giving cordials and other hot medi¬
cines, will haften on thefe terminations of the difeafe.
If attended to in time, and if the proper mode of treat¬
ment be adopted, the fypaptems are, in general, foon
removed.
If the complaint is flight, and there is little fever, it
will often be fufficient to take the animal within doors
into a warm liable, give him a warm mafli, and put a
cloth over him. when he will perfpire through the
nighty,
S42 F A R Pv
,D:feafes- , wght, and be nearly well next morning. This plan
v will alfo anfwer, if it be adopted immediately, on per¬
ceiving the chillinefs or fhivering. If, however, confi-
derable fever has taken place, and the animal’s pulfe is-
hard, it will be proper to draw blood, according to the
urgency of the fymptoms, before giving any internal re¬
medy, or ufing warm clothing. After bleeding-, a
drench, compoied of warm ale, with a drachm or two
of fait of hartlhorn, or half an ounce of 1'pirit of hartf-
horn fweetened with molaffes, will prove an excellent
remedy 5 after taking which, the animal ihould be well
rubbed down, and clothed as before. If the animal is
coftive, back-raking, followed by clyfters, wall be ad-
vifable ; and throughout" the treatment coftivenefs mull
be avoided. If there is conliderable fever, the drench,
N° 22. or 26. where] coftivenefs is to be obviated,
fhould be given every fix hours. Some practitioners
advife balls in thefe cafes, as in moft others ; but as
there is often fome fwelling of the throat, and always
conliderable irritation about the fauces, it is better to
give the remedies in the form of drenches. The cough
leldom needs particular attention during the inflamma¬
tory ftate of the difeafe, as it will generally go off when
the inflammation is removed ; if it fhould continue ob-
ftinate, it becomes a chronic cough, and muft be treat¬
ed as direcled under N° 436.
I E R Y.
4* Influenza, or Epidemic Catarrh.
Influenza. the epidemic catarrh alfo affefts all thefe animals,
and has fometimes been known to attack a whole yard
of oxen, horfes, and cows, in one night. It differs from
common catarrh in the degree of fever, wdiich, in this
complaint, is always very confiderable, and is one of the
firft fymptoms. T here is a fmart fhivering, followed by
confiderable heat and drynefs of the fkin, and the fever
is commonly attended with great heavinefs and pain ©f
the head, and affeclion of the eyes. In this complaint
there is alfo a great degree of weaknefs, which comes
on pretty early in the difeafe, and this weaknefs not
unfrequently brings on a fetal termination of the dif¬
eafe. Sometimes there is a confiderable difcharge from
the noftrils 5 at others this difcharge is either trifling, or
the noftrils are dry, in which cafes the fever is moft;
confiderable.
The epidemic catarrh appears to depend on fome
peculiar ftate of the atmofphere ; but there is no doubt
that it is capable of being propagated by contagion.
It is more prevalent in the fpring, efpecially when this
has been preceded by a mild winter. It is faid, that
when cattle are at thefe times expofed to currents of air
from the north-eaft, they are moft likely to be affected
with it.
In the commencement of this difeafe, it will be proper
to houfe the animals ; but too much warmth muft be
avoided, as it would tend to increafe the weaknefs that
forms a principal part of the difeafe. It may fometimes
be neceffary, when the fever runs very high, to draw
blood once 5 and, at any rate, it will be proper to apply
a blifter to the head, or on each fide the neck. Though
v/armth muft be avoided, great care ftiould be taken
not to expofe the animals to a draught of air. Warm
maflies may be given as in common catarrh, but when the
fever has fubfided, cordials and ftrengthening remedies
will be required 5 and if the appetite is tolerably good,
the diet may be more nourifhing than ufual. The ani-
3
mals ftiould on no account be hard worked, but be al¬
lowed to reft from the time the difeafe is firft noticed,
except taking gentle exercife when their ftrength will
admit of it.
What is commonly called the diftemper in dogs is
now pretty generally confidered as a fort of epidemic or
contagious catarrh. We {hall therefore treat of it in
this place.
5. Of the Distemper in Dogs.
Part VI.
Difeafes.
tQm
No diforder is more general among dogs, than that Diftemper
which is generally known by the name of the diftemper; in dogs,
and none is fo deftru&ive. It is afferted that, except
the plague, no difeafe is fo fetal to the animal which it
attacks.
It appears that this diforder has not been known in
Britain, till within the laft 50 years, but, during that
time, it is aftoniftiing what numbers of dogs have fallen
viftims to it. For thefe laft fifteen or twenty years,
however, the diftemper has been lefs frequent, and has
affumed a milder form.
The fymptoms of the diftemper are not alike in every
cafe. The following are, according to Mr Blaine, its
ufual appearances. It generally begins with a dry bulky
cough, attended with dulnefs and want of appetite, a
running from the eyes and nofe, and lofs of flefli. As
the difeafe advances, the dog appears much emaciated,
and grows exceflively weak, particularly in the loins and
hind legs. Convulfive twitchings of different parts, ef¬
pecially of the head, come on, attended with dimnefs of
fight j and, as the difeafe proceeds, and puts on a more
virulent form, thefe twitchings degenerate into ftrong
convulfive fits, which continue for a long time, and re¬
peatedly return. In thefe fits, the dog foams at the
mouth, runs round, and appears to be in great pain, and
to have a conftant defire to dung, This is fometimes
attended with obftinate coftivenefs, at others with vio¬
lent purging. The ftomach is extremely irritable j
every thing that the animal takes being immediately
thrown up. When the difeafe has reached this ftate,
the animal feldom recovers, and is ufually carried off in
one of the convulfive fits.
In every part of this, difeafe there prevails a w-ant of
energy, and a particular paralytic affeflion of the nerves.
This latter fymptom, in fome inftances, remains long
after the difeafe has been otherwife removed \ but, in
general, the ftrength returns almoft immediately on the
removal of the other fymptoms.
The diftemper in its worft form is often miftaken for
canine madnefs} but they may in general be diftinguifli-
ed, by attending to the following points.
1 ft, The diftemper feldom occurs except in puppies,
its moft: common period being from fix to twelve months.
Madnefs may occur at any age, but feldom attacks
puppies.
2d, In the diftemper dogs drink freely j in madnefs,
though they often attempt to drink, it does not appear
that they are capable of {’wallowing the water.
3d, In the diftemper the animal does not attempt
to bite \ but, in madnefs, the propenfity to biting feems
to be incefiant.
4th, In madnefs there appears to be a lofs of reafon
at all times, though, as is faid, they are fo fen-
fibie, as to know their mafter; but, in the diftemper,
though there is fometimes a lofs of reafon, it lafts no
longer
Part VI.
FARR
Difeafes.
longer than during the continuance of the convulfive
fits. v
If, therefore, a young dog will drink, as foon as
the elfeft of the convulfion is removed, but more par¬
ticularly when his weaknefs is exceflive, and flrongly
apparent in the intervals between the fits, it may be
pretty fafely concluded, that he is affedled with the
diilemper, and not with madnefs. Thefe circumftances,
fays Mr Blaine, Ihould be carefully remarked, as they
are unerring, and may fave many a valuable animal
from dellruilion, and many a timid mind from the
moft dreadful apprehenfions.
The caufe of the diilemper is difficult to explain;
nor do the moll: careful diffcdlions, in every ftage of
the complaint, afcertain more than that there is a ge¬
neral inflammation of the mucous membrane 5 but
whether the true feat of the difeafe is confined to that
membrane, and all the other fymptoms are the confe-
quences of it, or are real affedtions of other parts, is
an undecided point, although, it is certain that its
firfi: appearance is by an inflammation of the pituitary
membrane, and which is one of moft lafting, as
well as conftant fymptoms. That this inflammation
is given from the membrane of the nofe, to the upper
part of the gullet and wind-pipe, is evident by the
fwelling of the glands of the throat, the tender-
nefs and dry cough ; and that this inflammation
extends from thence to the fame membrane of the
ftomach and inteftines, is equally fo, producing
vomiting, coftivenefs, or purging. It has generally,
as we have faid, been confidered as a fpecies of ca¬
tarrh ; but it has been fuggefted to us, by an ingeni¬
ous friend, that, from feveral fymptoms, as wrell as
from its attacking dogs only once in their lives, it is
more analogous to pertujjis, or chincough, in the human
fubjedf.
With refpedt to the cure of the diftemper, Mr Blaine’s
diredtions and remedies appear to have been tolerably
fuccefsful. With the nature of his remedy wTe are un¬
acquainted, but believe it to be a preparation of mer¬
cury. This medicine has been made known by exten-
fively advertifing it, and although certificates of its uti¬
lity are numerous, they make no part of the advertife-
ment, but are to be feen at Mr Boofey’s, in Old Bond
Street, London, the wholefale agent 5 the form is a
powder. Explicit inftrudtions accompany it 5 and the
price, confidered with its alTerted efficacy, bears no pro¬
portion, as no fportfman would think five times the fum
too much for the prefervation of a valuable animal.
Although fo efficacious, it is neverthelefs innocent
enough for a child to take ; nor muft thofe who are
advocates for ftrong remedies imagine, that, becaufe
the effedts of this ffiake not the whole conftitution,
that the difeafe will not be eradicated by it. When
•the diforder is ftrong, after it is given, there is for the
moft part a gradual decreafe of the rymptoms, and no¬
thing but a fmall moifture at the nofe remains, which
fpeedily difappears the next day. If the attack is
flight, no more is feen of it, and the animal is at once
well.
From the varieties in the fize, and confequent ftrength
of dogs, a difference in the quantity of the medicine is
neceflary ; the. packets are therefore marked 1, 2, and
3* h°r a maftiff, pointer, fetter, or dog of a large fize,
No. i, fhould be procured. Hounds, fpaniel*, and thefe
1 E R Y. 54s
of a middling fize, require No. 2.; and all the leffer Difeafes.
dogs, No. 3. <    
It has been already obferved, that, in the feverity
of the diforder, there is frequently fo great an irritabi¬
lity of the ftomach, that every thing taken into it is in-
ftantly thrown up \ in fuch cafes, the powder ffiould be
carefully, mixed wnth a fmall piece of butter, at the fame
time adding to it thirty, forty, or fifty drops of lauda¬
num, according to the age, fize, and ftrength of the
dog j who is to be watched, wffiether the medicine is re¬
tained, and kept as ftill as poffible; but ffiould it be
thrown up, hotwithftanding this addition, in two hours
after the fame quantity of laudanum ffiould be given
without the powrder, in a little broth or milk, and half
an hour afterwards the powffier mixed into a pafte with
treacle, honey, or flour, and thus the vomiting will be
prevented. Should there be at the fame time obftinate
coftivenefs, it is probable that ficknefs may be the confe-
quence of it, and muft be removed before it will ceafe j
twenty grains of jalap, or, in preference, fifteen grains
of calomel, with four or five drops of laudanum, may
be given in a fmall ball; or tw'o table-fpoonfuls of caftor
oil may, if more convenient, be ufed. Should thefe
not ft.ay on the ftomach, a clyfter wflth milk, fait, and
oil, feldom fails to remove the coftivenefs, after wffiich
the powder ffiould be given, if there has been great
ficknefs, with the laudanum; if not, without it.
When, likewife, extenfive purging accompanies the
complaint, the laudanum fliould not be omitted j as
by running off rapidly by ftool, the effeft of the medi¬
cine is equally loft, as if it were vomited up. In fuch
cafe it will be proper to give before the powder thirty
or forty drops of laudanum, with two ounces of olive
oil. We.fliould always attempt to remove the ficknefs
and purging, or coftivenefs, before adminiftering the
powder, as the effedt of this will be then more certain.
In.the milder form of the difeafe, however, nothing is re-
quifite but to give the powder in fuch a way, as that the dog
may take the whole of it; for which purpofe the powder
ffiould be well mixed with a fmall quantity of any thing
that the dog will eat, or, if he is averfe to eating, it
fliould be made up into a fmall ball with honey, treacle,
or. butter, and forced down his throat. It muft not be
mixed with any liquid, as it is fo heavy that it would
fall to the bottom, and thus will probably be loft. Care
fliould be taken to give the medicine on an empty
ftomach, as the eilecl: will otherwife be leffened or de-
ftroyed •, and the dog ffiould be carefully watched to fee
if the medicine be thrown up, as, if this is the cafe, or
if. there is reafon to fuppofe that the whole dofe is not
given, a lecond ffiould be adminiftered. Mr Blaine
concludes with obfexvmg, that the lymptoms remove
without any particular appearance ; yet lb quickly, as -
that there is fcldom any remains of the difeafe two hours
after the medicines have been adminiftered.
Mr Daniel has witneffed the extraordinary effects in
the diilemper, from Dr James’s powder, given in the
following manner. When the fymptoms of the diftemper
aie appaient, a third part ol one of the parcels inclofed
in the half-crown packets is to be given, mixed with a
little butter, and the dog is to have plenty of warm
broth, or milk and v/ater, and, if pcffible, he is to be
near a fire, or at leaf! kept very warm. Two hours after¬
wards another third part is to be adminiftered j and,
fficidd neijhq; 9/ phefe operate by vomiting or purging,
:S4*
FARR
Dii'eafes.
* Daniel'j
Rural
Sports.
vol. i.
* Darwin's
.Zoonomia,
v. ii. 4to.
4S8
Rheum a-
at the end of four hours, give the remaining third.
Should the two fir ft portions have the effeft, the remain¬
ing third ftrould not be given until four or fix hours
(according to the evacuations) after the expiration of
the four hours j in the interim the dog is to be en¬
couraged to lap, and if he refufes, be forced to
take plentifully of warm broth, or milk and water.
Very feldom, even when the cafe is inveterate, but
the evacuations are brought on by the taking of one
packet, generally by the fecond dofe j but Ihould it fo
happen that there is no fuch proof of the powder’s ef-
fedft, the fecond parcel ftiould be divided into fimilar
proportions, and applied in the fame manner, until the
ftomach is emptied. Warmth and warm liquids will
quickly perfect the recovery. As foon as the dog’s appe¬
tite returns, let him be fed (at firft rather fparingly^)
with animal food *.
Dr Darwin advifes, that the dog be permitted to go
about freely in the open air, and have conftant accefs to
frelh water. The ufe of being as much as may be in
the air is evident, becaufe all the air which we breathe
pafies twice over the putrid Houghs of the mortified
parts of the membrane which lines the noftrils, and
the maxillary and frontal cavities; that is, both during
infpiration and expiration, and muft therefore be load¬
ed with contagious particles. Frefh new milk and frelh
broth ihould be given them very frequently, and they
Ihould be fuffered to go amongft the grafs, which they
fometimes eat for the purpofe of an emetic, and, if
poflible, Ihould have accefs to a running ftream of
water, as the contagious mucus of the noftrils, both
of tbefe animals and horfes, generally drops into the wa¬
ter when they attempt to drink. Bits of raw flelh, if the
dog will eat them, are preferred to cooked meat •, and
from five to ten drops of opium may be given with ad¬
vantage, when fymptoms of debility are evident, ac¬
cording to the fize of the dog, every fix hours. If
Houghs can be feen in the noftrils, they Ihould be moif-
tened twice a day, with a folution of fugar of lead, or
of alum, by means of a fponge fixed on a bit of' whale¬
bone, or by a fyringe. The lotion may be made by
difi’olving half an ounce of fugar of lead in a pint of
water *.
6. Rheumatism.
There feems no doubt that horfes, and perhaps cattle,
are affected with rheumatifm, but it is fometimes difficult
to afcertain the prefence of the complaint, or to diftin-
guiffi it from other caufes that produce lamenefs. It
may take place in any of the limbs, but it is more fre¬
quently obferved to affecft the hip-joint and the adjacent
membranes *, and when feated here, it is called the Jcia-
tica, and fometimes the hip-gout. It will require confi-
derable judgment to diftinguiffi this complaint; but it
may generally be known by attentively examining the
limb in which the lamenefs is feated, from the hip down
to the foot, and by attending to the canfes that feem
likely to have produced the lamenefs. In rheumatifm
the Ikin will be found dry, and the affetfted part fwelled,
and the lamenefs attendant on it will be more readily
removed by exercife than that which has its caufe feated
in the foot, or which arifes from bony excrefcences.
Rheumatifm in the horfe, as in the human fubjeft, may
be either acute or chronic, and the latter is the moft
obftinate.
I E R Y.
Part Vf.
Rheumatifm, like catarrh, is produced by fudden Difeafes.
changes of temperature, and by expofure to a cold
moift atmofphere. It is no otherwife dangerous than
as it renders the animal lame.
The eure of rheumatifm differs according to its ftate.
In the acute one bleeding may be proper $ after which
a warm malh, with two drachms of emetic tartar dif-
folved in the water, ffiould be given, and the horfe
treated as diredfted under catarrh. If a fweat is pro¬
duced, and kept up for fome hours, the complaint
will probably difappear, and its return may be pre¬
vented by frequent fridtion of the affedted part, re¬
gular exercife, a nourifhing diet, and attention to
avoid changes of temperature. In the chronic rheu¬
matifm, bleeding will be improper j and the moft likely
means of relief will be, to rub the affedted parts fe-
veral times a day with fome ftimulating liniment, or,
if convenient, to ufe the warm bath for a coniiderable
time together, or to foment the affedled limb for an
hour or two every night, after which the limb muft
be rubbed perfedlly dry. Pretty conftant exercife will
alfo contribute greatly to the cure, and coftivenefs muft
be avoided. A blifter applied over the affedled part
will fometimes do good. According to Mr Lawrence,
the only cure to be depended on is a month’s run of fait
marfhes in the fpring, and being continued .abroad in
fome ftiady place till autumn, afterwards mercurial
phyfic, and the beft liable care.
7. Inflammation of the Lungs. Pleuritis. Peripneu¬
monia. P/eurify. Peripneumomj. Rijing of the Lights.
Rot.
489
The lungs are frequently inflamed in the domeftic Inflamma.
animals j and, as in man, the inflammation may be feated!-1011 Q^l^e
either in the membrane covering the lungs and lining
the cheft, or the pleura, or in the fubftance of the lungs,
conftituting the two varieties, pleurify and peripneumomj.
The difeafe has been called by common farriers, rifing of
the lights, from an idea that the lungs protruded againit
the throat, and caufed that difficulty of breathing which
is one of the principal fymptoms of this complaint. The
other vulgar appellation of rot feems to owe its origin
to the appearance which the lungs fometimes prefent on
diffeclion, being found in a ftate of mortification, and
partial decompofition, as if they were rotten. It is of
little confequence to diftinguiffi the two varieties of the
difeafe, as the treatment is the fame in both.
According to Mr Feron, the fymptoms of inflamma¬
tion of the lungs in the horfe are invariably as follow.
The refpiration is quick, the breath hot, the extremities
cold, the tongue dry and hot, the flanks heaving, the
patient never lying down, which forms a very charadle-
riftic fymptom; and fometimes he hangs down his head.
If nothing has been done, it is hardly poffible to fave
his life, after three days have elapfed j and, after death,
the right fide of the heart is found to have been inflamed,
and, on fome occafions, fo much diftended with blood as
adlually to burlf, and the lungs are found to refemble
putrid liver, the cells filled with blood, from the great
diftenfion of the pulmonary arteries, and perhaps fome¬
times effufions take place j the pulfe is oppreffed, from
the great diftenfion occafioned by the blood in the
right fide of the heart, while the left fide of that organ
is weak, from want of fufficient blood.
To Mr Feron’s account it may be added, that the
pulfe.
4
I
Part VI.
FARR
Difeafes. pulfe, at the commencement of the dii’eafe, is generally
"“""■v more full, harder, and more frequent than natural; but,
as foon as the difeafe reaches the ftage at which it is
ufually firlt obferved, the pulfe has become fmall and
opprefled, and but little increafed in frequency 5 the
veins pf the neck are fwelled and prominent, and the
eyes are generally red and flarting. There is fometimes
cough, at others none j but the difficulty of breathing is
always great, and the horfe hands extended, panting for
breath, with heaving flanks and open noftrils, till, no
longer able to fupport himfelf, he drops down and dies.
This fatal termination fometimes takes place in a very
ffiort period •, in 48, 36, or even 24 hours.
The only difeafe with which this can eafily be con¬
founded, is colic ; and the difcriminating marks will be
mentioned w hen we treat of this difeafe. At prefent it
will be fufficient to remark, that when a horfe appears
dull, holds his head very low, breathes with difficulty,
efpecially during infpiration, hands conhantly, has a
quick heaving or the flanks, a fullnefs of the eyes, and
rednefs of the inhde of the nohrils, and wffien the pulfe
is fmall and oppreffed, he may almoh certainly be de¬
clared affedted with inflammation of the lungs.
It may not be improper to give a brief explanation
of the fymptoms which we have enumerated; and they
are chiefly to be explained from the difficulty with
which the blood pafles through the lungs, on account of
the unufual accumulation in the pulmonary veffels.
Hence the difficulty of breathing, and the averfion
that the horfe expreffes to lie down 5 for it is evident,
that he will breathe more eafily in a Handing pofture
than if he wrere lying; becaufe, as was remarked in
the table of the extremities of the mufcles, fome of
thefe a£t on the cheft wffien the fore legs are fixed,
and thus affifi: in carrying forward the ribs, and thus
increafing the cavity of the cheft. The impeded paf-
fage of the blood through the lungs alfo explains why
the pulfe is weak and oppreffed j and hence, when this
obftrudtion is relieved by leffening the quantity of blood,
the pulfe never fails to become ftronger and fuller.
The caufes of inflammation of the lungs are doubt-
lefs hidden changes of temperature, efpecially when the
animal is plethoric j it is probable that the moil common
caufe is a hidden change from heat to cold and moifture.
It is at prefent, however, more fafliionable to confider
the reverfe of this as the general caufe of pulmonary
complaints j and wre underftand that Mr Coleman goes
fo far as to fay, that horfes are never attacked with in¬
flammation of the lungs from expofure to Ample cold,
for, that the turning of horfes to grafs without prepara¬
tion, though it may render them emaciated, feldom pro¬
duces the complaint in queftion. Mr Feron alfo, who
may be confidered as a pupil of the veterinary college,
is of opinion, that inflammation of the internal vifcera
proceeds from a hidden tranfition from a cold to a hot
temperature, but feldom or never from a hot to a cold
one. We are aware that thefe gentlemen have borrowed
their theory from Dr Beddoes, and it is of little confe-
quence to our prefent purpofe, whether it be correct or
not. .
I he judgment to be formed writh refpedl to the ter¬
mination of this difeafe, which is always highly dan¬
gerous, will depend on the urgency of the iymptoms,
and on the changes that take place after the exhibition
cl the ufual remedies. If the pulfe becomes fuller and
VOL. VIII. Part IF.
I E R Y'. 545
fironger after bleeding j if the breathing becomes lefs dif- Difeafes.
ficult; if the parts where bliflers have been laid inflame J
foon, and the blifters rife w’ell 5 and, in particular,, if
the horfe lies down, and feems lefs diftreffed, we may
hope that the danger is leffened j and if thefe favour¬
able figns continue for 24 hours, we may confider a
cure as pretty certain : but, if the pulfe Hill continues
fmall and oppreffed, more efpecially, if it becomes
quick and irregular; if the difficulty of breathing con¬
tinues or increafes j if there is a rattling in the throat,
with partial cold iweats and extreme dejedtion j a fatal
termination mull; be looked for, which will fpeedily
take place, if the breath becomes cold or fetid. It is
confidered as a very unfavourable fymptom when the
horfe appears infenfible to external ftimuli j as when
blilfers do not rife w7ell, nor rowels eafily fuppurate.
In the cure of inflammation of the lungs, every
thing will depend on the fpeedy adoption of the molt
vigorous meafures, and the firft and principal remedy
is bleeding. This ffiould be performed as foon as pafi-
fible, and to a greater extent than in molt inflamma¬
tory difeafes. It will fcarcely be proper to take lefs
than five or perhaps fix quarts at firlt, and the bleeding
mult be repeated, though lefs copioufly, fome hours
after, if a confiderable remiffion of the lymptoms does
not take place. It mult not be expedted that the pulfe
wrill rife much after a fecond or third bleeding 5 but,
if it is not confiderably weakened, and if the oppreffed
feel of it is removed, wre may be hire that the bleeding
has not been carried too far. Another principal means
of checking the internal inflammation is, to excite an
inflammation externally near the feat of the complaint,
by every means in our powrer. A large bliffer Ihould
be applied on each fide of the chelt, and to the inlide of
the fore legs j a rowel Ihould be inferted below the cheff,
and if the fymptoms are very urgent, another near the
belly. Mr Coleman recommends inflating the cellular
membrane below the fkin with air, fo as to bring on an
inflammation between the Ikin and mufcles j and if this
does not fucceed, he adviles that fome ftirnulating fluid,
fuch as oil of turpentine, be injedted. We ffiould fup-
pofe this carrying inflammation rather too near the
lungs 5 but from fome trials that Mr Coleman has made,
and fome others of Mr Feron, this method feems to
have been attended with confiderable advantage. In
addition to thefe means, the fore legs fliould be wre!l
rubbed two or three times a day with oil of turpentine,
or the liniment in No. 42. of the receipts. Thefe are
the external means that are chiefly to be relied on 5 and
if thefe be followed up fpeedily, and with prdper atten¬
tion, there will feldom be any occafion for internal re¬
medies. If thefe be given, they mull be fuch as are
calculated to cool the body, and check inflammation,
fuch as the drenches No. 22. and 26. efpecially the
latter, as it is neceffary to keep the bowels open. Per¬
haps foxglove might here be given wdth advantage, as
directed under that article, at 290. Mr Feron recom¬
mends diuretics, and a ball compofed of an ounce and
half of emetic tartar, a drachm of opium, and 15 or
20 grains of calomel. We do not know whether this
is the pradtice of the veterinary college, but it appears
to us to be ihconfillent with the bleeding and other
evacuants which are generally found mofl: fuccefsful.
As coftivenefs would tend to increafe the inflammatory
fymptoms, back-raking and the occafional ufe of mild
3 Z clyfiers,
546
FARR
Tllfcilfcs- clyfters, will be requifite. In general, warm water, or
this with a little Glauber fait diffolved in it, will be
fufhcient, as all heating purgatives would do harm.
1 ne horfe Ihould be kept rather warm, fhould be
clothed, and lliould drink frequently of warm gruel.
Food will not be requilite, and, if fet before him, he
would probably not touch it. Exercife of every kind
muft be avoided, at lead fo long as the inflammatory
fymptoms continue.
The moft favourable termination of this complaint
is by refolution, when the inflammatory fymptoms go
off without producing fuppuration or ulceration of the
lungs; but fometimes this date is unavoidable, an ulcer
is proauced, and, if the matter is not thrown off, it
may either produce fuftocation, or bring on heclic fever
and confumption. When it is found that a cough
remains aifer the inflammation has fubfided, and a
quantity of mucus is thrown od, the evacuation of
this fhould be promoted by gentle expectorants, and
the horfe mud dill be kept warm. Though the matter
may be completely expedlorated, there will generally
remain a difhculty of breathing, or thick wind, when
inflammation of the lungs terminates by fuppuration.
Sometimes there is left an anafarcous or dropfical date
of the lungs, and in thefe cafes it is faid that blue
vitriol and turpentine, to the amount of two drachms of
eacn, mixed into a ball, with a proper quantity of
I infeed powder, and given every morning, have been
beneficial. . It may alfo be proper to apply a blider
over the wind-pipe.
Inflammation of the lungs in cattle differs little in
fymptoms, and nothing in the treatment, frcim that
which we have been deferibing in the horfe.
I he lungs of fheep are very frequently alfecled with
inflammation, which forms one of the dileafes that has
been comounded under the name of vot. It mod fre¬
quently attacks young fheep, efpecially thofe of the
more delicate breeds ^ and it is mod prevalent m damp
padures, and during unfavourable feafons. The fymp¬
toms of this dheafe in dieep have not been well de-
feribed, but they probably differ from thofe in horfes
and cattle, only in degree. It does not appear to be fb
fpeedily fata;, although the animals feldom or never
recover from it. Towards the latter dage of the difeafe
there is confiderable weakneis; and at this time there ap¬
pears below tlie jaw an oedematous fwelling, containing
a quantity of fluid, which is eafily evacuated by piercing
the tumour. 1 his tumour is called the pock in Scot-
knd.. On opening the bodies of fheep that have died
of this fpecies of rot, the lungs are found full of knots
or tubercles, dmilar to thofe which appear in human
fubjetds that have died of pulmonary confumption, and
fometimes the lungs appear mortified or rotten. The
liver, however, in thefe cafes is found, which didin-
gmflies this variety from the other difeafes called rot.
We do not know that this difeafe admits of a cure in
fheep, tnough it might probably be prevented by houfing
them, or affording them fhelter, at thofe feafons when
it is mod likely to occur.
Inflammation of the lungs occurs fometimes in dogs,
but it does not feem to be very frequent in thefe ani¬
mals. It requires pretty much the fame treatment as
in the horfe, except that here emetic tartar may be gi ven
in fuch a quantity as to excite confiderable ficknefs
without vomiting. This would be improper in the'
490 _
Pulmonic
rot in
ilieep.
491
Pleurify in
dogs.
I E R Y. Pan VI.
horfe, as it would be difficult to regulate the dofe of Difeafes.
the medicine, fo as not to produce fuch an irritation of1 v~'
the domach as might confiderably increafe the animal’s
diitrefs, and augment the difficulty of breathing.
8. Inflammation of the Liver. Hepatitis.
We have no douot that inflammation of the liver
takes place occafionally in mod of our domedic animals jt'on of the
and it is probably a more frequent difeafe than is gene-Aver,
rally fuppofed. Loth Ipecies of it, viz. the acute and
chronic, may appear in thefe animals, and it will ap¬
pear prefently, that the latter is a very common dif¬
eafe among dieep. Though diflection has clearly
fliewn, that the liver in cows, horfes, and flieep, has
been affedted with inflammation during the life of the
animal, yet any account of the fymptoms of this dif¬
eafe that is given us by the veterinary writers, is fo
obfeure, that we cannot pretend to give any thing like
a perfpicuous hiftory.
According to Mr Blaine, this difeafe, confidered as
a didindt afiedtion, is feldoni met with in the horfe,
though, when great abdominal inflammation exids, the
liver often partakes of the general difeale. In the de-
icription of the fymptoms, this author dates that it is
ufually accompanied with codivenefs, for the gland
ceafes to iecrete the bile from its being in an inflamed
date ; and that bile which was fecreted, is not poured
into the intedines, but becomes depofited in the fkin,
producing jaundice, which is known by the yellowneis
ef the eyes and the tongue. The pulfe is generally full,
hard, and frequent, but the pain not very intenfe. It
would be difficult to detect it, unlefs by the fymptoms
of fever, accompanied with yellownefs of the mouth and
eyes. I here would pojjibly be pain in the fhoulder as
in the human, in which cafe the horfe might on trial be
found lame.
It is eafy to fee, that this defeription is a fanciful
picture of the difeafe, drawn from the analogy that the
author fuppofes to exid between inflammation of the
liver in man and the fame difeafe in hoifes j and it is
probably not to be depended upon.
I he writers on cattle medicine deferibe the fymptoms
of the difeafe in cattle to be a difficulty of breathing,
evident marks of fever, yellownefs of urine, a 1 welling
about the fliort ribs, and an unufual dillenflon about the
barren or womb. Here the fymptoms of an acute and
chronic diftemper feem to be confounded.
. ^or fymptoms of the dileafe in theep, in whom Hepatic rot
it forms one of the varieties of rot, we have feen no ac- in fljeep.
count of them any further than as they are confounded
with thofe of the other varieties of rot, and, as fuch,
they will be notieed when we come to treat of the rot
in general. If this difeafe could be detected in its
acute ftate, the cure would probably not be difficult j
but when it appears in the chronic form, it is, we be¬
lieve, feldom removed.
When the bodies of fuch animals as have died of
inflammation of the liver are opened, the liver has been
found in various ftates of difeale ; fometimes it is harder
and firmer than ufual, and very frequently there are
parts of it that are feirrhous and difcoloured, refilling
the knife when we attempt to cut through them. Some¬
times the biliary du£!s are almoft bony, and there is.
commonly found in them, and fometimes in other parts
of the liver, a fpecies of worm called fluke ; tiit faflciola
hepatica
Part VI. FARR
Difeafes. hepatica of naturalifts. Sometimes there are ulcers or
v abfcefles formed in the liver, and frequently, efpecially
in flieep, this organ is mortified or decayed.
495 The caufes of this difeafe are very obfcure ; in horfe«
and cattle it is faid to be moll common in hot feafons
and warm climates, and that fuch of thefe animals as
arc fat are more expofed to its attacks. It may alfo be
brought on by blows or bruifes on the fhort ribs, by
which the liver may have received fome injury. In
flteep it is faid to be more common in dry weather,
efpecially when the animals have but a fcanty fupply
of food, and when they are of a coitive habit. It is
fuppofed by many, that this fpecies of rot owes its
origin to the flukes that we have defcribed, as found
in the liver after death 5 but, as thefe flukes have been
found in the livers of flieep that had never been ap¬
parently affedled with the rot, and, as they are fre¬
quently found in the livers of old flieep, this caufe is
probably rather fanciful; though when thefe animals are
very numerous, or when they are fituated in a very
fenllble part of the liver, they may excite a degree of
irritation, and confequent inflammation, juft as a great
quantity of bots in the ftomach of horfes have been
found to biincr on inflammation of that organ.
In attempting the cure of this difeafe, W'hen it is
afeertained to be prefent, wre muft confider whether it
is acute or chronic. When it occurs from injuries,
it will probably be of the fornier kind, but in moll
other cafes it will be chronic. Acute inflammation
will require bleeding, purging, blitters, and low diet,
as in all other cafes of internal inflammation j but, in
chronic hepatitis, the molt likely remedy is mercury,
which may be adminiftered either internally, in the
form of calomel or corrofive fublimate, or externally
rubbed into the fkin on fome parts of the animal’s
body. This mercurial friftion may be performed with
tolerable eafe on the theep, by pulling off the vTool
from the infide of the thighs, and rubbing a drachm
or two of the flrongeft mercurial ointment upon thefe
parts every night, till the general fyftem becomes af-
fe&ed, which may be known by the fwelling of the
gums, offenfivenefs of the breath, and increafed flow
of faliva from the mouth. This, however, would be
an expenfive and tedious cure 5 and if many of the flock
appear affe&ed, it would be better to kill them as faft
as poffible, before the difeafe lias made fuch a pro-
grefs as to render the animals lean. If a mercurial
courfe fhould be attempted, the animals ihould be
houfed during the courfe, and ihould be kept on
^ood nouriihing food. Coftivenefs muft be avoided
in all thefe cafes, by the adminiftration of gentle clyfters,
or cccafional dofes of opening phyfic. A very good
medicine, in all cafes of liver complaints, is a ball com-
pofed of calomel and foap, as dire&ed under jaundice,
9. Inflammation of the Stomach. Gaftritis.
49^ r
Inflamma- t he ftomach may be inflamed, both in horfes and
tion of the cattle, from various caufes ; but this is a difeafe, the ex-
ftomach. iflence of which is not eafily detected. Here alfo Mr
Blaine has fupphed the want of obierved fymptoms by
analogy, and has fuppofed that there wTould probably be
unfuccefsful efforts to vomit; and, as the ftomach is fo
effential an organ, the pulfe would probably be affefl¬
ed even more than in inflammation of the bowels 5 that
I E R Y.
the animal would perhaps point to the left fide about
the tenth or eleventh rib ; that there would be great
diftrefs evident in the countenance and manner, and that
the lofs of ftrength would be very great.
In cattle there are generally reckoned two fpecies of
inflammation of the ftomach, one aftefting the firft fto¬
mach or paunch, and the other the third ftomach or
the manyplies. This latter is commonly denominated
lake-burn. The fymptoms of the difeafe in thefe animals
are alfo very obfcure, but they are probably flmilar to
what have been defcribed above.
If the reader looks back to N° 409. he will fee de¬
tailed, a cafe that occurred to Mr Clark, in which in¬
flammation of the ftomach was obferved, and detefled
after death ; and though the fymptoms there defcribed
are fewr, they are probably more charafleriftic of the
dileafe in queftion, than any imaginary defeription
which w-e can copy from v/riters who have never feen
the complaint.
This difeafe is extremely dangerous, and will not ad¬
mit of a cure, unlefs effeflual means are taken at its
commencement.
Inflammation of the ftomach is commonly produced
by fome acrid, irritating fubftance which the animal has
fwalJowTed, and this is the effeft produced by moft
poifons. A large quantity of cold water drunk while
the animal is in a violent perfpiration, wail alfo produce
it. It not unfrequently accompanies inflammation of
the bowels, which we are immediately to deferibe. It
is faid to be fometimes produced in cattle by the giving
of too ftrong a dole of aftringent medicines to cure the
red water or bloody urine ; and as wre have feen in
N° 409. it may fometimes be occafioned by bots.
The difeafe can only be cured by very copious bleed¬
ing, frequently repeated; by giving mucilaginous
drinks, fuch as wrater gruel or linleed tea, applying a
large blifter juft behind the fhort ribs, and the frequent
adminiftration of relaxing clyfters. If poifon has been
fwallowed, we muft: proceed as recommended under
N° 407. though in moft cafes of inflammation of the
ftomach, it will be the moft humane plan to effeft a
radical cure by Ihooting the animal through the head,
or cutting his throat.
547
Difeafes.
10. Inflammation of the Bowels. Enteritis. Red
Colic. Inflammatory Colic. Dry Braxy is Sheep.
Tranchee Inflammatoire ou Rouge, Fr.
This is a difeafe, to which all the domeftic animals
are fubjeft,. but it is attended with fomewhat different tion of the
fymptoms, in the feveral fpecies. bowels.
It is generally preceded by more or lefs fever. In
horfes, the firft remarkable fymptoms that appear, are
a great degree of reftleffnefs, with lofs of appetite, thirft,
with conliderable heat, and drynefs of the mouth. The
animal evidently' labours under violent pain, and is per¬
petually lying dowm and getting up again, feraping and
damping with his feet, with which he fometimes ftrikes
his belly. When the belly is touched with the hand,
the horfe betrays extreme fenfibility, and fhrinks from
the touch. The pulfe is always increafed in frequency,
and is hard, giving the fenfation of a cord below the
finger. The Ikin feels-unufually hot, all over the body,
except at the ears, which are faid to be cold. The
tongue is commonly covered with a white fur. Coftive¬
nefs is alinoft; a conftant fymptom of this difeafe, and
3 Z 3 ’ till
548 FARR
Difeafes. till the inflammation is i'ubdued, this continues very ob-
L"" v" flinate, or, if the animal dungs, it is in very fmall quan¬
tity, and the excrement is very hard. The urine is
"Voided in very fmall quantities, and with great pain,
efpecially towards the latter period of the difeafe. The
fymptoms go on with more or lefs rapidity, till the in¬
flammation is fubdued by the proper remedies, or till it
terminate in the death of the horfe.
Returning health may be expefted when the heat of
the body gradually leflens, while the pulfe becomes full,
regular, and of the natural frequency, when the horfe
dungs freely, and returns to bis ufual appetite, and
cheerfulnefs. But when there appears a hidden relief
from pain, with a foft, feeble, or irregular pulfe, and
a purging of ofienhve black matter comes on, mortifica¬
tion of the bowels has taken place, and the horfe will
expire iu a few hours.
On opening the body, evident marks of high inflam¬
mation appear in many parts of the bowels, the outer
or membranous and mufcular coats of which wall be
found red, and in fome parts black. The inflammation
is frequently found to have extended to other parts, as
the flomach, liver, or bladder j to fome of which the
guts will be frequently found adhering. On opening
into the cavity of the bow-els, thefe wall be found great¬
ly diftended with air, and the great guts loaded with
hardened excrement/, and fometimes the inner membrane
will appear highly inflamed, or even corroded, (hewing
evident marks of its having futfered confiderable irrita¬
tion, from fome acrid fubftance. /
Inflammation of the borvels is diftingulflied from colic,
by the frequency and cord-like feeling of the puife, by
the prefence of fever, by the tendernefs of the belly,
and by there being little or no remiffion of the pain.
It is (aid that in colic the horfe rolls much on his back,
but is not fo apt to do this in inflammation of the bow^els.
It will be feen by and by, that a long protracbed colic
frequently terminates in inflammation.
Inflammation of the bowels may be produced by acrid
or poifonous fubftances taken into the ftomach. It has
been fometimes produced by giving hellebore to horfes,
rs a purge ; and it is faid to arife fometimes from giving
purgatives at improper times, or in too large a dofe. It
is very commonly brought on by giving the horfe cold
water, when he is much fatigued, and fo much over¬
heated, as to be in a profufe fweat, or by dafhing cold
wrater upon him, by wading in cold water, or by (land¬
ing in a draught of cold air, under fimilar circumftances
of fatigue and fw eating. Coftivenefs too long ne¬
glected, or entangled rupture, is alfo not an uncommon
caufe.
In the treatment of the inflammation of the bowels,
as in all other internal inflammations, wTe mud begin
with copious and repeated bloodletting, after which a
free evacuation of the bowels mud 'be attempted by
back-raking and the injection of foftening clyders, fuch
as warm water-gruel, mixed with half an Englifh pint
of cador oil. All acrid clyders mud be avoided, as
they will only tend to increafe the inflammatory affec¬
tion of the bowTels, and even Glauber falts and other
faline purgatives are fcarcely proper, from the irritation
they may produce. After bleeding and evacuating the
bowels, warm fomentations applied to the belly may be
of fervice, and the cloths (hould be applied as hot as
poflible. After the fomentation, the belly may be
l E R Y,
Fart VI.
rubbed with fome flimulating liniment, fuch as oil of Difeafes.
turpentine, or effence of muflard. Firing has been re- v ■'
commended below the belly, as alfo frequent friction
with the curry-comb, fo as to irritate the (kin, and al-
mod make it bleed. Probably no medicine fliould be
given by the mouth, farther than foftening, diluting
drinks, fuch as warm water-gruel or linfeed tea. Food
at the beginning of the difeafe is out of the quedion ;
but when the inflammation is a little relieved, the horfe
may have a bran mafli. The body (hould be kept
warm by clothing, and all exercife (hould be avoided.
Inflammation of the bow'els in (beep is called dry
braxy in Scotland, and of this difeafe Vce have an ex¬
cellent account in Mr Findlater’s furvey of Peebles. ^()g
This difeafe is mod fatal to young and robud Iheep Drv braxy
about fix or feven months old, called in many parts of>n iheep.
the ifland, hogs. 'It is more dedruftive upon fome farms
than others \ and even upon thefe, in one feafon more
than another. In a hog fence, or padure capable of
keeping 30 fcore of hogs, there is in fome years, a lofs
from three to four fcore. This is a very ferious matter,
as each of thefe wrould fell in the fpring, or beginning
of dimmer, for half a guinea or 11 s. This difeafe be¬
gins at thofe times when inflammatory diforders are mod
apt to prevail, in the months of Odlober and November,
and is produced by the common caufes of inflammation,
cold, exertion, external injury, &c. During thefe
months, flight frods fet in, and the ground in the morn¬
ing is often covered with hoar frod, or what is called
in fome parts of Scotland rhine. It is probable, that
eating grafs covered with hoar frod, may be one caufe
of the diforder. If fo, moving the animals about, and
preventing them from eating, until the frod is melted
by the fun, may tend to prevent the difeafe.
This difeafe runs its courfe vefy rapidly. When the
fhepherd leaves his flock at night upon their laires, he
fometimes obferves a hog look dull, loitering behind,
and redlefs } fometimes lying down and fuddenly getting
up again : and in the morning, he will often find it
dead, or nearly fo. At other times he will difeover no
apparent ailment among his flock ; and in the morning,
he may find one or two dead or dying. From this it
appears that the difeafe is very acute.
This is further evinced by the appearances after death,
when the carcafes are opened. Their bellies are excef-
fively fwelled, and diflended wdth a putrid air : the
whole intefunes being red and inflamed, gangrenous,
and in fome degree mortified. This putrid taint feems
to be communicated to the whole carcafe, as all the
mufcular parts, and fat, fmell (trongly of corruption.
The hogs that die of this difeafe, are frequently fat and
in good order, which (hows that the difeafe is of (liort
duration.
We have already mentioned the eating of grafs,
which is covered with hoar froft, as a very probable
immediate caufe of this diforder. But is there any pre-
difpofing caufe ?
In anfwer to this queftion, we (hall adduce a fa£t
which is well authenticated. Many parts of the weftern
highlands of Scotland, had been for ages occupied by
horfes and horned cattle. At the introdudlion of (beep
into thofe diftriiffs, the bed grafs was that which had
fprung from the tath and excrements of thefe animals.
During many years after thefe diftriSs were converted
into (beep farms, braxy remained unknown. It crept
in
/
Part VI. FARR
Difeafes. in at laft, and the feverity of the difeafe was long in
'     proportion to the length of time the paftures had 'been
occupied by Iheep.
From thefe we would infer that pafturing upon their
own tath, is a predifpofing caufe of braxy among Iheep •,
and that a frequent alteration of the fpecies of dock,
upon every llreep pafture, might ferve to prevent the
evil. This idea correfponds with the general laws of
the Supreme Being, -who certainly never intended that
• this earth fhould be monopolized by any particular fpecies
of animals *, but has fo ordered matters, that the happi-
nefs of individuals fhall refult from the happinefs of the
whole family of animated beings.
Hence it would appear a beneficial {waflice in flore
farmers, in place of one fence, to keep two or more
enclofures of this defcription, and change the flock up¬
on them every feafon. This we know to be contrary
to general praftice, and that what is called the hogs
fence, is carefully guarded againft the, intrufion of every
other animal.
Lambs, immediately after they are iveaned are fre¬
quently fent to poor pailure, which is called burning
them. Now this appears to be a very bad practice j for
the confequence is, that they fall oft considerably, be¬
fore they get at the rich grafs in the hog’s fence, of
which they eat too freely ; and thus become difpofed to
the difeafe treated of. Children, and all domeflicathd
animals, are carefully fed with nourifhing food for a con-
ftderable time after they are w7eaned •, and yet they fall
off for fome time. It would certainly be better to give
the lambs the hogs fence at once, and ufe every pre-
* caution to prevent them from falling off.
As the difeafe is generally advanced to a dangerous
height before it is obferved, we fear that medicine af¬
fords but a very faint hope of cure. The difeafe being
inflammatory, the fhepherd fhould attempt to bleed the
diftreffed creature as foon as poflible ; which he can
eafdy do, by cutting off part of the tail, or by nicking
it underneath, or by cutting off part of the ears. The
animal fhould then be removed to a houfe or fhed, and
attempts made to produce evacuations. In brute ani¬
mals, it is difficult to produce thefe by medicines ad-
miniftered by the mouth. The fpeedieft and moft effec¬
tual method, is by injections into the rectum or anus.
Such injeCtion may confift of a fmall handful of chamo¬
mile flowers, two fpoonfuls of anifefeeds, and as much
carraway feeds \ to be boiled flowly in a Scotch mutch-
kin or Englifh pint of milk and wrater, until the half is
evaporated. The liquor ihould then be {trained off, and
two tea fpoonfuls of caftor oil added, or if this is not at
hand, the fame quantity of fweet oil may be ufed. This
fhould be adminiftered warm by an injeCtion bag and
pipe, or by an elaftic gum bottle with a pipe properly
fitted. Nothing can be eafier, than to give a fheep a
clyfter in this way \ and in all probability it will have
a happy effect in evacuating the bowrels and procuring
relief,
If this does not appear very foon, it may be repeated
an hour after, and a large fpoonful of common fait add¬
ed to the former ingredients. If, after all, the animal
does not feem relieved, another clylter may be given,
confiiting of a fmall tea cupful of warm milk and wra-
ter, to which are added from 20 to 25 drops of lauda¬
num.
As there is a great difrenficn of the ftomach and
I E R Y.
bowels, arifing from airs or elaftic vapours, generated
in the inteftines, Mr Walker of Cumberland, in a
treatife he wnrote upon the difeafes of brute animals, has
fuggefted a remedy for this diforder, which has often
proved fuccefsful in his diftriCt. It confifts in pufhing
down their throats a flexible tube, fuch as Dr Monro
has recommended, and which has proved fuccefsful in
relieving cows that had over gorged themfelves with red
clover early in the feafon (fee N° 405.). This fe^ms
a probable means of affording temporary relief, and
every fhepherd that has the care of the hog flock, ihotdd
be fiurnifhed with one of thefe tubes, adapted to the fize
of the fheep, for trying the experiment upon thofe that la¬
bour under the difeafe.
“ In regard to the quality'of paflure (adds Mr Find-
later) as a caufe of Jickne/s, Tweeddale farmers feem of
opinion that it arifes from the foulnefs of the grafs at the
root in the hogs fences, which are never eaten bare.
Some, therefore, take care to have the land to be faved
for the hog fence, once eaten as bare as poflible early
in fummer, by the black cattle upon the farm, or by old
fheep.
“ It feems afcertained in Tw^eeddale, that land which
has been in ufe to be paftured by older iheep, when con¬
verted into a hog fence, is not liable for/fome time to
produce ficknefs. Two accidental experiments occur¬
ring in which this praftice took place, in confequence
of new arrangements in the farms of Harehop in Eddle-
ftone pariih, and of Lyne in Lyne parifh, confirm this
conclufion. It is farther confirmed by an experiment
of Mr Murray, tenant in Flemington mill. About 20
years ago, he bought in different parcels of lambs for
hogs, and laid them upon the hog fence of his hog farm
of Broughton-haup, in Broughton parifh. In one of
the parcels of much higher condition than the reft, the
ficknefs broke out to fuch extent, that they were dying
at tdie'rate of two or three daily •, fo that the whole par¬
cel feemed in imminent rifk. He transferred this whole
parcel to the farm of Fingland in Newlands parifh,
where only old fheep were kept, putting them on fome
of the low-er pafture of that'farm, which had been fram¬
ed for feeding the crock ewes, and transferring a pro¬
portional quantity of thefe ewes to Broughton-haup hog
fence. Not one of the lambs died upon Fingland. To
the fame effeft, it deferves attention, that in fmall farms,
not admitting of diftinft hirfling, where, of courfe, old
and young flieep pafture mixed together, hogs are very
little liable to ficknefs, though perhaps worle in other
refpe&s.
“ From November at fmearing time till Chriftmas
(I797) two fa<^s with regard to the mode of cure have
been ftated to me, and which I am difpofed to think
authentic. In the farm of Drummelzier, parifh of Drum-
melzier, three hogs (out of four upon which the experiment
was tried) recovered, upon bleeding, and having poured
down their throats, a decoftion of tobacco j about a
finger’s length of twift tobacco boiled in water till the
water has diminifhed to a gill, being the dofe for each.
In the farm of Broughton-haup, parifti of Broughton, with-
‘in the fame fpace of time, nine or ten (out of 16 or 17 up¬
on whom the experiment wasmade) recovered upon bleed¬
ing, and having an injeffion of tobacco fmoke admini¬
ftered from a common tobacco pipe, by kindling the
tobacco, inferting the pipe fhank into the anus and
blowing : the experiment, however, was not fo fuccefs-
, . F A 11 R
, ful U! f0ffi1e1latf.r Irtftances. I ]iaye long ago feen a ewe
cured by bleeding, and injedHon of Glauber falls from
a common clyfter-bag and pipe. When braxy breaks
out, it mignt be ufeful, where attainable, to lay the
hogs, mglitly, upon dry ground, if the hog fence is wet,
the chillmefs of wet ground contributing no doubt to
the produdfion of inflammation. Clover foggage or
*M,„v“ab?tPS.“lght be S°0d inducing a laX
Survey.
II. DrsESTERY. MoUev-greafe or BoJy.fomJer,
Jirmk-Jhaw, fin (lieep). Gras fondu, Fr
I E II Y.
Part VI.
499
Dyfentery,
or molten
grenfe.
Dyfentery is the other difeafe that, with catarrh,
forms Dr Cullen s order of profluvia j but as there are
evident marks of inflammation of the bowels obferved
on impeding the bodies of fuch animals as have died of
this complaint, we have placed it immediately after in-
flammation of the bowels, in which we have followed
IVl, 1 inel and lome otaer late writers.
This difeafe is not uncommon in the horfe, and pro¬
bably it is ftill more frequent in cattle and fheep It
very commonly begins with feme degree of fever, as a
trembling, drynefs of the mouth, lofs of appetite a
great degree of weaknefs, drooping of the head and
ears iometimes a copious fweating, but more common-
y drynefs and heat of the fkin. There is ufually a
heaving m the flanks, and the animal turns his head to¬
wards them as if griped. There are frequent dejec¬
tions from the anus, but thefe feldom confift of the natu¬
ral excrement, but of a mucous, flimy difeharge ac¬
companied with a peculiar fatty fubftance like foft fuel
there is evidently much diflrefs during thefe evacua¬
tions, and fometimes the fundament appears excoriated.
It is not uncommon to fee blood pafs with the ftools
generally in flreaks, but fometimes in fuch a quantity
as to tinge the whole difeharge of a red colour : and in
the ratter ftages of the difeafe there generally appear
membranous, filmy fubftances, which have been com¬
pared to loaked leather. Thefe fubftances have been
luppoied to be the inner membrane of the bowels that
has been eroded and thrown off by the violence of the
purging ; but they are merely coagulable lymph, fuch
as is very commonly thrown off from inflamed furfaces.
I he pulle, towards the beginning of the difeafe, is com-
momy nard and full, but as the complaint goes on it
becomes quick, fmall, and fometimes irregular. The
animal is very ftift, and much averfe to motion, and if
the difeafe continues long, there ufually comes on a
Iwelling of the legs.
When animals that have died of this difeafe are dif-
fecred, the inner coat of the bowels is found inflamed
m lome places covered with coagulable lymph, fuch as
we have defenbed as being thrown out in the difeharve
and not unfrequently ulcerated in various parts, fome-
tunes mortified and corroded.
. ,ThlS d?es 110t appear fo dangerous amon? the
inferior animals m this climate, as in warmer countries •
but it lometimes proves fatal, or terminates in a weak¬
nefs of the bowels and fecuring,. that are not eafily re-
mo\cd; L the fever is but little or foon abates, if
tne animal appears net to labour under much pain, and
if the difeharge of natura! excrement foon returns the
. earn will probably terminate favourably in a Ihort
time j but if there is great pain and fever,'with e^cef
lire weaknefs, and if the mucous difeharges continue
very frequent, and mixed with much blood, the danger Difeafes.
is confiderable. & -
It is neceffary to diftinguilh this complaint from the
common purging or fcouring, with which it is very ge¬
nerally confounded. It muft therefore be obferved' that
in counng, tnere is no fever, whereas this is common
ni dysentery; that the difeharge in fcouring, though
thin, has almoft always the appearance of excre¬
ment, is not bloody, and is fcarcely ever mixed with
fatty matter.
i ■^A<~nteiy is more common in hot weather, and in
not leaions, than at other times } but is very commonly
produced by the hidden application of cold, efpecially
to the legs or belly, while the body is overheated and
fatigued : hence fwimming in autumn, drinking large
quantities of cold water while in a profufe fweat or
other hidden changes from heat to cold, have common-
y produced it. It is laid to be frequently brouo-ht on
by riding a horfe very hard in hot weather. Mr Law¬
rence lays that when a boy, he rode a horfe that had a
great deal of loofe grofs flefh about him, 21 miles in a
warm fummer morning, and thus brought on an attack
of molten grea/eIt is alfo not an uncommon difeafe
among poll hones.
From the appearance of the fatty matter in the dif¬
eharge that takes place in this complaint, the older
writers on farriery were induced to give it the name of
conceiving that a principal part of the
dileaie coniifted in a melting down of the fat of the ani¬
mal, which > being conveyed by the abforbents into the
circulation, is thrown out by the exhalants on the bowels
and carried oft with the dung. Mr Blaine laughs very
heartily at tins idea, and feems to pride himfelf on the
ducovery, that what has been miftaken for fat, is no¬
thing more than an increafed fecretion of the mucus of
the mteftines, and is as liable to a horfe with little fat
as to one with much. Mr Lawrence, on the other band,
argues ftrenuoully that this matter is really greafy, and
fiiys, that “ with refpeft to the evidence of fenfe, had
Mr Blaine ever feen a horfe under the difeharge of
molten greafe, he might have found on experiment
that part of the difeharges in queftion is inflammable
and liquefiable, which are not the charafrers of albumen
but of real greafe; and, (continues Mr Lawrence)
viewing the matter through the medium of experience
I can fee no fort of improbability in a colliquation of
loo;e.’ Manual, internal fat, by hidden inflammation,
and its confequent effufion and difeharge by an unufual
emundory. Gibfoii gives an inftance which convinced
him (apparently incredulous before) of the poflibilityof
a horie's greafe being melted. He found the fat melt¬
ed and turned into an oil, and drawn off from its pro-
per cells into the blood veffels. He fays farther, this
dileaie is not unlike the greaiy diarrhoea which happens
to men.” Not having ourfelves feen a cafe of dyfentery
in horfes, we are not prepared to decide the difference
between thefe two champions of the old and newTchool
but as Mr Lawrence is very worthy of credit in what¬
ever has palled under his own obfervation, we have
no doubt that this debated fubftance is of a fatty
nature. ^
As it feems certain that dyfentery is of an inflamma¬
tory nature it is proper to begin the cure by bleeding,
efpecially if the horfe is plethoric, or if the pulfe is full
and hard. It will then be proper to clear the bowels
by
Part VI.
FARR
J)lfca e;;> , by a laxative clyfter, and to give internally a drench
Y—compofed of five or fix ounces of Glauber’s fait diffolved
in a quart of water-gruel, or the drench N° 26 of the
receipts; and< this may be repeated every three or four
hours. This will probably, in the courfe of the day,
p oduce a plentiful difcharge of excrement, and when
the bowels appear well cleared, the horfe may have a
warm madi, be covered up warm, and perhaps a per-
fpiration v/ill be brought on, which, if the difeafe is
llight, will probably complete the cure. If the difeafe
Ihould continue, an Englilh pint, or pint and a half, of
caitor oil may be given, and clyfters, compofed of wa¬
ter-gruel, or ilarch boiled in water, ihould be given
warm very frequently. When by thefe means a pretty
copious difcharge of excrement lias been produced, the
horfe may have a ball compofed of two drachms of
opium, and half an ounce of ipecacuanha, or a drachm
of emetic tartar, w'afhed down with a quart of good
porter. If there is confiderable pain, it may be ad-
vifable to foment the belly for half an hour at a time,
witn flannels wrung out of a warm deco£fion of poppy
heads. During this treatment the horfe ihould be kept
clothed, and currents of air in the liable ihould be
avoided. When the difeafe is fubdued, as the horfe
will probably remain very weak, it wall be proper to
revive him by nourilhing diet, and cordial and ilrength-
ening remedies.
The appearances of dyfentery in cattle are not un¬
like thofe that occur in the horfe, only that perhaps in
them there is not fo much of the gras fondu. The dif¬
eafe among theie animals is commonly called far-
del-boutid. The treatment is the fame as above de-
feribed,
I his difeafe is not uncommon in ilieep, by the name
ol breakjha'iu \ but fliepherds very commonly confound
it with diarrhoea or purging. Mr Loch of Rachan,
very properly diftinguiihes between them, and obferves
that the breakfhaw is analogous to dyfentery in the hu¬
man fpecies, and occurs molt commonly in the end of
wet fummers. The difcharge is thin and greenifh (Mr
Loch fuppofes from the wet grafs becoming acid in the
itomach, and turning the gall green) 5 it is more or lefs
mixed with blood, fometimes florid, fometimes black
and grumous 5 the animal pines for a week or two and
dies, though fometimes he recovers. The cure com¬
monly employed by Mr Loch’s herd, is warm milk
poured down the animal’s throat ; but Mr Loch pro-
poles to try, in addition to this, nitre in half drachm
dofes, with chalk or fome other abforbent powder, and
20 or .30 drops of laudanum twice or thrice a day, with
frequent injections of warm milk and water. This plan
feems belt adapted to the latter ftages of the difeafe.
According to Mr Gillelpie of Glenquich (quoted by
Mr Findlater), this difeafe is often produced by over¬
heating, when the (heep are hunted by dogs, in folding
them, &c. or when otherwife feared and terrified. It
is ftated by Mr Gillefpie to be confiderably infectious ;
and he confiders tarring part of the flock to be the belt
means of checking the infeftion, under the idea that
the Imell of the tar will overcome that of the con¬
tagion,
50I 12. Inflammation of the Kidneys. Nephritis. Strain
Inflamm a- cf the Kidneys.
tion of the ... J
kidneys. This difeafe is not uncommon among horfes and cat-
500
Breakfhaw
in (heep.
I E R Y.
tie; but it is more frequent in the former, as they
are more expofed to thofe caufes that appear generally
to produce it.
The fymptoms of this difeafe in horfes, are tolerably
well marked. The horfe hands wide with his hind-legs,
appears dull, and expreiTes confiderable pain, often lock¬
ing at his flanks. When preflure is made on the loins
the horfe flinches, and is evidently much diftreffed •, the
pulfe is hard and full, and commonly more frequent
than natural. When both kidneys are inflamed, little
or no urine is fecreted, and what little is evacuated is
generally bloody j but when only one kidney is in¬
flamed, the other continues to fecrete urine, but the
natural quantity is on the whole much diminilhed,
and there is commonly confiderabie pain during the
evacuation.
Inflammation 01 the kidneys is liable to be confound¬
ed with inflammation of the neck of the bladder, and
the belt means of diilinguifliing them, is to pafs the
hand up the fundament, by which the date of the blad¬
der beneath may be eafily afeertained. If the bladder
be confiderably diilended ■with urine, the inflammation
is almoft certainly feated in the neck of the bladder *,
but if the bladder be Ihrunk and empty, the difeafe is
probably fituated in the kidneys. It muft be allowed,
however, that this mark of diferimination will not hold
good till the difeafe of the kidneys is pretty far ad¬
vanced, as h very commonly happens that when a gland
is inflamed, its fecretion is at firft increafed. At the
commencement of the difeafe, therefore, the fymptoms
wdnch we have enumerated, efpecially the fenfibility
which the horfe evinces on touching his loins, are chief-
ly to be depended on. It mufl be remarked, that one
of the kidneys has been found difeafed, and even puru-
lent, after death, wdien it lhewTed no marks of inflam¬
mation during life. This difeafe is attended with con¬
fiderable danger, and unlefs the inflammation be fpeedily
removed, matter will be formed, which, if it does not
pafs off by the urinary pipes into the bladder, will find
a pallage into the belly, or behind the peritoneum, and
produce he&ic fever and confumption, or the- kidney
may mortify, and death wall foon follow.
The kidneys may become inflamed, either from ex¬
ternal injury, or from irritating fubftances that pafs
through them in the courfe of the circulation. Inflam¬
mation of thefe organs is frequently produced by placing
the faddle too far back upon the loins, and riding hard
for a long time while it is in this pofition. It is fome-
times the effeft of throwing cold water upon the body
whde it is m a fweat; but according to Mr Blaine and
Mr heron, it is moft frequently produced by the indif-
crimmate ufe of ftrong diuretic medicines.
In the treatment of this difeafe, we muft vigorouflv
employ the means that we have fo often recommended
tor the cure ot internal inflammations ; bleeding in its
fu exte?t» emollient clyfters, and the produ&ion of
external inflammation : but it is neceffary in this difeafe
to caution the prajftitioner againft the ufe of blifters as
the matter of cantharides, when taken into the circula¬
tion and carried to the kidneys, will confiderably in-
creaie the inflammation and diftrefs. A good fuhftitutc
or L ers of cantharides would be, to pour hot water
on the mms, fo as to raife a blifter on each fide, which,
lower er cruel it may appear, could not produce fo much ?
pain, as the animal already feels from the difeafe. It
has
I
552 F A R. II
Difeafes. lias been recommended, to excite a degree of inKamma-
tion in the external part of the loins, by means of fir¬
ing ; but probably the hot water will do as wTell, and is
lei's painful. No medicine ihould be given by the
mcuth, that is in the lead heating or irritating •, and
nitre, turpentine, balfam of copaiva, &c. fo warmly re¬
commended by mod of the writers on farriery, would
only ferve to aggravate the difeafe. The horfe may
drink frequently of water gruel, linfeed tea, or fuch
other mild, mucilaginous liquors; and if he feems to
require food, bran mafhes will be the mod proper article
of diet. If there is much codivenefs, purgative clyders
may be given , or in cafes of necedity, fix or feven
drachms of focotorine aloes in a ball. All exercife
mud be avoided, and the horfe fhould have a good bed
of litter, on which he may lie down when fatigued.
13. Inflammation of the Bladder. Cyditis.
S°2 , ...
Inflamma- The bladder may be inflamed either in its body, or
tioii of the ]n *ts neck5 an3 the fymptoms differ fomewhat in thefe
at aer. two varieties. When the body of the bladder is in¬
flamed, there is produced fuch a degree of irritation,
that the bladder becomes incapable of retaining its con¬
tents for any length of time ; and the animal is perpetu¬
ally making fmall quantities of urine. He alfo makes
frequent attempts to dung. On paffing the hand up
the fundament, the bladder will be found very hot and
fenfible 5 and in this variety of the complaint, as in in¬
flammation of the kidneys, it is empty and collapfed.
When the neck of the bladder is inflamed, there is at
firft a fuppreflion of the urine, but afterwards it is con¬
tinually pafling off in drops •, and on examining the
bladder by the fundament, it wall be found more or lefs
diftended, according to the continuance of the com¬
plaint. There is ufually confiderable fever in both
cafes. The pulfe is hard and full at the beginning of
the difeafe, but after this has continued for feme time,
the pulfe becomes fmall and oppreffed.
Inflammation of the bladder takes place more fre¬
quently in male than in female animals j but it is faid
to be fometimes produced in the latter, at leaf! in mares,
by pafling fqme irritating fubftance up the urethra, in
order to make them horfy. Both cafes of this difeafe
are attended with confiderable danger •, but the latter
is generally the moft dangerous •, but in a mare a cure
is generally eafier than in a horfe.
The treatment of this complaint differs little from
that of the inflammation of the kidneys, and chiefly
confifts in bleeding, the frequent ufe of foftening clyf-
ters, low diet, and the produiftion of external inflamma¬
tion by any other means than the ufe of cantharides
blillers. If the bladder be found confiderably diftended,
it will be neceffary to evacuate the urine, either by
the means of a catheter, which may be eafily paifed up
in a mare, or by making an opening into the bladder j
for performing which in the male, Mr Feron gives the
following diredlions. “ It happens that the urethra is fo
conftrudled, that it is not in our power to introduce an
inftrument immediately into the bladder, without per¬
forming an operation •, for the urethra of the horfe forms
two curvatures or angles, before it reaches the bladder,
v and therefore it is not pofllble to introduce an inftru¬
ment into the bladder, which will preferve its curvity
all the way. We therefore introduce a ftaff of a plia¬
ble wood, or whalebone, to the angle at the os pubis,
J
I E R Y.
Part VI.
as near the retftum as pofllble with fafety j we make a
cut upon it, and then introduce the female catheter, or
feme fimilar tube, without however removing the ftaff
to prevent our lofing the inciflon, taking care to avoid
the inftrument’s pafling into the cellular membrane, in-
ftead of entering the bladder. If fuch an accident was
likely to happen, it is advifable not to attempt the ope¬
ration, but to continue and infill upon all the emollient
remedies.
“ We may alfo punfture the bladder with a trocar,
by the retlum, or through the inferior part of the ab¬
domen.
“ In either cafe we are likewife diredled by Mr Cole¬
man, to make the pundture as near the os pubis as pof-
fible, that we may not wound the peritonium anterior¬
ly. By this method the operation recommended
through the rectum may be performed without expo-
fing, or opening the cavity of the abdomen” *.
In the female an opening may be eafily made into
the bladder, with a trocar, introduced by the vagina.
It has been recommended in the mare, to throw up an
injection of fome oily or mucilaginous fluid, to fupply
the place of mucus, in Iheathing the bladder from the
irritation of urine. As in the inflammation of the kid¬
neys, every thing that can heat or irritate the urinary
organs mult be carefully avoided.
Difeafes*
* Feron s
Farriery,
p. 189.
14. Cords.
It is well known in moft breeding countries, that a Cords^
great many calves die every year, of an unknown dif¬
eafe, with which they are affedted very Ihortly after
birth. » The common Tame which this difeafe receives
in Scotland, is the cords \ and while its fatal and wide ¬
ly extended efifedts are the fubjedt of juft regret, the
difeafe itfelf is looked on as incurable, and no pains are
taken to inveftigate its nature, fymptoms and caufes,
and no remedies fuggefted, as a cure or preventive.
Whatever be its nature, this difeafe is exceedingly dan¬
gerous, and fo extremely rapid, (terminating frequently
in a night’s time), that all means of relief are commonly
ufelefs even before it is obferved.
Almoft all calves, that are faid to have died of the
cords, appear, when they are opened up, exceedingly
red, and the fmall leaders, or ligaments, are confider¬
ably fwelled, and have fome refemblance to firings paf¬
fing through the internal parts, from which probably
the difeafe has its name. Every fymptom indicates a
confiderable degree of plethora, if not a very high de¬
gree of inflammation.
It is commonly obferved, that calves are moft liable
to be affected during the firft days, or weeks, after they
are calved. If they outlive five or fix weeks, they are
feldom in any danger.
Calves that fuck their mothers, we believe, it will be
found, are not fo liable to the difeafe, as thofe who are
fed by the hand.
The greateft number of calves who fall a facrifice to
this difeafe, if not the whole of them, are thofe who are
clofely confined to the houfe from their birth, without
ever being expofed to the free open air without doors.
It is a well known faff, that calves who are dropt with¬
out, and remain in the fields, are in little or no danger.
Cows that are laid on to graze for beef frequently turn out
to be in calf-, and it is no uncommon thing to fee them
drop their calves in the midft of froft and inbw, and yet
thefe
\
«
* Farm.
Mag. vol
iv. 59.
Part VI. FARR
Difeafes. thefe young creatures, if they can once get to their feet,
without being frozen to the ground, are hearty and
well. Calves, lambs, and foals, require exercife and
frelh air 5 and nature directs them to take a great deal.
It is aftonifhing to fee with what force and vigour,
(paticularly the calf), and how long, they will run.
But this free, unconftrained, and fevere exercife without
doors, feems to be the very thing that makes them
thrive, and to be neceffary to their very exiltence. *
The great object is to prevent this difeafe j and the
following method of treating the new-born calves, prac-
tifed by a correfpondent of the Farmers Magazine, feems
to be attended with complete fuccefs.
The time when this gentleman’s cows are bulled is re¬
gularly noted down in a book; and when they are near
calving, they are watched frequently night and day. As
foon as the calf is dropped, it is received into a large
balket or fkull, made of willows, with a handle at
each end, and plenty of clean ftraw in it. It is
then carried by two perfons to the flail in the calf-
houfe, where it is gently rubbed with ftraw. The
calf-houfe is next to the cow-byre j and is fitted up with
flails like a liable, about three feet wide, and about five
feet long. Every flail fhuts in by itfelf, with a door
and hinges, for fear of the calf lying back too far, to
choke itfelf in its binding. As foon as the mother has
had a little reft after calving, fhe is milked, and a little
of the milk given to the calf as early as poffible. If
the weather is cold, and the mother long in giving milk,
it is taken to the fire, and warmed in a pan until it
is bloodwvarm, and then given to the calf •, about fix or
eight gills, according to the fize of the calf, and repeat¬
ed four times in 24 hours. As the calf gathers ftrength,
the quantity may be increafed j but too much milk at
one time is as bad as too little, until it is a month or fix
weeks old. When the calf is able to Hand, it is tied to
a flake ; as it is more in the power of the fervant to give
it milk in that fituation, than when going about loofe.
If a calf gets cold milk, it is fure to bring on a tremb¬
ling ; and the cords or fome other malady follows;
which he has often feen exemplified amongfl the neigh-
+16. p. apS. louring young flock f.
15. Farcy. Le Farcin, Fr.
We fhall conclude this chapter with a brief account
of twm difeafes •, or rather, as it fhould feem, of twTo mo¬
difications of the fame difeafe, that frequently take place
in the horfe, to wrhom they are almoft peculiar ; though
fomething like them is occafionally found in other ani¬
mals. We fhall hereafter take notice of what farriers
call the water farcy, which wre confider as fimilar to
anafarca in the human body ; but the difeafe wre are
about to deferibe, appears to be rather a peculiar in¬
flammatory affe£tion of the abforbent veffels below the
fkin. There feems to be two varieties of farcy, acute
and chronic ; or rather a mild and a malignant variety.
The commencement of farcy appears to be rather ob-
feure, and probably it is feldom obferved in the begin¬
ning of the inflammation. The firft appearances that
are deferibed by writers, are a number of fwellings, that
rife in almoft every part of the body, particularly the
head, neck, and extremities. The lymphatic vefi'els below
the fkin appear like knotted cords *, and this appearance
is found to be owung to a diftenfion and inflammation
that take place in thefe veffels, efpecially at their
VOL. VIII. Part II.
S°4
Farcy.
I E R Y.
553
valves, where the knots are produced. As the difeafe
proceeds, thefe knotted fwellings burft, and ulcers are
formed, which are very difficult to heal. The forma¬
tion of thefe ulcers may be confidered as terminating
the mild ftage, and commencing the malignant form of
the difeafe ; in which the horfe lofes his appetite, grows
lean and weak, and commonly has. a degree of heflic
fever. If the progrefs of the difeafe has not been ar-
refted, a fwelling takes place in the head and nofe, and
there comes on from the latter a copious difeharge of a
peculiar glairy mucus, which fhews that the difeafe has
degenerated into glanders, under which name wre fhall
proceed to deferibe it; and fhall afterwards confider the
nature, caufes, and treatment of both..
Difeafes.
16. Glanders. Le Morve, Fr.
According to Mr Blaine, the ufual fymptoms of Glanders.
glanders are an increafed fecretion of the mucus of the
nofe, which is at firft thick, and like the white of an
egg. He has feen it continue fo, while at other times,
it becomes purulent j but there is ufually a degree of
vifeidity and glueinefs about the matter, that as it were
fixes the fides of the noftrils together, and is llrongly
chara&eriftic of this difeafe. On examining the noilrils,
there may generally be perceived a number of ulcerated
lurfaces, very fimilar to fhankers that occur in the vene¬
real difeafe. Thefe ulcers do not always appear
foon; but they are produced in all virulent cafes, and
never fail to appear when the difeafe terminates fatally.
They are at firft: fmall, and difpofed in lines along the
lymphatic veffels 5 but as the ulceration proceeds, it be¬
comes more extenlive, till the whole inner furface of
the noftrils is affe£led, and at length the bones of the
nofe are affefled, and become carious. When the ul¬
cers have continued for fome time, the matter changes
its glairy appearance, and becomes bloody and offenfive j
and this is more particularly the cafe when the bones
become difeafed. In theftatter ftages of the complaint,
the emaciation and weaknefs of the animal are greatly
increafed ; he becomes affected with a ftiort tickling
cough ; the hair grows dry and harfh, and falls off on
the flighteft touch, and thus the horfe gradually pines
away. '
Sometimes only one fide of the head is affedled, but
more commonly both at the fame time.
The bell account of the appearances of glanders on
diffeblion, has been given by M. Chabert, in a work
which he publilhed in 1785, on the means of afeertain-
ing the exiftence of glanders, and of preventing their
effefls. From the numerous bodies which he opened,
M. Chabert has drawn up the following general account
of the morbid appearances.
The lungs are generally more affedled than any other
of the vifeera; we find them often fwelled and filled
with hydatids, tubercles, and obftrudlions. The bronchial
glands are very often fwelled and ulcerated, and this is
fometimes the only injury that we can perceive on dif-
feftions. The membrane that lines the bronchia and
the wind-pipe, is moll commonly inflamed and ulcerat¬
ed ; the bronchia are filled with a thick matter, that
commonly reiembles wftiat the animal difeharges by the
noftrils. The internal furface of the bones that form
the different cavities of the nofe, and the grifly parti¬
tion of the noftrils, are often carious, and covered with
purulent matter j and the membrane which lines the
4 A noftrik
FARR
Roflrils is ulcerated. The fpleen, the liver, and tlie kid¬
neys, are alfo fometimes confiderably difeafed j and the
ulcerated date of the kidneys, not unfrequently appears
during life, by the purulent matter that is difcharged
with the urine. On opening the head, we fometimes
find the brain fofter and more flaccid than in a healthy
animal. There is often a great quantity of ferum in its
cavities, and the glands are much fwelled.
The glanders is liable to be confounded with feveral
of thofe difeafes, in which an unufual difcharge proceeds
from the noftrils; as catarrh, ftrangles, and confump-
tions 5 but chiefly with the two former. It may be dif-
tinguifhed from catarrh, by the abfence of fever in the
early 11 age ; by the matter difcharged from the noftrils
being thick and glairy from the lirlt 5 whereas, in ca¬
tarrh, there is almoft always confiderable fever in the
beginning, and the difcharge is at firft watery. In a
common cold the general health is alfo more or lefs af-
fefted, 'and from the firlt there is ufually a cough and
lofs of appetite 5 whereas, thefe fymptoms fcarcely ever
come on in glanders, till the difeafe has fubfifted for a
conliderable time. Glanders may be diltinguilhed from
flrangles by the high fever which commences the latter,
and by the fwelling and fpeedy fuppuration of the
glands of the mouth and throat.
Of thefe two affedtions, glanders is the moft dange¬
rous ; as farcy, when taken at its commencement, may
frequently be removed; but we believe the inftances of
a perfedl cure in glanders are very rare.
The caufes of thefe complaints are very obfcure. It
is faid that farcy may be brought on by the fame caufes
that predifpofe to mange, as want of cleanlinefs, hard
work, and low diet j and there is no doubt, that this dif¬
eafe, as well as glanders, is contagious. Glanders, be-
fldes being produced by contagion, may alfo be the ter¬
mination of feveral diforders, as of catarrh, ftrangles, and
confumption, however different from thefe difeafes in
their commencement.
The nature of glanders is not well underftood, al¬
though, of late, many ingenious men have inveftigated
the fubjedl, and made conftderable difcoveries. It is
not certain when the difeafe was firft known. Mr
Lawrence dates it from the fame period with the Lues
Venerea ; but there feems no doubt that the difeafe was
known to the ancients, though we do not know by what
name it was called. Vegetius fpeaks of a difeafe which
he calls humiditas, which Mr Blaine fuppofes to be
the fame with our glanders; but which the learned
Camper confiders as analogous to the murrain, See N°
466. Blundevil, and after him Markham, give the
following defcription of its rife, progrefs, and comple-
tipn. “ Of cold firft cometh the pofe, (that is ftoppage
of the head), and the cough, and then the glanders, and
laft of all the mourning of the chine.” The two
Meflieurs Lafoffe, made, as we have feen, feveral difco¬
veries with refpect to glanders, efpecially the father,
who, in 1749, demonftrated before the academy of fcien-
ces at Paris, that the feat of the difeafe is wholly in the
pituitary membrane ; and he propofed curing it by
injecling the whole of this membrane through open¬
ings made with the trepan, into the frontal, nafal, and
maxillary finufes. Lafoffe divided the difeafe into fe¬
veral fpecies j but it appears that all thefe may be redu¬
ced to two, the mild and malignant, or the chronic and
I E R Y.
Part. VI.
acute 5 the chronic being that in which the running of Difeafes.
the nofe is trifling, and of a tranfparent colour, with no
appearances of ulceration in the noftrils; while in the
acute or malignant variety, there is confiderable ulcera¬
tion 5 the difcharge is very offenfive 5 there is a fwell-
ing below the under jaw, and the bones of the nofe are
carious.
-I he beft of the Englifh writers on farriery appear
to have known little or nothing of the difeafe more
than the fymptoms. Dr Bracken confidered it as not
contagious, and Gibfon gives but a poor account of it,
for which he feems indebted to Snape.
“ The late profeffor of the veterinary college (fays
Mr Blaine), publilhed his remarks on this difeafe, but
it is evident that he knew little or nothing relating to
it, but what he gained from Lafoffe, and confequently
his opinions offered nothing newr. The prefent profef¬
for has profecuted the inquiries relative to it much far¬
ther, and by an extenfive courfe of experiments has
throwm very confiderable light on the nature of the dif¬
eafe j and though wTe are not yet much more fuccefs-
ful in attempts at the cure, yet we have lefs reafon to
defpair. By Mr Coleman’s experiments it is proved
beyond a doubt that farcy and glanders are fpecifically
the fame difeafe, but affefting different parts : to efta-
blifh this, horfes have been inoculated wdth the matter
of farcy, and glanders has been produced; which put the
matter beyond a doubt. Farther, Mr Coleman produ¬
ced glanders in a found animal by the inoculation wdth
the matter of glanders. This M. St Bell afferted could
not be done. Farcy has likewife been produced by the
fame means, but it appears that it was fome time be¬
fore it could be effedfed ; but it has been produced by
Mr White. It cannot therefore be inferred, that be-
caufe the farcy and glanders are fo different in their
apparent fituations they are diftinft difeafes : every poi-
fon has its preference of parts 5 and likewife the fame
poifon, under different modifications affects different
parts.
Mr Coleman is of opinion, that in glanders, the
whole circulating fluids are affefted. To prove this,
he bled an afs from the jugular vein till he was to all
appearance dead, wdien he introduced the blood from
the carotid artery of a horfe labouring under glanders,
till the afs was reanimated. In a few days the moft ma¬
lignant glanders appeared. I believe another afs was
inoculated from this, which became glandered. This
experiment, I think, (adds Mr Blaine), throws great
light on this complaint, and indeed on pathology in
general; and we may hence be led to hope, that internal
remedies may be more ufeful than external, which have
been thought to be the only means by which wTe could
hope for a cure ; for provided we could deftroy the
poifon exifting in the blood, and keeping up the aftion
in the part j the a£Hon, or at leaft the fpecific part of
it, might ceafe in the affeffted part, and we might in¬
duce a healing procefs by the ufual means. As fuch,
our only hope muft confift in exciting a new aftion in
the fyftem, whereby the glanderous one will be fuf-
pended, till by the continuance of the new attion the
virus of glanders is completely expelled by the change
the fluids naturally undergo*.”
The treatment of thele difeafes will differ according J
to their ftate and degree of malignity. For the cure Voj. ‘“i*
525*
Part VI.
Difeafes. 0f farcy, bliiters are much extolled by Mr Feron, and
* ~ the aftual cautery, is very generally employed to def-
troy the fwellings of the lymphatics, and to excite thefe
vefiels into greater aftion. To aflift this purpofe, diu¬
retics are to be adminiftered, and the. horfe ihould take
as much exercife, efpecially draught labour, as he will
bear without coniiderable fatigue. Two remedies have
of late been employed internally, when the fyftem be¬
comes confiderably affe&ed; thefe are verdigrife, and
corrofive fublimate. Mr Feron directs the former to
be given in the following manner. A ball compofed
of one drachm of verdigrife, and a quarter of an ounce
of common turpentine, is to be given every night and
morning, gradually increafing the quantity of verdi¬
grife till the horfe can take from three drachms to half
an ounce in the courfe of the day. If the animal be¬
comes coffive, he is to have a clyfler night and morn¬
ing, and a purgative ball of feven drachms of aloes,
and half a drachm of calomel once a week. After hav-
mg gone through a regular courfe of phylic, he is to
have the following balls. An ounce of green cop¬
peras (e) in powder is to be mixed up with Venice tur¬
pentine, and a fufficient quantity of linfeed powder,
to make eight balls, one of which is to be given every
morning, while coftivenefs is to be avoided as before
directed.
In giving the corrofive fublimate, we fliould begin
with a fmall dofe (fee Stimulants), and gradually in-
creafe it fo long as the ftomach will eaiily bear it. As
mercury in fome form feems to be the belt remedy that
can be employed in thefe affeftions, calomel, or the
common blue pill, may be given inftead of the corrofive
fublimate, if the latter ihould occafion much diforder,
or if the horfe is very much weakened. During this
courfe the animal mull be fupported by nourilhing diet,
but humid frequently have a change of fucculent vege¬
table food. Mr Blaine fpeaks of a horfe that was fo
far reduced (by glanders, we fuppofe) as not to be able
to Hand, and who was drawn into a field of tares, and
fuffered to take his chance j the confequenee was that
when he had eaten all within his reach, he was able to
rife and fearch for more, and eventually recovered.
The treatment recommended above has, it feems, of¬
ten been fuccefsful in farcy, and the fame internal reme¬
dies have been recommended in glanders, but we be¬
lieve they have been employed with little fuceefs. Mr
heron advifes to draw blood in the beginning of glan¬
ders, while the difeafe is Hill local, and to keep the
animal upon warm malhes of bran, putting the fame
into a nofe-bag, for the purpofe of fomenting the nof-
trils. He is then to go through a courfe of gentle phy-
fic, while ftrift attention is paid to the necefikry direc¬
tion of the food, exercife, drefling, cleanlinefs, and
water. The water muft be always warm, and made
white with bran or gmeb After this courfe, he re¬
commends balls made of opium, arfenic, and fulphur,
or of extraft of hemlock, .calomel, &c. avoiding cof¬
tivenefs during their exhibition. He thinks it neceflary
to infert two rowels, one below the under jaw near the
555
fwelling, and another under the chefi:; and he recom- Difeafes.
mends frequently fyringing the noftrils with a lotion '
made of two ounces of fpirit of wine, and the fame
quantity of vinegar, mixed with a gallon of water; or
with a folution of corrofive fublimate. According to
this gentleman, if the diforder is attacked in its infan¬
cy, it will generally fubmit to the above courfe of treat¬
ment 5 but if the diforder is fo far advanced as to ex¬
hibit the fymptoms of virulence, which we have de-
fcribed as conflituting the acute or malignant fiage of
it, it will increafe in oppofition to all art, and it will
be necellary to take away a life that every degree of
affiduity would not render worth prefervation.
As the farcy is probably contagious, and the glan¬
ders in moft cafes is certainly fo, it is proper, as foon as
a horfe is affected with either of thefe difeafes, to keep
him in a feparate liable, and to take care that he does
not come near any other horfes 5 and no part of his
harnefs, or furniture fhould be ufed for any other horfe,
till it has been well walked with foap and water, and
expofed for a long time to the pure air.
Glanders is confidered by Dr Darwin, and fome
other writers, as a contagious catarrh, and in fome
cafes it certainly is fo ; but when it is the confequence
of farcy, or of dangerous chronic difeafes, it appears
to be an affeflion of a peculiar kind. Mr Lawrence
confiders the glanders as fo perfeclly incurable, that he
recommends the collarmakcrs knife as the eafielt,
cheapell, and moll infallible remedy.
Chap. III. Of Lethargic or Comatofe Difeafes.
I. Apoplexy. Vertige, Fr. Staggers, Sleepy Stag¬
gers, Lethargy, or Vertigo.
Staggers is one of the moll comprehenfive terms in Apoplexy,
farriery ; and under it are confounded almolt every af-°r Staggers,
feftion of the brain, or all thofe difeafes in which there
take place giddinefs, unufual heavinefs, drowfinefs, or
convulfions. We have already feen the term applied
to inflammation of the brain, and we have no doubt
that many cafes are deferibed as flaggers, which are
really inllances of epilepfy. Of this kind we confider
the cafe fo humoroully related by Mr Lawrence in his
treatife on horfes, vol.ii. p. 406. “ Walking up Fleet-
llreet, I obferved a crowd of people wonderfully di¬
verted with the agonies of a cart-horfe beating himfelf
almolt to pieces, in, I think, the moll violent convul-
fions I ever witneffed. He threw himfelf repeatedly
upon the foot-path, and was very near going headlong
into a Ihop, &c.”
Mr Feron, who in general keeps very clear of the
errors of ordinary farriers, which he often ridicules with
much fuccefs, has confounded inflammation of the brain
and apoplexy, under the general name of flaggers, con-
fidering them as both inflammatory, and merely modifi¬
cations of the fame difeafe. Even Mr Blaine, who, as
Mr Lawrence expreffes himfelf, feems upon every oc¬
cafion eager to catch the dernier gout of fcience, has
4 A 2 deferibed
FARRIERY.
(e) Feron directs green copper : but we fuppofe this is merely a typographical error, for copperas, or ful-
phate of iron; and we have therefore ordered it by this name, as fulphate of iron is a good tonic, and may be
very properly employed in this difeafe.
C Oi
6
FARRIERY.
Part VI.
.feafes. defcribed flaggers under the name of /ethargy, and does
not even mention its identity with apoplexy in the hu¬
man body.
We coniider Jiaggers properly fo called, as the fame
with apoplexy; the appearances, the caufes, and the
treatment of both are the fame, making allowance for
fome ilight variations in the ftruddure and economy of
the different animals whom they affedt.
This complaint fometimes comes on fuddenly \ but in
general it is preceded by fymptoms that mark a conli-
derable detennination of blood to the head, fuch as
heavinefs, drowfinefs, infenfibility, (fee N° 3 17) occa-
honal fits of giddinefs, (fee N® 318.) and partial blind-
nefs, (fee N° 321.). There feems no doubt that the
horfe is fometimes affedled with headache, which ap¬
pears by the animal’s hanging down his head and
drooping his ears, by the eyes being dull and watery,
by dropping of urine, and coftivenefs. Thefe fymptoms
often precede an attack of apoplexy, though they are
fometimes only figns of a difordered ftomach.
When a fit of flaggers comes on, the animal falls
fuddenly, and is perhaps convulfed for a few minutes,
but more commonly appears quite infenfible. The
pulfe during the fit is ufually flower than natural, and
much oppreffed 5 the breathing is flow, heavy, and la¬
borious, and there is evidently an increafed accumula¬
tion of blood in the veffels of the head. The animal
remains for a longer or fliorter time in the fit, and
fometimes he never recovers j but, in general, in eight
or ten minutes, the fit goes off, and the animal rifes.
Sometimes after a fit of the flaggers, the animal ap¬
pears for a time more adlive and lively than before j
but very often he remains heavy and fleepy, efpecially
after repeated attacks, and fometimes a paralytic af-
fection of fome of the limbs is the confequence of the
fit.
Apoplexy may be diftinguifhed from inflammation of
the brain, by the fever, refllefsnefs, and fiery appearance
of the eyes, that never fail to ufher in the latter com¬
plaint. We wrould diiiinguifh it from epilepfy, by the
foaming at the mouth, and flrong convulfions, by which
this latter is always accompanied.
An apopledlic fit may be the confequence of an over¬
loaded oi* other wife difordered flomach; and is no uncom¬
mon termination of feveral difeafes,as epilepfy, locked jaw,
See. But h is generally the confequence of too much
fullnefs of blood, brought on by a full diet, attended
by idlenefs or wTant of exercife. It is more common to
old than to young animals, efpecially fuch as have large
heads and ftiort necks. For the immediate and many
of the exciting caufes of this complaint, fee Apoplexy,
Medicine Index.
A fit of apoplexy is often produced in an animal that
is predifpofed to it, by fome fudden or violent exertion,
fuch as drawing a heavy load, &c.
The means of preventing apoplexy when an attack of
it is threatened, have been already explained (in N°.
317,318, and 427.) When a fit of apoplexy takes place,
if the animal is full of blood, which generally happens, it
will be proper to bleed, from, the temporal artery, or
jugular vein, to an extent proportioned to the ftate of
the animal. If the animal appears weak, bleeding
Ihould not be attempted 3 but the determination of
blood to the head may be effe£lually checked by mak¬
ing preffure upon the carotid artery, taking care at the
fame time, not to include the jugular veins. Mr Cole¬
man recommends tying up the carotid arteries in dan¬
gerous cafes of flaggers, and Mr Feron fays, that he has
often repeated this experiment with fuccefs. The
bowels fhould b* emptied in the ufual manner, as foon
as poflible j and a ftrong flimulating clyfter ftiould be
injedled. When the animal comes to himfelf, if fat
and plethoric, he fhould have a good flrong purgative
ball, and afterwards fome gentle diuretic medicines. He
fhould be kept quiet for fome hours after the fit ; but
when the phyfic has properly wrought, he fhould have
gentle exercife, which mufl be gradually increafed, ac¬
cording as he is able to bear it} and great care fhould
be taken to keep the bowels open, and to prevent too
great an accumulation of blood.
Difeafes.
2. Palsy. Paralyfis. Thortor-ill, (in fheep.)
coS
The inferior animals fometimes become paralytic, pai{y,
and we have feen that a palfy in the hind legs is one
of the principal fymptoms of the dijlemper in dogs. A
paralytic diforder is not uncommon among fheep, and
is called by fhepherds the thortor-ill. It fometimes
arifes from their having eaten fome poifonous or narco¬
tic plants, but is very generally the effeft of great
weaknefs produced by want of proper nourifhment.
The befl remedy feems to be white vitriol, given three
times a day 5 and the food fhould be of the moll wholes
fome and nourifiling kind.
We had intended in this chapter to confider pretty
much at large, the various cafes of fufpended animation,
or afphyxia, fuch as drowning, hanging, fuffocation from
fixed air or other noxious gafes, and torpor from cold j
but this article has already fwelled to an unexpedled
length, and we have yet much important matter on our
hands. We mufl therefore refer our veterinary readers
to the article Medicine *, as the means to be there direc¬
ted for refloring fufpended animation in man will, with
fome little modification, apply to fimilar cafes inthe do-
meflic animals.
Chap. IV. Of Spafinodic Difeafes.
i. Locked-Jaw. Tetanus. Stag-evil. Mai de Cerf.
It has been remarked in N° 10. that horfes are ex-Locked
tremely fubjedl to the locked-jaw, which proves one of jaw.
the moll obftinate and fatal difeafes by which they are
affefted. It feems alfo occafionally to appear among
cattle, but it occurs to them much lefs frequently than
to horfes. We do not know that any writer has de-
feribed this difeafe in the horfe better than Mr Gibfon,
whofe defeription we fhall therefore copy, though it is
exprefled in rather an uncouth flyle.
“ As foon as a horfe is feized in this manner, his
head is raifed wnth his nofe towards his rack, his ears
pricked up, and his tail cocked, looking with an eager-
nefs, as an hungry horfe when hay is put down to him,
or like an high-fpirited one, when upon his mettle ; in
fo much that thofe who are flrangers to fuch things,
when they fee a horfe Hand in this manner, will fcarce
believe any thing of confequence ails himy and I have
feen fuch perfons greatly furprifed when they have been
told of the danger. But they are foon convinced, when
they fee other fymptoms come on apace j that his neck
grows
Paitvr. FARR
Difeafes. prows ftiif, cramped, and almoft immoveable j and if a
> horfe in this condition lives a few days, feveral knots
and ganglions will rife on the tendinous parts thereof j
and all the mufcles both before and behind, will be fo
pulled and cramped and ftretched, that he Iooks as if
he was nailed to the pavement, with his legs ftiff, wide,
and ftraddlJng 5 his Ikin fo tight on all parts of his
body, that it is almoft impoffible to move it •, and if
trial be made to make him walk, he is ready .to fall at
every hep, unlefs he be carefully fupported ; his eyes are
fo fixed with the ina&ion of the mufcles, as gives him a
deadnefs in his looks. He fnorts and fneezes often,
pants continually with Ihortnefs of breath; and this
fymptom increafes till he drops down dead, which ge¬
nerally happens in a few days, unlefs fome very hidden
and effe&ual turn can be given to the diftemper.”
This difeafe is generally primary or idiopathic ; but
it is fometimes fymptomatic. The pulfe is not always
much affe&ed ; there is feldom any fever, and the in¬
ternal funftions are feldom impaired till towards the
latter ftages of the difeafe.
We have not many accounts of the appearances that
have been difcovered on diflecling horfes which have
died of this difeafe. In two diffe&ions by M. Huzard,
the bowels within the belly, efpecially the ftomach and
large inteftines, were confiderably inflamed ; the liver
was full of black and fluid blood, and in one cafe a con>-
fiderable quantity of blood had efcaped into the cavity
of the belly ; the fubftance of the liver was very tender,
as if it were decompofed or rotten. Ihe other vilcera
of the belly, and the heart and lungs, were in their na¬
tural date. On opening the head, confiderable marks
of inflammation appeared in the brain, the choroid plex¬
us was dittended with blood, and in one cafe the maxil¬
lary and frontal finufes of the right fide were full of
black blood ; the dura mater was inflamed, and its vef-
fels, as well as thofe of the brain, were turgid with
blood ; the ventricles of the brain contained a quantity
of ferous fluid. In one of the cafes the inflammation
had extended even to the periolteum on the right fide,
which was much redder than that on the left.
It is difficult to fay whether the difeafe depended on
an inflammatory affedlion of the brain, or whether this
was the confequence of the violent fpafmodic contraction
of the mufcles during the height of the difeafe : but we
are inclined to think the latter 'was the cafe.
Infiances of recovery from this difeafe in horfes are
very rare ; we (hall prefently give one from Mr Gib-
fon, which is rather remarkable. A cautious opinion
ought therefore to be given in every cafe of locked-
jaw.
This affeCtion may be produced by various cauies,
particularly from wounds, where the nerve is partially
divided ; from cold, when the body is in a profufe
fweat. It may arife alfo from internal irritation, as
from worms, which, in Mr Gibfon’s opinion, are a very
common caufe of it. Probably it more frequently pro¬
ceeds from wounds, as a punCture in the foot or any
other part; and it has certainly often been brought on
by the barbarous operations of docking and nicking.
There feems no doubt that the brain is the principal feat
of the affeftion. •
In the treatment of locked-] aw, it is neceffary to ufe
fdme vigorous meafures as early as poffible; but unhap¬
pily no method hitherto adopted has proved fuccefsful,
1 E R Y.
557”
even in a few cafes. Opium, aconite, hellebore, &c. | Difeafes.
have been tried in the veterinary college in very large
dofes, but without any beneficial effeCls. From con-
fidering it as a difeafe of the brain, trepanning has been
ufed, with the view of making preffure on the brain,
and this has fcmetimes appeared to take off the fpafm
of the mufcles; but as foon as the preffure was removed,
the fpafms returned with nearly equal violence. An
infufion of tobacco, to the amount of two pounds, has
been given by Mr Coleman, but the fymptoms appear¬
ed to be aggravated. Mr Feron recommends bleeding,
and immerfing the animal in a warm bath at 90* of
Fahrenheit, fo as to keep the whole body covered with
the water for two or three hours, which he has known
to be fuccefsful; but the horfe muft afterwards be
clothed and kept very warm. The mofl probable
means to relieve the animal feem to be giving opium in
large dofes by way of clyfter, frequently repeated, and
rubbing the whole body frequently with fome ftimulat-
ing linement, fuch as oil of turpentine and tincture of
cantharides. Mr Blaine recommends a clyfter com-
pofed of a ftrong decodtion of poppy heads, with two
ounces of camphor diffolved in brandy ; or if this be
thought too expenfive, one with two ounces of fpirit of
hartlhom and four ounces of oil of turpentine, mixed
with two or three yolks of eggs, and a pint of ale. The
cold bath is found one of the molt effectual remedies in
the human body, and we fhould conceive that it is more
likely than any other means to do good in the horfe ;
but it will be neceffary to rub him as dry as poffible af¬
ter throwing the water over him.
If it is afcertained that the difeafe proceeds from a
punftured or lacerated wound, it will be proper imme¬
diately to fcarify the"wounded part, fo as, if poffible, com¬
pletely to divide the affeefed nerve, as in fome cafes where
this has been dene, the fpafins have been removed. It
muft be confeffed, however, that even this has frequently
failed. If it has proceeded from a pun&ured wound in
the foot, Mr Blaine thinks it advifable to take up the
nerves of that foot on each fide ; for though this might
occafion temporary lamenefs, ..y et, if the horfe 'Were lav¬
ed, this might be removed in a few weeks. . .
The following cafe related by Mr Gibfon, in his Cafe,
laft w'ork on the difeafes o£ horfes, is very inftructive ;
even though it Ihould be contended that the cure was
effected by nature, and not by Mr Gibfon’s remedies..
A young troop horfe was fuddenly feized with this •
kind of convulfion, which was firft difcovered as he was
leading out to water, at the afternoon’s watering time.
“ I happened, (fays Mr Gibfon}, to be then prefent,
and perceived him come reeling along with his nole
turned out, his eyes fixed and immoveable, with all the
other figns that ufually attend this fatal diftemper; and
when became to the trough he could not reach the water
becaufe of the cramp and-ftiffnefs of his neck ; and when
it. %vas held to him in a pail, could not drink, though he
file wed an eagernefs for it; his mouth being flmt up lo
clofe, that it was fcarce poffible to put a knife between
his teeth. When we found it impoffible to adminifter
any kind of medicine,, till by rubbing his cheeks, jaws,
and temples, and his whole neck, for a confiderable
time, we made a Ihift, with great difficulty, to thruft
down part of a calomel ball, on the end of a fmall
flick, and then to put into his noftrils, a very fmall per
tion of a ftrong cephalic drink, thinking by that nv
553 FARR
convey the oail downwards into his ftomach, which
v- however had but little efte#, any farther than this, that
he had not fuch hidden fits and agitations as I have feen
in others in the like circumifances, but continued more
quiet 5 neither did his fever increafe, as ufually happens
when the diftemper is gaining ground ; but all this
while his mouth continued fo much ihut, that he could
neither eat nor drink for tnree weeks ^ only by continu¬
ally rubbing his jaws and neck, he would fometimes
make a fhift to fuck a handful of fcalded bran, or fome-
times a little oat-meal, moiftened -with warm water ; but
in lo fmall a quantity, that it is pofiible he might have
llarved, if other methods had not been taken to keep
him alive.
I have often obferved, that the forcing the jaws
open by violent means, puts a horfe into fuch agonies,
that it rather increafes than abates the fymptoms j and
’therefore I contrived to give him both food and phy-
fic by the fundament, through a pipe fourteen inches
long, by w hich he feemed to receive great benefit; for
we could perceive the fymptoms to abate daily. His
flanks grew more quiet, he flood more flill, and free
from hidden fits and ftartings j all which fymptoms are
nfual in the continuance and increafe of the diftem¬
per. The clyfters were contrived in the following
manner. °
“ Rue, pennyroyal, and chamomile flowers, of each
a handful 5 favin and box, of each a handful j garlic, an
ounce j caftor and aflafoetida, of each half an ounce.
“ In making this clyfter, the herbs are to be boiled
firft, in two quarts of water, in a covered veflel, the
fpace of ten or fifteen minutes, wdth the caftor and afia-
foetida cut in fmall pieces, and tied in a rag ; not only
to fave the caftor from w^afte, but that it may be fqueez-
ed into feveral clyfters. Then the garlic to be added,
and continued, clofe covered, over the fire the fpace of
ten minutes longer ; after this the liquor to be poured
off into a pan, or any other convenient veflel; theiwadd
of linfeed oil and treacle, of each four ounces, wdth half
an ounce of unreftified oil of amber 5 the treacle and
the oils are to be mixed with the decoaion, when it is
put into the bag.
. “ This clyfter was repeated once a-day for a fort¬
night j and by wray of diet, was given every day three
or four quarts of milk, boiled with oat meal and water,
a bag with a long pipe being left in the liable for that
purpofe. He retained every thing that w'as adminifter-
ed that way, which he generally fucked up of himfelf
without force, f his perhaps was in fome meafure ow-
ing to the nature of this univerfal convulfion which
caufes fuch irregular motions in the midriff and muf-
cles of refpiration, as in fome meafure inverts the natural
motion of the guts 5 and for the lame reafon horfes in
this condition feldom dung, but ftale often ; and when
they dung, it drops from them in a manner infenfibly,
and often |no more than one or two balls at a time ;
and therefore as this horfe could receive little or no
iuftenance by the mouth, I was determined to make
trial how far he might receive nourilhment by way of
injedlion backwards ; whether a thin diluted food
thrown into the ftraight gut, and from thence over in¬
to the fmall guts, by the help of a long pipe, might
not find a paffage into the blood through the la&eals
efpecially the experiments of this kind made on the’
human body, both in adminiftering food and phyfic,
3
I E R Y. Part VI.
particularly in giving the bark, by way clyfter, in Difeafe?.
agues and intermitting fevers, which has been found -v—
fuccefsful where the ftomach was not able to bear its
aufterity. It was upon this footing that I treated him
in the manner I have defcribed, which I imagined was
not altogether without effecl; for he fcarce ate in three
weeks what was fufficient to fuftain him one day ; fo
that it was impoflible for him to have lived, had he not
been fupported by what w7as throwm into his bowels j
and though by this means he loft his flefti very fenfibly,
yet he ftill retained a good deal of vigour and vivaci¬
ty. He had tw'o men conftantly to look after him,
and thefe relieved by others, who had orders to rub
his whole body often, which greatly helped to relax
his {kin, and remove the crampnefs of his mufcles ; and
though he had not for the firft fortnight recovered the
ufe of his jaws, yet we obferved him daily to move with
lefs ftiffnefs, and often to lick in his manger, as if he
craved after food. He alfo breathed with lefs difficulty,
and had leveral other good figns. This encouraged
me to try another experiment with opium, 'from the
known quality of that drug in relaxing the animal
fibres ; which I therefore thought might be of fervice
to remove the contradlions of the mufcles about his
mouth and jaws, which all this while continued in fome
meafure obrtinate, and without fome powerful relief,
might prove fatal, even though the original caufe was
•in a great meafure taken away ; therefore I caufed an
ounce of crude opium to be diffolved in one of his cly¬
fters, which ivas followed with thefe circumftances, that
the horfe foon lay down, began to point his ears back-
w7ards and forwards, and could move his neck pretty
freely, and his mouth wras fo far at liberty, that he
took his drink with little or no difficulty, and could
eat hay and bran lufllcient to fuftain him. He like-
wife moved his wffiole body fo readily, that we could
walk him an hour every day ; and that I might follow
what I imagined had been fo fuccefsfully begun by the
opiate clyfter, I ordered him fome days after an ounce
of the common Matthew’s pill, which contains about
two drachms of opium, and the fame quantity of affa-
foetida, made into a ball, which was given at his mouth,
and waffled down with a hornful of gruel, which was
done with great eafe, his mouth being grown pretty
pliable. This ball being once more repeated, he re¬
covered daily, being continued for fome time in the
ufe of the drinks, wdiich were now adminiftered only
twice a-week, with a good rubbing j and as foon as he
began to recover his flefti, he w7as gently purged. By
thefe means he was perfe&ly cured, without any other
ill effedl than a blemiflr upon one eye, caufed by the
violent and ftrong contradlion of the mufcles during the
convulfions, which indeed were as bad as any 1 ever
fawr, even wiiere they proved themoft fatal.”
We have related the above cafe thus particularly, in
the author’s owm w'ords, becaufe we have fcarcely ever
feen a cafe of locked-jaw in horfes fo well defcribed,
both as to its progrefs and treatment. Whatever might
have been the caufe that produced the complaint in
this horfe, it was evident that it did not depend upon
any congeftion of blood in the head, and Gibfon judged
very properly in not employing bleeding, purging, and
rowTels, which appear to have been the indifcriminate
pradlice of farriers in his time ; and which might b«
very proper where the convulfions proceed originally
from
Part VI. FARR
Difeafes. from toe liead. Gibfon fays, that he has feen the far-
l-" 1 riers in fuch cafes put a rowel on each fide of the neck,
one on the belly, one on the forehead, and one on
each fide. It appears, howrever, that this pra&ice met
with but little fuccefs, as in this complaint the fkin is
drawn fo tight in all parts that the rowels feldom fup-
purate kindly, but very commonly produce a mortifica¬
tion, and thus increal'e the animal’s diftrefs.
5”
2. Epilepsy, or Falling-ficknefs. Convulfions.
We have already Hated our opinion, that feveral cafes
that are commonly called flaggers are really inftances of
epilepiy, and we have no doubt that feveral ftrange con-
vulfive diforders that are defcribed as affecling domeftic
animals may be/referred to the fame head. Of this kind
we confider the {kipping complaint among lambs de¬
fcribed by Mr Lawrence : “ I remember in former
days, (fays he), on the borders of Suffolk, feveral
fcores of lambs wrere feized wdth an uncommon malady,
leaping and jumping about the fold-yard in a ftrange
manner \ and a dung-heap being raifed to the level of
the eaves of a low tiled barn, a number of the lambs
ran {kipping up to the top of the roof, as though they
had been poflefied by more devils than Mary Mag¬
dalen, or even the nuns of Loudun. The whole parifli
w ifely concluded they were bewitched, and a wretched
and aged pauper became the object of their fufpicions
and their deadly hatred. I do not precifely recolle6f,
but I fear the brutal, fenfelefs, and infernal fuppofed
preventive of wdtchcraft was recurred to, burning one
of the poor animals alive.” We Ihould be difpofed
to account for fo many animals being feized with it at
once, on the principle of imitation, juft as we have feen
a number of children at fchool fall into fits from feeing
one of their number affedfed with epilepfy. The treat¬
ment of this complaint muft be regulated by the ftate
of the body at the time. If this is plethoric, bleeding,
purging, and low diet, will be neceflary *, if it is wreak,
a ftrengthening plan muft be adopted.
3. Canine Madness. Hydrophobia. Rabies Cani-
na. La Rage, Fr.
Canine Of this moft dreadful malady, the nature of which is
aiadnefs. fo little underftood, and of which the cure ftill remains
a defideratum in medicine, the accounts hitherto given
are very imperfedl.
Our principal objedf fhould certainly be to afcertain
the origin and progrefs of the fymptoms, as they appear
in the dog, in wThom the difeafe appears to originate.
The account of thefe fymptoms, as given by different
authors, is exceedingly contradidlory. The beft ac¬
count that we have feen is that of Meynell of Quorn-
don in the county of Leicefter, and which is publilhed
by Dr Arnold in his account of a cafe of hydrophobia.
Before w7e give Mr Meynell’s view of the fymptoms,
we fhall quote a paffage from that part of Mr Law¬
rence’s treatife on herfes, in which he fpeaks of canine
madnefs. The paffage is as folkws. “ The diagno-
ftics of canine madnefs are, hunger and thirft, without
power to eat or drink *, trembling, eyes fierce and
flaming, hanging of the ears and tail, wEich is bent in¬
wards j lolling or the tongue, foaming, barking of the
dog at his own ftiadow, panting, running a ftraight
I E R Y. 55p
and heedlefs courfe againft any thing in his way, bit- Difeafes.
ing wdth violence ; other dogs fly him by inffindt. -y——u
By comparing the above diagnoftics with the follow¬
ing account of Mr Meynell’s, it will be feen how little
dependance is to be placed on the defcription of thofe
w7ho have not written from their own actual obferva-
tion. We doubt not that Mr Lawrence derives his
account from w7hat he conceived to be the beft infor¬
mation, and he is therefore not accountable for his er-
r0rS* . 5i3
According to Mr Meynell, the firft fymptom of Mr Mey-
canine madnefs in dogs appears to be a failure of ap-neff’s ac~
petite in a fmall degree, that is, the dog does not eat c°unt ot
his ufual food with his ufual eagernefs, though, if better ^symp'*
food be offered him, he may eat it greedily. A dif-
polition to quarrel with other dogs comes on early in
the difeafe. A total lofs of appetite generally fucceeds,
though dogs fometimes eat and lap water the day before
their death, which generally happens between feven
and ten days after the firft fymptoms have appeared. A
mad dog will not cry out on being ftruck, or {how
any fign of fear on being threatened j though he will,
very late in the difeafe, appear fenfible of kind treat¬
ment. A mad dog, in the height of the diforder, has
a difpofition to bite all other dogs, animals, or men.
When not provoked, he ufually attacks only fuch as
come in his way \ but having no fear, it is peculiarly
dangerous to ftrike at or provoke him.
Mad dogs appear to be capable of communicating
the infection early in the diforder, and as foon as they
begin to quarrel with and bite other dogs.
The eyes of mad dogs do not look red or fierce,
but dull, and have a peculiar appearance, which is
eafily diftinguiflied by fiich as have been ufed to ob-
ferve it, but which is not eafy to be defcribed.
Mad dogs never bark, but occafionally utter a moft
difmal and plaintive howl, expreflive of extreme di¬
ftrefs, and w7hich they who have once heard can never
forget. So that dogs may be known to be going mad
without being feen, w7hen only this difmal howl is heard
from the kennel.
Mad dogs do not foam or froth at the mouth, but
their lips and tongue appear dry and foul or flimy.
Mad dogs are generally fufticiently fenfible to know
thofe to whom they have been accuftomed.
Mr Meynell is confident that dread of w7ater is not a
fymptom of this difeafe in dogs^
Though mad dogs generally refufe both food and
drink, in the latter ftage of the diforder, yet they never
ftiow any abhorrence or dread of water, will pafs
through it wdthout difficulty, and lap it eagerly to the
laft. But it is remarkable, that though they will lap
water for a long time, and eagerly, and do not feem to
experience any uneafinefs from it, yet they do not ap¬
pear to fwallow a fingle drop of it j for however long
they may continue lapping it, no diminution of quanti¬
ty can be perceived.
He has never known a dog ihew fymptoms of the dif¬
eafe in lefs time after the bite than ten days 5 and he
has known many inftances of dogs having died mad as
late as eight months after the bite. The fymptoms
generally appear between three and eight weeks after
the bite.
A dog had been bitten, and confined by accident,
and
•560
FARR
Difeafes.
\
and not from any fufpicion of danger, for a whole
year, fo as to have no communication with any other
dog all the time 5 and went .mad at the end of that pe¬
riod.
Mr Meynell makes the following additional obfer-
vations. “ I am perfuaded that the diforder never ori¬
ginates from hot weather, putrid provilions, or from
any other caufe but the bite. For however dogs may
have been confined, however fed, or whatever may
have been the heat of the feafon, I never knew the
diforder commence, without being able to trace it to
that caufe; and it was never introduced into the ken¬
nel but by the bite of a mad dog. I do not fay that I
am certain that the diforder never originated from
any caufe except the bite j but I fay that I never
knew a dog go mad that I had no reafon to believe had
been bitten.
“ Some dogs, in the laft ftage of the diforder, have
a locked jaw.
“ I do not recolleft ever to have heard a dog bark af¬
ter I have perceived fymptoms of madnefs upon him.
“ I confider an unufual difpojition to quarrel with
other dogs as a certain Jign of beginning madnefs ; and it
is the only one I know7.
“ I believe the diforder always comes on fo gradually
that mifchief may be prevented by proper care.
“ I believe after fymptoms have ever appeared, they
never go entirely off; and that the difeafe, though
fometimes very flow in its progrefc, always terminates
in death.
“ Dogs known to have been bitten frequently ef-
cape, but I believe not near fo frequently as men.
“ Almoft all the mad dogs that I have feen have
been confined.
“ The hairs of a mad dog do not Hand ere£l more
than thofe of other dogs.
“ I do not know that there is any thing remarkable
in the manner of a mad dog’s carrying his head or his
* Daniel’s
Rural
.Sports,
tail.
■“ I do not know that there is any thing fierce in the
appearance of the eyes of a mad dog. I believe I
ihould know a mad dog to be mad from the appearance
of his eyes, but I cannot defcribe this appearance.
“ I "do not know that a dog in the beginning of this
diforder, is difpofed to fneak aw7ay growding, or to flmn
the fociety of other dogs j but if I obferved any thing
particular in the manner of a dog, I fliould certainly
-confine him.
“ I do not believe that dogs are more afraid of a
mad dog than they are of any other dog that feems
difpofed to attack them.”
(Mr Daniel wTas wdtnefs to an inftance of this innate
dread of a mad dog in other dogs, at Bradwell in Ef-
fex, where he w7as hunting with the reverend H. Bate
Dudley. Mr Dudley walked his hounds to the w7ater
to fwim them •, he had himfelf fwam over to an ifland
about a hundred yards from the flrore, and moft of the
hounds had followed him, but fome of them could not
be compelled to do fo. At this juncture an alarm of a
mad dog was given, who had been purfued many miles,
and done variety of mifchief in his progrefs •, he feized
one of the hounds that wrould not go into the wrater,
and the remainder to the number of feven or eight im¬
mediately upon his approach to them, took to the water
and fwam acrofs to thofe in the ifland *).
4
I E R Y.
Part VI.
“ There are two kinds of madnefs, both of which I
have known to originate from the bite of the fame dog.
Among huntfmen, one is known by the name of raging
the other by that of dumb madnefs. In dumb madnefs,
the nether jaw drops, and fixes } the tongue hangs out
of the mouth, and flaver drops from it. In raging
madnefs, I believe the mouth is ftuit, except when the
dog fnaps or howls, and that no moifture drops from
it.”*
The following facls and obfervations upon the con-
fequences of the madnefs among Earl Fitzwilliam’s
hounds, perhaps mark the attack and fymptoms of this
diforder more accurately than any other defcription of a
fimilar accident.
In the night of the 8th of June 1791, the man who
flept in the kennel wras unufually difturbed by the
hounds fighting ; he got up to quiet them feveral times,
and always found the fame hound quarrelling. Noticing
the riotous behaviour of this particular hound, and at
the fame time an appearance of ftupidity in him, he
was induced to fuppofe that he was going mad, and ac¬
cordingly confined him in a place by himfelf, after
which the pack w7as quiet the remainder of the night.
When the huntfman came to the kennel in the morn¬
ing, he was told wdiat palled, and the fuppofed mad
hound Ihewn to him \ his appearance was fufpicious $
fome meat was given to him, part of which he ate, al¬
though there was an apparent difficulty in fwallowing.
Twto days puffed in fufpenfe \ but at the end of the
third, his diforder was confirmed 5 and at the end of
the fifth day he died mad. Immediate preparations
were made for confining 42 couple of hounds feparate-
ly, until the month of September, which was rigidly
adhered to. By this means, Mr Hopkinfon, a medi¬
cal gentleman of Peterlhorough had an opportunity
wherein he very fkilfully and exadtly minuted the
fymptoms and progrefs of this difeafe.
Six hounds went mad in the following order.
Difeafes.
* Arnold in
Hydropho¬
bia.
SI4
N° I attacked
a
3
4
. 5
6
July iff.
Auguft 3d.
September 3d.
Ditto 4th.
November 10th.
December 8th.
The hounds were firft taken from their chains in
September, and exercifed for about half an hour to¬
gether, not more than four or five couple at a time,
and not trufted out of the fight of the attendant. When
this exercife wras over, they were again confined fepa-
rately, and fed at feparate troughs. In the beginning
of Odlober, they were taken out ten couple at a time j
at the latter end of that month, twenty couple} Hill ob-
ferving the fame caution with refpedl to feparate con¬
finement after they returned from exercife. In the be¬
ginning of November they wTere hunted, but -were
chained up, as at firft, after hunting, until the third
week of that month, when they*Vvere let loofe in differ¬
ent apartments of one, two, three, four, and five couple
together. This regulation w7as continued till the month
of June 1792, as the huntfman, who has had much ex¬
perience in this difeafe did not deem them fafe under a
year.
The only remedy employed was mercurial ointment j
and all the hounds, except the bitches that were in
whelp,
Part VI. F A Pt R
Difeafes. whelp, underwent two fri&ions, fo as to produce in fome
' of them a violent falivation.
Mr Hopkinfon remarks, that from the above ftate-
ment it feems that the diforder is as virulent, as to the
power of inoculation (by which procefs it is always
communicated) at its commencement, as at the advan¬
ced Itage of it 5 for all the fix dogs that went mad were
probably infedted on the 8th of June, within a few hours
of each other.
It is a common opinion, that when a dog is bitten by
one that is mad, a few weeks confinement, lea-bathing,
or the popular noltrums, are either of them fufficient to
prevent his taking the difeafe, and from fpreading its
mifchievous effe&s j but in this cafe, there was a fair
opportunity of proving that there is no fecurity after
fix months, perhaps not after twelve; that mercury has
no certain power to prevent it j and it appears that the
huntfman had repeatedly employed all the popular re¬
medies, without anyeffedt whatever. He had alfo obferv-
ed nearly the fame progrefs of the difeafe in feveral packs
of hounds, where no expence had been fpared, for every
medicine in ufe, lea-bathing &c. In the prefent in-
fiance, there was this remarkable difference, that no
internal medicine had been given, and the huntfman
never knew fewer hounds attacked with the difeafe.
The refult of the huntfman’s experience in the pre¬
ventive plan is therefore in favour of a feparate con¬
finement ; for whenever he had depended on medicine,
and not on the above plan of treatment, the difeafe had
made dreadful havock.
There is reafon to fuppofe that the hound which firff
went mad, was not bitten by any other dog, but that it
tvas in him a fpontaneous difeafe. The whole pack
were examined very attentively, and bites found upon
four couple, one of which was feen fighting with the
mad hound twice j he underwent a longer confinement
than the reft : however, none of them were attacked by
the difeafe, and it is lingular that no bites were dis¬
covered upon the fix hounds that went mad. The infec¬
tion taking place or not, is therefore perhaps the refult
of chance ; yet, although no bites were perceived upon
the hounds which went mad, there is every ground to
conclude they were bitten, but that the wounds being
fmall, were concealed by the hair. Mr Daniel fug-
gefts, that moft probably there W’ere bites within fide
of the lips, or jaws, where the venomous faliva might
be more fatally and quickly abforbed into the habit,
than where the teeth had to penetrate through the
thick outer Ikin of the dog.
Mr Hopkinfon continues his remarks with refpeft to
the fymptoms of madnefs in dogs, and fiates that thofe
which diftinguifh the attack of the hydrophobia, are in
general a loathing of food, although this is not univer-
fal, as they will fometimes eat folid food, but refufe
liquid. The firft and only fymptom that N° 3. had of
the difeafe, was eating his own excrement when food
flood by him ; the feeder knowing, this to be contrary
to what the dog wTould do if he were well, he immedi¬
ately confined him. For a day or two he was in fome
doubt whether his fufpicions were well founded; but he
proved right, for the dog died raving mad upon the
fifth day.
At the commencement of the diforder, the mad dog
has a particular tendency (if loofe) to lick and fmell
the penis and fundament of another dog ; this fhould
VOL. VIII. Part II.
I E R Y.
56r
be looked upon as a very fufpiclous fymptom. The
huntfman fpeaks of this as an almoft never failing
Difeat'es.
one.
There feems for the firft two or three days, to be in¬
tervals of fenfe ; and during that time they ufually re-
cognife their mafter, their eyes look clear and well,
their tongues moift, and of the proper colour; but if a
dog is loofe at this time, he will in general bite every
thing he meets with. He will fometimes, during this
ftage of the difeafe, leave his homo for feveral hours,
fpread his diforder by biting men and beaits, and re¬
turn home again. The mad dog, w’hen confined, feldom
furvives the fifth day from the firft attack; if fuffered
to run about, there is reafon to believe his death is haf-
tended by a day or twro. At the end of the third or
fourth day, his appearance is much altered, his eyes are
fifnk, his tongue black and dry, he makes horrid bowl¬
ings, and feems much difturbed; indeed the concluding
fcene is dreadful to witnefs. In the firft ftage of the
canine madnefs, it is difficult for a perfon not conver-
fant with the difpofition of dogs in general, and of the
mad dog in particular, to afcertain whether the dog is
really mad or not; even Lord Fitzwilliam’s huntfman w7as
doubtful for a day or two refpe&ing the hound mention¬
ed in this account, as being the fifft attacked with the
difeafe ; however, in the advanced ftage of it, no one
can be miftaken.
It is the generally received opinion, that mad dogs will
not take the wTater; but in the fummer of 1791, there oc¬
curred in the neighbourhood of Peterlborough, twoinftan-
ces of mad dogs, when clofely purfued, fwimming a large
navigable river. A doubt might have arifen, as to their
being mad, but that two hogs w'ent mad from the bite
of one, and the other was purfued for many miles by
Lord Fitzwilliam’s huntfman, who, frqm his experience * Daniel's
in the difeale, was not likely to be mitlaken. Both Rural
dogs completely fwam the river *. Sports.
Of all the remedies that have been employed for the 5*5
cure of this dreadful diforder, none feems fo likely to
be fuccefsful as the cold bath. This remedy was re¬
commended about 200 years ago by the Seigneur d’Ef-
parron, in his “ Fauconnerie,” and he gives a curious
inftance of its fuccefs in the cure of a mad dog. “ I
will relate, (fays he) what happened to a gentleman
of my acquaintance. He difcovered that fome of his
dogs had been bitten by a mad dog ; and after fome
time, feveral of them betrayed fymptoms of the difeafe.
Thefe he ordered to be killed ; but it happened that
one which was a great favourite was feized, and he de-
fired his fervant to throw him into the river. By
chance, the dog in coming up from the bottom, got
entangled in the roots of a tree by the cord with which
he had been tied, but in fuch a manner that his nofe
juft remained above the water. In this fituation he re¬
mained for three days, at the end of which period he
got loofe and returned to the houfe, to the great af~
toniffiment of his mafter ; and here I afterwards faw
him, as chearful and healthy as before. I have no
doubt (continues d’Efparron) that if mad dogs could be
plunged into water without danger of their biting, they
would all recover ; and I believe that if the fame prac¬
tice were purfued with men, which might eafily be done,
many an unfortunate wretch might be faved. The
danger of being bitten might be prevented by firft put¬
ting a muzzle on the animal, and he might then be re-
4 B tailed
562
FARR
Difeafcs, tained in the water, as long as may be judged prudent
* D'Ef 'ar °r neCeffary- *”
roa Falcon- Mother writer, Defouilloux, who publifhed a work
nerie, p. 290011 hunting in 1583, recommends plunging into falt-
water fuch dogs as have been bitten, for the purpofe of
preferving them from the effedfs of the difeafe.
As the effe£t of remedies when the complaint once
appears is fo uncertain, it ihould be our principal object
■to ufe all the pi'eventive means in our power. When,
therefore, it is difcovered that an animal has been bitten
by one that is mad, the wounded part (hould immedi¬
ately be cut out, where this can be done with fafety, or
at leaf! fhould be deeply fcarified to the very bottom of
the bite. The wound fhould then be repeatedly walhed
with foap and water, or with a folution of foda poured
upon it in a ftream from a confiderable height ; and af¬
terwards the wound fhould be feared to the bottom
with a hot iron 5 or where this cannot conveniently be
done, a quantity of aquafortis, os oil of vitriol, fhould
be poured into it, fo as to deftroy all the remains of the
virus or poifon. If the part bitten be the ear, it
Ihould be cut off and feared. After thefe means, it
will be proper to plunge the animal once a day into
cold water, or where convenient into the fea ; and he
fhould be ftridtly watched, that if thefe means Ihould
have proved unfuccefsful, the earlieil appearance of the
difeafe may be perceived.
Dr Arnold, to whom we are indebted for Mr Mey-
nell’s account of the fymptoms of madnefs in dogs,
gives the following advice with refpecf to the method
of treating a dog that is fufpefted of being mad.
516 “ Though every dog that is bitten does not receive
the diforder, yet, as the time of its appearance after the
bite is fo very uncertain, and as a great proportion of
thofe that are bitten do adtually receive it, and as there
is no criterion by which we can afcertain whether a dog
has or has not received the infection, but the breaking
out of the diforder, it is earneftly to be wifhed, that all
owners of dogs would immediately deftroy, or fecure
for a great length of time, every dog known, or but
fufpefted, to have been bitten by a mad dog.
“ It is alfo earneftly to be wifhed, that all perfons
pofi'efling dogs would immediately tie up or deftroy fuch
of their dogs, whether known to be bitten or not, as
fhall begin to be difordered in any way, of which the
nature and caufe is not perfectly obvious ; and efpecial-
ly if there be the fmalleft reafon to fufpeft that the dog
was bitten, and that the diforder is really an incipient
madnefs.
“ It is ftill more to be wifhed that they would immedi¬
ately deftroy all dogs known to be in any ftage of mad¬
nefs, if it be at the fame time known that they have
not yet bitten any other animal, and particularly no
perfon whatfoever \ and that no dog that has bitten
any animal or perfon be deftroyed as a mad dog if it
can be avoided, but that every dog be fecured and
tied up, that it may be certainly known whether he
be mad or not. If he has the fymptoms of confirmed
madnefs, they wall plainly difcover themfelves, and he will
die in ten days and lefs ; if he is not, he may be fafely
* Arnold0HG&\2irgz& in the fpace of a fortnight, and the perfon
Hydrofbo- bitten will be freed from the *noft diftreffing apprehen-
lions.” *
w Before we difmifs the fubjeft of canine madnefs, it
of dogs.Kg will be expe&ed that we Ihould take fome notice of the
1 e r y.
Part VI.
operation of worming dogs, fo celebrated among
huntfmen and breeders of dogs, as a fuppofed preven¬
tive of this dreadful malady. This operation is as old
as the days of Pliny, and has ever lince been more or
lefs efteemed among the vulgar. But neither the ope¬
ration itfelf, nor its effeft, feem to have been well un-
derftood. The idea of a wmrm being lodged in the
tongue of the puppy, the extradtion of which is to prevent
the animal from going mad, is truly ridiculous j and as
fuch has been delervedly laughed at by fenlible people
in all ages. But though it is neither a worm that is
extra&ed, nor is the extradlion a preventive of mad¬
nefs, it feems, however, pretty /well afcertained, that
the performing of this operation is produftive of con-
ftderable advantage, in preventing the dog from doing
mifchief, even though he Ihould run mad. It feems,
that in dogs wTho have been wormed, and are af¬
terwards feized vuth hydrophobia, the tongue fwells
to fuch a degree as to prevent the animal from doling
his jaws upon the objedt which he attempts to bite.
The following obfervations of a late ingenious and en¬
tertaining waiter on the fubject are entitled to much at¬
tention.
Very ftrong proofs have been adduced of its utility j
nor is it natural to imagine, that fo eafy and effedlive an
operation would have been omitted, had no more vir¬
tue been attributed to it than it really pofleffes; and,
wherein it failed, the abfolute prevention of madnefs
wxis faid to be the confequence ; whereas the fact was
and is, that taking out the worm hath nothing to do
with annihilating the diforder, although it will moft
certainly hinder the dog, feized with it, from doing any
hurt to man or beaft. A late author afferts, he had
three dogs that were wormed, bit by mad dogs at three
feveral periods, yet, notwithftanding they all died mad,
they did not bite to do any mifchief. that being deter¬
mined to make a full experiment, he Hint one of the
dogs up in a kennel, and put to him a dog he did not
value; the mad dog often run at the other to bite him,
but his tongue fo fuelled, that he could not make his
teeth meet. The dog was kept in the kennel until the
mad one died, and was purpofely preferved for two
years afterwards, to note the effe£l, but he never ailed
any thing, although no remedies were applied to check
any infedtion that might have been received from the
contaft of the mad dog.
Mr Daniel has had various opportunities of proving
the ufefulnefs of worming, and inferts three of the moft
ftriking inftances, under the hope of inducing its gene¬
ral practice.
A terrier bitch went mad that was kept in the ken¬
nel with 40 couple of hounds: not a iingle one was
bitten, nor was (he feen to offer to bite. The bitch
being of peculiar fort, every attention was paid to her,
and the gradations of the difeafe (which were extreme¬
ly rapid) minutely noted. The hydrophobia was fart
approaching before fhe was feparated from the hounds,
and Ihe died the fecond day after. At firft w^arm milk
was placed before her, w'hich (he attempted to lap,
but the throat refufed its fun&ions; from this period
fhe never tried to eat or drink, feldom rofe up, or even
moved ; the tongue fwelled very much, and long before
her death the jaws were diftended by it.
A fpaniel was obferved to be feized by a ftrange
dog, and was bit in the lip } the fervant who ran up to
part
Part VI
FARR
Difeafes. part them, narrowly ecaped, as the dog twice flew at
'"‘■"v'—him} a few minutes after the dog had quitted the yard,
the people who had purfued gave notice of the dog’s
madnefs, who had made terrible havock in a courfe of
ten miles from whence he had fet off. The fpaniel was
a great favourite, had medicine applied, and every pre¬
caution taken ; upon the fourteenth day he appeared to
loathe his food, and his eyes looked unufually heavy 5
the day following he endeavoured to lap milk, but
could fwallow none ; from that time the tongue began
to fwell, he moved himfelf but feldom, and on the third
day he died. For many hours previous to his death,
the tongue was fo enlarged, that the fangs or ca¬
nine teeth could not meet each other by upwards of
an inch.
I he hounds were fome years after parted with, and were
fold in lots. A madnefs broke out in the kennel of the
gentleman who purchafed many of them •, and although
ieveral of thefe hounds were bitten and went mad, only
one of them ever attempted to bite, and that was a
hound from the duke of Portland’s, who, in the opera¬
tion of worming, had the w'orm broke by his ftruggling,
and w^as fo troublefome that one half of it was fuffered to
remain 5 the others all died wnth fymptoms fimilar to the
terrier and fpaniel, viz. a violent fwelling of the tongue,
and a ftupor rendering them nearly motionlefs, and
both which lymptoms feemed to increafe with the
difeafe.
% Daniel's]
Rural
Sports.
. 5»8
Colic.
The idea that worming prevents a dog from receiv¬
ing the infection when bitten flrould be exploded 5
but the foregoing faffs fhow how far it may be recom¬
mended for the reftriffion of a malady horrid in its ef-
fefts where a human being is concerned, and which to
the fportfman and the farmer is attended with fuch dan¬
gerous and expenfive confequences.
We cannot pretend to fay, what it is that the worm-
ers of dogs take away from the tongue ; but we cannot
fuppofe, that Mr Daniel, though he calls it a worm,
really believes that it is fo. The following are his di-
reffions for performing the operation.
“ The worming of whelps Ihould be previous to their
being fent out to quarters ; this operation is to be per¬
formed with a lancet, to flit the thin {kin which immedi¬
ately covers the worm ; a fmall awl is then to be intro¬
duced under the centre of the worm, to raife it up 5 the
further end of the worm will with very little force make
its appearance, and with a cloth taking hold of that
end, the other will be drawn out eafily. Care mufl: be
taken that the whole of the wrorm comes away without
breaking ; and it rarely breaks, unlefs cut into by the
lancet, or wounded by the awl.” *
4. Colic. Colica. Spafmodic' or Flatulent Colic,
Gripes, Bats, Trot, or Gu/liom. Tranchee, Fr.
This is one of the mofl painful diforders with wdiich
horfes are affefled ; and it feems to occafion them as
much diltrefs as inflammation in the bowels, with
which it is very commonly confounded by ordinary
farriers.
In this difeafe the horfe exprefies his pain, by fre¬
quently lying down and rolling on his back, and after
having remained a fliort time in this pofition, flatting
up again, ihe hair is flaring, and there are fometimes
cold.fweats. He frequently makes attempts to ftale,
looks anxioufly at his flanks, and fometimes flrikes his
I E R Y.
belly wdth his hind feet. There is feldom any fever in
this diieafe j and when it does occur, it is only after the
difeafe has exifted for fome time. The pulfe is feldom
affe&ed j but when the pain is very great, it is a little
quicker than natural. The belly commonly feels hard
and tenfe. Colic is almoft always accompanied with cof-
tivenefs, though griping pains not unfrequently attend
ievere fcouring.
_ If tke above fymptoms are attentively examined, they
wall commonly ferve to diftinguiih this difeafe from in¬
flammation oi the bow'els. It is generally obferved,
that the pain in colic returns only at intervals, and the
extremities are feldom cold. It muft not be overlooked
however, that when colic continues for a confiderable
time, it may terminate in inflammation, fo that the dif-
tinguiftiing fymptoms mentioned here and in N° 497.
are to be depended on, only in the early ftage of the
difeafe.
56.3
Difeafes.
Cattle are extremely fubject to colic j but it is faid
to be more common in young than in old cattle. The
fymptoms do not differ from what we have deferibed,
only that it is faid, that thefe animals, wdien affected
vvith gripes, rtrike their heads and horns againff every
thing in their -way.
Colic is eafily removed, wrhen the proper remedies
are employed, before any fymptoms of inflammation
make their appearance ; but if the remedies be delayed
till inflammation takes place, the cure is very preca¬
rious.
Colic is very commonly the confequence of neglecff-
ted coftivenefs, and by this it is ahvays increafed. It
may be akribed to improper food, efpecially fuch as
is apt to produce flatulence or fournefs in the fto-
mach or bowTels 5 by drinking cold water immediate¬
ly after eating j and by expofure to cold, during
violent fweating.
As it is not always eafy to diflinguifh flatulent colic
from inflammation^ it is the fafeft plan to begin the
treatment by bleeding, to the extent of three or four
F.nglifh quarts •, and the appearance of the blood will
generally inform us whether it will be neceflary to re¬
peat the operation. See N° 162. The next circum-
ftance to be attended to, is the evacuation of the bowels
by back-raking and foftening clyfters. In general, af¬
ter this operation, a large quantity of air will be
evacuated, and confiderable relief will be afforded.
After thefe means have been employed, fomc fti-
mulating aromatics, fuch as oil of turpentine, oil
of anifefeed, eflence of peppermint, or fome of
the other ftimulants enumerated in N° 28?, and
286, fhould be given by the mouth; and if’thefe
do not procure relief, it will be proper to give a ball
containing naif an ounce of calomel, and immediately
after it, a drench of peppermint water, with five or fix
drachms of laudanum. The cure will be confidf ably
a {lifted by rubbing the belly gently with a warm cloth ;
and the animal fliould be gently trotted, for a conlider-
able time, while led by the halter. Warm fomenta¬
tions to the belly have been recommended ; but if there
is a confiderable accumulation of air in the ftomach and
borvels, thefe wrould do harm by increafing the expan-
fion of the air, and thus adding to the animal’s diftrefs;
for it muft be remembered, that a horfe cannot eafily
belch up wind by the mouth; and where there is any
obttrudlion backwards, every thing that can increafe the
4 B 2 expanfion
264 FARR
Difeafes. expanflon of the confined air, mu ft do harm. On the
'■““'‘V"—' contrary, every thing that is capable of diminifhing the
volume of air, may probably relieve the pain. It
might be worth while to try how far the application of
cold to the belly would be attended with advantage •,
and this might eafily and fafely be effedled, by bathing
the belly with ftrong fpirit of wine, which fpeedily eva¬
porating, will confiderably diminidr the temperature of
the belly. It will be proper, where the difeafe conti¬
nues obftinate, to adminifter warm foftening clyfters,
every hour or two; as well for the purpofe of obviat¬
ing coftivenefs, as for removing the fpafmodic conftric-
tion of the bowels. We are affured, that where moft
other means have failed, of procuring relief in Hatulent
colic, this has been obtained by means of the fmoke of
tobacco drawn up the fundament. The fmrpleft way
of adminiftering this remedy, is to introduce the fmall
end of a tobacco pipe, after having filled the bowl and
lighted it ; when the fmoke will infenfibly be drawn
up by the a&ion of the horfe’s bowels.
I E R Y.
Part VI
5J9
Drop!/.
W ate
farcy.
Chap. V. Of Dropftcal Difeafes.
Our domeftic animals are fometimes affedled with
dropfy ; and this may be either diffufed through the cel¬
lular membrane below the Ikin ; or the water may be
contained within one or more of the cavities, as the
head, the cheft, and the belly.
5*0 External dropfy, or what medical writers call ana-
farca, and farriers water farcy, is not common, unlefs
it accompanies a dropfical collection within the body.
It fometimes affefts particular parts, as the legs, the
iheath, or the lips j and at other times it is diffufed over
the whole cellular membrane. It is known by the
fwelling of the part, which is cold, and retains the im-
preftion of the finger for fome time. The urine is ge¬
nerally more fparing and of a deeper colour than is na¬
tural ; and the animal appears confiderably weak. This
difeaie,when it has proceeded to any confiderable height,
and when the animal is much debilitated, is not eafily
removed ; but when it is flight, and of no long handing,
it will in general yield to remedies.
All the fpecies of dropfy more commonly affe£! old
than young animals j and fuch as are debilitated by any
previous caufe, are more fubjeft to it. It is faid that
horfes are more likely to become dropfical in fpring and
autumn when they are moulting.
The cure of general dropfy is to be attempted by the
ufe of diuretic medicines, accompanied with a nouriflung
diet, gentle exercife, and frequent friction all over the
body, efpecially over thofe parts where the accumula¬
tion of fluid is fituated. The a£Hon of the diuretics
muft be affifted by a fufiicient quantity of drink j and
it will be proper to give the animal fome of the more
pow^ful flrengthening remedies, inch as white vitriol,
oak bark, logwood, &c.
i. Dropsy of the Head. Hydrocephalus. Sturdy.
Turnfck.
Dropfy of the head feldom affefts horfes or cattle •,
but a peculiar collection of water in the head is very
common among ftieep,'in whom it is called the Sturdy,
ox Turnfck. One of the belt accounts of this difeafe
that we have feen is that which is given in the fecond Difeafes.
appendix to Mr Findlater’s furvey of Peebles, which v-—"
%ve ihall give nearly in the words of the author.
This difeafe is peculiarly incident to young ftieep, or
hogs, of a year or eighteen months old. It confifts of
a collection of water generally formed upon the exter¬
nal furface of the brain, immediately below the Ikull 5
and fometimes, though not often, in the center or
ventricles of the brain. When the water forms in the
laft mentioned parts, we apprehend it is almoft univer-
fally mortal.
The diforder is firft difcovered,bythe animal not keep¬
ing up with the reft of the flock, and by its appearing
- dull and ftupid. It is afterwards obferved to go round
in a giddy manner j and at length it appears blind, and
the pupil of the eye feems wide and relaxed. It may
continue a long time in this fituation before it dies 5 and
it is believed that flieep fometimes recover of this dif¬
eafe without any thing being done for them. They
are often in good order when they die, as they continue
to feed tolerably w'ell, until near the laft period.
Though fome recover, with or without means, perhaps
it may be moft advifable to kill them early in the dif¬
eafe, provided they be in good order, as this local dii-
temper does not affeCl the goodnefs of the mutton.
When the collection of wTater is on the outfide of the
brain, it is often cured by thrufting a fharp wire up the
animal’s noftrils, until it reaches the water, and opens a
paffage for it to run off. In other cafes, it is cured by
an operation which fome Ihepherds perform very dex-
teroufly. The water is contained in a bladder, or veficle,
f hydatid) generally about the fize of a walnut. The part
of the Ikull immediately above where it is fituated, feels
fofter than other parts. This the fliepherd dilcovers,
by prefling with his thumb and fingers, upon different
parts of the fore and upper parts of the Ikull. The
bone here has become thinner, and feels foft ; from
which he is certain that the watery collection is formed.
After the difeafe has gone on a confiderable time, and
he judges it ripe for the operation, he raiies the icalp, and
lays the bone bare to a fufficient breadth, with a fliarp
knife 5 he then difeovers more accurately the extent of
the thin foft part of the bone, and with a ftrong and
fliarp-pointed knife, he makes a circular incifion in the
fkull, raifes up, and takes out the part. He then fees
the clear thin bladder unci neath, which he lays hold
of with a fmall hook, or the poirt of a needle, and
gently draws it out j taking all poffible care that it be
not broken, or the water Ipiiied, which would prove
unfavourable to recovery, He finds a confiderable hol¬
low in the brain where the bag was fituated, over which
he brings the flap of ikin that was raifed, fo as to cover
it as neatly as poffible. Over the whole he applies a
plafter of tar, and leaves the reft to nature. This ope¬
ration frequently proves fuccefsful.
Mr Findlater remarks, that in Tweeddale, one cafe
in three, where a perforation is made by the pointed
wire, or the trepan, ufually ends favourably. Of late
it has been the cuftom among the ftiepherds of that dif-
triCl, to bore into the Ikull of iheep affefted with the
fturdy, with a common gimblet 3 and however rough
or apparently dangerous the operation, it feems fre¬
quently to prove fuccefsful. The perforation is made
by boring from the root of the rtoftril, in an oblique
dire&ioii
Part VT. FARR
Difeafes. direftlon to the root of the horn on the oppofite fide of
* 1“■ the head.
2. Water in the Chest. Hydrothorax.
Dropiy of This complaint appears but feldom in the inferior
the cheft. animals : but it may take place from exceflive debility j
and according to Mr Blaine, it is fometimeS the confe-
quence of inflammation in the lungs. Here however
this writer k probably miftaken, and confounds water
in the cheft with empyema, or a collection of matter
within the cheft, which is not an uncommon termina¬
tion of pneumonia.
When dropfy in the cheft does occur, the animal la¬
bours under a difficulty of breathing, efpecially wThen
lying down \ and the pulfe is feeble, and commonly ir¬
regular. The urine is fcanty and high coloured. If
the colleClion of wTater is pretty conftderable, it may be
perceived by the found that is produced, when the cheft
is ftruck with the hand ; but this is often a deceitful
fign, and ffiould not be tried till a long time after the
animal has drunk 5 as, for fome time after drinking, the
water that remains in the ftomach will, when the ribs
are ftruck, produce a found that might lead us to fup-
pofe there was water in the cheft.
This complaint commonly proves fatal, both in man
and animals, and probably there is no means of cure
except by evacuating the water, by an opening into the
cheft 5 an operation which is always precarious, and
commonly as dangerous as the difeafe which it is in¬
tended to relieve. If it is determined however to try
the experiment, the opening ihould be made between
the feventh and eighth rib, near the breaft bone, on that
ftde of the cheft where the -water is fuppofed to be ac¬
cumulated. In making the opening, the Ikin ffiould
be drawn tight towards the edge of the feventh rib 3
when a cut is to be made in the place above diredled,
with a ffiarp knife, not cutting too boldly, but rather
fcratching with the point of the knife, till the fkin and
the mufcles are completely divided. After this, a pipe
muft be introduced through the opening, and faftened
by a bandage round the animal 3 fome foft linen or a
piece of fponge being placed over the opening, after as
much water as poffible has run off, to fuck up the re¬
maining moifture, and exclude the air.
3. Water in the Belly. Afcites.
Dropfy of This is the moft common fpecies of dropfy, and is
the belly, known by the general fymptoms of dropfy that have
been deferibed in N° 319. and 320. attended with an
unufual fwelling of the belly 3 while the ikin is cold,
and very tight. When the belly is ftruck with one
hand, while the other is held upon the oppolite fide, a
fluctuation may be perceived, much more diilimStly than
in the laft fpecies.
It is brought on by the ufual caufea of dropfy that
we have already mentioned, and is not an uncommon
confequence of jaundice and other chronic diforders.
It is not quite fo dangerous as dropfy in the cheft, but
it is very apt to return after having been removed.
’I he treatment ffiould be begun with diuretics, and
now and then a mercurial purge, while the body is
ftrengthened by tonic medicines, nouriffiing diet, and
gentle exercife. If the accumulation of water becomes
very great, it may be eafily evacuated, by making a
puncture into the belly, and introducing a pipe as in. the
1 E R Y.
565-
laft cafe. Mr Lawrence has gone into the miftake ge¬
nerally committed, of fuppofing that little drink ffiould
be given in cafes of dropfy. It is now well afeertained
that moderate drinking confiderably increafes the effica¬
cy of diuretic medicines.
Difeafes.
Chap. VI. Of Anomalous Difeafes.
1. Diabetes. Profufe Staling, or Piffing-evil.
324
It fometimes happens, that horfes or cattle make a Profufe (tal-
much greater quantity of urine than is natural 3 fo that huS-
the quantity evacuated exceeds the quantity of fluid
drunk by the animal. Probably this difeafe occurs
more frequently among cattle than among horfes,
though it is fcarcely mentioned by the writers on cattle
medicine, and the account that is given of it by veteri¬
nary waiters is extremely imperfeft. Mr Blaine de-
feribes the urine, as being five or fix times the natural
quantity, as milky or watery, and depofiting a fedi-
ment which has the tafte and appearance of fugar. As
we have never obferved a cafe of this difeafe in horfes
or cattle, we cannot fay how far this defeription of the
urine is correft 3 but if the urine evacuated by thefe
animals in diabetes refembles the human urine in the
fame difeafe, it is clear and almoft colourlefs, has the
fmell and tafte of honey, depofits little fedimeut, but
on being evaporated, leaves a thick fubftance like
treacle.
Confiderable thirft accompanies this difeafe 3 and
when it has continued long, the animal becomes ex¬
tremely weak and emaciated. The ikin is ufually dry
and harftr, the pulfe is fmall and quick, and the appe¬
tite in the early part of the difeafe is much increafed.
This complaint commonly proves fatal 3 few inftances
of a recovery having been obferved in man 3 and we
do not know that any fuccefsful cafe in any of the do-
meftic animals is on record.
The caufes of diabetes are very obfeure, efpecially in
the inferior animals 3 it feems to be the confequence of
great weaknefs, and fome unufual aftion of the digeft-
ive organs. The various theories that have been given
in explanation of this difeafe, as far as relates to the hu¬
man body, will be noticed in the article Medicine
and if we ftiall meet with an opportunity of examining
the difeafe in horfes or cattle, we will endeavour to give
a more accurate account of it, under Veterinary
Art.
In the treatment of diabetes in horfes, &c, the me¬
thod propofed by Dr Rollo for the cure of this difeafe
in man, has been recommended, and we believe adopted,
by Mr Coleman 3 with what fuccefs rve cannot fay.
This method confifts in making the animal abftain as
much as poffible from vegetable food 3 and giving him
broth and balls made of fleffi, mixed up with pafte of
wheat flour. He Ihould have as little drink as poffible.
Aftringent remedies are commonly employed in thefe
caffis, fuch as Japan earth, alum, white vitriol, muriate
of iron, oak bark. See receipts, N° 29.
2. Black-Quarter, Quarter-Ill, or Black
Stale.
There is a difeafe that proves very fatal in fame dif- Quaaeniik'
tnfls to calves or cattle of a year to two old, the na¬
ture of which is • little underftood, but it feems nearly
allied.
VQ ft
6
ifeafes.
F A R R
allied to the Hawhes cr Hacks, defcribed in N° 428.
IVxr Lawrence conliders tlig diieafe as appearing under
various forms, to which he gives the following names }
Jhcwt oj blood; vomit of blood; blood in the back;
blood in the legs, or crateuch; blain in the tongue, or
overflow of blood; Jlriking-in, or rifng of the blood-,
highatn, or ironflriking; joint murrain, or garget ; black
quarter ; quarter-evil; black leg.
We have given as a fynonym the name of black
fpald, becaufe we confider the difeafe fo called in Scot¬
land, as nearly, if not entirely, the fame with the black
quarter of the writers on cattle medicine. As we have
not feen the difeale, we frail copy what Mr Lavyrence
Lays of it, in his treatife on cattle.
“ All our animals, oxen, freep, and pigs, I have ob-
ferved, are iubjedl to fanguineous effulion or overflow of
the blood, on being put in a low and weak Hate, to
rich or fucculent keep. They very commonly drop on
a hidden, and die in the blood, as it is termed ; when the
carcafes putrify almoft immediately, and are totally loft.
Pigs which die in this way, have, their Ikins fo univer-
lally fuflufed with the blood, that they appear enve¬
loped, or rather ftirouded in Morocco leather. In oxen,
chiefly young cattle, nature commonly finds a vent for
the difeafe, in an eruption on the leg, quarter, or (boul¬
der, attended with pneumatofs or a collection of air in
the cellular membrane, or, as it is commonly termed, be¬
tween the flefti and the (kin j wdience the crepitating or
crackling noife, which is heard on preflure. Another
termination of the diieafe, is, by a depofition of matter
upon the joints, whence the term of joint garget or
murrain. I know not whether I am correCt in referring
the crateuch to this clafs, which is faid, in Scotland, to
be a fwelling and lamenefs in the legs 5 but the old
writers particularly mention blood in the legs. Blane or
garget in the tongue, attended with inflammation and
veficles or bladders in that part, is faid to be a fymp-
tom of the difeafe, and alfo to arife from heat and fatigue.
“ Lhis diieafe has fwept off great numbers of yearling
and two-year-old cattle, and become indeed endemial
in certain diftriCls, where any fuch fcourge was un¬
known, it is faid, previoufly to the introduCHon of arti¬
ficial grafles, with the full feeding on which the animals
become furfeited : thus the improvident ufe of good
produces evil. The breeders being alarmed at the ra¬
vages occafioned by this murrain, which generally ear¬
ned off the forwarded and bed of the cattle, no won¬
der that the fertile brains of cow-doctors, were put into
inteftine motion, and that the ideas of the favourite en¬
gines, the knife or fire, were whirled uppermoft. In
efleft, fome (kilful leech introduced the following mod
extraordinary operation, as a preventive of the difeafe
in quedion} which I apprehend in the contemplation,
either of phyfiology or common-fenfology. could have
no better prqphyla&ic or preventive view, than (having
the animal would have ^ "which I beg leave to recom¬
mend in the dead, as at lead free from cruelty. The
ill-ftarred bead is cad, bound to a ftake, all his four
legs are cut open from the claws upwards to the height
of feveral inches, in order to find among the tendons
and ligaments a ftrong blood veffel of a bluifli colour,
which faid offending veffel, guilty of the original fin of
producing joint murrain, being caught with a crooked
needle, is cut away. It is great pity, for the fake of
hypothetical uniformity, that the above-faid blue blood-
I E It Y. Part VI.
veffel had not been called a worm, (nice the brains of Difeafes.
fo many of our cattle folk have been infelted wdth —“v J
worms from very high antiquity
After much jocofe, but rather coarfe ridicule of me-^, ‘cln/T*
thods that have been propofed for the cure of this di- p. cg^. ’
feafe, Mr Lawrence thus proceeds. “ Prevention of
this malady is the only cure worth notice : becaufe, af¬
ter the attack, the very nature of the cafe renders all
remedy either uncertain, or of very little profit, even if
fuccefsful, on account of the expence of time and mo¬
ney. With this view7 the young cattle mud not be
pulhed fo forward in condition ; and indeed the fame
precaution may be ufeful in fome degree, with refpedt
to the full aged. A piece of lliort or inferior keep
fliould be referved, as a digefing place, in which the
cattle may be occafionally turned to empty and exercife
themfelves. Thofe obferved to advance very fad may
be bled monthly for feveral months : of the efficacy
of which practice, howrever, I have by no means fo
good an opinion as that of giving medicines which
prevent internal obftruftion. I am wxll aware of the
difficulty, or rather total impratticablity, of fuch mea-
fures "with a number of cattle in the field, or I am con¬
vinced, that occafional purges, or alterative medicines,
would prevent thofe difeafes which feem to take their
rife in over repletion and accumulation. Six drachms,
daily, of equal parts, fulphur and antimony, in fine
powder, would be fufficient for a young bead $ but to
be of any permanent ufe, it mud be continued at lead
a month j or fait might be of ufe. Rowelling alfo
might be an efficacious preventative. Keep twro rowels
or fetons open in each bead during feveral months.” *
In the 5th vol. of the Farmers Magazine, is the f Hid.
following communication from a practical farmer re-P- Ss8<
fpefling the cure of this complaint.
“ The firft cure for this complaint that I ever faw
performed, was on an ox of four and a half years of age.
As he was going in the plough, I obferved him a little
lame in one of the hinder feet. At firft I thought he
had trampled upon a done 5 but as it dill grew worfe,
I foon fufpe&ed it was the quarter-ill the more fo, as
there was a good year-old died of that diforder three
wTeeks before. By the time he wTas got to the byre,
the crackling between the (kin and the flelh was very
perceptible on the top joint of the off-fide hinder leg.
As our blackfmith had fome (kill among live dock, he
was inftantly fent for. The firft thing he did was to
take a little blood from a vein in the neck. He then
pulled the (kin from the flefti on the fide that feemed
mod pained, dill keeping the bead walking as much
as poflible. He then caufed cold wTater to be poured in
large quantities on the part affe£led, dill rubbing and
keeping the (kin loofe on the affe&ed part. Finding the
(kin to adhere much to the flefti, he then made three cuts
"with a penknife, two inches long, into which he rubbed
fait and water. In this manner he continued four
hours •, the one time driving him, then pouring on
water, robbing in fait, and loofening the (kin from the
flefti. By this time he was not near fo cripple, and
began to take his food.- We were ordered, however,
to keep him in motion all night, and in the morning
he v7as well for his food, and never had any more figns
of the difeafe. Since that time I have folknved the
blackfmith’s pratdice, and have often been fuecefsful.
Only indead of pouring water on the place, I faften a
rope
Part VI.
FARR
Difeafes. rope about the beaft’s head, and take it to a deep pool,
caufing it to fwim up and down, and drive it frequent-
ly, giving it an ounce or half an ounce of laudanum,
according to the fize or age of the bend, but I never
did cut the Ikin. I have good reafon to believe that
the above method has been the means of curing feveral
of my young cattle, as I never faw any that took that
difeafe, and no means ufed for their recovery, but died*,
thofe I opened, had all the blood collefted in the af¬
fected quarter. I find it more difficult to cure in the
fore quarters than in the hinder, and if it feize the
bowels, I hardly think that it will cure by any
526
Rot in
flieep.
c 557
symptoms
of general
xot.
3. On the Rot in Sheep. General or True Rot.
Hydropic Rot.
The name of the rot in fheep, and the ravages that
are annually made by it among the flocks of mod dreep
did rifts, are familiar to every one ^ but little pains have
been taken to fix the precife meaning of the word, and
the particular difeafe, to denote which it fhould be ex-
clufively employed. Some of thofe who appear to have
paid particular attention to the fubjeft, have yet follow¬
ed the example of drepherds and farmers, in confound¬
ing under the name of rot, feveral difeafes which differ
confiderably in their nature, caufes, and method of
treatment. Two medical men who have lately publidi-
ed; the one, Dr Dickfon, on the General Management
of Sheep, as connefted with praftical agriculture j the
other, Dr Harrifon, on this particular fubjeft of the
rot, have dill confidered it as one difeafe. In the fe-
cond appendix to Mr Findlater’s Survey of Peebles,
and in the fourth number of the Edinburgh Medical
and Surgical Journal, the didinftion of the rot into
three different morbid affeftions, is, however, clearly
marked 5 and there feems no doubt that thefe three dif¬
eafes are very fimilar to confumption, hepatitis or in¬
flammation of the liver, and fcurvy, in the human body.
The firfl of thofe which we have briefly noticed in N°
490. under the name of pulmonic rot, is diflinguifhed by
cough, heftic fever, waiting of fleih, and in many cafes
by the formation of a watery fwelling below the chin.
The fecond, mentioned by the name of hepatic rot in
N° 493. is charafterized by a degree of fever accom¬
panied by inflammation, and thickening of the outer coat
of the liver, or feme difeafed date of the biliary dufts or
pipes, connefted with the prefence of flukes in the liver,
if not fometimes produced by them. The third fpecies
has been called general rot, as in this the whole fyflem
is more or lefs affefted ; true rot, becaufe it appears to
be the mod common of the three, and to be that to
which the name feems more peculiarly applicable ; and
hydropic rot 3 becaufe, if the animal is differed to live,
the difeafe commonly terminates in partial or general
dropfy. This fpecies is what we are now to confider 3
and after having given as clear an account of it as we
can collect from the deferiptions that have been lately
publifhed, we ihall make a few obfervations on the
caufes, treatment, and prevention of the rot in general,
endeavouring as much as podible to diferiminate between
the three varieties.
It is probable that the fird fymptoms of the rot have
feldorn been obferved. The earlied marks of the difeafe
of which writers give an account, are, falling off in
I E R Y.
fleffi, and an unufual dullnefs and heavinefs. The flefli
feels loofe and flabby, efpecially about the loins 3 and if
preffure is made about the hips, a crackling is fome¬
times perceptible. It is faid that thofe who are accuf-
tomed to handle the ears and legs of flieep, may in the
earlied dage of rot difeover fymptoms of love fever, but
probably this is the cafe only in pulmonic and hepatic
rot. Now, or foon afterwards, the countenance looks
pale, as do the gums and tongue. On parting the
fleece, the Ikin is found to have lod its fine rofy colour,
and is become of a pale red. As the difeafe advances,
the ikin appears dappled with yellow and black fpots.
I he eyes have a peculiar appearance 3 they lofe their
ludre, and look like the eyes of dead fifli. Mr Find-
later lays, that in Tweeddale, the principal mark of rct-
tennefs is taken from the appearance of the eye in the
corner next the nofe, when the eyeball is turned fo as
to look away from the nofe 3 as the fleih that adheres
to the eyeball below the eyelids, in the corner next the
nofe, is in a found ftieep of a florid red colour 3 where¬
as in a rotten fheep, the flefli is of a dull appearance,
and of a yellowifli red colour, refembling that of a rot¬
ten egg, when the wffiite and the yolk are confounded
together. When the difeafe has continued long, the
breath becomes fetid, the gums fpongy, the teeth and
fometimes the horns loofe, the animal is commonly af¬
fefted with a fcounng, the fleece looks torn and ragged,
and the wTool feparates from the fkin with a flight pull.
Great wreaknefs and emaciation attend the latter ftage
of the diieafe 3 and thefe continually increaie till the
animal dies, or till dropfy comes on, which always ter¬
minates fatally.
1 he principal appearance on difleftion is prefented
by the liver, which is found in various Hates, according
to the progrefs or feverity of the difeafe. When a flieep
is killed a few days after contrafting the rot, the thin
edge of the fmall lobe of the liver appears of a tranf-
parent V’hite or bluifh colour, and this colour fpreads to
a greater extent according to the feverity of the com¬
plaint. Sometimes it does not extend more than an
inch from the edge 3 at others it occupies a confiderable
part of the lobe. In fevere cafes, the whole external
coat of the liver is found difeafed, commonly affuming
an opaque colour interfperfed with lines or patches of a
darker red. The upper part of the liver is fometimes
found fpeckled like the back of a toad, to wffiich it is
faid to bear a ftriking refemblance. Very commonly
the liver is found full of hard knots, and fometimes
there are ulcers in various parts of it. Are not forae
of thefe appearances peculiar to the hepatic rot ?
When the liver of a Iheep affefted with the rot is boiled,
it lofes its confiftency, and breaks down into fmall pie¬
ces 3 whereas it is wrnll known that a found liver be¬
comes by the fame procefs firm and folid.
When flieep have died fuddenly in the firfl: ftage of
this diforder, there may commonly be difeovered a
quantity of wheyifti-coloured fluid in the cavity of the
belly 3 and in thefe cafes the outfide of the liver is ge<
nerally covered ivith a coat of coagulable lymph. This
is one of the appearances deferibed by Dr Harrifon3 and
is fimilar to what is often obferved in the belly of
animals that have died of dropfy in the belly.
In ftating the caufes and treatment of general rot,
we cannot perhaps do better than copy wh-Jt is given
on this fubjeft in Mr Findlater’s furvey of Peebles, to
which
567
tJifeafes.
S2S
568
Difeafes.
* Findlater s
Survey,
|). 404.
$29
Farr
which Tve have already been fo much obliged. “ It
arifes from deficient or bad aliment, whether the food
itfelf be bad and fcanty, or the animal be incap¬
able of digefting it properly. It is moil common from
the former caufe, want of food j and the difeafe is
much the fame with fcurvy among the human race.
In addition to thefe caufes, rvhatever tends to deprefs
the fpirits, frequently excites, or at lead exafperates, the
malady. It is faid that foldiers in a garrifon have been
known to be feized with the fcurvy on hearing bad
news • and I doubt not but terrifying (beep with dogs,
or other means, may produce or aggravate this difeafe.
We may hence fee what mifchief a fox chafe, or any
exhibition of that fort, is calculated to bring upon a
flock of flreep. The difeafe is alfo faid to be produced
by feeding upon watered grafs; and hence ihepherds, in
many parts of Scotland, are careful to keep off their
iheep from the tender grafs produced by the occafional
overflowing of rivulets. Feeding alfo in marlhy and
damp paftures, is known to be a powerful caufe of the
rot.
“ The only means of cure are, a fupply of good and
wholefome food, and invigorating the ftomach by per¬
mitting the animal to feed on thofe ftimulating and aro¬
matic herbs which are agreeable to its tafte. It is be¬
lieved that on dry fweet paftures, where there is a fuffi-
cient quantity of furze and broom, juniper, and other
fhrubs that are palatable to Iheep, the rot is feldom
heard of. When ground is fown down for ftieep paf-
ture, parfley, thyme, peppermint, and other aromatic
herbs, ftrould be fown with the grafs feeds, as thefe
plants ferve both to prevent and to cure the rot. In
, addition to thefe means of cure, every thing that tends
' to annoy or deprefs the animal in its weakly ftate ought
to be avoided.*
The following fads with refpeft to the production of
rot, confidered as a general difeafe, are chiefly taken from
Dr Harrifon’s Inquiry.
Poor, clayey, and loamy lands are moft fubjeCt to
rot.
Grounds that are always dry, or alwrays under water,
and fuch as are always fufficiently wet to preferve a con-
ftant running of water, were never known to fuller from
the rot.
Ponds of living water are equally fafe; but when at¬
tempts to drain lands have been made, and have not
'fully fucceeded, ftieep which feed on fuch lands are
very much expofed to the rot.
Grounds newly laid down for pafture, or ploughed
fields that have been exhaufted by repeated crops, where
the fward is thin, and where the water remains in
plafties for want of proper outlets, are peculiarly fubjeft
to the rot.
Marfhes that are overflowed by the fea, and boggy
fituations, efpecially in Ireland, are feldom known to
rot.
Lands that have been limed, and many foils that are
.chiefly compofed of calcareous matter, are confidered as
very likely to produce the rot.
Ewes that are with lamb, or are giving fuok, are
lefs liable than other ftieep to be affecled with the
rot.
Eight caufes have been afligned for the production
of rot, viz.
j. A vitiated dew. It is ftated in the furvey of Lin-
1
I E R Y.
Part VI.
colnlhire, that a ftiepherd, who when young, was (hep- DifeaCes.
herd’s boy to an old man that lived at Nettlam near
Lincoln, a place famous for the rot, declared his per-
fuafion that iheep took the rot, only in a morning be¬
fore the dew was well off. His mailer’s ftiepherd al¬
ways kept his flock in fold till the dew was gone, and
with only this attention his Iheep wane kept found when
all his neighbours loft their flocks. Dr Harrifon re¬
marks, that if this caufe were juft, the rot fliould appear
equally on all lands.
2. The difeafe has been attributed to a gruft or ear¬
thy fediment that adheres to the grafs after wet wea¬
ther, or after the overflowing of running water.
3. It has been fuppofed to be owing to the luxuriant
and quick growing herbage that is produced in hot
moift feafons. But all luxuriant paftures do not pro¬
duce the rot.
4. It has been attributed to the ftieep grazing on
fome particular herbs, fuch as the butterwort (ftingui-
cula vulgaris'), the white rot (Jiydrocotyle vulgaris'),
round-leaved fundew [drofera rotundifolia), and long¬
leaved fundew {drofera longifolia) j but thefe plants do
not grow on every rotting foil.
5. The diforder has been imputed to flukes in the li¬
ver. We have already ftated our opinion, that flukes
may produce the hepatic rot.
6. The rot has been fuppofed to depend on the in-
feClion of Jheep-pox. This opinion feems to have arf-
fen from a confuiion of terms.
7. M. Daubenton confidered the difeafe to be produ¬
ced by poverty of food, and too much water. There
is no doubt that thefe caufes commonly produce the
laft fpecies of rot which we have mentioned.
8. Dr Harrifon is of opinion that the rot is always Qr
generated by the exhalation or effluvia produced by the rifon’s theo-
aCiion of the fun’s rays on foils that are partially cover- ry of the
ed with ftagnant water. After adducing a number ofrot,
ingenious arguments in fupport of his opinion, Dr Har¬
rifon fums up the amount of his doClrine in the follow¬
ing manner.
“ From the various circumftances enumerated, I
think I am juftified in attributing the rot in flieep and
other animals to paludal effluvia j but with refpeCt to
their nature and conftitution, it is very difficult to form
any rational judgment, as they have hitherto eluded
the moft fubtle and delicate inquiries. It muft, how¬
ever, be admitted,y? caufa latet, vis eji notijfima •, and con-
fequently the fubjeCl, from its great importance to the
public in general, is entitled to a ferious inveftigation.
“ Without heat and moifture, no deleterious vapours
can be generated; and yet it is equally certain, that
both thefe caufes are infuffleient to produce either a re¬
current fever, or the rot, fince they are confined to parti¬
cular fituations. Other auxiliaries are therefore necef-
fary; and I am inclined to believe that vegetable or
earthy particles, and probably both, are required, as well
as heat and moifture, to conftitute the noxious ema¬
nations or gaffes called miafmata paludum.
“ Probably it will be found, on further inquiry, that a
great variety of animal and vegetable effluvia are extri¬
cated in different places j and that many diforders fhould
be attributed to them, which are at this time imputed to
other caufes.
“ Poifonous vapours are extremely active and hidden
in their effects, of which proofs may be found in the
\ hiftorv
Index.
Difeafes. fiiftory of every Contagious and endemic diforder. We
have, therefore, no reafon to be furprifed, that fheep
and animals are fo immediately affe&ed by palturing in
moift places, where thefe effluvia are copioufly produced
in hot weather. Other canfes operate flowly, and re¬
quire fuch a long-continued application, that I do not
think the rot can be induced by them, though I am of
opinion, that by occafioning general weaknefs, they
make the conftitution more fufceptible, and lay it more
open to morbid impreflions. In the human body, we
know that fatigue, cold, faffing, and other debilitating
caufes, are efficacious auxiliaries, although of themfelves
they are totally inadequate to produce any contagious
diforder. They, therefore, feem to contribute equally,
and in the fame manner, to facilitate the operations
of marfh miafmatk, upon the human body and other
* Harr if on animals ,
tht Rot, Jt is faid, that for a fhort time after contracting the
rot, fheep feed more heartily than ufual; and for this
reafon, butchers and graziers, when they wifh to fatten
fheep fpeedily for the market, not unfrequently turn
them into a rotting pafture.
The prevention of the i'ot will be eafily fuggefled by
attending to the fads and obfervations that have juft
been given, as it confiff s in avoiding the caufes that feem
to produce it, and avoiding or corredfing the foil where
FARRIERY.
p-
it is found molt readily to take place. “ It is confident¬
ly alferted, that decoCfions of bitter herbs, with fait,
have frequently preferved ffieep from tin? rot. Salt is
fuppofed to conftitute a part of Fleet’s celebrated nof-
trum j and we know that bitters are defervedly recom¬
mended to prevent intermittents, the dyfentery and other
diforders, which originate from exhalations.
“ In Oxfordfhire, Dr Lower has frequently known fix
or feven fpoonfuls of ftrong brine, and ftale urine, with
foot fteeped in it, to be given with great fuccefs. This
is done at fpring and fall of the year, when the dewT is
counted the mofl dangerous. This courfe of phyfic is
continued eight or ten days, or till the ffieep eat their
meat heartily 5 and if they wrere taken in time, there,
feldom died any in a whole flock. For the fame pur-
pofe, Ellis recommends the following medicine in his
practical hufbandry.
“ Take a peck or better of malt, and mafh it as though
you would brew it into ale or beer, and make eleven or
twelve gallons of liquor ; then boil in' it a quantity of
fhepherds purfe, comfrey, fage, plantain, penny-royal,
wormwood, and bloodwort 5 add yeaft, and afterwards
fait, to the mixture } then turn the liquor into a velfel.
After April comes in, give feven or eight fpoonfuls to
every ffieep, once in the week, if the weather be wet j
and if dry, not fo often
5^9
Difeafes.
* Harrifon
on tht Rot,
P-41-
ERRATA.—N° 84.
N° 93.
N® 518.
We have inadvertently hinted that Mr Fsrc n’s work on farriery has neither index nor
table of contents. It has no table of contents, but it has an index.
For 1803, read 1805.
For Trot, read Fret.
A.
Abortion, n° 462
Abfor bents, .
Abforption, morbid fymptoms of, 304
Abfyrtus, a writer on farriery, 27
Age of a horfe, mode of afcertaining 101
Alexander's, Mr, probang, 403
Aloes, 273, a.
Alteratives, 285
Alum, 281, a. 293, a.
Amaurojis, 323
Ammonia, 267, a. 285, a. 293, b.
Ammoniac, gum, 265, a.
Anatomy neceffary to a farrier, 13
Aneurifm,
Anger-berries.
Anifefeed,
Anodynes,
receipts for,
Anta'halines,
Antimonial powder,
Antimony,
butter of,
calx or oxide of.
431
S2^
285, c.
289
290
293» h
263, b. 267 d.
263, a. 267, c.
293»
267, e
Antifeptics, 285, 293, a, d, k, /.
Antipafmodics, 287
receipts for, 288
Anxiety, , x .
Vol. VIII. Part II.
INDEX.
Appetite, lofs of, N° 416
Aromatics, 285
Arteries, wounds of, 430
Afafcetida, 265, b.
Afarabacca, 275, a.
Afcarides, 413
Afcites, 3 23
AJlringents, 28 r
receipts for, 282
B.
i?<7c£-raking, 257
Anew, clap, or ftrain of, 356
rupture of, 360
Balls, directions for preparing, 252
adminiftering, 253
cordial, 286
Balfam of copaiva, 265, d. 269, a. 285 a.
peru, 265 c.
fulphur, 265, e.
Bars of the horfe’s hoof,. 124
Barbadoes tar, 265,^ 285, e.
Barret's work on farriery, 39
Barley, 277, a.
Barm, _ 293, /.
Bartlett's wrork on farriery 64
Bats, 318
Bays, oil of, 295,/.
Bijlort,
Black quarter, or black fpald,
Bladder, inflammation of,
Blaine's inftruCHons for ftudying
farriery,
works on veterinary me¬
dicine,
Bleeding,
place of performing,
cafes requiring,
cautions refpeCting,
danger of a ligature in,
the blood to be faved,
fecuring the orifice,
in the temporal artery,
topical,
Blindnefs,
partial,
total.
N° 281, b.
525
502
moon,
Blijlers,
Blown in cattle,
Blundevill's wTork on horfes,
■Sof-fpavin,
Boardman's dictionary,
Boa^-founder,
Bones of the horfe’s fcot,
Bots,
4C
9i
159
161
'65
166
160
162
163
164
167
3X9
321
322
324
285,/.
404
56
366
83
499
114
4r9- 4 r
Bourgelat's
57°
Bourgelat's works on farriery, N° 36
Bowels of the horfe defcribed, 107
Bracken's works on farriery, 63
Brain, inflammation of, 483
Braxy, watery, 446
dry, _ 498
Brockltjbifs works on murrain, 66
defcription of do. 469
account of the appear¬
ances on difleiftion, 470
method of treating it, 471
Bruifes, _ 345
Buffin'1 s natural hiftory, 37
Bur doji's works on farriery, 57
Burgundy pitch, 285, h.
Burjlennefs, 419
Byre, feeding, Mr Hunter’s, 236
conftru&ion of, 206
Caecum of the horfe, 111
Calculus, 448
Calomel, 273, i. 291, c.
Calves, mode of rearing in ElTex, 235
Camper's works, 5.4
Camphor, 267, b. 287, a.
Canker, 385
of the ear in dogs, 397
Cantharides, 285,^/!
Canine madnefs. See Hydrophobia,
Capjicum, 285, i.
Capulet, or capped hock, 368
Carr away, 285, k.
Cafjia, 285, /.
Cajling, 158
Cajlor oil, 273, b. 291, a.
Cajlration, 18 x
when bell performed, 182
CataraB, 314
unfuccefsfully treated, 484
Catarrh, 485
epidemic, 486
Cattle, food of, 230
medicine, rude Hate of, 88
Caufiles, 293? *6
Celfus, writes on farriery, 25
Chaberds writings on farriery, 46
Chamomile, 277, b.
Chaps, 34 x
Charcoal, 293, d.
Chemical remedies, 293
receipts for, 294
Chemijlry neceflary to a farrier, 15
Cho aking in cattle, 402
Circulation, morbid fymtoms of, 305
Clark'’s, James, works on horfes, 68
method of Ihoeing, 138
Bracey, paper on bots, 7 8
Cleanlincfs, neceffity of, 203,239
Clothing of horfes, 204
Cloves, 285, m.
Clyjlers, diregions for preparing, 256
adminilfering, 257
Coffin bone, J19
FARRIERY.
Cold, common, N° 485
Coleman, Mr, appointed profeflbr of
the veterinary college, 75
works of 77
artificial frog, 156
method of treating wounds
in the joints, 351
Cohn of the horfe, 112
Colic, 518
inflammatory, 497
Columella’’s writings on farriery, 24
ContraBed ieeX, 383
Cooling remedies, 279
receipts for, 280
Cordials, 285
Cords, 375
Corns, 303
Coronary ligament, 1 29
Cornea, opacity of, 325
Cojlivenefs, 437
Cough, chronic, 436
Cows, delivery of, 187
London mode of feeding, 237
Coru-houfes, 206
pox, _ _ 478
originates in greafe, 470
Cropping, " 179
Crujl of the horfe’s hoof, 1 22
Calley's work on cattle, 89
Cummin, 285, o.
Curb, 372
Cutting, . ' 391
D.
Daniel's Rural Sports, 94
remarks on the worming
of dogs, _ 517
Dark ages, Hate of farriery in the, 29
Delivery, 186
of corvs in crofs pofitiorvs, 187
in cafes of preternatural
obflrudion, 188
Denny's work on horfes, 80
Depreffion of fpirit, 313
Diabetes, 3 24
Diarrhoea, 432
Dickfon's practical agriculture, 93
Diet of domeftic animals, 218
Digejlion, morbid fymptoms of, 303
Difeafes of man and animals fimilar, 10
claflification of 312
Diftemper in dogs, 487
Diuretics, 269
receipts for, 270
Docking, firlf ufed in England, 176
abfurdity of, 177
how performed, x 7 8
Dogs, food of, 238
vegetable food, 240
oatmeal, 241
barley-meal, ' 242
Dog kennels. See Kennel.
Downing's work on cattle, 87
Drenches, directions for preparing, 234
adminiller-
ing> 235
Dreffing of horfe?,
Dropfy of the head,
of the cheft,
belly,
Drowjinefs,
Dyfentery,
E.
Index.
N° 204
521
322
523
31?
499
Ears of horfes Ihould not be trim¬
med, 180
Egg*, 293, a.
Elecampane, 295> b.
Emetics, 26 3
powder for dogs, 264
Emetic tartar, 263, a. 267, d.
Emollients, 277
receipts for, 278
Enquiries to be made by farriers, 309
Epilepfy, - 3x1
Epfpajlics. See Stimulants.
Ep/om fait, 273, /.
Errhines, 273
Effex mode of rearing calves, 233
Ether, 287, b.
Eumelus, a w riter on farriery, 27
Excretion, morbid fymptoms of, 307
Exercife, 248
ExpeBorants, 263
receipts for, 266
Eyes, inflammation of, 484
glafs, „ 323
lound, marks of, 3 20
F.
Falling of the fundament, 420
of the penis, 460
w'omb, 461
Ealfe quarter, 399
Farcy, 304
wTater, 320
Farriery, origin of the term, 1
extended application of, 3
defined, 4
importance of,
to farriers,
to farmers and country
gentlemen, 7
to medical men, 8
much indebted to medical
men, ^
knowledge requillte for the
praClice of, j 2
inftruCiions for fludying, 19
means of improving, 20, 21
early hiltory of, obfeure, 23
progrefs of, in France , 46
on the reft of
the conti-
. neijL. 47, 54
m Britain, 33
Fatigue, 3x6
Feeders of dogs, duties of, 238
Feeding, foul, 417
Fennel, K 285,
Eeron's works on farriery, 84
Fever, inflammatory, 464
putrid, 463
Findlater's
Index.
Findlater's furvey of Peebles, N° 92
remarks on fheep belter, 109
Firing, 174
ufes of, I75
Flux, 452
Fly in ftieep, 33^
Fo§--ficknefs 4°4
Fomentations, 261
Food of horfes, 219
beans, 221
carrots, 222
times of feeding, 223
hay, 2 24
cut draw, 227
ground com, 228
of cattle, 230
dogs, _ 238
preparation of, 243
adminiftration of, 245
Foot of the horfe, anatomy of, p. 443
its importance, N° 97
rot in flieep, 3®7
Fouls, 386
Founder, 378
body, 499
Foxglove, 389, a.
FraBures, 361
of the haunch bone, 362
Freeman's work on the foot of the
horfe, 85
Fret, 518
Frog of the horfe’s foot, 1 23
does not fupport the weight of
the horfe, 126
importance of its receiving pref-
fure. 127
Coleman’s artificial, 156
Fundamen,. : ailing of, 420
FARRIERY.
G.
Gadfly, bite cf,
Galangal,
Galls,
Gamboge,
Garble.
338
283, a,
281, c.
273, d. 291, b.
466
GarfaulCs work on horfes, 40
G-arlic, 265, g.
Generation, morbid fymptoms of, 308
Gentian, 283, b.
Gibfari's works on farriery, 62
Giddinefs, 3 18
Ginger, 276, a. 285, r.
Glanders, 5°5
Glafs, 295, c.
eyes, 323
Glauber's falts, 273, ■£.
Goelicke's work on murrains, 48
Goulard's extraft, 379, e.
Grain, whole, danger of giving too
much of it to horfes at once, 2 2b
Grains of paradife, 285, s.
Greafe, 482
molten, 499
Grogginefs, 377
Gullior^ 518
Gum ammoniac,
arabic,
dragant,
Gutta ferena.
H.
N° 265, a.
277, c.
277,^
323
Habitations for domeilic animals, 190
Harrifon on the rot, 95
theory of the rot in ftieep, 530
Hartmann, 53
Ha/lfer's work on flieep, ji
Haw of the eye, 484
Hay, heated, much reliflied by horfes
^ and cattle, 224
Flellebore, white, 285, t.
Hemlock, • 289, b.
Henbane, » 289, c.
Hidebound, 328
Hierocles, a writer on farriery, 2 7
Hi/lory of farriery, importance of, 2 2
Hocks, or haukes, 428
Hoof of the horfe, 121
Hoofe, 436
Hop, 2S9, d.
Horfe, fkeleton of the, 99
age of, means of afeertain-
ing, 101
mufcles of, J02
ftomach of, 104
food of, 219
chefnut, 283, c.
radifh, 285, u.
Haven in cattle, 404
Hunter's feeding byre, 236
Hu-zard's writings on farriery, 46
Hydrophobia, 51 2
fymptoms of in dogs, as
related by Meynell, 313
progrefs of, among a
pack of hounds, 314
effect of immerflon in
curing, 515
prevention of, 516, 517
Flygeiology, importance of, 17
I.
Jalap, *73» *•
Japan earth, 281, e.
Jaundice, 441
Jaw, locked, 509
Jejunum and ilium of the horfe little
different from the human, 10.9
Jenner's account of cow-pox, 478
Immerfon, effefts of, in curing canine
madnel’s, 515
Inanition, 429
Indifference, 459
Indigefion, acute, 406
Inflammation of the brain, 483
eye, 484
lungs, 489
liver, 49 2
ftomach, 496
inteftines, 497
kidneys, 501
Inflammation of the bladder,
Influenza,
In/enflbility,
Inttflines of the horfe, fmall,
large,
inflammation of.
Iron,
muriate of,
Itch,
K.
Kennel, conftruction of,
duke of Richmond’s,
fize of
lodging room of,
doors of,
inner court of,
Kidneys, inflammation of,
Kino,
L.
Lafoffe's, fen. work on farriery,
method of fhoeing,
jun. wTorks on farriery,
Lakedamw,
Lamenefls,
Lampas,
Lard, hog’s
Lawrence's, John, propofal for im¬
proving veterinary prac
tice,
works,
Rich, works on horfes,
Lawflon's food for horfes and cattle,
Layard's works on murrain,
account of do.
Lead, fugar of,
wdiite,
Leannefls,
Lice and fleas,
Ligaments of the horfe’s foot,
injuries of,
Ligature in bleeding, danger of,
Lights, rifing of the,
Lime,
Linne's Pan Suecicus,
Lintfleed,
Liquorice,
Liver, inflammation of,
Lofts above (tables, improper,
Logwood,
Loqfenefs,
Louvet,
571
N° 502
486
31?
jo8
no
497
?8l, d.
ib.
33°
210
211
212
214
215
216
Sox
281,/.
48
*35
39
496
343
401
277, e.
21
86
82
229
67
47 2
279, d.
295, d.
422
335
123
355
160
Loij's experiments on the connexion
of greafe with cow-pox,
Lumbrici,
Lungs, inflammation of the,
253> *’•
52
377,/
277,
492
201
281,^.
452
480
479
4x2
489
M.
Mallenders and fallenders,
Mange in horfes,
cattle,
flieep,
dogs,
treatment of
Markham's work on farriery,
Marjhmallo ws,
4 C 2
327
330
33*
332
333
334
58
*77, h-
Materia
S72
Materia mcdica, knowledge of, necef-
fary to a farrier, N° 18
Medical knowledge ufeful to a farrier, 11
Medicines for domeftic animals, 249
not to be given to horfes
unnecefiarily, 297
Megrim, 4^3
Mercury, 263, c. 276, b. 285, v.
red, nitrate of, 49
Meynell's account of the appearances
of madnefs in dogs, 513
Mint, 285 ss.
Mi/cellaneous remedies, 295
receipts, 296
Molten greafe, 499
Monro's pliable tube, 405
Jl/oo/z-blindnefs, 324, 484
Morecroft's work on fhoeing, 90
method of (hoeing, 155
Morfoundering, 485
Motion, morbid fymptoms of, 302
Mouth, fore, 399
wounds in 400
Murrain, appearance of, in Europe, 33
hiilory of, 466
appearance of, in Britain 467
account of by Brocklelby, 469
by Layard, 472
caffes of, 473
means of checking the pro-
grefs of, _ 474
queries refpedling, 475
Mufcles of the horfe enumerated, 102
extremities, table ef, 103
Muftard, 28s, a, a.
Myrrh, 283, e.
N.
Narcotics. See Anodynes.
Natural hitlory ufeful to a farrier, 14
Navicular bone, 118
NewcaJHe's, duke of, work on horfes, 60
Nitre, 26^, f. 269, c. 279, a.
O.
Oah bark, 28f, h. 283,yi
Oatmeal preferable to barley-meal for
dogs, 241
Oejlrus bo\\s, 338
ovis, 339
equi, 409
haemorroidalis, 41 o
Oil, caftor, 273, b.
olive, 27 7» *•
Ointments, 259
Opium, 267, g. 287, <\ 289, e.
Orifice of a vein, mode of fecuring in
the horfe, 163
Ofrner's work on (hoeing, 65
(hoe, 136
Overfeeding, 4°4
Overreach, 34^
Ctr-houfes, 208
Oxen, (hoes for, 157
P.
Palfy, 5°^
Fajiern bone, large, x 15
FARRIERY.
Pajlern bone, fmall, N* 117
Paulet's work on murrains, 45
Pelt rot, 340
Pembroke's, Lord, work on horfes, 69
remarks on (hoeing, 137
Pepper, 285, c c.
Peppermint, 285 bb.
Peruvian \rax\t, 283,^.
Petagonius, a writer on farriery, 27
Peripneumony, 489
Phrenfy, 483
Phyjiology, neceffary to a farrier, 13
Pinning in lambs, 455
Pijpng-tx\\, 5 24
of blood, 450
Plethora, « 427
Pleurify, 489
Poifon, 407
Pole-evil, 395
Pomegranate, 281, i.
Poppy, 289,/.
Potafh, 269, d.
Poultices, 260
Powders, 251
Pox, (beep, 477
cow, 478
Pralilice of farriery, 19
Precipitate, red, 285, x.
Puckeridge, 338
Pulfe in different animals, 424
method of feeling, 425
Pumrniced feet, 388
Purges, 270
abfurdity of giving to horfes
indifcriminately, 271
(hould not be preceded by
ftrong exercife, 272
receipts for, 274
Purging in horfes, 45 2
in cattle, 453
in calves, 454
in lambs, 455
in dogs, 456
&
Quarter-ill, 5 25
QuaJJia, 283, h.
Quit tor, 347
R.
Re Bum of the horfe, 113
Refrigerants, 279
Refpiration, morbid fymptoms of, 306
Rejlleffnefs, 314
Reynier's work on cattle, 51
Rheumatifm, 488
Richmond's, duke of, kennel, 211
Riding's veterinary pathology, 79
Ring-bone, 373
Roarer, _ 436, 437
Ronden's work on farriery, 41
Rojin, 269, e.
Rot, pulmonic, 490
hepatic, 493
pelt, 340
foot, 387
general, 526
Index.
Rowels, mode of making, N° 168
(ituations proper for, 169
when improper, 170
RoAer's work on animals, 44
Ruelli's colledHon on farriery, 27
Ruini's anatomy of the horfe, 30
Rupture, 4x9
S.
St Bell, M. account of, 73
64/ ammoniac, 279, b.
Indicus, 291, e.
Salt, common, 273,3^ 285, e e. 291, d.
fpirit of, 279, c. 293,//.
of (teel, 283, </.
Sanderacks, 389
Saunier's work on horfes, 49
Sauvages's work on murrain, 34
Scab, .
Secretion, morbid (ymptoms of, 307
Serf at ion, morbid fymptoms of, 301
Senjibility, morbid, 313
Sedatives. See Anodynes.
Sefamoid bones, 116
Setons, deferibed, 171
ufe of, 172
mode of introducing, 173
Sheep cots, 109
Shoeing horfes, principles of, 130, 140
origin of Note (d) p. 447
common method of, 133
its defeats 134
Lafoffe’s method 135
Ofmer’s do. 136
Lord Pembroke’s do. 137
Clark’s do. 138
Coleman’s do. I39> I54
Morecroft’s do. igg
(hoe to be adapted to the hoof, 144
changes to be made gradually, 146
Coleman’s ordinary (hoe, 132
ofoxen, 137
Shoulder-Hip, 3 34
Sialagogues, 276
Silver, 293,^.
Sinclair's, Sir J. remarks on cattle, 232
Skeleton of the horfe deferibed, 99
Slipping the calf or foal, 462
Snape's anatomy of the horfe, 61
Snores or fnivels, 433
cT’r v e r c ^9,/273,^.
bole 01 the hoot, horny, 123
fenfible, ' 128
Solleyfel's work on farriery, 3 2
Sough, 483
Spavin, 366,371,433
Spaying, ^4
Spirits, 285, dd.
Splents, 370
Squill, 265 h.
•S/cZ'/ej'(hould be dry and elevated, 191
roomy, 192
double, improper, 193
(hould not be low in the roof, 194
(tails of, 193
flooring of, 196
Stables,
Index.
Stablesy manger, N° 197
rack, 198
(hould not be too clofe, 199
mode of ventilating, 200
windows of, 201
ihould be apart from the dung¬
hill, 203
Staggers, mad, 483
fleepy, 507
Stiffnefs, _ 344
iSVi/fe-ftrain in dogs, 355
Starch, 277,/'.
Stavefacre, 295,
Stimulants, 285
receipts for, 286
Stomach of the horfe, ftrufture of, 104
burfling of, by fwelling of
grain, 226
inflammation of, 496
concretions in, 415
Star ax, 265, 1.
Strains, 353
Strangles, 481
Straw, ufe of as food, 227
Strengthening remedies, 283
receipts for, 284
String halt, 393
St abb's anatomy of the horfe, 70
Stubbed feet in dogs, 382
Sturdy, 521
Sublimate, corrofive, 285, w.
Sudor ijics, 266
receipts, 267
Sugar of lead, 279, d.
Surfeit in horfes, 329
dogs, . 418
Surgery, neceffary to a farrier, 16
Swelled legs, 428
Syringes improper in giving clyfters, 258
T.
Tapeworm, 414
Taplin's works on farriery, 71
Tar, 285, ff
FARRIER
Teeth of the horfe deferibed, N1
Temporal artery, mode of openifig,
Tenon's account of fheep-pox,
Theomenes, a writer on farriery,
Thorough-fm,
Y.
Thorter-iW.,
Thrujh, running,
Ticks,
Tin,
Tobacco,
Tonics,
Topical bltealmg, 167
Tormentil, 281, k.
Tread, 346
Trimming horfes ears abfurd, 180
Turbith mineral, 263, c.
Turnjick, 3 ] 8
IOO
164
477
27
367
508
384
337
291,/
269, g. 275, b.
283
Turpentine,
oil of,
U.
269, h. 2%s,gg.
269, i. 285, gg.
Varix,
Vegetius's work on farriery,
Veins, wounds of, 351,
Veterinary art,
college of Lyons,
of London, eftab-
lilhed,
examining com¬
mittee of,
regulations of,
method of ihoeing
in,
Vinegar, _ 279,/. 293, /.
Vitet's work on veterinary medicine, 43
Vitriol, blue, 283, i.
white, 281, m.
Vitriolic acid, ‘2'i^,g. 281, b. 293, h.
Ulcers, 394
Vomiting, why impracticable in the
horfe, 105
Urine, incontinence of, 443
fuppreflion of, 444
from diftention
of the bladder, 445
433
26
43 2
2
35
72
>76
77
139
573
Urine, fuppreflion of, from inflam- N° 44 7
mation,
from ftone, 448
from obftru&ion
at the neck of
the bladder, 449
blood v, 450
w.
Warbles, 338
Warts, 3 26
Water, red, 450
black, 451
Weight of horfe Ihoes, 149
for a coach horfe, 150
for a faddle horfe, 151
Wheat given to horfes. on the conti¬
nent, 220
White's work on the veterinary art, 81
Wind, broken, 437
thick, 438
Wind-gaUs, 365
Withers, fiitulous, 396
Womb, falling of the, 461
Worms, 408
Worm medicines, 291
receipts for, 292
Wormils, 338
Worming of dogs, 517
Wounds, 348
of the feet, 349
of the joints, 350
how belt treated, 351
punctured, 352
in the mouth, 400
of arteries, 430
of veins, 35^ 43 2
X.
Xenophon's work on horfemanfhip, 30
Y.
Teajl, 393, /.
2ellows, 441
Z.
Zinc, 295, h.
FAR
Farthing. FARTHING, a fmall Englilh copper coin, a-
mounting to one-fourth of a penny. It was anciently
called four thing, as being the fourth of the integer or
penny.
Farthing of Gold, a coin ufed in ancient times,
containing in value the fourth part of a noble, or 2od.
filver. It is mentioned in the flat. 9 Hen. V. cap. 7.
where it is enafted, that there fhall be good and
juft weight of the noble, half-noble, and farthing of
gold.
Farthing of Land feems to differ from Farding~
deal. For in a furvey-book of the manor of Weft-
Hapton in Devonlhire, there is an entry thus : A. B.
FAS
holds ftx farthings of land at 126I. per annum. So that
the farthing of land muft have been a confiderable quan¬
tity, far more than a rood.
FASCES, in Roman antiquity, axes tied up to¬
gether with rods or ftaves, and borne before the
Roman magiftrates as a badge of their office and autho¬
rity.
According to Florus, the ufe of the fafees was in¬
troduced bysthe elder Tarquin, the fifth king of Rome $
and were then the mark of the fovereign dignity. In
after times they were borne before the confuls, but by
turns only, each his day j they had each of them 12,
borne by as many li£lors. Thefe fafees confifted of
branches,
Fafees.
FAS Is
1 fliccts branclifts of elm ; having in the middle a fecuris or axe,
Fafeination nea^ w^ich Hood out beyond the reft. Publi-
■ y cola took the axe out of the fafces, as Plutarch affures
us, to remove from the people all occafton of terror.
After the confuls, the pretors affumed the fafces. In
the government of the decemvirs, it was the practice at
firft for only one of them to have the fafces. After¬
wards each of them had twelve after the manner of the
kings.
When the magiftrates who by right had the axes
carried before them, had a mind to fhow fome defe¬
rence to the people, or fome perfon of Angular merit,
they either Fent atvay the licftors, or commanded them
to lower the fafces before them, which was called fub-
?7iittere fafces. Many inftances of this occur in Roman
hiftory. ■ '
FASCETS, in the art of making glafs, are the
irons thruft into the mouths of bottles, in order to con¬
vey them to the annealing tower.
FASCIA, in antiquity, a thin fafh which the Ro¬
man women wrapped round their bodies, next to the
Ikin, in order to make them {lender. Something of
this fort feems alfo to have been in ufe amongft the
Grecian ladies, if wre can depend upon the reprefenta-
tion given by Terence, Eun. aft. ii. fc. 4.
Haud /imilis ejl virginurn nqftrarum, quas tnatres Jludent
DerniJJis humeru ejfe—vincio corpora, ut graciles fant.
Fascia, in ArchiteBure, fignifies any flat member
having a confiderable breadth and but a final projec-
ture, as the band of an architrave, larmier, &c. In
brick buildings, the juttings out of the brick beyond
the windows in the feveral ftories except the higheft
are called facias or facie?.
Fascia Lata, in Anatomy, a mufcle of the leg, call¬
ed alfo femi-membranofus. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles.
Fasciae, in Afronomy, the belts feen on the difk
of the fuperior planets, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.—
See Astronomy,
FASCIALIS, in Anatomy, one of the mufcles of the
thigh, called fartorius. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles.
FASCINATION (from the Greek fZxo-x.st.tvuy, to
fafeinate or bewitc/i), a fort of witchcraft fuppofed to
operate either by the eye or the tongue.
Ancient writers diftinguifh two forts of fafeination,
one performed by looking, or the efficacy ®f the eye.
Such is that fpoken of by Virgil in his third eclogue :
Nefcio quis teneros oculus mihi fafeinat agnos.
The fecond by words, and efpecially by malignant praifes.
Such is that mentioned by the fame poet in his feventh
eclogue :
Aid, fi ultra placitum lauddrit, baccare frontem
Cingite, ne vati noceat mala lingua future.
Horace alludes to both kinds in his firft book o^
epiftles:
Aon iftic obliquo oculo tnea conunoda quifquam
Limat, non odio obfeuro, morfuque veneuat.
Fascination of ferpents, a faculty which thefe ani¬
mals are fuppofed to poffefs of attrafting birds from the
See OPHIOLOGY Famines
II
Faft.
74 ] FAS
air, and making them their prey.
Index.
FASCINES, in Fortif cation, faggots of fmall wood,
of about a foot diameter, and fix feet long, bound in
the middle, and at both ends. They arc uled in railing
batteries, making chandeliers, in filling up the moat
to facilitate the paffage to the wall, in binding the ram¬
parts where the earth is bad ; and in making parapets
of trenches to fereen the men. Some of them are dip¬
ped in melted pitch or tar ; and, being fet on fire, ferve
to burn the enemy’s lodgments or other works.
In corrupt Latin fafeenina, fafeennia, and fafeinat a,
&c. are ufed to fignify the pales, fafeines, &c. ufed to
enclofe ancient caftles, &c.
FASCIOLA, the Fluke or Gourd Worm, a genus
belonging to the order of vermes inteffina. See Hel¬
minthology Index.
FASHION-PIECES, in the fea language, the aftmoft
or hindmoft timbers of a Ihip, which terminate the
breadth, and form the ftiape of the ftern. They are
united to the ftern-poft, and to the extremity of the
wing-tranfom, by a rabbit, and a number of ftrong nails
or fpikes driven from without.
FAST, in general, denotes the abftinence from
food, (fee Fasting) } but is more particularly ufed for
fuch abftinence on a religious account.
Religious faffing has been praftifed by moft nations
from the remoteft antiquity. Some divines even pretend
its origin was in the earthly paradife, where our firft
parents were forbidden to eat of the tree of know¬
ledge. But though this feems carrying the matter too
far, it is certain that the Jewifli church has obferved
fafts ever fince its firft inftitution. Nor were the neigh¬
bouring heathens, viz. the Egyptians, Phoenicians,
and Affyrians, without their fails. The Egyptians,
according to Herodotus, facrificed a cow to Ifis, after
having prepared themfelves by failing and prayer •, a
cuftom which he likewife aferibes to the women of Gy¬
rene. Porphyry affirms, that the Egyptians, before
their ftated facrifices, always failed a great many days,
fometimes for fix weeks ; and that the leaft behoved to
be for feven days : during all which time the priefts
and devotees not only abftained from flefh, fifti, wine,
and oil; but even from bread, and fome kinds of pulfe.
Thefe aufterities were communicated by them to the
Greeks, wrho obferved their fafts much in the fame
manner. The Athenians had the Eleufinian and Thef-
mophorian fafts, the obfervation of wdiich wras very ri¬
gorous, efpecially among the wmmen, who fpent one
whole day fitting on the ground in a mournful drefs,
wdthout taking any nouriihment. In the ifland of
Crete, the priefts of Jupiter wTere obliged to abftain all
their lives from fiih, flefh, and baked meats. Apu-
leius informs us, that whoever had a mind to be ini¬
tiated in the myfteries of Cybele were obliged to pre¬
pare themfelves by falling ten days ; and, in Ihort, all
the pagan deities, whether male or female, required
this duty of tkofe that defired to be initiated into their
myfteries, of their priefts and prieftefles that gave the
oracles, and of thofe who came to confult them.
Among the heathens falling was alfo praftifcd be¬
fore fome of their military enterprifes. Arillotle in¬
forms us, that the Lacedemonians having refblved to
fuccour a city of the allies, ordained a fall throughout
the
2
FAS [ S7S ] FAS
the whole extent of their dominions, without excepting
even the domeilic animals : and this tney did for two
ends } one to fpare provilions in favour of tne belieged 5
the other to draw' down the blefling of heaven upon
their enterprife. The inhabitants of Tarentum, when
befieged by the Romans, demanded fuccours from their
neighbours of Rhegium, w'ho immediately commanded
a fall throughout their whole territories. Their enter¬
prife having had good fuccefs by their throwing a fup-
plv of provifibns into the town, the Romans were
obliged to raife the fiege ; and the Tarentines, in
memory of this deliverance, inftituted a perpetual
fail.
Falling has always been reckoned a particular duty
among philofophers and religious people, ibme of whom
have carried their abftinence to an incredible length.
At Rome it was pra&iied by kings and emperors them-
felves. Numa Pompilius, Julius Caefar, Augullus, Vef-
palian, and others, we are told, had their Hated fall
days : and Julian the Apodate w'as fo exaft in this ob-
fervance as to outdo the prieils themfelves, and even the
moll rigid philofophers. The Pythagoreans kept a
continual lent ; but with this difference, that they be¬
lieved the ufe of &h to be equally unlawful with that
of tielh. Befides their conftant temperance, they alfo
frequently failed rigidly for a very long time. In this
refpeft, however, they wrere all outdone by their ma¬
iler Pythagoras, who continued his falls for no lefs
than 40 days together. Even Apollonius Tyaneus,
one of his molt famous ditciples, could never come up
to him in the length of his fads, though they greatly
exceeded thofe of the ordinary Pythagoreans. The
Gymnofophids, or Brahmans of the ead, are alfo very
remarkable for their fevere fallings 5 and the Chinefe,
according to Father le Comte, have alfo their dated falls,
with forms of prayer for preferving them from barren-
nefs, inundations, earthquakes, &c. 1 he Mahometans
too, who poffefs fo large a part of Ada, are very re¬
markable for the Uriel obfervance of their fads 5 and
the exaflnefs of their dervifes in this refueft is extra¬
ordinary.
Fading was often ufed by the heathens for fuperdi-
tious purpofes ; fometimes to procure the interpreta¬
tions of dreams} at others, to be an antidote againd
their pernicious confequences. A piece of fuperdi-
tion nrevails to this day among the Jews; who, though
expreisly forbidden to "fad on Sabbath-days, think them-
• felves at liberty to difpenfe with this duty when they
happen to have frightful and unlucky dreams the night
preceding, that threatened them with great misfor¬
tunes. On thefe occadons they obferve a formal fad
the whole day ; and at night the patient, having in¬
vited three of his friends, addreffes himfelf to them fe-
ven times in a very folemn manner, faying, “ May
the dream I have "had prove a lucky one !” And
his friends anfwer as many times, “ Amen, may it be
lucky, and God make it fo !” After which, in order
to encourage him, they conclude the ceremony with
thefe words of Eccltfiades, “Go eat thy bread with
ioy and then fet themfelves down to table. I hey
have alfo added feveral fads not commanded in the law
of Mofes, particularly three, in memory of fore di-
dreffes their nation has differed at different times.
The abdincoce of the ancient Jews commonly lad¬
ed 27 or 28 hours at a time 5 beginning before fun-
fet, and not ending till fome hours after funfet next
day. On thefe days they wrere obliged to w'ear
white robes in token of grief and repentance ; to cover
themfelves with fackcloth, or their word clothes 5
to lie on alhes ; to fprinkle them on their head, &c.
Some fpent the whole night and day following in the
temple or fynagogue, in prayers and other devotions,
barefooted, wuth a fcourge in their hands, of which
they fometimes made a good ufe in order to raife their
zeal. Ladly, in order to complete their abftinence,
at night .hey wTere to eat nothing but a little bread
dipped in water, with fome fait for feafoning; except
they chofe to add to their repad fome bitter herbs and
pulfe.
The ancients, both Jews and Pagans, had alfo their
fads for purifying the body, particularly the prieds
and fuch as were any way employed at the altars 5 for
when nocturnal diferders happened to thefe, it was un¬
lawful for them to Approach all the next day, which
they were bound to employ in purifying themfelves.
On this account, at great fedivals, where their minidry
could not be ddpenfed with, it was ufual for them, on
the eve thereof, not only to fad, but alfo to abilain
from deep, for the greater certainty. For this purpofe
the high pried had under odicers to wake him, if over¬
taken with deep ; agalnil which other prefervatives were
alfo made ufe of.
FASTERMANS, or Fasting-men, q. d. homines
habenles, was ufed in our ancient cuiloms for men in
repute and fubdance j or rather for pledges, fureties,
or bondfmen, who, according to the Saxon polity,
vwe fad bound to anfwer for one another’s peaceable
behaviour.
FASTI, in Roman antiquity, the kalendar wherein
were expreffed the feveral days of the year, with their
feads, games, and other ceremonies.
There were two forts of fadi, the greater and
lefs : the former being didinguidied by the appella¬
tion fq/ii ma^iflrales, and the latter by that of fajli ka¬
lendar ei.
1. The fajli kalendares, which were properly and
primarily called fafli, are defined by Fedus Pompeius
to be books containing a delcription of the whole year :
i. e. ephemerides, or diaries, didinguidiing the feveral
kinds of days, fejli, prcfc/li; f'jh, lufajh, &c. The
author of thefe was Numa, who committed the care
and direftion of the fadi to the pontifex naaximus, whom
the people ufed to confult on every occadon. This cuf-
tom held till the year of Rome 450, when C. Flavius,
fecretary to the pontilices, expofed in the forum a lid of
all the days on which it was lawful to work ; which
was fo acceptable to the people, that they made him
curule aedile.
Thefe leffer fadi, or falli kalendares, were of two
kinds, urbani and rujlici.
The fajli urbani, or fadi of the city, were thofe
which obtained or were obferved in the city. Some
will have them thus called, becaufe they were expofed
publicly in divers parts of the city; though by the va¬
rious inferiptions or gravings thereof on antique dones,
one would imagine that private perfons had them like-
wife in their houfes. Ovid undertook to illudrate
thefe fadi urbani, and comment on them, in his Libri
FaftoAuu,
FAS [ 576 ] FAS
Faftorum, whereof we have the firfl; hx books ftill re¬
maining j the laft: fix, if ever they were "written, being
loft.
In the fajii rujlici, or country fsfti, were exprefied
the feveral days, feafts, &c. to be obferved by the
country people : for as thefe were taken up in tilling
the ground, fewer feafts, facrifices, ceremonies, and ho¬
lidays, were enjoined them than the inhabitants of ci¬
ties \ and they had alfo fome peculiar ones not obferv¬
ed at Rome. Thefe rullic fafti contained little more
than the ceremonies of the kalends, nones, and ides j
the fairs, ligns of the zodiac, inereafe an 1 decreafe
of the days, the tutelary gods of each month, and cer¬
tain direftions for rural works to be performed each
month.
2. In the greater fafti, or fajli magi/trales, were
expreffed the feveral feafts, with every thing relat¬
ing to the gods, religion, and the magiftrates j the
emperors, their birth-days, offices, days confecrated to
them, and feafts and ceremonies eftabliflied in their
•honour, or for their profperity, &c. With a number
of fuch circumftances did flattery at length fwell the
fafti; when they became denominated Magni, to dif-
tinguifh them from the bare kalendar, or fafti kalen-
dares.
Fasti was alfo a chronicle or regifter ef time, where¬
in the feveral years were denoted by the refpedlive con-
fuls, with the principal events that happened during
their confulates ; thefe were called alfo fajii confulares,
or confular fajii.
Fasti, or Dies Fajii, alfo denoted court days. The
word fafti faflorum, is formed of the verb fari, “ to
fpeak,” becaufe during thofe days the courts vfere
opened, caufes might be heard, and the praetor was
allowed fari, to pronounce the three wmrds, Jo, dico,
■addico : The other days wherein this was prohibited
were called nefajli'. thus Ovid,
Ille nefaflus erit, per quem tria verba flentur :
Fqjlus erit, per quem lege licebit agi.
Thefe dies fajii wTere noted in the kalendar by the letter
F: but obferve, that there were fome days ex parte fajii,
partly fafi, partly nefajli $ i. e. juftice might be diftri-
buted at certain times of the day, and not at others.
Thefe days wTere called interciji, and wrere marked
in the kalendar thus j F. P. fajlos primo, where
juftice might be demanded during the firft part of that
day.
FASTING, the abftaining from food. See Fast.
Many wonderful ftories have been told of extraordi-
dary fafting j great numbers of which undoubtedly
mult be falfe. Others, however, we have on very good
authority, of which fome are mentioned under the ar¬
ticle Abstinence. Another we have in the
Fasting Woman. A full account of this very un¬
common cafe is given in the Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXVII.
Part I. the fubftance of which follows : The woman,
whofe name was Janet MlLeod, an inhabitant of the
parilh of Kincardine in Rofslhire, continued healthy
till the was 15 years of age, when Hie had a pretty fevere
epileptic fit; after this Ihe had an interval of health for
four years, and then another epileptic fit wfiich conti¬
nued a whole day and a night. A few days after¬
wards Ihe was feized with a fever, which continued
with violence feveral weeks, and from which Ihe did
I
not perfeclly recover for fome months. At this Fafting-.
time (he loft the ufe of her eyelids $ fo that Ihe was
under a neceflity of keeping them open with the fin¬
gers of one hand, whenever Ihe wanted to look about
her. In other refpe£ts (he continued in pretty good
health j only fire never had any appearance of menfes,
but periodically fpit up blood in pretty large quanti¬
ties, and at the fame time it flowred from the note.
This difcharge continued feveral years ; but at laft
it ceafed : and foon after ftie had a third epileptic fit,
and after that a fever from which (he recovered very
llowly. Six weeks after the crifis, tftie ftole out of the
houfe unknown to her parents, wfio were bufied in
their harveft work, and bound the flieaves of a ridge
before flic w’as obferved. In the evening Ihe took to
her bed, complaining much of her heart (moft proba¬
bly her Jlomach, according to the phrafeology of that
country) and her head. From that time (he never rofe
for five years, but was occafionally lifted out of bed.
She feldom fpoke a word, and took lo little food that
it feemed fcarce fulficient to fupport a fucking infant.
Even this finall quantity was taken by compulfion; and
at laft, about Whitlunday 1763, ihe totally refufed
every kind of food or drink. Her jaw now became fo
fait locked, that it was with the greateft difficulty her
father wras able to open her teeth a little, in order to
admit a fmall quantity of gruel or whey j but of this
fo much generally run cut at the corners of her mouth,
that they could not be fenfible any had been fwallow-
ed. About this time theyr got fome water from a not¬
ed medicinal fpring in Brae-Mar, fome of which they
attempted to make her fwrallowT, but without effeft.
They continued their trials, however, for three morn¬
ings 5 rubbing her throat with the water, which run
out at the corners of her mouth. On the third morn¬
ing during the operation, Are cried out, “ Give me
more wTater and fwrallowTed with eafe all that re¬
mained in the bottle. She fpoke no more intelligibly
for a year j though ihe continued to mutter fome wTords,
which her parents only underftood, for 14 days. She
continued to reject all kinds of food and drink till
June 1765. At this time her lifter thought, by fome -
figns fire made, that ihe wanted her jaws opened ; and
this being done, not without violence, ftie called in¬
telligibly for a drink, and drank with eafe about an
Engliih pint of water. Her father then aiked her why
ihe would not make fome figns when ihe wanted a
drink ? to which ihe anfwered, wrhy ihould fhe when
ihe had no defire. It wras now fuppofed that ihe had
regained the faculty of fpeechj and her jaws were kept
open for about three weeks by means of a wedge. But
in four or five days ihe became totally filent, and the
wedge was removed becaufe it made her lips fore. She
ftill, however, continued fenfible 5 and when her eye¬
lids were opened, knew every body, as could be gueffed
from the figns Ihe made.
By continuing their attempts to force open her jaws,
two of the under foreteeth were driven out ; and of
this opening her parents endeavoured to avail them-
felves by putting fome thin nouriihing drink into her
mouth j but without effeift, as it always returned by the
corners. Sometimes they thought of thrufting a little
dough of oatmeal through this gap of the teeth, which
ihe would retain a few feconds, and then return with
fomething like a ftraining to vomit, without one par¬
ticle
FAS [ 577 ] FAS
family fenfible of belonging to the Britifh vice-conful at Meflina, that
had been clofely (hut up under the ruins of his houfe,
was taken out the 22d day, and is now recovered; it
did not eat for fome days, but drank freely ; it was
emaciated, and ihowed little figns of life at firft. From
thefe inftances, and thofe related before of the hogs
at Soriano, and feveral others of the fame kind that
have been related to me, but which being lefs re-
Fafting. tide going down. Nor were the
any thing like fwallowing for four years, excepting the
fmall draught of Brae-Mar -water and the Englifh pint
of common water. For the laft three years (he had not
any evacuation by ftool or urine, except that once or
twice a-week fhe palled a few drops of urine, about as
much, to ufe the expreflion of her parents, as would
wet the furface of a halfpenny. In this lituation die
was vilited by Dr Mackenzie, who communicated the
account of her cafe to the Royal Society. He found
her not at all emaciated •, her knees were bent, and the
hamftrings tight, fb that her heels almoft touched her
buttocks. She flept much, and was very quiet: but
when awake, kept a conlfant whimpering like a new¬
born weakly infant. She never could remain a mo¬
ment on her back, but always fell to one fide or ano¬
ther ; and her chin wras clapped clofe to her bread:, nor
could it by any force be moved backwards.
The do£lor paid his fird vifit in the month of Oc¬
tober j and five years afterwards, viz. in October 1772,
was induced to pay her a fecond vifit, by hearing that
dre was recovering, and had begun to eat and drink.
The account given him was mod extraordinary. Her
parents one day returning from their country labours
(having left their daughter fixed to her bed as ufual),
were greatly furprifed to find her fitting upon her hams,
on the fide of the houfe oppofite to her bed-place, fpin-
ning with her mother’s didaff. All the food die took
at that time was only to crumble a little oat or barley
cake in the palm of her hand, as if to feed a chicken.
She put little crumbs of this into the gap of her teeth ;
rolled them about for fome time in her mouth ; and
then fucked out of the palm of her hand a little water,
whey, or milk ; and this only once or twice a-day, and
even that by compulfion. She never attempted to
fpeak ; her jaws were fad locked, and her eyes Ihut.
On opening her eyelids, the balls were found to be
turned up under the edge of the os frontis her coun¬
tenance was ghadly, her complexion pale, and her whole
perfon emaciated. She feemed fenfible, and tra&able
in every thing except in taking food. This die did
ivith the utmod reluftance, and even cried before die
yielded. 'Hie great change of her looks Dr Macken¬
zie attributed to her fpinning fiax on the didaff, which
exhauded too much of the faliva 5 and therefore he
recommended to her parents to confine her totally to
the fpinning of wool. In 1775, die was vifited again,
and found to be greatly improved in her looks as wTell
as drength ; her food^ wras alfo confiderably increafed
in quantity ; though even then die did not take more
than would be fufficient to fudain an infant of two years
of age.
The following remarkable indances of animals being
able to live long without food, are related by Sir Wil¬
liam Hamilton in his account of the late earthquakes
in Italy (Phi/.. Tranf. vol. Ixxiii). “ At Soriano
(fays he), two fattened hogs that had remained buried
under a heap of ruins, were taken out alive the 42d day j
they were lean and weak, but foon recovered.” Again,
“ At Medina twro mules belonging to the duke de Bel-
vifo remained under a heap of ruins, one of them 22
days, and the other 23 days 5 they would not eat for
fome days, but drank wyater plentifully, and are now
recovered. There are numberlefs indances of dogs
remaining many days in the fame duration ; and a hen
Vol. VIII. Part II.
Fa ft in?,
Faftoif.
markable I omit, one may conclude, that long fading
is always attended with great third, and total lofs of
appetite.”
An indance of a fimilar kind, not lefs remarkable
than either of the two preceding, w^e find in the Gentle¬
man’s Magazine for January 1785, communicated by a
correfpondent, as follows : “ During the heavy fnow
wdrich fell in the night of the 7th of January 1776, a
parcel of fheep belonging to Mr John Wolley, of Mat-
lock, in Derbydrire, which were padured on that part
of the Ead Moor that lies within the manor of Mat-
lock, were covered with the drifted fnow : in tire
courfe of a day or two all the fheep that were covered
with the fnow w^ere found again, except two, which
were confequently given up as loft; but on the 14th
of February following (fome time after the break of
the fnow in the valleys, and 38 days after the fall), as
a fervant was walking over a large parcel of drifted
fnow which remained on the declivity of a hill, a dog
he had with him difcovered one of the two fheep that
had been lod, by winding (or Renting) it through a
fmall aperture w'hich the breath of the fheep had made
in the mow; the fervant thereupon dug away the fnow,
and releafed the captive from its prifon ; it immediate¬
ly ran to a neighbouring fpring, at which it drank for
a confiderable time, and afterwards rejoined its old com¬
panions as though no fuch accident had befallen it. On
infpedting the place where it was found, it appeared to
have flood between two large Hones which lay parallel
with each other at about two feet and a half. diftance,
and probably were the means of protecting it from the
great weight of the fnow, which, in that place lay fe¬
veral yards thick : from the number of Hones around
it, it did not appear that the flieep had been able to
pick up any food during its confinement. Soon after¬
wards its owner removed it to fome low lands 5 but as
it had nearly lofl its appetite, it was fed with bread and
milk for fome time: in about a fortnight after its
enlargement it lofl its fight and wool ; but in a few
weeks afterwards they both returned again, and in the
courfe of the following fummer it was quite recovered.
The remaining fheep was found dead about a week after
the difeovery of the other.”
In the fame publication f is recorded the death of + s , fo„
one Caleb Elliot, a vifionary enthufiafl, who meant to) 789. o.
have fafled 40 days, and aClually furvived 16 without bituary,
food, having obftinately refufed fuflenance of every?-I2II>
kind.
FASTOLF, Sir John, a valiant and renowned
Englifh officer, a knight banneret and of the garter,
who ferved in France under Henry IV. V. and VI.
was defeended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and
was born about the year 1377- He was as much di-
flinguifhed for his virtue at home as for his valour
abroad •, and became no lefs amiable in his private,
than he had been admirable in his public charafter.
Pie died in 1457? upwards of 80 years of age, as we
• 4 H Ram
*
FAT
learn from bis noted cstemporary William Caxton the
brft Engiilh printer. By an unaccountable miftake it
lias been afferted, that Shakefpeare’s Falftaff was drawn
to ridicule this great man; and this has made judici¬
ous biographers more ftudious to preferve his reputa¬
tion.
FAT, an oily concrete fubftance, depolited in dif¬
ferent parts of animal bodies. See Anatomy Index.
Strong exercife, preternatural heat, an acrimonious
Bate of the juices, and other like caufes, by which the
oily parts of the blood are attenuated, refolved, or eva¬
cuated, prevent the generation of fat 5 labours of the
mind alfo have this effed, as well as labour or intempe-
ratuie of the body. Hence reft and plentiful food are
fufftcient to fatten brutes 5 but with men it is often
otherwife. It is furprifing how foon feme birds grow
fat 3 ortolans, it is faid, in 24 hours, and larks ftill
fooner.
Fats may be divided, from their confiftence, into
three kinds: (1.) The foft and thin, which grow per-
fedly liquid in a very fmall heat 3. (2.) The thick and
eonfiftent, which liquefy lefs readily 3 and, (3.) The
hard and firm, wdiich require a ftill ftronger heat to
melt them. The firft is called Pinguedo; the fecond,
jdxungia; and the third, Adeps, as taken from the
animal; and Sebum, or Sevum, when freed from the
Ikins, &c. 'I his ufe of the names, however, is not
conftant, fome employing them differently.
A great number of fats have been kept in the (hops,
for making ointments, plafters, and other medicinal
eompofitions 3 as hog’s lard, the fat of the boar, the
fox, the hare, dog, wild cat, Alpine moufe, beaver j that
of hens, ducks, geefe, ftorks 3 of the wFale, pike, fer-
pents, viper, &c. as alfo human fat.—In regard to all
thefe kinds of fubftances, however, much depends upon
the manner of purifying or trying, and of keeping
them.
To obtain fat pure, it muft be cut into pieces, and
cleaned from the interpofed membranes and veffels. It
muft then be cleanfed from its gelatinous matter by
walking with water, till the water comes from it co-
lourlels and infipid ; it is afterwards to be melted with
a moderate heat in a proper veflel with a little water 3
and it is to be kept thus melted till the water be entire¬
ly evaporated, which is known by the difcontinuance
of the boiling, wdiich is caufed by the water only, and
which lafts till not a drop of it remains 3 it is after¬
wards to be put into an earthen pot,wrhere it fixes 3 then
it is exceedingly white, fufficiently pure for the pur-
pofes of pharmacy or chemical examination.
Fat thus purified has very little tafte, and a weak,
but peculiar fmell. For its analyfis and chemical pro¬
perties, fee Chemistry Index.
One of the chief ufes of fat probably is, to receive
into its compofition, to blunt and correft, a great part
of the acids of the aliments, and which are more than
are requifite to the compofition of the nutritive juice,
or which nature could not othewife expel. This is
certain, that the greater the quantity of aliments
taken by healthy animals, above what is neceffary for
their nourifhment and reprodudlion, the fatter they be¬
come. Hence animals which are caftrated, which are
not much exercifed, or which are come to an age when
the lofs and produ&ion of the feminal fluid is kfs, and
which at the fame time confu'me much fucculent ali-
F A T
ment, generally become fatter, and fometimes exceed- Fat,
ingly lo. Fata
Although fat be very different from truly animalized , hloigana.
fubftances, and appears not eafily convertible into nu¬
tritive juices, it being generally difficult of digeltion,
and apt to become rancid, as butter does in the fto-
machs of many perfons 3 yet in certain cafes it ferves
to the nourilhment and reparation of the body. Ani
mals certainly become lean, and live upon their fat,
when they have too little food, and when they have
difeafes which prevent digeftion and the produftion of
the nutritive juice 3 and in thefe cafes the fatter animals
hold out longer than the leaner. The fat appears to
be then abforbed by the veffels defigned for this ufe, and
to be transformed into nutritive juice.
Fat, in the fea language, fignifies the fame with
broad. Thus a (hip is faid to have a fat quarter, if the
truffing in or tuck of her quarter be deep.
Fat likewife denotes an uncertain meafure of capa¬
city. Thus a fat of ifinglafs contains from 3^ hundred
weight to 4 hundred weight 3 a fat of unbound books,
half a maund or four bales 3 of wire, from 20 to 2 3
hundred weight 3 and of yarn, from 220 to 221
bundles.
Fat, or Vat, is ufed alfo for feveral utenfils : as, 1.
A great wooden veffel, employed for meafuring of malt,
and containing a quarter or eight bufliels. 2. A large
brewing veffel, ufed by brewers to run their wort in,
3. A leaden pan or veffel for the making of fait at
Droitwich.
FATA morgana 3 a very Angular phenomenon,
mentioned by different philofophical writers and travel¬
lers, particularly by Brydone and Swinburne. They
inform us that it is feen in the ftraits of Meffina, and
fometimes denominated the cajlles of the Fairy Morgana.
The accounts of this phenomenon differ confiderably from
each other, and travellers are not unanimous as to the
caufes which are neceffary for its produffion. It would
perhaps be difficult to determine how far the imagination
of thofe who have fpoken of it may be confidered ca¬
pable of producing aftonifliment, yet the aclual exift-
ence of fuch a phenomenon admits of no difpute.
The firft chapter of Minafi, in his Differtation on the
Fata Morgana, fpeaks of this phenomenon in the fol¬
lowing manner. When the rifing fun ffiines from that
point whence its incident ray forms an angle of 450 on
the fea of Reggio, and the bright furface of the water in
the bay is not difturbed either by the wind or the cur¬
rent, the fpe&ator being placed on an eminence of the
city, with his back to the fun and his face to the fea 3
on a hidden there appear in the water, as in a catoptric
theatre, various multiplied objedts, that is to fay, num-
berlefs feries of pilafters, arches, caftles well delineated,
regular columns, lofty towers, fuperb palaces, ivith bal¬
conies and windows, extended alleys of trees, delightful
plains with herbs and flocks, armies of men on foot and
horfeback, and many other ftrange images, in their
natural colours and proper aftions, paffing rapidly in
fucceffion along the furface of the fea during the wffiole
of the ftiort period of time while the above-mentioned
caufes remain.
“ But if, in addition to the circumftances before
defcribed, the atmofphere be highly impregnated with
vapour and denfe exhalations, not previoufly difperfed by
the adlion of the wind or waves, or rarefied by the fun,
it
[ 578 ]
FAT l 579 1 FAT
Fata it then happens that in this vapour, as ia a curtain extertd-
IMorgana. ccj aiong channel to the height of about 30 palms, and
nearly down to the fea, the obferver will behold the fcene
of the fame objects not only reflefted from the furface
of the fea, but likewife in the air, though not fo diftinft
or wTell defined as the former objects from the fea.
“ If the air be {lightly hazy and opake, and at the
fame time dewy and adapted to form the iris, then the
above-mentioned objefts will appear only at the furface
of the fea, as in the firft cafe, but all vividly coloured,
or fringed with red, green, blue, and other prifmatic
colours.”
From this account of Minafi it appears, that there
are three different fpecies of Fata Morgana 5 the firft
appearing at the furface of the fea, denominated the
Marine Morgana; the fecond in the air, called the
Serial Morgana, and the third only at the furface of
the lea, or Morgana fringed with prifmatic colours.
The fame ingenious author attempted to trace the ety¬
mology of the word Morgana, which he thinks is de¬
rived from trijiis, and yotvnu, IcEtitid officio. This
fplendid fight affefls all defcriptions of men with fuch
joy, that they run towards the fea, exclaiming Morgana,
Morgana ! This etymology of Minafi may feem at firft
view to be a contradi&ion in terms ; but it will appear
moft natural, when we confider the joy which the Mor¬
gana infpires, and the cOrrefponding forrow or dejedlion
which muft be felt when it vanilhes away. Our author
informs us, that he beheld this magnificent appearance
three times, and would rather behold it again than the
“ moft fuperb theatrical exhibition in the world.”
In his phyfical and aftronomical remarks on this phe¬
nomenon, he obferves that the fea in the ftraits of Mef-
fina exhibits the appearance of a large inclined fpeculum j
that, in the alternate current or tide wdiich flows and
returns in the ftraits for fix hours each wray, and is con-
ftantly attended by an oppofite current along Ihore to
the medium diftance of about half a league, there are
many eddies and irregularities at the time of the change
of its direction ; and that the Morgana ufually appears
at this period. He afcribes the effedls produced by it
to the fuppofed inclination of the furface of the fea, and
its fubdivifion into different planes by the contrary ed¬
dies. The effects produced in the air he confiders as
the refult of faline and other effluvia fufpended in the
air. Thefe appearances are produced by a calm fea,
and one or more rtrata of fuperincumbent air differing
in refractive, and confequently in refledtive power, rather
than from any confiderable change in the furface of the
water, with the laws of which we are much better ac¬
quainted than with thofe of the atmofphere.
To the above account rVe {hall add the following,
given by M. Houel, whofe judgment and veracity ren¬
der his authority highly refpeCtable. “ In fine fummer
days, when the weather is calm, there rifes above the
great current a vapour, which acquires a certain denfi-
ty, fo as to form in the atmofphere horizontal prifms,
whofe fides are difpofed in fuch a manner, that when
they come to their proper degree of perfection, they
refleCt and reprefent fucceflively, for fome time (like a
moveable mirror), the objeCts on the coaft or in the ad¬
jacent country. They exhibit by turns the city and
iuburbs of Meffina, trees, animals, men, and mountains.
I hey are certainly beautiful aerial moving pictures.
I here are fomefcimes two or three prifms, equally: per¬
fect ; and they continue in this ftate eight or ten mi- Fae
nutes. After this, fome finning inequalities are ob- I)
ferved upon the furface of the prifm, which render, Father-
confufed to the eye the objeCts which had been before
fo accurately delineated, and the picture vaniflies. The
vapour forms other combinations, and is difperfed in
air. Different accounts have been given of this lingu¬
lar appearance; which for my part I attribute to a bi¬
tumen that iffues from certain rocks at the bottom of
the fea, and which is often feen to cover a part of its
furface in the ftrait of Meflina. The fubtile parts of
the bitumen being attenuated, combined, and exhaled
with the aqueous globules that are raifed by the air,
and formed into bodies of vapour, give to this con-
denfed vapour more confiftence *, and contribute, by
their fmooth and polilhed particles, to the formation of
a kind of aerial cryftal, which receives the light, reflefts
it to the eye, and tranfmits to it all the luminous points
which colour the objeCls exhibited in this phenomenon,
and render them vifible.”
FATE (ffiatwri), denotes an inevitable neceflxty de¬
pending upon a fuperior caufe. The word is formed
d fando, “ from fpeaking :” and primarily implies the
fame with ejffiatum, viz. a word or decree pronounced by
God; or a fixed fentence whereby the Deity has
prefcribed the order of things, and alloted to every
perfon what {hall befal him.
the Greeks called it as it were a chain or
neceffary feries of things indiffolubly linked together.
It is alfo ufed to exprefs a certain unavoidable defig-
nation of things, by which all agents, both neceffary
and voluntary, are fwayed and direCled to their ends.
See Necessity.
In this laft fenfe, fate is diftinguiftred into, 1. Aftro-
logical fate, arifing from the influence and pofition of the
heavenly bodies 5 which (it was fuppofed) gave laws both
to the elements and mixed bodies, and to the wills of
men. 2. Stoical fate, defined by Cicero an order or
feries of caufes, wherein, caufe being linked to cauft*
each produces another, and thus all things flow from
one prime caufe. To this fate the Stoics fubject even
the gods.
Fate is divided by later authors into phyfical and
divine. Phyfical fate is an order and feries of na¬
tural caufes appropriated to their effedls. By this fate
it is that fire warms, bodies communicate motion to
each other, &c. and the effedls of it are all the events
and phenomena of nature. 2. Divine fate is what is
more ufually called Providence. See Providence.
FATES, in mythology. See Parc^e.
FATHEMITES, Fatemites, or Fathimites,
the defendants of Mahomet by Fathema, or Fatima,
his daughter. They never enjoyed the caliphate of
Mecca or Bagdad, but reigned in Barbary and Egypt.
See the hiftory of thefe countries.
FATHER, a term of relation denoting a perfon,
who hath begot a child. See Parent and Child.
By the laws of Romulus, a father had an unlimited
power over his children. Amongft the Lacedemo¬
nians, as we learn from Ariftotle’s Politics, the father
of three children was excufed from the duty of mount-
ing guard for the fecurity of the city 5 and a father of
four children was exempted from every public bur¬
den. The Poppaean law, amongft the Romans, granted
many valuable privileges to the fathers of three phil.
4 D 2 dren 5
F A V [ 580 ] F A W
dren; among ft which one was, that he ftiould be ex-
cufed from civil offices, and that the mother ffiould
have liberty, in her father’s lifetime, to make a will, and
manage her eftate without the authority of tutors.
Natural Father, is he who has illegitimate children.
See Bastard ; and Law Index.
Adoptive Father, is he who takes the children of
fome other, and acknowledges them as his own. See
Adoption.
Putative Father, is he who is only the reputed or
fuppofed father. Jofeph was putative father of our Sa¬
viour.
FATHER-in-/aw, is a perfon married to a wmman wrho
has children by a fonner hulband, &c. to wffiich chil¬
dren he is faid to be a father-in-law.
Father is alfo ufed in theology for the Firft Perfon
in the Trinity.
Father is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe on divers
moral and fpiritual occafions. Thus, it is applied to
the patriarchs} as wTe fay Adam was the father of all
mankind, Abraham the father of the faithful, &c.
Father, in church hiftory, is applied to ancient
authors who have preferved in their wrritings the tra¬
ditions of the church. Thus St Chryfoftom, St Bafil,
&c. are called Grech fathers, and St Augulline and
St Ambrofe Latin fathers. No author who wrote
later than the 12th century is dignified with the title
of Father.
Father, is alfo a title of honour given to prelates
and dignitaries of the church, to the fuperiors of con¬
vents, to congregations of ecclefiaftics, and to perfons
venerable for their age or quality. Thus wre fay, the
right reverend father in God, the father general of
the Benedictines, the fathers of the council of Nice,
father of his country, &c.
FATHERLASHER, a fpecies of fifties belonging
to the genus cottus. See Cottus, Ichthyology
Index.
FATHOM, a long meafure containing fix feet,
ufed chiefly at fea for meafuring the length of cables
and cordage.
FATNESS. See Corpulency.—It is obferved,
that for one fat perfon in France or Spain, there are
a hundred in England and Holland. This is fup¬
pofed to be from the ufe of new malt liquors, more
than from the difference of climates or degrees of per-
fpiration. Indolence may caufe fatnefs in Ibme few
■conftitutions j but, in general, thofe who are difpofed
to this habit will be fat in fpite of every endeavour to
the contrary, but that of deftroying health.
FATUARII, in antiquity, were perfons who, ap¬
pearing infpired, foretold things to come. The word
is formed of Falua, wife of the god Faunus, who wTas
fuppofed to infpire women with the knowledge of fu¬
turity, as Faunus himfelf did the men.—-Fatua had her
name from fari, q. d. vaticinari, “ to prophefy.”
FAVISSAl, in antiquity, were, according to Feftus
and Gellius, cifterns to keep water in : but the faviffas
in the Capitol at Rome were dry cifterns or fubterra-
neous cellars, where they laid up the old ftatues, broken
veffels, and other things ufed in the temple. T'Eefe
were much the fame with what, in fome of the modern
churches, are called the archives '&T\<h treafunj.
FAUNA, a deity among the Romans. She was
daughter of Picus, and was originally called Marica.
Her marriage with Faunus procured her the name of Faunalia
Fauna, and her knowledge of futurity that of Falua ,, ^
and Fatidica. It is faid that flie never law a man after f
her marriage with Faunus, and that her uncommon
chaftity occafioned her being ranked among the gods
afer death. She is the fame, according to fome, as
Bona Mater.
FAUNALIA, in antiquity, Roman feafts celebrated
in honour of the god Faunus, who w'as the fame among
the Romans with the Pan of the Greeks.
The Faunalia were held on the day of the nones of
December; i. e. on the fifth day of that month. The
principal iacrifice was a roe-buck ; or rather, according
to Horace, a kid, attended with libations of wine and
burning of incenfe. It was properly a country feftival,
being performed in the fields and villages with peculiar-
joy and devotion. Horace gives us a very gay defcrip-
tion thereof in the 18th ode of his third book :
 Tener plena cadit luedus anno :
Larga nec defunt Veneris fodah
Vina craterce : vetus ara ??iulto
Fumat adore.
Struvius in his Roman kalendar marks the feaft of
Faunus on the day of the ides of February, which is
the 30th day of that month; and the Faunalia he
places on the fifth of the ides of December, or the pth
of that month : and in chap. ix. he ftiew-s, that there
really were two Faunalia ; the one in February, men¬
tioned by Ovid, Fail. lib. iv. ver. 246, the other on
the 9th of December, mentioned by Horace in the
place juft cited.
FAUNS (Fauni), among the ancients, were a
fpecies of demi-gods inhabiting the forefts; called alfo
SyIvans f ylvan'i), and little differing from the Satyrs.
They delighted more particularly in vineyards; and
they generally appear as attendants of Bacchus, in the
reprefentations of Bacchanal feafts and proceflions.—
They wrre reprefented as half men, half goats, having
the horns, ears, feet, and tail of a goat, a very flat nofe,
and the reft human. Though the Fauns were held for
demi-gods, yet they were fuppofed to die after a long
life. Arnobius fhows that their father or chief, Faunus
himfelf, only lived 120 years.
FAUNUS, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Picus wh©
reigned in Italy about 13 00 years before the Auguftan
age. His bravery, as well as wifdom,have given rife to
the tradition that he was fon of Mars. His great popu¬
larity, and his fondnefs for agriculture, made his fub-
jefts revere him as one of their country deities after
death. He was reprefented with ail the equipage of
the fatyrs, and wras confulted to give oracles.
FAVONIUS, among the Romans, the wdnd which
blew direftly from the weft.
FAVORINUS, an ancient orator and philofopher
of Gaul, wrho flouriflied under the emperor Adrian,
and taught with high reputation both at Athens and
Rome. Many works are attributed to him; among
the reft, a Greek mifcellaneous hiftory often quoted-
by Diogenes Laertius.
FAUSTUS. See Fust.
FAWKES, Francis, an ingenious poet, had his
fchool education at Leeds ; from whence he was tranf-
planted to Jefus College, Cambridge, where he took
the degrees, in arts, Entering early into holy orders,
h«
Fawn
il
Fealty.
F E A [, 5-8
he fettled firft at Bramham in Yorkfhire, near the ele¬
gant feat of that name (Mr Lane’s), which he cele¬
brated in verfe in 1745, in a 4to pamphlet anonymous.
His firfl poetical publications were, Gawen Douglas’s
Deicription of May and Winter modernized. Re¬
moving afterwards to the curacy of Croydon in Surry,
he recommended himfelf to the notice of Archbilhop
Herring, then relident there on account of his health,
to whom, belides other pieces, he addreffed an ole on
his recovery in 1754, printed in Mr Dsdfley’s collec¬
tion. In confequence, his grace collated him in 1755
to the vicarage of Orpington with St Mary Gray in
Kent; and Mr Fawkes lamented his patron’s death in
1757 in a pathetic elegy ftyled Aurelius, firft printed
with his grace’s feven fermons, in 1763, He married
about the fame time Mifs Furrier of Leeds. In April
1774, by the late Dr Plumtree’s favour, he exchanged
his vicarag-e for the re£Iory of Hayes. He was alfo
one of the chaplains to the princefs dowager of Wales.
He publithed a volume of poems by fubfcription in
8vo, 17615 the Poetical Kalendar 17635 and Po¬
etical Magazine 1764, in conjunction with Mr Woty 5
Partridge Shooting, an eclogue, to the honourable
Cha. Yorke, 1767, qto 5 and a Family Bible, with
notes, in 4to, a compilation. But his great ftrength
lay in tranilation, in which, fince Pope, few have
equalled him. Witnefs his fragments of Menander
(in his Poems) 5 his works of Anacreon, Sappho, Bion,
Mofchus, and Mufieus, i2mo, 17605 his Idylliums of
Theocritus, by fubfcription, 8vo, 1767 5 and his Ar-
gonautics of Apollonius Rhodius, by fubfcription alfo
(a pafthumous publication, completed by the Reve¬
rend Mr Meen of Emanuel College, Cambridge), 8vo,
1780. He died Auguft 26. 1777-
FAWN, among fportfmen, a buck or doe of the
£rft year 5 or the young one of the buck’s breed in its
firft year.
FE, Fo, or Tohi, the name of the chief god of the
Chinefe, whom they adore as the fovereign of heaven.
They reprefent him fhining all in light, with his hands
hid under his robes, to fliow that his power does all
things invifibly. He has at his right hand the famous
Confucius, and at his left Lanza or Lanca, chief of the
fecond fe£t of their religion.
FEAL, a provincial term for fod or turf.
Fe-AL-Dikes, a cheap fort of fence common in Scot¬
land 5 built with feal or fod dug up by the fpade from
the furface of grafs ground, confiding of the upper
mould rendered tough and coherent by the matted
roots of the grafs thickly interwoven with it. If only
a very thin bit of the upper furface is pared off with
a paring fpade, the pieces are called divots. Thefe
being of a firmer confiftence, are more durable when
built into dikes than feal, but much more expenfive
alfo.
FEALTY,, in Law, an oath taken on the admit¬
tance of any tenant, to be true to the lord of whom he
holds his land : by this oath the tenant holds in the.
freeft manner, on account that all who have fee hold
per jidem et Jiduciam, that is, by fealty at the leaft.
This fealty, at the firft creation of it, bound the
tenant to fidelity, the breach of which was the lofs of
his fee. It has been divided into general and fpecial:
general, that which is to be performed by every fub-
je£l to his prince 5 and fpecial, required only of fuch
1 I F E A
as, in refpefl of their fee, are tied by oath to their Fear,,
lords. To all manner of tenures, except tenancy at
will, and frank-almoign, fealty is incident, though it v
chiefly belongs to copyhold eftates held in fee and for
life. The form of this oath, by flat. 17 Edw. II. is to
run as follows : “ I A. B. will be to you my lord D.
true and faithful, and bear to you faith for the lands
and tenements which I hold of you 5 and I will truly
do and perform the cuftoms and fervices that I ought
to do to you. So help me God.”
FEAR, one of the paflions of the human mind ;
(fee Passion'). It is defined, an apprehenfion of im¬
pending evil, attended with a defire of avoiding it.
Fear in the extreme is called fright or terror. See
Fright.
Fear, in Scripture, is ufed in various fenfes.
The fear of God is either filial or fervile. The filial
fear is a holy affeition or gracious habit in the foul,
whereby it is inclined to obey all God’s command¬
ments, and to hate and avoid evil. Slavilh or fervile
fear is the confequence of guilt 5 it is a judicial im-
preflxon from the fad thoughts of the provoked ma-
jelty of heaven 5 it is an alarm within that difturbs
the reft of a finner. Though this fear be in wicked
men, yet it often proves preparative to faith and re¬
pentance.
Fear is likewife ufed for the ohjeEi of fear. Thus it
is faid, “ the fear of Ifaac,” to defcribe the God whom
Ifaac feared 5 (Gen. xxxi. 24.), and in Prov. i. 26. “ I
will mock when your fear cometh 5” that is, the
calamity you feared. God fays, that he will fend his
fear before his people 5 that is, a dread wrought by
him, in order to terrify and deftroy the inhabitants of
Canaan.
Fear QMetus, Favor, or Timor), was deified by the
Pagans. Tuilus Hoftilius brought the worftnp of this
deity to Rome. The Ephori of Sparta ereifted a tem¬
ple to Fear, near their tribunal, to ftrike an awe into
thofe who approached it. Fear was likewife worflrip-
ped at Corinth. The poets did not forget this ima¬
ginary deity. Virgil places her in the entrance of hell,
in company with difeafes, old age,^&c. JFn. vi. 273.
Ovid places her in the retinue of Tifiphone one of the
furies, Met. iv. 483..
FEAST, or Festival, in a religious fenfe, is a ce¬
remony of feafting and thankfgiving. The word is
formed of the Latin fefum, which fome derive a feriari
“ to keep holiday 5” others from the Greek i<nu.u, “ I
feaft or entertain,” of izux., “ hearth, fire.”
Feafts, and the ceremonies thereof, have made great
part of the religion of almoft all nations and fedfs 5
witnefs thofe of the Greeks, Romans, Hebrews, Chri-
ftians, and Mahometans.
The firft feafts among the Greeks were celebrated in
folemn affemblies of the whole nation, on occafion of
their games, as the Olympic, the Pythian, the Ifth-
mian, and Nemaean : in procefs of time they had many
others, the principal of wThich are enumerated in the
courfe of this work.
The Romans alfo had abundance of ftated feafts in
honour of their deities and heroes 5 fuch were the Sa¬
turnalia, Cerealia, Lupercalia, Liberalia, Neptunalia,
Confualia, Portumnalia, Vulcanalia, Palilia, Divalia, .
&c. See Saturnalia, &c.
They had alfo feafts inftituted occafionally 5 as Car-
mentalia,.
. .. F E.A . T 5
mentalin, Ouirinalia, Terminalia, Floralia, Compitalia,
Lemuria, \'ernalia, befide other moveable and occafional
ones: as to give thanks to the gods for benefits re¬
ceived ; to implore their affiftance, or to appeafe their
wrath, &c. as the Paganalia, Feralia, Bacchanalia, Am-
barvalia, Amhurbalia, Suovetaurilia, and divers others,
particularly denominated ferine ; as Sementinae, Latinae,
&c. See each of thefe fealfs, and fcrice in its proper
place. The feafts w^ere divided into days of lacrifice,
and days of banqueting and feafting; days of games,
and days of reft or fericv.
There being but little hiftory written, or at leaft
publiflied in thofe days, one end of feafts wras to keep
up the remembrance of paft occurrences.
I he principal feafts of the Jew's w’ere the feaft of
trumpets, that of the expiation, of tabernacles, of the
dedication, of the paftover, of pentecoft, and that of
purification. See Expiation, &c.
The modern Jews have other feafts marked in their
kalendar, of modem inftitrution. The Mahometans,
befides their weekly feaft or Sabbath, which is kept
on Friday, have two folemn feafts, the firft of which
is called the Teqft of ViEhms, and celebrated on the
tenth day of the laft month of their year j and the
fecond called Bairam. The Chinefe have tw7o folemn
feafts in the year, in the memory of Confucius, be-
ftdes others of lefs note on the other days of the
year.
Feafts among us are either immoveable or moveable.
Immoveable Yeajls are thofe conftantly celebrated on
the fame day of the year ; the principal of thefe are
Chriftmas day or the Nativity, the Circumcifion, Epi¬
phany, Candlemas or the Purification, Lady Day or
the Annunciation, called alfo the Incarnation and Con¬
ception, All Saints and All Souls •, befides the days of
the feveral Apoftles, St Thomas, St Paul, &c. which
with us are feafts, though not ferice. See each feaft
under its proper article.
Moveable Feafls are thofe which are not confined to
the fame day of the year. Of thefe the principal is
Eafter, which gives law to all the reft, all of them fol¬
lowing, and keeping their proper diftances from it;
fuch are Palm-Sunday, Good-Friday, Afh-Wednefday,
Sexagefima, Afcenfion Day, Pentecoft, and Trinity-
Sunday. See Easter, Sexagesima, Pentecost,
Trinity, &c.
The four feafts which the Englilh law's take fpecial
notice of are, the Annunciation of the bleffed Virgin
Mary or Lady Day, the 25th of March ; the nativity
of St John the Baptift, held on the 24th of June ; the
Feaft of St Michael the Archangel, on the 29th of
September ; and that of St Thomas the Apoftle, on
the 21ft of December : on which quarterly days rent
on leafes is ufually referved to be paid (5 and 6 Edw.
VI. cap. 3. 3 Jac. I. cap. 1. 12 Car. II. cap. 30.)
Befides thefe feafts which are general, and enjoined
by the church, there are others local and occafonal,
enjoined by the magiftrate, or voluntarily fet on foot
by the people j fuch are the days of thankfgiving for
delivery from wars, plagues, &c. Such alfo are the
vigils or wakes in commemoration of the dedications
of particular churches. See Vigie, &c.
The prodigious increafe of feaft days in the Chri-
ftian church commenced towards the clofe of the
fourth century, and was occafioned by the difcovery
3
82 ] F E A
that wras then made of the rethains of martyrs and other
holy men, for the commemoration of whom they were
eftabliftied. Thefe, inftead of being fet apart for pious
exercifes, wTere abufed in indolence, voluptuoufnefs, and
criminal praftices. Many of them w'ere inftituted on a
pagan model, and perverted to fimilar purpofes.
Feast of Death, or Feaf of Souls, a folemn religious
ceremony in ufe among the favages of America ; fome
of whom thus teftify their refpeft for the deceafed
every eight years j and others, as the Hurons and
Iroquois, every ten years.
The day of this ceremony is appointed by public
order 5 and nothing is omitted, that it may be cele¬
brated with the utmoft pomp and magnificence. The
neighbouring tribes are invited to be prefent, and to
join in the folemnity. At this time all who have died
fince the laft folemn occafion are taken out of their
graves j thofe who have been interred at the greateft
diftance from the villages are diligently fought for, and
brought to this great rendezvous of carcafes.
It is not difficult to conceive the horror of this ge¬
neral difinterment j but it cannot be defcribed in a
more lively manner than it is done by Lafitau, to
whom we are indebted for the moft authentic account
of thofe nations.
“ Without queftion (fays he), the opening of thefe
tombs difplays one of the moft linking fcenes that can
be conceived j this humbling portrait of human mi-
fery, in fo many images of death, wherein Ihe Teems
to take a pleafure to paint herfelf in a thoufand va¬
rious lhapes of horror, in the feveral carcafes, accord¬
ing to the degree in which corruption has prevailed
over them, or the manner in which it has attacked
them. Some appear dry and withered ; others have a
fort of parchment upon their bones; fome look as if
they were baked and fmoked, without any appearance
of rottennefs j fome are juft turning towards the point
of putrefaction ; whilft others are all fwarming with
w orms, and drowned in corruption. I know' not which
ought to ftrike us moft, the horror of fo fhocking a
light, or the tender piety and affe&ion of thefe poor
people tow'ard their departed friends : for nothing de-
ferves our admiration more than that eager diligence
and attention with which they difcharge this melan¬
choly duty of their tenderaefs j gathering up careful¬
ly even the fmalleft bones, handling the carcafes,
difguftful as they are, with every thing loathfome,
cleanfing them from the worms, and carrying them
upon their Ihoulders through tirefome journeys of fe¬
veral days, w'ithout being difcouraged from the offen-
livenefs of the fmell, and without fuffering any other
emotions to arife than thofe of regret, for having loft
perfons w'ho were fo dear to them in their lives, and fo
lamented in their death.
“ They bring them into their cottages, where they
prepare a feaft in honour of the dead j during which
their great aftions are celebrated, and all the tender
intercourfes which took place between them and their
friends are pioully called to mind. The ftrangers, who
have come fometimes many hundred miles to be pre¬
fent on the occafion, join in the tender condolence j
and the women, by frightful Ihrieks, demonftrate that
they are pierced with the lharpeft forrow'. Then the
dead bodies are carried from the cabins for the general
re-interment. A great pit is dug in the ground, and
thither,
Feaft.
F E A [ 583 ] F E A
Feaft. tliither, at a certain time, each perfon attended by
—v his family and friends, marches in folemn filence, bear¬
ing the dead body of a fon, a father, or a brother.
When they are all convened, the dead bodies, or the
dull of thofe which were quite corrupted, are depofited
in the pit: then the torrent of grief breaks out anew.
Whatever they poffefs molt valuable is interred with
the dead. The Itrangers are not wanting in their ge-
nerofity, and confer thofe prefents which they have
brought along with them for the purpofe. Then all
prefent go down into the pit, and every one takes a
little of the earth, which they afterwards preferve with
the molt religious care. The bodies, ranged in order,
are covered with entire new furs, and over thefe with
bark, on which they throw Itones, wood, and earth.
Then taking their lalt farewell, they return each to his
owtl cabin.
“ We have mentioned, that in this ceremony the fa-
vages offer, as prefents to the dead, whatever they va¬
lue moft highly. This cultom, which is univerfal
among them, arifes from a rude notion of the immor¬
tality of the foul. They believe this doctrine molt
firmly, and it is the principal tenet of their religion.
When the foul is feparated from the body of their friends,
they conceive that it Itill continues to hover around it,
and require and take delight in the fame things with
which it formerly wTas pleafed. After a certain time,
however, it forfakes this dreary manfion, and departs
far weltward into the land of fpirits. They have even
gone fo far as to make a dillinftion between the inha¬
bitants of the other world ; fome, they imagine, parti¬
cularly thofe who in their lifetime have been fortunate
in wrar, poffefs a high degree of happinefs, have a place
for hunting and filhing, which never fails, and enjoy all
fenfual delights, without labouring hard ,in order to
procure them. The fouls of thofe, on the contrary,
who happen to be conquered or llain in war, are ex¬
tremely miferable after death.”
Feast is alfo ufed for a banquet, or a fumptuous
meal, without any immediate view to religion.
The ufe of the WTord, in this fenfe, arifes hence 5
that a part of the ceremony of many of the ancient
fellivals, both thofe of the heathens and agapae of the
Chriftians, was good eating ; though Mr Huet choofes
to derive the word from fe/Hnare, which, in an ancient
Latin verfion of Origen’s Comment on Matthew, fig-
nifies “ to fealt Ut veniens illuc "jefus fejlinet cum dif-
cipulis fuis.
Social or civil feafts were alfo expreffed by the words
convivium and compotatio or concanatio. Cicero fays,
that in the Roman tongue, the word convivium, which
means “ people affembled at table,” is more fignifi-
cant than the Greek word compotatio or conccenatio :
the Roman, fays he, expreffes the conjunftion of body
and mind which ought to take place at an entertain¬
ment •, the Greek denotes what relates to the body
alone.
As food is neceffary to our exiffence, it makes a
bond of affociation among mankind. People at a feaft,
fays one of the ancients, feem to form but one body,
one foul. All nations, whether favage or civilized, have
regarded the pleafure of the table a$ the occafion of
the moft agreeable fociety. This fpecies of enjoyment
(abftrafling from its fufeeptibility of abufe) makes
"but one family of all that it brings together. It levels
the diftin&ions introduced by policy or prejudice, and Feaft
difpofes men to regard one another as brethren. It is
here that people feel the equality eftablifhed by nature $
here they forget the evils of life j they extinguifh their
hatred, and make their enmities ceafe. For this reafon
Ariftotle confiders as a breach of the focial principle
that cuftom of the Egyptians of eating apart, and praif-
es the convivial repafts eftablifhed by Minos and Ly-
curgus.
The Perfians generally deliberated on bufmefs at
table, but never determined or put their determina¬
tions in execution except in the morning before hav¬
ing eaten.
When the Germans, fays Tacitus, wanted to recon¬
cile enemies, to make alliances, to name chiefs, or to
treat of war and peace, it was during the repaft that
they took counfel j a time in which the mind is moft
open to the impreflions of fimple truths, or moft eafily
animated to great attempts. Thefe artlefs people du¬
ring the conviviality of the feaft fpoke without dif-
guife. Next day they weighed the counfels of the for¬
mer evening : they deliberated at a time when they^
were not difpofed to feign, and took their refolution
when they were leaft liable to be deceived.
People of rank among the Rhodians, by a funda¬
mental law of the ftate, were obliged to dine daily with
thofe who had the management of affairs, in order to
deliberate with them concerning fuch things as were
neceffary or ufeful for the country j and on this ac¬
count the principal minifters of the kingdom were ob¬
liged to keep open table for all who could be of ufe to
the ftate.
Among the Romans, the place where they fupped
wras generally the veftibule, that a more retired part
of the houfe might not encourage licentioufnefs and
diforder. There were feveral laws that reftrifled their
meals to thofe veftibules.
When luxury reigned in Rome, they had fuperb
halls for their entertainments. Lucullus had many,
each of which bore the name of fome deity 5 and this
name wTas a mark which indicated to the fervants the
expence of the entertainment. The expence of a flip¬
per in Lucullus’s hall of Apollo amounted to 50,000
drachmas.
The hall in wdiich Nero feafted, by the circular mo¬
tion of its w'alls and ceiling, imitated the revolutions of
the heavens, and reprefented the different feafons of
the year, changing at every courfe, and Ihowering down
flow'ers and perfumes on the guefts. .
The Romans did not, as we do, ufe but one table
at their feafts j they had generally two ; the firft was
for the fervices of animal food, which was afterwards
removed, and another introduced with fruits $ at this
laft they fung and poured out their libations. The
Greeks and eaftern nations had the fame cuftom, and
even the Jew’s in their folemn feafts and at facrifices.
The Romans, in the time of Nero, had tables made
of citron w’ood brought from Mauritania ; they were
varnifhed w’ith purple and gold, and were raifed on
feet of carved ivory. It is faid that they were more pre¬
cious than gold. Dion Caffius affirms, that Seneca had
500 of thefe, which he made ufe of one after another j
and Tertullian tells us that Cicero had but one. The
Romans chofe the king of the feaft by a throw of the
dice.
We
feaft.
Pelloutier
Hijl Celt.
1 li. c. 12.
¥■
F E A [ 584 ] F E A
We learn from Herodotus, that the ancients had
neither cups nor bowls, but that they drank out of
little horns tipt with filver or gold.
Under the reign of Charles V. of France, the cuftom
of placing the lights upon the table was not yet intro¬
duced. A number of domeltics held the candles in
their hands during the whole time of the repalt.
The Greeks and Romans kept a domeitic for the
purpofe of reading during their meals and feafts.
Sometimes the chief of the family himfelf performed
the office of reader j and hiflory informs us, that the
emperor Severus often read while his family ate. The
time of reading was generally at fupper 3 and guefts
were invited to a reading as they are now a-days to
play cards.
The Greeks, in their flouriffiing times, did not
profane, according to their own expreflion, the ho/i-
nefs of the table} but rather adorned it with inge¬
nious and elegant converfation: they propofed mo¬
ral topics, of which Plutarch has preferved a collec¬
tion.
Ancient philofophers remark, that heroes rarely af-
fembled convivially without bringing affairs of conle-
quence into difeourfe, or deliberating upon thofe that
regarded either prefent events or future contingencies.
The Scythians, while at meat, ufed to make the
firings of their bows refound, left their warlike vir-
tus might be enfeebled or loft in this feafon of plea-
fur.
When Rome was corrupted with luxury, lingers, dan¬
cers, mulicians, ftage-players, and people that told plea-
fant tales, were brought into the hall to amufe the guefts.
Plutarch informs us, that Caefar, after his triumphs,
treated the Roman people at 22,000 tables: and by
calculation it would feem that there were at thefe
tables upwards of 200,000 perfons.
At the end of the feaft the Romans drunk out of a
large cup as often as there were letters in the name of
their miftreffes.
Feafting feems to have been the chief delight of the
Germans, Gauls, Britons, and all the other Celtic na¬
tions 3 in which they indulged themfelves to the ut-
moft, as often as they had an opportunity. “ Among
thefe nations (fays an author who had carefully ftu-
died their manners) there is no public affembly, either
for civil or religious purpofes, duly held 3 no birth¬
day, marriage, or funeral, properly celebrated 3 no
treaty of peace or alliance rightly cemented, without
a great feaft.” It was by frequent entertainments of
this kind that the great men or chieftans gained the
affedions and rewarded-the fervices of their followers 3
and thofe who made the greateft feafts were fure to be
moft popular, and to have the greateft retinue. Thefe
feafts (in -which plenty was more regarded than ele¬
gance) lafted commonly feveral days, and the guefts
leldcm retired until they had confumed all the provi-
ftons and exhaufted all the liquors. Athenaeus de-
feribes an entertainment that was given by Arcamnes,
a very wealthy prince in Gaul, which continued a
whole year without interruption, and .at which all the
people of Gaul, and even all ftrangers who paffed
through that country, were made welcome. At
thefe feafts they fometimes confulted about the moft
important affairs of ftate, and formed refolutions re¬
lating to peace and war 3 imagining that men fpoke
4
their real fentiments with the greateft freedom, and Feaft.
were apt to form the boldeft deligns, when their fpi-v—
rits were exhilarated with the pleafures of the table.
The converfation at thefe entertainments very fre¬
quently turned on the great exploits which the guefts '
themfelves or their anceftors had performed in war 3,
which fometimes occafioned quarrels and even blood-
ffied. It wTas at a feaft that the two illuftrious Britifti
princes, Cairbar and Ofcar, quarrelled about their own
bravery and that of their anceftors, and fell by mutual
wounds, {OJJtan, vol. ii. p. 8, &.c.)
As to the drink ufed at thofe feafts, particularly in
Britain, it feems probable, that before the introduc¬
tion of agriculture into the ifland, mead, or honey diluted
with water, was the only ftrong liquor known to its in¬
habitants, as it was to many other ancient nations in
the fame circumftances. This continued to be a fa¬
vourite beverage among the ancient Britons and their
pofterity long after they had become acquainted with
other liquors. The mead-maker was the eleventh pec-
fon in dignity in the courts of the ancient princes of
Wales, and took place of the phyfician. The follow¬
ing ancient law of that principality ffiows how much
this liquor was efteemed by the Britifti princes.—
“ There are three things in the court which muft be
communicated to the king before they are made known
to any other perfon : 1. Every fentence of the judge 3
2. Every new fong 3 and, 3. Every calk of mead.”
This was perhaps the liquor vffiich is called by Offian
the joy and ftrength of fliells, with which his heroes
were fo much delighted.—After the introduction of
agriculture, ale or beer became the moft general drink
of all the Britilh nations who practifed that art, as it
had long been of all the Celtic people on the conti¬
nent (See Ale.) If the Phoenicians or Greeks im¬
ported any wine into Britain, it was only in very fmall
quantities 3 that moft generous liquor being very little
known in this ifland before it was conquered by the
Romans. The drinking veffels of the Gauls, Britons,
and other Celtic nations, were, for the moft part, made
of the horns of oxen and other animals 3 but thofe of
the Caledonians corf fled of large (hells, which are ftill
ufed by fome of their pofterity in the Highlands of
Scotland.
The diffies in wffiich the meat was ferved up were
either of wood or earthen wTare, or a kind of balkets
made of oilers. Thefe laft were moft ufed by the
Britons, as they very much excelled in the art of mak¬
ing them both for their own ufe and for exportation.
The guefts fat in a circle upon the ground, wdth a
little hay, grafs, or the ftdn of fome animal under
them. A low table or ftool wTas fet before each per¬
fon, wdth the portion of meat allotted to him upon it.
In this diftribution, they never neglefled to fet the
largeft and beft pieces before thofe who were moft di-
ftinguiftred for their rank, their exploits, or their riches.
Every gueft took the meat fet before him in his hands,
and tearing it wdth his teeth, fed upon it in the bell
manner he could. If any one found difficulty in fe-
parating any part of his meat with his hands and teeth,
he made ufe of a large knife, that lay in a particular
place for the benefit of the wffiole company. Servants,
or young boys and girls, the children of the family,
flood behind the guefts, ready to help them to drink
cr any thing they wanted.
As
P- 9-.
voh i.
p. 37*
t 7^'i.
vol. i.
p. 87. 209.
F E A [ 5«5 1 F E A
As the ancient Britons greatly excelled and very
much delighted in mufic, all their feafts were accom¬
panied with the joys of fong, and the mufic of harps.
In the words of Oflian f, “ whenever the feaft of (hells
is prepared, the fongs of bards anfe. Xhe voice of
fprightly mirth is heard. The trembling harps of joy
are Brung. They fing the battles of heroes, or the
heaving breads of love.” Some of the poems »f that
illudrious Britifh bard appear to have been compofed
in order to be fung by the hundred bards of Fingal %
at the fead of Selma. Many of the fongs of the bards
which were fung and played at the feads of the ancient
Britons, wTere of a grave and folemn drain, celebrating
the brave actions of the gueds, or of the heroes of other
times •, but thele were fometimes intermixed with more
fprightly and cheerful airs, to which the youth of
both fexes danced, for the entertainment of the com-
pany.
It has been often obferved by authors, that there is
no nation in the world comes near the Englidi in the
magnificence of their feads. Thofe made at our co¬
ronations, indalments, confecrations, &c. tranfcend the
belief of all foreigners 5 and yet it is doubted whether
thofe now in ufe are comparable to thofe of our fore¬
fathers.
William the Conqueror, after he was peaceably
fettled on the throne of England, fent agents into dif¬
ferent countries, to colled the mod admired and rare
difhes for his table j by which means, fays John of
Salifbury, this idand, which is naturally produdive of
plenty and variety of provifions, was overfiowed with
every thing that could infiame a luxurious appetite.
The fame writer tells us, that he was prefent at an en¬
tertainment which laded from three o’clock in the af¬
ternoon to midnight 5 at which delicacies were ferved
up, which had been brought from Condantinople, Ba¬
bylon, Alexandria, Paledine, Tripoli, Syria, and Phoe¬
nicia. Thefe delicacies, we may prefume, were very
expenfive. Thomas Becket, if we may believe his hif-
torian Fitz-Stephen, gave 5I. equivalent to 75I. at
prefent, for one diih of eels. The fumptuous enter¬
tainments which the kings of England, and of other
countries, gave to their nobles and prelates, at the fef-
tivals of Chridmas, Eader, and Whitfuntide, in which
they fpent a great part of their revenues, contributed
very much to diffufe a tade for profufe and expenfive
banqueting. It was natural for a proud and wealthy
baron to imitate in his own cadle the entertainments
he had feen in the palace of his prince. Many of the
clergy too, both feculars and regulars, being very rich,
kept excellent tables. The monks of St Swithins, at
Wincheder, made a formal complaint to Henry II.
againd their abbot, for taking away three of the 13
didies they ufed to have every day at dinner. The
monks of Canterbury were dill more luxurious : for
they had at lead 17 didies every day, befides a deflert *,
and thefe difhes were dreffed with fpices and fauces,
w'hich excited the appetite as well as pleafed the
tade.
Great men had fome kinds of provifions at tneir
tables that are not nowr to be found in Britam. When
Henry II. entertained his owm court, the great ofiicers
of his army, with all the kings and great men of Ire¬
land, in Dublin, at the fead of Chridmas, A. D. 117 G
the Irifh princes and chieftans were quite aftonidied
' Vol. VIII. Part II.
at the profufion and variety of proviiions which they
beheld, and wxre with difficulty prevailed upon by
Henry to eat the deffi of cranes, a kind of food to
which they had not been accudomed. In the remain¬
ing monuments of this period, we meet with the
names of feveral didies, as dellegrout, maupigyrnun,
karumpie, &c. the compofition of which is now un¬
known.
The coronation fead of Edward III. cod 2835I.
18s. 2d. equivalent to about 40,000!. of our money.
At the indallation of Ralph abbot of St Augudine,
Canterbury, A. D. 1309, 6000 gueds were entertain¬
ed with a dinner, confiding of 3000 diffies, which
cod 287I. 5s. equal in efficacy to 4300I. in our
times. “ It would require a long treatife (fays Mat¬
thew Paris) to defcribe the adonidiing fplendour, mag¬
nificence, and fedivity with which the nuptials of
Richard earl of Cornwall, and Cincia daughter of Rei-
mund earl of Provence, were celebrated at London,
A. D. 1243. To give the reader fome idea of it, in
a few words, above 30,000 diffies were ferved up at
the marriage dinner.” The nuptials of Alexander III.
of Scotland, and the princefs Margaret of England,
were folemnized at York, A. D. 1 251, with dill great¬
er pomp- and profufion. “ If I attempted (fays the
fame hidorian) to difplay all the grandeur of this fo-
lemnity,—the numbers of the noble and illudrious
gueds,—the richnefs and variety of the dreflcs,—the
fumptuoufnefs of the feads,—the multitudes of the
mindrels, mimicks, and others wffiofe bulinefs it wras to
amufe and divert the company, thofe of my readers
who were not prefent wmuld imagine that I was im-
pofing upon their credulity.” The following particular
will enable them to form a judgment of the whole.
The archbiffiop of York made the king of England a
prefent of 60 fat oxen, which made only one article of
provifion for the marriage fead, and were all confum*
ed at that entertainment.
The marriage fead of Henry IV. and his queen
Jane of Navarre, confided of fix courfes •, three of
fledi and fowls, and three of fiffi. All thefe courfes
were accompanied and adorned with futtleties, as they
were called. Thefe futtleties wxre figures in padry, of
men, wmmen, beads, birds, &c. placed on the table,
to be admired, but not touched. Each figure had a
label affixed to it 5 containing fome wufe or w itty fay¬
ing, fuited to the occafion of the fead, wffiich wms the
reafon they were called futtleties. The indallation fead
of George Neville, archbifliop of York and chancel¬
lor of England, exceeded all others in fplendour and
expence, and in the number and 'quality of the gueds.
The reader may form fome idea of this enormous feaft
from the followung lift of provifions prepared for it.
In wheat, quarters, 300 3 in ale, tuns, 300 j in wine,
tuns, 100 *, in ipocraffe, pipes, 1 ; in oxen, 104 J in
wild bulls, 6} in muttons, 1000 } in veals, 304 j in
porkes, 304 •, in fwanns, 400 j in geefe, 2000 $ in
cappons, 1000 ; in pigs, 2000 *, in plovers, 400 ; in
quailes, 1200 j in fowls, called rees, 24005 in pea¬
cocks, 1045 in mallards and teales, 4000 5 in cranes,
204 5 in kids, 204 5 in chickens, 2000 5 in pigeons,
2000 5 in connies, 4000 5 in bittors, 204 5 in heron-
ffiawrs, 400 5 in pheafants, 200 5 in partridges, 500 5
in woodcocks, 400 5 in curliew'S, 100 5 in egrits, 1000 5
in ftaggs, bucks, and roes, 500 and more : in pafties
4 E of
Feaft,
Feather.
F E A [ 585 ]
of venifon, cold, 4000 ; in parted dilltes of jellies, that fupply
in plain difhes of jellies, 3000 ; in cold tarts,
F E C
f See the
article
Baiun.
IOOO
O f %J /  J
baked, 4000 ; in cold cuilards, baked, 3000 ; in hot
padies of venifon, 1300J in hot cuftards, 20005 in
pikes and breams 308; in porpoifes and feals, 12 5
ipices, fugared delicates, and waters, plenty. No tur¬
keys are mentioned in this enormous bill of fare, be-
caufe they were not then known in England. Cranes,
heronlhaws, porpoifes, and feais, are feldom feen at
modern entertainments.
One of the mod expenfive Angularities attending
the royal fealts in thofe days confided in what they
called intermeats. Thefe were reprefentations of bat¬
tles, fieges, &c. introduced between the courfes, for
the amufement of the guefts. The French excelled in
exhibitions of this kind. At a dinner given by
Charles V. of France to the emperor Charles IV.
A. D. 1378, the following intermeat was exhibited
A fliip with mads, fails, and rigging, was feen fird
fhe had for colours the arms of the city of Jerufalem .
Godfrey de Bouillon appeared upon deck, accompa¬
nied by feveral knights armed cap-a-pee : the diip ad¬
vanced into the middle of the hall, without the ma¬
chine which moved it being perceptible. Then the
city of Jerufalem appeared, with all its towers lined
v,Tith Saracens. The (hip approached the city 5 the
Chridians landed, and began the affault 5 the bedeged
made a good defence : feveral fcaling ladders were
thrown down 5 but at length the city was taken. In¬
termeats at ordinary banquets confided of certain de¬
licate difhes introduced between the courfes, and de-
figned rather foe gratifying the tade than for fatisfy-
ing hunger.
At thofe feads, beddes the ordinary drinks, ale and
cyder, there were great quantities of wines of various
kinds. Of thefe lad, the following lines of a poet
who wrote in the fourth century, contain an ample enu¬
meration.
Ye fhall have rumney and malefpine,
Both ypocrade and vemage wyne 5
Mountreffe and wyne of Greke*
Both algrade and defpice eke,
Antioche and badarde,
Pyment alfo, and gamarde,
Wyne of Greke and Mufcadell,
Both clare, pyment, and Rochell.
Some of thefe liquors, as ypocrafs, pyment, and claret,
were compounded of wi|ie, honey, and fpices of dif¬
ferent kinds, and in different proportions.
FE AI HER, in Phyjiology, a general name for the
covering of birds 5 it being common to all the animals
of this clafs to have their whole body, or at lead the
greated part of it, covered with feathers or plumage.
See Ornithology Index.
Feathers make a condderable article in commerce,
particularly thofe of the odrich, heron, fwan, peacock,
goofe, iScc. for plumes, ornaments of the head, dliing
of beds, writing pens, &c.
Geefe are plucked in fome parts of Great Britain dve
times in the year ; and in cold feafons many of them die
by this barbarous cudom. Thofe feathers that are
brought from Somerfetflure are edeemed the bed, and
thore from Ireland the word.
Eider down f is imported from Denmark 5 the ducks
Feciales.
 it being inhabitants of Hudfon’s Bay, Febrifuge
Greenland, Iceland, and Norway. Our own idands
wed of Scotland breed numbers of theie birds, which
turn out a prodtable branch of trade to the poor
inhabitants. Hudfon’s Bay alfo furnidies very due
feathers, fuppofed to be of the goofe kind. The down
of the fwan is brought from Dantzic. The fame place
alfo fends us great quantities of the feathers of the cock
and hen. J he London poulterers fell a great quantity
of the feathers of thofe birds, and of ducks and turkevs ;
thofe of ducks being a weaker feather, are inferior
to thofe of the goofe 5 and turkeys feathers are the word
of any. The bed method of curing feathers is to lay
them in a room, in an expofure to the fun 5 and when
dried, to put them in bags, and beat them well with
poles to get the dirt off.
# FEBRIFUGE, an appellation given to fuch medi¬
cines as mitigate or remove a fever.
IEBRUARY, in C/rronology, the fecond month of
Numa’s year, and under the; proteftion of the god
Neptune. This month is not found in the kalendar of
Romulus, but was added to the year by Numa. It had
its names from Februa, Februaca, or Februalis, all names
of Juno, who predded over the puridcations of women 5
and in this month the Lupercalia were held in honour
of Juno, and women were purided by the prieds of
Pan Lyceus at that fedival. See Lupercalia.
February, in a common year, condds only of 28
days 5 but in the biffextile year it has 29, on account
of the intercalary day added that year.
FECIALES, or Foeciales, an order of prieds or
officers, condding of 20 perfons, among the ancient
Romans, appointed to proclaim war, negotiate peace,
&c.
Fedus derives the word from ferio, “ I drike 5” as
ferirefeedus dgnides “ to conclude a treaty 5” and ac •
cordingly, indead ot fee idles, he would have it written
feriales. Others derive it from feedus, which was an-
, ciently written; or from fdes, “ faith.” Others
from facia, feci, “ I make,” &c. becaufe they made
/war and peace. Vodius choofes to derive it from
of the verb fari, “ to fpeak”: in which fenfe
the fcciales. (hould be the fame with oratores ; which
fentiment is alfo condrmed by the authority of Varro
who fays they were called indifferently feciales and ora¬
tor es.
The feciales were a fort of heralds, who, when the
Romans had any difpute with their neighbours, were
' fent drd to demand the thing pretended to be ufurp-
ed, or require fatisfadion for the injury alleged to be
done. If an anfwer was not returned by them that
was fatisfaftory to the people and the fenate, they were
defpatched again to declare war, and the like in treat¬
ing for peace j the feciales being the only perfons ap¬
pointed to negotiate between the fenate, &c. and the
enemy.
Plutarch in the life of Numa, and Halicarnaffeus
(lib. ii.), obferves, that they were drft inftituted by
that prince. The latter adds, that they were drit cho"-
fen out of the bed: families in Rome; that their office
which was reputed a fort of facerdotium, or priefthood*
only ended with their life 5 that their perfons were fal
cred and inviolable, as thofe of other priefts; that they
were even charged to fee the republic did not declare
war unjuffiy j, that they were to receive the complaints
and
FEE [ 587 J FEE
Fecundity, and remonftrances of nations who pretended to have
. ^ce been any way injured by the Romans j that if thofe
v complaints were found juft, they were to feize the cri¬
minals, and deliver them up to thofe they had offended •,
that they were inverted with the rights and privileges of
ambaffadors j that they concluded treaties of peace
and alliance, and took care they were executed ; and,
laftly, aboliftied them, if they were found not to be
equitable. Livy, lib. i. cap. 24. afcribes their infti-
tution to Ancus Martius, in the year of Rome 114.—
Varro affures us, that in his time moft of thefe func¬
tions of the feciales wTere fet afide •, though Plutarch
obferves, that they had ftill fome authority in his
time.
The feciales were crowned with verbena, “ vervain/1
when they went to declare war. Their head was cover¬
ed with a veil, over which the crown was applied. In
this equipage they proceeded to the frontiers of the new
enemy’s country, and threw a bloody dart or javelin
into the ground within the fame. In Livy and other
ancient authors we have the formula ufed in fuch decla¬
rations.
FECUNDITY, the fame with Fertility.
FEE, in Law, lignifies a complete feudal property.
Hence, where the bare liferent of any feudal fubject
is meant to be conveyed to A, and the abfolute
property to B, that meaning is expreffed thus j “ to
A in liferent, and to B in fee.” See Law, N° Ixix.
clxiv.
Fees are commonly divided into abfolute, otherwife
called fees-fimple ; and limited, one fpecies of which we
ufualiy call fee-tail.
Blackjl. 1 Xenant in fee-fimple (or as he is frequently ftyled,
Comment, tenant in fee'), is he that hath lands, tenements, or he¬
reditaments, to hold to him and his heirs for ever ;
generally, abfolutely and Amply j without mention¬
ing what heirs, but referring that to his own pleafure,
or to the difpolition of the law. The true meaning of
the word /ee {feodum) is the fame with that of feud or
1 See Feudalfef)-, and in its original fenfe it is taken in contradi-
Syftem. ftimffion to allodium; w;hich latter the writers on this
fubjeft define to be every man’s owm land, which he
port'effeth merely in his own right, without owing any
rent or fervice to any fuperior. This is property in its
higheft degree 5 and the owner thereof hath abfolutum
et dire Bum dominium, and therefore is faid to be feized
thereof abfolutely in dominico fuo, in his own demefne.
But feodum, or fee, is that which is held of fome fupe¬
rior, on condition of rendering him fervice in which
fuperior the ultimate property of the land refides. And
therefore Sir Henry Spelman defines a feud or fee to
be, The right which the vaffal or tenant hath in lands
to ufe the fame and take the profits thereof to him
and his heirs, rendering to the lord his due fervices 5
the mere allodial property of the foil always remain¬
ing in the lord. This allodial property no fubjeft in
Britain has •, it being a received and now undeniable
principle in the law, that all the lands are holden me¬
diately or immediately of the king. The king there¬
fore only hath abfolutum et direBum dominium ; but all
lubjefts lands are in the nature of feodum or fee, whe¬
ther derived to them by defeent from their anceftors, or
purchafcd for a valuable confideration j for they can¬
not come to any man by either of thofe wrays, unlefs
aecompanied with thofe feodal clogs which were laid
upon the firft feudatory wdien it was originally granted.
A fubjecl therefore hath only the ufufrutf, and not the
abfolute property, of the foil \ or, as Sir Edward Coke
expreffes it, he hath dominium utile, but not dominium
direBum. And hence it is, that, in the moft folemn ads
of law, we exprefs the ftrongeft and higheft eftate that
any fubjed can have, by thefe words, “ he is feifed
thereof in his demefne, as of fee.” It is a man’s de¬
mefne, dominium, or property, fince it belongs to him
and his heirs for ever : yet this dominium, property,
or demefne, is ftridly not abfolute or allodial, but
qualified or feodal : it is of his demefne, as of fee ; that,
is, it is not purely and limply his own, fince it is held
of a fuperior lord, in wdiom the ultimate property re¬
fides.
This is the primary fenfe and acceptation of the
word fee. But (as Sir Martin Wright very juftly ob¬
ferves) the dodrine, “ that all lands are holden f hav¬
ing been for fo many ages a fixed and undeniable axiom,
the Englilh lawyers do very rarely (of late years efpe-
cially) ufe the word fee in this its primary original
fenfe, in contradiftindion to allodium or abfolute pro¬
perty, with which they have no concern j but gene¬
rally ufe it to exprefs the continuance or quantity of
eftate. A fee therefore, in general, fignifies an eftate
of inheritance $ being the higheft and moft extenfive
intereft that a man can have in a feud : and when the
term is ufed limply, without any other adjund, or has
the adjund of fimple annexed to it (as, a fee, or a fee-
fimple), it is ufed in contradiftindion to a fee-condi¬
tional at the common law, or a fee-tail by the ftatute 5
importing an abfolute inheritance, clear of any condi¬
tion, limitation, or reftridions to particular heirs, but
defcendible to the heirs-gfineral, whether male or fe¬
male, lineal or collateral. And in no other fenfe than
this is the king faid to be feifed in fee, he being the
feudatory of no man.
Taking therefore fee in this its fecondary fenfe, as a
ftate of inheritance, it is applicable to, and may be had
in, any kind of hereditaments either corporeal or incor¬
poreal. But there is this diftindion between the two
fpecies of hereditaments j that of a corporal inheri¬
tance a man flrall be faid to be feifed in his demefne, as
of fee; of an incorporeal one he lhall only be faid to be
feifed as of fee, and not in his demefne. For as incor¬
poreal hereditaments are in their nature collateral to,
and iffue out of, lands and houfes, their owner hath no
property, dominium, or demefne, in the thing itfelf, but
hath only fomething derived out of it j refembling the
fervitutes, or fervices, of the civil law. The dominium,
or property, is frequently in one man, while the ap¬
pendage or fervice is in another. Thus Gaius may be
feifed as of fee, of a wray going over the land, of which
Titius is feifed in his demefne as of fee.
The fee-fimple or inheritance of lands and tenements
is generally verted and refides in fome perfon or other j
though divers inferior ertates may be carved out of it.
As if one grants a leafe for 21 years, or for one or two
lives, the fee-fimple remains verted in him and his heirsj
and after the determination of thofe years or lives, the
land reverts to the granter or his heirs, who {hall hold
it again in fee-fimple. Yet fometimes the fee may be
m abeyance, that is (as the wTord fignifies) in expe£ta-
tion, remembrance, and contemplation in law ; there
being no perfon in effe, in whom it can veft and abide,
4 E 2 though
FEE [ 538 ] FEE
Fee. though the law confiders it as always potentially exift-
"v~~' ing, and ready to veil whenever a proper owner appears.
Thus, in a grant to John for life, and afterwards to
the heirs of Richard, the inheritance is plainly neither
granted to John nor Richard, nor can it veil in the heirs
of Richard till his death, nam nemo ejl fueres viventis :
it remains therefore in waiting, or abeyance, during the '
life of RichaR!. This is likewife always the cafe of a
parfon of a church, who hath only an eftate therein
for the term of his life ; and the inheritance remains in
abeyance. And not only the fee, but the freehold
alfo, may be in abeyance 5 as, when a parfon dies, the
freehold of his glebe is in abeyance until a fucceffor be
named, and then it veils in the fucceffor.
The word heirs is neceffary in the grant or donation,
in order to make a fee or inheritance. For if land be
given to a man for ever, or to him and his afligns for
ever, this veils in him but an eftate for life. This very
great nicety about the infertion of the word heirs in all
feoffments and grants, in order to veil a fee, is plainly
a relick of the feodal ftridlnefs: by which it was requir¬
ed, that the form of the donation Ihould be punctually
purlued j or that, as Craig expreffes it, in the words
of Baldus, donationes ftnt Jiricli juris, ne qmsplus dondjfe
pra-fumatur quam in donatione exprcjferit. And there¬
fore, as the perfonal abilities of the donee were original¬
ly fuppofed to be the only inducements to the gift, the
donee’s eftate in the land extended only to his own per-
fon, and fubfiited no longer than his life *, unlefs the
donor, by an exprefs provifton in the grant, gave it
a longer continuance, and extended it alfo to his
heirs. But this rule is now foftened by many excep¬
tions.
Far, 1. It does not tend to devifes by will *, in
which, as they were introduced at the time when the
feodal rigour was apace wearing out, a more liberal
conftruftion is allowed : and therefore by a devife to a
man for ever, or to one and his aftigns for ever, or to
one in fee-fimple, the devifee hath an eftate of inherit¬
ance } for the intention of the devifor is fufficiently
plain from the words of perpetuity annexed, though he
hath omitted the legal words of inheritance. But if
the devife be to a man and his aftigns, without an¬
nexing words of perpetuity, there the devifee {hall
take only an eftate for life ; for it does not appear that
the devifor intended any more. 2. Neither does this
rule extend to fines or recoveries, confidered as a fpe-
cies of conveyance *, for thereby an eftate in fee paffes
by aft and operation of law without the word heirs :
as it does alfo, for particular reafons, by certain other
methods of conveyance, which have relation to a for¬
mer grant or eftate, wherein the word heirs was ex-
preffed. 3. In creations of nobility by writ, the peer
fto created hath an inheritance in his title, without ex-
prefting the word heirs; for they are implied in the
creation, unlefs it be otherwife fpecially provided : but
in creations by patent, which are JlriBijuris, the word
heirs muft be inferted, otherwife there is no inherit¬
ance. 4. In grants of lands to foie corporations and
their fucceffors, the word fuccejjors fupplies the place
of heirs ; for as heirs take from the anceftor, fo doth
• the fucceffor from the predeceffor. Nay, in a grant
to a bifhop, or other foie fpiritual corporation, in
franhalmoign, the word frankalmoign fupplies the place
offuccejfors (as the word fuccejjors fupplies the place of
heirs') ex vi leYthini \ and in all thefe cafes a fee-fimple Fee.
veils in fuch foie corporation. But, in a grant of lands y ^
to a corporation aggregate, the word fuccejfors is not
neceffary, though ufually inferted : for, albeit fuch lim-
ple grant be ftriftly Only an eftate for life, yet as that
corporation never dies, fuch eftate for life is perpetual,
or equivalent to a fee-fimple, and therefore the law al¬
lows it to be one. Laftly, In the c«tfe of the king, a
fee-fimple will veil in him, without the words heirs or
fuccejfors in the grant ; partly from prerogative royal
and partly from a reafon fimilar to the laft, becaufe the
king, in judgment of law, never dies. But the gene¬
ral rule is, that the word heirs is neceffary to create an
eftate of inheritance.
II. We are next to confider limited fees, or fuch
eftates of inheritance as are clogged and confined with
conditions or qualifications of any fort. And thefe we
may divide into two forts: I. Qualified or bafe hzs •,
and, 2. Fees conditional, fo called at the common lawr ;
and afterwards fees-tai/, in confequence of the ilatute
de donis.
1. A base or qualified fee, is fuch a one as has a
qualification fubjoined thereto, and which muft be de¬
termined whenever the qualification annexed to it is at
an end. As, in the cafe of a grant to A and his heirs,
tenants in the manor of Dale ; in this inftance, when¬
ever the heirs of A ceafe to be tenants of that manor,
the grant is entirely defeated. So, when Henry VI.
granted to John Talbot, lord of the manor of King-
fton Lifle in Berks, that he and his heirs, lords of the
faid manor, Ihould be peers of the realm, by the title
of Barons of Life; here John Talbot had abafe or qua¬
lified fee in that dignity j and the inftant he or his
heirs quitted the feigniory of this manor, the dignity
was at an end. This eftate is a fee, becaufe by pofli-
bility it may endure for ever in a man and his heirs *,
yet as that duration depends upon the concurrence ot
collateral circumftances, wdfich qualify and debafe the
purity of the donation, if is therefore a qualified or bafe
fee.
2. As to itzs-conditional, or fee-tail, fee the article
Tail.
Fee alfo fignifies a certain allowance to phyficians,
harrifters, attorneys, and other officers, as a reward for
their pains and labour.
If a perfon refufe to pay an officer his due fees, the
court wall grant an attachment againft him, to be com¬
mitted till the fees are paid j and an attorney may
bring an aftion of the cafe for his fees againft the cli¬
ent that retained him in his caufe.
Fee alfo denotes a fettled perquifite of public officers,
payable by thofe who employ them.
The fees due to the officers of the cuftom-houfe are
exprefsly mentioned in a fchedule, or table, which is
hung up in public view in the faid office, and in all other
places where the faid fees are to be paid or received.
And if any officer {hall offend, by afting contrary to
the regulations therein contained, he {hall forfeit his
office and place, and be for ever after incapable of any
office in the cuftom-houfe.
The other public offices have likewife their fettled
fees, for the feveral branches of bufinefs tranfafted in
them.
Fee Farm, a kind of tenure without homage, feal¬
ty,, or other fervice, except that mentioned in the feoff¬
ment y
Feelers
II
Felling.
f Lesret
IVailtce,
p. 5S.
F E L [ 5
ment; which is ufually the full rent, or at leal! a fourth
part of it.
The nature of this tenure is, that if the rent be be¬
hind, and unpaid for tvvro years, tnen the feoffoi and
his heirs may have an adlion for the recovery of the
lands.
FEELERS, in NaturalHiJlonj, a name ufed by fome
for the horns of insects.
FEELING, one of the five external fenfes, by
which we obtain the ideas of folid, hard, foft, rough,
hot, cold, wet, dry, and other tangible qualities. See
Anatomy Index.
FEET. See Foot.
FEET-Bearer, the name of an officer in the courts of
the ancient Anglo-Saxon and Welfh kings. He was
a young gentleman whofe duty it was to fit on the floor,
with his back towards the fire, and hold the king’s
feet in his bofom all the time he fat at table, to keep
them warm and comfortable f : a piece of Hate and
luxury unknown in modern times.
FEINT, in fencing, a fliow of making a thrufl at
one part, in order to deceive the enemy, that you may
really ftrike him in another.
A fimple feint is a mere motion of the wrift, without
flirring the foot.
FELAPTON, in Logic, one of the fix firft modes
of the third figure of fyllogifms; whereof the firtl
propofition is an univerfal negative, the fecond an
univerfal affirmative, and the third a particular nega¬
tive.
FELIBIEN, Andre, was born at Chartres in
1619, and went fecretary under the Marquis de Fonte-
nay Mareuil ambaffador to the court of Rome in 1647.
On his return, M. Colbert procured him the places of
hifloriographer to the king, fuperintendant of his build¬
ings, and of the arts and manufactures in France. He
became afterwards deputy comptroller general of the
bridges and dykes in that kingdom } and died in 1695.
He wrote feveral pieces relating to the fine arts : the
principal of which is his “ Dialogues on the Lives and
Works of the molt eminent Painters.”
FELICITAS, (Felicity, or Happinefs), was dei¬
fied by the ancient Pagans. Lucullus built a temple
to her. She had another erefted by Lepidus. I he
Greeks paid divine worfhip to Macaria, daughter of
Hercules, the fame with Felicitas. This deity is often
pictured upon medals, and generally with a cornucopiae
in one hand, and a caduceus in the other. The infcrip-
tions are, Felicitas Temporum, Felicitas Augujh, Felicitas
Fublica, &.c.
FELIS, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the or¬
der of ferae, and clafs mammalia. See Mammalia
Index.
FELLING 0/Timber.—Many circumftances are
Tvell known and conftantly obferved in the felling of
timber for building, which, though to a hafty obferver,
they might appear trifling, yet prove, on experi¬
ence, to be of the utmoft confequenee.. One thing ob¬
ferved by M. de Buffon, which very greatly increafes
the folidity and ftrength of timber, is, that the trees
intended to be felled for fervioe fliould firft be ftripped
of their bark, and fuffered to Itand and die upon the
fpot before the cutting. The fappy part or blea of
the oak becomes by this means as hard and firm as
the heart} and the real, ftrength and denfity of the
Felony.
89 ] F E L
wood has been proved, by many experiments, to be fellowibip
greatly increafed by it : nor is this a praCtice of any 11
detriment to the proprietor, fince the remaining flumps 
of thefe trees fend up their young flioots as vigorouf-
ly as if they had been cut down in their natural con¬
dition . -
When any tree is to be cut down for timber, the firft'
thing to be taken care of is a fkilful difbranching of
fuch limbs as may endanger it in its fall: many trees, are
utterly fpoiled for wrant of a previous care of this kind.
In arms of timber that are very great, it is always ne-
celfary to chop or fink in them clofe to the bole, and
then meeting it with downright ftrokes, it will be fe¬
vered from the tree without fplitting. In felling the
tree, take care always to cut it as clofe to the ground
as poffible, unlefs it is intended to be grubbed up : and
the doing that is of advantage both to the timber and
to the wood •, for timber is never fo much valued, if it
be known to grow out of old flocks.
FELLOWSHIP, Company, or Dijlributive Pro¬
portion, in Arithmetic. See ARITHMETIC.
FELO de se, in Law, a perfon that lays deliberate¬
ly violent hands on himfelf, and is the occafion of his
untimely death, whether by hanging, drowning, ftab-
bing, fhooting, or any other way.
FELON, in Law, a perfon guilty of felony. See
Felony.
FELONY, in the general acceptation of the law,,
comprifes every fpecies of crime, wThich occafions at
common law the forfeiture of lands or goods. .This
molt frequently happens in thofe crimes for which a
capital punilhment either is or was to be inflicted : for
thofe felonies that are called clergyable, or to which the
benefit of clergy extends, were anciently punifhed with
death in all lay or unlearned offenders \ though now,
by the flatute law, that punifhment is for the firft of¬
fence univerfally remitted. ireafon itfelf, fays Sir Ed¬
ward Coke,, was anciently comprifed under the name of
felony } and in confirmation of this we may obferve,
that the flatute of treafons, 25 Edw. III. c. 2. fpeak-
ing of fome dubious crimes, dire&s a reference to par¬
liament ; that, it may be there adjudged, “ whether
they be treafon or other felony.’.’ All treafons, there¬
fore, ftridtly fpeaking, are felonies ; though all felonies
are not treafon- And to this alfo we may add, that all
offences, now capital, are in fome degree or other fe¬
lony •, but this is likewife the cafe with fome other , of¬
fences, w’hich are not punifhed with death 5 as fuitiide,
where the party is already dead y homicide by chance-
medley, or in felf-defence ; and petit-larceny, or pilfer¬
ing ; all which are (ftrictly fpeaking) felonies, as they
fubjeft the committers of them to forfeitures. So that,
upon the whole, the only adequate definition of felony
feems to be that which is before laid down4 viz. an
offence which occafions a total forfeiture of either lands
or goods, or both, at the common law } and to which
capital or other punifhment may be fuperadded, accord¬
ing to the degree of guilt.
To explain this matter a little farther : The wordyL
lony, or felonia,. is of undoubted feodal original, being
frequently to be met wdth in the books of feuds, &c„
but the derivation of it has much puzzled the juridical
lexicographers, Prataeus, Calvinus, and the reft : fome
deriving it from the Greek, “ an impoftor or de¬
ceiver.:” others from the Latin, fallo, fefelh, to counte¬
nance,:-
F F L
Fe!ony- nance which they would have it called fellonia, „
ward Coke, as his manner is, has given us a ftill ftranger
etymology ; that it is crimen animo felleo perpetratum,
“ with a bitter or gallilh inclination.” But all of them
agree in the defcription, that it is fuch a crime as
works a forfeiture of all the offender’s lands or goods.
And this gives great probability to Sir Henry Spel-
man’s Teutonic or German derivation of it: in which
language, indeed, as the word is clearly of feodal ori¬
ginal, we ought rather to look for its fignification, than
among the Greeks and Romans. Fe-lon then, accord¬
ing to him, is derived from two northern words : fee,
which fignifies (we well know) the fief, feud, or bene¬
ficiary eflate; and lon, which fignifies price or value.
Felony is therefore the fame as pretium feudi, the con-
fideration for which a man gives up his fief $ as we
fay in common fpeech, fuch an aft is as much as
your life or eflate is worth. In this fenfe it wall
clearly fignify the feodal forfeiture, or aft by which an
eilate is forfeited, or efcheats to the lord.
To confirm this, we may obferve, that it is in this
fenfe, of forfeiture to the lord, that the feodal writers
conftantly ufe it. For all thofe afts, whether of a cri¬
minal nature or not, which at this day are generally
. forfeitures of copyhold eftates, are ftyled felonies in the
feodal law : feilicet, per quas feudum amittitur.” As
ilf dotnino defervire nolueritft per annum et die?n
cejfavent in petenda invejlitura ',—Ji dominum ejuravit,
negavitfe a domino feudum habere ;~~f a domino in
jus eum vacante, ter citatus non comparuerit—all thefe,
with many others, are ftill jeaufes of forfeiture in our
copyhold eflates, and were denominated felonies by the
leodal conllitutions. So likewife injuries of a more
fublfantial or criminal nature wrere denominatedfelonies,
that is, forfeitures: as aflaulting dr beating the lord j
vitiating, his wife or daughter, “ f dominum cucurbi-
taverit, i. e. cum uxore ejus concubuerit; all thefe are
efteemed felonies, and the latter is exprefsly fo deno¬
minated, il f fecerit feloniam, dominum forte cucurbi-
tando. And as thefe contempts, or fmaller offences,
were felonies or afts of forfeiture, of courle greater
'crimes, as murder and robbery, fell under the fame de¬
nomination. On the other hand, the lord might be
guilty of felony, or forfeit his feignory to the vaffal, by
•the fame aft as the vaffal would have forfeited his feud
to the lord. “ Si dominus commifit feloniam, per quam
vafallus a mitt er et feudum Ji earn commiferit in domi¬
num, feudi propnetatem etiam dominus perdere debetl"
One inftance given of this fort of felony in the lord is
beating the fervant of his vaffal, fo as that he lofes his
feivice ; which feems merely in the nature of a civil in-
jury, fo far as it refpefts the vaffal. And all thefe felo¬
nies were to be determined, “ per laudamentum five ju¬
dicium pariumfuorumfi in the lord’s court; as with us
forfeitures of copyhold lands are prefentable by the
homage in the court-baron.
Felony, and the aft of forfeiture to the lord, being
thus fynonymous terms in the feodal law, we may eafi-
y trace the reafon why, upon the introduftion of that
law7 into England, thofe crimes wdiich induced fuch
or citure or efeheat of lands (and, by a fmall defieftion
from the original fenfe, fuch as induced the forfeiture
of goods, alfo) w7ere denominated felonies. Thus it was
that filicide, robbery, and rape, were felonies ; that is,
die confequence of fuch crimes was forfeiture j till by
[ 59° ] F E L
Sir Ed- long ufe we. began to .fignify by the term of felony
the aftual crime committed, and not the penal confe¬
quence. i^id upon this fyftem only can we account
for the caufe, why treafon in ancient, times w7as held to
be a fpecies of felony 5 viz. becaule it induced a forfei¬
ture.
Hence it follows, that capital punifhment does by no
means enter into the true, idea and definition of felony.
Felony may be without infiifting capital punifhment,
as. in the cafes inftanced of felf-murder, excufable ho¬
micide, and petit-larceny : and it is poffible that capi¬
tal punifhments may be inflifted, and yet the offence
be no felony ; as in cafe of herefy by the common
law, w'hich, though capital, never worked any forfei¬
ture of lands or goods, an infeparable incident to fe¬
lony.. And of the fame nature was the punifiiment of
Handing mute, without pleading to an indiftment j
wdiich at the common law was capital, but wdthout any
forfeiture, therefore fuch Handing mute was no fclonv.
In fiiort, the true criterion of felony is forfeiture : for,
as Sir Edward Coke juflly obferves, in all felonies
which are. punifhable with death, the offender lofes all
his lands in fee-fimple, and alfo his goods and chattels j
in fuch as are not puniihable, his goods and chattels
only.
. The idea of felony is indeed fo generally connefted
with that of capital punifliment, that we find it hard
to feparate them y and to this ufage the interpretations
of the law do now conform. And therefore, if a Hatute
makes any new7 offence felony, the law7 implies that it
fliall be punifiied wdth death, viz. by hanging, as w7ell
as with forfeiture: unlefs the offender prays the be¬
nefit of clergy $ which all felons are entitled once
to have, unlefs the fame is exprefsly taken away by
Hatute. J
Felonies by flatute are very numerous-; and as this
W7ork wdll not admit of a proper enumeration, we muH
refer to the table of the quarto edition of the Statutes,
where they are fet forth in alphabetical order.
FELT, in Commerce, a fort of fluff deriving all
its confiflence merely from being fulled, or wrought
with lees and fize, wdthout either fpinning or weav¬
ing. Felt is made either of wool alone or of wool and
hair.
FELTING, the method of working up hair or wool
into a fpecies of cloth, independent of either fpinning
or weaving. Felting in Britain is not much praftifed,
except in the manufafturing of hats ; and as the gene¬
rality even of thofe w7ho are employed in making them,
are unacquainted with the principles on which they aft’,
a few obfervations on the method of felting may, to fuch,?
be both ufeful and agreeable.
If wool, the hair of a rabbit, hare, beaver, or human-
hair, be examined with a microfcope of the greateff
magnifying power, the furface of each, hair appears per¬
fectly fmooth, or if any inequalities are obferved, they
do not appear fo much to arife from an irregular furface
as from fome peculiar difference in the colour and tranf-
parency of the fubffances examined ; for if their image
be viewed by a folar microfcope, it terminates in even
lines, without the fmalleff veflige of any roughnefs. Yet
nothing is more evident than that the furfaces of hairs
are not perfeftly fmooth, but either compofed of lamel¬
lae covering each other from the root to the point, re-
fanbling the feales of fifltes j or what ioznc have deemed
more
F E L
[S9i] F E M
Felting, more probable, of zones placed over each other, fimi-
lar to the ftrufture of horns; and to this texture hair,
wool, See. owe their difpolition for what is denominated
felting.
Let a perfon take hold of a hair by the root with one
hand, and draw it between two fingers of the other,
from the root towards the point, he will fcarcely per
ceive any fri&ion, or hear any found ; but Ihouid he
hold the hair by the point, and draw it between his
fingers from the point towards the root, he will feel a
fenfible oppofition or refillance winch could not be felt
before. A fort of tremulous motion is likewife produced,
which can be diftinguifhed by the ear. From this iimple
experiment it is obvious that the texture of the furface
of a hair is not the fame from the point to the root, as
it is from the root to the point. If a hair is taken hold
of by the fore-finger and thumb, and rubbed in a longi¬
tudinal direction, a progreffive motion is the refult,
which is invariably towards the root. This is wholly
^dependent of the texture or nature of the {kin of the
ringers ; for if the hair be turned, and the point of it
placed where the root formerly was, the movement be¬
comes contrary, or, in other words, it is {till directed to¬
wards the root.
It is found a very difficult talk to untie a knot made
in the middle of a hair, on account of its extreme thin-
nefs ; but if the hair is placed in the bend of the hand,
the knot being in a line with the little finger, and if the
hair is grafped by clofing the hand, and the fill ftruck
feveral times againft the knee, the knot is thereby open¬
ed, becaufe the afperities of one end of the hair are in a
contrary direftion to thofe of the other, by which means
each end of it recedes a little. By the introdudlion of a
pin into the eye thus formed at the knot, it is eafily un¬
tied. Although thefe obfervations have a diredt refer¬
ence to long hair ; yet they are equally applicable to
wool, furs, and almoft every fpecies of animal hair. The
lurfaces of all thefe confift of hard lamellae^ placed upon
each other like tiles, in the diredlion from the root to
the point.
By attending to thefe remarks, it is eafy to fee why
the contadl of woollen Huffs is rough to the fkin. The
afperities on the furface of the fibres of wool produce a
difagreeable fenfation, by fixing themfelves in the {kin,
which can only be endured by being accuftomed to feel
it frequently. The injury done to -wounds by the ap¬
plication of wool, is not the refult of any chemical pro¬
perty, but is entirely occafioned by the afperities of its
furface.
& hatter feparates the hairs from each other, by
ftriking the wool wkh the ftring of his bo-w, caufing
them to fpring up in the air, which fall on the table in
every poffible direction, forming a layer of a particular
thicknefs, which is covered by the workmen with a
cloth, preffing it with his hands, and moving the hairs
backwards and forwards in different directions. In this
manner the hairs are brought againft each other, and
their points of contadl confiderably multiplied, and the
agitation gives each hair a progreffive motion towards
the root, in confequence of which the hairs become
twdfted together. As the mafs becomes compadl, the
preffure ought to be increafed, in order to keep up the
progreffive motion and twilling of the hairs, which is
then performed with greater difficulty.
The hair defigned for the manufadurirtg of hats is al¬
ways cut off with a ftiarp inftrument, and not pulled Felt-Spar
out by the roots, becaufe the bulb of the hair which IJ
would come out with it in the latter cafe, would render Fcminine-
the end which was fixed in the Ikin very obtufe, and V
nearly deftroy its difpolition to unite with the adjacent
hairs. But in addition to the tendency of hairs to move
progreffively towards the root, they fiiould not be itraight
like needles, for in this cafe they could not produce any
compa&nefs in the ftuff. The fibres of wool having
naturally a crooked form, that fubftance is wTell adapted
to the operation of felting. The hair of beavers, rabbits,
hares, &c. being ftraight, it cannot be employed m
felting by itfelf, till it has been lubjedted to a previous
preparation, viz. rubbing and combing on the {kin, the
brulh being dipped in a folution of mercury in nitric
acid. This iubllance, by adling only on one lide of the
hairs, gives them that difpofition to felting which is na¬
tural to wool.
When it is not intended that the hairs ftiall enter in¬
to the body of the mafs, but ferve only as an external
coating, which is fometimes given to the outer furface
of hats, the operation with the nitric acid need not be
performed. They muft be uniformly fpread upon the
lurface to which the coating is to be applied, and being
covered with a cloth, it is preffed with the hands, and
agitated for fome time. They receive a particular di-
redlion afterwards by means of a bruffi, and are enabled
to keep it by having a hot iron paffed over them.
Woollen cloth is thickened by fulling, on the fame
principles that wool and hair become capable of felt-
ing.
Felt-Spar or FELD-Spary a mineral fubftance. See
Mineralogy Index.
FELTRIA, in Ancient Geography, a town on the
borders of Rhaetia towards Italy. Now Felitri, in the
territory of Venice, on the Piava. E. Long. 12. 16- .
N. Lat. 46. o.
FELUCCA, in fea affairs, a little veffel rowred with
fix oars, frequent in the Mediterranean j which has this
peculiarity, that its helm may be applied either in the
head or ftern, as occafion requires.
FEMALE, (foemina), a term peculiar to ani-
mals, fignifying that lex which conceives and gene¬
rates its young within itfelf. See Sex and Genera¬
tion.
Female is alfo applied, figuratively, to thingA*-
without life, from the refemblance they bear to the
females of animals. Thus w'e fay a
Female Screw. See Screw.
Female Flower. See Fcemineus Flos.
Female Plant. See Fcemmea Plant A.
FEMME covert, in Law, a married woman. See
Coverture.
Femme Sole, an unmarried woman, whofe debts, con-
tracted before marriage, become thofe of her hulband
after it.
A femme foie merchant, is where a woman, in Lon¬
don, ufes-a trade alone, without her huffiand ; on which
account ftie fliall be charged without him.
FEMININE, in Grammar, one of the genders of
nouns. See Gender.
Ihe feminine gender is that which denotes the noun
or name to belong to a female. In the Latin, the fe- •
minine gender is formed of the mafeuline, by altering,
its termination \ particularly by changing us into a.
Thus,,
Femur,
Fen.
a good mare
is formed parva
FEN
Thus, of the mafculine homis equus,
is formed the feminine bona equa,
fo, of parvus homo, “ a little man,’
famine, “ a little woman,” &.c.
In French, the feminine gender is exprefled, not by
a different termination, but by a different article : thus,
4e is joined to a male, and la to a female.
In Englifh, we are generally more ftri61, and ex-
prefs the difference of fex, not by different termina¬
tions, nor by different particles, but different wrords j
as boar and low, boy and girl, brother and filler, &c.
—though fometimes the feminine is formed by vary¬
ing the termination of the male into efs ; as in abbot,
-abbefs, &c.
FEMUR, os femoris, the thigh bone. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
FEN, a place overflowed with water, or abounding
with bogs. See Bog and Draining, in Agriculture
Index.
Fens are either made up of a congeries of bogs ; or
confift of a multitude of pools or lakes, with dry fpots
of land intermixed, like fo many little illands.
Several llatutes have been made for the draining of
fens, chiefly in Kent, Cambridgelhire, Bedfordlhire,
and Lincolnlhire $ and by a late a£f, u Geo. II. com-
miflioners lhall be appointed for the effeftually draining
and preferving of the fens in the ifle of Ely, who are
authorized to make drains, dams, and proper works
thereon 5 and they may charge the landholders therein
•with a yearly acre-tax, and in default of payment, fell
the defender’s lands.
The wet grounds called fens, in Lincolnlhire and
elfewhere in England, bring many advantages to the
inhabitants of thole counties. Fowl and filh are very
plentiful in them. The pike and eels are large and
tafily caught, but they are ufually coarfe. The duck,
mallard, and teal, are in fuch plenty as is fcarce to be
conceived. They are taken by decoys in prodigious
flocks at a time. They fend thefe fowl from Lincoln¬
lhire to London, twice a-week, on horfeback, from
Michaelmas to Lady-day and one decoy will furnilh
20 dozen, or more, twice a-week, for the whole feafon
in this manner. The decoy-men contraft with the
people, who bring them to London at a certain rate,
and they are obliged to take off their hands the whole
number that is catched. Two teal are ufually reckon¬
ed equal to one duck *, and fix ducks and twelve teal are
accounted a dozen of wild fowl j and the ufual mar¬
ket price is about 9s. for fuch a dozen. About mid-
fummer, during the moulting feafon, a great number
alfo are dellroyed by the people in the neighbour¬
hoods. The poor birds at this feafon are neither able
to fwim nor fly well; and the people going in with
boats among the reeds where they lie, knock them
down with long poles. A little before Michaelmas,
vaft flights of thefe birds arrive at the decoys from
other places 5 they foon grow fat in them, and conti¬
nue there a prey to the mafters or owners, as long as
the decoys are unfrozen; but, when they are iced
over, they fly away again, and go to the neighbouring
feas for food.
The fens alfo abound in a fort of herbage that is
very nourifhing to cattle. Sheep and horfes always
grow fat upon it. The fens are common, and the
owners of cattle mark them that they may be known.
[ 592 ] FEN
a good horfe,” It is remarkable, that, though all is open, the cattle
“ ufed to one particular fpot of ground feldom leave it, _
but the owmer may always find them in or near the
fame place. The fens have many large and deep
drains. In thefe the pike and eel growr to a vaft fize :
and they are full of geefe which feed on the grafs •,
but thefe eat rank and muddy, and may even be fmelt
as foon as a perfon comes into the room where they are
roalting. But the people have another very great ad¬
vantage from thefe birds befides the eating of tnem,
namely, their feathers and quills 5 and the produce of
thefe is fo great, that the cuftomhoufe books in the
town of Bofton fliow, that there are frequently lent
away in one year 30c bags of feathers, each containing
a hundred and a half weight. Each pound of feathers
brings in the owner twopence j and it may be thought
ftrange by people unacquainted with thefe things, but
it is a certain truth, that the owners pull them five or
fix times a year for the feathers, and three times for
the quills. Each pulling comes to about a pound,
and many people have 1000 geefe at a time, or
more. They are kept at no charge, except in deep
fnowy weather, when they are obliged to feed them
with corn.
Oats alfo grow vety well in many of the fen coun¬
tries, and in good feafons bring great increafe and
advantage to the owmers. rI here is alfo another ve¬
getable of great profit to them. I his is the rapum
fdvejlre ; the feed of wThich they call cole feed ; and they
make an oil from it of great ule in trade. I hey grind
the feed between two large ftones, the one {landing
perpendicularly on the other. "I he ftones are made
of a fort of black marble, and are brought from Ger¬
many. They fometimes turn them by fails, and fome¬
times by the drains which carry off the water from the
fen lands.
The fens lying low, and being of a vaft extent, are
very fubjefl to be overflowTed by waters from the neigh¬
bouring high countries} and though great care and
expence is ufed to keep them dry, they are often like
a fea j and the fheep are obliged to be carried off in
boats, and the people to live in their upper rooms, and
to be fupplied with provifions alfo with boats.
FENCE, in Gardening and Hufbandry, a hedge,
wall, ditch, bank, or other enclofure, made round gar¬
dens, fields, woods, Sccl
In hot climates, where they have not occafion for
walls to ripen their fruit, their gardens lie open, where
they can have a water fence, and profpefts 5 or elfe
they bound their gardens with groves, in which are
fountains, vralks, Sec. which are much more pleafing
to the fight than a dead wall: but, in colder countries,
vTe are obliged to have walls to {belter and ripen our
fruit, although they take away much from the plea-
fant profpeft of the garden. Brick walls are account¬
ed the beft and warmeft for fruit: and thefe walls, be¬
ing built pannelwife, with pillars at equal diftances, will
fave a great deal of charge, in that the walls may be
built thinner than if they were made plain without
thefe pannels, for then it wrould be neceffary to build
them thicker everywhere •, and, befides, thefe pannels
make the walls look the handfomer. Stone walls,
how'ever, on account of their durability, are to be pre¬
ferred to thofe of brick, efpecially thofe of fquare
hewn ftones. Thofe that are made of rough ftones,
though
Fen,
Fence.
FEN [ 593 ] FEN
Fence, though they are very dry and warm, yet, by reafon of
vr' ' their unevennefs, are inconvenient to nail up trees to,
except pieces of timber be laid in them here and there
for that purpofe.
But, in large gardens, it is better to have the pro-
fpedl open to the pleafure garden j which Ihould be
furrounded with a fofle, that from the garden the ad¬
jacent country may be viewed. But this mull depend
on the fituation of the place : for, if the profpeft from
the garden is not good, it had better be Ihut out from
the fight than be open. As alfo, when a garden lies
near a populous town, and the adjoining grounds are
open to the inhabitants j if the garden is open, there
will be no walking there in good weather, without be¬
ing expofed to the view of all paffengers, which is very
difagreeable.
Millers Where the foffes are made round a garden which is
Gardener's lituated in a park, they are extremely proper ; becaufe
Diflionary. hereby the profpedt of the park will be obtained in the
garden, which renders thofe gardens much more agree¬
able than thofe that are confined.—In the making
thefe foffes there have been many inventions j but, up¬
on the whole, none feem preferable to thofe which
have an upright wall next the garden, wrhich (where
the foil will admit of a deep trench) Ihould be five or
fix feet high 5 and, from the foot of this wall, the
ground on the outfide fliould rife with a gradual eafy
dope, to the diftanqj of i 8 or 20 feet; and where it
can be allowed, if it Hopes much farther it will be ea-
fier, and lefs perceptible as a ditch, to the eye, when
viewed at a diftance 5 but, if the ground is naturally
wet, fo as not to admit a deep foffe, then, in order to
make a fence againft cattle, if the wall be four feet
high, and flight polls of three feet high are placed juft
behind the wall, with a fmall chain carried on from
poll to poll, no cattle or deer will ever attempt to
jump againft it •, therefore it will be a fecure fence
againft them j and if thefe are painted green, they w ill
not be difcerned at a diftance, and at the fame time
the chain will fecure perfons walking in the garden
from tumbling over.
In places where there are no good profpefts to be
obtained from a garden, it is common to make the en-
clofure of park paling *, which, if well performed,
will laft many years, and has a much better appear¬
ance than a wall; and this pale may be hid from the
fight within, by plantations of ftirubs and evergreens;
or there may be a quick hedge planted within the pale,
which may be trained up, fo as to be an excellent fence
by the time the pales begin to decay.
Fences round parks are generally of paling *, wdiich,
if well made of winter-fallen oak, will laft many years.
But a principal thing to be obferved, in making thefe
pales, is not to make them too heavy : for, when they
are fo, their own weight will caufe them to decay :
therefore the pales Ihould be cleft thin j and the rails
fliould be cut triangular, to prevent the vyet lodging
upon them ; and the polls Ihould be good, and not
placed too far afunder. If thefe things are obferved,
one of thefe pales will laft, wdth a little care, up¬
wards of 40 years very well. The common way of
making thefe fences is, to have every other pale nine
or ten inches above the intermediate ones j fo that the
fence may be fix feet and a half high, which is enough
for fallow deer j but, where there are red deer, the
Vol. VIII. Part II.
fence Ihould be one foot higher, otherwife they will
leap over.
Some enclofe their parks with brick walls 5 and in
countries where Hone is cheap, the walls are built
with this material j fome with, and others without,
mortar.
A kitchen garden, if rightly contrived, will contain
walling enough to afford a fupply of fuch fruits as re¬
quire the afliftance of wralls, for any family ; and this
garden, being fituated on one fide, and quite out of
fight of the houfe, may be furrounded with wTalls
which will fcreen the kitchen garden from the fight of
perfons in the pleafure garden j and, being locked up,
the fruit will be much better preferved than it can be
in the public garden 5 and the having too great a quan¬
tity of willing is often the occafion that fo many ill
managed trees are frequently to be feen in large gar¬
dens.
The height of garden walls ftiould be I 2 feet, which
is a moderate proportion ; and, if the foil be good, it
may in time be well fumiftied with bearing wrood in
every part, efpecially that part planted with pears, not-
withftanding of the branches being trained horizontally
from the bottom of the wralls.
With regarded to the different kinds of fences. See
Agriculture Index.
FKNCE-Month, the month wherein deer begin to fawn,
during which it is unlawful to hunt in the foreft.
It commences 15 days before Midfummer, and ends
15 days after it. This month, by ancient forefters, is
called defence-month.
FENCING, the art of making a proper ufe of the
fword, as well for attacking an enemy as for defend¬
ing one’s felf.
This art is acquired by praftifing with foils, called
in Latin rudes; whence fencing is alfo denominated
gladiatura rudiaria.—It is one of the exercifes learnt
in the academies (fee Exercise and Academy) ; and
is an accomplilhment both agreeable and ufeful:—A-
greeable, as it affords gentlemen a noble and diftin-
guithed amufement :—Ufeful, as it forms their body j
and furnilhes them with the faculty of defence, whe¬
ther it be of their honour or their life, when the one
or the other is attacked by thofe turbulent and dan¬
gerous perfons whofe correction is of fervice to fociety
in general.
Pyrard affures us, that the art of fencing is fo high¬
ly efteemed in the Eaft Indies, that none but princes
and noblemen are allowed to teach it. They wTear a
badge or cognizance on their right arms, called in
their language efaru; which is put on with great ce¬
remony, like the badges of our orders of knighthood,
by the kings themfelves.
Fencing is divided into two parts, Jimple and com~
pound.
Simple is that performed directly and nimbly, on the
fame line 5 and is either offenfive or defenfive.—The
principal object of the firft, is whatever may be at¬
tempted, in pufliing or making paffes, from this or
that point, to the moft uncovered part of the enemy.
The fecond confifts in parrying and repelling the
thrufts aimed by the enemy.
The compound includes all the poflible arts and inven¬
tions to deceive the enemy, and make him leave that
part we have a defign on bare and unguarded, upon
4 F finding
Feuce-
Montb,
Fencing.
FEN [ 594- ] F E O
Fenelon finding we cannot come at it by force, nor by the agi-
Ffc. ton t^ie ^imP^e play. The principal means hereof are,
. on the oifenfive fide, feints, appeals, clafliings, and en-
tanglings of fwords, half thrufts, &c. and, on the defen-
iive, to pufh in parrying. Of all which a detail would
be here ufelefs, as they are only to be underftood and
acquired from perfonal inftrucHons conjoined with
praftice.
FENELON, Francis de Salignac de la Motte,
■was of an ancient and illuftrious family, and born at
the caftle of Fenelon in Perigord in 1651. In 1689,
he was appointed tutor to the dukes of Burgundy and
Anjou j and in 1655 was confecrated archbifiiop of
Cambray. After this preferment, a fiorm arofe againft
him, that obliged him to leave the court for ever, oc-
cafioned by his performance entitled, An Explication of
the Maxims of the Saints concerning the Interior Life j-
in which he was fuppofed to favour the extravagant no¬
tions of Madame Guyon, and the principles of Quiet-
ifm. A controverfy on this occafion was for fome time
carried on between him and M. Bofiuet, bifhop of
Meaux : which terminated in an appeal to the pope ;
when his holinefs condemned the archbiihop’s book,
by a brief dated March 12. 1699. Some friends in¬
deed pretend, that there was more of court policy than
religious zeal in this affair: but be this as it may, the
archbilhop fubmitted patiently to this determination ;
and, retiring to his diocefe of Cambray, acquitted
himfelf punftually in ail the duties of his ffation, and
led a moft exemplary life. The work that gained him
the greateft reputation, and which will render his me¬
mory immortal, is his Adventures of Telemachus; the
ftyle of which is natural, the fiftions well contrived, the
moral fublime, and the political maxims tending all to
the happinefs of mankind. Hence it is thought, as
the printing of this work was flopped at Paris, that
the prelate’s hereby was in politics inflead of religion j
and though his difgrace was prior to this work, he
had, while he was tutor to the young princes, taught
them the fame principles afierted and exemplified in
Telemachus. Fenelon died in 1715 5 and a colle&ion
of all his religious works was afterwards printed at
Rotterdam, under the care of the marquis de Fene¬
lon his grand-nephew, when ambaffador to the States-
General.
FENNEL. See Anethum, Botany Index.
FENTON, Sir Geoffroy, privy counfellor and fe-
cretary in Ireland during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth
and King James I. is well known for his tranflation of
Guicciardini’s Hiftory of the Wars of Italy, dedicated
to Queen Elizabeth in 1579. died at Dublin in
1608 ; after having married his daughter to Mr Boyle,
afterward the great earl of Corke.
Fenton, Elijah, defcended from an ancient fami¬
ly, was born at Shelton near Newcaftle, but in what
year is uncertain. He was the youngeft of 1 2 chil¬
dren, and was intended for the minillry ; but embra-
cing principles contrary to the government, while at
Cambridge, he became difqualified for entering into Fenugreek
holy orders. After he quitted the univerfity, he was II
lecretary to the earl of Orrery 5 but feems to have
fpent the moft of his life amongft his friends and rela- < ' ■
tions, and ufed to pay an annual vilit to his elder bro¬
ther who enjoyed an eftate of 1000I. a-year. He
was a man of great tendernefs and humanity, enjoyed
the faireft reputation, and was much elleemed by Mr
Pope $ who, when he died in 1730, paid him the
tribute of a very elegant epitaph. He publiftred a
volume of poems in the year 1717 j and in 1723 was
a£ted his tragedy of Mariamne, built upon her ftory
collefted from jofephus in the third volume of the
Spediator.
FENUGREEK. See Trigonella, Botany Index.
FEOD, or Feud, is defined to be a right which a
vaffal hath in lands or fome immoveable thing of his
lord’s, to ufe the fame, and take the profits thereof
hereditarily, rendering unto the lord fuch feodal du¬
ties and fervices as belong to military tenure, &c. and
the property of the foil always remaining to the lord.
FEODAL, of or belonging to a Feud or Fee.
Feodal Syjlem, the conftitution of Fiefs or Feuds.
About 12 centuries ago, this fyftem was fo univer-
fally received in Europe, that Sir Henry Spelmen calls
it the law of nations in our wejlern world. Hence it
deferves our attention in a particular manner j a know¬
ledge of the different feuds being indifpenfably requi-
fite for a proper underftanding either of the civil go-
yernment of our own country, or of the laws by which
its landed property is regulated. r
The military policy of the Celtic or northern na-Origin of
tions, known by the names of Goths, Vandals, Franks
Hunns, and Lombards, furnifhed the original conftitu¬
tion or fyftem of feuds. I hefe people pouring out in
vaft multitudes from the fame ojfcma gentium or “ ftore-
houfe of nations,” overran all the European countries
on the declenfion of the Roman empire. They brought
the feudal fyftem along with them from the countries
out of which they emigrated 5 and, fuppofing it to be
the moft proper method of fecuring their new con-
quefts, they introduced it into their more foutherly
colonies.
According to this fyftem, the viftorious general al-
loted confiderable tradls of land to his principal offi¬
cers ; while they, in like manner, divided their poffef-
fions among the inferior officers, and even thofe com¬
mon foldiers who were thought to be the moft deferving.
Allotments of this kind were named feoda, fefs, fees,
ox feuds, from a combination of words, in the language
of thefe barbarians, fignifying a reward or ftipend be¬
llowed on certain conditions (a). The condition up¬
on which thefe rewards were given was, that the pof-
feffors fhould faithfully ferve the perfon from whom
they were received, both at home and abroad, in the
military way. To this they engaged themfelves by a
juramentum fidelitatis, or oath of fealty f 5 in the event f ^ce fhe
of a breach of which, either by not performing the ^
fervice „ure.
| See Mjc- (a) .^Te were ^formed by Pontopiddan, that odh in thefe northern languages is the fame with probrietas and
doivall's /w-ALL with totum in the Latin. Hence among the northern nations, he tells us, that ODHALL fimiifies rivht •
and hence we may conjeclure that the UDAL right in Finland is derived f. By tranfpofing thefe two northern
fyllables^
F E O L 595 ] FED
Feodal fervice agreed upon, by deferting their lord in time of
syltem- battle, &c. the lauds were to return to their original
^ IJofTeffor.
General Thus the pofleffors of feodal allotments became in¬
nature of terefted in the defence of them j and not only the rc-
the feodal ceivers but thofe who gave them, were equally and
aflbeiation. mutuaj]y bound to defend their poffeffions, none of
them being able to pretend any right but that of con-
queft. For this purpofe government and fubordina-
tion were abfolutely neceflary $ it being impofiible to
conducl any fyftem of defence where every thing was
tumultuous and irregular. Every perfon, therefore,
who was a feudatory, i. e. who had received lands,
was bound to do every thing in his power to defend
the lord of his fee j while, on the other hand, the lat¬
ter wyas no lefs fubordinate to his immediate fuperior;
and fo on to the prince himfelf. In like manner a re¬
ciprocal bond of defence exiiled down from the prince
to the lowed feodids.
Such were the foundations on which the feodal fyf¬
tem was properly edablilhed j and the natural confe-
quence wras, a military fubjeftion throughout the whole
community. The prince could always colledt an army
of feudatories ready to defend not only the kingdom
in general, but the particular poffedions of each perfon j
and the propriety of this conditution wras foon apparent
in the drength which thefe newly ereeded kingdoms
acquired, and the valour with which their conqueds
3 w'ere defended.
Of allodi- Befides thefe feodal grants, however, which were
ahty. held only on the terms of military fervice above men¬
tioned, there were others called allodial, which were
given upon more enlarged principles. To thefe every
free man had a title j and could not only claim his
territory as well as the red, but difpofe of it at his
pleafure (b) and this freedom was denominated alio- Ft ad*!
diality. Thefe allodials, however, wrere not exempted Si,ftern-
from military fervice. A part of their freedom con- V*~*J
Tided in liberty to go to the wars j for this, in the bar¬
barous times w'e fpeak of, was the only way to acquire
any degree of renown. Only the (laves wrere dedined
to follow the arts of peace; while every free perfon
was not only at liberty to defend his country, but
under an obligation to do it in cafe of any urgent ne-
cedity. ^
Thus there wTas a feodal and a national militia. The Feodal and
free people only wTere allowed to poffefs property 5 the national
feudal vajfals condituted the army, properly fo called j mditia.
wdiile the national militia was compofed of the allodial
proprietors. This allodiality, however, w^as not con¬
fined to landed property, but included likewife move-
able edates or money j fo that proprietors of the lat¬
ter kind wTere obliged alfo in times of danger to bear <.
arms and appear in the field. Between the feodal and Different
allodial proprietors, however, there was this farther fituations
difference, that the latter had no concern with any Jeo*
private quarrels which might take place among the^ ^
lords themfelves j fo that they wrere never obliged to pr0prietor.
appear in the field unlefs when called forth by the fo-
vereign againd the enemies of the nation at large.
This circumdance we might fuppofe to be an advan¬
tage, but it ultimately operated otherwife j becoming
the means of changing the allodial right into a feodal
tenure. For fome time the holders of fiefs had an
eminent advantage over the allodial proprietors. This
was owing to the imperfection of government in tbofe
days; fo that the nobles had it in their powrer to re¬
venge their own quarrels, while the weak were equally
expofed to the infults of both parties. The lord and
his vaffals therefore were always formidable; but the
4 F 2 allodial
fyllables, we form the word ALLODH •, whence we have the etymology of the allodium or abfolute property,
claimed by the holders of fiefs or feuds ; and by combining odh, lignifying “ property,” with the word fee,
fignifying “ a conditional dipend or reward,” we have the word FEODH, lignifying “ a property given by way
of dipend or reward upon a certain condition.”
(b) The author of A View of Society in Europe, has traced the remote fources of the feodal laws in an ele¬
gant and fpirited manner (book i. chap. ii. fedl. u) Tacitus informs us, that the individuals of each of
the German nations cultivated by turns a trail of land proportionable to their number, for the ufe of the
whole j after which each individual received fuch an allotment of the cultivated trail as his dignity feemed to
require. Thefe nations had not altered their political principles at the time they overran the Roman empire;
and hence the provinces of it were then divided after the fame manner. The mod conliderable allotment
was beitorved on the king, as being the moil dignified perfon in the community, and this allotment was ftyled
his domain; while the (hares of citizens and warriors, which were likewife in proportion to the merit or
dignity of each, conftituted what was called allodiality. But as it often happened that all the land was not
exhaufted by thefe partitions, what remained was confidered as the property of the community, and in the
barbaric codes was called the lands of the fife. In fuch German nations as had thus obtained a .fettlement, it was
neceffary that there fhould be a more clofe connexion betwixt the fovereign and the chiefs, as well as between
the chiefs and people, than in others. This was effe£ted by means of the lands of the ffc; for of thefe the
fovereign took poffeffion, dealing them out to the chiefs under the burden of appearing in arms whenever he
fhould uleafe to call; while the chiefs in like manner dealt out lands to thofe called their retainers, who were
alfo obliged to fupply them with military afiiftance in cafes of neceflity. Hence a political fyftem was
founded, which bad a prodigious effeft on fcciety in all thofe countries where it prevailed. The intention and
tendency of this fyftem was to render the nation independent both at home and abroad ; for, while the people
were all armed in their common defence, individuals were alfo properly guarded againft the attacks of defpo-
tifm. The power of the chiefs, who formed a regular nobility, was a counterpoife to that of the fovereign;
while the number of the retainers and vaffals, conftituting the greatnefs and power of the nobility, was a
proper barrier againft ariftocratical oppreflion; for a chief who oppreffed his vaffals evidently a£led againft his
own intereft.
F E 0 [ 596 3 F E O
Feodal allodial pfoprletors had fcarce any means of defending
syftem- themfelves. The reafon of this was, in the firft place,
““~v~ that the law did not allow them to commit any hofti-
litiesj and in the next, they were too diftant and un-
conne&ed to form any proper league for mutual de¬
fence 5 and hence proceeded the neceflxty already hint¬
ed at, of converting allodial property into feudal te¬
nure. This was indeed owing in a great meafure to
the abfurdity and violence of the times, by which gifts
of property, burdened with fervice, and which might
return to the perfon who granted them, were rendered
fuperior in value to the abfolute and unconditional
poffeffion of a fubjedt. Other confiderations, how¬
ever, befides that juft mentioned, contributed to pro¬
duce the fame effedt. As in thofe dark ages no right
exifted but what had its origin in conqueft, it thence
followed, that the greateft conqueror or warrior was
the moft honourable perfon. The king, in whom the
whole exploits of the community centered, as being
their head, was the moft honourable perfon : all others
derived from him that portion of honour which they
enjoyed, and which Was moft nicely adjufted in propor¬
tion as they approached him. Allodial proprietors,
therefore, having no pretensions of this kind, were
treated with contempt as a kind of poltroons. From
this difagreeable lituation they wiflred to free them¬
felves, by converting their allodial property into feodal Feodal
tenures; while the princes, fuppofing it their intereft sy^em- 3
to extend thofe tenures as much as poflible, difcouraged 6
the allodial poffeflions. As the feodifts fupported the Converfion
importance of the nation and dignity of the monarch, of a 11 odium
it was not thought proper to allow the allodial pro- i|1t0 tenure.
prietors any greater compenfations than what were
given to vaflals in fimilar cafes. Thus they were ex-
pofed to continual mortifications in the courts of juf-
tice : they were negledled by the king $ denied fuffi-
cient protedlion from the laws j expofed not only to
continual infults; but to have their property on all oc-
cafions deftroyed by the great : fo that they were
without refource except from the feodal tenures, and
were obliged even to folicit the privileges which were
beftowed in other cafes on vaffals. In thefe unhappy
circumftances, they were glad to yield up their lands
to any fuperior whom they thought moft agreeable,
and to receive them back from him as a feudal gift.
Thus the landed property was everywhere changed
into feudal tenures, and fiefs became univerial (c).
For fome time the feodal fyftem was not only ufeful
in itfelf, but honourable in its principles j but this
continued no longer than while the importers of it
into Europe adhered to their original fimple and noble
maxims. During that period, the lord exercifed his
bounty
(c) It has been an objeft of inquiry to the learned, in what nation of barbarians fiefs had their origin ? But
it is probable, that they took place in all thefe nations nearly about the fame time, on the fame principles j
and wrere continued by reafon of a fimilarity of manners, conquefts, &c. fo that we cannot afcribe the preva¬
lence of them to imitation.
In France, wTe find mention made of fiefs as early as the age of Childebert. They w:ere introduced into
Italy by the Lombards; amongft whom the cuftoms and law's relating to fiefs feem very early to have made
* Giannone rapid advances *. They wrere introduced into Spain before the invafion of the Moors and Saracens in the year
Hiji. of 710. Lands were granted for fervice and attachment among the Goths •, among whom alfo the perfon who
Naples, received the gift w7as the retainer of him who granted it. If he refufed his fervice, the grant was forfeited,
iect^ IV" an(l he was faid to receive it in patrocinio; he alfo fwore fealty to his lord } and on this footing the national
t' i'l. Wifi-militia was regulated f. There can be very little doubt that the feodal law wTas known in England in the
goth, lib. v. Saxon times, as is mentioned in the text J. In Scotland, how'ever, the hiftory of fiefs is ftill more uncertain
than anywhere elfe \ which has been afcribed partly to the mutilated ftate of the Scottifti records, and partly
to the want of able antiquaries in the nation. But, according to a late w'riter ||, allodiality and feudality have
exifted ever fince the foundation of the Scottilh monarchy, and have moft probably arifen from a fimilarity of
the manners and cuftoms in Scotland to thofe of other nations. It has indeed been fuppofed, that thefe cuf¬
toms were introduced from fome foreign model by Malcolm II. According to fome, they were introduced
Manchejler. dheftly from England •, and the policy of Malcolm in eftablifhing them has been highly extolled : but, ac-
^Obfe'it'atS cor(hT»g to our author, there is no foundation for any notion of that kind. Both the opinions juft mentioned
c>i the La'w eitfier direffly affert or imply, that the feudal maxims were introduced into this country upon the principle
and ConJU- of imitation } but it is very improbable that they could be imported from one people to another, on account
of their exceffive contrariety .to the common ufages and precepts of government among mankind. It muft
undoubtedly have been very abfurd, if not altogether imprafticable, to tranfplant the feudal tenures when the
grants of land were precarious, or depending entirely on the will of the prince, to a country which had never
known fuperiority or vaflalage. This would have required an alteration of all the orders of fociety from the
king to the peafant; while the wdiole chain of cuftoms, as wTell as the jurifdiftion of the kingdom, both high
and low, muft have fuftained a correfponding alteration, in order to conform them to the new fyftem. It is
likewife obvious, that no conqueft could be made on purpofe to obtain a fettlement by any nation who had
already received the knowledge of fiefs. The eftablilhment of them implied, that the people had already a
fixed and fettled refidence •, and accordingly hiftory does not furnifti us with any account of a nation among
whom fiefs were known, who ever migrated from the country they already pofleffed, to feek for one in which
they might fettle. Feudal inftitutions muft have originated wherever they have been obferved to flourilh.—
Scotland was formerly a feudal kingdom, and we know pretty nearly the time when the fiefs were hereditary
there ; but in that form they could not be introduced by the fovereign j and there was not any nation among
whom fiefs were already known who conquered, or made an eftabliftiment by conqueft, in Scotland. Fiefs
therefore mult have gradually advanced to fuch a #ate of perfection. The progrels they made may be like wile
eafily
tit. 3
Sfi iv. tit.
7.1. xx.
| See alfo
Whitaker i
Hijl. of
tution of
Sfotland.
F £ O
[ S91 ]
F E O
Feodal
Syftem.
The feodal
incidents.
bounty to tbe vaffal, which the latter repaid by afts
of gratitude j fo that the intercourfe betwixt them
was of the mod tender and affe&ionate kind •, and this
gave rife to what are called the feodal incidents.
The expedants of fiefs were educated in the hall of
the fuperior, while the tenures were precarious or only
for life : and even when they became hereditary, the
lord took care of the fon and eftate of his deceafed
vaffal; not only proteding his perfon, but taking
charge of his education, and direding the manage¬
ment of his affairs. He took pleafure in obferving his
approach to maturity ; and when he came of age, never
failed to deliver to him the lands, with the care of
which he had been intruded, and which he had been^
careful to improve. This was called the incident of
ward [hip.
Tfie incident of relief was founded upon the grati¬
tude of the vaffal; who, upon entering on his fief,
brought a prefent to his lord, as an acknowledgment
of his care of him during the early part of his life, and
in order to conciliate his future regard.
The incident of marriage proceeded alfo upon the
principle of gratitude on the part of the vaffal. I he
latter, confcious of the favours he had received, did
not choofe to ally himfelf with a family inimical to
his chief; while the fuperior himfelf, ambitious. to
aggrandize and augment the importance of his family,
fought how to find the mod advantageous match for
his vaffal.
Sometimes the fuperior himfelf was reduced in his
circurndances by war or other accident : but from
whatever caufe his didrefs proceeded, even though it
had arifen from his own extravagance or prodigality,
or when only deditute of means to fupport his ambition
or grandeur, his vaffals were bound to fupport and re¬
lieve him according to their circumdances; and this
was called the incident of aid.
The incident of efcheat took place on the part of the
vaffal, when, through cowardice, treachery, or any re¬
markable milhehaviour, he rendered himfelf unworthy
of his fief. In that cafe, the taking it from him, and
giving it to one more worthy, was called an efcheat.
While the lords and vaffals thus vied with one an-
^ — other in mutual adds of friendlhip and benevolence,
mui!aff0" univerfal happinefs, liberty, and aftivity, were diffufed
through the fociety. The vaffals behaved courteoudy
towards the retainers, who were immediately below
them ; while they again were courted by the lords as
condituting their importance and drength ; the lords,
ladly, giving a like importance and dignity to the fo-
vereign himfelf. Thus a regular, powerful, and _com-
padff fydem of government took place ; an unanimity
and attention pervaded the various departments of date;
fo that, while the fubje&s were free, the nation at large
was formidable.
During this happy date of affairs, the members of
Happinefs
®f the
the national affembly in every country in Europe ap- Feoffal
peared there in arms, whether they came perfonally or sydem. ^
by their reprefentatives. Such particularly was the cafe ^
under the Anglo-Saxon government; and the happi-its declen-
nefs they at that time enjoyed made the oppreflion andfibn.
tyranny of the Normans appear the more intolerable.
In procefs of time, however, the date of fociety began _
to differ a remarkable alteration. The high and difin-
tereded notions, from which the happinefs above men¬
tioned took its origin, declined; the romantic ideas of
chivalry -f- ceafed ; and much more intereded notions off See Cht-
property came in their dead. The feparation of the'^'p^’^
intereds of the lords from their vaffals was the fird dep 1 f0 *
towards the dedruftion of the feodal fydem. 1 hus per„
the incidents, which, as has jud now been mentioned, verfion of
promoted their happinefs, did the very reverfe. Pro- it3 nici-
perty being now looked upon as a didindion fuperiordents*
to perfonal merit, naturally introduced the mod mer¬
cenary views. In confequence of thefe the infant
ward, the care of whom was wont to be confidered as a
facred and honorary trud, was now only looked upon
as a mean of procuring emolument to the fuperior.
The latter now regarded the profits of his vaffals as fo
many diminutions of his own wealth. Indead of taking
care to improve the edate of his ward as formerly,
he impoverithed it; not only neglecting the education
of the heir, but offering infults to himfelf; infomuch
that the relations of the unfortunate vaffal were fre¬
quently obliged to ranfom from the avaricious fuperior
both his perfon and effefts. By merchandife of this
kind the coffers of princes were filled, and warddnps
let out to drangers, who might exercife their rapacity
with greater freedom. When the vaffal at lad attained
the years of maturity, he came to the poffedion of his
land without any of that joy and fedivity which ufually
took place on the occafion. He received an inheri¬
tance waded and dedroyed, while new grievances daily
prefented themfelves to augment the horrors of his - It
fituation. All the incidents, which in former times Oppreffed
were fo many expredions of gratitude on the part of the fituation-of-
vaffal, were now changed into taxes which might bethe va^ial°•,
exaCled at the pleafure of the lord. Before the vaffal
was inveded in his land, the fuperior exaCted from him
a certain fum or other gift, to be meafured only by his
own rapacity; and in cafe of delay or inability to
pay this demand, the fuperior continued in poffeffioa
of the edate. Such fcandalous oppreffion could not
but produce the greated difeontent and clamour. Ap¬
plications were made to the law without fuccefs; nor
were even the laws regarded which were fabricated on
purpofe for their relief. The incident of marriage now-
proved a fource of the mod dreadful oppreflion. The
lord affumed a right of marrying his vaffal to whom he
pleafed ; and he not only exerted this right himfelf, but
would fell it to a dranger, or allow the vaffal to buy it
himfelf; while the penalty annexed to a marriage with¬
out
eafily pointed out. At fird they were precarious, or at the pleafure of the lord ; afterwards they -were granted
for life ; then for a courfe of years longer than the natural life of a man ; and, ladly, they became heredita^jr,
which was their mod perfect dage. This progrefs has been obferved in every country where, com. . tenures
exiflr; and the fame mud have been known in Scotland, though, in confidering it, we are neceffarily came oac
to periods of remote antiquity ; for as fiefs were hereditary as early as the time of Malcolm II. they mult have -
been in their precarious date feveral centuries before.
F E O
Teodal
Syftem.
12
Confequent
degeneracy
of the feo-
dal militia.
13
Expedient
for its re¬
covery.
out the content: of the fuperior Involved no lefs puniili-
ment than the lofs of the eftate itfelf, or fome grievous
infliftion as for a crime of the firft magnitude. The
cafe was ftill worfe with the female ward j whofe beauty
and accomplifhments became a fource of gain to the fu¬
perior, or were facrjficed to pleafe his whim or caprice j
fo that her relations were frequently obliged to buy
from him the privilege of marrying her to the perfcn
(he or they thought moft proper. In like manner the
aid, which was formerly a voluntary gift from the vaf-
fal in cafes of diftrefs happening to his lord, now be¬
came an unavoidable tax. An aid formerly was de¬
manded when the eldeft daughter of the fuperior wras
married, when his eldeft fon was knighted, or wdien
the fuperior himfelf was taken prilbner in battle. Thefe
■were the only legal caufes of making a demand of this
kind-, but fn the fubfequent times of degeneracy, the
moft frivolous pretences were every day made ufe of
by the prince to opprefs the lords, and by the lords
to opprefs their vaffals-, demanding fublidies at pleafure,
which their inferiors were always obliged to comply
with. Laftly, The efcheat, which in former times took
place only in cafes of cowardice, treachery, or fome
other heinous crime, was now inflidted on the moft
trifling occafions. If the vaffal happened to be too long
in attending the court of his fuperior to take the oath
of fealty if he committed any adiion which could in
the leaft be conftrued an infringement of the oath ; if he
negledted to give his lord warning of any misfortune
which he might fuppofe was about to befal him ; re¬
vealed any thing concerning him ; made love to his
filler or daughter, &x.; or even if he Ihould grant a
tenure of land to another perfon in form difi'erent from
that in which he held his own ; all thefe, nay others ftill
more ridiculous, were judged fufficient reafons for the
fuperior to feize on the eftate of the vaffal, and involve
him and his family in ruin.
Notwithftanding thefe oppreftions, however, the vaf¬
fal was ftill obliged to fubmit to his lord $ to own him
as his fuperior; and even, in appearance, to pay him
the fame refpedt as formerly when the greateft unanimi¬
ty and cordial affedlion fuhfifted between them. Still
he was obliged to perform the fame military fervice :
becaufe a failure in that refpedb would have fubjedled
him to a forfeiture of lands according to the original
agreement. A vaft difference, however, now took
place in the valour and adlivity which infpired the ar¬
my. The vaffals, forced into the field with defpond-
ing hearts, _ were indifferent as to the fuccefs of the
caufe in which they were engaged, and frequently ob-
ftrudled inftead of forwarding the operations of the
field. Hence the fovereign found himfelf embarraffed •
and, though nominally at the head of a martial and
powerful people, was frequently unable to efieri: any
thing, by reafon of the mutual hatred and diffenfion
which everywhere prevailed.
1 hus the feodal ftates of Europe became unnaturally
weak : a remedy was neceffary j and it is remarkable
C 598 ]
F E O
that the fame remedy was applied all over the continent. FeoiM
This was, in fhort, the making fiefs hereditary, which
till now had only been granted for a long term of
years; and, in return, burdening the lands with a cer¬
tain number of foidiers, which were not to be refufed
upon any pretence whatever. Hence was derived the
tenure of knight-fervice. A certain portion of land,jnven^;on
burdened with the fervice of one foldier or knight, wasof knight-
called a knight's fee; and thus an eftate, furniihing anykrvice.
number of foidiers, was faid to contain as many knight’s
fees j fo that now the manors, baronies, 8tc. became
powerful according to the number of foidiers they were
bound to furnifh. In the grants from the crown, the
nobility were obliged to furnifh a certain number of foi¬
diers for the fervice of the fovereign ; and in thofe from
the nobility to their vaffals, the like fervice was re-
quired. Even the commons who had grants from the
crown furnilhed a certain proportion of knights. The
force of the nation was called into ariion by grants
in capite, or from the fovereign and nobility. A nu¬
merous and powerful army was inftantly affembled,
and at once ready for ariion. Of this army the king
was the general, the nobility the officers, and the vaf¬
fals loldiers j the whole being exarily arranged, and
capable of entering upon any expedition without the
leaft delay.
Thus a remedy was found in fome meafure for the
weaknefs of the feodal foVereigns: but though the
knights tenure could accomplifti this, it could not bring
back the former afferiion and cordiality which fubfifted
between the various ranks of people. On the contrary,
by uniting them more firmly to one another by legal
ties, it rendered matters rather worfe. The oppreffion
originating from the operation of the feodal incidents,
ftill continued with unremitting violence. The grants
of knights tenure were attended with the fame oaths
of homage and fealty -, the fame incidents of relief,
wardfhip, marriage, aid, and efeheat, with the feodal
tenures. The princes promifed to abate fomewhat of
their rigour in demanding the feodal perquifites, but
did not keep their word. Laws were occaiionally pro¬
mulgated, and for fome time had an efferi ; but pal¬
liatives foon became inefferiual, and a new ftate of
weaknefs began to commence.
The two remarkable eras in the feodal hiftory are, Two eras Hi
the time before the invention of knight-fervice (d), andthp Priory
that during which, it continued. Fiefs were in a ftateof ftefs‘
of fluctuation from the deftruriion of the Roman em¬
pire till the ninth century *, but they were rendered -
perpetual in France about tire year 877, and were ge¬
nerally become fo ih every country of Europe about the
beginning of the tenth. Du Cange, voce Militia, gives
us an example of a knight fee in the year 880. By the
year 987, when Hugh Capet was raifed to the thronejyoubts con>i
of France, knight fervice was become general all over cerning the
Europe, and was introduced into England after having introi‘nc-
made its appearance in other countries (e). In Eng-j.’^
land, however, there have been feveral doubts and in-rit0 Eflg_
quiriesland.
(d) For the difference between the knights produced by this fervice and the more ancient ones, or kniehts of
honour, iee the article Knight. ’ 6
(E) Dr Stuart informs us, that it appears from the records of Malcolm IV. in 1153, that knights-fervice
was
2
F E O [ 599 ] F E O
Fcockl quiries among the learned concerning the introdu&ion
Sydem. of the feodal laws. Many are of opinion, that they
" were firft introduced by William the Conqueror j and,
confequently, that they were entirely unknown to the
Anglo-Saxons : but others think, that they exifted
among the latter in the fame form under which they
were continued by the Normans. Dr Stuart is of
opinion that the Saxons who fettled in England could
not be ftrangers to fiefs. He fuppofes the conformity
of manners, which undoubtedly prevailed between the
Saxons and other barbarians, a fufficient proof that the
hereditary grant of land, as well as the fluctuating ftate
of feodal tenures which preceded it, were known to the
former. Collateral proofs are derived from the fpirit
and tenure of the Anglo-Saxon laws, but efpecially
from the grants of hereditary eftates ©n condition of
military fervice (f). The condition of fiefs under the
Anglo-Saxons was very different from what it was af¬
terwards. In their times we find no mention made of
thefe oppreflions of which fo much notice has already
been taken ; and this may eafily be accounted for from
the alteration of the feodal fpirit in different ages. Du¬
ring the time that a warm and generous affeClion fub-
fifted between the feodal fuperiors and vaffals, the in¬
cidents were marks of generofity on the one part, and
gratitude on the other; but as foon as a variance had
taken place, by reafon of the interefted difpofition
which the introduftion of luxury produced, the fame
incidents became fources of the rnofl flagrant oppref-
fion. This wras remarkably the cafe in the time
of William the Conqueror j and, during the reign of
King John, matters were come to fuch a crifis, that
the people everywhere complained loudly, and de¬
manded the reftoration of the laws of Edward the Con-
feffor (g). “ What thefe laws of Edward the Confeffbr
were (fays Mr Hume), which the Englifh every reign
during a century and a half defired fo paflionately to Feoda!
have reftored, is much difputed by antiquarians; and Syflem-
our ignorance of them feems one of the greatefi: defeCts ' v J
of the ancient Englifh hiftory.” Dr Stuart has offered infufficient
an explanation ; but this is m fad no more than a con-fo!ution of
jeflure, that “ by the laws or cuftoms of the Confeffor,theni by
that condition of felicity was expreffed which had been Dr ^tuart*
enjoyed during the fortunate ftate of the feodal affo-
ciation. The cordiality, equality, and independence,
which then prevailed among all ranks in fociety, con¬
tinued to be remembered in lefs profperous times, and
occafioned an ardent defire for the revival of thole laws
and ufages which were the fources of fo much happi-
nefs.” „
18
Befides the great diftindlion (of which an account Diftiniftion
has already beefi given) between the ftate of fiefs under concerning-
the Anglo-Saxons and under the Normans, they were fiefs m the
no lefs diftinguifhed by the introduftion of knight-
fervice. Hitherto the refinement of the Englilh had Anglo-Nor-
been obftructed by the invafion of the Danes, and the man times,
infular fituation of the kingdom ; but after the Nor¬
man conqueft the fiefs were made perpetual. Still,
however, the knight-fee and knight-fervice were al¬
together unknown. William, the fixth prince who
enjoyed the duchy of Normandy, was well acquainted
with every thing relating to fiefs ; for that duchy had
experienced all the variety incidental to them from
the time of its being granted to Rollo by Charles the
Simple in the year 912, to the year 1066, when Wil¬
liam was put in pofleflion of England by the battle of
Haftings.
On his acceflion to the throne, a number of forfei¬
tures took place among thofe who had followed the
fortune of Harold. Their eftates were to be difpofed
of at the pleafure of the conqueror ; and it was natural
to fuppofe that he -would follow the method praftifed
in
was known in Scotland, and that it was not a novelty at that time. The fame author thinks it even probable,
that it was known in the time of David I.
(f) The ufe of entails was known to the Anglo-Saxons ; and this praflice, as well as the fucceflion to al¬
lodial eftates, muft have contributed very much to eftablifti hereditary fiefs. This opinion feems alfo to be con¬
firmed by the accounts we have of the great power of many of the nobility among the Anglo-Saxons, and the
natural tendency that fiefs muft have, in the courfe of things, to become perpetual, though analogical argu¬
ments cannot entirely be depended upon in this cafe. There is indeed pofitive evidence that the territory
which anciently conftituted the kingdom of Mercland belonged to Ethelred as an hereditary fief and earldom.
The grant wras given him by Alfred when he married his daughter Ethelfleda : and it is likewife attefted by
Camden, that in the time of Ethelred the earldom of Leicefter was an inheritance, and the regular fucceflion
of its earls is ftill known. We are informed alfo by creditable hiftorians, that Bemicia and Deireland
were feodal and inheritable earldoms among the Saxons. The fame was true of the county of Cumberland
when pofleffed by the Scottifh monarchs, This laft appears from the Saxon Chronicle: in which the grant was
conveyed by Edmund king of England to Malcolm of Scotland in the following terms: “ Edmundus rex totam
Cumberland prsedavit et contrivit, et t nnnendavit earn Malcomo regi Scotiae ; hoc paclo, quod in auxilio fibi
foret terra et mari.” From the ufe of the word commendavit, indeed, Spelman takes occafion to fay, that a
feodal homage was not intended : but the contrary may be proved by the original Saxon from which the fore¬
going is a Latin tranflation ; and the word, according to feveral learned critics, fignifies feodal homage w ith the
moft ft riel propriety. Thus Du Cange informs us, that commendare fe alicui was the general expreflion for faire
I'hommage a tin fuferain.
(g) The laws which are now extant under the name of Edward, are generally allowed to be of doubtful au¬
thenticity ; nor are they, even fuppofing them to be genuine, of any ufe in anfwrering the prefent queftion.
1 hey determine indeed the exiftence of fiefs among the Anglo-Saxons : and Dr Stuart is of opinion, that the
compilation which goes under the name of this prince, though pofterior to the date it bears, neverthelefs merits
greater attention than has ulually been beftowed upon it. M. Honard, a foreign lawyer, is the lateft wrriter -who
has made it his ftudy; but he is better acquainted with the Norman than the Anglo-Saxon cuftems.
/
Feodal
Syftem.
^9
Introduc¬
tion of
knight-
fervice
into Eng¬
land.
•Idea of the
feodal mi¬
litia.
F £ O
in his own country. Hence the origin of knight fer-
vice in England. A grant of land, to any perfon
whatever, was eftimated at a certain number of knights
fees •, and each of thefe required the fervice of a
knight. The grants of lands were even renewed to
the old tenants under this tenure ; fo that by degrees
the whole military people in the kingdom acquiefced in
it. To accomplilh this, Domesday Book, is fuppofed
to have been compiled, which contained an exaft ac¬
count of all the landed property of the kingdom.—
Hence it is to be concluded, not that William introdu¬
ced fiefs into England, as fome have imagined, but
that he brought them to their ultimate Hate of per-
feftion by the introdudlion of knight-fervice. This
is evident from the laws enafted during his reign. In
thefe it is not only mentioned that knight fervice was
enabled, but that it was done exprefsly with the con-
fent of the common council of the nation ; which at
that time wras equivalent to an aft of parliament (h).
The invention of knight-fervice proved generally
agreeable: for as only few of the Anglo-Saxon fiefs
wrere hereditary, the advancement of the reft to per¬
petuity, under the tenure of knight-fervice, muft
have been accounted an acquifition of fome import¬
ance } as not only augmenting the grandeur and dig¬
nity of the fovereign, but fecuring the independence
of the fubjeft, and improving his property. In the
happy ftate of the feodal affociation, there was indeed
no neceflity for the knight’s fee j but when the dif-
cordance and oppreffion fo often mentioned began to
take place, it became then neceffary to point out par¬
ticularly every duty of the vaffal, as well as of the
lord 5 and this was fully done by the invention of
knight-fervice. The nobles pofieffed duchies, baronies,
and earldoms ; which extenfive pofTeffions were divided
into as many fees, each of them to furnifli a knight
for the fervice of the king, or of the fuperior j fo that
every feudal ftate could command a numerous army
and militia to fupport and defend it in cafe of any
emergency. The knights were alfo bound to aflemble
in complete armour whenever the fuperior thought
proper to call, and to hold themfelves in readinefs for
aftion whenever the king or fuperior found it conve¬
nient to take the field : fo that thus the militia might
be marched at the fhorteft notice to defend or fupport
the honour of the nation.
The knights were ufually armed with a helmet,
fword, lance, and ftiield j and each was befides obliged
to keep a horfe. This laft requifite was owing to the
contempt into which the infantry had fallen through
the prevalence of tournaments and luxuries of various
kinds, though it was by means of the infantry that the
barbarians had originally diftinguilhed themfelves in
their wars with the Romans, and became able to cope
Feodal
Svftem.
[ 600 ] F E O
with thefe celebrated warriors. All proprietors of
fees or tenants by knight-fervice fought on foot: the
cavalry were diftinguilhed by the name of battle ; and
the fuccefs of every encounter wras fuppofed to depend
on them alone. They only were completely armed ;
the infantry, being furnilhed by the villages under the
jurifdiftion of the barons, had at firft only bows and
flings; though afterwards they were found w orthy of
much greater attention.
While the feodal afibciation remained in perfeftion, *ts ^'j®*'**
the fuperior could at any time command the military ruptioa.C°r'
fervice of his vaffals •, but in the lubfequent degeneracy
this fervice could neither be depended upon when
wanted, nor was it of the fame advantage when obtain¬
ed as formerly. The invention of knight-fervice
tended in a great degree to remedy this inconvenience.
Thofe ,who were poffeffed of knights fees were now
obliged to remain 40 days in the field at their own
expence 5 and this without exception, from the great
crown vaffals to the fmalleft feudatories ; but if longer
fervice was required, the prince wyas obliged to pay
his troops. In thofe times, howTever, when the fate of
nations was frequently decided by a fingle battle, a
continuance in the field for 40 days wras fufficient for
ordinary occafions.
Thus matters feemed once more to be reftored near¬
ly to their former ftate. It was nowr, as much as ever,
the intereft of the nation to aft with unanimity in its
defence, not only againft foreign enemies, but againft:
the tyranny of the prince over his fubjefts, or of one
part of the fubjefts over the other. New inconven^-
encies, however, foon began to take place, owing to
the gradual improvements in life and the refinement .
of manners. From the firft inftitution of military fer¬
vice, a fine had been accepted inftead of aftual appear¬
ance in the field. In the times of barbarity, how ever,
when men accounted rapine and bloodlhed their only
glory, there were but few who made an offer of this
compenfation j but as wealth and luxury increafed,
and the manners of people became fofter, a . general
unwillingnefs of following the army into the field be¬
came alfo prevalent. A new tenure, called efcunge%
was therefore introduced, by which the vaffal was only
obliged to pay his fuperior a fum of money annually, in¬
ftead of attending him into the field *. Hence origi- * See the
nated taxes and their mifapplication j for as the king Parj.‘cular
was lord paramount of the whole kingdom, it thence ces 0f
happened that the whole efcuage money collefted under the
throughout the nation centred in him. The princes arocle
then, inftead of recruiting their armies, frequently fill- Knigt*-
ed their coffers with the money, or dilfipated it other-Serv^e*
wife, hiring mercenaries to defend their territories 0f
w'hen threatened with any danger. Thefe being com- ftandir.g
pofed of the dntgs of the people, and dilbanded at the armies, 8tc*
end
(h) The following law of William the Conqueror not only makes exprels mention of the knight’s fee and fer¬
vice, but alludes to a former law of William and his parliament, by which this tenure was aftually eftablilhed.
“ Statuimus etiam et firmiter praecipimus, ut omnes comites, et barones, et milites, et fervientes, et univerfi li-
“ beri homines totius regni noftri praedifti, habeant et teneant fe femper bene in armis et in equis, ut' decet et
“ oportet, et quod lint femper prompti et bene parati ad fervitium fuum integrum nobis explendum, et peragen-
“ dum, cum femper opus adfuerit, fecundum quod nobis debent de feodis et tenementis Juis de jure facere, et ft-
cut illis ftatuimus per commune conjilium totius regni noftri praedifti, et dedimus ct conceffimus in feodt? jure
hsereditario.” LL. Guill. c. 58.
F E R [ 601 ] F E R
Feoffment end of every campaign, filled all Europe with a dif-
H . orderly banditti, who frequently proved very danger-
, Fera*ia- ous to fociety. To avoid fuch inconveniencies, Hand¬
ing armies were introduced, and taxations began to be
raifed in every European kingdom. New inconveni¬
encies arofe. The fovereigns in molt of thefe king¬
doms, having acquired the right of taxation, as well as
the command of the military power, became complete¬
ly defpotic : but in England the fovereign was de¬
prived of this right by Magna Charta, which was ex¬
torted from him, as related under the article England,
N° [153] ’■> fo that, though allowed to command his
armies, he could only pay them by the voluntary con¬
tributions of the people, or their fubmitting to fuch tax¬
ations as were virtually impofed by themfelves.
FEOFFMENT, in Law, (from the verb feoffare or
infeudare, “ to give one a feud”) j the gift or grant
of any corporeal hereditament to another. He that
fo gives, or enfeoffs, is called the feoffer, and the per-
fon enfeoffed is denominated the feoffee.
This is plainly derived from, or is indeed itfelf the
very mode of, the ancient feodal donation •, for though
it may be performed by the word “ enfeoff,” or
“ grant,” yet the apteft word of feoffment is do or
dedi. And it is ftill directed and governed by the
fame feodal rules; infomuch that the principal rule
relating to the extent and effeft of the feodal grant,
tenor ejl qui legem dat feudo, is in other words become
the maxim of our law with relation to feoffments, mo¬
dus legem dat donationi. And therefore, as in pure feo¬
dal donations, the lord, from whom the feud moved,
muff exprefsly limit and declare the continuance or
quantity of effate which he meant to confer, ne quis
plus donaffe prerfumatur, quam in donatione exprefferit ;
lo, if one grants by feoffment lands or tenements to
another, and limits or expreffes no eftate, the grantee
(due ceremonies of law being performed) hath barely
an eftate for life. For, as the perfonal abilities of the
feoffee were originally prefumed to be the immediate or
principal inducements to the feoffment, the feoffee’s
eftate ought to be confined to his perfon, and fubfift
only for his life ; unlefs the feoffe , by exprefs provifion
in the creation and conftitution of the eftate, hath giv¬
en it a longer continuance. Thefe exprefs provifions
are indeed generally made ; for this was for ages the
only conveyance, whereby our anceftors were wont to
create an eftate in fee-fimple, by giving the land to the
feoffee, to hold to him and his heirs for ever j though
it ferves equally well to convey any other eftate of
freehold.
But by the mere words of the deed the feoffment is
by no means perfe&ed : there remains a very material
ceremony to be performed, called livery of feifin, with¬
out which the feoffee has but a mere eftate at will. See
Seisin.
FERAl, an order of quadrupeds, belonging to the
clafs Mammalia. See Mammalia Index.
FERALIA, in antiquity, a feftival obferved among
the Romans on February 21ft, or, according to Ovid,
on the 17th of that month, in honour of the manes of
their deceafed friends and relations.
Varro derives the word from inferi, or from fero ; on
account of a repaft carried to the fepulchres of fuch as
the laft offices were that day rendered to. Feftus de¬
rives it from feno, on account of the victims facrificed.
Vql. VIII. Part II.
Voflius obferves, that the Romans called death fera,
“ cruel,” and that the word feralia might arife thence.
—Macrobius, Saturn, lib. i. cap. 13. refers the origin
of the ceremony to Numa Pompilius. Ovid, in his
Fafti, goes back as far as ./Eneas for its inftitution.
He adds, that on the fame day a facrifice was perform¬
ed to the goddefs Muta, or Dumb ; and that the per-
fons who officiated were an old woman attended with
a number of young girls.
During the continuance of this feftival, which lafted
eleven days, prefents were made at the graves of the
deceafed, marriages were forbidden, and the temples
of the gods (hut up. While the ceremonies continued,
they imagined that the ghofts fuffered no puniffiments
in hell, but that their tormentors allowed them to
wander round their tombs, and feaft upon the meats
which their furviving friends had prepared for them.—
For a more particular account of the offerings and fa-
crifices and feafts for the dead, fee iNFERiiE and SlLI-
CERNIUM.
Sometimes at the feralia public feafts were given to
the people, at the tombs of the rich and great, by their
heirs or particular friends.
FER DE fourchette, in Heraldi'y, a crofs having
at each end a forked iron, like that formerly ufed by
foldiers to reft their mulkets on. It differs from the
crofs-fourche, the ends of which turn forked 5 whereas
this has that fort of fork fixed upon the fquare end.
See Heraldry.
Fkr de Moulin, Milrinde, Inhe de Moulin, in Herald¬
ry, is a bearing fuppofed to reprefent the iron ink, or
ink of a mill, which fuftains the moving millftone.
FERDINAND V. king of Spain, called the Ca¬
tholic, which title was continued to his fucceffors. He
married Ifabella of Caftile, by which that kingdom
was united to the Spanifti crown. This illuftrious
couple laid the foundation of the future glory and
power of Spain. The conqueft of Granada, and the
difcoveries of Chriftopher Columbus, make this reign
a celebrated era in the hiftory of Spain. He died in
1516, aged 63. See {Hiftory off Spain.
FERENTARII, in Roman antiquity, were auxi¬
liary troops, lightly armed ; their weapons being a
fword, bow, arrows, and a fling.
FERENTINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Hernici in Latium, which the Romans, after fubduing
that nation, allowed to be governed by its own laws.
Now Feretmo, an epifcopal city in the Campagna di
Roma. E. Long. 14. 5, N. Lat. 41. 45.
FERENTUM, or Forentum, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Apulia in Italy. Now Foren%a, in the Bafili-
cata of Naples.
FERETRIUS, a furname of Jupiter, a ferendo,
becaufe he had affifted the Romans: or a feriendo, be-
caufe he had conquered their enemies under Romulus.
He had a temple at Rome built by Romulus. It was
there that the fpoils called opima were always carried.
FERETRUM, among the Romans, the bier ufed
in carrying out the bodies of the dead, which duty
was performed by the neareft male relations of the de¬
ceafed : thus, fons carried out their parents, brothers
their fillers, &c.
FERG, or Fergue, Francis Paul, a charming
landfcape-painter, was born at Vienna in 1689, and
there learned the firft principles of his art. He fuc-
4 G ceffively
F E Tv l 602 ]
F E 11
Fergus, ceffiyely praftifed under Hans Graf, Orient, and Thi-
1- crgufon. e]e< Xhis laft, who was painter to the court of Sax¬
ony, invited him to Drefden to infert fmall figures in
his landfcapes. Ferg thence went into Lower Saxo¬
ny, and painted for the duke of Brunfwick and for
the Gallery of Salzdahl. From Germany he went to
London, where he might have lived in the higheft
efteem and afiluence, if, by an indifcreet marriage, he
had not been fo effe&ually deprefl'ed, that he was ever
after involved in difficulties. The neceflities which arofe
from his domeltic troubles compelled him to diminilh
the prices of his paintings in order to procure an imme¬
diate fupport 5 and as thofe neccffities increafed, his
pidtures were flill more funk in their price, though not
in their intrinfic value. By a feries of "misfortunes he
was over-run with debts j and to avoid the purfuit of
his creditors, he was conflrained to fecrete himfelf in
difterent parts of London. He died fuddenly in the
ftreet one night as he was returning from fome friends,
about the year 1738, before he had attained his 50th
year j and left four children. This pleaiing artill,
Mr Walpole obferves, had formed a manner of his
own from various Flemifh painters, though refembling
Poelemburg moft in the enamelled foftnefs and mellow-
nefs of his colouring 5 but his figures are greatly fu-
perior j every part of them is fufficiently finilhed,
every adtion expreffive. He painted fmall landfcapes,
fairs, and rural meetings, with the moft agreeable
truth 5 his horfes and cattle are not inferior to Wou-
vermans; and his buildings and diftances feem to owe
their refpedlive foftnefs to the intervening air, not to
the pencil. More faithful to nature than Denner, he
knew how to omit Txadlnefs, when the refult of the
whole demands a lefs precifion in parts. The greateft
part of his works are in London and Germany j and
the price they now bear is the beft proof of their real
merit. He alfo etched well with aquafortis j and his
prints of that kind are greatly efteemed by the cu¬
rious.
FERGUS, the name of three kings of Scotland.
See {Hijiory of} Scotland.
FERGUSON, James, an eminent experimental
philofopher and mechanic, was born in Scotland, of
very poor parents. At the earlieft age his extraordi¬
nary genius began to exert itfelf. He firft learned to
read by overhearing his father teach his elder brother :
and he had made this acquifition before any one fu-
fpefted it. He foon difcovered a peculiar tafte for
mechanics, which firft arofe on feeing his father ufe a
lever. He purfued this ftudy a confiderable length,
even whilft very young ; and made a watch in wood¬
work, from having once feen one. As he had no in-
llruflor, nor any help from books, every thing he
learned had all the merit of an original difcovery ; and
fuch, with infinite joy, he believed it to be. As foon
as his age would permit, he went to fervice 5 in which
he met with hardlhips, which rendered his conftitution
feeble through life. Whilft he was fervant to a farmer
(whofe goodnefs he acknowledges in the modeft and
humble account of himfelf which he prefixed to his laft
publication), he frequently contemplated the ftars 5
and began the ftudy of aftronomy, by laying down,
from his own obfervations only, a celeftial globe. His
kind mafter, obferving thefe marks of his ingenuity,
procured him the countenance and aftiftance of his fu-
periors. By their help and inftru&ions, he went on Fergufon.
gaining farther knowledge, and was fent to Edin- 
burgh. There he began to take portraits; an em¬
ployment by which he fupported himfelf and family
for feveral years, both in Scotland and England, whilft
he was purfuing more ferious ftudies. In London he
firft publilhed fome curious aftronomical tables and cal¬
culations j and afterwards gave public lectures in ex¬
perimental philofophy, which he repeated (by fub-
fcription) in moft of the principal towns in England,
with the higheft marks of general approbation. He
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, without
paying for admiffion (an honour fcarcely ever conferred
on a native) j and had a penfion of 50I. per ann. given
him, unfolicited, by our gracious king, at his accef-
fion, who had heard lectures from him, and frequent¬
ly fent for and converfed with him on curious topics.
He alfo received feveral prefents from his majefty, the
patron of real merit. To what a degree of confidera-
tion Mr Fergufon mounted by the ftrength of his na
tural genius, almoft every one knows. He was uni-
verfally confidered as at the head of aftronomy and me¬
chanics in this nation of philofophers. And he might
juftly be ftiled felf-taught, or rather heaven-taught 5
for in his whole life he had not above half a year’s in-
Itruflion at fchool. Fie was a man of the cleareft
judgment, and the moft unwearied application to ftu¬
dy 3 benevolent, meek, and innocent in his manners
as a child j humble, courteous, and communicative 3
inftead of pedantry, philofophy feemed to produce in
him only diffidence and urbanity,—a love for mankind
and for his Maker. His whole life was an example of
refignation and Chriftian piety. He might be faid to
be an enthufiaft in his love of God, if religion, founded
on fuch fubftantial and enlightened grounds as his was,
could be ftyled enthufiafm. He died in 1776.
Ferguson, Robert, a Scottifti poet, who acquired a
confiderable lhare of celebrity at a very early period of
life, was born at Edinburgh on the 5th of September
1750, of which wre are aflured from unqueitionable au¬
thority, although fome have placed it in 1751. His
father’s name was William, who, as well as the fon,
likewdfe paid court to the mufes 3 but he wifely relinquifh-
ed the ftudy of poetry for the more certain emoluments
of trade and commerce, being employed in different
mercantile houfes both in Edinburgh and Aberdeen.
He was an accountant in the Linen Hall when he died,
but never acquired any thing like an independent for¬
tune.
The fubjeft of the prefent iketch w'as of a weak and
delicate conftitution during infancy,—indeed to fuch a
degree, that fmall hopes were entertained of his ever
reaching the years of manhood. Yet fuch were the
care and attention of his parents, that he was able to
attend an Englilh fchool by the time he was fix years
of age, where his progrefs was confidered as very extra¬
ordinary. It was no lefs rapid at the high fchool of
Edinburgh, which he attended for years, acquiring a
competent knowledge of the Latin tongue with very
little labour or exertion. From that he went to the
grammar fchool of Dundee, and in two years after to
the univerfity of St Andrews, which place his father
preferred to Edinburgh, becaufe a gentleman of the
name of Fergufon had left two burfaries for the educa¬
tion of two boys of the fame name.
His
F E R [ 603 ] F E R
Fergufon. His health was never impaired at any time by fevere
——v ‘ ftudy j yet he kept alive at the univerfity the opinion
which had been entertained of him while at fchool, and
he was decidedly the firft mathematician of the fame
Handing. He was patronized by Dr Wilkie, profeifor
of natural philofophy, who was perhaps as much attach¬
ed to him for his poetical as his mathematical talents,
the doftor himfelf being a poet, and author of the Epigo-
niad. This kindnefs was repaid by Fergufon, on the
death of Dr Wilkie, by a beautiful eclogue to his me¬
mory, written in the Scottifh dialed!. A little before
he left the univerlity, Fergufon had conceived the idea
of writing a tragedy on the death of Sir William Wal¬
lace, for which he had colledted materials 5 but as
he afterwards met with a work on the fame fubjecl,
he abandoned the defign, after he had completed
two adls. His own reafon for doing fo he thus ex-
prefled. “ Whatever I publilh (hall be original, and this
tragedy might be confidered as a copy.”
He returned to Edinburgh when he had finifhed his
ftudies, without having fixed on any particular employ¬
ment j for although he was deftined for the church by
his father, on his death he paid little attention to the
expoflulations of his mother. He declined alfo the
ftudy of phyfic, afligning this as a reafon, that when he
read the defcription of difeafes, he believed that he
felt the fymptoms of them all in himfelf. He was then
induced to attempt the ftudy of the law, in which, as
was natural to expert, he made no proficiency. He
feems to have turned a wilhful eye to fome finecure
place, to obtain which he paid a vifit to an uncle who
refided at Aberdeen, a man of literature and opulence,
hoping that through his influence he might be fettled
in fome place fuited to his merit. In this rational hope
he was completely difappointed} for although his uncle
(hewed him every mark of attachment, his fondnefs de¬
cayed by degrees, and in fix months he defired him in
an abrupt manner to leave his houfe, without attempt¬
ing to procure for him any kind of living. It would
. perhaps be rafti and uncandid to reprobate this condudl
of his uncle, whofe penetration probably beheld, if not
the aflual commiflion, at lead the germinating feeds of
thofe too fafhionable vices and follies into which he af¬
terwards plunged. We only give this as a conjecture
of our own •, but it feems to derive confiderable counte¬
nance from the contrail between the manner in which
his uncle received him, and the nature of their fepara-
tion. Be this as it may, the conduft of his uncle ope¬
rated powerfully on the mind of Fergufon, which, with
the fatigue of his journey back to Edinburgh, brought
on him a fevere illnefs, on his recovery from which he
compofed two elegies 5 one on the decay of friendlhip,
and the other againft repining at fortune ; both which
w'ere fuggefted by this adventure at Aberdeen. The
difappointment of his hopes, and the effeft it produced
on his mind, are very evident from the following ftanzas.
But, ah ! thefe youthful fportive hours are fled,
Thefe fcenes of jocund mirth are now no more ;
No healing (lumbers ’tend my humble bed,
No friends condole the forrows of the poor.
And what avail the thoughts of former joys ?
What comfort bring they in the adverfe hour ?
Can they the canker-worm of care deftroy,
Or brighten fortune’s difcontcnted lour ?
So great were his neceflities at this period, that he Fergufon*
copied papers in the commilfary clerk’s office for fo , ^e^lse- 4
much per iheet, which employment he foon left in dif-
guft.
So boundlefs was his wit, which was only equalled
by his good nature, modefty, and goodnefs of heart, that
all who knew him received him with affeftion ; but his
powers of fong and talents for mimicry often led him
into the company of the diffipated, whofe example could
not fail of doing him eflential injury, but who had nei¬
ther the power nor inclination to provide for him
through life. The irregularities into which he was thus
frequently led, often awakened upon him the dictates
of confcience ; and the converfation of a minifter who
underftood his manner of life, made a deep impreffion
on his mind. In Ihort, his remorfe foon after afl'umed
the appearance of abfolute defpair. His fprightlinefs
entirely forfook him j but he gradually recovered from
his defpondendy, and his health wras fully reftored.
Soon after hd cut his head fo dreadfully in confe-
quence of a fall, that from the lofs of blood he became
delirious, in which condition he remained for fome
months, till the w^ant of deep and perpetual talking put
a period to his exiftence on the 16th of Odlober 1774.
He was buried in the Canongate churchyard j over
his grave his admirer Robert Burns has (nice erefted
a monument.
Had he joined prudence to his bright genius
and good heart, he would have no doubt rifen to
diftinguiffied eminence in the literary world. His
poems in the Scottiffi dialed! have been univerfally ad¬
mired by his countrymen j and when we refled! that
they were compofed in a round of diffipation, they muft
be confidered as unequivocal evidences of his genius
and tafte.
FERIAt, in Roman antiquity, holidays, or days
upon which they abftained from work. Proclamation
was generally made by the herald, by command of the
Rex Sacrorum or Flamines, that all Ihould abftain from
bufinefs j and whoever tranfgreffed the order was fe-
verely fined.—The feme were of two kinds, public and
private.
The public ferise were fourfold. 1. Stativec, which
were kept as public feafts by the whole city upon cer¬
tain immoveable days appointed by their kalendar;—
fuch were the Compitalia, Carmentalia, Lupercalia, <b'c.
2. Ferice Conceptivee, which were moveable feafts, the
days for the celebration of which were fixed by the
magiftrates or priefts j of this fort were the Ferice La-
tincr, Paganalia, Compitalia, &c. which happened every
year, but the days for keeping them were left to the
difcretion of the magiftrates or priefts. 3. Ferice Im-
perativce, which were fixed and inftituted by the mere
command of confuls, praetors, di£lators, upon the gain¬
ing of fome vitfory or other fortunate event. 4. Nun-
din ce. See the articles Nundik/E, Agonaha, Car¬
mentalia, &c.
The private ferice were holidays obferved by parti¬
cular perfons or families on feveral accounts, as birth¬
days, funerals, &c. The feriae belonged to, and were
one divifion of, the dies fejli. See Festi.
Fkrim Latince, a feftival at which a white bull was
facrificed, and the Latin and Roman towns provided
each a fet quantity of meat, wine, and fruits; and du¬
ring the celebration, the Romans and Latins fwore
4 G 2 eternal
PER
1 ctia eternal frieudllup to each other, taking home a piece
f'enr!'> v’c^m to every town. The feftival was iniK-
naoh. tuted by Tarquinius Superbus when he overcame the
-v—-—■ Tufcans and made a league with the Latins, propof-
ing to build a common temple to Jupiter Latialis, at
which both nations might meet and offer facrifices for
their common fafety. At firft the folemnity lafted but
one day, but it w'as at different times extended to ten.
It was held on the Alban mount, and celebrated with
chariot races at the Capitol, where the vi&or was treat¬
ed with a large draught of wormwood drink.
FERIA, in the Romifh breviary, is applied to the
feveral days of the week ; thus Monday is tiitferia fe-
cuncla, Tuefday the feria tertia ; though thefe days are
not working days, but holidays. The occafion of this
vras, that the firft Chriitians were ufed to keep the
Eafter week holy, calling Sunday the prime f 'ria, &c.
whence the term feria was given to the days of every
week. But befides thefe, they have extraordinary
ferise, viz. the three laft days of Paffion week, the
two following Eafter day, and the fecond feria; of Ro¬
gation.
FERIANA, the ancient city of Thala in Africa,
taken and deftroyed by Metellus in the wTar with Ju-
gurtha. It was vifited by Mr Bruce in his late travels
through Africa, who expefted to have found many
magnificent ruins in the place, but was difappointed.
The only remarkable objefts he met with were the baths,
which are exceflively warm. Thefe are without the
town, and flow from a fountain named El Tarmid.
Notwithftanding the exceflive heat of its water, the
fountain is not deftitute of fifties. They are of the
ihape of a gudgeon, above four inches in length ; and
he fuppofed that there might have been about five or
fix dozen of them in the pool. On trying the water
with a thermometer, he found the heat fo great, that
he was furprifed the fifh were not boiled in it. That
fifti ftiould exift in this degree of heat, is very furprif-
ing j but it feems no lefs wonderful that Mr Bruce,
while ftanding naked in fuch water, fhould leifurely
make obfervations on its heat, without fufpe&ing that
he himfeli would be boiled by continuing there. We
have to regret that the accidental wetting of the leaf
on which he wrote down his remarks has deprived the
public of the knowdedge of the precife degree to which
the thermometer is raifed by this water. The fifh are
faid to go down the ftream to fome diflance during
the day, and to return to the fpring or warmeft part
at night.
FERMANAGH, a county of Ireland, in the pro¬
vince of Ulfter •, bounded by Cavan on the fouth, Tir-
Oen on the north and north-eaft, by Tyrconnel on
the north-weft, Leitrim on the fouth-weft, and Mona¬
ghan on the weft. It is 38 miles long and 24 broad.
A great part of it is taken up with bogs ; and the
F E R
great lake called Lough-Earne, which is near 20 miles Ferment,
in length and in fome places 14 in breadth, diverfified Fermenta-
with upwards of 300 iilands, moft of them well wood- tK>n‘
ed, inhabited, and covered with cattle. It abounds al-
fo with great variety of fifh, fuch as huge pike, large
bream, roach, eels, trout, and falmon. The water of
the lake in fome places is faid to have a particular foft-
nefs and fliminefs, that bleaches linen much fooner than
could be done by other wrater. The lake is divided
into the upper and lower, between which it con¬
tracts itfelf for five or fix miles to the breadth of an
ordinary river. In one part of the county are marble
rocks 50 or 60 feet high. This county formerly
fent four members to the Irifh parliament, viz. two for
the fhire, and two for Innifkillen the capital. Ferma¬
nagh gives the title of vifeount to Earl Verney.
Ferment, any body wdiich being applied to an¬
other, produces fermentation.
Ferments are either matters already in the aft of fer¬
mentation, or that foon run into this aft. Of the firft
kind are the flowers of wine, yeaft, fermenting beer,
or fermenting wine, &c. and of the fecond are the new
expreffed vegetable juices of fummer fruit.
Among diftillers, ferments are all thofe bodies which,
when added to the liquor, only correft fome fault
therein, and, by removing fome obftacle to fermenta¬
tion, forward it by fecondary means : as alfo fuch as,
being added in time of fermentation, make the liquor
yield a larger proportion of fpirit, and give it a finer
flavour.
FERMENTATION, may be defined a fenfible in¬
ternal motion of the conftituent particles of a moift,
fluid, mixed or compound body 5 by the continuance
of which motion, thefe particles are gradually removed
from their former fituation or combination, and again,
after fome vifible feparation is made, joined together
in a different order and arrangement, fo that a new
compound is formed, having qualities very fenfibly dif¬
ferent from thofe of the original fluid.
Fermentation, properly fo called, is confined to the
vegetable and animal kingdoms j for the effervefcences
between acids and alkalies, however much they may
refemble the fermentation of vinous liquers, are never-
thelefs exceedingly different. It is divided into three
kinds; or rather, there are three different ftages of it,
viz. the vinous, the acetous, and the putrefaftive. To
thefe has been added a fourth, the panary, or the fer¬
mentation of bread. Of the firft, vegetables alone are
fufceptible 5 the flelh of young animals is in fome
flight degree fufceptible of the fecond (a) j but animal
fubftances are particularly fufceptible of the third, which
vegetables do not fo eafily fall into without previoufly
undergoing the firft and fecond. The produce of the
firft ftage is wine, or fome other vinous liquor of the
fecond, vinegar*, and of the third, ammonia or volatile al-.
kali.
[ 604 ]
(a) Under the article China, N° 115. a faft is mentioned which feems to ftiow that animal fubftances are
likewife capable of the vinous fermentation ; viz. that the Chinefe make ufe of a certain liquor called lamb wine.
and likewife that they ufe a kind of fpirit diftilled from Jheeps JleJh. This is related on the credit of M. Grofier :
but as he does not mention the particulars of the procefs, we are at liberty to fuppofe that the flefli of thefe
animals has been mixed with rice, or fome other ingredients naturally capable of producing a vinous liquor 5 fo
that, inftead of contributing any thing to the fermentation in queftipn, they may in reality be detrimental, and
furnilh only that ftrong and difagrceable fmell complained of in the liquid.
FEU [ 605 ] FEE
Tern kali. For the explanation of this procefs, according to the
11principles of modern chemiilry, fee Chemistry Index ;
Ferndins and for the more general details of the procefs, fee
" *' Ere wing, Malting and Vinegar-wztfOy.
FERN, filix. See Filices, Botany Index.
Fern is very common in dry and barren places. It
is one of the worft weeds for lands, and very hard to
deftroy where it has any thing of a deep foil to root in.
In fome grounds, the roots of it are found to the depth
of eight feet. One of the moft effeftual ways to de¬
ftroy it is often mowing the grafs $ and, if the field is
ploughed up, plentiful dunging thereof is very good :
but the moft certain remedy for it is urine. However,
fern, cut while the fap is in it, and left to rot upon the
ground, is a very great improver of land.
In fome places of the north, the inhabitants mow' it
green 5 and, burning it to allies, make thofe afhes up
into balls with a little water.- They then dry them
in the fun, and make ufe of them to clean their linen
with} looking upon it to be near as good as foap for
that purpofe.
Ma/e Fern. See Poly pod him, Botany Index.
Female Fern. See Pteris, Botany Index.
FERNANDO, or Fernandes, an ifland in the
Pacific ocean. See Jujn Fernandes.
FERNELIUS, John, phyfician to Henry II. king
of France, was born in Picardy, in the latter end of
the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century.
Being lent to Paris to ftudy rhetoric and philofophy,
he applied himfelf in a moft intenfe manner. All
other pleafure was inlipid to him. He cared neither
for play nor for walking, nor for entertainments, nor
even for converfation. He read Cicero, Plato, and
Ariftotle. The reading of Cicero procured him this
advantage, that the le&ures he read on philofophical
fubjehts were as eloquent as thofe of the other mailers
were barbarous at that time. He alfo applied himfeil
very eameftly to the mathematics. d his continual
ftudy drew upon him a long fit of ficknefs, which
obliged him to leave Paris. On his recovery, he returned
thither with a defign to ftudy phylic } but before he
applied himfelf entirely to it, he taught philofophy in
the college of St Barbara. After this he (pent four
years in the ftudy of phylic $ and taking a doflor’s de¬
gree, confined himfelf to his clofet, in order to read
the beft authors, and to improve himlelf in the mathe¬
matics 5 that is, as far as the bulinefs of his profeflion
would fuffer him. Never was a man more diligent than
Fernel. He ufed to rife at four o’clock in the morn¬
ing, and ftudied till it was time either to read letlures
or to vifit patients. He then examined the urine that
was brought him ; for this was the method of thofe
times, with regard to the poor people, who did not fend
for the phylician. Coming home to dine, he ftiut him¬
felf up among his books till they called him down to
table. Riling from table, he returned to his ftudy,
which he did not leave without neceflary occalions.
Coming home at night, he did juft as at noon : he ftaid
among his books till they called him to foppery re¬
turned to them the moment he had flipped j and did
not leave them till eleven o’clock, when he went to bed.
In the courfe of thefe ftudies, he contrived mathema¬
tical inftruments, and was at great charges in making
them. But his wife murmuring at the expence, he
diimiffed his inftrument-makers, and applied himfelf in
good earneft to praciife phyfic. But as vifuing pa¬
tients did not employ his whole time, he read public
lectures upon Hippocrates and Galen. This foon gain¬
ed him a great reputation through France and in fo¬
reign countries. His bufmefs increaling, he left off
reading leftures 5 but as nothing could make him ceale
to ftudy in private, he fpent all the hours he could
fpare in compoling a w'ork of phylic, entitled Phijdo-
logia, which was loon after publilhed. He was pre¬
vailed with to read lectures upon this new work, which
he did for three years: and undertaking another
work, which he publiihed, De venee fetdione, he laid him¬
felf under the neceflity of reading leftures fome years
longer, in order to explain this new book to the youth.
While he was thus employed, he was fent for to court,
in order to try whether he could cure a lady, whofe
recovery was defpaired of. He was fo happy as to cure
her 5 which was the firft caufe of that efteem which
Henry II. who was then but dauphin, and was in love
with that lady, conceived for him. This prince offered
him, even then, the place of lirft phyfician to him } but
Fernel, who infinitely preferred his ftudies to the hurry
of a court, would not accept the employment. When
Henry came to the throne, he renewed his entreaties :
but Fernel reprefented that the honour which was of¬
fered to him was due, for feveral reafons, and as an he¬
reditary right, to the late king’s phyfician 5 and that,
as for himfelf, he wanted fome time to make experi¬
ments concerning feveral difcoveries he had made re¬
lating to phyfic. The king admitted this 1 but as
foon as Francis I.’s phyfician died, Fernel was obliged
to go and fill his place at- Henry IL’s court. And
here juft the contrary to what he dreaded came to pafs j
for he enjoyed more reft and more leiiure at court than
he had done at Paris*, and he might have confidered
the court as an agreeable retirement, had it not been
for the journeys which the new civil war obliged the
king to take. He died in 1558, leaving behind him
a great many works, befides what have been mention¬
ed ; as, De abditrs rerum caufis, feven books ot Pa¬
thology, a book on Remedies, &c. They have been
printed feveral times; with his life prefixed, written by
William Plantius his difciple.
FERONIA, the Pagan goddefs of woods and orch¬
ards. This deity took her name from the town Fero-
nia, fituated at the foot of Mount Soratte in Italy,
where was a wood and temple confecrated to her.
That town and wood are mentioned by Virgil, in the
catalogue of Turnus’s forces. Strabo relates, that
thofe who facrificed to this goddefs, walked barefoot
upon burning coals, without being hurt. She was the
guardian deity of freed men, who received their cap
of liberty at her temple.
FERRARA, a city of Italy, in the territory of the
pope, capital of a duchy of the fame name. It is feat-
ed in an agreeable and fertile plain ; watered by the ri¬
ver Po, which is a defence on one fide; and on the other
is encompafled by a ftrong wall and deep broad ditches
full of water, as well as by a good citadel, finiftied by
Pope Paul. In the middie of the city is a magnificent
caftle, which was formerly the palace of the dukes, and
is not now the leaft ornament of Ferrara. It is quite
' furrounded with water j and the arfenal, which is near
it, deferves the obfervation of travellers. Over againft
the palace is the duke’s garden; with a park, called
Belvidere
F E R [ 606 ] F E R
Ferrara Befaidere on account of its beauty. Behind the gar-
Ferrars, den tllcre is a palace, built with white marble, called
L_a—v Lj the palace of diamonds’, becaufe all the ftones are cut
diamond fafhitm.
Ferrara had formerly a confiderable trade j but it is
now almod deferted, being very poor, infomuch that
there is hardly a perfon to be been in the ftreets.
This is owing to the exadions of the popes. The for¬
tifications are now negle&ed, and the ancient univerfi-
ty is dwindled into a wretched college of the Jefuits.
However, in I735> was advanced to an archbilhop-
ric by Pope Clement XII, The country about it is
fo marfhy, that a fhower or two of rain renders the
roads almoft impaffable. It is 24 miles north-eaft of
Bologna, 38 north-weft of Ravenna, 70 north-by-weft
of Florence, and 190 north of Rome. E. Long. 12.
14. N. Lat. 44. 36.
Ferrara, the duchy of-, a province in the pope’s
territory, bounded on the north by the ftate of Venice,
on the weft by the duchies of Mantua and Mirandola,
on the fouth by the Bolognefe and by Romagna, of
which it was formerly a part, and on the eaft by the
ulf of Venice. It is 50 miles in length, and 43 in
readth along the coaft 5 but grows narrower and nar¬
rower towards the Mantuan. This country is almoft
furrounded by the branches of the Po, which often over¬
flow the country, and form the great morafs of Coma-
chio, which has a bad effedl on the air. It is thin of
people, and indifferently cultivated, though fit for corn,
pulfe and hemp. The Po and the lake of Comachio
yielded a large quantity of fifh. Ferrara is the capital
town ; befides which there are Arano, Comachio, Mag-
^ navacca, Belriguardo, Cento, Buendeno, and Ficherola.
This duchy was formerly poffeffed by the houfe of Efte.
But the pope took poffeflion of it in 1598, after the
death of Alphonfo II. duke of Ferrara, it being a fief
of the church.
FERRARI A, a genus of plants, belonging to the
gynandria clafs) and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the fixth order, Enfatcc. See Botany Index.
FERRARS, George, a lawyer, poet, hiftorian, and
accompliftied gentleman, was defeended from an an¬
cient family in Hertfordlhire, and born about the year
1510, in a village near St Alban’s. He was educat¬
ed at Oxford, and thence removed to Lincoln’s Inn $
where applying with uncommon diligence to the ftudy
of the law, he was foon diftinguilhed for his elocution
at the bar. Cromwell earl of Effex, the great minifter
of Henry VIII. introduced him to the king, who em
* ployed him as his menial fervant, and, in 1535, gave
him a grant of the manor of Flamftead in his native
county. Ihis is fuppofed to have been a profitable
eftate j neverthelefs, Mr Ferrars being a gay courtier,
and probably an expenfive man, about feven years af¬
ter was taken to execution by a fheriff’s officer for a
debt of 200 merks, and lodged in the compter. Be¬
ing at this time member for Plymouth, the houfe of
commons immediately interfered, and he foon obtained
his liberty. He continued in favour with the king to
the end of his reign, and in that of Edward VI. he
attended the lord protedlor Somerfet as a commiffion-
er of the army in his expedition to Scotland in 1548.
In the fame reign, the young king being then at
Greenwich, Mr Ferrars was proclaimed lord of mifrule,
that is, prince of fports and paftimes; which office he
3
difcharged during 1 2 days, in Chriftmas holidays, to the Ferret
entire fatisfa&ion of the court. This is all we know I!
ot Mr Ferrars j except that he died in 1579, at Flam- . Ferro-
ftead in Hertford (hire, and was buried in the parifli
church. He is not lefs celebrated for his valour in the
field, than for his other accomplilhments as a gentle¬
man and a fcholar. He wrote, 1. Hiftory of the Reign '
of Queen Mary; publiffied in Grafton’s chronicle,
fob 2. Six tragedies, or dramatic poems; pub¬
liffied in a book called the Mirror for Magi/lrates, firft
printed in 1559, afterwards in 1587, and again in
1610.
FERRET, See Mustela, Mammalia Index.
' Ferrets, among glafsmakers, the iron with which
the workmen try the melted metal, to fee if it be fit to
work.—It is alfo ufed for thofe irons which make the
rings at the mouth of the bottles.
FERRETTO, in glafs-making, a fubftance which
ferves to colour glafs.
This is made by a Ample calcination of copper, but
it ferves for feveral colours : there are two ways of ma¬
king it. The firft is this. Take thin plates of copper,
and lay them on a layer of powdered brimftone, in the
bottom of a crucible; over thefe lay more brimftone,
and over that another layer of the plates, and fo on al¬
ternately till the pot is full. Cover the pot, lute it well,
place it in a wind furnace, and make a ftrong fire about
it for two hours. When it is taken out and cooled, the
copper will be found fo calcined, that it may be crum¬
bled to pieces between the fingers like a friable earth.
It will be of a reddilh, and, in fome parts, of a blackiffi
colour. This muft be powdertd and lifted fine for ufe.
Another way of making ferretto is as follows. Make
a number of ftratifications of plates of copper and
white vitriol alternately in a crucible ; which place on
the floor of the glafs furnace near the eye ; and let it
Hand there three days ; then take it out, and make a
new ftratification w ith more frefti vitriol; calcine again
as before. Repeat this operation fix times, and a moll
valuable ferretto will be obtained.
FERRO, (W. Long. 19. N. Lat. 28.), the moft
x^efterly of the Canary iflands, near the African coaft,
where the firft meridian was lately fixed in moft maps ;
but now, the geographers of almoft every kingdom make
their refpedlive capitals the firft meridian, as we do Lon¬
don. It is a dry and barren fpot, affording no water
except what is fupplied in a very furprifing manner by
a tree which grows in thefe iflands, called the Fountain-
Tree.
Ferro, Faro, or Feroe Ifands; a clufter of little
iflands lying in the Northern ocean, between 6i°, 15'
and 62° 2i/ N. Lat. and between 50 and 8° W.
Long. They belong to Denmark. There are 17 which
are habitable ; each of which is a lofty mountain arif-
ing out.of the wraves, divided from the others by deep
and rapid currents. Some of them are deeply indented
with fecure harbours; Providence feeming to have fa¬
voured mankind with the fafeft retreats in the moft
boifterous feas. All are very fteep, and moft of them
faced with moft tremendous precipices. The furface of
the mountains confifts of a (hallow foil of remarkable
fertility; for barley, the only corn fown here, yields
above 20 for one ; and the grafs affords abundant paf-
turage for ffieep. The exports are, faked mutton and
tallow, goofe quills, feathers, and eider down; and,
by
, F E R [ 607 ] F E R
Ferro, by the induftry of the inhabitants, knit woollen waift-
coats, caps, and dockings. No trees beyond the lize of
juniper or ftunted willows will grow here j nor are any
wild quadrupeds to be met wdth except rats and mice,
originally efcaped from the Hupping. Vaft quantities
of fea fowl frequent the rocks j and the taking of them
furnilhes a very perilous employment to the natives, as
defcribed under the article BiRD-Catching.
The fea which furrounds thefe iflands is extremely
turbulent. The tides vary greatly on the weftern and
eaftern lides. On the firft, where is received the un¬
interrupted flood of the ocean from the remote Green¬
land, the tide rifes feven fathoms •, on the eaftern fide
it rifes only three. Dreadful whirlwinds, called by
the Danes oes, agitate the fea to a ftrange degree ;
catch up a vaft quantity of water, fo as to leave a great
temporary chafm in the fpot on which it falls, and car¬
ries away -with it, to an amazing diftance, any fifties
which may happen to be within reach of its fury.
rI hus great ftioals of herrings have been found on the
higheft mountains of Feroe. It is equally refiftlefs on
land ; tearing up trees, ftones, and animals, and carry¬
ing them to very diftant places.
Among the numerous whirlpools of thefe feas, that
of Suderoe, near the ifland of the fame name, is the
moft noted. It is occaftoned by a crater 61 fathoms
in depth in the centre, and from 50 to 55 on the fides.
The water forms four fierce circumgirations. The
point they begin at is on the fide of a large bafon,
where commences a range of rocks running fpiraily,
and terminating at the verge of the crater. This range
is extremely rugged, and covered with water from the
depth of i 2 to 8 fathoms only. It forms four equi-
-diftant wreaths with a channel from 35 to 20 fathoms
in depth between each. On the outfide, beyond that
depth, the fea fuddenly finks to 80 and 90. On the
fouth border of the bafon is a lofty rock, called Sumboe
Munky noted for the multitude of birds which frequent
it. On one fide, the water is only 3 or 4 fathoms
deep ; on the other 15. The danger at moft times,
efpecially in ftorms, is very great. Ships are irrefift-
ibly drawn in 5 the rudder lofes its power; and the
waves beat as high as the mafts 5 fo that an efcape is
almoft miraculous; yet at the reflux, and in very ftill
weather, the inhabitants will venture in boats for the
fake of fifliing.
Innumerable flocks of aquatic birds are continually
to be feen perched on the extremities of the rocks,
which make their nefts in the clefts above the precipi¬
ces ) and vaft numbers of them may be killed by the dif-
charge of a Angle mufleet, and the reft will not ftir, fo
little are they accuftomed to be difturbed. One of the
iflands contains but a Angle habitation, which can be
vifited by the curate only in fummer. In the fouthern
part of thefe iflands coal-mines were difeovered a-
bout the beginning of the eighteenth century, and
trials of the coals were only made in 1777, when
xt was judged that -working them would be of fufficient
intereft and confequence. The quarry was determined
by a commiffary to be about I 2,000 feet long, 4000
broad on a medium, and five feet deep 5 but fo great
did the difficulty of working it appear, that the idea
was abandoned. The coals were analyzed by the cele¬
brated profefibr Kratzenftein of Copenhagen, who
found that they were fuperior to thofe of England, as
burning longer, and giving a more intenfe heat, but Ferro
not fo eafily kindled. A trial of them has been made
in Scotland, and they are allowed to be of a fuperior Fertility.
quality. It is a favourable circumftance to the exporta- v '
tion of the produce of thofe iflands, that their harbours
are never frozen, and navigation of confequence could
meet with no interruption during the winter.
The meafles and fmall pox never attack the inhabi¬
tants but when they are brought there by ftrangers,
when the ravages they make are almoft as terrible
as thofe of the peftilence 5 but for 70 years back they
have not been fubjefted to this dreadful vifitation. The
air is temperate, and neither too hot in fummer, nor
extremely cold in winter. There are frequent mills on
thefe iflands, but they do not feem to be injurious to the
health of the inhabitants. The wand often blows
with fuch violence, that the people on horfeback are
obliged to difmount at its approach, which is announced
by a whiffling acrofs the rocks j and perfons on foot
muft throw themfelves flat on their face, to avoid
the dreadful confequences of the irrefiftible hurricane.
So hidden is its approach at fome times, that a burning
candle might be carried in the open air but a few fe-
conds before it. There is feldom any thunder on thefe
iflands j but when the phenomenon does happen, its aw¬
ful and inceffant roar among the rocks is truly alarm¬
ing. Potatoes, the cultivation of which is rapidly ad¬
vancing, thrive well, and the fame is the cafe with ra-
dilhes and turnips. Corn is not much cultivated, which
would require exceffive labour in a country fo moun •
tainous, and the fpring filhery requires all the hands
that can be fpared. Trees cannot be made to grow upon
them, and of confequence there is no wood.
The number of inhabitants does not exceed 5000 ; and
they are in general well made, with fair complexions,
and their whitenefs is very feldom impaired by the in¬
fluence of the fun. They are not deficient in under-
ftanding j and although phlegmatic, yet they are bene¬
volent and hofpitable, and are feldom known to quarrel.
They are fond of brandy, and yet it is faid that they are
very rarely feen in a ftate of intoxication. - They are fru¬
gal and upright, yet extremely credulous, and much
addifted to fuperftitious practices. There are no fchools
among them, as parents educate their own children,
and their knowledge of confequence is very circumfcrib-
ed. They abound in fkilful players at chefs, but are
wholly unacquainted with inftruments of mufic, and
dance to the found of the voice,
FERROL, a fea port towm of Spain, in the pro¬
vince of Gallicia, feated on a bay of the Atlantic
ocean. It has a good harbour, and is frequented by
the Spanifti fleet in time of w’ar. W. Long. 8. 46.
N. Lat. 43. 26.
FERRUGINOUS, any thing partaking of iron, or
which contains particles of that metal.
FERRUGO, rust, or oxide of iron. See Iron,
Oxide of. Chemistry Index.
FERRUM, iron. See Iron, Chemistry Index.
FERRY, a liberty by prefeription, or by the king’s
grant, to have a boat for paflage, on a frith or river
for carrying paffengers, horfes, &c. over the fame for
a reafonable toll.
FERTILITY, that quality which denominates a
thing fruitful or prolific.
Nothing can produce fertility in either fex, but what
promotes
FES [ 608 ] F E T
Ferula promotes perfect health: nothing but good blood,
II . Ipirits, and perfect animal functions, that is, high
V— health, can beget perfect fecundity j and therefore, all
1——y——; means and medicines, all noftrums and fpecifics, to pro¬
cure fertility, different from thofe which procure good
blood and fpirits, are arrant quackery. Dr Cheyne
fays, that water-drinking males are very rarely infer¬
tile •, and that if any thing in nature can prevent infer¬
tility, and bring fine children, it is a milk and feed
diet perfevered in by both parents.
To increafe the fertility of vegetables, fays Lord Ba¬
con, we muft not only increafe the vigour of the earth
and of the plant, but alfo preferve what would other-
wife be loft: whence he infers, that there is much faved
by fetting, in comparifon of lowing. It is reported,
continues he, that if nitre be mixed with water to the
thicknefs of honey, and after a vine is cut, the bud be
anointed therewith, it will fprout within eight days.
If the experiment be true, the caufe may be in the
opening of the bud, and contiguous parts, by the fpi-
rit of the nitre j for nitre is the life of vegetables.
How far this may be true, is not perhaps fufficiently
fhown, notwithftanding the experiments of Sir Kenelm
Digby and M. Homberg. Confult Mr Evelyn’s Syl-
va, the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, the French Me¬
moirs, and Dr Stahl’s Philofophical Principles of Che-
miftry •, but a proper fet of accurate experiments feems
ftill wanting in this view.
FERULA, a little wooden pallet or flice, reputed
the fchoolmafter’s Iceptre, wherewith he chaftifes the
boys, by ftriking them on the palm of the hand. The
word is Latin, and has alfo been ufed to denote the
prelate’s crofier and ftaff. It is fuppofed to be formed
of the Latin ferire, “ to ftrike.” Under the eaftern
empire, the ferula was the emperor’s fceptre, as is feen
on divers medals ; it confifts of a long ftem or lhank,
and a flat fquare head. The ufe of the ferula is very
ancient among the Greeks, who ufed to call their
princes q. d. “ ferula-bearers.”
In the ancient eaftern church, ferula or narthex fig-
nified a place feparated from the church *, wherein
the penitents or the catechumens of the fecond order,
called aufcultantes, unroot,y.a'rix.o*, were kept, as not being
allowed to enter the church j whence the name of the
place, the perfons therein being under penance or dif-
cipline : fib ferula erant ecclejice.
Ferula, Fennel-giant, a genus of plants belonging
to the pentandria clafs, and in the natural method
ranking under the 45th order, Umbellatce. See Botany
Index. The drug affafetida is obtained from a fpecies
of ferula.
FESCENNIA, or Fescennium, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a town of Etruria, above Falerii) where the
Fefcennine verfes were firft invented. Now Galefe, in
the Ecclefiaftical State, near the Tiber.
FESCENNINE verses, in antiquity, were a kind
of fatirical verfes, full of wanton and obfcene expref-
fions, fung or rehearfed by the company, with many
indecent geftures and dances, at the folemnization of a
marriage among the Romans-, (Hor. lib. v. ep. i. 145.)
The word is borrowed, according to Macrobius, from
facinum, “ a charm $” the people taking fuch fongs to
be proper to drive awray witches, or prevent their
efl'edl } but its more probable origin is from Fefcen-
4
nium, a city of Campania, where fuch verfes were firft Fefle
ufed. _ I'
FESSE, in Heraldry, one of the nine honourable e oc^
ordinaries. See Heraldry.
Fesse Point, is the exadl centre of the efcutcheon.
See Point.
Fesse Ways, or in Fesse, denotes any thing borne
after the manner of a feffe j that is, in a rank acrofe
the middle of the Ihield.
Party per Fesse, implies a parting acrofs the middle
of the ftiield, from fide to fide, through the fefle point.
FESTI dies, in Roman antiquity, certain days in
the year devoted to the honour of the gods.
Numa, when he diftributed the year into 12 months,
divided the fame into the dies fejli, diesprofejli, and dies
interciji.
The fefti were again divided into days of facrifices,
banquets, games and ferise. See Ferive.
The profejli were thofe days allowed to men for thd
adminiftration of their affairs, whether of a public or
private nature : thefe are divided into fafti, comitiar
les, &c. See Fasti, Comitiales, &c. /
The interciji wTere days common both to gods afid
men, fome parts of which were allotted to the fenfice
of the one, and fome to that of the other.
FESTINO, in Logic, the third mood of the fecond
figure of the fyllogifm, the firft propofition whereof is
an univerfal negative, the fecond a particular affirma¬
tive, and the third a particular negative ; as in the fol¬
lowing example :
FES No bad man can be happy.
IT Some rich men are bad men.
NO Ergo, Some rich men are not happy.
FESTIVAL, a time of feafting. See Feast.—
The term is particularly applied to anniverfary days of
civil or religious joy.
FESTOON, in ArcluteBure and Sculpture, &c. an
ornament in form of a garland of flowers, fruits, and
leaves, intermixed or twifted together.
It is in the form of a firing or collar, fome what
biggeft in the middle, wrhere it falls dowm in an arch j
being extended by the two ends, the extremities of
which hang dowm perpendicularly.
Feftoons are now chiefly ufed in friezes, and other
vacant places which want to be filled up and adorned •,
being done in imitation of the long clufters of flowers,
wrhich the ancients placed on the doors of their temples
and houfes on feftival occaiions.
FESTUCA, fescue grass, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the triandria clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 34th order, Gramina. See Bo¬
tany and Agriculture Index.
FESTUS Pompeius, a celebrated grammarian of
antiquity, who abridged a w7ork of Verrius Flaccus,
De Signifcatione Verboruni; but took fuch liberties in
callration and criticifing, as, Gerard Voflius obferves,
are not favourable to the reputation of his author. A
complete edition of his fragments wras publifhed by M.
Dacier in 1681, for the ufe of the Dauphin. Scaliger
fays, that Feftus is an author of great ufe to thofe who
would attain the Latin tongue with accuracy.
FETLOCK, in the Manege, a tuft of hair growing
behind the paftern joint of many horfes j for thofe of
a low fize have fcarce any fuch tuft.
FETTI
F E V
Fetti
II
Feverfew
FETTI, Domenico, an eminent painter in the
flyle of Julio Romano, was born at Rome in 1589,
and educated under Ludovico Civoli of Florence. He
painted but little for churches, but excelled in hiftory j
his pictures are much fought after, and are fcarce. 
He abandoned himfelf to diforderly courfes 5 and put
an end to his life by exceffes, in the 35th year of
his age.
FETUS. See Foetus.
FEUD, in our ancient cuftoms, is ufed for a capital
quarrel or enmity, not to be fatisfied but with the death
of the enemy; and thence ufually called deadly feud. 
Feud, called ddofeida, and faida, in the original Ger¬
man, fignifies guerram, i. e. helium, “ war.” Lambert
writes '\1 fecth, and faith it lignifies capitalet inumcitias,
or “ implacable hatred.”
In Scotland, and the north of England, feud is par¬
ticularly ufed for a combination of kindred, to re¬
venge the death of any of their blood, againft the
killer and all his race, or any other great enemy.
Feud (Feoda), the fame with Fief, or Fee. See
Feodal Syftem.
FEUDAL, or Feodal, of or belonging to a feud
©r fee. See Feodal.
FEUDATORY, or Feodatort, a tenant who for¬
merly held his eftate by feodal fervice. See Feodal
Tenure.
FEU-duty, in Scots Law, is the annual rent or duty
which a valfal, by the tenor of his right, becomes bound
to pay his fuperior.
FEu-Holding, in Scots Law, is that particular tenure
by which a vaffal is taken bound to pay an annual rent
or feu-duty to his fuperior.
FEVER. See Medicine Index.
I he ancients deified the difeafes as well as the
paflxons and affe&ions of men. Virgil places them in
the entrance into hell, JEn. vi. 273. Among thefe
Fever had a temple on Mount Palatine, and two o-
ther parts of ancient Rome $ and there is dill extant
an infcription to this goddefs. FEBRI. DIVAt
FEBRI. SANCTAS. FEBRI. MAGNiE. CA¬
MILLA. AMATA. PRO. FILIO. MALE.
AFFECTO.
Fever, in Farriery. See Furriery Index.
FEVERFEW. See Matricaria, Botany In¬
dex.
FEVERSHAM, a town of the county of Kent in
England, fituated on a branch of the river Thames,
which is nayigable for hoys. It wras a royal demefne
A. D. 811, and called in Kenulf’s charter the King's
little Town, though it is now a large one. It was in¬
habited by the Britons long before .the invafion of Cse-
far. In 903, King Athelftan held a great council
here. King Stephen erefted a ftately abbey, 1147,
yvhofe abbots fat in parliament 5 and he was buried in
it, together with Maud his queen, and Euftace his
fon; but of this building two mean gate-houfes are
all that now remain. The town was firft incorporated
by the name of the barons of Feverlham, afterwards
by Henry VIII. with the title of the mayor and com-
monalty, and laftly, by that of the mayor and jurats
and commonalty. It is a populous flourilhing place,
confining chiefly of two long broad ftreets, with a
market-houfe in. the centre, built 1574. Its ancient
church w^as rebuilt in 1754, at the expence of 2?Ool.
Vol. VIIL Part II. J
[ 609 ]
FEZ
Fez.
but was originally built in Edward IPs reign. There Fevildea
is a free grammar fchool in the place, built and en- 11
dowed by Queen Elizabeth in 1582 ; alfo two charity
fchools. It is a member of the cinque-port of Dover
and has a manufadfory of gunpowder. The London
markets are fupplied from hence with abundance of
apples and cherries, and the belt oyfters for Hewing.
Thefe lafi: were at one time carried away in fuch quan¬
tities by the Dutch, that many men and boats wTere
employed in the winter to dredge for them ; and it
is faid they carried home as many as amounted to
above 2000I. a-year. The fiihermen admit none to take
up their freedom but married men.
. FEVILDEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dioecia clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 34th order, Cucurbitacece. See Botany Index.
FEVRE, I anegui le, of Caen in Normandy, born
1615, was an excellent fcholar in the Greek and Roman
learning. Cardinal de Richelieu gave him a penfion of
2000 livres to infped all the works publilhed ht the
Louvre, and defigned to have made him principal of a
college he was about to ere# at Richelieu. But the
cardinal’s death cut off his hopes 5 and Cardinal Ma¬
zarine haying no great relilh for learning, his penfion
was ill paid. Some time after, the marquis de Fran-
ciere, governor of Langres, took him along with him
to his government, and there he embraced the Prote-
ftant religion 5 after which he was invited to Saumur,
tvhere he was chofen Greek profeffor. He there
taught wdth extraordinary reputation. Young men
were fent to him from all the provinces in the king¬
dom, and even from foreign countries, while divines
and profeffors themfelves gloried in attending his lec¬
tures. He vyas preparing to go to Heidelberg, whi¬
ther he was invited by the prince Palatine, wdien he
died, aged 57. He wrote, 1. Notes on Anacreon,
Lucretius, Longinus, Phsedrus, Juftin, Terence, Vir¬
gil, Horace, &c. 2. A Ihort account of the lives of
the Greek poets. 3. Two volumes of letters: and
many other wrorks.
Ferre, Claud le, an eminent French painter, was
born at Fountainbleau in 1633, and ffudied in the pa¬
lace there, and then at Paris under Le Sueur and Le
Brun j the latter of whom advifed him to adhere to
portraits, for which he had a particular talent, and in
his ftyle equalled the befl: mailers of that country. He
died in England in 1675, aged 42.
FEZ, the capital of a kingdom of the fame name in
Barbary, in Africa. It is defcribed as a very large place,
furrounded with high walls, within which there are hills
and valleys, only the middle being level and flat. The
river, which runs through the city, is divided into two
ftreams, from which canals are cut into every part of
the town 5 fo that the mofques, colleges, palaces, and
the houfes of great men, are amply fupplied with wa¬
ter. They have generally fquare marble bafons in the
middle of the court of their houfes, which are fupplied
with water by marble pipes that pafs through the
Avails.. They conftantly run over, and the ftream returns
back into the ftreet, and fo into the river. The houfes
are built with brick or ftone j and are adorned on the
outfide Avith fine mofaic work, or tiles like thofe of
Holland. The wood Avork and ceilings are carved,
painted and gilt. The roofs are flat j for they fleep
on the tops of the houfes in fummer, Moff of the
4 H houfes
FEZ f «t
Fez. houfes are two ftories high, and fome three. There are
v " piazzas and galleries running all round the court on the
infide, fo that you may go under cover from one apart¬
ment to another. The pillars are of brick, covered
with glazed tiles, or of marble, with arches between.
The timber work is carved and painted with gay co¬
lours, and moft of the rooms have marble citterns of
water. Some of the great men build towers over their
houfes feveral ttories high, and fpare no expence to ren¬
der them beautiful j from hence they have a fine profped;
all over the city.
There are in this city 700 mofque's, great and fmall ;
of which are magnificent, and fupported with mar¬
ble pillars, and other ornaments. The floors are covered
with mats, as well as the walls to the height of a man.
Every mofque has a tower or minaret, like thofe in
Turkey, with a gallery on the top, from whence they
call the people to prayers. The principal mofque is
near a mile and a half in circumference. The middle
building is 150 yards in length, and 80 in breadth,
with a tower proportionably high. Round this to the
eaft, weft, and north, there are great colonnades 30 or
40 yards long. There are 900 lamps lighted every
night ; and in the middle of the mofque are large
branches, which are capable of holding 500 lamps
tfach. Along the wnlls are feven pulpits, from which
the dodlors of the law teach the people. The bufi-
nefs of the prieft is only to read prayers, and diftribute
alms to the people 5 to fupport which, there are large
revenues.
Bettdes the mofques, there are twro colleges built in
the Moorifh manner, and adorned with marble and
paintings. In one of them there are 100 rooms, be¬
tides a magnificent hall. In this there is a great marble
vafe full of water, adorned with marble pillars of various
colours, and finely polifhed. The capitals are gilt, and
the roof fhines with gold, azure, and purple. The walls
are adorned with Arabic verfes in gold characters. The
other colleges are not near fo beautiful, or rather are all
gone to ruin fihce the negleCt of learning.
There are hofpitals in the city, where formerly all
ftrangers were maintained three days gratis. But the
eftates belonging to them have been confifcated for the
emperor’s ufe. There are above 100 public baths, many
of which are ftately buildings. People of the fame trade
or bufinefs live in ftreets by themfelves.
Though the country about Fez is pleafant and fer¬
tile, and in many places abounding with corn and cat-
tle, yet a great part of it lies watte and uncultivated,
not fo much for want of inhabitants as from the oppref-
iion of the governors; which makes the people choofe
to live at fome diftance from the high roads, wdiere they
cultivate juft as much land as is neceffary for their own
lubfiftence.
Round the city there are fine marble tombs, monu¬
ments, and gardens full of all manner of fruit trees.
Such are the common accounts of this city. The
following are given by M. Chenier, in his Recherches Hi-
Jloriques fur les Maures.
• Fez was built in the end of the eighth century by
Edris, a defcendant of Mahomet and of Ali; whofe fa¬
ther, in order to avoid the profcriptions of the caliph
Abdallah, retired to the extremity of Africa, and w^as
proclaimed fovereign by the Moors. Sidy Edris, hav¬
ing fucceeded to the throne of his father, built the
o ] FEZ
city of Fez in the year 793. Fie caufed a mofque to
be ereCled, in which his body was interred, and the
city ever afterwards became an afylum for the Moors,
and a place of devotion. In the firft: moments of fer¬
vour which a new worfhip infpires, another mofque wTas
built called carubin^ which is perhaps one of the largefl
and moft beautiful edifices in Africa. Several others
w^ere fucceflively built, befides colleges and hofpitals j
and the city was held in fuch veneration, that when
the pilgrimage to Mecca was interrupted in the fourth
century of the Hegira, the weftern Mahometans fub-
ttituted that of Fez in its ftead, while theeattern people
went to Jerufalem.
When the Arabs had overfpread Afia, Africa, and
Europe, they brought to Fez the little knowledge they
had acquired in the fciences and arts 5 and that capital
conjoined, with the fchools of religion, academies where
philofophy was taught, together with medicine and
attronomy. This laft gradually degenerated 3 igno¬
rance brought aftrology into repute, and this quickly
engendered the arts of magic and divination.
Fez foon became the common refort of all Africa.
The Mahometans went thither for the purpofes of de.
votion ; the affluence of ftrangers introduced a tafte for
pleafure $ libertinifm quickly followed 3 and, as its pro-
grefs is moft rapid in warm countries, Fez, which had
been the nurfe of fciences and arts, became a harbour
for every kind of vice. The public baths, which health,
cleanlinefs, and cuftom, had rendered neceffary, and
which were everywhere refpected as facred places, be¬
came feenes of debauchery 3 where men introduced
themfelves in the habits of women : youths in the fame
difguife, with a diftaff in their hands, walked the ftreets
at funfet in order to entice ftrangers to their inns,
which were lefs a place of repofe than a convenience
for proftitution.
The ufurpers who difputed the kingdom of Fez after
the 16th century overlooked thefe abufes, and content¬
ed themfelves with fubjefting the matters of the inns to
furnilh a certain number of cooks for the army. It is
to this laxity of difcipline that Fez owed its firft fplen-
dour. As the inhabitants are beautiful, the Africans
flocked thither in crowds; the laws were overturned,
morals defpifed, and vice itfelf turned into an engine
of political refource. The fame fpirit, the fame incli¬
nations, the fame depravity, ftill exift in the hearts of
all the Moors. But libertinifm is not now' encouraged 3
it w'ears there, as in other places, the malk -of hypo-
crify 3 and dares not venture to Ihow itfelf in the face
of day.
The Mahometans of Andalufia, thofe of Granada
and Cordova, migrated to Fez during the different re¬
volutions that agitated Spain : they carried with them
new cuftoms and new arts, and perhaps fbme flight
degree of civilization. The Spaniffl Moors carried
from Cordova to Fez the art of ftaining goat and fheep
Ikins with a red colour, which were then called Cor¬
dova leather, and now Morocco leather, from that city
whfere the art is lefs perfect. They manufacture gauzes
at Fez, filk fluffs, and girdles elegantly embroider¬
ed with gold and filk, which Ihow how far their in¬
genuity might be carried if induftry were more en¬
couraged. »
There is ftill fome tafte for ftudy preferved at Fez,
and the Arabic language is fpoken there in greater
purity
FEZ [ <
Fez, purity than in any other part of the empire. The
Fezzan. Moors fend their children to the fchools at Fez,
where they are better inltrufted than they could be
elfewhere.
Leo Africanus, in the 16th century, gave a magni¬
ficent defcription of this city, from which moll of thofe
that have been afterwards made are copied : but its fi-
tuation, its fchools, and the indultry and great urba¬
nity of its inhabitants, are the only circumftances that
give it any preference to the other cities of the em¬
pire. There are fome pretty convenient inns here,
confiding of two or three dories. The houfes have no
elegance externally : the dreets are ill paved, and fp
drait that two perlons riding abread can hardly pafs.
The (hops are like dalls j and have no more room in
them than is fufircient to ferve for the owner, who is
always feated with his wares around him, which he
(hows to the paffengers. But though the Moors of
Tez are more civilized than the red, they are vain, fu-
perditious, and intolerant; and an order mud be ob¬
tained from the emperor before a Chridian or a Jew' can
be allowed to enter the city.
The fituation of Fez is exceedingly Angular. It lies
in the bottom of a valley furrounded by little hills in
the fhape of a funnel; the declivities are divided into
gardens planted with tall trees, orange fhrubs, and all
forts of fruit trees ; a river meanders along the declivity,
and turns a number of mills, which difperfe the water
abundantly to all the gardens, and almod to every houfe.
The defcent to the city, which dands in the centre, is
long *, and the road lies through thefe gardens, which
it traverfes, in a ferpentine direction.
The gardens, feen from the city, form a mod de¬
lightful amphitheatre. Formerly each garden had a
houfe in which the inhabitants fpent the dimmer. Thefe
houfes were dedroyed in the times of the civil wars,
and in the revolutions to which Fez has been fubject,
and few individuals have redored them. The fituation
of Fei, however, cannot be healthful $ moid vapours
fill the air in dimmer, and fevers are exceedingly com¬
mon.
On the height above Fez, in a plain fufceptible of
rich cultivation, dands New Fez, finely fituated, and
enjoying excellent air, containing fome old palaces, in
which the children of the emperor live, and where he
fometimes refides himfelf. New Fez is inhabited by
fome Moorifh families, but by a greater number of
Jewrs.
Fez is feated on the river Cebu, W. Long. 4. 25.
N. Lat. 33. 58.
FEZZAN, a kingdom of Africa, about 300 miles
long from north to fouth, and 200 broad from ead to
Med. It is bounded on the ead by the Harutfch and
line of the deferts •, by the country of the Tibboes on
the fouth and fouth-ead j by that of the Nomadic Tua-
ricks on the fouth-M’ed ; and the country which forms
the wedern boundary, is inhabited by Arabs. It con¬
tains 101 toivus and villages, of which Mourzouk is the
metropolis. The climate of this kingdom is neither
temperate nor agreeable at any feafon whatever j for the
heat of dimmer is almod intolerable, even to the in¬
habitants, efpecially when the wind blows from the
fouth j and the prevalence of the north Mind during
winter makes the cold fo intenfe, as not only to chill
ii ] FEZ
the natives, but thofe alfo whp yifit it from northern Fee
regions. 1 y
Rain falls bi}t feldom in this country, and in very
fmall quantities. Thunder is alfo a rare phenomenon :
Mr Horneman affures us that there M’as not a dngle
dorm from November 1798 to June 1799 and that
on the lad day of January 1799 there were fome faint
fladies of lightning unaccompanied by any claps of
thunder. Winds, hoM’ever, blow very frequently, both
from the north and fouth, whirling up the dud and land
in fuch a manner as to give the atmofphere a yellowidi
appearance. There is neither river nor rivulet of any
conlequence in the whole country, according to Mr
Horneman, who informs us that the foil is a deep
fand, beneath M’hich is found calcareous rock or earth,
and fometimes a dratum of an argillaceous fubdance.
Date trees may be conddered as the natural produc¬
tion of Fezzan, in the wedern parts of which fome fen-
na grows, of a fuperior quality to that which is import¬
ed from the country of the Tibboes. Culinary plants,
and almod every vegetable peculiar to the garden, are
met with in abundance. Wheat and barley feem well
adapted to the nature of the foil, as well as to the cli¬
mate j yet corn is not raifed in fufficient quantity for
home confumpt, which is brought from thofe parts of
Africa bordering on the northern parts of the king¬
dom. This is mod probably owing to the native indo¬
lence of the people, the defpotifm of their government,
and the ditdculties infeparable from their peculiar mode
of tillage.
They beftow little attention on the rearing of cattle,
which are only found in the mod fertile parts of the
country, and even in thefe their numbers are but fmall.
They are made ufe of to draw water from the w’ells,
and are never killed but in cafes of abfolute neceffity.
The common domedic animal is the goat} and although
dieep are reared in the fouthern parts of the country,
the mod abundant fupply is furrulhed by the Arabs
on the borders. They make coarfe cloths of the wool,
which conditute the apparel of the inhabitants in gene¬
ral. Their horfes are not numerous, as they make mod
ufe of afles, either for carriage, draught, or burthen.
Camels bear a mod extravagant price, being only made
ufe of by the higher ranks, or by opulent merchants j
and the common food of all thofe animals is the fruit of
the date tree.
Although the trade of Fezzan confids entirely of
foreign articles, it is neverthelefs confiderable. Mour¬
zouk is the great market and place of general refort for
different caravans from Cairo, Bengafi, Tripoli, and
other places, between the months of Odober and Fe¬
bruary. The caravans which come to Mourzouk from
the wed or fouth, deal in odrich feathers, tiger (kins,
gold dud, and alfo in (laves of both fexes as articles of
commerce. Tobacco and fnuff, with other articles
manufactured in Turkey, are brought to the capital by
the merchants from Bengafi j and paper, fire-arms,
fabres, knives, and woollen cloth, are conveyed to it
from Tripoli.
Fezzan is governed by a fultan, a defeendant of the
family of the Shereefs ; and according to the tradition
of the country, his ancedors came from the wedern
parts of Africa, invaded and made a conqued of it about
500 years ago. He reigns over his dominions with ab-
4H 2 folute
FEZ [ 612 ] FIB
yezzan- folute power, but is at the fame time tributary to the
' bafhaw of Tripoli, who annually receives from him the
fum of 4000 dollars by the hands of an officer appoint¬
ed for that purpofe. The fultan who was upon the
throne when Mr Horneman in 1798 vifited the country,
affumed the title of “ Sultan Muhajnmed ben Sultan
Manfur,” engraved on a feal which is applied to all
public a£ts, and alfo to correfpondence within his do¬
minions ; but he makes ufe of a fmaller feal when he
writes to the baffiaw of Tripoli. The crown is heredi¬
tary 5 yet it defcends not in all cafes from father to fon,
for when the heir apparent dies, a nephew may fucceed
in preference to a fecond fon, which is frequently the
occafion of much bloodffied, when the right of fucceffion
comes to be warmly contefted. The palace of the ful¬
tan is within the walls of the fortrefs of the capital,
where he leads a life of retirement attended by his
eunuchs. The harem is near the palace, into which
he never enters, as the female whom he inclines to fee
is conducted to his apartment. The harem confifts of
the fultana and about 40 female flaves, which laft he fre¬
quently difpofes of, and replaces them by others, unlefs
they bear him children, or become the objeits of his
vrdent attachment, either by their perfonal beauty or
other accompliihments.
Thole who wiffi for an audience with the fultan, ap¬
proach the throne, which is an old elbow chair raifed a
few fteps from the ground, kifs his hand, and raife it fo
as to touch their forehead, and then kneel before him to
give a flatement of their bulinefs in common language,
taking care, however, to intermix it with fuch excla¬
mations as ihefe : “ God prolong thy life, God proteft
thy country,” and to offer him fome fmall prefent. The
court pf the fultan confifts of a firft and fecond minifter,
the general of his forces, a number of black, and a few
white Haves. Some of the black flaves who are purchaf-
ed while boys, and educated according to their diftinc-
tions and talents, often acquire confiderable influence
with the fidtan.
The drefs of the fultan, when he appears in ftate, con¬
fifts of a white frock of fluff, ornamented with gold and
filver, and fometimes of fatin interwoven with filver.
The appearance of his turban is remarkable, which mea-
fures not lefs than three feet from the fore to the hinder
part, and two feet in breadth. His revenue arifes from
certain taxes on all gardens and cultivated lands, and
from fines and requifitions impofed in an arbitrary
manner. The flaves who are employed in collecting
thefe are often rigorous in the extreme, but it is often
poffible to procure their lenity by means of a bribe.
The expenditure of this revenue is chiefly confined to
the fupport of the fultan, his court and palace, for the
cadi and department of juftice j the religious order, and
principal officers of government, are fupported by the
produce of date-tree woods and gardens.
The adminiftration of juftice is veiled in the hands of
a cadi, whofe decifions are guided by the Mohammedan
law, by antiquated cuftoms, and eftablilhed practice j
but judgment in all criminal cafes is purely arbitrary,
or is referred to the fultan. The office of cadi has been
hereditary in one family, ever fince the conqueft of
the country by the anceftors of the prefent fultan • and
when he dies, his place is filled up by one who is molt
eminent for learning, or who can bell read and write
which is all the learning that he is ever pqffeffed off
It is difficult to afeertain any thing like an accurate Fezzm
ftatement of the population of Fezran, but Mr Horne- . It
man conjeftures that they may amount to about Flbre‘
75,000, all of them proleffing the religion of Maho¬
met. The complexion of the people varies conlider-
ably j thofe in the northern parts bearing in this refpe6l
a linking refemblance to the Arabians, while thofe in
the fouthern diftridts are very much like the Tibboes
and rl uaricks. I hofe who are ftri£tly indigenous are
of ordinary ftature, and their limbs far from being muf-
cular; of a deep brown colour, Ihort black hair, with
their face formed like the people of Europe, and their
nofe not fo flat as that of the negro. Their walk, mein
and gefture, indicate a total want of energy, either of
body or mind.
The women of this country are in general fond of
dancing, and the wanton manners and public freedoms
in which they are permitted to indulge, are frequently
aftonilhing, even to Mahometans from other countries;
and the men are very much addicted to the vice of
drunkennefs, ufing the juice of the date-tree, or a
drink that is called bufa, which is of an intoxicating
nature.
Hifterent fpecies of the venereal difeafe prevail in
this country, but that which is brought from Soudan is
reckoned the molt inveterate. The common lues ve¬
nerea is called yra7Z!Z2, for the cure of which they make
ufe of falts and colocynth as powerful cathartics, heal¬
ing the fores with natron water or diffolved foda.
They are fometimes affli&ed with haemorrhoids, the cure
of wffiich is no doubt rendered more difficult by the too
liberal ufe of red pepper $ and a fever and ague which
are very pernicious to foreigners. They are entirely
unacquainted with phlebotomy, yet they fometimes draw
blood by means of cupping ; and fome are as much ac¬
quainted with furgery as to be able to cure a Ample
fracture.
Their houfes are miferable ftrudtures, compofed of
ftones or bricks mixed with clay, and dried in the fun,
and the hands of the labourer are all the tools which
are employed in building. When the walls are finifn-
ed, they are covered over with mortar made of calcare¬
ous earth, which is alfo done with the hand. Their
houfes are extremely low, and there is no other entrance
for the light but by the door. They are uncommonly
abftemious in refpe£t of diet. Indeed they can never
abftain from butcher meat when it is placed before
them j but this is not an article of food with the generality,
and their expreflion for a rich man is, “ that he eats
bread and meat every day.”
FEWEL. See Fuel.
FIASCONE, a town of Italy, in the territories of
the pope, remarkable for its good wane. E. Long.
13. 12. N. Lat. 42. 20.
FIAT, in Law, a Ihort order or warrant figned by
a judge, for making out and allowing certain proceffes.
FIBRARLE, an old term applied to minerals of a
fibrous ftru£ture.
FIBRE, in Anatomy, a perfectly Ample body, or at-
leaft as Ample as any thing in the human ftrufture $
being fine and fiender like a thread, and ferving to
form other parts. Hence fome fibres are hard, as the
bony ones; and others foft, as thofe deftined for the
formation of all the other parts.
The fibres are divided atfo, according to their pofition
and
✓
F I C [ 613 l F I C
' Fibre and dire&ion, into fuch as are flraight, oblique, tranf-
Fici' us verire> annular, and fpiral j as they are arranged in thefe
■ 'Cz> U ’ directions in different parts of the body.
Fibre is alfo ufed to denote the {lender Filaments
which compofe other bodies, whether animal, vegetable,
or mineral j but more elpecially the capillary roots of
plants.
FIBROSE, or Fibrous, fomething confifting of
fibres, as the roots of plants. See Root.
FIBULA, in Anatomy, the outer and fmaller of
the bones of the leg. See Anatomy Index.
Fibula, in Surgery, an inftrument in ufe among the
ancients for the clofxng of gaping wounds.—Celfus
fpeaks of the fibula as to be ufed when the wound was
fo patent as not eafily to admit of being fewed. (Uy>.
lib. vii. cap. 25. apudJin.')
Fibula, in Antiquitij, was a fort of button, buckle,
or clafp, made ufe of by the Greeks and Romans for
keeping clofe or tying up fome part of their clothes.
They were of various forms, and often adorned with
precious flones. Men and women wore them in their
hair and at their fhoes. Players and muficians, by way
of preferving the voices of children put under their
care to learn their arts, ufed to keep clofe the prepuce
with a fibula, left they Ihould have commerce with
women.
FICINUS, Marsilius, a celebrated Italian, was
born at Florence in 1433, anc^ educated at the expence
of Laurence de Medicis. He attained a perfeCI know¬
ledge oPthe Greek and Latin tongues, and became a
great philofopher, a great phyfician, and a great divine.
He was in the higheft favour with Laurence and Cofmo
de Medicis, who made him a canon of the cathedral
church of Florence. He applied himfelf intenfely to
the ftudy of philofophy; and while others were ftriving
who fhould be the deepeft read in Ariftotle, who wras
then the philofopher in fafhion, he devoted himfelf whol¬
ly to Plato. He was indeed the firft who reftored the
Platonic philofophy in the wTeft 5 for the better effecting
of which he tranllated into Latin the whole works of
Plato. There goes a ftory, but w7e know not how
true it is, that when he had finifhed his tranllation, he
communicated it to his friend Marcus Mufurus, to have
his approbation of it j but that, Mufurus dilliking it,
he did it all over again. He next tranflated Plotinus ;
and afterwards the works, or part of them at leaft, of
Proclus, Jamblicus, Porphyrius, and other celebrated
Platonifts.—In his younger years, Ficinus lived like a
philofopher ; and too much fo, as is faid, to the negledt
of piety. However, Savonarola coming to Florence,
Ficinus went with every body elfe to hear his fermons ;
and while he attended them for the fake of the preach¬
er’s eloquence, he imbibed a ftrong fenfe of religion,
and devoted himfelf henceforward more efpecially to
the duties of it. He died at Correggio in 1499; and
as Baronius allures us upon the teftimony of what he
calls credible authors, appeared immediately after his
death to his friend Michael Mercatus : to whom, it
feems, he had promifed to appear, in order to confirm
what he had taught concerning the immortality of the
foul. His writings, facred and profane, which are
very numerous, were colledted and printed at Venice
in 1316, at Bafil in 1561 and 1576, and at Paris 1641,
in two vols. folio. Twelve books of his Epiftles, among
which are many treatifes, were printed feparately in
folio at Venice 1495, and at Nuremberg 1497, in Frcoides
4to. ||
FICOIDES, the fpecific name given to feveral plants,, ^1CUS*
as the mefembryanthemum, mufa, and opuntia. See
Mesembryanthemum, &c. Botany Index.
FICTION. See Fable and Poetry.
FICUS, the fig-tree : A genus of plants, belong¬
ing to the polygamia clafs; and in the natural method
ranking under the 53d order, Scabridce. See Botany
Index.
The ficus religiofa, or Banian tree, is a native of fe¬
veral parts of the Eaft Indies. It has a woody Item,
branching to a great height and vaft extent, with heart-
Ihaped entire leaves ending in acute points. Of this
tree the following lines of Milton contain a defeription
equally beautiful aqd juft :
 There foon they chofe
The fig tree ; not that tree for fruit renown’d,
But fuch as, at this day to Indians known
In Malabar or Decan, fpreads her arms,
Branching fo broad and long, that in the ground
The bended twigs take root, and daughters grow
About the mother tree, a pillar’d lhade,
High overarch’d, and echoing walks between :
There oft’ the Indian herdfman, Ihunning heat.
Shelters in cool, and tends his pafturing herds
At loop-holes cut through thickeft lhade.
Far. Loji, Book ix. 1. 1100.
The Banian tree, or Indian fig, is perhaps the moft
beautiful of Nature’s productions in that genial cli¬
mate, where Ihe fports with the greateft promfion and
variety. Some of thefe trees are of amazing lize and.
great extent, as they are continually increafing, and,
contrary to moft other things in animal and vegetable
life, they feem to be exempted from decay. Every
branch from the main body throws out its oWn roots j
at firft, in fmall tender fibres, feveral yards from the
ground : thefe continually grow thicker until they
reach the furface; and there ftriking in, they increafe
to large trunks, and become parent trees, Ihooting out
new branches from the top : thefe in time fufpend their
roots, which, Iwelling into trunks, produce other
branches ; thus continuing in a ftate of progreffion as
long as the earth, the firft parent of them all, contri¬
butes her fuftenance. The Hindoos are particularly fond
of the Banian tree they look upon it as an emblem of
the Deity, from its long duration, its outftretching
arms, mid overlhadowing beneficence ; they almoft pay
it divine honours, and
Find a fane in every facred grove.
Near thefe trees the moft efteemed pagodas are generally
ereCted ; under their lhade the Brahmins fpend their
lives in religious folitude ; and the natives of all calls
and tribes are fond of recreating in the cool recelfes,
beautiful walks, and lovely villas of this umbrageous
canopy, impervious to the hotteft beams of a_ tropical
fun.
A remarkable large tree of this kind grows on an
illand in the river Nerbudda, ten miles from the city o£-
Baroche in the province of Guzerat j a Hourilhing
fettlement lately in poffeflion of the Eaft India Com¬
pany, but ceded by the government of Bengal, at the
treaty of peace concluded with the Mahrattas in 1783?
ta.
F I D
Ficus
. II
Fidena.
to MaWajee Scindia a Mahratta cliicf. It is diftin-
guillied by tbe name oF Cubbeer Burr, which was given
it in honour of a famous faint. It was once much
larger than at prefent j but high floods have carried
away the banks of the ifland where it grows, and with
them fuch parts of the tree as had thus far extended
their roots : yet what remains is about 2000 feet in
circumference, meafured round the principal Items ; the
overhanging branches, not yet {truck down, cover a
much larger fpace. The chief trunks of this Angle
tree (which in Aze greatly exceed our Englifti elms and
oaks), amount to 35° 5 t^ie fmaller {terns, forming
into flronger fupporters, are more than 3000 j and
every one of thefe is cafting out new branches, and
hanging roots, in time to form trunks, and become the
parents of a future progeny. Cubbeer Burr is famed
throughout Hindoftan for its great extent and fur-
pafling beauty : the Indian armies generally encamp
around it 5 and, at Aated feafons, folemn jatarras, or Hin¬
doo feftivals, are held there, to which thoufands of vo¬
taries repair from various parts of the IVIogul empire.—
It is faid that 7000 perfons And ample room to repofe
under its {hade. The Englilh gentlemen, on their hunt¬
ing and {hooting parties, ufed to form extenAve en¬
campments, and fpend weeks together under this de¬
lightful pavilion, which is generally Ailed with green
wood pigeons, doves, peacocks, and a variety of feather¬
ed fongfters j crowded with families of monkeys perform-
mg their antic tricks } and {haded by bats of a large Aze,
many of them meafuring upwards of Ax feet from the ex¬
tremity of one wing to the other. This tree not only
aflords flicker, but fuflenance, to all its inhabitants,
being covered amid its bright foliage with fmall flgs of
a rich fcarlet, on which they all regale with as much
delight, as the lords of creation on their more coftly
fare in their parties. J
FIDD, an iron pin ufed at fea to fplice or faften
ropes together ; it is made tapering and ftiarp at one end.
There are alfo Adds of wood, which are much larger
than the iron ones. °
. pin alfb in the heel of the topmaft, which bears
it upon the chefs-tree, is called zfidd.
FiBD-Hammer, is ufed for a hammer, the handle of
which is a Add, or made tapering into that form.
JTDDLE. See Violin.
f See CithareXylon, Botany Index.
r IDDES, Richard, a learned divine and polite
writer, was born in 1671, and educated at Oxford.
He was prefented to the living of Halfliam in York-
Ihire, where he was fo admired for the fweetnefs of his
voice and the gracefulnefs of his delivery, that the
people for feveral miles round flocked to his fermons.
Coming to London m 1712, he was by the favour of
Dean Swift, introduced to the earl of Oxford, who
made him one of his chaplains, and the queen foon af¬
ter appointed him chaplain to the garrifon at Hull •
but loflng his patrons upon the change of the miniftry,
he loft his chaplamftnpj and being obliged to apply
himfelf to writing, compofed, 1. A body of Divinity^
rAkv * WC5-dun-al W0lfe^ 3- A Treatife of Mol
faiity, 6tc. He died in 172?.
r^^y^USS°-RES See Assiduus.
hi; 1R th,e Cirvi/Law, is a furety, or one that
obliges himfelf m the fame contract with a principal
.. ox the greater fecurity of the creditor or ftipulator. *
[ 6*4 ]
F I E
FIDEI-commissum, in Roman antiquity, an eftate
left in truft with any perfon, for the ufe of another.
See Trustee.
FIDENA, or Fidente, in .Ancient Geographyy a
town of the Sabines, flve miles to the north of Rome,
where traces of it are rtill to be leen. Fidenates, the
people (Livy.)
FIDES, Faith or Fidelity, one of the virtues
deifled by the Pagans. She had a temple near the
.Capitol, founded by Numa Pompilius j but no animals
were oftered, or blood fpilt, in her facriflces. During the
performance of her rites, her priefts appeared in white
veftments, with their heads and hands covered with
linen, to fhow that fldelity ought to be facred.
FIDIUS, in Pagan worftiip, a god who prefided over
alliances and promifes. This deity, which the Romans
borrowed from the Sabines, was alfo called SanBut,
Semon, and Semi-Pater.
FIELD, in Agriculture, a piece of ground enclofed,
whether for tillage or pafture.
Field, in Heraldry, is the whole furface of the
fliield or the continent, fo called becaufe it containeth
thofe achievements anciently acquired in the fleld of
battle. It is the ground on which the colours, bear-
ing, metals, furs, charges, &c. are reprefented. A-
mong the modern heralds, fleld is lefs frequently ufed
in blazoning than ftiield or efcutcheon. See Shield,
&c.
Field-Book, in Surveying, a book in which the angles,
ftations, diftances, &c. are fet down.
FiELD-Colours, or Camp-Colours, in War, are fmall flags
of about a foot and a half fquare, which are carried along
with the quartermafter general, for marking out the
ground for the fquadrons and battalions.
FiEiD-Fare, in Ornithology. See Turdus, Orni¬
thology Index.
Fir.LD-Officers, in the art of war. See Officer.
FiELD-Pieces, fmall cannons, from three to twelve
pounders, carried along with an army in the Aeld.
FiELD-Stajf, a weapon carried by the gunners, about
the length of a halbert, with a fpear at the end 5 having
on each Ade ears ferewed on, Ake the cock of a match¬
lock, where the gunners ferew in lighted matches when
they are upon command $ and then the Aeld-ftaffs are
faid to be armed.
FiELD-Works, in Fortification, are thofe thrown up by
an army^ in befieging a fortrefs, or by the beAeged to
defend the place. Such are the fortifleations of camps,
highways, &c.
Flifian-F1 elds. See Elysian.
FIELDING, Henry, a well-known writer of the
prefent age, fon of lieutenant-general Fielding who
ferved under the duke of Marlborough, was born in
I7°7’ Ide had four Afters j of whom Sarah is well
known, as writer of The Adventures of David Simple.
On the death of his mother, his father married again j
and Sir John Fielding, who fucceeded him in the com-
miffion of the peace for Middlefex, is his brother by
this marriage. Henry was fent to ftudy at Leyden j
but a failure in his remittances obliged him to return in
twm years, when his own propenAty to gaiety and pro-
fuAon drove him to write for the ftage at 20 years of
age. His firft dramatic piece, Love in feveral Mafques,
wdiich was well received, appeared in 1727 •, and all his
plays and farces, to the amount of 18, were written
before
Tides
. II.
Fielding.
f r f
[ 615 ]
F I F
Fifefhire.
Fienus before tbe year 1737* and many of them are ftill a£ted
with applaufe. W hile he was thus employed, he mar¬
ried a young lady with 1 yooi. fortune, and inherited
' an eRate of 2nol. a-year frton his mother j all which,
though on the plan of retiring into the country, he
contrived to diffipate in three years 5 and then applied
himfelf to the Rudy of the law for a maintenance. In
lofing his fortune, he acquired the gout j which, render¬
ing it impoflible for him to attend the bar, he with a
flrattered conRitution had recourfe to many extempore
applications of his pen for immediate fupplies j until,
foon after the rebellion in 1745, he accepted the office of
adting juflice for Middlefex, an employment much
more profitable than honourable in the public efteem.
Reduced at length by the fatigues of this office, and by
a complication of diforders, he, by the advice of his phy-
ficians, went to Lilbon, wdiere he died in 1754. He
wrote a great number of fugitive pamphlets and perio¬
dical effays 5 but is chiefly diflinguiihed by his Adven¬
tures of Jofeph Andrews, and Hiflory of Tom Jones.
His works have been collected and publiffied, with his
life prefixed, by Mr Murphy.
FIENUS, Thomas, an ingenious and learned phy-
fician, born at Antwerp in 1566. He went into Italy
to Rudy phyfic under Mercurialis and Aldrovandus j
and on his return diflinguiihed himfelf fo much in the
univerfity of Louvain, that he was there chofen pro-
feffor of phyfic, and was afterwards made phyfician to
the duke of Bavaria. He wrote feveral works, among
which were, Ds viribus imaginationise and De formatio-
ne foetus. He died at Louvain in 1631.
FIERI facias, in Law, a writ that lies where a
perfon has recovered judgment for debt or damages
in the king’s courts againfl one, by which the ffieriff
is commanded to levy the debt and damages on the de¬
fendant’s goods and chattels.
FIFE, in Mufc, is a fort of wind inflrument, being
a fmall pipe. See Pipe.
FIFESHIRE, a county of Scotland, lying between
the friths of Tay and Forth ; bounded on the north and
north-eafl by the frith of Tay, which divides it from
Perth and Angus; on the fouth by the frith of Forth,
which feparates it from the Lothians $ the German
ocean bounds it on the eafl *, and on the wefl it borders
with the counties of Perth and Kinrofs, and a fmall
corner of Clackmannan. It extends about 60 miles in
length from Culrofs to Fifenefs, and is about 18 in
breadth $ comprehending a fuperficies of nearly 480
fquare miles. The face of the country is agreeably
diverfified ; towards the wefl it is mountainous, and
a ridge of hills extends eaftward almoft its whole length,
occupying the central diflrift; towards the north and
fouth the furface gradually defeends to the friths, ex¬
hibiting the moft beautiful and enlivening profpeft of
fertile and well cultivated fields. It is watered by fe¬
veral ftreams, none of wffiich deferve the name of ri¬
vers, except the Eden and Leven j the former empties
itfelf into the ocean at St. Andrews, and the latter at
the village of Leven : both thefe rivers abound with
trout and falmon •, and on no coaft of Scotland is the
white fifliing more produflive than on the Fife coaft.
From its fituation, it appears to have been very early
inhabited \ the fiflnngs, coal mines, harbours, and other
advantages for navigation, attracted fettlers, and the
coaft was firft peopled and beft cultivated : this appears
to have been the cafe, when King James \T. compared Fifefhire-
the county to a gray mantle with a gold fringe. The '—v——
whole coaft is covered with fmall burghs, which that
monarch regarded with particular attention, and very
early in his reign endeavoured to render them fubfer-
vient to his wfifhes, of raifing Scotland high in the world
as a commercial nation j he granted them many privi¬
leges and immunities, and encouraged the inhabitants
by every means in his power, to profecute the advanta¬
ges which, by their local fituation, they poffelfed ; in¬
deed, the municipal privileges which they received from
that monarch, though rendered unimportant by the
union with England, will long remain a monument of
his political fagacity and difeernment, The county can
boaft of pofleffing feveral ancient feats of royalty : at
Dunfermline, at Falkland, at Kinghorn, and at St An¬
drews, veftiges of royal fplendour are ftill to be feen.
It contains 13 royal boroughs, which pofiefs parliamen¬
tary reprefentation, and feveral which have loft that
privilege from their being unable to defray the expence
which attended the fending a commiffioner to the Scot-
tifti parliament. To the county alfo belongs the fmall
ifland of May, on which there is a lighthoufe, and
Inchgarvie. Fifeftrire is divided into 60 panflies,
and contains, by the enumeration in 1801, 93,743
inhabitants, being nearly 196 to the fquare mile $ a
much greater proportion than is to be found in any
other county in Scotland. It was anciently an earldom
in the Macduff family, created by Malcolm III. for
the fervices performed by the thane of Fife, in rc-
ftoring him to the throne of Scotland, when ufurped by
Macbeth. That title having expired, it was lately re¬
vived in the Duffs of Braco, lateral defeendents of the
ancient family : the ruins of the refidences of that pow¬
erful nobleman are ftill evident in many parts of the
county. The wffiole of the fouth fide lies upon coal,
and many pits are wrought on every part of the coaft :
in many places is excellent limeftone j and feme marl
is found in the county. Ironftone, of excellent quality,
is found in the weftern and middle quarters, and much
is forged in the county, or exported to the Carron
works. Lead ore is found in the Eaftern Lomond, one
of the two conical hills which rife nearly in the mid¬
dle of the county, and are feen at a great diftance : in
Kemback parifh alfe lead ore has been wnouglst. The
county of Fife fends one member to parliament. Cu¬
par is the county town.
The following account of the population of Fifeftiire
at two different periods, is taken from the Statijl. Hijl.
of Scotland.
10
Pariffjes.
Abbotlhall
Abdie
Aberdour
Anftruther,
Anftruther, Wefter
Auchterderran
Auchtermuchty
Auchtertool
Ballingry
Balmerino
Beath
Burntifland
Population
in 1755-
822
1198
1100
385
1308
389
464
- 565
1099
1390
Population
in 1790-58.
21 36
494
1280
1000
37o
1200
1439
334
220
7°3
450
1210
Cameron
FIG
FitefLire
II
ligural.
Purifies.
Cameron
Cambee
J5 Carnock
Ceres
Colefiie
Crail
Creich
20 Cult
Cupar
Dairfie
Dalgety
Denbog
25 Denino
Dunfermline
Dyfart
Elie
Falkland
30 Ferric
Flilk
Forgan
Inverkeithing
Kemback
35 Kennoway
Kettle
Kilconquhar
Kilmaney
Kilrenny
40 Kinghorn
Kinglaffie
Kingfbarns
Kirkaldy
Largo
45. Lefly
Leuchars
Logie
Markinch
Monimail
^50 Moonlie
Newburgh
Newburn
Pittenweem
St Andrew’s and
Leonard’s
55 St Monance
Saline
Scoonie
Strathmiglo.
Torryburn
So Wemyfs
St
}
Population
*'« 1755-
1295
1293
583
2540
989
2173
SIS
- 449
2192
469
761
255
598
- >8552
2369
642
'795
621
318
- 75i
1694
420
1240
1621
2121
781
1348
2389
998
871
2296
i396
1130
1691
4T3
2188
884
249
1347
438
939
- 4913
780
r 1285
' 1528
'fyS
1635
3°4I
Total, 81,570
Increafe, 5680
FtFE-Rai/s, in a ftiip, are thofe that are placed on
bamfters, on each fide of the top of the poop, and fo
along with haunces or falls. 4 hey. reach down to the
Quarter deck, and to the flair of the gangway
FIFTH, in Mufic. See Interval.
FIG, or Fig-tree. See Ficus, Botany Index.
FIG WORT. See Scrophularia, Botany Index.
fIGURAL, Figurate, or Figurative, a term ap-
1
[ 616 ] FIG
plied to whatever is expreffed by obfcure refemblances.
The W’ord is chiefly applied to the types and myfteries
of the Mofaic law •, as alfo to any expreflion which is
not taken in its primary and literal fenie.
Figurate Numbers. See Numbers, Figurate.
FIGURE, in Phyfics, expreffes the furface or ter¬
minating extremities of any body.
Figures, in Arithmetic, are certain characters
whereby wre denote any number which may be ex-
prefled by any combination of the nine digits, &c.
See Arithmetic.
Figure, among divines, is ufed for the myfleries
reprefented under certain types.
Figure, in Dancing, denotes the feveral fleps which
the dancer makes in order and cadence, confidered as
they mark certain figures on the floor. See Dancing.
Figure, in Painting and Dejigmng, denotes the
lines and colours which form the reprefentation of any
animal, but more particularly of a human perfonage.
See Painting.
Figure, in the manufactures, is applied to the vari¬
ous defigns reprefented or wrought on velvets, damafks,
taffeties, fatins, and other fluffs and cloths.
The mofl ufual figures for fuch defigns are flowers
imitated from the life j or grotefques, and comparti-
ments of pure fancy. Reprefentations of men, bealls,
birds, and landfcapes, have only been introduced fince
the tafle for the Chinefe fluffs, particularly thofe call¬
ed furees, began to prevail among us. It is the woof
of the fluff that* forms the figures 5 the warp only
ferves for the ground. In working figured fluffs
there is required a perfon to fhow the workman how
far he mull raife the threads of the w arp, to reprefent
the figure of the defign with the woof, which is to be
paffed acrofs between the ^threads thus raifed. This
fome call reading the dejign.
For the figures on tapeftry, brocade, &c. fee Ta¬
pestry, &c.
For thofe given by the calenders, printers, &c. fee
Calendar, &c.
Figure, in Logic, denotes a certain order and dif-
polition of the middle term in any fyllogifm.
Figures are fourfold. 1. When the middle term is
the lubjeft of the major propofition, and the predicate
of the minor, we 'have wdiat is called the firft figure.
2. WFen the middle term is the predicate of both the
premifes, the fyllogifm is faid to be in the fecond fi¬
gure.^ 3. If the middle term is the fubjedl of the two
premifes, the fyllogifm is in the third figure: and
lallly, by making it the predicate of the major, and
fubjecl of the minor, we obtain fyllogifms in the fourth
figure. Each of thefe figures has a determinate num¬
ber of moods, including all the poflible ways in which
propofitions differing in quantity or quality can be
combined, according to any difpofition of the middle
term, in order to arrive at a juft conclufion. See Logic.
Figure, in compofition. See Oratory j alfo Al¬
legory, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Metaphor,
Personification, &c.
A Figure, the means or injirument conceived to be the
agent. When we furvey a number of connected ob¬
jects, that which makes the greateft figure employs
chiefly our attention; and the emotion it raifes, if
lively, prompts us even to exceed nature in the concep¬
tions we form of it. Take the following examples.
For
Population
1790 98.
I 165
IO4I
970
22 20
949
1710
306
534
37°2
540
' 869
235
383
9550
4862
620
2198
875
331
875
2210
588
1500
'759
2013
B69
1086
1768
1200
807
2673
'9'S
1212
1620
425
2790
1101
171
1664
456
"57
4335
832
950
1675
980
1600
3°25
87,250
81,570
Figure.
Figure.
FIG [ 6i7 ] FIG
For Neleus’ fon Alcides’ rage had flam.
A broken rock the force of Pirus threw.
In thefe inftances, the rage of Hercules and the force
of Pirus, being the capital circumftances, are fo far
exalted as to be conceived the agents that produce the
effedls.
In the firft of the following inftances, hunger being
the chief circumftance in the defcription, is itfelf ima¬
gined to be the patient.
Whofe hunger has not tafted food thefe three days.
'jane Shore.
—■■   As when the force
Of fubterranean wind tranfports a hill.
Paradife Lof.
 As when the potent rod
Of Amram’s fon, in Egypt’s evil day,
Wav’d round the coaft, upcall’d a pitchy cloud.
Of locufts. Paradife Loji.
A Figure, which, among related objeEls, extends the
properties of one to another. This figure is not dignified
with a proper n&me, becaufe it has been overlooked by
writers. Giddy brink, jovial wine, daring wound, are
examples of this figure. Here are adjectives that can¬
not be made to fignify any quality of the fubftantives
to which they are joined: a brink, for example, can¬
not be termed giddy in a lenfe, either proper or figu¬
rative, that can fignify any of its qualities or attributes.
When we examine attentively the expreflion, we dif-
cover, that a brink is termed giddy from producing that
effeft in thofe who ftand on it : in the fame manner, a
wound is faid to be daring, not with refpeCt to itfelf,
but with refpeCl to the boldnefs of the perfon who in¬
flicts it: and wine is faid to be jovial, as infpiring
mirth and jollity. Thus the attributes of one fubjeCt
are extended to another with which it is connected *,
and the expreflion of fuch a thought mult be confider-
ed as a figure, becaufe the attribute is not applicable
to the fubjeCt in any proper fenfe.
How are we to account for this figure, which we
fee lies in the thought, and to what principle lhall we
f Vii. refer it ? Have poets a privilege to alter the nature of
things, and at pleafure to beftow attributes' upon a
ch!*ii. part to w^ch they do not belong ? It is obferved f,
1. fed. 6. the mind paffeth eafily and fweetly along a train
of conneded objeCts 5 and, where the objeCts are inti¬
mately connected, that it is difpofed to carry along the
good or bad properties of one to another; efpecially
when it is in any degree inflamed with thefe proper¬
ties. From this principle is derived the figure under
confideration. Language, invented for the communi¬
cation of thought, would be imperfeCt, if it were not
expreflive even of the {lighter propenfities and more
delicate feelings : but language cannot remain fo im-
perfeCt among a people who have received any polilh j
becaufe language is regulated by internal feeling, and
i« gradually improved to exprefs whatever paffes in
the mind. Thus for example, when a fword in the
hand of a coward is termed a coward fword, the ex¬
preflion is fignificative of an internal operation j for the
mind, in palling from the agent to its inftrument, is dif¬
pofed to extend to the latter the properties of the
former. Governed by the fame principle, we fay lift-
ening fear, by extending the attribute liftening of the
Vol. VIII. Part II.
man who liftens, to the paflion with which he is moved. Figurft-.
In the expreflion bold deed, or audax faemus, we extend
to the effeCt what properly belongs to the caufe. But
not to wafte time by making a commentary upon every
expreflion of this kind, the belt wTay to give a com¬
plete view of the fubjeCt, is to exhibit a table of the
different relations that may give occafion to this figure.
And in viewing the table, it will be obferved, that the
figure can never have any grace but where the rela-
tions are of the moft intimate kind.
1. An attribute of the caufe expreffed as an attri¬
bute of the effeCt.
Audax facinus.
Of yonder fleet a bold difeovery make.
An impious mortal gave the daring wound.
• To my adventurous fong,
That with no middle flight intends to foar.
Paradife Lojl.
2. An attribute of the effeCt expreffed as an attribute
of the caufe.
Quos periiffe ambos mifero cenfebam in mari.
Plautus.
No wonder, fallen fuch a pernicious height.
Paradife Lof.
3. An effeCt expreffed as an attribute of the caufe.
Jovial wane, Giddy brink, Drowfy night, Muling
midnight, Panting height, Aftonilh’d thought, Mourn¬
ful gloom.
Calling a dim religious light. Milton, Cornus.
And the merry bells ring round,
And the jocund rebecks lound. Milton, Allegro.
4. An attribute of a fubjeCt bellowed upon one of
its parts or members.
Longing arms.
It was the nightingale, and not the lark,
That pierc’d the fearful hollow of thine ear.
Romeo and juliet, aCt iii. 1c. 7.
   -■ Oh, lay by
Thofe moft ungentle looks and angry weapons :
Unlefs you mean my griefs and killing fears
Should ftretch me out at your relentlejs feet.
Fair Penitent, aCt. iii.
 And ready now
To Hoop with wearied wing, and willing feet,
On the bare outfide of this world.
Paradife Lof, book iii.
S’ A quality of the agent given to the inftrument.
with which it operates.
Why peep your coward fwords half out their Ihells ?
6. An attribute of the agent given to the fubjeCt
upon which it operates.
High-climbing hill. Milton.
7. A quality of one fubjeCt given to another.
Icci, beatis nunc Arabum invides
Gazis. Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 29
When faplefs age, and weak, unable limbs, _
Should bring thy father to his drooping chair.
Shakespeare.
4 I By
[
FIG [6
Hgure, By art, the pilot through the boiling deep,
v And howling temped, fleers the fearlcfs fliip.
Iliad, book xxiii. 1. 385.
"1 hen, nothing loth, th1 enamour’d fair he led,
And funk tranfported on the confcious bed.
OdyJJhj, book viii. 1. 337.
A Jhipid moment motionlefs die flood.
Summer, 1. 1336.
8. A circumflance conne&ed with a fubjett, ex-
preffed as a quality of the fubjedl.
Breezy fummit.
’ Bis ours the chance of Jightmg fields to try,
Iliad, book i. 1. 301.
Oh ! had I dy’d before that well-fought wall.
0<lyjfey, book v. 1. 395.
From this table it appears, that the adorning a caufe
with an attribute of the effedl, is not fo agreeable as
the oppofite expreffion. The progrefs from caufe
to effe61 is natural and eafy: the oppofite progrefs re-
f See Per- fembles retrograde motion * ; and therefore panting
C T/r • h^ght, aJlonifh'ld thought, are ilrain’d and uncouth ex-
“a Train. ™ Prehi°ns, which a writer of tafte will avoid.
It is not lefs flrained, to apply to a fubjecf in its
prefent ftate, an epithet that may belong to it in fome
future Hate :
Submerfafque obrue puppes. Eneid, book i. 1. 73.
And mighty ruins fall. Iliad, book v. 1. 411.
Impious fons their mangled fathers wound.
Another rule regards this figure, That the property
ef one fubjedl ought not to be bellowed upon another
with which the property is incongruous.
K. Rich. How dare thy joints forget
To pay their awful duty to our prefence ?
Richard II. aft. iii. fc. 6.
The connexion between an awful fuperior and his fub-
v miffive dependent is fo intimate, that an attribute may
readily be transferred from the one to the other: but
awfulnefs cannot be fo transferred, becaufe it is incon-
fiflent with fubmiffion.
Figure of Speech, as peculiarly diflinguifhed from
the above and from thole firfl referred to.] Under
the article Metaphor and Allegory, a figure of fpeech
is defined,. “ The ufing a word in a fenfe different
from what is proper to it and the new or uncommon
fenfe of the word is termed the figurative fenfe. The
figurative fenfe muff have a relation to that wdiich is
proper j and the more intimate the relation is, the fi-
llcm. of gure is the more happy. How ornamental this figure
Criticifm. is to language, wall not be readily imagined by any one
who hath not given peculiar attention j and therefore
we (hall endeavour to unfold its capital beauties and
advantages. In the firft place, a wTord ufed figuratively,
or in a new fenfe, fuggefts at the fame time the fenfe
it commonly bears: and thus it has the effeft to pre¬
fent twro objefts} one fignified by the figurative fenfe
which may be termed the principal objeSl; and one fig¬
nified by the proper fenfe, which may be termed accef-
fory : the principal makes a part of the thought; the
aeceffory is merely ornamental. In this refpeft, a fi¬
gure of fpeech is precifely fimilar to concordant founds
18] FIG
in mufic, which, without contributing to the melody, Figure,
make it harmonious.
To explain the matter by examples. Youth, by a
figure of fpeech, is termed the morning of life: This
expreflion fignifies youth, the principal objeft which
enters into the thought 5 it fuggeils, at the fame time,
the proper fenfe-of morning; and this acceifory objeft,
being in itfelf beautiful, and connected by refemblance
to the principal objeft, is r.ot a little ornamental. Im¬
perious ocean is an example of a different kind, where
an attribute is expreffed figuratively : Together with
fiormy, the figurative meaning of the epithet imperious,
where is fuggefted its proper meaning, viz. the Hern
authority of a defpotic prince j and thefe two are
flrongly connefted by refemblance. Upon this figu¬
rative power of words, Vida defcants with elegance.
Poet. lib. iii. 1. 44.
In the next place, this figure pofieffes a fignal power
of aggrandizing an objeft, by the following means.—-
Words, which have no original beauty but what arifes
from their found, acquire an adventitious beauty from
their meaning : a wmrd fignifying any thing that is
agreeable, becomes by that means agreeable ; for the
agreeablenefs of the objeft is communicated to its name.
This acquired beauty, by the force of cullom, adheres
to the wrord even when ufed figuratively j and the
beauty received from the thing it properly fignifies, is
communicated to the thing which it is made to fignify
figuratively. Confider the foregoing expreffion Impe¬
rious ocean, how much more elevated it is than Stormy
ocean.
Thirdly, This figure hath a happy effeft by pre¬
venting the familiarity of proper names. The familia¬
rity of a proper name is communicated to the thing
it fignifies by means of their intimate connexion j and
the thing is thereby brought down in our feeling.
1 his bad effeft is prevented by ufing a figurative word
inflead of one that is proper ; as for example, when we
exprefs the fky by terming it the blue vault of heaven ;
for though no wmrk of art can compare with the fky
in grandeur, the expreffion howrever is relifhed, becaufe
it prevents the objeft from being brought down by the
familiarity of its proper name. With refpeft to the
degrading the familiarity of proper names, Vida has the
following paffage :
Hinc fi dura mihi paffus dicendus Ulyffes,
Non ilium vero memorabo nomine, fed qui
Et mores hominum multorum vidit, et urbes,
Naufragus everfae poll fatva incendia Trojse.
Poet. lib. ii. 1. 460.
Laflly, By this figure, language is enriched, and
rendered more copious ; in which refpeft, w'ere there
no other, a figure of fpeech is a happy invention.
I his property is finely touched by Vida; Poet. lib.
iii. 1. 90.
The beauties we have mentioned belong to every
figure of fpeech. Several other beauties, peculiar to
one or other fort, we fhall have occafion to remark af¬
terward.
Not only fubjefts, but qualities, aftions, effefts, may
be expreffed figuratively. Thus, as to fubjefts, gates
of breath for the lips, the watery kingdom for the ocean.
As to qualities, fierce for ftormy, in the expreffion
Fierce winter, alt us for profundffiy Altus puteus. Ahum
mare;
FIG f <5iO ] FIG
figure, mare ; breathing for perfpiring, Breathing plants. A-
' v " gain, as to aftions, 'I he fea rages, Time will melt her
frozen thoughts, Time kills grief. An effect is put
for the caufe, as lux for the fun 5 and a caufe for the
effect, as bourn labores for corn. The relation of re-
femblance is one plentiful fource of figures of fpeech 5
and nothing is more common than to apply to one ob-
jed the .name of another that refembles it in any re-
ipeft : Height, fize, and worldly greatnefs, referable
not each other ; but the emotions they produce re¬
ferable each other, and, prompted by this refemblance,
we naturally exprefs worldly greatnefs by height or
fize : One feels a certain uneafmefs in feeing a great
depth 5 and, hence depth is made to exprefs any thing
difagreeable by excefs, as depth of grief, depth of de-
fpair : Again, Height of place, and time long paft,
produce limilar feelings j and hence the expremon, Ut
altius repet am ! Diftance in pall time, producing a
llrong feeling, is put for any ffrong feeling } Nihil mihi
cmtiquius nojlra amicitia : Shortnefs with relation to
Ipace, for Ihortnefs with relation to time j Brevis e[fe
laboro, obfcurus Jio : Suffering a punilhment refembles
paying a debt } hence pendere panas. In the fame man-
ner, light may be put for glory, funlhine for profpe-
rity, and weight for importance.
Many words, originally figurative, having, by long
and conftant ufe, loft their figurative power, are de¬
graded to the inferior rank of proper terms. Thus the
words that exprefs the operation of the mind, have in
all languages been originally figurative: th«e reafon
holds in all, that when thefe operations came firft un¬
der confideration, there was no other way of defcribing
them but by what they refembled: it was not prafti-
cable to give them proper names, as may be done to
objecfts that can be afcertained by fight and touch. A
foft nature, jarring tempers, weight of woe, pompous
phrafe, beget compaflion, ajjuage grief, break a vow,
bend the eye downward, Jhower dowm curfes, drowning
in tears, wrapt in joy, warnld with eloquence, loaded
with fpoils, and a thoufand other expreftions of the
like nature, have loft their figurative fenfe. Some
terms there are that cannot be faid to be altogether fi¬
gurative or altogether proper: originally figurative,
they are tending to fimplicity, without having loft al¬
together their figurative power. Virgil’s Regina faucia
cura, is perhaps one of thefe expreflions : with ordinary
readers, faucia wall be confidered as exprefiing fimply
the effebt of grief; but one of a lively imagination
tvill exalt the phrafe into a figure.
For epitomizing this fubjeft, and at the fame time
f Elcm. of ^or fftv,rig a clear view of it, Lord Kames j- gives a lift
Crithifm. of the feveral relations upon which figures of fpeech
ll- 3°5. are commonly founded. This lift he divides into two
tables; one of fubjects expreffed figuratively, and one
of attributes.
Tab. I. Subje&s exprejfedfiguratively.
youth the beginning of life ; the morning is cheerful,
fo is youth, &c. By another refemblance, a bold war¬
rior is termed the thunderbolt of war ; ;v multitude of
troubles, a fiea of troubles.
rlhis figure, above all others, affords pkafure to the
mind by variety of beauties. Befides the beauties
above mentioned, common to all forts, it poffeffes in
particular the beauty of a metaphor or a fimile : a
figure of fpeech built upon refemblance, fuggefts always
a comparifon between the principal fubjecf and the ac-
ceffory; whereby every good eftetft of a metaphor or
firm] e may, in a ftrort and lively manner, be produced
by this figure of fpeech.
2. A word proper to the effeft employed figuratively
to exprefs the caufe.
Lux for the fun ; Shadow for cloud. A helmet is
fignified by the expreflion glittering terror; a tree by
Jhadow or utnbrage. Hence the expreffion,
Nec habet Pelion umbras. Ovid.
Where the dun umbrage hangs. Spring, 1. 102 ;.
A wound is made to fignify an arrow :
Vulnere non pedibus te confequar. Ovid.
There is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure :
the. word which fignifies figuratively the principal
fubject, denotes it to be a caufe by fuggefting the
effed.
3. A word proper to the caufe employed figuratively
to exprefs the effed.
Boumque labores for corn. Sorrow or grief for tears.
Again Ulyffes veil’d his penfive head ;
Again uamann’d, a fliow’r of forrow fired.
Streaming grief faded cheek bedew’d.
Blindnefs for darknefs :
Caecis erramus in undis. JEneid. iii. 200.
There is a peculiar energy in this figure, fimilar to
that in the former : the figurative name denotes the
fubjed to be an effed by fuggefting its caufe.
4. Two things being intimately conneded, the pro¬
per name of the one employed figuratively to fignify
the other. ,
Day for light. Night for darknefs; and hence, A
hidden night. Winter for a ftorm at fea :
Interea magno mifeeri murmure pontum,
Emiffamque Hyemem fenfit Neptunus.
JEneid. i. 128.
This laft figure would be too bold for a Britifh writer,
as a ftorm at fea is not infeparably ccnneded wuth win¬
ter in this climate.
5* void proper to an attribute, employed figura¬
tively to denote the fubjed.
Youth and beauty for thofe tvho are young and beau¬
tiful : 0
. A word proper to one fubjed employed figura¬
tively to exprefs a refembling fubjed.
There is no figure of fpeech fo frequent, as what is
derived from the relation of refembling. Youth, for
tr'iamrre’ ^Sn^ed figuratively by the morning of life.
he. life of a man refembles a natural day in feveral
particulars : the morning is the beginning of a day,
Youth and beauty ftiall be laid in duft.
Majefiy for the king :
What art thou, that ufurp’ft this time of night,
1 ogether with that fair and warlike form
In which the Majefty of buried Denmark
Did fometime march ? Hamlet, ad, i. fc. j.,
4 I 2 —Or
*
F 1 G
£%ure.    Or have ye chofen this place.
After the toils of battle to repofe
Your weary’d virtue ? Paradife Lq/i.
Verdure for a green field. Summer, 1. 301.
Speaking of cranes,
The pigmy nations, wounds and death they bring,
And all the war defcends upon the wing.
Iliad, book iii. 1. 10.
Cool age advances venerably wife.
Iliaa, book iii. 1. 149.
The peculiar beauty of this figure arifes from fug-
gefting an attribute that embellilhes the fubjedl, or puts
it in a ftronger light.
6. A complex term employed figuratively to denote
one of the component parts.
Funus for a dead body. Burial for a grave.
7. The name of one of the component parts inftead
of the complex term.
Tceda for a marriage. The Fajl for a country fituat-
ed eaft from us. Jovis vejligia fervat, for imitating Ju¬
piter in general.
8. A word fignifying time or place, employed figu¬
ratively to denote what is connefted with it.
Clime for a nation, or for a conftitution of govern¬
ment : hence the expreffion, Merciful dune, Fleecy win¬
ter, for fnow, Seculum felix.
9. A part for the whole.
The pole for the earth. The head for the perfon :
Triginta minas pro capite tuo dedi. Plautus.
Tergum for the man :
Fugiens tergum.
Vultus for the man :
Jam fulgor armorum fugaces
Terret equos, equitumque vultus.
Quis defiderio fit pudor aut modus
Tam chari capitis ?
Uumque virent genua ?
Thy growing virtues juftify’d my cares,
And promis’d comfort to my Jilver hairs.
Iliad, book ix. 1. 6i6.
 Forthwith from the pool he rears
His mighty Jlature. Paradife Lq/l.
The filent heart which grief afiails. Parnel.
The peculiar beauty of this figure confifts in marking
that part which makes the greateft figure..
10. The name of the container, employed figura¬
tively to fignify what is contained.
Grove for the birds in it \ Vocal grove. Ships for the
feamen; Agonizing Ships. Mountains for the fheep
pafturing upon.them j B>\enX.mg mountains. Zacynthus,
Ithaca, &c. for the inhabitants j Ex mafis domibus..
Livy.
11. The name of the fuftainer, employed figuratively
to fignify what is fuftained.
dhar for the facrifice. Field for the battle fought
upon it-; Weir-fought/c/^.
12. The name of the materials, employed figura-
tavely to fignify the things made of them,
Fcrrum ior gladius.
[ 620 ] FIG
13. The names of the Heathen deities, employed Figure,
figuratively to fignify what they patronize. " V"-—
Jove for the air, Mars for war, Venus for beauty,
Cupid for love, Ceres for corn, Neptune for the fea,
Vulcan for fire.
This figure bellows great elevation upon the fubjeff ;
and therefore ought to be confined to the higher llrains
of poetry.
Tab. II. Attributes exprejfedfiguratively.
1. When two attributes are conne&ed, the name of
the one may be employed figuratively to exprefs the
other.
Purity and virginity are attributes of the fame perfon:
hence the expreffion, Virgin fnow, for pure fnow.
2. A word fignifying properly an attribute of one
fubjedf, employed figuratively to exprefs a refembling
attribute of another fubjeft.
Tottering Hate. Imperious ocean. Angry flood. Pa¬
ging tempell. Shallow fears.
My fure divinity ffiall bear the ffiield,
And edge thy fword to reap the glorious field.
Odyffey, book xx. 1. 61.
Black omen, for an omen that portends bad fortune.
Ater omen. ViRGIL.
The peculiar beauty of this figure arifes from fuggeft-
ing a comparifon.
3. A word proper to the fubjeft, emplojed to ex-
prefs one of its ottributes.
Mens for intelleBus. Mens for a refolution;
Iftam, oro, exue mentem.
4. When two fubjedls have a refemblance by a com
mon quality, the name of the one fubjeft may be em¬
ployed figuratively to denote that quality in the other :
Summer life for agreeable life.
5. The name of the inllrument made to fignify the
power of employing it:
 Melpomene, cui liquidam pater
Vocem cum cithara dedit.
The ample field of figurative expreffion dilplayed in
thefe tables, affords great fcope for reafoning. Several
of the obfervations relating to metaphor f, are applicable f See Mt-
to figures of fpeech : theie ffiall be flightly retouched, taphtr.
with fome additions peculiarly adapted to the prefent
fubjedl.
I. As the figure under confideration is built upon
relation, we find from experience, and it mufl: be ob-.
vious from reafon, that the beauty of it depends on the-
intimacy of the relation between the figurative and
proper fenfe of the wTord. A flight refemblance, in.
particular, will never make this figure agreeable : the
expreflion, for example, Drink down a fecret, for liften-
ing to a fecret with attention, is harffi and uncouth,
becaufe there is fcarce any refemblance between lifening
and drinking. The expreffion weighty crack, ufed by
Ben Johnfon for loud crack, is worfe if poffible ; a loud
found has not the flighteft refemblance to a piece of
matter that is weighty.
Phemius ! let a£ts of gods, and heroes old,
What ancient bards in hall and bow’r have told,
Attemper’d
Ovid.
Horat.
Horat,
Hgrat.
FIG [ 621 ] . FIG
Figure. Attemper’d to the lyre, your voice employ,
—"v ' Such the pleas’d ear will drink with filent joy.
Odyjfey, book i. 1. 433.
Strepitumque exterritus haujit.
JEneid, book vi. 1. 559.
      ■ — Write, my queen,
And with mine eyes I’ll drink the words you fend.
Cymbeline, aft i. fc. 2.
As thus th’ effulgence tremulous I drink.
Summer, 1. 1684.
Neque audit currus habenas.
Georg, book i. 1. 514.
O prince ! (Lycaon’s valiant fon reply’d^),
As thine the Heeds, be thine the talk to guide.
The horfes praftis’d to their lord’s command,
Shall hear the rein, and anfwer to thy hand.
Iliad, book v. 1. 288.
The following figures of fpeech feem altogether wild
and extravagant, the figurative and proper meaning
having no connexion whatever. Moving foftnefs, Frefh-
nefs breathes. Breathing profpeft, Flowing fpring, Dewy
light, Lucid coolnefs, and many others of this falfe
coin, may be found in Thomfon’s Seafons.
2. The proper fenfe of the word ought to bear
fome proportion to the figurative fenfe, and not foar
much above it, nor fink much below it. ’This rule, as
well as the foregoing, is finely illuflrated by Vida,
Boet. book iii. 1. 148.
3. In a figure of fpeech, every circumflance ought
^ to be avoided that agrees with the proper fenfe only,
not with the figurative fenfe : for it is the latter that
expreffes the thought, and the former ferves for no
other purpofe but to make harmony :
Zacynthus green with ever-fhady groves,
And Ithaca, prefumptuous boaft their loves ;.
Obtruding on my choice a fecond lord,
They prefs the Hymenean rite abhorr’d.
Odyjfey, book xix. 1. 152.
Zacynthus here Handing figuratively for the inhabi¬
tants, the defcription of the ifland is quite out of place :
it puzzles the reader, by making him doubt whether
the word ought to be taken in its proper or figurative
fenfe.
■'    Write, my queen,
And with mine eyes I’ll drink the words you fend,
Though ink be made of gall.
Cymbeline, aft. i. fc. 2.
The difguff one has to drink ink in reality, is not to
the purpofe where the fubjeft is drinking ink figura¬
tively.
4. To draw confequences from a figure of fpeeeh, as if
the word were to be underHood literally, is a grofs ab-
furdity 3 for it is confounding truth with fiftion :
Ee Moubray’s fins fo heavy in his bofom,
That they may break his foaming courfer’s back,
And throw the rider headlong in the lifis,
A caitiff recreant to my coufin Hereford.
/ Richard II. aft. i. fc. 3.
Sin may be imagined heavy in a figurative fenfe : but
weight in a proper fenfe belongs to the accelfory only 3
and therefore to defcribe the effefts of weight, is to Figure;,
defert the principal fubjeft, and to convert the acceffory
into a principal:
Cromwell. How does your Graee ?
IVolfey. Why, well 3 s
Never fo truly happy, my good Cromwell.
I know myfelf now, and I feel within me N
A peace above all earthly dignities,
A Hill and quiet confcience. The king has cur’d me,
I humbly thank his Grace: and, from thefe flioulders,
Thefe ruin’d pillars, out of pity, taken
A load would fink a navy, too much honour.
Henry VIII. aft. iii. fc. 60
Ulyffes fpeaking of Heftor—
I wonder now how yonder city Hands,
When we have here the bafe and pillar by us. •
Troilus and CreJJida, Aft. iv. Sc. 9.
Othello. No 3 my heart is turned to Hone : I flrike
it, and it hurts my hand. Othello, aft. iv. fc. 5.
Not lefs, even in this defpicable now,
Than -when my name fill’d Afric with affrights,
And froze your hearts beneath your torrid zone.
Don Sebajlian King of Portugal, aft. h
How long a fpace, fince firff I lov’d, it is !
To look into a glafs I fear,
And am furpris’d with wonder, when I mifs
Gray hairs and wrinkles there.
Cowley, vol. i. p. 86,
I chofe the flouriffnng’ff tree in all the park,
With freffiefl boughs and faireff head 3
I cut my love into its gentle bark,
And in three days behold ’tis dead 3
My very written flames fo violent be,
They’ve burnt and wither’d up the tree.
Cowley, vol. i. p. i36^-
Ah, mighty Love, that it were inward heat
Which made this precious limbeck fweat!
But what, alas ! ah, what does it avail,
That flte weeps tears fo wond’rous cold, *
As fcarce the afs’s hoof can hold.
So cold, that I admire they fall not hail!
Cowley, vol. i. p. 132
Such a play of words is pleafant in a ludicrous poem.
Almeria. O Alphonfo, Alphonfo !
Devouring feas have waffl’d thee from my fight,
No time thall raze thee from my memory :
No, I will live to be thy monument:
The cruel ocean is no more thy tomb 3
But in my heart thou art interr’d.
Mourning Bride, aft i. fc.
This would be very right, if there were any inconfifl-
ence in being interred in one place really, and in ano¬
ther place figuratively.
From confidering, that a word ufed in a figurative
fenfe fuggeffs at^the fame time its proper meaning, wTe
difcover a fifth rule, That we ought not to employ a
word in a figurative fenfe, the proper fenfe of which is
inconfiffent or incongruous with the fubjeft : for every
inconfiffency, and even incongruity, though in the'ex-
preflion only and not real, is unpleafant;
Interea
F T G [ 622 ]
Jnterca genitor Tyberini ad fl urn in la' undam,
Vulnera f.cccbat lympliis   
JEneid, book x. 1. S33.
I res adeo inee.Vs crsca caligine foies
Erramus pel a go, totidem line lidere nodles.
JEneidy book iii. 1. 203.
The foregoing rule may be extended to form a
lixth, That no epithet ought to be given to the figu¬
rative fenfe of a word that agrees not alfo with its
proper fenfe :
 Dicat Opuntiae
Frater Megillse, quo beatus
\ ulnere. Horat. Carni. lib. i. ode 27.
Parcus deorum cultor, et infrequens,
Infanientis dum fapientiae
Confultus erro. Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 54.
Seventhly, The crowding into one period or thought
different figures of fpeech, is not lefs faulty than crowd¬
ing metaphors in that manner : the mind is dillradled
in the quick tranfition from one image to another, and
is puzzled inftead of being pleafed :
I am of ladies molt dejeft and wretched,
That fuck’d the honey of his mufic vows. Hamlet.
My bleeding bofom fickens at the found.
0dy£'ey>book- i-1.439-
 Ah mifer,
Quanta laboras in Chan/bdi!
Digne puer meliore jlamma.
Ouae faga, quis te folvere Theffalis
Magus venenisy qua poterit Deus:
Vix illigatum tetriformi
Pegafus expediet Chimera.
Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 27.
Eighthly, If crowding figures be bad, it is Hill worfe
to graft one figure upon another : For inltance,
While his keen falchion drinks the warriors lives.
lliady book xi. 1. 211.
A falchion drinking the warriors blood, is a figure built
upon refemblance, which is paffable. But then in the
expreffion, lives is again put for blood; and by thus
grafting one figure upon another, the expreflion is ren¬
dered obfeure and unpleafant.
Ninthly, Intricate and involved figures, that can
fcarce be analyzed, or reduced to plain language, are
leaf! of all tolerable ;
Votis incendimus aras. JEneidy book iii. 1. 279.
 Onercntque caniftris
Dona laboratce Cereris JEncidy book viii. 1. 180.
Vulcan to the Cyclops :
Arma acri facienda viro : nunc viribus ufus,
Nunc manibus rapidis, omni nunc arte magiftra :
Preecipitate moras. JEneidy book viii. 1. 441.
■ 7—Huic gladio, perque serea feuta,
Per tunicam fqualentem auro, latus haurit apertum.
JEneidy book x. I. 312.
Scriberis Vario fortis, et hoftium
Victor, Mseonii carminis alite.
Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 6.
3
F I G
Elfe fliall our fates be number’d with the dead.
lliady book v. 1. 294.
Commutual death the fate of war confounds.
lliady book viii. 1. 83, and book xi. 1. 117.
Speaking of Proteus.
Inftant he wears, elufive of the rape,
I. lie mimic force oi every favage ihape.
0dyjcy, book iv. 1. 563.
Rolling convulsive on the floor, is feen
The piteous object: of a proftrate queen.
Ibid, book iv. 1. 652.
The mingling tempeft weaves its gloom.
Hutumny 1. 337,
A. various fweetnefs fwells the gentle race.
Ibid. 1. 640.
The diftant waterfall fwells in the breeze.
^Winter, 1. 738.
In the tenth place, When a fubjeft is introduced by
its proper name, it is abfurd to attribute to it the pro¬
perties of a different fubject to which the word is fome-
times applied in a figurative fenfe :
Hear me, On Neptune ! thou whole arms are hurl’d
From Ihore to Ihore, and gird the folid world.
Odyjfiy* book ix. 1. 617.
Neptune is here introduced perfonally, and not fioU-
ratirely, for the ocean ; the delcription therefore,
which is only applicable to the latter, is altogether
improper.
It is not fufficient that a figure of fpeech be regu¬
larly conftrufled, and be free from blemifli: it Re¬
quires talle to difeern wdien it is proper, when impro¬
per j and taffc perhaps is our only guide. One, however,
may gather from reflexions and experience, that orna¬
ments and graces fuit not any of the difpiriting paf-
fions, nor are proper for exprefling any thing grave and
important. . In familiar converfation, they are in fome
mealuie ridiculous : Prolpero, 111 the Tempejly Ipeaking
to his daughter Miranda, fays,
The fringed curtains of thine eyes advance,
And fay what thou feeft yond.
No exception can be taken to the juftnefs of the fi¬
gure ) and circumflances may be imagined to make it
proper: but it is certainly not proper in familiar con¬
verfation.
In the laft place, Though figures of fpeech have a
charming effeX when accurately conftruXed and pro¬
perly introduced, they ought, however, to be fcattered
wdth a fparing hand; nothing is more lufeious, and
nothing confequently more fatiating, than redundant
ornaments of any kind.
Figure is uied, in Theology, for the myfteries re-
prefented or delivered obfeurely to us under certain
types, or aXions in the Old Teftament. Thus manna
is held a figure or type of the eucharift; and the death
of Abel a figure of the fuffering of Chrift.
Many divines and critics contend, that all the ac¬
tions, hiftories, ceremonies, &c. of the Old Teftament.
are only figures, types, and prophecies, of what was
to happen under the New. The Jew's are fuppofed
to
Filaments.
' «  
F I L [ 623 ]
Figure to have had the figures or (hadows, and we the fub- pound after
fiance.
Figure is alfo applied in a like fenfe to profane
matters j as the emblems, enigmas, fables, fymbols,
and hieroglyphics, of the ancients.
FIGURED, in general, fomething marked with
figures.
The term figured is chiefly applied to fluffs, where¬
on the figures of flowers, and the like, are either wrought
or flamped.
Figured, in Mafic, is applied either to Ample notes
or to harmony: to fimple notes, as in thefe words
figured bafis, to exprefs a bafs whofe notes carrying
chords are fubdivided into many other notes of leffer
value : to harmony, when, by fuppofition and in a
diatonic procedure, other notes than thofe which form
•the chord are employed. See Supposition.
To figure is to pafs feveral notes for one 5 to form
runnings or variations; to add fome notes to the air,
in whatever manner it be done 5 in fhort, it is to give
to harmonious founds a figure of melody, by connedling
them with other intermediate founds.
I’lLAGO, a genus of plants, belonging to the fyn-
genefia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Compofitec. See Botany Index.
FILAMENT, in Anatomy, Natural Hifiory, &c. a
term ufed in the fame fenfe with fibre, for thofe fine
threads whereof the flefh, nerves, fkin, plants, roots,
&c. are compofed. See Fibre.
Vget able Filaments form a fubllance of great ufe
in the arts and manufaflures > furnifhing thread, cloth,
cordage, &c.
For thefe purpofes the filamentous parts of the Can-
f See Hemp nabu and Linum, or hemp and flax, are employed
and Flan, among us f. But different vegetables have been em¬
ployed in different countries for the fame ufes. Putre-
fadlion deflroys the pulpy er flefhy matter, and leaves
the tough filaments entire : By putrefying the leaf of
a plant in water, we obtain the fine flexile fibres, which
conflituted the bafis of the ribs and minute veins, and
which now form as it were a fkeleton of the leaf.
Alkaline lixivia, in fome degree, produce fimilar effedls
?o putrefa&ion.
The Sieur de Flacourt, in his hifiory of Madagaf-
par, relates, that different kinds of cloth are prepared
in that ifland from the filaments of the bark of certain
trees boiled in ftrong lye ; that fome of thefe cloths
are very fine, and approach to the foftnefs of fill?, but
in durability come fliovt of cotton; that others are
coarfer and fironger, and laft thrice as long as cotton j
and that of thefe the fails and cordage of his veffel were
made. See alfo the article Bark.
The fame author informs us, that the ftalks of nettles
are ufed for the like, purpofes in his ^vn country,
France. And Sir Hans Sloane relates, in one of his
letters to Mr Ray, that he has been informed by feve-
fal, that muflin and callico, and mofl of the Indian li¬
nens, are made of nettles.
In fome of the Swedilh provinces, a firong kind of
clotn is faid to be prepared from hop ftalks : and in
the tranfailions of the Swedilh Academy for the year
1 75°? there is an account of an experiment made in
confequence of that report. Of the ftalks, gathered
in autumn, about as many were taken as equalled in
bulk a quantity of flax that would have produced a
F I L
preparation. The ftalks were put into Filaments.
water, and kept covered therewith during the winter. ' '
In March they were taken out, dried in a ftove, and
drefled as flax. The prepared filaments weighed near¬
ly a pound, and proved fine, foft, and white: They
were fpun and woven into fix ells of fine ftrong cloth.
The author, Mr Shifter, obferves, that hop ftalks take
much longer time to rot than flax j and that, if not
fully rotted, the woody part wdll not feparate, and the
cloth will neither prove white nor fine.
Hemp, flax, and all other vegetable filaments, and
thread or cloth prepared from them, differ remarkably
fiom wool, hair, filk, and other animal productions,
not only in the principles into which they are refoluble
by fire,, but likewife in fome of their more interefting
properties, particularly in their difpofition to imbibe
colouring matters 5 fundry liquors, which give a beau¬
tiful and durable dye to thofe of the animal, giving no
ftain at all to thofe of the vegetable kingdom.
A folution of copper in aquafortis, which had been
changed blue by an addition of volatile fpirit, on being
mixed with a little folution of tin, became turbid and
greenilh. Pieces of white filk and flannel boiled, with¬
out any previous preparation, in this mixture, received
a bright deep yellow dye ; whilft pieces of linen, pre¬
pared and unprepared, came out as colourlefs as they
were put in.
Fifhing nets are ufually boiled with oak bark or other
like aftringents, which render them more lafting,
Thofe made of flax receive from this decoClion a brown-
ilh colour, which, by the repeated alternations of wa¬
ter and air, is in a little time difcharged, whilft the fins
glofly brown, communicated by the fame means to
lilken nets, permanently refills both the air and water,
and Hands as long as the animal filaments themfelves.
In like manner the ftain of ink, or the black dye from
folutions of iron, mixed with vegetable aftringents,
proves durable in filk and woollen 5 but from linen *
the aftringent matter is extra&ed by walking, and only
the yellow iron iRould remains,.
.The red decoftion of cochineal, which, heightened
with a little folution of tin, gives the fiery fcarlet dye.
to. wool or filk that have been previoully impregnated
with folution of tartar, makes no impreflion upon li¬
nen or cotton prepared in the fame manner. M. du
Fay informs us, in the Memoirs of the French Acade¬
my for the year 1737, that having prepared a mixed
cloth whofe warp was of wool and the woof of cotton,
and thoroughly blended the two together by fulling,
he Hill found the cotton to refill the a&ion of the fcar-
let liquor, and the wool to receive the fame colour from
it as wool by itfelf, the fluff coming out all over mar¬
bled fiery and white.
Many other inftances of this kind are known too
well to the callico printer; whofe grand defideratum it
is, to find means of making linen receive the fame co¬
lours that wool does. The phyfical caufe of the dif¬
ference is wholly unknown 3 and indeed, of the theory
of dyes in general, we. know as yet extremely little.
(See Dyeing.) Are animal filaments tubular, and the
colouring atoms received within them ? Are vegetable
filaments folid, and the colour depofited on the furface ?
Or, does not their different fufceptibility of colour de¬
pend rather on the different intrinfic properties of the
two ? There are many inftances of alike diverfity, even
r\
F I L [ 624. ] F 1 L
Filaments in the metallic kingdom, where a mechanical difference
ije in texture can fcarcely be prefumed to be the caufe :
■ ^ ’ 1 Thus filver receives a deep ftain from fulphureous or
putrid vapours, or the yolk of a boiled egg, which have
no effect upon tin.
Filaments, among botanifts. See Botany Index.
FI LANDERS, in falconry, a difeafe in hawks, &c.
conlifting of filaments or firings of blood coagulated 5
and occalioned by a violent rupture of fome vein, by
which the blood, extravafatirig, hardens into thefe fi¬
gures, and incommodes the reins, hips, &c.
Filanders, are alfo worms as fmall as thread, and
about an inch long, that lie wrapt up in a thin fkin or
net, near the reins of a hawk, apart from either gut or
&orge:
This malady is known by the hawk’s poverty ; by
ruffling her tail j by her ftraining the fill, or perch,
wdth her pounces; and laftly, by croaking in the
night, when the filanders prick her. The difeafe pro¬
ceeds from bad food j and mull be remedied in time, to
prevent its fpreading over the whole body, and deftroy-
ing the bird. Thefe mult not be killed as other worms
are, for fear of impofthumes from their corruption, be¬
ing incapable of palling away with the hawk’s meat.
They mult only be ftupified, to prevent their being of-
fenfive ; and this is done by giving the hawk a clove
of garlic, after which fhe will feel nothing of the filan¬
ders for 40 days. It will be prudent in the falconer,
when he obferves the hawk poor and low, to give
her a clove of garlic once a month by way of pre¬
vention.
FILBERT, or Filberd, the fruit of the corylus,
or hazel. See Corylus, Botany Index.
FILE, among mechanics, a tool ufed in metal, &c.
* in order to fmooth, poliffl, or cut.
This inftrument is of iron or forged fteel, cut in
little furrows, with chiffels and a mallet, this and that
w^ay, and of this or that depth, according to the grain
or touch required. After cutting the file, it mult be
tempered with a compofition of chimney foot, very
hard and dry, diluted and wrought up with urine,
vinegar, and fait, the whole being reduced to the con-
fiftence of muftard. Tempering the files confiffs in
rubbing them over with this compofition, and covering
them in loam ; after vfflich they are put in a charcoal
fire, and taken out by that time they have acquired a
cherry colour, which is known by a fmall rod of the
fame fteel put in along with them. Being taken out
of the fire, they are thrown into cold fpring water j
and, when cold, they are cleaned with charcoal and a
rag j and being clean and dry, are kept from ruft by
laying them up in wheat bran. Iron files require more
heating than fteel ones. Files are of different forms,
fizes, cuts, and degrees of finenefs, according to the
different ufes and occafions for which they are made.
See Filing.
File, in the art of war, a row of foldiers, Handing
one behind another, which is the depth of the battalion
or fquadron. The files of a battalion of foot are gene¬
rally three deep ; as are fometimes thofe of a fquadron
of horfe. The files muft be ftraight and parallel one to
another. • .. T
• " File, in Law, a thread, firing, or wire, upon which
W'rits and other exhibits in courts and offices are faft-
efied or filed, for the more fafe keeping, and ready
4
turning to the fame. A file is a record of the court j Fill
and the filing of a, procefs of a court makes it a record v
of it. An original writ may be filed after judge¬
ment given in the caule, iffued forth before j decla¬
rations, &c. are to be filed, and affidavits muft be
filed, fome before they are read in court, and fome
prefently when read in court. Before filing a record
removed by certiorari, the juftices of B. R. may refufe
to receive it, if it appears to be for delay, &c. ; and
remand it back for the expedition of jultice : but if the
certiorari be once filed, the proceedings below cannot
be revived. An indictment, &c. cannot be amended
after it is filed.
FILIAL, fomething belonging to the relation of
fon. See Son.
The divines ufually diftinguilh between a fervile and
& filial fear. The molt abandoned may have a fervile
fear of God, fuch as that of a flave to his mafter ; but
not a filial fear, i. e. a fear refulting from love and re-
Ipeft. See Fear.
Filial Piety, the affeftionate attachment of children
to their parents; including in it love, reverence, obedi¬
ence, and relief. Thefe are duties prompted equally by
nature and by gratitude, independent of the injunctions
of religion. For where Ihall we find the perfon who
hath received from any one benefits fo great or fo
many, as children from their parents ? And it may be
truly faid, that if perfons are undutiful to their pa¬
rents, they feldom prove good to any other relation.
Profane hiftory furnifhes many fine examples of this
amiable virtue 5 a few of which we fflall feleCt, accord¬
ing to the plan obferved in other fimilar articles.
1. The Roman dictator T. Manlius having exer-
cifed great cruelty over the citizens, was cited at the
expiration of his office to anfwTer for his conduCt.
Among other things that were laid to his charge, he
wras accufed of treating with barbarity one of his own
fons. Manlius, according to Livy, had no other caufe
of complaint againft this fon than his having an impe¬
diment in his fpeech. For this reafon he was baniflied
far from the city, from his home, and the company of
thofe of his own age and fortune, and condemned to
fervile works. All were highly exafperated againft
fuch inhuman conduCt, except the fon himfelf, who,
under the greateft concern that he fliould furnilh mat¬
ter of accufation againft his father, refolved upon a
molt extraordinary method to relieve him. One morn¬
ing, without apprifing any body, he came to the city
armed with a dagger, and went direCtly to the houfe
of the tribune Pomponius, who had accufed his fa¬
ther. Pomponius was yet in bed. Young Manlius
fent up his name, and was immediately admitted by
the tribune, who did not doubt but he was come to
difeover to him fome new inftances of his father’s fe-
verity. Bi^ Manlius, as foori as he was left alone
with the tribune, drew out his dagger, and prefented
it to his breaft; declaring he would ftab him that mo¬
ment if he did not fwear in the form he fliould dic¬
tate, ‘‘ Never to hold the affembly of the people for
accufing his father.” Pomponius, who faw the dag-^- j
ger glittering at his breaft, himfelf alone without arms, c'^.'s,7
and attacked by a robuft young man, full of a bold
confidence in his own ftrength, took the oath demand¬
ed oT him $ and afterwards confeffed with a kind of
complacency in the thing, and a fincerity which ffiffi-
ciently
Filial.
F I L [ 62s
ciently argued he was not forty for what he had done,
• that it was that violence which obliged him to delift
from his defign.
2. Among the multitude of perfons who were pro-
fcribed under the fecond triumvirate of Rome, were
the celebrated orator Cicero and his brother Quintus.
The fate of the former, in endeavouring to make his
elcape, is related under the article Cicero. The lat¬
ter found means to conceal himfelf fo effe&ually at
home, that the foldiers could not find him. Enraged
at their difappointment, they put his fon to the torture,
in order to make him difcover the place of his father’s
concealment j but filial affe£Hon was proof againft the
moft exquifite torments. An involuntary figh, and
fometimes a deep groan, was all that could be extorted
from the youth. His agonies were increafedbut
with amazing fortitude he ftill perfifted in Ids refolu-
tion of not betraying his father. Quintus was not far
off; and it may be imagined better than can be expref-
fed, how his heart muft have been affefted with the
fighs and groans of a fon expiring in tortures to fave
his life. He could bear it no longer; but quitting
the place of his concealment, he prefented himielf to
the affaflins, begging of them to put him to death, and
difmifs the innocent youth, whofe generous behaviour
the triumvirs themfelves, if informed of the fadt, would
judge worthy of the higheft approbation. But the in¬
human monfters, without being the leaft affected with
the tears either of the father or the fon, anfwered, that
they both muft die j the father becaufe he was profcrib-
ed, and the fon becaufe he had concealed his father.
• Then a new conteft of tendernefs arofe who fhould die
firft ; but this the aflaftins foon decided, by beheading
them both at the fame time.—This anecdote is related
by Appian, Dio, Plutarch, Valerius Maximus, and
other hiftorians.
Plut.lnvita 3. Cinna, who fcrupled no attempt, how atrocious
Filial.
P<li7lp<
^ Curtluj.
foever, which could ferve his purpofe, undertook to
get Pomponius Strabo murdered in his tent j but his
fon faved his life, which was the firft remarkable ac¬
tion of Pompey the Great. The treacherous Cinna,
by many alluring promifes, had gained over one Te-
rentius, a confidant of Pompey’s, and prevailed on him
to affaflinate the general, and feduce his troops. Young
Pompey being informed of this defign a few hours be¬
fore it was to be put in execution, placed a faithful
guard round the praetorium 5 fo that none of the con-
fpirators could come near it. He then watched all
the motions of the camp, and endeavoured to appeafe
the fury of the foldiers, who hated the general his
father, by fuch affs of prudence as were worthy of the
oldeft commanders. However, fome of the mutineers
having forced open one of the gates of the camp, in
order to defert to Cinna, the general’s fon threw him¬
felf flat on his back in their way, crying out, that they
Ihould not break their oath and defert their command¬
er, without treading his body to death. By this
means he put a flop to their defertion, and afterwards
wrought fo effeflually upon them by his affefling
fpeeches and engaging carriage, that he reconciled
them to his father.
4. Olympias, Alexander’s own mother, was of fuch
an unhappy difpofition, that he would never allow her
to have any concern in the affairs of the government,
bhe ufed frequently to make very feverc complaints on
VOL. VIII. Part II.
] Fi r.
that account j but he always fubmitted to her ill
humour with great mildnefs and patience. Antipater,' 
one of his friends, having one day'written a long letter
againft her to the king then abfent, the latter, after
reading it, replied, “ Antipater does not know that one
fingle tear ihed by a mother will obliterate ten thou-
fand Inch letters as this.” A behaviour like this, and
Inch an anfwer, Ihow at one and the fame time, that
Alexander was both an affe&ionate fon and an able
politician.
j. Epaminondas is univerfally acknowledged to have
been one of the greateft generals and one of the beft
men which Greece ever produced. Before him the
city of 1 hebes was not diftinguiftied by any memorable
adtion, and after him it was not famous for its vir¬
tues, but its misfortunes, till it funk into its original
oblcunty } lo tnat it law its glory take birth and ex¬
pire with this great man. The vi&ory he obtained at
Leuftra had drawm the eyes and admiration of all the
neighbouring people upon Epaminondas, who looked
upon him as the fupport of Thebes, as the triumphant
conqueror of Sparta, as the deliverer of Greece : in
a word, as the greateft man, and the moft excellent
captain, that ever was in the world. In the midft of
this univerfal applaufe, fo capable of making the gene¬
ral of an army forget the man for the vidor, Epami¬
nondas, little lenfible to fo affeding and fo deferved a
glory, “ My joy (laid he) arifes from my fenfe of that
which the news of my vidory will give my father and
my mother.”
6. Among an incredible number of illuftrious per¬
fons who were falfely accufed and put to death by
Nero, was one Bareas Soranus 5 a man, as Tacitus in¬
forms us, of Angular vigilance and juftice in the diff
charge of his. duty. During his confinement, his
daughter Servilia was apprehended and brought into
the fenate, and there arraigned. The crime laid to
her charge w as, that Ihe had turned into money all her
ornaments and jewels, and the moft valuable part of her
drefs, to defray the expence of confulting magicians.
To this .the young Servilia, with tears, replied, That
Ihe had indeed confulted magicians, but the whole of
her inquiry was to know whether the emperor and fe¬
nate would afford prote&ion and fafety to her dear
and indulgent parent againft his accufers. “ With
this view (faid Ihe) I prefented the diviners, men till
now utterly unknown to me, with my jewels, apparel
and the other ornaments peculiar to my quality, as I
would have prefented my blood and life, could my
blood and life have procured my father’s liberty. But
whatever this my proceeding was, my unfortunate fa¬
ther was an utter ftranger to it; and if it is a crime,
I alone am the delinquent.” She was, however, toge¬
ther with her father, condemned to die ; but in what
manner, hiftcry is filent. [Vid. Taciti Annales, lib. vi.
cap. 20.J
7. Valerius Maximus f likewife relates a very fingu-f v- ^
lar fact upon this fubjeft. A woman of illuftrious
birth had been condemned to be ftrangled. The Ro- b‘VU’ 3&’
man prsetor delivered her up to the triumvir, who
caufed her to be carried to prifon, in order to her be-
ing put to death. 1 he gaoler, who was ordered to
execute her, was ftruck with compaflion, and could not
refolve to kill her. He chofe therefore to let her die
cf hunger. Befides which, he fuffered her daughter
4 K •'
F I L
62
Filibeg, to fee her In prxfon ; taking care, however, that ftie
Filing, brought her nothing to eat. As this continued many
v days, he was furpriied that the prifoner lived fo long
v.’ithout eating; and fufpeiSling the daughter, upon
watching her, he difcovered that die nourilhed her
mother with her own milk. Amazed at fo pious, and
at the fame time fo ingenious an invention, he told
the fa£l; to the triumvir, and the triumvir to the prae¬
tor, who believed the thing merited relating in the af-
fembly of the people. The criminal was pardoned,
and a decree was paffed that the mother and daughter
(hould be fubfifted for the reft of their lives at the ex¬
pence of the public.
The fame author gives a fimilar inftance of filial
piety in a young woman named Xantippe to her aged
father Cimonus, who was likewife confined in prifon,
and which is univexfally known by the name of the
Roman Charity. Both thefe inftances appeared fo very
extraordinary and uncommon to that people, that they
could only account for them, by fuppofing that the
love of children to their parents was the firft law of
nature. Putaret aliquis (fays our author^) hoc contra
naturam facium ejfe, nijiprima naturcc lex ejjet diligerc
parentes.
In addition to the foregoing examples, we may re¬
fer to the article ./Etna, where a very noble inftance of
filial piety is taken notice of. See alfo the article PlETAS.
FILIBEG, or Philibeg. See Philibeg.
FILICACIA, Vincent, a celebrated Italian poet,
was born at Florence in 1642. He was a member of
the Academy della Crufca and of that of the Arcadi,
and became fecretary to the duke of Tufcany. He died
1111707. His poems are much efteemed for the deli¬
cacy and noblenefs of their fentiments. Scipio de Fi-
licacia, his fon, had them all printed together, under
the title of Poefie Fo/iano di Vicenzo da Filicacia. in
1707, 410.^
FILICES, (from filum “ a thread,” quaji Jilatim
incifa), Ferns j one of the feven tribes or families of
the vegetable kingdom, according to Linnaeus, by
whom it is thus characterized : “ having their fructifi¬
cation on the back fide of the frondes.” They conftitute
the firft order in the clafs cryptogamia j and confift of
16 genera, which are divided into fruCHJicationes, fpi-
catec, frondofce, et radicales. This order comprehends
the entire 16th clafs of Tournefort, in wdiofe fyftem
the filices make only a Angle genus, in the firft feCtion
of the above-mentioned clafs.
Filices, is alfo an order of plants in the frag-
mcntamethodi naturalis of Linnaeus. See Botany Index.
FILIGRANE, Filigree, or Fillagree, Work.
See Fillagree.
• FILING, one of the principal operations in fmith-
ery, &c. fucceeding to forging. See File.
The coarfer cut files are always to be fucceeded by
finer 5 and in all the kinds the rule is, to lean heavy
on the file in thrufting it forward, becaufe the teeth of
the file are made to cut forwards. But in drawing the
file back again for a fecond ftroke, it is to be lightly
lifted juft above the work, by reafon it cuts not coming
back.
The rough or coarfe-toothed file (which, when large,
is called a rubber) ferves to take off the unevenneffes
of the work, left by the hammer in forging.
6 ] ' F I L
The ballard-toothed file is to take out too deep Filipendula
cuts, and file ftrokes made by the rough file. The fine- H
toothed file takes out the cuts or file ftrokes the baf-, ^ h ^';,rce'.
tard file made ; and the fmooth file thole left by the
fine file.
In this order, the files of feveral cuts are to fucceed
each other till the work is as fmooth as it can be filed.
After wdiich it may be made yet fmoother with emery,
tripoli, &c. See Polishing.
FILIPENDULA, dropwort, a fpecies of fpmea.
See Spir/ea, Botany Index.
FILIX, fern. See Filices, Botany Index.
FILLAGREE, Filigree, or Filigrane, Work,
a kind of enrichment on gold or iilver, wrought deli¬
cately, in manner of little threads or grains, or both in¬
termixed. The w’ord is compounded ofyf/ or filum,
“ thread,” and granum, “ grain.” In Latin it is called
Jilatim elaboratum opus, argentum, aurum.
There is no manufa&ure in any part of the world,
that has been more admired and celebrated, than the
fine gold and filver fillagree of Sumatra. And what
renders it a matter of greater curiofity is the coarfenefs
of the tools employed in the workmanftup, and which,
in the hands of an European, would not be thought
fufficiently perfedft for the moft ordinary purpofes.—
They are rudely and inartificially formed, by the gold-
fmith (pandi) from any old iron he can pick up. Mar/SeFs
When you engage one of them to execute a piece Account of
of work, his firft requeft is ufually for a piece of iron Sumatra,
hoop, to make his wdre-drarving jnftrument ; an oldp'I41'
hammer head, ftuck in a block, ferves for an anvil ;
and a pair of compaffes is often compofed of two old
nails tied together at one end. The gold is melted
in a piece of a preeoo or earthen rice-pot, or fometimes
in a crucible of their own make, of ordinary clay. In
general they ufe no bellows, but blow the fire wdth
their mouths, through a joint of bamboo \ and if the
quantity of metal to be melted is confiderable, three or
four perfons fit round their furnace, which is an old
broken quallee or iron pot, and blow together. At
Padang alone, where the manufadfture is more confi¬
derable, they have adopted the Chinefe bellows. Their
method of drawing the wire differs but little from that
ufed by European workmen. When drawn to a fuf-
ficient finenefs, they flatten it by beating it on then-
anvil 5 and when flattened, they give it a twift like
that in the whalebone handle of a punch ladle, by rub ¬
bing it on a block of wood with a flat ftick. After
twilling they again beat it on the anvil, and by thefe
means it becomes flat wire with indented edges. With
a pair of nippers they fold down the end of the wire,
and thus form a leaf, or element of a florver in their
work, which is cut off. The end is again folded and
cut off, till they have got a fuflicient number of leaves,
which are all laid on fingly. Patterns of the flowers or
foliage, in wdiich there is not very much variety, are
prepared on paper, of the fize of the gold plate on which
the fillagree is to be laid. According to this, they begin
to difpofe on the plate the larger compartments of the
foliage, for which they ufe plain flat wire of a larger
fize, and fill them up with the leaves before mentioned.
To fix the work, they employ a gelatinous fubftance,
made of the red-hot berry called boca/ago, ground to
a pulp on a rough ftone, This pulp they place on a
young
F I L [ 027 ] F I L
Fillagrec, young cocoa tiut about the fize of a walnut, the top and
rillet> bottom being cut off. After tbe leaves have been all
v placed in order, and thick on, bit by bit, a folder is pre¬
pared of gold filings and borax, moiftened with water,
which they ftrew over the plate 5 and then putting it in
the fire for a fhort time, the whole becomes united.
This kind of work on a gold plate, they call carrangpa-
pan : when the work is open, they call it carrang troufe.
In executing the latter, the foliage is laid out on a card,
or foft kind of wood, and ftuck on, as before defcrib-
ed, with the fago berry ; and the work, when finifh-
ed, being ftrew^ed over wdth their folder, is put into
the fire, wdien the card or foft wood burning awray, the
gold remains connefled. If the piece be large, they
folder it at feveral times. In the manufacture of bad-
joo buttons, they firft make the lower part flat, and
having a mould formed of a piece of buffalo’s horn, in¬
dented to feveral fizes, each like one half of a bullet
mould, they lay their work over one of thefe holes,
and with a horn punch they prefs it into the form of
the button. After this they complete the upper part.
When the fillagree is finiihed, they cleanfe it, by boil¬
ing it in water with common fak and alum, or fome-
times lime juice 5 and in order to give it that fine purple
colour which they call fapo, they boil it in water with
brimftone. The manner of making the little balls
wdth wrhich their wrorks are fometimes ornamented, is
as follow’s: They take a piece of charcoal, and having
cut it flat and fmooth, they make in it a fmall hole,
which they fill with gold duft, and this melted in the
fire becomes a little ball. They are very inexpert at fi-
nifhing and polifhing the plain parts, hinges, fcrews, and
the like, being in this as much excelled by the Euro¬
pean artifls, as thefe fall fhort of them in the finenefs
and minutenefs of the foliage. The Chinefe alfo make
fillagree moftly of filver, which looks elegant, but wants
likewife the extraordinary delicacy of the Malay work.
The price of the workmanfhip depends upon the diffi¬
culty or uncommonnefs of the pattern. In fome arti¬
cles of ufual demand, it does not exceed one-third of the
value of the gold ; but in matters of fancy, it is gene¬
rally equal to it.
FILLET, or Filet, in ArchiteElure, denotes a
little fquare member or ornament ufed in divers places,
and on divers occafions, but generally as a fort of co¬
rona over a greater moulding.
The fillet is the fame with what the French call
reglet, bande, and bandelette; the Italians lijla or lif-
tella.
Fillet, in Hera/drtj, a kind of orle or bordure,
containing only a third or fourth part of the breadth
of the common bordure. It is fuppofed to be with¬
drawn inwards, and is of a different colour from the
field. It runs quite round, near the edge, as a lace over
a cloak.
Fillet is alfo ufed for an ordinary drawn like the
bar from the finiffer point of the chief acrofs the fhield,
in manner of a fcarf; though it is fometimes alfo feen
in the fituation of a bend, feffe, crofs, &c.
According to Guillim, the fillet is a fourth part of
the chief, and is placed in the chief point of the efcut-
cheon.
Fillet is alfo ufed among painters, gilders, &c.
for a little rule or reglet of leaf gold, drawn over cer¬
tain mouldings ; or on the edges of frames, pannels,
&c. efpccially when painted white, by way of enrich- Filly
ment. II
Fillets, in the Manege, are the loins of a horfe, . ^^r'
which begin at the place where the hinder part of the
faddle refts.
FILLY, a term among horfe-dealers, to denote the
female or male colt.
FILM, a thin Ikin or pellicle. In plants, it is ufed
for that thin, wroody (kin, which feparates the feeds in
the pods, and keeps them apart.
FILTER, or Filtre, in ChemiJlnj, a piece of
woollen cloth, linen, paper, or other matter, fome of
writich are in the form of hollow inverted cones, ufed to
filtrate or ftrain liquors through. The filtre has the
fame ufe and effefl with regard to liquids that the fieve
or fearce has in dry matters.
Filters are of two forts. The firft are fimple pieces
of paper or cloth, through which the liquor is paffed
without farther trouble. The fecond are twilled up
like a Ikain or wick, and firft wetted, then fqueezed,
and one end put in the veffel that contains the liquor to
be filtrated : the other end is to be out, and hang
down below the furface of the liquor j by means hereof
the pureft part of the liquor diftills drop by drop out
of the veffel, leaving the coarfer part behind. This
filter affs as a fyphon.
Water is freed from various impurities by means of
bafins made of porous ftones, which veffels muff be pe¬
culiarly beneficial in long voyages, and even upon land
they are of confiderable benefit, when none but ftag-
nant waters are to be found, or fprings iffuing through
clay.
A patent was granted in 179010 a female potter, for
inventing a compofition to make filtering bafins, as a
fuccedaneum for that porous ftone which is not every
where to be found. She took four out of nine equal
parts of tobacco-pipe clay, and five out of nine equal
parts of fea, river, or pit fand, which fhe ufed for mak¬
ing fmall bafins futficient to contain one gallon of wa¬
ter. Her next proportions wrere equal parts of fea,
river, or pit fand, and tobacco-pipe clay ; her third
proportions wrere three out of nine equal parts of tobac¬
co-pipe clay } one out of nine equal parts of Stourbridge
clay, or one out of nine equal parts of Windfor or other
loam : and her fourth proportions were four out of eight
equal parts of the burnt ground clay of which crucibles
are made.
A patent was alfo granted to Mr .Toflma Collier of
Southwrark, for a moff ingenious method of filtering
and fweetening water, oil, and every other liquid. The
following is the contrivance, which combines the appli¬
cation of machineiy with the antifeptic properties of
charcoal.
Filh oil is one of the liquids which he had particular¬
ly in view, to free it from every thing dilagreeable, ei¬
ther in tafte, fmell, or colour, to accompliih which he
poured a quantity of oil into a convenient veffel, heated
to the temperature of 120° of Fahrenheit’s thermome¬
ter, adding cauftid mineral alkali of the fpecific gravity
of 1.25. He then agitated the mixture, afterwards al¬
lowing it to Hand till the fediment fubfided; and then
drew it off into another veffel, with a fufficient quantity
of burnt charcoal finely powdered, and a fmall quan¬
tity of diluted fulphuric acid, to decompofe the fapona-
ceous matter Hill fufpended in the oil, when the oil be-
4 K 2 came
I I L [ 628 J F I L
Filter, came clearest the furface._ He then agitated the contents which faves the leather from being cut, and has a fmall
' of this velfel, and left the coaly, faline, and aqueous
particles to fubfide j afterwards palling it through pro¬
per ftrainers, when it became quite tranfparent and fit
for ufe.
The principle of the improved filtering machines
confifts in combining hydroftatic preffure with the mode
of filtering per afcenfutn, which procures the peculiar
advantage of cauling the fluid and its fediment take op-
pofite directions. The filtering furface remains the
fame, while the dimenfions of the chamber in which the
fediment is received may be varied. To adapt the ma¬
chines to every purpofe for which they are intended,
chambers muft be provided of various capacities, for
the precipitated matter. The fpace required is very
great with refpect to the oil trade, and as all dimenfions
will be required occafionally, no particular limits can
be fixed. For diflilleries and breweries they may be
fmailer in proportion, and a very fmall chamber wall be
fufficient for domeilic economy. If water is to be freed
from noxious particles, it muft be made to pafs through
an iron box in its wTay to the filtering chamber, and the
box muft contain charcoal finely powdered. The wrater
is received into this box and delivered by twTo apertures,
■which are opened and clofed by cocks*
Another part of the invention confifts in filtering
machines in the form of ftills, in which charcoal may
be repeatedly burnt after any fluid fubftances have pal¬
led through it, for the purpofe of freeing them from
noxious particles, or difcharging their colouring mat¬
ter.
To the filtering apparatus of Mr Collier, inftruments
are attached for difcovering the comparative qualities
of oils, which depend in fome meafure on their fpecific
gravities 5 fpermaceti oil, when compared with fifh oils
being as 875 to 920. To do this, a glafs veffel of any
fhape moft convenient is employed, with a glafs bubble,
and a thermometer. If the oil is pure, the bubble
finks, when the mercury rifes to a particular ftandard.
When fpermaceti oil is impure, the bubble floats, though
of the temperature required.
I o determine the tendency of oils ufed for burning
to congeal in cold weather, a freezing mixture may be
put into a phial of thin glafs, into which let a thermo¬
meter be immerfed, and a fingle drop of the oil per¬
mitted to fall on the outfide of the veffel, where it will
mftantly congeal. As the cold produced by the mix¬
ture decreafes, let the temperature be obferved by the
thermometer at which the oil becomes fluid, and runs
ftown the fide of the glafs.
The following is a fhort defcription of the apparatus
contrived for this purpofe. A (fig. 1. Plate CCXVII.)
is the ciftern, into which the water or other liquor to be
filtered is put. B B, is a tube opening into the bottom
ot the ciftern A, and bent along the bottom of the ma¬
chine conveying _ the fluid into CCC the filtering
chamber, which is covered with leather bound down
round its circular rim, and through which leather the
water is percolated. D D, The bafon rifing above
the level of the chamber and receiving the filtered li¬
quor.. E, The fpout by which it runs off into a pitch¬
er or other veffel. F, Another fpout furnilhed with a
cock to draw off the foul water from the chamber when
neceffary. G G G, The air tube, which begins above
*he level of the chamber, is covered with a hutton
lateral aperture for the air to be carried off. This
pipe pafies along the bottom and up the fide, and ri¬
fing above the level of the water in the ciftern, is there
clofed, except a fmall lateral aperture through which
the air efcapes. H, A guard or rim with crofs bars
put over the leather to keep it from being forced up
by the water. It is faftened down by means of two
notches on oppofite fides of the ground, by which it
locks into two ftaples rivetted into the bottom of the
bafon. I, 1 he lid Aiding down to cover the water
from duft, and fufpended at pleafure by means of
KK, two fprings on each tube for that purpofe. L M
N O, A cylindrical box containing charcoal, which
is conneaed with the above by means of the tube P.
and a continuation of the tube B. L M, The water
tube B continued below the charcoal apparatus, fo that
the fluid may pafs through the fame into the cylinder,
from whence it enters the chambers at P, fo as to be
filtered through the leather as before deferibed. R R.
Collars which may be unferewed at pleafure, fo as to
detach the charcoal apparatus whenever the charcoal
requires to be purified by heat. SS, Two cocks to
direft the fluid through the charcoal cylinder or imme-
diately into the filtering chamber.
Fig. 2. A, A tub or ciftern containing the oil to be
filtered, and fupplying a tube of fufficient height for
the hydroftatic preffure to operate. B B, A main
tube of wood, tin, leather, or cloth, to which any
number cf bigs, C C, of the fize and ffiape of corn
lacks, or any convenient fize or flrape, may be conneaed.
Thefe are bound to D D D, ftraight double iron
bars, furnilhed with a hinge at one end and a ferew at
the other, by opening which the bags may be emptied
F, A trough underneath, made to receive the filtered
oil from the receivers E E E.
Hg. 3. A, A funnel, calk or ciftern, into which the
fluid is put which palfes down. B, A tube fitted into
the fame, through which it enters. C, An iron ftill,
or ftill of any other fubftance capable of fuftaining heat,
full of finely powdered and fifted charcoal, through
the head of which the fluid palfes into any receiver.
F>, A fire-place of any conftruaion to drive over the
fluid remaining interfperfed among the charcoal, and
alfo to purify the charcoal by an increafe of temperature
when required. E, A cock to let water into the flues
to cool the apparatus for a fublequent operation.
Fig. 4. The trial glafs with its thermometer.
Filter is alio a charm, fuppofed to have a virtue
of mfpiring love. The word is derived from <piX]{ovr
which fignifies the fame thing, of <ptXi6>, amo, ‘‘ I
love.”
Fhe Greeks, when their love was without fuccefs,
had feveral arts to procure the affeftions of their belov-
ecl" Thelfalian women w7ere famous for their
ikill in this as well as other magical praftices. The
means whereby it was effedled were of divers forts 5 it
was fometimes done by potions called tptXIgec, which are
frequently mentioned in authors of both languages^
Juvenal fpeak thus:
Hie magicus affert cantus, hie Thejfala vendit
Philtra, quibus valeant mentem vexare mariti.
Their operations were violent, and dangerous, and com¬
monly deprived fuch as drank them of their reafon.
Plutarch
Filter.
y
■ '>*A /4 /r '* <c/ <$> i < .
/V ' . /•
y.
<2^c_
s' *%
^7~.
' IRE PLACE. Plate CCXVTI
y 'S/4
;T4 /?; ;//, y7 a•
K / ' ' J .
. y«.. y <* ^ z7;
Ar-'..
' U^iJ
/Sc y 4/ y
-y y^7 *<-■*& %
A. -6^
•A 4 A- y^Z
ca
V
\
-|[ tipf p Q-B-j j
~x
II
...ji—;:3
!|l
» r4/3e // f4^rxn,, // c4* /yxtl .
F I L [ 628 ]
r y‘Iter- , caihe clear at tlie furface. He then agitated the contents which faves the
^ of t}118 veflel, and left the coaly, faline, and aoueous lateral an^r
particles to fubfide j afterwards
per drainers, when it became q
for ufe.
F I L
leather from being cut, and has a fmall
1 to be carried off. This
1 up the fide, and r:
Ihe principle of the impn
confids in combining hydrodatic
of filtering per afcenfum, which
advantage of caufing the fluid an
pofite directions. The filterin'
fame, while the dimenfions of tin
fediment is received may be varie
chines to every purpofe for whi
chambers mud be provided of
the precipitated matter. The fj
great with refpedt to the oil trade.
»vill be required occafionally, no
be fixed. For didilleries and br
imailer in proportion, and a very fr
fufficient for domedic economy. I
from noxious particles, it mud be r
an iron box in its way to the filteri
box mud contain charcoal finely po
is received into this box and delivei
which are opened and clofed by cc
Another part of the invention
machines in the form of dills, in
be repeatedly burnt after any fluid
led through it, for the purpofe o
noxious particles, or difcharging
ter.
To the filtering apparatus of M
are attached for difcovering the
of oils, which depend in fome me;
gravities ; fpermaceti oil, when co:
being as 875 to 920. To do this,
fhape mod convenient is employed,
and a thermometer. If the oil it \
finks, when the mercury rifes to a p y ■ ,
When fpermaceti oil is impure, the bub
of the temperature required.
To determine the tendency of oils ufer
to congeal in cold weather, a freezing mi;
put into a phial of thin glafs, into which le»
meter be immerfed, and a fingle drop of the
mitted to fall on the outfide of the veffel, whe
mflantly congeal. As the cold produced by t
ture decreafes, let the temperature be obferved
thermometer at which the oil becomes fluid, and
down the fide of the glafs.
The following is a fliort defeription of the appara
contrived for this purpofe. A (fig. 1. Plate CCXVH
is the ciflern, into which the water or other liquor to L
filtered is put. B B, is a tube opening into the botton
o the cidern A, and bent along the bottom of the ma¬
chine conveying _ the fluid into CCC the filtering
chamber, which is covered with leather bound down
round its circular rim, and through which leather the
water is percolated. D D, The bafon rifing above
the level of the chamber and receiving the filtered li¬
quor.. F, 1 he ipout by which it runs off into a pitch¬
er or other veffel. F, Another fpout furnifhed with a
cock to draw off the foul water from the chamber when
neceffary. G G G, The air tube, which begins above
the level of the chamber, is covered with a kutton,
'V-
— IN G APPARATLT5.
PIPE PEACE. Plate CCXVIE
;7 C^-r-r 4 / C
^ 7^.) 74^'/ ^ y
/^ 7' Jy ^ ^ 'P’j
*'?' ^ ^ C Sst
' • , 7 A . :;'
4 ' rx y? c/ /
'• ,r/t:-yW
k
/^aj^A /6 /’ 0^C.^Ly^/^^
r fcr_.
j 7 s
My-, ,s/* >
/U>c /s 7*Sr-y ' {'yj&y}. £
S ' V . S' * ^ 7 / > ,
f^/Z.-t'y*\
77?
77'
777*^
-7/^7
7,
s
c7/
7
/ s -'l*,,
J(7 X
S'l'
&~SS
4.
77 ' 7 7
-44
/,
^/7 b / //t^i //c c , 4 7 V <L *i^/(, 75
Mo sy, vU i// /?e(s ic/iyj iM/i M
/7s£ ^<z. j t S'/ /y / cc^r 7i t yy /s So-t s/y y/s ( 7<^y*y
4<-* /yy *> • - 7f ^ 4rt~ 4 ’* J^<:-
/
7-.4~r>'
Sr 7 /usm c S/f&S^ t^S! ^7
7n^7ys /br^ AS> 72)
1/bl ft yx <y 4j ISr SX 7/
(Txy/i' S'* SS y i-/ l ss Cy / s -c 7*7e^ /y sy^
/ 7
77( ” S Si Ct/c 9;
F I J
Filter, came clear at the furface. He
of this veflel, and left the
particles to fubfide j afterwa-
per drainers, when it becan
for ufe.
The principle of the i
confifts in combining hydro
of filtering per afcenfum, ’
advantage of caufing the fl
pofite directions. The f
fame, while the dimenfions
fediment is received may t
chines to every purpofe
chambers mult be provid
the precipitated matter,
great with refpeft to the c
will be required occafion
be fixed. For diltilleries
Imaller in proportion, and a
fufficient for domeftic econo
from noxious particles, it m
an iron box in its way to
box mult contain charco
is received into this box ;
tvhich are opened and clc
Another part of the
machines in the form of
be repeatedly burnt after ;
led through it, for the pi
noxious particles, or difcl
ter.
To the filtering apparat
are attached for difcover:
of oils, which depend in :
gravities 5 fpermaceti oil,
being as 875 to 920. Tc
lhape moll convenient is e:
and a thermometer. If
finks, when the mercury r
When fpermaceti oil is imj.
of the temperature requirec
To determine the tendei
to congeal in cold weather,
put into a phial of thin gla
meter be immerfed, and a
mitted to fall on the w ^
inftp** ’
/
\
-J
V
\
I
V
/
i-
v
/
FIN [ 629 ] FI N
nitration Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos report, that Lucullus
]| the Roman general firft loft his reafon, and afterwards
Finch his life, by one of them. Lucretius the poet ended his
t—'v  life by the fame way ; and Caius Caligula, as Sueto¬
nius reports, was driven into a fit of madnefs by a fil¬
ter given him by his wife Caefonia, which ftory is men¬
tioned by the fame poet. Ovid likewife affures us, that
this was the ufual effeft of fuch potions.
The ingredients they were made of were of various
forts ; feveral of which applied by themfelves were
thought effe£tual.
FILTRATION, the aft of pafling any liquor
though a filtre, called alfo colature, percolation, and
tranfcolation. See Filtre.
FIMBRliE, Fringes. The extremities or borders
of the tubae Fallopianae were formerly fb called 3 the
word fignifying a fringed border, which that part re-
fembles.
FIMBRIATED, in Heraldry, an ordinary with a
narrow border or hem of another tinfture.
FIN, irv NaturalHijlory, a w7ell known part of fifhes,
confifting of a membrane fupported by rays, or little
bony or cartilaginous officles.
The office of the fins has commonly been fuppofed to
be analogous to that of feathers in fowls 5 and to affift
the fiffi in its progreffive motion, or fwimming 3 but the
later naturalifts find this a millake.
The tail is the great inftrument of fwimming : the
fins only ferve to keep the fifh upright, and prevent va¬
cillation or wavering. See Ichthyology Index.
FINAL, in general, whatever terminates or con¬
cludes a thing 3 as final judgment, fentence, &c.
Final Caufie, is the end for which the thing is done.
The final caufe is the firft thing in the intention of a
perfon who does a thing 3 and the laft in the execution.
See Cause.
Final Letters, among the Hebrew grammarians, five
letters fo called, becaufe they have a different figure
at the end of words from what they have in any other
fituation.
Final, in Geography, a port town of Italy, fubject
to Genoa, and fituated on the Mediterranean, about
37 miles fouth-weft of that city. It was fold to the
Genoefe in 1713, by the emperor Charles VI.—
E. Long. 9. 12. N. Lat. 44. 30.
FINANCES, in political economy, denote the re¬
venues of a king or ftate : analogous to the treafury or
exchequer of the Engliffi, and the fifcus of the Romans.
The word is derived from the German finantz,, “ fcrap-
ing, ufury.” Though Du Cange choofes rather to de¬
duce it from the barbarous Latin financta prefiatio pecu¬
niar ia.
Council of the Financks, under the former French
government, correfponds to our lords commiffioners of
the treafury : the comptroller general of the finances, to
our lord high treafurer, &c.
The French had a peculiar kind of figures, or nu¬
meral characters, which they call chiffre de finance.
FINCH-kind, in Ornithology, a genus of birds
known by the name of Fringilla. See Fringilla,
Ornithology Index.
Finch, Heneage, earl of Nottingham, the fon of
Sir Heneage Finch, fome time recorder of London,
and of a younger branch of the Winchelfea family, wTas
born i» 1621. By his good parts and diligence, he
became a noted proficient in the municipal laws 3 was Fine,
made folicitor general by Charles II. on his reltora- u
tion, and was very aCtive in the profecution of the re¬
gicides. In 1670 he was appointed attorney gene¬
ral ; about three years after, lord keeper of the great
feal, on the removal of the earl of Shafteffiury 3 and
lord chancellor in 1675. He w7as created earl of Not¬
tingham in 1681 j and died in the year following, being Bladjl.
quite worn out by the fatigues of bufinefs. He pub- Comment*
lithed feveral fpeeches on the trials of the judges of
King Charles I. with fome few other things 5 and left
behind him Chancery Reports in MS.
FINE, that which is pure and without mixture.
The term is particularly ufed in fpeaking of gold or
filver.
Fine, in Law, hath divers applications. Sometimes
it is ufed for a formal conveyance of lands or tenements,
or of any thing inheritable, being in effe tetnporis finis,-
in order to cut off all controverfies. Others define it
to be a final agreement between perfons, concerning
any lands or rents, &c. of which any fuit or writ is de¬
pending between them in any court.
Fine, fometimes fignifies a fum of money paid for
entering lands or tenements let by leafe 3 and fome¬
times a pecuniary mulft for an offence committed a-
gainft the king and his laws, or againft the lord of the
manor.
Fines for Alienation, in Feodal Law. One of the
attendants or confequences of tenure by vaffalftiip.
KNiGHT-Service, was that of fines due to the lord for
every alienation, whenever the tenant had occalion to
make over his land to another. This depended on the
nature of the feodal connexion 3 it not being reafon-
able,. nor allowed, that a feudatory fhculd transfer his
lord’s gift to another, and fubftitute a newr tenant to
do the fervice in his owrn ftead, without the confent of
the lord : and, as the feodal obligation w7as confidered
as reciprocal, the lord alfo could not alienate his feig-
nory without the confent of 'his tenant, which confent
of his was called an attornment. The reftraint upon
the lord foon wore away 3 that upon the tenant conti¬
nued longer. For, when every thing came in procefs
of time to be bought and fold, the lords would not
grant a licenfe to their tenants to aliene, without a fine
being paid 3 apprehending that, if it was reafonable
for the heir to pay a fine or relief on the renovation of
his paternal eftate, it wras much more reafonable that
a ftranger fhould make the fame acknowledgment on
his admiffion to a newly purchafed feud. In England,
thefe fines feem only to have been exa&ed from the
king’s tenants in capita, who were never able to aliene
without a licenfe : but as to common perfons, they
were at liberty, by magna charta, and the ftatute of
quia emptores (if not earlier), to aliene the whole of
their eftate, to be holden of the fame lord as they
themfelves held it of before. But the king’s tenants
in capite, not being included under the general wmrds
of thefe ftatutes, could not aliene without a licenfe :
for if they did, it was in ancient ftrictnefs an abfolute
forfeiture of the land 3 though fome have imagined
otherwlfe. But this feverity wras mitigated by the fta¬
tute 1 Edwr. III. c. 1 2. which ordained, that in fuch
cafe the lands ffiould not be forfeited, but a reafonable
fine be paid to the king. Upon which ftatute it wras
fettled, that one-third of the yearly value fhould be
paid
F I N
miners paid for a licenfe of alienation; but, if the tenant
FiivTal Pre^umed t0 aliene without a licenfe, a full year’s va-
— 'J i lue fhould be paid. Thefe fines were at lafi; totally-
taken away by fiatute 12 Car. II. c. 24. See Knight-
Servicc.
FiNK-Drawing, or Rentering, a dexterous fevving-up dr
rejoining the parts of any cloth, Huff, or the like, torn
or rent in the dreffing, wearing, &c.
It is prohibited \.o fine-draw pieces of foreign manu-
fadlure upon thefe of our own, as has formerly been
pradlifed. See Rentering.
FiNE-Stil/er, in the diilillery. That branch of the
art which is employed on the diftilling the Ipirit from
treacle or other preparations or recrements of fugar, is
called fine-fiilling, by way of diftindtion from malt-Hill¬
ing •, and the perfon who exercifes this part of the trade
is called a fine-fiiller.
The operation in procuring the fpirit from fugar is
the fame with that ufed in making the malt fpirit $ a
•wafh of the faccharine matter being made with water
from treacle, &c. and fermented with yeafl. It is ufual
to add in this cafe, however, a confiderable portion of
malt, and fometimes powdered jalap, to the ferment-
ting backs. The malt accelerates the fermentation,
and makes the fpirit come out the cheaper, and the
jalap prevents the rife of any mufly head on the fur-
face of the fermenting liquor, fo as to leave a greater
opportunity for the free accefs of the air, and thus to
ffiorten the work, by turning the foamy into a biffing
fermentation.
ITNERS o/* Gold atid Silver, are thofe who pu¬
rify and part thofe metals from other coarfer ones by
fire and acids. They are alfo called parters in our old
law books, and fometimes departers.
FINERY, in the iron works, is one of the two
forges at which they hammer the fow*or pig iron.
Into the finery they firff put the pigs of iron, pla¬
cing three or four of them together behind the fire,
with a little of one end thruH into it *, where, foften-
ing by degrees, they flir and work them with long
bars of iron, and expofe at different times different
parts to the blaff of the bellows, in order to refine it
as equally as poffible, till the metal runs together with
a round mafs or lump, which they call a half bloom.
1 hey then take this out, and give it a few ffrokes with
their fledges; afterwards they carry it to a great heavy
hammer, raifed by the motion of a water wheel j where,
applying it dexteroufly to the blows, they prefently
beat it out into a thick ffiort fquare. This they put
into the finery again, and heating it red hot, they
w'ork it under the fame hammer till it comes to be in
the fliape of a bar in the middle, but with two fquare
knobs at the ends, which they call an ancomj. It is
then carried into the other forge called the chajfry.
FINEERING. See Veneering.
FINESSE, a French term, of late current in Eng-
lifli. Literally, it is of no farther import than our
ItLngYittx finenefs; but among us it is chiefly ufed to de¬
note that peculiar delicacy or fubtility perceived in
works ol the mind, and the niceH and moH fecret and
fublime parts of any fcience or art.
It is fometimes ufed to exprefs that kind of fubtility
made ufe of for the purpofes of deception.
FINGAL, king of Morven, in ancient Caledonia.
He flouriffied in the third century: and according to
F I N
the Irilh hiffories died in the year 283, although there
is fome reafon from Offian’s poems for placing his
death a few years later. Fingal was defcended in all
probability from thofe Celtic tribes who were the firff
inhabitants of Britain. Tradition, and the poems of
Offian, give him a long line of royal anceftors, fuch as
Combal, Trenmor, Trathal, &.c. who had all reigned
over the fame territory. Whether this territory was
bounded by the Caledonian foreff, or extended fome-
what farther to the fouth, towards the Roman pro¬
vince, is uncertain j but there is no doubt of its hav¬
ing extended over all' the north and weff Highlands,
comprehending the Hebrides, whole petty chiefs were
all fubjedl to the king of Morven. His principal place
of fefidence was Selma, which wTas probably in the
neighbourhood of Glenco, fuppofed to be the Cona
of Oflian ; though fome imagine it to have been in
Strath-Conan in Moray. The truth feems to be,
that as Fingal and his people lived by hunting, they
often ffnfted their habitations. Hence, in all parts of
the Highlands we find, in the names of places, build¬
ings, &c. fuch monuments as juflify their feveral
claims for the honour of Fingal’s refidence. Fingal
acquired great fame by his prowefs in arms. He made
many fuccefsful incurfions into the Roman province,
from whence he carried away thofe fpoils which his
fon fo often mentions under the names of the wine
the firanger, and the wax of the fir anger. By fea we
find him frequently making voyages to Scandinavia,
the Orkneys, and Ireland 5 called by Oflian Lochlin,
Innifiore and Filin. Several of thefe expeditions were
celebrated by his fon in epic poems, of which two only
remain, Fingal and Temora. In the laft of thefe
poems, we find Fingal fighting together with his
grandfon Ofcar. How long he lived afterwards is un¬
certain. He is faid to have died a natural death; and
therefore none of his fon’s poems relate to this event,
though it is occafionally mentioned in many of them.
“ Did thy beauty laff, O Ryno ? Stood the ffrength
of car-borne Ofcar ? Fingal himfelf paffed away j and
the halls of his fathers have forgot his Heps. The blaft
of the north opens thy gates, O king, and I behold
thee fitting on mill, dimly gleaming in all thine arms.
Thy form now is not the terror of the valiant: but
like a -watery cloud, when we fee the Hars behind it,
with their weeping eyes. Thy fnield is like the aged
moon j thy fword vapour half kindled with fire. Dim
and feeble is the chief who travelled in brightnefs be¬
fore. But thy Heps are on the winds of the defert, and
the fiorms darken in thy hand. Thou takeff the fun
in thy wrath, and hideff him in thy clouds. The fons
of little men are afraid, and a thoufand fliowers de-
feen d.—Berrathon.
“ The character of Fingal (Dr Blair obferves) is
is perhaps the moft perfect that ever was drawn by a
poet, for wTe may boldly defy all the writers of anti¬
quity to ffiowr us any hero equal to Fingal. Through¬
out the v/hole of Oflian’s works, he is prefented to us
in all that variety of lights which give the full difplay
of a character. In him concur almolt all the qualities
that can ennoble human nature y that can either make
us admire the hero, or love the man. He is not only
unconquerable in war, but he makes his people happy
by his wifdom in the days of peace. He is truly the
father of his people. He is knowm by the epithet of
‘ Fingal
[ 630 ]
Fiuga!,
FIN t 631 J FIR
yingal. < Fingal of the mildeit look,1 and dlftmguilhed on
'" 1 every occalron by humanity and generolity. He is
merciful to his foes, full of affeftion to his children,
full of concern about his friends, and never mentions
Agandecca, his hrft love, without the utmoft tender¬
ness. He is the univerfal protestor of the diftrefled 5
none ever went fad from Fingal.—‘ O Ofcar ! bend
the Ifrong in arms, but Spare the feeble hand. Be
thou a dream of many tides againft the foes of thy
people ; but like the gale that moves the grafs to
thofe who alk thine aid : fo Trenmor lived j fuch Tra-
thal was j and fuch has Fingal been. My arm was the
Support of the injured j the weak relfed behind the
lightning of my fteel.1 Thefe were the maxims of
true heroifm, to which he formed his grandfon. His
fame is reprefented as everywhere Spread j the greated
heroes acknowledge his Superiority j his enemies trem¬
ble at his name 5 and the highed encomiums that can
be bedowTed on one whom the poet w^ould mod exalt,
is to fay, That his foul was like the foul of Fingal.
Wherever he appears, we behold the hero. The ob-
». je£ts he purfues are always great ; to bend the proud,
to proteft the injured, to defend bis friends, to over¬
come his enemies by generofity more than by force.
Some drokes of human imperfedlion and frailty are
what ufually give us the mod clear view and the mod
fendble imprelhon of a chara&er, becaufe they prefent
to us a man fuch as we have Seen ; they recal known
features of human nature. When poets go beyond
this range, and attempt to deferibe a faultlefs hero,
they, for the mod part, fet before us a fort of vague
undidinguidiable charafter, fuch as the imagination
cannot lay hold of, or realize to itfelf as the object of
affection. But Fingal, though exhibited without any
of the common human failings, is neverthelefs a real
man ; a character wdiich touches and intereds every
reader.”
We may obferve, that Fingal appears to have been
no lefs a poet than a warrior 5 at lead, in all thofe
paffages aferibed to him in the poems of his fon, there
is a grandeur and loftinefs that elevates them above
the common dyle even of Odian. The following paffage
from the poem of Carthon may be taken as a fpeci-
men of Fingal’s poetry. “—‘ Raife, ye bards,’ faid
the mighty Fingal, ‘ the praife of the unhappy Moina.
Call her ghod, with your fongs, to our hills 3 that lire
may red with the fair of Morven, the funbeamsof other-
days, and the delight of heroes of old.—1 have feen
the walls of Balclutha, but they were defolate. The
fire had refounded in the halls 3 and the voice of the
people is heard no more. The dream of Clutha was
removed from its place by the fall of the walls. The
thidle drook, there, its lonely head : the mofs whidled
to the wind. The fox looked out from the w-indow’S 3
the rank grafs of the wall waved round his head. De-
folate is the dwelling of Moina : fdence is in the houfe
of her fathers. Raife the fong of mourning, O bards,
over the land of drangers. They have but fallen be¬
fore us 3 for, one day w*e mud fall.—Why dod thou
build the hall, fon of the winged days ? Thou looked
from thy towers to-day 3 yet a few years, and the blad
of the defert comes 3 it howls in thy empty court, and
whidles round thy half-worn fhield.—Arid let the blad
of the defert come ! We diall be renowned in our day.
The mark of my arm Ikall be in the battle, and my
name in the fong of bards. Raife the fong; fend round Fishers
the Ihell : and let joy be heard in my hall. When U
thou, fun of heaven, dralt fail! if thou (halt fail, thou ■ ‘re‘ .
mighty light! if thy brightnefs is for a feafon, like
Fingal 3 our fame (hall furvive thy beams.1—Such was
the joy of Fingal in the day of his joy. His thoufand
bards leaned forward from their feats, to hear the voice
of the king. It was like the mulic of the harp on the
gale of the fpring. Lovely were thy thoughts, O Fin¬
gal ! Why had not Odian the drength of thy foul ?
But thou danded alone, my father 3 and who can equal
the king of Morven ?” See OssiAN.
FINGERS, in Anatomy, the extreme part of the
hand divided into five members. See Anatomy,
N° 56.
FINING o/Liquors. See Clarification.
FINISTERRE, the mod wederly cape or promon¬
tory of Spain, in 10. 15. W. Long, and 430 N. Lat.
This cape is likewife the mod wederly part of the
continent of Europe.
FINITE, fomething bounded or limited, in con-
tradidindlion to infinite.
FINLAND (the duchy of), is bounded on the
wed by the gulf of Bothnia, on the ead by Mufcovy,
on the fouth by the gulf of Finland and Ingria, and
on the north by Bothnia and Lapland. It is about
200 miles in length, and almod as much in breadth.
It contains many lakes ; on which are feveral illands,
■which are generally rocks or inaccedible mountains
The inhabitants are fmall of dature, capable of endur¬
ing hardfhips, and good foldiers. The Rudians have
for fome time rendered themfelves maders of a good
part of this province 3 the red belongs to Sw-eden. It
is divided into feven provinces 3 1. Finland; 2. Caja-
na 3 3. Thavadhia 3 4. Nyeland 3 5. Savolaxia 3 6. Ca-
relia 3 and, 7. Kexholmia.
Finland Proper is an agreeable country, and lies
over-againd the city of Stockholm, near the place
where the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland meet. It
is divided into South and North Finland. It is di-
verfified with mountains, foreds, lakes, meadows, and
pleafant fields. The inhabitants fait the fifh they do
not confume themfelves, and lend it into foreign coun¬
tries.
FINNltfGIA, or Fenninia, in Ancient Geography,
the true reading for Eningia in Pliny, wdrich he makes
an ifiand, but is more truly a peninfula. Now Finland,
a province of Sweden. Fenni, or Finni, the people 3
vvhofe ferocity was extraordinary, poverty extreme,
herbs their food, fkins their covering, and the ground
their couch : regardlefs of man and of gods, they at¬
tained to a very difficult thing, not to have a fingle
wilh to form, (Tacitus.)
FIR-tree. See Pinus, Botany Index.
FIRE, in Phyfiolo^i/, fignifies that fubtiie invifible
fubdance by which bodies are expanded or enlarged in *
bulk, and become hot to the touch 3 fiuids are rarefied
into vapour 3 folid bodies become fluid, and in like
manner are at lad diflipated, or, if incapable of being
carried off in vapour, are at length melted into glafs..
It feems likewife to be the chief agent in nature on
which animal and vegetable life have an immediate
dependence, and without which it does not appear that
nature itfelf could fubfid a fingle moment.
The difputes concerning fire, >vhich for a long time
divided
fire.
FIR [s,
divided philofophers, have now m a great meafare,
~ though not wholly, fubfided. The celebrated philofo¬
phers of the laft century, Bacon, Boyle, and Newton,
were of opinion, that fire was no dirtin& fubftance
from other bodies, but that it confifted entirely in the
violent motion of the parts of any body. As no mo¬
tion, however, can be produced without a caufe, they
were obliged to have recourfe to a mechanical force
or impulfe as the ultimate chufe of fire in all cafes.
Thus Boyle tells us, that when a piece of iron becomes
hot by hammering, “ there is nothing to make it fo,
except the forcible motion of the hammer impreffing
a vehement and varioufly determined agitation on the
/mall parts of the iron.” Bacon defines heat, which
he makes fynonymous with fire, to be “ an expanfive
undulatory motion in the minute particles of a body,
whereby they tend with fome rapidity from a centre
towards a circumference, and at the fame time a little
upwards.” Sir Ifaac Newton faid nothing pofitive
upon, the fubjeft j but conjectured that grofs bodies
and light might be convertible into one another ; and
that great bodies of the fize of our earth when violent¬
ly heated, might continue and increafe their heat by
the mutual aCtion and reaCtion of their parts.
But while the mechanical philofophers thus endea¬
voured to account for the phenomena of fire upon the
fame principles which they judged fufficient to explain
thofe of the univerfe in general, the chemifts as ftre-
nuoufly afferted that fire was a fluid of a certain kind,
diCtinCt from all others, and univerfally prefent
throughout the whole globe. Boerhaave particularly
maintained this doftrine ; and in fupport of it brought
the following argument, that fleel and flint would
ftrike fire, and produce the very fame degree of heat, in
Nova Zembla, which they would do under the equa¬
tor. Other arguments were drawn from the increafed
weight of metalline calces, which they fuppofed to pro¬
ceed from the fixing of the element of fire in the fub-
itance wbofe weight was thus increafed. By thefe expe¬
riments Mr Boyle himfelf feems to have been daggered j
as he publifhed a treatife on the poflibility of making
fire and flame ponderable 5 though this was dirccl-
ly contrary to his own principles already quoted. For
a.long time, however, the matter was molt violently
difputed 5 and the mechanical philofophers, though
their arguments were equally inconclufive with thofe of
their adverfaries, at laft prevailed through the prejudice
in favour of Sir Ifaac Newton, who indeed had fcarce
taken any aCtive part in the conteft.
That the caufe of fire cannot be any mechanical
motion which we can imprefs, is very evident 5 becaufe
on mechanical principles an effed mult always be pro-
poitionable to the caufe. In the cafe of fire, however,
the effed is beyond all calculation greater than the caufe,
iuppofing the latter to be only a mechanical percuf-
fion, as in the cafe of hammering iron till it be red
hot.. By a few ftrokes of a hammer, the particles of
a piece of iron, we Inall allow, may be fet in a violent
motion, and thus produce fire. If, however, we di-
red the motion of thefe particles upon another body
w.ioie parts are at reft, and in fome degree coherent
it is. plain that the latter will refill and diminifh that
motion of the particles already moved, m proportion
po their vis inertia?, as well as the cohefion of the parts
of the fecond body, if indeed we can fuppofe the vis
4
2 ] FIR
inert ice of matter to be different from the effed of gra¬
vitation, cohefion, or fome other power ading upon
By no argumentation whatever, then, can we fhow
fire;
it.
upon mechanical principles, why fire fhould have fuch
a tendency to increafe and multiply itfelf without end,
as we fee it has, even abftrading from all confidera-
tion of the neceflity of air for continuing the adion
of fire. °
Ihe adion of the air in augmenting and continu¬
ing the power of fire, feems fcarce at all to have been
c.onfidered by thofe who firft undertook an inveftiga-
tion of the fubjed. It evidently gave rife to the
Hutchinfonian hypothefis, that fire, light, and air,
wTere convertible into one another. This, however, is
equally, untenable with the mechanical hypothefis 5 for
later difeoveries have fhown, that our atmofphere is
compofed of twx> diftind fluids, only one of which is
fit for fupporting flame .5 and if we ihould fuppofe this
to be the only proper air, it is in like manner demon-
ftrated, that this pure fluid is not homogeneous, but
compofed of a gravitating and non-gravitating fub-
rtance j the latter of wdiich only has the properties of
fire 5 fo that this element is ftill as invifible as ever ;
nor can it be fliown by any experiment that fire per fe
has ever been changed into a palpable or gravitating
fubftance.
_ The experiments which firft: feemed to bring this
difpute to a decifion were thofe of Dr Black, concern¬
ing what he called latent heat; on which fome other
names, fuch as ahfolute heat,fpecific fire, &c. have been
beftowed, very little to the advancement of fcience in
general. From thefe difeoveries it appears, that fire
may exift in bodies in fuch a manner as not to difeover
itfelf in any other way than by its adion upon the
minute parts of the body; but that fuddenly this
adion may be changed in fuch a manner as no longer
to be direded upon the particles of the body itfelf,
but upon external objeds : in wdiich cafe w*e then per¬
ceive its adion by our fenfe of feeling, or difeover it
by the thermometer, and call it fenfihle heat. This ex-
preflion, it muft be owned, is improper; and the ufe of
the word heat, inftead of fire, has produced fome confu-
fion, which it is not now eafy to avoid in fpeaking on
thefe fubjeds. By the word heat, we ought always to
underftand the effed of fire, or the fluid ading in a
certain manner, rather than the mere element itfelf,
which, it is certain, from the experiments juft men¬
tioned, may exift in fubftances adually cold to the
touch.
From this difeovery made by Dr Black, along with
many others in eledricity, and recorded at length in
various articles of this work, it is nowT almoft univer¬
fally allowed, that fire is a diftind fluid, capable of be¬
ing transferred from one body to another. But when
this was difeovered, another queftion no lefs perplex¬
ing occurred, viz. what kind of a fluid it was ; or whe¬
ther it bears any analogy to thofe with which wre are
better acquainted ? Here we find two fluids, viz. the
folar light, and the eledric matter, both of w'hich oc-
cafionally ad as fire, and which therefore feem likely
to be all the fame at bottom. By the vulgar, indeed,
the matter has long ago been determined 5 and the
rays of the fun as well as the eledrical fluid, have been
promifeuoufly denominated elementary fire. Philofo¬
phers, indeed, have withheld their affect j though
their
FIR [ 633 1 FIR
Fire. tlieir reafons for fo doing are by no means apparent.
■"V1 - The moft ftrange fuppolitions, however, have been
made concerning the nature of both thofe fluids j and
on the moft {lender grounds imaginable, or rather, on
no grounds at all, they have been fuppofed to be phlo-
gifton itfelf, or to contain a large proportion of it.
Mr Scheele went fo far in this way as to form an hypo-
thefts, which he endeavoured to fupport by fome expe¬
riments, that fire is compofed of dephlogifticated air
and phlogifton. But it is now afcertained beyond all
poftibility of difpute that the refult of fuch a combina¬
tion is not fire, but fixed air j fo that wre need not take
any farther notice of this hypothefis than juft to obferve,
that it would have been altogether untenable, even
though this difcovery had not been made 5 becaufe the
dephlogifticated air itfelf is not a fimple but a com¬
pound fubftance, as has already been obferved ; and
that in all cafes of combuftion the one part of the air is
feparated from the other.
It was long ago obferved by Sir Ifaac Newton, that
heat was certainly conveyed by a medium more fubtile
than the common air ; becaufe two thermometers, one
included in the vacuum of an air pump, the other
placed in the open air, at an equal diftance from the
fire, would grow equally hot in near the fame time.
The confequence of this, had he purfued the thought,
was, that fire itfelf was equally prefent in all places, and
as a&ive where there wras no terreftrial matter as where
there was. New improvements in the air pump have
enabled fucceeding philofophers to make more perfect
vacuums, fuch as it has been fuppofed even the eledtric
matter cannot pafs through. It is not to be doubted,
however, that, even there, the thermometer would be
heated by a fire as well as in the open air. Fire, there¬
fore, exifts and adts where there is no other matter,
and of confequence is a fluid/>er fe, independent of
every terreftrial fubftance, without being generated or
compounded of any thing we are yet acquainted with.
To determine the nature of the fluid, we have only to
confider -whether any other can be difcovered which
will pafs through the perfedl vacuum juft mentioned,
and adl there as fire. Such a fluid we find in the folar
light, which is well known to adt even in vacuo as the
moft violent fire. The folar light will likewife adt in
the very fame manner in the moft intenfe cold 5 for
M. de Sauflure has found, that on the cold mountain
top the funbeams are equally, nay more powerful, than
on the plain below. It appears, therefore, that the
folar light will produce heat independent of any other
fubftance whatever j that is, where no other body is
prefent, at leaft as far as we can judge, except the light
itfelf and the body to be adted upon. We cannot
therefore avoid concluding, that a certain modification
of the light of the fun is the caufe which produces heat,
expanfion, vapour, &c. and anfwers to the reft of the
charadters given in our definition of fire, and that inde¬
pendent of any other fubftance whatever.
For a further difcuflion of this fubjedl, fee Chemis¬
try and Electricity Index.
Wild Fire, a kind of artificial or fadiitious fire,
hich burns even under water, and that with greater
violence than out of it.
It is compofed of fulphur, naphtha, pitch, gum, and
bitumen j and is.only extinguflhable by vinegar mixed
with fand and urine, or by raw hides
VOL. VIII. Part II.
Its motion or tendency is faid to be contrary to that Fire-
of natural fire, and always follows the diredtion in
which it is thrown } whether it be downwards, fide-
wife, or otherwife. The French call it Greek fire, or
feu Grequois, becaufe firft ufed by the Greeks, about the
year 660 : as is obferved by the Jefuit Petavius, on the
authority of Nicetas, Theophanes, Cedrenus, &c.
T he inventor, according to the fame Jefuit, was an
engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, named Ca/linicus, who
firlt applied it in the fea-fight commanded by Conftan-
tine Pogonates againft the Saracens, near Cyzicus, in
the Hellefpont 5 and with fuch effedt, that he burnt
the whole fleet therewith wherein were 30,000 men.
But others will have it of a much older date, and hold
Marcus Gracchus the inventor: which opinion is fup-
ported by feveral paffages both in the Greek and Ro¬
man waiters, which fhowTs it to have been anciently ufed
by both thefe nations in their wars.
Conftantine’s fucceffors ufed it on divers occafions
with equal advantage as himfelf: and what is remark¬
able enough is, that they were fo happy as to keep the
lecret of the compofition to themfelves, lo that no other
nation knew it in the year 960.
Hugh king of Burgundy, demanding fliips of the
emperor Leo, for the fiege of Frelne, defired likewife
the Greek fire.
F. Daniel gives a good defeription of the Greek
fire, in his account of the fiege of Damietta under St
Louis. Every body, fays that author, wTas aftonilhed
with the Greek fire, which the Turks then prepared ;
and the fecret whereof is now loft. They threw it out
of a kind of mortar j and fometimes fhot it with an
odd fort of crofs-bow, which was ftrongly bent by
means of a handle or wfinch, of much greater force
than the mere arm. That thrown with the mortar
fometimes appeared in the air of the fize of a tun, with
a long tail, and a noife like that of thunder. The
Irench by degrees got the fecret of extinguiftiing it,
in wEich they fucceeded feveral times.
Machine for prefierving from Fip.e. This machine-^"” Ay.
confifts of a pole, a rope, and a balket. The pole isxvm- I17-
of fir, or a common fcaftbld pole, of any convenient
length from 36 to 46 feet 5 the diameter at bottom, or
greateft end, about five inches; and at the top, or final-
left end, about three inches. At three feet from the
top is a mortile through the pole, and a pulley fixed to
it of nearly the"fame diameter wuth the pole in that
part. I he rope is about three quarters of an inch dia¬
meter, and twftce the length of the pole, with a fpring
hook at one end, to pafs through the ring in the handle
of the balket when ufed : it is put through the mortile
over the pulley, and then drawn tight on each fide to
near the bottom of the pole, and made fall there till
wanted. Fhe baflret ftiould be of ftrong wicker-wrork
three feet and a half long, two feet and a half wftde,
rounded off at the comers, and four feet deep, round¬
ing every way at the bottom. To the top of the balket
is fixed a ftrong iron curve or handle, with an eye
or ring in the middle ; and to one fide of the balket,
near the top, is fixed a fmall cord or guide-rope of
about the length of the pole. When the pole is raifed,
and fet againft a houfe over the window from which
any perfons are to efcape, the manner of ufing it is fo
plain and ouvious, that it needs not be deferibed. The
moft convenient diftance from the houfe for the foot
4 of
FIR [ «34 ] FIR
Fire, of the pole to ftand, where practicable, is about 12 or
>"~v 14 feet. If two ftrong iron ftraps, about three feet
long, rivetted to a bar acrofs and fpreading about 14
inches at the foot, were fixed at the bottom of the pole,
this wmuld prevent its turning round or Hipping on the
pavement. And if a ftrong iron hoop, or ferrule, ri-
vetted (or w7elded) to a femicircular piece of iron
fpreading about 12 inches, and pointed at the ends,
were fixed on at the top of the pole, it would prevent
its Hiding againft the wall.
When thefe two laft mentioned irons are fixed on,
they give the pole all the fteadinefs of a ladder; and
becaufe it is not eafy, except to perfons who have been
lied to it, to raife and fet upright a pole of 40 feet or
more in length, it will be convenient to have two fmall
poles or fpars of about two inches diameter, fixed to
the fides of the great pole at about two or three feet
above the middle of it, by iron eyes rivetted to two
plates fo as to turn every way } the lower end of thefe
fpars to reach within a foot of the bottom of the great
pole, and to have ferrules and fliort fpikes to prevent
Hiding on the pavement, when ufed occafionally to fup-
port the great pole like a tripod. There fiiould be
two ilrong a(h trundles let through the pole, one at
four feet and one at five feet from the bottom, to Hand
out about eight inches on each fide, and to ferve as
handles, or to twill the rope round in lowering a very
heavy weight. If a block and pulley were fixed at about
the middle of the rope, above the other pulley, and the
other part of the rope made to run double, it wmuld
diminilh any weight in the bafket nearly one half, and
be very ufeful in drawing any perfon up, to the affifiance
of thofe in the chambers, or for removing any effedls
out of a chamber, which it might be dangerous to
attempt by the Hairs.
It has been proved, by repeated trials, that fuch a
pole as we have been fpeaking of can be raifed from
the ground, and two or three perfons taken out of the
upper windows of a houfe, and fet down fafely in the
flreet, in the fpace of 35 feconds, or a little more than
half a minute. Sick and infirm perfons, women, chil¬
dren, and many others, who cannot make ufe of a
ladder, may be fafely and eafily brought down from
any of the windows of a houfe on fire by this machine,
and, by putting a fhort pole through the handles of the
bafket, may be removed to any difiance without being
taken out of the bafket. The pole mufi always have
the rope ready fixed to it, and may be conveniently
laid up upon two or three iron hooks under any fhade
or gateway, and the bafket fiiould be kept at the
ivatch-houfe. When the poll is laid up, the two fpars
Ihould always be turned towards the head of it. The
bafket fhould be made of peeled rods, and the pole and
fpars painted of a light Hone colour, to render it more
vifible wThen ufed in the night.
Machines for extinguifhing Fire. In the year 1734,
the Hate of Sweden offered a premium of 20,000 crowns
for the befi method of Hopping the progrefs of acci¬
dental fires-, when one Mr Fuches, a German phyfician,
made a preparation for that end, and the experiment
was made on a houfe built on purpofe of dry fir, at
Legard ifland. In they building were placed feveral
tubs of tar and pitch, and a great quantity of chips,
all which were fet on f?re; flames iffuing through the
top of the houfe, windows, &c. when he threw in one Fire,
of the barrels containing the preparation, which imme- ‘ ” v“"
diately quenched the flames j a fecond barrel entirely
cleared the fmoke away ; and the whole was executed
to the fatisfadlion of the fpeflators, and to the no fmall
fatisfaclion of the inventor, who was about to return
home, when unexpeftedly the flames broke out again,
fuppofed to be occafioned by a fmall quantity of com-
buftible matter being introduced and fet on fire fecretly
by fome malicious perfon. Upon this the wrong-head¬
ed mob fell upon Mr Fuches, and beat him mofi un¬
mercifully, fo that he narrowly efcaped with his life.
He foon after left the country, and never could be
prevailed on (though flrongly perfuaded by fome of
the mofi eminent citizens) to return. It is faid, another
experiment of the fame kind was tried in the year 1761
in Holland ; but rendered abortive through the per-
verfenefs of the populace.
Attempts of a fimilar nature have met with a better
reception in England. Of thefe the mofi fuccefsful
wras that of Mr Godfrey, wThofe contrivance is thus
defcribed by Mr Ambrofe Godfrey, grandfon to the
inventor. “ The machine to be employed confifts of a
fmall portion of gunpowder clofely confined •, which, *
when animated by fire, acts by its elafiic force upon a
proper medium, and not only divideth it into the mi-
nutefi atoms, but difperfeth it alfo in every direction, fo
as immediately to excinguifli any fire within a certain
difiance. This medium is a liquor firongly impregnated
with a preparation of antiphlogiftic principles, which by
their action upon burning materials extinguifli the flames
and reduce them in general to the ftate of a black coal;
and, by its oppofite nature to fire, hinders the remaining
fparks, notwithftanding the admiflion of the air, from
kindling the flames afrelh. By this means, the great
point is obtained, in giving fufficient time for totally
extinguifliing any remains of fire.
“ They who prefume that water only will perform
this will find themfelves greatly miftaken, as the draught
of air will certainly rekindle the neighbouring mate¬
rials, which are very fit to receive a freih flame, the fire
not being extinguilhed by the quantity of water, but
rather by the expanfion and rarefaction of its particles.
There are feveral fizes of thefe machines, from five to
fifty pounds wreight, in a portable and rather fmall com-
pafs, and may generally be carried to any place where
a man can go himfelf.
“ But though thefe machines will prevent great fires
by a timely application, they will not extinguifh them
after they have reached a frightful height, and feveral
houfes, perhaps near a whole ilreet, are in flames. 'I he
floors muft be Handing, and accefs to the building
fafe, otherwife no perfon can be fuppofed to approach
near enough to apply them in a proper manner. Every
fire has its beginning for the moft part in fome apart¬
ment j and,* as foon as difcovered, the family, inftead of
lofing all prefence of mind, fliould immediately apply
one or more of thefe machines, which w7ill then fully
anfwer the intention. The proper time of applying
them, fuppofes that they are ready at hand. It will
be in vain to think of fetching them from any confider-
able diftance, as it will then be too late for them to
perform any important fervice : except indeed being the.
probable means of faring fome adjacent houfe, by ex¬
tinguifliing
FIR
FIR [ 635 ]
Fire. tinguifhing the flames as often as they break out, till the
v 1 building firft on fire is totally confumed, and, by tailing
into ruins, leaves the other in perfedl fafety.”
On the 19th of May 1761, at noon, Mr Godfrey’s
experiment for extinguilhing fire, was tried in a houfe
eretted for that purpofe, near Mary-le-bone. Their
royal highneffes, the duke of York, Prince William
Henry, Prince Henry Frederick, a great number of
perfons of rank and diilin£lion, and many of the learned
world, gave their attendance on this lingular occa-
lion. The houfe, which was of brick, confifted of three
rooms one above another, a ftaircafe, chimney, lath
and plafter ceilings, and a kind of wainfcotting round
the rooms, of rough deal. Exadlly at 12 o’clock the
ground room, and that up one pair of ftairs, were fet
on fire by lighting the faggots and lhavings laid in
there for that purpofe : in about 15 minutes the wain-
fcot of the under room was thought to be fufficiently
in flames, and three of the machines were thrown in j
which, by almolt immediate and hidden explofions, in-
llantaneoufly extinguifhed the flames, and the very
fmoke in that apartment in a few minutes totally dif-
appeared. By this time, the firemen, &c. who had the
care of throwing in the machines, gave an alarm that
the ftaircafe had taken fire, and that it was neceffary
direflly to go to work upon the next room 5 which wras
accordingly done, and with the fame effe£f. The expe¬
riment, how'ever, hitherto did not univerfally fatisfy:
in the laft inftance efpecially it was thought to be too
haftily put in execution *, and the populace without fide
the paling, who wrere fuppofed to amount to near
20,000, and whofe curiolity, from the very nature of
their fituation, remained much diflatisfied, began to
grow rather riotous, and talked of a fecdnd bottle con¬
juror. For the fake of the experiment, therefore, and
to remove all manner of doubt, Mr Godfrey confented
to a third experiment in the upper room, which w'as
entirely of wood. The flames were now fuffered to get
to a confiderable height, and even the window" frames
deftroyed, before the machines were thrown in : which,
how’ever, anfwered exactly as the former had done j
and, being quite in fight of the out-ftanders, met with
univerfal approbation.
Thefe machines of Mr Godfrey’s, it is evident, would
be of great ufe in extinguilhing fires on Ihipboard ; and
might be confidered as a no lefs neceflary part of a Ihip’s
lading, than her ftores or ammunition.
The hint of thefe machines is faid to have been taken
by Dr Godfrey from the invention of one Zachary
Greyl, who exhibited machines fimilar to thofe of Dr
Godfrey, before perfons of the firft rank, but without
meeting wTith any encouragement. His machines w'ere
made of wood, and the liquor employed was only water,
and confequently inferior to Dr Godfrey’s in its power
pf extinguilhing fire. The latter is faid to have mixed
his water with a certain quantity of o-il of vitriol, or
with fal ammoniac. Thefe machines, however, as al¬
ready obferved, are found to be only ferviceable in the
beginning of a fire. When the roof had fallen in, they
had no effedl.
ComjioJition for extinguiffjing Fire. For this purpofe
the following has been invented by M. Von Aken, of
which the account is taken from- Nicho/fon's Journal,
voh ii. 4to.
Burnt alum 30 lbs.
Green vitriol powdered 40
Cinabrefe or red ochre in powder 20
Potter’s clay, or other clay, alfo powdered 206
Water 630
With 40 meafures of this mixture an artificial fire
wag extinguilhed under the direftion of the inventor
by three perfons, which would have required the labour
of 20 men and 1500 meafures of common water. Sig.
Fabbroni wasr commiflioncd to examine the value of
this invention, and found in his comparative trials with
engines of equal power, worked by the fame number of
men, that the mixture extinguilhed the materials in
combuftion in one-fixth part lefs time, and three- eighths
lefs of fluid, than when common water was ufed. He
obferved, as might indeed have b«in imagined from
the nature of the material, that the flame difappeared
wherever the mixture fell, and that the faline, metallic,
and earthy matters formed an impenetrable lute round
the hot combuftible matter, which prevented the accefs
of the air, and confequently the renewal of the deftruc-
tive procefs.
It is fcarcely probable that this praftice in the large
way, with an engine throwing upwards of 200 gallons
(value about 3I. 10s.) each minute, would be thought
of or adopted, or that a fufficient ftore of the materials
would be kept in readinefs 5 fince at this rate the ex¬
penditure for an hour would demand a provifion to the
amount of 210I. fterling. Butin country places the
procefs, or fome variation of it, might be applied with
fufficient profit in the refult j more efpecially if it be
confidered that common fait or alum, or fuch faline
matter as can be had and mixed with the wrater, jtoge-
ther with clay, chalk, or lime, ochreous earth or com¬
mon mud, or even thefe laft without any fait, may an-
fwer the purpofe of the lute with more or lefs effeft,
and extinguifti an accidental fire with much greater
fpeed and certainty than clear water would do.
Water-Engine for Extinguijhing Fire. See Hydro¬
statics.
In ufing this machine we have the following im¬
provement by Dr Hoffman, which promifes to be of
great efficacy. As foon as the engine is in readinefs
to work, ftir into the water that immediately is to be
difcharged, feven or eight pounds of pearl allies in
powder, and continue to add it in this manner as
occafion requires } taking care that it be diredted againft
the timber or wainfcot, &c. juft beginning to burn,
and not w^afted againft the brick-work : or, where time
will admit, diffolve any quantity of pearl alhes in a
copper with water, and as fait as it diffolves, which
will be in a few minutes, mix a pailful with the water
in the engine, pretty often; and whatever burning
wrood it is played upon, will be extinguilhed as if it was
dipped in water, and will not burn afrelh in the part
extinguilhed.
Eafy Method of Extinguifhing Fire in Chimneys. It
is well known, that the inner parts of chimneys eafily
take fire 5 the foot that kindles therein emits a greater
flame, according as the tunnel is more elevated, be-
caufe the inferior air feeds the fire. If this air could
therefore be fuppreffed, the fire would foon be extin-
guilhed. In order to this, fome difcharge a piftol into
the chimney, which produces no effect j others lay
4 1,2 under
Fire.
FIR [ 636 ] F
under the chimney a copper full of water ; but the va- or fillets ought to be at 1
pours that rife from it, far from extinguiftiing the fire,
leem to give it new force. Water thrown into the
chimney at top is equally of no effect, becaule it comes
down through the middle of the tunnel, and not along
the fides. It would be more advifable to flop with
dung the upper orifices of the tunnel for quenching
the fire. But the furefi and readieft method is, to take
a little gunpowder, and having humehted it with fpittle
for binding it, to form it into imall maffes, and fo throw
it into the heart of the chimney. When it is burnt, and
has produced a confiderable vapour, a fecond, after¬
wards a third, are thrown, and fo on, as much as is
iteceffary. In a little time the fire is extinguifhed, and,
as it were, choked by this vapour; and cakes of in¬
flamed foot are fee’* to fall from the tunnel, till at laft
not the leaft veftige of fire appears.
Securing Buildings againjl Firs. Dr Hales propofes
to check the progrefs of fires by covering the floors of
the adjoining houfes with earth. The propofal is
founded on an experiment which he made with a fir
board half an inch thick, part of which he covered
with an inch depth of damp garden mould, and then
lighted a fire on the furface of the mould ; though the
fire was kept up by blowing, it was two hours before
the board was burnt through, and the earth prevented
it from flaming. The thicker the earth is laid on the
floors, the better; however, Dr Hales apprehends that
the depth of an inch will generally be fufficient j and
he recommends to lay a deeper covering on the flairs,
becaufe the fire commonly afcends by them with the
greateft velocity.
Mr Hartley made feveral trials in the years 1775
and 1776, in order to evince the efficacy of a method
which he had invented for reftraining the fpread of fire
in buildings. For this purpofe thin iron plates are
well nailed to the tops of the joills, &c. the edges of
the fides and ends being lapped over, folded together,
and hammered dole. Partitions, flairs, and floors, may
be defended in the fame manner j and plates applied
to one fide have been found fufficient. The plates are
fio thin as not tt#-prevent the floor from being nailed on
the joifls, in the fame manner as if this preventive
were not ufed: they are kept from rufl by being
painted or varnifhed with oil and turpentine. The
expence of this addition, when extending through a
whole building, is eilimated at about five per cent.
Mr Hartley has a patent for this invention, and par¬
liament has voted a fum of money towrards defray¬
ing the expence of his numerous experiments. The
fame prefervati.e may alfo be applied to fhips, furni¬
ture, &c.
Lord Mahon has alfo difcovered and publiihed a very
Ample and effedtual method of fecuring every kind of
building againfl all danger of fire. This method he
has divided into three parts, viz. under-flooring, extra¬
lathing, and inter-fecuring.
1 he method of under-flooring is either fingle or dou¬
ble. In fingle under-flooring, a common ftrong lath
of oak or fir, about one-fourth of an inch thick, ffiould
be nailed againfl each fide of every joifl, and of every
main timber, fupporting the floor which is to be fe-
cured. Other fimilar laths are-then to be nailed along
the whole length of the joifls, with their ends butting
againff each other. The top of each of thefe laths
1 R
„ _ inch below the top of the
joifls or timbers againil wffiich they are nailed j and
they will thus form a fort of fmall ledge on each fide
of all the joiils. Thefe fillets are to be well bedded in
a rough plafler hereafter mentioned, when they are
nailed on, fo that there may be no interval between them
and the joiils : and the fame plaiter ought to be fpread
with a trowel upon the tops of all the fillets, and along
the fides of that part of the joiils which is betwreen the
top of the fillets and the upper edge of the joills. In
order to fill up the intervals between the joifls that
fupport the floor, ffiort pieces of common laths, whofe
length is equal to the width of thefe intervals, fhould
be laid in the contrary dire£lion to the joiils, and clofe
together in a row, fo as to touch one another : their
ends mull reft upon the fillets, and they ought to be
well bedded in the rough plafter, but are not to be
faftened with nails. They muft then be covered with
one thick coat of the rough plafter, which is to be
fpread over them to the level of (he tops of the joifts :
and in a day or two this plafter fhould be trowelled
over clofe to the fides of the joifts, without covering
the tops of the joifts with it.
In the method of double flooring, the fillets and
ffiort pieces of laths are applied in the manner already
deferibed j but the coat of rough plafter ought to be
litle more than half as thick as that ih the former
method. Whilft this rough plafter is laid on, fome
more of the ffiort pieces of laths above mentioned muft
be laid in the intervals between the joifts upon the firft
coat, and be dipped deep in it. They fhould be laid
as clofe as poffible to each other, and in the fame di-
reClion with the firfl layer of ffiort laths. Over this
fecond layer of flrort laths there muft be fpread another
coat of rough plafter, which ffiould be trowelled level
with the tops of the joifts without rifing above them.
The rough plafter may be made of coarfe lime and
hair j or, inftead of hair, hay chopped to about three
inches in length may be fubftituted with advantage.
One meafure of common rough fand, two meafures of
flaked lime, and three meafures of chopped hay, will
form in general a very good proportion, when fuffi-
ciently beat up - together in the manner of common
mortar. The hay Ihould be put in after the two other
ingredients are well beat up together with water.
1 his plafter fhould be made fliff; and when the floor¬
ing boards are required to be laid down very foon, a
fourth or fifth part of quicklime in powder, formed
by dropping a fmall quantity of wrater on the limeftone
a little while before it is ufed, and well mixed with this
rough plafter, will caufe it to dry very fall. If any
cracks appear in the rough plafter work near the joifts
when it is thoroughly dry, they ought to be clofed by
waftiing them ever with a bruffi wTet with mortar waffi :
this wafli may be prepared by putting two meafures of
quicklime and one of common fand in a pail, and
ftirring the mixture with water till it becomes of the
confiftence of a thin jelly.
Before the flooring boards are laid, a fmall quantity
of very dry common fand ffiould be ftrewed over the
plafter work, and flruck fmooth with a hollow rule,
moved in the direction of the joifts, fo that it may lie
rounding between each pair of joifts. The plafter
work and fand ffiould be perfectly dry before the
boards are laid, for fear of the dry rot. The method
of
Fire.
F 1 11 [ 637 ] FI K
Fire. of under-flooring may be fuccefsfuliy applied to a wood-
 en ftaircafe ; but no fand is to be laid upon the rough
plafter work. The method of extra-lathing may be
applied to ceiling joifls, to Hoping roofs, and to wooden
partitions.
The third method, which is that of inter-fecuring,
is very limilar to that of under-flooring •, but no fand
is afterwards to be laid upon it. Inter-fecuring is ap¬
plicable to the fame parts of a building as the method
of extra-lathing, but it is feldom neceffary.
Lord Mahon has made feveral experiments in order
to demonftrate the efficacy of thefe methods. In moft
houfes it is only neceffary to fecure the floors; and the
extra expence of under-flooring, including all mate¬
rials, is only about ninepence per fquare yard, and
with the ufe of quicklime a little more. The extra
expence of extra-lathing is no more than fixpence
per fquare yard for the timber fide walls and par¬
titions ; but for the ceiling about ninepence per
fquare yard. But in mofi houfes no extra lathing is
neceflary.
FiRE-Eater. We have a great number of mounte¬
banks who have procured the attention and wonder of
the public by eating of fire, walking on fire, waffling
their hands in melted lead, and the like tricks.
The moft celebrated of thefe was our countryman
Richardfon, much talked of abroad. His fecret, as re¬
lated in the 'Journal des Sgavans, of the year 1680,
confifted in a pure fpirit of fulphur, wherewith he rub¬
bed his hands, and the parts that were to touch the fire;
which burning and cauterizing the epidermis, hardened
and enabled the fkin to refift the fire.
Indeed this is no new thing : Amb. Par6e allures
us he has tried it on himfelf j that after waffling the
hands in urine, and with unguentum aureum, one may
fafely wafh them in melted lead.
He adds alfo, that by waffling his hands in the juice
of onions, he could bear a hot ftiovel on them while it
melted lead.
Fire, in Theology. See Hell.
We read of the facred fire in the firft temple of Je-
rufalem, which came down from heaven : it was kept
with the utmofi: care, and they were forbidden to car¬
ry any ftrange fire into the temple. This fire is one
of the five things which the Jews confefs were wanting
in the fecond temple.
The Pagans had their facred fires, -which they kept
in their temples with the moft religious care, and which
were never to be extinguiftied. Numawas the firfl: who
built a temple to Fire as a goddefs at Rome, and infli-
tuted an order of prieftefles for the prefervation of it.
See Vestals.
Fire was the fupreme god of the Chaldeans; the
Magi were worfliippers of fire j and the Greeks and
Armenians ftill keep up a ceremony called the holyJire,
upon a perfuafion that every Eafter day a miraculous
fire defcends from heaven into the holy fepulchre, and
kindles all the lamps and candles there.
Fire kindledfpontaneoufly in the Human Body. See
Extraordinary Cafes of BURNING.
FiRE-Barrel. See FiRE-S/fo/*, Note (b).
FiRE-Bavins. Ibid. Note (d).
Fire Hrrow, in naval artillery, is a fmall iron dart
furniffied with fprings and bars, together with a match
impregnated with fulphur and powder, which is wound
about its fliaft. It is intended to fire the fails of the Fire,
enemy, and is for this purpofe difcharged from a muf- '■“"'V'”
quetoon or fwivel gun. The match being kindled by
the explofion, communicates the flame to the failagainff
which it is direfted, where the arrow is faftened by
means of its bars and fprings. This wTeapon is pecu¬
liar to hot climates, particularly the Weft Indies,
where the fails being extremely dry by reafon of the
great heat, they inftantly take fire, and of courfe fet
fire to the malts and rigging, and laftly to the vefl«l
itfelf.
FiRE-Ball, in artillery, a compofition of meal powT-
der, fulphur, faitpetre, pitch, &c. about the bignefs
of a hand grenade, coated over with flax, and primed
with the flow compolition of a fuze. This is to be
thrown into the enemy’s -works in the night time, to
difcover where they are, or to fire houfes, galleries,
or blinds of the befiegers 5 but they are then armed
with fpikes, or hooks of iron, that they may not roll
off, but ftick or hang where they are defired to have
any effeft. See F/re-BALLS, and Z/j^-Balls.
Balls of Fire, in Meteorology, a kind of luminous
bodies generally appearing at a great height above the
earth, with a fplendour furpaffing that of the moon j
and fometimes equalling her apparent fize. They ge¬
nerally proceed in this hemifphere from north to fouth
with vaft velocity, frequently breaking into feveral
fmaller ones, fometimes vanifhing with a report, fome¬
times not.
Thefe luminous appearances no doubt conftitute one
part of the ancient prodigies, blazing ftars or comets,
which laft they fometimes refemble in being attended
with a train *, but frequently they appear with a round
and well-defined difk. The firft of thefe of which we
have any accurate account, was obferved by Dr Halley
and fome ctfyer philofophers at different places, in the
year 1719. From the flight obfervations they could
take of its courfe among the ftars, the perpendicular
height of this body w^as computed at about 70 miles
from the furface of the earth. The height of others
has alfo been computed, and found to be various j
though in general it is fuppofed to be beyond the li¬
mits affigned to our atmofphere, or where it lofes its
refradlive power. The moft remarkable of thefe cn
record appeared on the 18th of Auguft 1783, about
nine o’clock in the evening. It was feen to the north¬
ward of Shetland, and took a foutherly direction for
an immenfe fpace, being obferved as far as the fouthern
provinces of France, and one account fays that it was
feen at Rome alfo. During its courfe it appears fre¬
quently to have changed its flrape j fometimes appear¬
ing in the form of one ball, fometimes of two or more j
fometimes with a train, fometimes without one. It paf-
fed over Edinburgh nearly in the zenith, and had then
the appearance of a w-ell-defined round body, extremely
luminous, and of a greenilh colour •, the light which it
diffufed on the ground giving likewife a greenilh call
to objefts. After pafling the zenith it was attended by
a train of confiderable length, wdiich continually aug¬
menting, at laft obliterated the head entirely j fo that it
looked like a wedge, flying with the obtufe end fore-
moft. The motion was not apparently fwift, by reafon
of its great height 5 though in reality it muff: have mov¬
ed with great rapidity, on account of the vaft fpace it
travelled over fn a fhort time. In other places its ap¬
pearance
F I R
ire. pearance was very different. At Greenwich we are told,
'that “ two bright balls parallel to each other led the
way, the diameter of which appeared to be about two
feet; and were followed by an expuliicn of eight others,
not elliptical, feeming gradually to mutilate, for the laft
was fmall. Between each two balls a luminous ferra-
ted body extended, and at the laft a blaze iffued which
terminated in a point. Minute particles dilated from
the whole. The balls were tinted firft by a pure bright
light, then followed a tender yellow, mixed with azure,
red, green, &c.j which, with a coalition of bolder tints,
and a refledlion from the other balls, gave the moft
beautiful rotundity and variation of colours that the
human eye could be.charmed with. The fudden illu¬
mination of the atmofphere, and the form and lingular
tranfition of this bright luminary, tended much to make
it awful: neverthelefs, the amazing vivid appearance of
the different balls, and other rich connedtive parts not
very eafy to delineate, gave an effedf equal to the rain¬
bow in the full zenith of its glory.”
Dr Blagden, in a paper on this fubjedl in the 74th
volume of the Philolbphical Tranfadtions, has not on¬
ly given a particular account of this and other meteors
of the kind, but added feveral conjedtures relating to
the probable caufes of them. The firft thing which
occurred to philofophers on this fubjedt was, that the
meteors in queftion were burning bodies riling from
the furface of the earth, and dying along the atmo¬
fphere with great rapidity. But this hypothefis was
loon abandoned, on confidering that there was no
power known by which liich bodies could either be
railed to a fufficient height, or projedted with the ve¬
locity of the meteors. rI he next hypothefis was, that
they do not confift of one fingle body, but of a train of
fulphureous vapours, extending a vaft way through the
atmofphere, and being kindled at one time difplay the
luminous appearances in queftion by the fire running
from one end of the train to the other. To this hypo¬
thefis, which rvas invented by Dr Halley, Dr Blagden
objedts that no juft explanation is given of the nature
of the vapours themfelves, the manner in which they are
railed up, or in which they can be regularly arranged in
ftraight lines of fuch vaft extent ; or how they can be
Tuppofed to . burn in fuch rarefied air. “ Indeed,
(lays he) it is very difficult to conceive how vapours
could be prevented, in thofe regions where there is in a
manner no preffure, from fpreading out on all fides in
•xonfequence of their natural elafticity, and inftantly
lofing that degree of denfity which feems neceffary
for inflammation. Befides, it is to be expedfed, that
Tuch trains would fometimes take fire in the middle,
«nd thus prefent the phenomenon of two meteors at
the fame time, receding from one another in a direbf
line.”
For thefe and other reafons this hypothefis of Dr
Halley was. abandoned, and another fubftituted in its
place. I his .was, that the meteors we fpeak of are
permanent folid bodies, not riling from the earth, but
revolving round it in very eccentric orbits, and thus
m their perigeon moving with inconceivable rapidi¬
ty. But the dodtor fhows, that, even on this fup-
pofition, the velocity of fuch bodies muft fcarce be
•ne third of that with which fire-balls move, and
which has been calculated at upwards of looc/miles
per minute. The hypothefis is likewife liable to a
F I R
number of other objections which cannot be anfwer- Fire,
ed, particularly from the variations in their appear- v—
ance 5 for it is impoffible to (how in wrhat manner one
folid and. permanent body could aPfume the appear¬
ance of eight or ten, as was the cafe with the meteor
I7^3 : nor can it be Ihown why a body, which in
palling over Edinburgh appeared with a dilk evident¬
ly lels than that of the fun, Ihould, in paffing over
Greenwich, affume the appearance of two bodies, each
of which had a dilk confiderably larger than the ap¬
parent dilk of that luminary. To obviate, in fome
meafure, objedtions of this kind, it has been fuppofed
that the revolving bodies are furrounded by a kind of
eledlrical atmofphere by which they are rendered lumi¬
nous 5 but (fays the dodfor) I think, whoever care¬
fully perufes the various accounts of fire-balls, and efpe-
cially. ours of the . 18th of Auguft, when it divided, will
perceive that their phenomena do not correfpond with
the idea of a folid nucleus involved in a fubtile fluid,
any more than with the idea of another learned gentle¬
man, that, they become luminous by means of a con¬
tained fluid, which occafionally explodes through the
thick folid outer Ihell.”
Another hypothefis, which Dr Blagden has not men¬
tioned, is, that the meteors in queftion are a kind of bodies
which take fire as foon as they come within the atmo¬
fphere of the earth. But this cannot be fuppoled, with¬
out implying a previous knowledge of thefe bodies,
which it is altogether impoffible we. can have. The
only opportunity we have of feeing them is when they
aie on fire. Berore that time they are in an invifible
and unknown ftate ; and it is furely improper to ar¬
gue concerning them in this ftate, or pretend to de¬
termine any one of their properties, when we have it
not in our power to fee or inveftigate them in the
leaft. As the meteors therefore never manifeft them¬
felves to our fenfes but wThen they are on fire, the on¬
ly rational conclufion we can draw from thence is, that
they have no exiftence in any other ftate ; and confe-
quently that their fubftance muft be compofed of that
fluid whicn, when afting after a certain manner, be¬
comes luminous and fhows itfelf as fire 5 remaining in¬
vifible and eluding our refearches in every other cafe.
On this hypothefis we muft conclude that the fire-balls
are great bodies of eledlric matter, moving from one
part of the heavens where, to our eonception, it is fu-
perabundant, to another where it is deficient. This
opinion is adopted by Dr Blagden for the following
reafons :
1. On account of their prodigious velocity, which is
not. lefs than 1200 miles in a minute, and feems incom¬
patible with any other fubftance we know befides the
eledfric fluid. “ This (fays he) is perhaps the only
cafe in which the courfe or diredlion of that fluid is
rendered perceptible to our fenfes, in confequence of
the large fcale on which thefe meteors move.”
2. Various eledfrical phenomena have been obferved
to attend them, fuch as lambent fires fettling upon
men, horfes, &c. and fparks coming from them, “ or
the whole meteor itfelf (adds our author), it is faid,
have damaged ffips, houfes, &c. after the manner of
lightning.” This laft ciicumftance, however, w^e can
believe only of another kind of fire-balls, of wdiich we
fliall afterward* treat, which keep at a fmall diftance
from the earth, or run along ks furface j for the great
meteors
C <538 ]
FIR [ 639 ] FIR
Fire. meteors of winch we now fpeak, flying at the diftance
\ of 50 or 60, or more, miles from the furface of the
earth, cannot be lefs from their apparent fize than a
mile or a mile and a half in diameter. Such an im-
menfe body of eledlric matter defeending on the earth,
would by its explofion ruin a large tra£l of country •,
and there is no probability that when engendered in
inch a rare atmofphere it could break through the
whole body of grofs and denfe air which lies between
thefe regions and the earth, and which we know re-
Jiils the paflage of the eleflric fluid very ftrongly.
Notwithidanding this, there is no impoflibility that the
atmofphere may be eleftrifled to a great degree by
fuch a meteor palling over it} and thus eleflrifled ap¬
pearances may attend thefe bodies without any adtual
emiflion of their fubftance, as Dr Blagden fuppofes. “ If
there be really (fays he) any bilking noife heard while
the meteors are palling, it feems explicable on no
other fuppolition than that of ftreams of eleclric mat¬
ter iffuing from them, and reaching the earth with a
velocity equal to that of the meteor, namely, in two or
three feconds. Accordingly, in one of our late me¬
teors, the hilling was compared to that of ele£tricity
iffuing from a conduftor. The fparks flying off fo
perpetually from the body of fire-balls may pollibly have
fome connexion with thefe ftreams. In the fame man¬
ner the found of explofions may perhaps be brought
to us quicker than if it were propagated to us by the
air alone. Should thefe ideas be well founded, the
change of direction, which meteors feem at times to
undergo, may poflibly be influenced by the Hate of the
furface of the earth over which they are palling, and to
which the flxeams are fuppofed to reach. A fimilar
caufe may occafion the apparent explolion, the opening
of more channels giving new vent and motion to the
eleclric fluid. May not the deviation and explolion
which appear to have taken place in the fire-ball of
the 18th of Auguft over Lincolnthire, have been
determined by its approach towards the fens, and
an attraction produced by that large body of moif-
ture ?
The explofion mentioned by our author over Lin-
colnfhire does not feem to‘have been the only one
which happened during the courfe of this meteor. Se¬
veral people heard reports after it had vanilhed; and
thefe were fometimes lingle and fometimes double. At
Edinburgh two reports were heard, the one immediate¬
ly following the other, at the diltance of fix or feven
minutes after the meteor had palled. Thefe reports no
doubt indicated a temporary diflblution of the body *,
but it is by no means probable that the dillblution could
have taken place either on account of the Hate of the
earth or atmofphere. We mull confider that both
earth and atmofphere are always full of eleftric fluid $
and if there happens to be what is called a deficiency
in one of them, the other inllantly fupplies it. It is
impoffible, therefore, that either the earth or atmo-
iphere could receive fuch au immenfe additional quan¬
tity in one part without a vent being provided for it
fomewhere elfe. In thunder liorms we naturally con¬
clude that a vail quantity of electrical matter is put in
motion ‘y but from the effefts of lightning it appears
that this quantity mull be very trifling in comparifon
with what the meteor we now fpeak of contained. A
violent flalh of lightning has been known to perforate
a looking-glafs, and make only a hole of about an inch
diameter. Now we have no reafon to fuppofe that the
flalli, tremendous as it might appear to our eyes, was
any other than an eleftric fpark of, an inch in diame¬
ter. The meteor, on the other hand, appears not to
have been lefs than a mile in diameter ; fo that the
difproportion betwixt it and a Angle flalh of lightning
appears almoft beyond calculation 5 and we may rea-
fonably Conclude that it could not have been equalled
by 10,000 thunder-ftorms. Had this amazing body
of ele£lric fire defeended through the atmofphere and
diflipated itfelf on the fens of Lincolnflure, it mult
have produced the molt violent and unheard-of effedts,
not only in that place, but probably throughout the
whole illand. Its difiipation mult therefore have been
in the higher regions, where there was ample fpace to
receive it j and where its explofion, whatever concuf-
lion it might make among the ethereal matter itfelf,
could not affeft our earth or atmofphere in any re¬
markable degree. Its re-appearance was owing to the
fame tendency in the fluid to circulate which had ori¬
ginally produced it •, and which probably was the vio¬
lent earthquake in Calabria, and the eruption in Ice¬
land.
3. Another argument adduced by Dr Blagden in
favour of the ele£lrical origin of fire-balls, is their con¬
nexion with the aurora borealis, and the refemblance
they bear to thefe phenomena, which are now almoll
univerfally allowed to be ele£lrical. “ Inftances (fays
he) are recorded, where northern lights have been feen
to join, and form luminous balls, darting about with
great velocity, and even leaving a traip behind them
like the common fire-balls. This train I take to be
nothing elfe but the rarefied air left in fuch an ele£lri-
fied ftate as to be luminous j and fome ftreams of the
northern lights are very much like it.” The aurora
borealis appears to occupy as high, if not a higher re¬
gion above the furface of the earth, as may be judged
from the very diftant countries to which it has been
vifible at the fame time : indeed the great accumula¬
tion of ele£lric matter feems to lie beyond the verge of
our atmofphere, as efiimated by the ceffation of twi¬
light. Alfo with the northern lights a biffing noife is
faid to be heard in fome very cold climates : Gmelin
fpeaks of it in the moft pointed terms, as frequent and
very loud in the north-eaftern parts of Siberia j and
other travellers have related fimilar fafts.”
4. Our author thinks that the ftrongeft argument
for the eleflrical origin of thefe meteors is the direc¬
tion of their courfe, which is conftantly either from
the north or north-weft quarter of the heavens, or to¬
wards it j or, as our author thinks, nearly in the di-
redlion of the magnetical meridian. Such a courfe,
however, feems only to belong to the very large fire¬
balls of which we now fpeak } the fmaller ones, called
Falling Stars, being moved in all directions} “ perhaps
(4"ays the doctor), becaufe they come further within the
verge of our atmofphere, and are thereby expofed to
the a£lion of extraneous caufes. That the fmaller fort
of meteors, fuch as {hooting ftars, are really lower
down in the atmofphere, is rendered very probable by
their fwifter apparent motion : perhaps it is this very
circumftance which occafions them to be fmaller, the
eleftric fluid being more divided in more refilling air.
But as thofe mafles of eleclric matter which move
where
F I K
Fire.
where there is fcarce any reiiitance, fo generally affeft
the dire£lion of the magnetic meridian, the ideas which
have been entertained of lome analogy between thefe
tvyo obfcure powers of nature feem not altogether
without foundation. If the foregoing conjediures be
juil, diftintt regions are allotted to the eleftrical phe¬
nomena of our atmofphere. Here below we have thun¬
der and lightning, from the unequal diftribution of
the dearie tluid among the clouds j in the loftier re¬
gions, whither the clouds never reach, we have the
various gradations of falling liars j till, beyond the li-
inil“' eh our corpufcular atmofphere, the fluid is put in¬
to motion in fufficient malTes, to hold a determined
courie, and exhibit the different appearances of what
v\ e call fire-balls y and probably at a Hill greater eleva¬
tion above the earth, the electricity accumulates in a
lighter and lefs condenfed form, to produce the wonder¬
fully diverlified Itreams and corufcations of the aurora
borealis.”
The paper from whence thefe extra&s are taken was
written before Mr Morgan’s account of the non-con-
riuding power of a perfed vacuum made its appear¬
ance. The meteor in queftion, and others of the fame
nature, aft'ord a proof of the theory of the deficiency of
dearie fluid propofed by fome. Dr Halley, fpeaking of
the fire-ball of 1719, the height of which he calculated
at very little lefs than 70 miles, expreffes his furprife that
found fhould be propagated through a medium near
300,000 times rarer than the common air, and the
next thing to a perfed vacuum. Now it remains, and
for ever will remain, to be proved, that Mr Morgan’s
moll perfed vacuum, formed by boiling quickfilver in
a tube ever fo long, contains a medium more than
300,000 times rarer than the common atmofphere.
From Mr Cavallo’s experiments it appears, that when
air is only rarefied 1000 times, the eledric light is
exceflively weak j fo that there is not the leaft proba¬
bility that in an aerial medium 300,000 times rarer
than the prefent, if indeed fuch a medium can exift,
there could be any light made vifible in the ordinary
experiments. We fee, however, by the many ex¬
amples of meteors which have occurred at prodigious
heights in the atmofphere, that the eledric light in
fuch a rarefied atmofphere is not only vifible, but ads
as vigoroully in every refped as if it were on the fur-
face of the earth. This circumftance therefore aft'ords
a complete demonftraticn of the fallacy of Mr Mor¬
gan’s argument, and a dired proof that the eledric
fluid peivades fpace as completely divefted of air as
the bell artificial vacuum we can make j nay, where it
is generally believed by mathematicians that the at¬
mofphere has ceafed altogether. His other arguments
drawn a priori are ftill more inconclufive than that we
hare juft mentioned. He tells us, that if a vacuum
was a condudor, the whole quantity of eledric matter
contained in the earth and atmofphere would be per¬
petually flying off through the regions of infinite fpace,
as being furrounded by a boundlefs condudor. ' But
even this does not follow, though we (hould fuppofe
thefe regions, to be an abfolute vacuity ; for we know
that eledricity does not fly to a conduding fubftance
merely becaufe it is a condudor, but becaufe it opens
a palfage to fome place whither it has a tendency to
go though the condudor was not there. Now, on
■the prefent hypothefis, as the condudor would lead to
[ 640 ]
p 1 a
tw place to which the eledric matter had any previous
tendency, wre cannot aflign any reafon why it ftiould
acquire a tendency to fly off merely on account of the
neighbourhood of a condudor, even though boundlefs.
His other objedion (that, on the fuppofition of a
vacuum being capable of conduding eledricity, the
w hole [pace in the univerfe w’ould be filled with elec¬
tric fluid) may be admitted in its fulleft extent, with¬
out any detriment whatever to fcience 5 and indeed, if
we aliowr the eledric fluid to be only a modification of
the light of the fun, ive muft own that the whole univerfe
is filled with it. The meteors in queftion then will be no
other.than difeharges of eledricity from one part of the
celeftial fpaces to another, fimilar to the difeharges be¬
tween the pofitive and negative fide of an eledrified
bottle j thus intimating, that a circulation has taken
place in the fluid, which the meteor at once completes
and puts an end to. See Meteorology.
Befides thefe already juft mentioned of fiich vaft
magnitude, there are others much fmaller and nearer the
furface of the earth, rolling upon it, or falling upon
it, exploding with violence, as is the cafe with thofe
which appear in the time of thunder, and frequently
produce mifehievous effeds. One of thefe is mention¬
ed by fome authors as falling in a ferene evenhig in the
ifland of Jamaica ; exploding as foon as it touched the
furface of the ground, and making a confiderable hole
in it. Another is mentioned by Dr Prieftley as rolling
along the furface of the fea, then rifing and ftriking the
top-maft of a man of wrar, exploding, and damaging
the fhip. In like manner, we hear of an eledrified
cloud at Java in the Eaft Indies j whence, without any
thunder .ftorm, there iffued a vaft number of fire-balls
which did incredible mifehief. This laft phenomenon
points out to us the true origin of balls of this kind,
viz. an exceflive accumulation of eledricity in one part,
or a violent tendency to circulate, when at the fame
time the \dace where the motion begins is at fo great
a diftance, or meets with other obftacles of fuch a na¬
ture, that it cannot eafily get thither. Urged on, how¬
ever, by the vehement preffure from behind, it is for¬
ced to leave its place j but being equally unable to
difplace the great quantity of the fame fluid, which
has no inclination to move the fame wray with itfelf, it
is colleded into balls, which run hither and thither, ac¬
cording as they meet with condudors capable of lead¬
ing them, into fome part of the circle. This is even
confirmed by an experiment related at the end of Dr
Prieftley’s fifth volume on Air. He relates, that a gen¬
tleman having charged, with a very powerful machine,
a jar, which had the wire fupporting the knob of a
confiderable length, and paffed through the glafs tube, a
globe of fire was feen to iffue out of it. This globe
gradually afeended up the glafs tube till it came to the
top of the knob, where it fettled, turning fwiftly on
its axis, and appearing like a red-hot iron ball of three
quarters of an inch diameter. On continuing to turn
the machine, it gradually defeended into the jar j which
it had no fooner done, than there enfued a moft vio¬
lent explofion and flalh, the jar being difeharged and
broken at the fame time. This experiment, however,
is Angular in its kind ; for neither the gentleman who
performed it, nor any.other, has yet been able to re¬
peat it. Single as it is, however, we may yet gather
from it, that a fire-ball will be the confequence of a
very
Fire.
FIR [ 641 ] FIR
Tire. very violent electrification of any fubftance, provided
—v—^ at the fame time that the air be in a very non-conduft-
ing ftate, fo that the eledricity may not evaporate
into it as faft as it is colle&ed j for this would produce
only lucid ftreams and flaihes, as in the common expe¬
riments with the Leyden phial j and it is probably an
inattention to this circumftance which has hitherto
prevented the repetition of the experiment above men¬
tioned. The cafe is the fame in thunder ftorms, where
an exceffive accumulation of electric matter always
produces fire-balls, the moil mifchievous kind of light¬
ning, as is explained under that article.
With regard to the ufes which fire-balls ferve in the
fyftem of nature, it is plain that they are the means
of preferving the equilibrium in the eledric fluid in the
atmofphere, which would otherwife produce the moil
dreadful tempells. As there mufi: be a conftant current of
eledric matter through the bowels of the earth from the
equator to the poles, and from the poles to the equa¬
tor, through the atmofphere, the great meteors ferve
for keeping up the equilibrium in this great atmofphe-
xical current, while the fmaller ones anfwer a like pur-
pofe in the general mafs of eledric matter difperfed
over the furface of the earth, and therefore are feen to
move in all diredions, as the equilibrium happens to
require them in different parts. With regard to thofe
which are obferved in the lower regions of the earth,
or rolling on the furface of the ground itfelf, they un¬
doubtedly anfwer purpofes of a ffmilar kind in thefe
lower regions 5 for as fire- balls in general are produced
by a great excefs of eledricity in one place, there muff
of courfe be an equal deficiency in another j and to
reftore the equilibrium, or, to fpeak more properly, to
prevent a dangerous commotion from taking place
throughout the whole mafs of eledric fluid, the fire¬
ball breaks forth, and either puts a flop at once to the
difturbance by an explofion, or by a filent and invifible
evaporation. From fome accounts indeed it would
feem that even the large celeftial meteors detached
part of their fubftance to accomplifh this purpofe j
though, for the reafons already given, it would feem
more probable that they operated by eledrifying the
atmofphere, or fettxng the fluid contained in it in mo¬
tion, fo as to produce fmall fire-balls of itfelf, rather
than by detaching any part of their own bodies to fuch
a diftance. Dr Blagden, in the paper above quoted,
gives an account of an appearance of this kind. It was
defcribed in a letter to Sir Jofeph Banks from the
Abbe Mann, diredor of the academy at Bruffels. “ It
happened (fays the Abbe) at Mariekercke, a fmall vil¬
lage on the coaft, about half a mile weft of Offend.
The curate of the village was fitting in the duik of
the evening with a friend, 'when a fudden light fur-
prifed them, and, immediately after, a fmall ball of
light-coloured flame came through a broken pane of
glafs, crofled the room where they were fitting, and
fixed itfelf on the chink of a door oppofite to the win¬
dow where it entered, and there died gradually away.
It appeared to be a kind of phofphoric light carried
along by the current of air. The curate and his friend,
greatiy furprifed at what they faw, apprehended fire in
the neighbourhood ; but going out, found that the fire
which had come in through the window had been detach¬
ed from a large meteor in its paflage.”
J'iRE-Cocks. Churchwardens in London and with-
Vol. VIII. Part IL
in the bills of mortality, are to fix fire-cocks at proper Fire,
diftances in ftreets, and keep a large engine and hand- --V"“
engine for extinguithing fire, under the penalty of tol.
flat. 6 Ann. c. 31.
On the breaking out of any fire in London or Weft-
minfter, the conftables and beadles of parilhes lhall re¬
pair t© the place with their ftaves, and affift in ex-
tinguilhing it, and caufe the people to work for that
end, &c.
FiRE-Engine. See SrEAM-Engine.
FiRE-Flair, in Icht/njology. See Raja, Ichthyology
Index.
• FiRE-F/ies, a fpecies of flies common in Guiana, of
which there are two fpecies. The largeft is more than
an inch in length, having a very large head conne&ed
with the body by a joint of a particular ftrudlure, with
which at fome times it makes a loud knock, particular¬
ly when laid on its back. The fly has two feelers or
horns, two wings, and fix legs. Under its belly is a
circular patch, which, in the dark, ftfines like a candle j
and on each fide of the head near the eyes is a promi-
nent, globular, luminous body, in fize about one-third
larger than a muftard feed. Each of thefe bodies is like
a living ftar, emitting a bright, and not fmall, light ;
fince two or three of thefe animals, put into a glafs
veflel, afford light fufficient to read without difficulty,
if placed clofe to the book. When the fly is dead,
thefe bodies will ftill afford confiderable light, though
it is lefs vivid than before; and if bruifed, and rubbed
over the hands or face, they become luminous in
the dark, like a board fmeared over with phofpho-
rus. They have a reddiffi brown or chefnut colour ;
and live, in rotten trees in the day, but are always abroad
in the night. The other kind is not more than half as
large as the former: their light proceeds from under
their wings, and is feen only when they are elevated,
like fparks of fire appearing or difappearing at every
fecond. Of thefe the air is full in the night, though
they are never feen in the day. They are common not
only in the fouthern but in the northern parts of Ame¬
rica, during the fummer.
FiKE-Lock, or Fuji/, a fmall gun which fires with a
flint. It is diftinguilhed from an old mulket, or match¬
lock, which was fired with a match. The firelock is
now in common ufe in the European armies.
Fire-Philofophers, or Philofophi per ignem, a fanatical
feft of philofophers who appeared towards the clofe of
the 16th century, and made a figure in almoft all the
countries of Europe. The diftinguilhing tenet from
which they derived this appellation was, that the inti¬
mate effences of natural things were only to be known
by the trying efforts of fire, direfted in a chemical
procefs. 1 hey were alfo called Theofophijls, from
their declaring againft human reafon as a dangerous
and deceitful guide, and reprefenting a divine and fu-
pernatural illumination as the only means of arriving
at truth} they were like wife denominated Parace/jij/s,
from the name of Paracelfus, the eminent phyfician and'
chemiftj.who was the chief ornament and leader of this
extraordinary fecft. It was patronized in England by
Robert Ilodd or Iludd, who endeavoured to illuftrate
the philofophy of Paracelfus in a great number of trea-
tifes : in France it was zealoufly propagated by Ri-
vier 5 in Denmark, by Severinus ; in Germany, by
Kunrath, an eminent phyfician of Drefden 3 and in
4 M other
F I R
other countries by warm and fuccefsful votaries, who
affumed a ftriking air of piety and devotion, and pro-
pofed to themfelves no other end than the advance¬
ment of the divine glory, and the reftoration of peace
and concord in a divided church : accordingly they
were joined by feveral perfons eminent for their piety,
and diftinguiihed by their zeal for the advancement of
true religion. One of the moll celebrated of thefe was
Daniel Hoffman, profelfor of divinity in the univerlity
of Helmftadt, who, availing himfelf of fome unguarded
palfages in the writings of Luther, extravagantly main¬
tained, that philofophy was the mortal enemy of reli¬
gion ; that truth was divifible into two branches, the
philofophical and theological; and that what was true
in philofophy wras falfe in theology. Hoffman, wTas
afterwards obliged, by the interpofition of Henry
Julius, duke of Brunfwick, to retraH his invedtives
againit philofophy, and to acknowledge in the moft
open manner the harmony and union of found philofo¬
phy with true and genuine theology.
FiRK-P/aces are contrivances for communicating heat
to rooms, and alfo for anfwering various purpofes of
art and manufa&ure. See Chimney, Furnace, and
Stove.
The ingenious Dr Franklin, having recounted the
inconveniences and advantages of fire-places in com¬
mon ufe, propofes a new contrivance for this purpofe,
called the Pennfylvania fire-place. i. This machine
confifts of a bottom-place, or hearth-piece, fie. i.
Plate CCXVII. with a riling moulding before for a fen¬
der, twro perforated ears F, G, for receiving two
lerew-rods j a long air-hole a a, through which the
outward air paffes into an air-box ; and three fmoke-
holes, reprefented by dark fquares in BC, through
which the fmoke defeends and palfes awTay j befides,
double ledges for receiving between them the lower
edges of the other plates. 2. A back-plate without
holes, and furnifhed with a pair of ledges to receive,
3. The two fide-plates, each of which has a pair of
ledges to receive the fide edges of the front plate, with
a fhoulder on which it relts $ tw-o pair of ledges to re¬
ceive the fide edges of the two middle plates which
form the air-box, and an oblong air-hole near the top,
through which the air warmed in the box is difeharged
into the room, and a wing or bracket as FT, and a fmall
hole as F, for the axis of the regifter to turn in. See
fig. 2. which reprefents one of thefe plates. 4. An air-
box, compofed of the two middle plates DE and FG,
fig* 3* an^ 4* The firft has five thin ledges or parti¬
tions caft on it, the edges of wdiich are received into
fo many pairs of ledges caft in the other : the tops of
all the cavities formed by thefe thin deep ledges are alfo
covered by a ledge of the fame form and depth caft wnth
them ; fo that when the plates are put together, and
the joints luted, there is no communication between
the air-box and the Imoke. In the winding paffages
of this box, frefh air is warmed as it palTes into the
room. 5. A front plate, wdiich is arched on the under
fide, and ornamented with foliages, &c. 6. A top
plate with a pair of ears, MW, (fig. 5.) anfwerable to
thofe in the bottom plate, and perforated for the fame
purpofe. It has alfo a pair of ledges running round
the under fide to receive the top edges of the front,
back, and fide plates. The air-box does not reach up
to the top plate by 2y inches..
FIR
All thefe plates are of caft iron j and when they are Fire,
all in their proper places, they are bound firmly toge-
ther by a pair of flender rods of wrought iron with
ferews, and the machine appears as in fig. 5. There
are alfo two thin plates of wrought iron, viz. J. The
fhutter which is of fuch a length and breadth as to
clofe well the opening of the fire-place, and ferving to
blow up the fire, and to fecure it in the night. It is
raifed or deprefled by means of two brafs knobs, and
Aides in a groove left between the foremoft ledge of
the fide plates and the face of the front plate. 8. The
regifter, which is placed between the back plate and
air-box, and furnilhed with a key j fo that it may be
turned on its axis, and made to lie in any pofition be¬
tween level and upright. The operation of this ma¬
chine, and the method of fixing it, may be underftood
by obferving the profile of the chimney and fire-places
in fig. 6. M is the mantle-piece or breaft of the
chimney ; C the funnel; B the falfe back, made of
brick work in the chimney, four inches or more from
the true back, from the top of wdiich a doling is to
be made over to the breaft of the chimney, that no air
may pafs into the chimney except that which goes
under the falfe back, and up behind it : F the true back
of the chimney ; T the top of the fire-place ; F the
front of it; M the place where the fire is made $ £>
the air-box 5 K the hole in the fide plate, through which
the -warmed air is difeharged out of the air-box into
the room j H the hollow7, formed by removing fome
bricks from the hearth under the bottom plate filled
with frelh air, entering at the paflage /, and afeend-
ing into the air-box through the air-hole in the bot¬
tom plate near G, the partition in the hollow, defign-
ed to keep the air and Imoke apart •, P the paftage un¬
der the falfe back, and part of the hearth for the
fmoke ; and the arrows in the figure fhour the courle
of the linoke. The fire being made at the flame
and fmoke will afeend, ftrike the top F, and give it
a confiderable heat •, the fmoke wrill turn over the air
box, and defeend between it and the back plate to the
holes near G in the bottom plate, heating in its paf-
fage all the plates of the .machine j it will then proceed
under and behind the falfe back, and rife into the
chimney. The air of the room contiguous to the fe¬
veral plates, and w’armed by them, becomes fpecifical-
ly lighter than the other air in the room, and is oblig¬
ed to rife \ but being prevented by the clofure over
the fire-place from going up the chimney, is forced
out into the room, and rifing by the mantle-piece to
the ceiling, is again driven down gradually by the
fteam of newly-warmed air that follows j and thus the
W’hole room becomes in a little time equally wrarmed.
The air alfo, warmed under the bottom plate and in
the air-box, rifes and comes out of the holes if the
fide plates, thus wTarming and continually changing
the air of the room. In the doling of the chimney,
a fquare opening for a trap-door ihould be left for
the fwreeper to go up : the door may be made of Hate or
tin, and fo placed, that by turning up againft the back
of the chimney when open, it clofes the vacancy be¬
hind the fajfe back, and Ihoots the foot that falls in
fweeping out upon the hearth. It will alfo be conve¬
nient to have a fmall hole, about five or fix inches
fquare, cut near the ceiling through into the funnel,
and provided with a ftiutter 3 by occafionally opening
which.
[ 642 ]
fir t
which, the heated air of the room and fmoke of tobac-
CO &c may be carried off without incommoding the
company F°r a farther account of the manner °f
ufmg this fire-place, the advantages attending it, an-
fwers to objections, and direftions to the bricklayer in
fixing it, the curious reader may confult Franklin’s Let¬
ters and Papers on Philofophical Subjefts, p. 284—
018. edit. 1769.
FnR-Pots, in the military art, fmall earthen pots,
into which is put a charged grenade, and over that
powder enough till the grenade is covered ; then the
pot is covered with a piece of parchment, and two
pieces of match acrofs lighted : this pot being thrown
by a handle of matches where it is defigned,_ it breaks
and fires the powder, and burns all that is near it,
and likewife fires the powder in the grenade, which
ought to have no fufe, to the end its operations may
be the quicker.
FiRS-Reecfs. See the next article, Note (c)
FiRK-Ship, an old veffel filled with combuftible ma¬
terials, and * fitted with grappling irons to hook, and
fet fire to, the enemies {hips in battle, 8tc.
A.s there is nothing particular in the conftruClion of
this {hip, except the apparatus by which the fire is in-
ftantly conveyed from one part to another, and from
thence to the enemy, it will be fufficient to defcribe
the fire-room, where thele combuftibles are enclofed,
together with the inftruments neceffary to grapple
the {hip intended to be deftroyed. _ .
The fire-room is built between decks, and limited on
the after part by a bulh-hecid^ i, behind the mam¬
mal!, from which it extends quite forward, as repre-
fented in Plate CCXVII. The train enclofed in this
apartment is contained in a variety of wooden troughs,
D, G, which interfe<ft each other in different parts of
the.
643 1 FIR
the {hip’s length j being fiipported at proper difhnces 
by crofs pieces and ftanchions. On each fide of the "v—**“
{hip are fix or feven ports, H, about 18 inches broad
and 15 inches high ; and having their lids to open
downward, contrary to the ulual method.
Again!! every port is placed an iron chamber (a^
which, at the time of firing the fhip, blows out the
port-lid, and opens a paffage for the tiame. Imme¬
diately under the main and fore-lhrouds is fixed 'a
wooden funnel Mi whoie lower end communicates with
a fire-barrel (b), by which the flame pafling through
the funnel is conduded to the {hrouds. Between the
funnels, which are likewife called Jire-tn/nh, are two falconer'*
fcuttles, or fmall holes, in the upper deck, ferving alfo Marine
to let out the flames. Both funnels muff be {topped Difiionarj.
with plugs, and have failcloth or canvas nailed clofe
over them, to prevent any accident happening from
above to the combuftibles laid below.
The ports, funnels, and fcuttles, not only commu¬
nicate the flames to the outfide and upper works of
the Ihip and her rigging) but likewife open a paflage
for the inward air, confined in the fire-room, which is
thereby expanded fo as to fofee impetuoutly through
thofe outlets, and prevent the blowing up of the decks,
which muff of neceflity happen from fuch a fudden
and violent rarefadion of the air as will then be prodm-
ced.
On each fide of the bulk-head behind is cut a hoie,
i, of fufficient fize to admit a trough of the fame di-
menfions as the others. A leading trough, Z,/, whofe
foremoft end communicates with another trough with¬
in the fire-room, is laid clofe to this opening, from
whence it extends obliquely to a fally-port, /, cut
through the {hip’s fide. The decks and troughs are
well covered with melted rofin. At the time of the
a M z firing1
(a) The iron chambers are 10 inches long and 3.5 m diameter. They are breeched agamft a piece of
wood fixed acrofs the ports, and let into another a little higher. When loaded, they are aWt filled with
corn-powder, and have a wooden tompion well driven into their muzzles. They are primed with a fmall piece
of quick-match thruft through their vents into the powder, with a part of it hanging out. When the ports
aresblowfi open by means of the iron chambers, the port-lids either fall downward, or are carried away by the
€ (b) The fire-barrels ought to be of a cylindrical form, as moft fuitable to contain the reeds with which they are
filled, and more convenient for flowing them between the troughs m the fire-room. Iheir mfide chambers mu
not be lefs than 21 inches, and 30 inches is fufficient for their length, ihe bottom_ parts are firft well ftored
with ffiort double-dipped reeds placed upright *, and the remaining vacancy is filled with fire-barrel compofition
well mixed and melted, and then poured over them. The compofition ufed for this purpofe is a mafs of fulphur,
^Tlmre" are fiv^hoks, of three-fourths of an inch in diameter and three inches deep, formed In the top of the
compofition while it is yet warm-, one being in the centre, and the other four at equal diftances round the
fides of the barrel. When the compofition is cold and hard, the barrel is primed by filling thefe holes with
fufe compofition, which is firmly driven into them, fo as to leave a little vacancy at the top to admit a itran o
quick match twice doubled. The centre hole contains two ftrands at their whole length, and every ftrand
muff be driven home with meafed powder. The loofe ends of the quick match being then laid within the bar¬
rel, the whole is covered with a dipped curtain, faftened on wdth a hoop that flips over the head of the barrel,
to which it is nailed. „ , r .
The barrels ffiould be made very ftrong, not only to fupport the weight of the compofition before firing,
when they are moved or carried from place to place, but to keep them together whilft burning . °r 1 t e a'e.
are too light and thin, fo as to burn very foon, the remaining compofition will tumble out and be diflipated, and
the intention of the barrels, to carry the flame aloft, will accordingly be fruftrated.. 1 ~
The curtain is a piece of coarfe canvas, nearly a yard in breadth and length, thickened with melte compo 1
lion, and covered with faw-duft on both fides.
Fire.
F I R [ 644
filing either of the leading troughs, the flame is imme-
' diately conveyed to the oppofite fide of the ftiip, where¬
by both Tides burn together.
J he fpaces N, 0, behind the fire-room, reprefent the
cabins of the lieutenant and matter, one of which is on
the ftarboard, and the other on the larboard fide. The
captain’s cabin, which is feparated from thefe by a
bulk-head, is exhibited alfo by P.
Four of the eight fire-barrels are placed under the
four fire-trunks ; and the other four between them,
two on each fide the fire-fcuttles, where they are fe-
curely cleated to the deck. The longeft reeds (c) are
put into the fore and aft trough, and tied down : the
Ihorteft reeds are laid in the troughs athwart, and tied
down alfo. The bavins (d), dipped at one end, are
tied fart to the troughs over the reeds, and the curtains
are nailed up to the beams, in equal quantities, on each
fide of the fire-room.
The remainder of the reeds are placed in a pofition
nearly upright, at all the angles of every fquare in the
fire-room, and there tied down. If any reeds are left,
they are to be put round the fire-barrels, and other va¬
cant places, and there tied fail.
InftrufHons to Prime.
]
F 1 R
Take up all your reeds, one after another, and
ftrew a little compofition at the bottom of all the
troughs under the reeds, and then tie them gently down
again : next ftrew compofition upon the upper part of
the reeds throughout the fire-room 5 and upon the faid
compofition lay double quick match upon all the
reeds, in all the troughs : the remainder of the com¬
pofition ftrew over all the fire-room, and then lay your
bavins loofe.
Caft off" all the covers of the fire-barrels, and hang
the quick match loofe over their Tides, and place lead¬
ers of quick match from the reeds into the barrels, and
from thence into the vent of the chambers, in fuch a
manner as to be certain of their blowing open the
ports, and fetting fire to the barrels. Two troughs of
communication from each door of the fire-room to the
hilly ports, muft be laid with a ftrong leader of quick-
match, four or five times double : allb a crofs-piece to
go from the Tally-port, when the ftiip is fired, to the
communication trough, laid with leaders of quick-
match, that the lire may be communicated in both Tides
at once.
What quick-match is left place fo that the fire may
be communicated to all parts of the room at once,
efpecially about the ports and fire-barrels, and fee that
the chambers are well and frelh primed. [N. B. The
port-fire ufed for firing the ftiip, burns about 12 mi¬
nutes. Great care muft be taken to have no powder
on board when the ftiip is fired.J
The ftieer hooks (reprefented by A) are fitted To
as to fatten on the yard-arms of the fire-ftiip, w'here
t icy hook the enemy’s rigging. The fire-grapplings
( ) are either fixed on the yard-arms, or thrown by
hand, having a chain to confine the ftfips together, or
fallen thole inllruments wherever neceftary.
When the commanding officer of a fleet difplays the
fignal to prepare _ for acftion, the fire-fliips fix their
Iheer hooks, and difpofe their grapplings in readinefs.
1 he battle being begun, they proceed immediately to
prime, and prepare their fire-works. When they are
ready for grappling, they inform the admiral thereof
by a particular fignal.
. ^ 0 av°id being difabled oy the enemy’s cannon dur-
mg a general engagement, the fire-lhips continue fuf-
ficiently diftant from their line of battle, either to wand-
ward or to leeward.
^ he7 cautioufty Ihun the openings or intervals of
tne line, where they would be dire£fly expofed to the
enemy’s fire, from which they are covered by lying on
the oppofite fide of their own Ihips. They are atten¬
tively to obferve the fignals of the admiral or his fe-
conds, in order to put their defigns immediately in exe¬
cution.
Although no ftiip of the line fliould be previoufly
appointed to protedrt any fire-ftiip, except a few of the
fmalleft particularly deftined to this fervice, yet the ftiip
before whom Ihe paffes in order to approach the ene¬
my, ftiould efcort her thither, and alfift her with an
armed boat, or whatever fuccour may be necefl'ary in
her fituation.
The captain of the fire-ftiip ftiould himfelf be parti¬
cularly attentive that the above inftru&ions are punc¬
tually executed, and that the yards may be fo braced
when he falls alongfide of the ftiip intended to be de-
ftro^ed, that the Iheer-hooks and grapplings fattened
to the yard-arms, &c. may effeftually ho'ok the enemy.
He is expeffed to be the lafl: perfon who quits the
veflel j and being furniflied with every neceflary aflift-
ance and Tupport, his reputation wrill greatly depend
on the fuccefs of his enterprife.
Lambent Fires, as the fhining of meat at certain fea-
fons, the luminoufnefs of the Tea, of infects, vapours,.
&c. See Light, Chemistry Index; FiRu-F/ies, En¬
tomology Index; Gtoiv-Worm, &.c.
Port-Fire. See PoRT-Fire.
Spur-FiRE. See SpuR-Ft're.
FiRE-Works, are preparations made of gunpowder,
fulphur,.
t' 1 ? ^1? re-CS arC mfde Up V.'fma11 bu™Ues of about a foot in circumference, cut even at botli ends, and
tied together m two places. They are diftmgmftied into two kinds, viz. the long and ftiort 5 the former of
-which .our feet, and the latter two feet five inches in length. One part of them are fingly dipped, i. e at
one end , the reft are dipped at both ends m a kettle of melted compofition. After being immerfbd about fe-
tTnned hfde ^ preParatl0n> and then drained, they are fprinkled over with pulverized fulphur upon a
bavbls are made of birch, heath, or other brufti-wood, which is tough and readily kindled Thev
are ufually two or three leet m length, and have all their bufti-ends lying one way, the other ends bdng tied
togetherwithfmall cords. They are dipped m compofition at .the bulh-ends, whofe branches are afterwards
confined by the hand, to prevent them from breaking off by moving about j and alfo to make them bum more
fiercely. Alter being dipped m the fame manner as the reeds, they alfo are iprinkled with fulphur.
Fire.
F I K
[ 64s
Firing, fulplim, and other inflammable and combuftible ingre-
 ' dients, ufed on occafion of public rejoicings and other
folemnities.
The invention of fire-works is by M. Mahudel at¬
tributed to the Florentines and people of Sienna j who
found out likewife the method of adding decorations
to them of ftatues, with fire iiluing from their eyes and
mouths.
The art of preparing and managing thefe is called
pijrotechny. See Pyrotechny.
FIRING, in the military art, denotes the difcharge
of the fire-arms *, and its objeft is to do the utmoft ex-
esution to the enemy.
The method of firing by platoons is faid to have
been invented by Guftavus Adolphus, and firit ufed
about the year 1618 •, the reafon commonly given for
this method is, that a conftant fire may be always
kept up. There are three different ways of platoon
firing ; viz. Handing, advancing, and retreating. But
previous to every kind of firing, each regiment or bat¬
talion muff be told off in grand divifions, fubdivinons,
and platoons, excluflvely of the grenadiers, which form
two fubdivifions or four platoons of themfelves. In
firing Handing, either by divifions or platoons, the fiiH
fire is from the divifion or platoon on the right j the
fecond fire from the left-, the third from the right
again 5 and fo on alternately, till the firing comes to
the centre platoon, which is generally called the colour
• platoon, and does not fire, remaining as a referve for
the colours. Firing advancing is performed in the fame
manner, with this addition, that before either divifion
or platoon fires, it advances three paces forward. Fir¬
ing retreating varies from either of the former me¬
thods ; for before either divifion or platoon fires, if
they are marching from the enemy, it mufl go to
the right about, and after firing, to the left about
again, and continue the retreat as flow and orderly as
vpoflible.
In hedge firing the men are drawn up two deep, and
in that order both ranks are to fire Handing. Oblique
firing is either to the right and left, or from the right
and left to the centre, according to the fituation of
the object. The Pruflians have a particular contri¬
vance for this purpofe } if they are to level to the
right, the rear ranks of every platoon make two quick
but fmall paces to the left, and the body of each fol-
diet turns one-eighth of a circle, and vice verfa. Pa¬
rapet firing depends on the nature of the parapet over
which the men are to fire, and alfo upon that of the
attack made to poffefs it. d- his method of firing is
fometimes performed by Angle ranks flepping on the
banquette and firing} each man mfiantly handing his
arms to the centre rank of the fame file, and taking
his back in the room of it 5 and the centre rank giv¬
ing it to the rear to load, and forwarding the arms
of the rear to the front rank 5 by which means, the
front rank men can fire fix or feven rounds in a minute
with exaftnefs. Parapet firing may alfo be executed
two deep, when the banquette is three feet broad, or in
field works where no banquettes are made. Square
firing is performed by a regiment or body of men
drawn up in a hollow fquare, in which cafe each front
is generally divided into four divifions or firings, and
the flanks of the fquare, being the weakefi part, are
covered by four platoons of grenadiers. The firfl fjre
] FI F
is from the right divifion of each face ; the fecond tiring
from the left divifion of each face, &c. and the grena- Fl-rm-'CUSi
diers make the lafi fire. Street firing is pra&iled in  1
two ways; either by making the divifion or platoon
that has fired to wheel by half-rank to the right and
left outwards from the centre, and to march in that
order by half divifions down the flanks on each fide of
the column, and to draw up in the rear, and go.on
with their priming and loading •, or, to make the divi¬
fion or platoon, after firing, to face to the right and
left outwards from the centre, and one half rank to
follow the other; and in that order to march in one
centre file down on each fide of the column into the
rear, and there draw up as before.
Firing Iron, in Farriery, an infirument not unlike-
the blade of a knife ; which being made red hot is ap¬
plied to a horfe’s hams, or other places Handing in
need of it, as in preternatural fwellings, farcy, knots,
&c. in order to difcufs them.
FIRKIN, an Englifti meafure of capacity for things
liquid, being the fourth part of the barrel . it contains
eight gallons of ale, foap, or herrings j and nine gal¬
lons of beer.
FIRLOT, a dry meafure ufed in Scotland. The
oat firlot contains 21 -^th pints of that country) the
wheat firlot contains about 2211 cubical inches j and
the barley firlot, 31 flandard pints. Hence it appears
that the Scotch wheat firlot exceeds the Englifti buftiel-
by 3 3 cubical inches.
FIRMAMENT, in the ancient aftronomy, the*
eighth heaven or fphere j being that wherein the fixed
Hars were fuppofed to be placed. It is called the-
eighth, with refpedt to the feven heavens or fphcres of
the planets which it furrounds.
It is fuppofed to have two motions j a diurnal mo¬
tion, given it by the prinium mobile, from eaft to weft,
about the poles of the ecliptic j and another oppofite
motion from weft to eaft 5 which laft it finilhes, accord¬
ing to Tycho, in 25,4! 2 years} according.to Ptolemy,
in 36,060 ; and according to Copernicus, in 258,000 }
in which time the fixed ftars return to the fame precife
points wherein they were at the beginning. This ■
period is commonly called Plato’s year, or the great
year.
In various places of Scripture the firmament is
ufed for the middle region of the air. Many of the
ancients allowed, with the moderns, that the firma¬
ment is a fluid matter } though they, who gave it the
d•.nomination of firmament, muft have taken it for a
folid one.
FIRMAN, is a paffport or permit granted by the
Great Mogul to foreign veffels, to trade within the
territories of his jurifdiclion.
FIRMICUS, Maternus Julius, an ecclefiaftical
writer, who lived about the middle of the fourth centu¬
ry. Nothing is known with certainty refpecting his
country, profeflion, or charafter, as we find no mention
made of him in the writings of ancient authors. Some
fay that he was by birth a Sicilian, and praitifed in the
forum as a barrifter for fome time, becoming a convert
to Chriftianity when far advanced in years} which ap¬
pears to derive confiderable fupport from different pai-
. fages in his writings. He was author of a treatife De
errore profanarum religionum, which was dedicated to
the emperors Conftanti\ts and Conftans. 'Inis work
muft -
F I R
Flrmnefs
raufl: have been written between 340 and 350, in which
iFkft Ffuits. C°nrtans was {lain by Magnentius. It is allowed to be
y—a learned, able, and well written performance, in which
the reafonablenefs of the Chriitian religion is ftrongly con-
trafted with the abfurdity and immorality of the gentile
creed. It mull not be diffembled, however, that he
fometimes betrays fuch a fpirit of intolerance as is whol¬
ly incompatible with the genius of the Chriftian reli¬
gion, which breathes nothing but benevolence towards
the whole human race. The arguments employed by
him in . its defence are difgraced by an exhortation to
the civil powrer to propagate it by force of arms, and to
brulh the advocates of error by fevere edicts. This
work -was firft publilhed at Stralburg in 1562, at Hei¬
delberg in 1559, and at Paris in 1610.
. T5le greater part of critics afcribe to him a work en¬
titled AJlronomicorum, feu de Mathefi, lib. viii. In it
he tieats ol the power and influence of the liars, agree¬
ably to the dodtrine of the Egyptians and Babylonians,
blending a confiderable degree of mathematical know¬
ledge with the unmeaning jargon of judicial aftrology.
Thofe who imagine that fo good a man as Firmicus
could not have been the author of fuch an abfurd per¬
formance, fliould remember that it was probably com-
pofed prior to his converlion, when fuch abfurdities
would conflitute a part of his creed.
FIRMNESS, denotes the conliltence of a body,
or that Hate wherein its fenlible parts cohere in fuch a
manner, that the motion of one part induces a motion
in the reft.
FIRST-born. See Primogeniture, for the li¬
teral meaning of the term.
In Scripture it is alfo ufed often in a figurative fenfe
for that which is firft, molt excellent, molt diftinguilh-
ed in any thing. Thus it is faid of Chrift (Col. 1. 5.),
that he is “ the firft-bom of every creature j” and in
Revelation (i. 5.) he is called “ the firft-begotten of
the dead 5” that is, according to the commentators,
begotten of the Father before any creature was pro¬
duced j and the firft who role from the dead by his own
power. “ The firft-born of the poor,” (Ifa. xiv.
3°0 figuifies, The molt miferable of all the poor j and
in Job (xviii. 13.) The firft-born of death that
SIS, The molt terrible of all deaths.
First Fruits (primiticr'), among the Hebrews, were
oblations of part of the fruits of the harveft, offered
to God as an acknowledgment of his fovereign domi¬
nion. The firft of thefe fruits was offered in the name
01 the whole nation, being either two loaves of bread,
or a fheaf of barley which was thralhed in the court
of. tne temple. Every private perfon was obliged to
wing ms firft fruits to the temple j and thefe confifted
01 wheat, barley, grapes, figs, apricots, olives, and
dates.
I here was another fort of firft fruits which were
paid to God. . When bread was kneaded in a family,
-a portion of it was let apart and given to the prieft
or Levite who dwelt in the place 5 if there was no prieft
or Levite there, it was call into the oven, and confumed
by the fire. Thefe offerings made a eonfiderable part
of the revenues of the Hebrew priefthood.
, Fruits are frequently mentioned in ancient Chri-
vftian writers as one part of the church revenue. One
of the councils of Carthage enjoins, that they Ihould
[ 646 ]
FIS
confift only of grapes and corn j which {hows, that
this was the practice of the African church.
First Fruits, in the church of England, are the (
profits of every fpiritual benefice for the firft year,
according to the valuation thereof in the king’s
books.
FISC, (f'ifcus'), in the Civil Law, the treafury of a
prince or ftate j or that to wdfich all things due to the
public do fall. 1 he word is derived from the Greek
(purKos, “ a great balket,” ufed when they went to mar-
ket. By the civil law, none but a fovereign prince has
a right to have a fife or public treafury.
At Rome, under the emperors, the term ceranutn
was ufed for the revenues deftined for fupport of the
charges of the empire 5 \hzfifcus for thofe of the em¬
peror’s own family. The treafury, in effedt, belonged
to the people, and the fifeus to the prince. Hence'the
goods of condemned perfons, if appropriated to the
ufe of the public, were laid publicari; if to the fupport
of the emperor or prince, conffcari.
FISCAL, in the Civil Law, fomething relating to
the pecuniary intereft of the prince or people. The
officers appointed for the management of the fife, were
called procuratores fifci, and advocati ffci y and among
the cafes enumerated in the conftitutions of the empire
where it was their bufinefs to plead, one is againft
thofe who have been condemned to pay a fine to the
fife on account of their litigioufnefs or frivolous ap¬
peals.
FISCUS. See Fisc.
FISH, in Natural Hi/lory, an animal that lives in
the waters as the natural place of its abode.
Fifties form the fourth clafs of animals in the Lin-
naean fyltem. Their moft general or popular divifion
is into frejh and fait water ones. Some, howTever, are
of opinion, that all fifties naturally inhabit the fait
waters, and that they have mounted up into rivers
only. by accident. A few fpecies only fwim up into
the rivers to depofit their fpawn ; but by far the great-
eft number keep in the fea, and would foon expire in
frefti water. There are about 400 fpecies of fifties
(according to Linnaeus) of which we know fomething :
but the unknown ones are fuppofed to be many more j
and as they are thought to lie in great depths of the
fea remote from land, it is probable that many fpecies
will remain for ever unknown.
For the fubdivifions, characters, and natural hiftbry
of this clafs of animals, fee Ichthyology Index.
Blowing of Fish, is a practice fimilar to that of
blowing flefti, poultry, and pigs, and adopted for the
fame deceitful purpofes. The method of blowing fillip
efpecially cod and whitings, is by placing the end of a
quill or tobacco-pipe at the vent, and pricking a hole
with a pin under the fin which is next the gill $ there¬
by making the fifti appear to the eye large and full,
wffiich when dreffed will be flabby, and little elfe thaw
fkin and bones. But this impofition may be difeover-
ed by placing the finger and thumb on each fide of the
vent, and fqueezing it hard; the wind may be perceiv¬
ed to go out, the fkin will fall in, and the fifh appear
lank, and of little value.
Breeding of Fishes may be turned to great advan¬
tage ; for, befides furnifhing the table, obliging one’s
friends, and raifing money, the land will be thereby
greatly
Fife
I!
Fifli.
2
F I S
r 647 }
F I S
preatly improved, fo as to yield move this way than by
any other employment whatever See F/sh fW.
CaJIration of Fish, is a method firftpraaifed by Mr
Tull in order to prevent the exceffive mcreate ol hih in
fome of his ponds, where the numbers did not permit
any of them to grow to an advantageous fize. But he
afterwards found, that the caftrated fiflr grew much
larger than their ufual fize, were more fat, and always
in leafon. This operation may be performed both on
male and female fi(h 5 and the moft eligible time for it
is when the ovaries of the female have their ova m
them, and when the veffels of the male, analogous to
thefe, have their feminal matter in them ; becaufe, at
this time, thefe veffels are more eafily diftinguilhed
from the ureters, which convey the urine from the kid¬
neys into the bladder, and are fituated near the feminal
veffels on each hde of the fpine $ which, without fuhi-
cient attention, may be mi (taken for the ovaries, efpe-
cially when thefe laft are empty. I he timfe leait pio-
per for this operation, is juft after they have fpawned,
becaufe the £fti are then too weak and languid to bear,
with fuccefs, fo fevere an operation •, however, with
Ikill and care, it may be performed almoft at any time.
When a filh is to be caftrated, it muft be held in a wet
cloth, with its belly upwards ; then with a (harp pen¬
knife, having its point bent backwards, the operator
cuts through the integuments of the rim of the belly,
taking care not to wound any of the intedines. As
foon as a fmall aperture is made, he carefully inferts a
hooked pen-knife, and with this dilates the aperture
from between the two fore-fins almoft to the anus. He
then, with tw7o fmall blunt filver hooks, five or fix
inches long, and of this form P, by the help of an af-
fiftant, holds open the belly of the fifti j and with a
fpoon or fpatula, removes carefully the inteftines from
one fide. When thefe are removed, you fee the ure¬
ter, a fmall veffel, nearly in the direftion of the fpine,
and alfo the ovary, a larger vefiel, lymg before it, near¬
er the integuments of the belly. I his laft veffel is tak¬
en up wTith a hook of the fame kind with thofe before
mentioned, and, after detaching it from the fide far
enough for the purpofe, divided tranfverfely wdth a pair
of (harp fciffars, care being taken that the inteftines
are not wmunded or injured. After one of the ovaries
has been divided, the operator proceeds to divide, the
other in the fame manner j and then the divided. inte¬
guments of the belly are fewed with lilk, the ftitches
being inferted at a fmall diftance from one another.
Mr Tull obferves farther, that the fpawning time is
very various j that trouts are full about Chriftmas 5
perch in February; pikes in March, and carp and
tench in May j and that allowance muft be made for
climate and fituation, with regard to the fpawning of
fiih. When the fifti are caftrated, they are put into
the water where they are intended to continue 5 and
they take their chance in common with other fifti, as
though they were not caftrated. .With tolerable care,
few die of the operation. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlviii. Part
2. Art. 106. . . ,
Although we could not properly avoid, infertmg the
above detail, it is prefumed that lew will be pleafed
wdth the invention. The operation is peculiarly cruel,
and the purpofe of it only a deteftable piece of Apician
refinement.
Feeding of Fishis. When they are fed in large
Fifh.
pools or ponds, either malt boiled, or frefh grains, is;
the beft food ; thus carps may be raifed and fed like y
capons, and tenches will feed as well. The care of
feeding them is beft committed to a gardener or the
butler, who Ihould be always at hand. . When fed in
a ftew, any fort of grain boiled, efpecially peas, and
malt coarfely ground, are proper food j alfo the grains
after brewing, while frefh and fweet •, but one buthel
of malt not brewed will go as far as two of grains.
Stealing of Fish, by perfons armed and difguifed, is
felony without benefit of clergy, by 9 Geo. I. cap. 2 2.
See Black AB. And by 5 Geo. III. cap..14. the pe¬
nalty of tranfportation for feven years is inflidled on
perfons ftealing or taking fiih in any water, within a
park, paddock, orchard, or yard \ and on the receivers,
aiders, and abettors 5 and a forfeiture of five pounds
to the owner of the fiftiery is made payable by perfons
taking or deftroying (or attempting fo to do j any fifti
in any river or other water within any enclofed ground,
being private property.
Preserving of Fish for Cabinets. Linnaeus’s me-
thod is, to expofe them to the air j and when they sc*—,
quire fuch a degree of putrefaction that the fkin lofes
its cohefion to the body of the fiih, it may be .{lid off
almoft: like a glove j the two fades of this fkin may
then be di'ied upon paper like a plant, or one of the
fides may be filled with plafter of Paris to give the fub^
jeCt a due plumpnefs.
A fifti may be prepared, after it has acquired this
degree of putrefaction, by making a longitudinal inci-
fion on the belly, and carefully diffeCting the fleftiy
part from the {kin, which is but fiightly attached to
it in confequence of the putrefcency. 1 he fkin is then
to be filled with cotton and the antifeptic powder
as directed for birds j and, laftly, to be fewed up
where the incifion was made.
Gold Fish. See Cyprinus, Ichthyology Index.
Gilding on Fish. In the pofthumous papers of Mr
Hooke, a method is defcribed of gilding live craw fifta,
carps, &c. without injuring the fiih. The cement for this
purpofe is prepared, by putting fome burgundy pitch
into a new earthen pot, and warming the veflel tall it
receives fo much of the pitch as will flick round it 5
then itrewing fome finely powdered amber before the
pitch when growing cold, adding a mixture of three
pounds of linfeed oil and one of oil of turpentine, co¬
vering the veffel, and boiling them for an hour over a
gentle fire, and grinding the mixture, as it is wanted,
with fo much pumice-ftone in fine powder as will re¬
duce it to the confiftence of paint. Lhe fifti being
wiped dry, the mixture is fpread upon it j and the gold-
leaf being then laid on, and gently preffed down, the
fifti may be immediately put into water again, without
any danger of the gold coming off, for the matter
quickly grows firm in water.
Fish, in a fhip, a plank or piece of timber, faftened
to a Ihip’s maft or yard, to ftrengthen it j which is done
by nailing it on with iron fpikes, and winding ropes
hard about them.
Fishes, in Heraldry, are the emblems of filence and
watchfulnefs j and are borne either upright, imbowed*
extended, endorfed refpeCling each other, furmounting
one another, fretted, &.c.
In blazoning fifties, thofe borne feeding, fhould .be
termed devouring ; all fifties borne upright and having
finsff»5
Fifher.
F I S
fins, ftiould be blazoned hauriant;  
tranfverfe the efcutcheon, mult be termed naiant.
Fish Ponds^ thoie made for the breeding or feed-
ing of fiih.
Fiili ponds are no fmall improvement of watery and
boggy lands, many of which are fit for no other ufe.
In making of a pond, its head Ihould be at the loweft
part of the ground, that the trench of the flood-gate or
fiuice, having a good fall, may not be too long in emp-
tying.. The belt way of making the head fecure, is to
drive in two or three rows of flakes above fix feet long,
at above four feet diflance from each other, the whole
length of the pond head, whereof the firfl row Ihould
be rammed at leaft about four feet deep. If the bot¬
tom is falfe, the foundation may be laid with quick¬
lime } which flaking, will make it as hard as a ftone.
Some lay a layer of lime, and another of earth dug out
£f the pond, among the piles and flakes ; and when
thefe are well covered, drive in others as they fee oc-
cafion, ramming in the earth as before, till the pond
head be of the height defigned. .
The dam Ihould be made doping on each fide, leav¬
ing a wafte to carry off the over abundance of water
in times of floods or rains ; and as to the depth of the
pond, the deepeft part need not exceed fix feet, rifing
gradually in fhoals towards the fides, for the filh to fun
themfelves, and lay their fpawn. Gravelly and fandy
CM] fis
and thofe borne Richmond : he not only formed the defxgn, but fuper-
intended the execution. On the promulgation of Mar¬
tin Luther’s do&rine, our bifhop was the firft to enter
the lifts againft him. On this occafion he exerted all
his influence, and is generally fuppofed to have written
the famous book by which Henry VIII. obtained the
title of Defender of the Faith. Hitherto he continued
in favour with the king j but in 1527, oppofing his di-
vorce, and denying his fupremacy, the implacable
Harry determined, and finally effected, his deftrudtion.
I543> parliament found him guilty of mifpri-
fion of treafon, for concealing certain prophetic fpeech-
es of a fanatical impoflor, called the Holy Maid of
FCent, relative to the king’s death j and condemned him,
with five others, in lois of goods, and imprifonment
during his majefty’s pleafure j but he tvas releafed on
paying 300I. for the king’s ufie.
. Henry being now' married to Anne Boleyn,
Ins obfequious parliament took an oath of allegiance
proper for the occafion. This oath the bifhop of Ro-
chefter fteadily refufed; alleging, that bis confidence
could not be convinced that the king’s firft marriage
was againft the law of God. For refufing this oath of
fucceffion, he was attainted by the parliament of 1534 j
and committed to the Tower, where he was cruelly
treated, and wTere he wTould probably have died a na¬
tural death, had not the pope created him a cardinal.
Fi flier,
Fifhery.
i m r .11-1 * ~ j  nau hul me pope created mm a cardinal.
nd T£ rfueC1Sy thv cr’ are be t f01; breedi.ng’ The kin£> Vow F°ritively determined on his deftruc-
**.nci a tat loil writn. a white fat watpt* ac t? 4.1,^ /vi*_*^  i t 1
and a fat foil with a white fat water, as the waftiings
of hills, commons, ftreets, finks, &c. is beft for fat¬
tening all forts of fifli. For ftoring a pond, carp is to
be preferred for its goodnefs, quick growth, and great
increafe, as breeding five or fix times a-year. A pond
of an acre, if it be a feeding and not breeding one,
will every year feed 200 carps of three years old, 300
of tw'o years old, and 400 of a year old. Carps de¬
light in ponds that have marl or clay bottoms, with
plenty of weeds and grafs, whereon they feed in the hot
months.
Ponds fhould be drained every three or four years,
and the fifh forted. In breeding ones, the fmaller ones
are to be taken out, to ftore other ponds with 5 leav-
mg a good flock of females, at leaft eight or nine
years old, as they never breed before that age. In
feeding ponds, it is beft to keep them pretty near of a
fize.
FISHER, John, bifhop of Rochefter, was born
at Beverly in Yorkfhire, in the year 1459, and educa¬
ted in the collegiate church of that place. In 1484,
he removed to Michael houfe in Cambridge, of which
college he was ele&ed mafter in the year 1495. Hav¬
ing applied himfelf to the ftudy of divinity, he took
orders ^ and, becoming eminent as a divine, attracted
the notice of Margaret countefs of Richmond, mother
of Henry VII. who made him her chaplain and con-
feffor. In 1501, he took the degree of doftor of di¬
vinity, and the fame year was ele&ed chancellor of the
univerfity. In the year following, he w^as appointed
Lady Margaret’s firft divinity profeffor ; and in 1504
confecrated biftiop of Rochefter j which fmall biftiopric
he wrould never refign, though he was offered bath Ely
and Lincoln. It is generally allowed, that the foun¬
dation of the two colleges of Chrift church and St
John’s, in Cambridge, was entirely owing to Biftiop
Fiiher’s perfuafion and influence with the countefs of
J
tion, fent Rich, the folicitor general, under the pre¬
tence of confulting the bifhop on a cafe of confcience,
but really with a defign to draw him into a converfa-
tion concerning the fupremacy. The honeft old bi¬
fhop fpoke his mind without fufpicion or referve and
an indictment and conviction of high treafon w as the
confequence. He was beheaded at TowTer Hill, on the
22d of June 1535, in the 77th year of his age. Thus
died this good old prelate ; who, notwithftanding his in¬
flexible enmity to the Reformation, was undoubtedly a
learned, pious, and honeft man. He wrote feveral
treatifes againft Luther, and other works, which w'ere
printed at Wurtzburg, in 1597, in one volume folio.
FISHERY, a place wfliere great numbers of fifh are
caught.
_ I *’e principal fifheries for falmon, herring, mackrel,
pilchards, &c. are along the coafts of Scotland, Eng¬
land, and Ireland : for cod, on the banks of Newffound-
lacd : for whales, about Greenland : and for pearls in
the Eaft and Weft Indies.
Free Fishert, in Law, or an exclufive right of fifh-
ing in a public river, is a royal franchife j and is con-
fldered as fuch in all countries wfliere the feodal po¬
lity has prevailed ; though the making fuch grants, and
by that means appropriating, wdiat it feems unnatural to
reftrain, the ufe of running water, w-as prohibited for
the future by King John’s Great Charter ; and the ri¬
vers that were fenced in his time wTere directed to be
laid open, as wrell as the forefts to be disforefted. This
opetiing was extended by the fecond and third charters
of Henry III. to thofe alfo that wrere fenced under
Richard I. j fij that a franchife of free fifhery ought now
to be as old at leaft as the reign of Henry II. This ElaeiJonS,
differs from a feveral ofpi fearbecaufe he that has a
feveral fifhery muft alfo be the owmer of the foil, which
in a free filhery is not requifite. It differs alfo from a
common fifhery in that the free fifhery is an exclufive
right,
Fuliery.
FIS [ <H9 1 FIS
riglit, tke common fifhery is not fo : and tlierefore, in a
free fifliery, a man has property in the fifh before they
are caught ^ in a common piicaty^ not till afterwards*
Some indeed have confidered a free fiihery not as a royal
franchife ; but merely as a private grant of a liberty to
fifli in the fcverai fhhery of the grant. But the confi-
dering fuch right as originally a flower of the preroga¬
tive, till reftrained by Magna Charta, and derived by
royal grant (previous to the reign of Richard I.) to
fuch as now claim it by prefcription, may remove fome
difficulties in refpect to this matter with which our law
books are embarrafled.
Fishery, denotes alfo the commerce of fiffi, more
particularly the catching them for fale.
Were we to enter into a very minute and particular
conlideration of fiflieries, as at prefent eftablifhed in
this kingdom, this article would fwell beyond its pro¬
per bounds \ becaufe, to do juftice to a fubjeft of fuch
concernment to the Britiffi nation, requires a very am¬
ple and diflindl difcuflion. We {hall, howrever, ob-
ferve, that fince the Divine Providence hath fo emi¬
nently ftored the coafts of Great Britain and Ireland
with the moft valuable fifh $ and lince fiflieries, if fuc-
cefsful, become permanent nurferies for breeding ex¬
pert feamen j it is not only a duty we owe to the Su¬
preme Being, not to defpife the wonderful plenty he
hath afforded us, by negledling to extend this branch
of commerce to the utmoft ; but it is a duty we owe
to our country, for its natural fecurity, which de¬
pends upon the ftrength of our royal navy. No nation
can have a navy where there is not a fund of bufinefs
to breed and employ feamen without any expence to
the public, and no trade is fo well calculated for
training up thefe ufeful members of fociety as fiflie¬
ries.
The fituation of the Britifli coafts is the moft advan¬
tageous in the world for catching fifti: the Scottifli
iflands, particularly thofe to the north and weft, lie
moft commodious for carrying on the filhing trade to
perfeftion ; for no country in Europe can pretend to
come up to Scotland in the abundance of the fineft fifti,
with which its various creeks, bays, rivers, lakes, and
coafts, are repleniffied. Of thefe advantages the Scots
feem indeed to have been abundantly feniible 5 and their
traffic in herrings, the moft valuable of all the fiffieries,
is noticed in hiftory fo early as the ninth century.
The frequent laws which were enacted in the reigns of
James III. IV. and V. difcover a fteady determined
zeal for the benefit of the native fubjefts, and the full
reftoration of the fiflieries, which the Dutch had lat¬
terly found means to engrofs j and do honour to the
memory of thofe patriots whom modern times affeft to
call barbarians.
The expedition of James V. to the Hebrides and
weftem parts of the Highlands and his affiduity in
exploring and founding the harbours, difcovered a fix¬
ed refolution in that aftive prince, to civilize the in¬
habitants, to promote the valuable fiflieries at their
doors, and to introduce general induftry. His death,
at an early period, and the fubfequent religious and
civil commotions in the kingdom, fruftrated thofe
wife defigns, and the weftern fiffieries remained in their
original ftate of negledl. At length, 1602, James VI.
refumed the national purpofes which had been thus
chalked out by his grandfather. “ Three towns
Vol. VIII. Part 11.
(fays Dr Robertfoli) which might ferve as a retreat F>
for the induftrious, and a nurfery for arts and com-
merce, were appointed to be built in different parts of
the Highlands ; one in Cantire, another in Lochaber,
and a third in the ifle of Lewis j and in order to draw
the inhabitants thither, all the privileges of the royal
boroughs were to be conferred upon them. Finding
it, hoivever, to be no eafy matter to infpire the inhabi¬
tants of thofe countries with the love of induftry, a
refolution was taken to plant amongft them colonies of
people from the more induftrious counties. The firft
experiment was made in the ifle of Lewis ; and as it
was advantageoufly fituated for the fifliing trade (a
fource from which Scotland ought naturally to derive
great wealth), the colony tranfported thither was drawn
out of Fife, the inhabitants of which were well {killed
in that branch of commerce. But before they had
remained there long enough to manifeft the good ef¬
fects of this inftitution, the iflanders, enraged at fee¬
ing their country occupied by thofe intruders, took
arms, and furprifing them in the night time, murdered
fome of them, and compelled the reft to abandon the
fettlement. The king’s attention being foon tumed
to other objedls, particularly to his fucceffion to the
Englilh crown, we hear no more of this falutary pro-
jeft.”
The Scottilh fiflieries were, however, refumed by
Charles I. who “ ordained an affdciation of the three
kingdoms, for a general filhing within the hail feas
and coafts of his majefty’s faid kingdoms j and for
the government of the faid affociation, ordained, that
there ftiould be a {landing committee chofen and no¬
minated by his majefty, and his fucceffors from time
to time.” &c. &c. Several perfons of diftindlion em¬
barked in the defign, which the king honoured with
his patronage, and encouraged by his bounty. He al¬
fo ordered lent to be more ftridlly obferved j prohibited
the importation of fifli taken by foreigners ; and agreed
to purchafe from the company his naval {lores and the
fiffi for his fleets. Thus the fcheme of eftablifhing a
fiihery in the Hebrides began to affume a favourable
afpedf ; but all the hopes of the adventurers wrere fruf¬
trated by the breaking out of the civil wars, and the
very tragical death of their benefadlor.
In 1661, Charles II. the duke of York, Lord Claren¬
don, and other perfons of rank and fortune, refumed the
bufinefs of the fiffieries with greater vigour than any of
their predeceffors. For this purpofe the moft falutary
laws wrere enabled by the parliaments of England and
Scotland $ in virtue of which, all materials ufed in, or
depending upon, the fiffieries, wrere exempted from all
duties, excifes, or impofts whate rer. In England, the
company were authorifed to fet up a lottery, and to
have a voluntary colledtion in all pariffi churches; houfes
of entertainment, as taverns, inns, ale-houfes, wrere
to take one or more barrels of herrings, at the {fated
price of 30s. per barrel j and 2s. 6d. per barrel was to
be paid to the ftock of this company on all imported fiffi
taken by foreigners. Some Dutch families were alfo in¬
vited, or permitted, to fettle in Stornaway : the her¬
rings cured by the Royal Englifh company gave ge¬
neral fatisfaftion, and, as mentioned above, brought
a high price for thofe days. Every circumftance at¬
tending this new eftabliffiment feemed to be the refult
of a judicious plan and thorough knowledge of the
4 N bufinefs,
FIS [ 650 ] FIS
bufinefs, when the neceflities of the king obliged him ;.o
withdraw his fubfeription or bounty j which gave fuch
umbrage to the parties concerned, that they foon after
diilolved.
In 1677, a new royal company was eftabldhed in
England, at the head of which was the duke of York,
the earl of Derby, &c. Befides all tire privileges which
former companies had enjoyed, the king granted this
new company a perpetuity, with power to purchafe
lands } and alfo 20I. to be paid them annually, out
of the cuftoms of the port of London, for every dog¬
ger or bufs they (hould build and fend out for feven
years to come. A flock of 10,980b was immediate¬
ly advanced, and afterwards 1600b more. This fmall
capital was foon exhaufted in purchaling and fitting
out bulfes, with other incidental expences. The
company, made, however, a fuccefsful beginning •, and
one of their bulfes or doggers adtually took and
brought home 32,000 cod filh •, other veffels had alfo
a favourable fiihery. Such favourable beginnings might
have excited frelh fubferiptions, when an unforefeen
event ruined the whole defign beyond the poffibility
of recovery. Moft of the buffes had been built in
Holland, and manned with Dutchmen •, on which pre¬
tence the French, who were then at wTar with Holland,
feized fix out of feven veffels, wdth their cargoes and
filhing tackle : and the company being now in debt,
fold, in 1680, the remaining flores, &c. A number
of gentlemen and merchants raifed a new fubfeription
of 6o,oool. under the privileges and immunities of the
former charter. This attempt alfo came to nothing,
owdng to the death of the king, and the troubles of the
fubfequent reign.
Soon after the Revolution this bufinefs was again re¬
fumed, and upon a more extenfive fcale *, the propofed
capital being 300,000b of wdiich 100,000b was to
have been raifed by the furviving patentees or their
fucceflors, and 200,ocoh by new fubferibers. Copies
of the letters patent, the conftitution of the company,
and terms of fubfeription, were lodged at fundry pla¬
ces in London and Weftminifter, for the perufal of the
public, while the fubfeription was filling. It is pro¬
bable, that King William’s partiality to the Dutch
filheries, the fucceeding wrar, or both of thefe circum-
ftances, fruftrated this new attempt; of which we
have no farther account in the annals of that reign or
fince.
The Scottilh parliament had alfo, during the three
laft reigns, pafled fundry a£Is for erecting companies
and promoting the fifheries 5 but the intertine commo¬
tions of that country, and the great exertions w7hich
were made for the Darien eftablilhment, enfeebled all
other attempts, whether colleftively or by individuals,
within that kingdom.
In 1749, his late majefty having, at the opening
of the parliament, warmly recommended the improve¬
ment of the fifheries, the houfe of commons appointed
a committee to inquire into the ftate of the herring
and white fifheries, and to confider of the moft pro¬
bable means of extending the fame. All ranks of
men were elevated with an idea of the boundlefs riches
that would flow into the kingdom from this fource, A
fubfeription of 500,000b was immediately filled in the
city, by a body of men wdio were incorporated for 21
years by the name of T/te Society, of the Free Britijh
Fijhenj. Every encouragement was held out by go-. FifDrf.
vernment, both to the fociety, and to individuals who
might embark in this national oufinefs. A bounty of
36s. per ton was to be paid annually out of the cultoms,
for 14 years, to the owmers of all decked veffels or buf¬
fes, from 20 to 80 tons burden, wdiich ihould be built
after the commencement of the acl, for the ufe of, and
fitted out and employed in, the faid fiftieries, whether
by the fociety or any other perfons. At the fame time
numerous pamphlets and newfpaper eflays came forth $
all pretending to elucidate the fubjedrt, and to convince
the public with what facility the herring filheries might
be transferred from Dutch to Britilh hands. This
proved, however, a more arduous talk than had been
forefeen by fuperficial fpeculators. The Dutch were
frugal in their expenditures and living j perfect mafters
©f the arts of filhing and curing, which they had carried
to the greateft height and perfection. They were in
full pofieflion of the European markets •, and their
filh, whether deferving or otherwife, had the reputa¬
tion of fuperior qualities to all others taken in our
feas. With fuch advantages, the Dutch not only main¬
tained their ground againft this formidable company,
but had alfo the pleafure of feeing the capital gradual¬
ly linking, without having procured an adequate return
to the adventurers j notwithftanding various aids and
efforts of government from time to time in their favour,
particularly in 1757, wdien an advance of 20s. per ton
wTas added to the bounty.
In 1786 the public attention was again called to the
ftate of the Britilh lilheries, by the fuggeftions of Mr
Dempfter in the houfe of commons, and by different pub¬
lications that appeared upon the fubjedt: in confequence
of which the minifter fuffered a committee to be named,
to inquire into this great fource of national wealth. To
that committee it appeared, that the beft way of improv¬
ing the filheries was to encourage the inhabitants liv¬
ing neareft to the feat of them to become filhers: And
it being found that the north-weftern coaft of the king¬
dom, though abounding with filh and with fine harbours,
was utterly deftitute of townsman aft was pafled for
incorporating certain perfons therein named, by the
ftyle of “ The Britijh Society for extending of the filh¬
eries and improving the fea coafts of the kingdom
and to enable them to fubferibe a joint flock, and there¬
with to purchafe lands, and build thereon free towns,
villages, and filhing ftations, in the Highlands and
illands in that part of Great Britain called Scotland,
and for other purpofes. The ifle of Mull, Loch Broom,
the ifles of Sky and of Cannay, have already been pitch¬
ed upon as proper lituations for fome of thefe towns.
The progrefs of fuch an undertaking from its nature
mull be flow, but ftill flower when carried on wdth a
limited capital arifing from the fubferiptions of a few
public-fpirited individuals. But it is not to be doubt¬
ed but that it will ultimately tend to the increafe of
our filheries, and to the improvement of the Highland
part of this kingdom. Its tendency is alfo to leflen
the emigration of a brave and induftrious race of inha¬
bitants, too many of whom have already removed with
their families to America.
1. Anchovy Fishery. The anchovy is caught in the
months of May, June, and July, on the coafts of Cata¬
lonia, Provence, &c. at which feafon it conftantly re¬
pairs up the ftraitsof Gibraltar, into the Mediterranean..
Collins
FIS [65
Fishery. Collins fays they are alfo found in plenty on the weft-
 "v- ern coafts of England and Waics.
The fifhing for them is chiefly in the night time $
when a light being put on the ftern of their little fifhing
veffels, the anchovies flock round, and are caught in the
nets. Bat then it is afferted to have been found by
experience, that anchovies taken thus by fire, are nei¬
ther fo good, fo firm, nor fo proper for keeping, as
thofe which are taken without fire.
When the fiftiery is over, they cut off the heads,
take out their gall and guts, and then lay them in bar¬
rels, and fait them. The common way of eating an¬
chovies is with oil, vinegar, &.c. in order to which they
are firft boned, and the tails, fins, &c. flipped off.—
Being put on the fire, they diffolvc almoft in any li¬
quor. Or they are made into a fauce by minching them
with pepper, Stc. Some alfo pickle anchovies in fmall
delft or earthen pots, made on purpofe, of two or
three pounds weight, more or lefs, which they cover
with plafter to keep them the better. Anchovies
ftiould be chofen fmall, frefh pickled, white on the out-
fide and red within. They muft have a round back 5
for thofe which are flat or large are often nothing but
fardines, Befides thefe qualities, the pickle, on open¬
ing the pots or barrels, muft be of a good tafte, and
not have loft its flavour.
2. Cod Fisheet. There are two kinds of cod fifli;
the one green or white cod, and the other dried or cur¬
ed cod •, though it is all the fame fifn, differently pre¬
pared *, the former being fometimes faked and barrel¬
led, then taken out for ufe j and the latter, having lain
fome competent time in fait, dried in the fun or fmoke.
We (hall therefore fpeak of each of thefe apart j and
firft of the
Green. The chief fiftieries for green cod are in
the bay of Canada, on the great bank of Newfound¬
land, and on the ifle of St Peter, and the ifle of
Sable j to which places veffels refort from divers parts
both of Europe and America. They are from 100 to
150 tons burden, and will catch between 30,000 and
40,000 cod each. The moft effential part of the
fifhery is, to have a mafter who knows how to cut up
the cod, one who is {killed to take off the head pro¬
perly, and above all a good falter, on which the pre¬
serving of them, and confequently the fuccefs of the
voyage depends. The belt feafon is from the begin¬
ning of February to the end of April *, the fifh, which
in the winter retire to the deepeft water, coming then
on the banks, and fattening extremely. What is
caught fiom March to June keeps well j but thofe
taken in July, Auguft, and September, when it is warm
on the banks, are apt to fpoil foon. Every fiftier takes
but one at a time : the moft expert will take from 350
to 400 in a day ; but that is the moft, the weight of
the fifh and the great coldnefs on the bank fatiguing
very much. As foon as the cod are caught, the head
is taken off $ they are opened, gutted, and faked ; and
the falter flows them in the bottom of the hold, head
to tail, in beds a fathom or two fquare j laying layers
of fait and fifh alternately, but never mixing fifh caught
on different dfiys. When they have lain thus three or
four days to drain off the water, they are replaced in
another part of the {hip, and faked again j where they
remain till the veffel is loaded. Sometimes they are cut
i ] FIS
in thick pieces, and put in barrels for the conveniency Filherr.
of carriage. -y'*—'
Dr 11. The principal fiftiery for this article is, from
Cape Rofe to the Bay des Exports, along the coaft
of Placentia, in rvhich compafs there are divers com¬
modious ports for the fifti to be dried in. Thefe,
though of the fame kind with the frefh cod, are
much fmaller, and therefore fitter to keep, as the fait
penetrates more eafily into them. The fiftiery of both
is much alike •, only this latter is moft expenfive, as it
takes up more time and employs more hands, and yet
fcarce half fo much fait is fpent in this as in the other.
The bait is herrings, of which great quantities are
taken on the coaft of Placentia. When feveral veffels
meet and intend to fifli in the fame part, he whofe fhal-
lop firft touches ground becomes entitled to the qua¬
lity and privileges of admiral : he has the choice of his
ftation, and the refuftfl of all the wrood on the coaft at
his arrival. As faft as the mafters arrive, they unrigg
all their veffels, leaving nothing but the flirouds to fu-
ftain the mafts; and in the mean time the mates pro¬
vide a tent on fhore, covered with branches of trees,
and fails over them, with a fcaffold of great trunks of
pines, 12, 15, 16, and often 20 feet high, commonly
from 40 to 60 feet long, and about ®ne-third as much
in breadth. While the fcaffold is preparing, the crew
are a-fiftiing; and as faft as they catch, they bring their
fifh afhore, and open and fait them upon moveable
benches $ but the main faking is performed on the
fcaffold. When the fifti have taken fait, they wafli and
hang them to drain on rails •, when drained, they are
laid on kinds of ftages, which are fmall pieces of wood
laid acrofs, and covered with branches of trees, having
the leaves ftripped off for the paffage of the air. On
thefe ftages, they are difpofed, a fifh thick, head againft
tail, with the back uppermoft, and are turned carefully
four times every 24 hours. When they begin to dry,
they are laid in heaps 10 or 12 thick, in order to re¬
tain their warmth •, and every day the heaps are en¬
larged till they become double their firfi: bulk ; then
two heaps are joined together, which they turn every
day as before : laftly, they are faked again, beginning
with thofe firft faked ; and being laid in huge piles,
they remain in that fituation till they are carried on
board the fhips, where they are laid on the branches
of trees difpofed for that purpofe, upon the ballaft, and
round the fhip, with mats to prevent their contrading
any moifture.
There are four forts of commodities drawn from cod,
viz. the founds, the tongues, the roes, and the oil ex-
traded from the liver. The firft is faked at the fiftiery
together with the fifh, and put in barrels from 600 to
700 pounds. The tongues are done in like manner, and
brought in barrels from 400 to 500 pounds. The roes
are alfo faked in barrels, and ferve to caft into the lea
to draw fifti together, and particularly pilchards. The
oil comes in barrels, from 400 to 520 pounds, and is
ufed in dreffmg leather. In Scotland, they catch a
fmall kind of cod on the coafts of Buchan, and all along
the Murray frith on both fides ; as alfo in the friths of
Forth, Clyde, &c. which is much efteemed. They
fait and dry them in the fun upon rocks, and feme-
times in the chimney.
3. Cora/ Fishert. See Coral.
4 N 2 4. Herring'
FIS [ 652 ] FI S
Fuliery. 4. Herring Fishery. Our great flatlons for tliis fifliery
v are oft' the Shetland and Weftern iftes, and off the coatl
of Norfolk, in which the Dutch alio fliare. There
are two feafons for filhing herring j the firft from June
to the end of Auguft 5 and the fecond in autumn, when
the fogs become very favourable for this kind of filh¬
ing. The Dutch begin their herring fifhing on the
24th of June, and employ a vaft number of veffels
therein, called bujjes, being between 45 and 60 tons
burden each, and carrying three or four fmall cannon.
They never ftir out of port, without a convoy, unlefs
there be enough together to make about 18 or 20 can¬
non among them, in which cafe they are allowed to go
in company. Before they go out they make a verbal
agreement, which has the fame force as if it were in
writing. The regulations of the admiralty of Holland
are partly followed by the French and other nations,
and partly improved and augmented with new ones j
as, that no filher fhall caff his net within too fathoms
of another boat: that while the nets are call, a light
ftiall be kept on the hind part of the veffel : that when
a boat is by any accident obliged to leave off filhing,
the light ftiall be caff into the fea ; that when the great¬
er part of a fleet leaves off filhing, and caffs anchor,
the reft lhall do the fame, &c.
1 °f Mr Anderlbn J: gives to the Scots a knowledge of
Gommcroe. great antiquity in the herring filhery. He fays that the
Netherlanders reforted to thefe coafts as early as A. D.
836, to purchafe failed filh of the natives, but, impof-
ing on the ffrangers, they learned the art, and took up
the trade, in after-times of fuch immenfe emolument
to the Dutch.
Sir Walter Raleigh’s obfervations on that head, ex¬
tracted from the fame author, are extremely worthy
the attention of the curious, and excite reflections on
the vaff ftrength refulting from the wifdom of well ap¬
plied indultry.
In 1603, he remarks, the Dutch fold to different
nations as many herrings as amounted to 1,759,000!.
fterling. -In the year 1615, they at once fent out
2000 buffes, and employed in them 37,000 fifhermen.
In the year 1618, they fent out 3000 fhips, with
50,000 men to take the herrings, and 9000 more (hips
to tranfport and fell the filh j which by fea and land
employed 150,000 men, befides thofe firft mentioned.
All this wealth was gotten on our coafts, while our
attention was taken up in a diftant whale filhery.
The Scottilh monarchs for a long time feemed to di-
re<ft all their attention to the prefervation of the falmon
fifhery, probably becaufe their fubjefts were fuch no¬
vices in fea affairs. At length James III. endeavoured
to ftimulate his great men to thefe patriotic undertak¬
ings : for by an adt of his third parliament, he com¬
pelled “ certain lords fpiritual and temporal, and bur¬
rows, to make (hips, buffes, and boats, with nets and
other pertinents, for fiflimg. That the fame Ihould be
made in each Burgh j in number according to the
fubftance of each burgh, and the leaft of them to
be of twenty tons: and that all idle men be com¬
pelled by the Iherifts in the country to go on board the
• fame.”
Numerous indeed have been the attempts made at
different periods to fecure this treafure to ourfelves, but
without fuccefs. In the late reign, a very ftrong effort
\yas made, and bounces alloyed fof encouragement
i
of Britilh adventurers: the firft was of 30s. per ton to Hfliery.
every bufs of 70 tons and upwards. This bounty was
afterwards railed to 50s. per ton, to-be paid to- fuch.
adventurers as were entitled to it by claiming.it at the
places of rendezvous. The buffes are from 20 to 90 tons
burden, but the beft fize is 80. A veffel of 80 tons ought
to take ten lafts, or 120 barrels of herrings, to -clear
expences, the price of the filh to be admitted to be a
guinea a barrel. A Ihip of this fize ought to have- 18
men, and three boats : one of 20 tons Ihould have fix
men 5 and every five tons above require an additional
hand. To every ton axe 280 yards of nets ; fo a veffel
of 80 tons carries 20,000 fquare yards : each net is
12 yards long, and 1 o deep, and every boat takes out
from 20 to 30 nets, and puts them together, fo as to
form a long train j they are funk at each end of the
train by a ftone, which weighs it down to the full ex¬
tent : the top is fupported by buoys, made of Iheeps-
fldn, with a hollow flick at the mouth faftened tight :
through this the ikin is blown up, and then flopped with
a peg, to prevent the efcape of the air. Sometimes
thefe buoys are placed at the top of the nets: at other
times the nets are fuffered to fink deeper, by the length¬
ening the cords faftened to them, every cord being
for that purpofe 10 or 12 fathoms long. But the
beft filheries are generally in more lhallow water.
Of the Scots filhery in the Weftern Ifles, the follow- 5 ^cyage ts
ing account is given by Mr Pennant § . “The filhing is H‘bridtt+
always performed in the night, unlefs by accident. The
buffes remain at anchor, and fend out their boats a little
before funfet •, which continue out, in winter and fum-
mer, till day light j often taking up and emptying their
nets, which they do 10 or 12 times in a night, in cafe
of good fuccefs. During winter it is a moll dangerous
and fatiguing employ, by reafon of the greatnefs and
frequency of the gales in thefe feas, and m fuch gales
are the moll fuccefsful captures : but by the Providence
of heaven, the filhers are feldom loft 5 and, what is won¬
derful, few are vifited with illnefs. They go out well
prepared, with a warm great coat, boots, and fkin
aprons, and a good provifion of beef and fpirits. The
fame good fortune attends the buffes, which in the tem-
peftuous feafon, and in the darkeft nights, are conti¬
nually fhifting, in thefe narrow leas, from harbour to
harbour. Sometimes 80 barrels of herrings are taken
in a night by the boats of a Angle veffel. It once hap¬
pened, in Loch Slappan, in Sky, that a bufs of 80
tons might have taken 200 barrels in one night, with
10,000 fquare yards of net •, but the mailer was obliged
to defift, for want of a fufficient number of hands to
preferve the capture. The herrings are preferved by
falting, after the entrails are taken out. This laft is
an operation performed by the country people, who get
three halfpence per barrel for their trouble j and fome-
times, even in the winter, can gain fifteen pence a-day.
This employs both women and children j but the falt¬
ing is only intrufted to the crew of the buffes. The
filh are laid on their backs in the barrels, and layers of
fait between them. The entrails are not loft, for they
are boiled into an oil: 8000 filh will yield ten gal¬
lons, valued at one Ihilling the gallon. A veffel of 80
tons takes out 144 barrels of fait; a drawback of 2si
8d. is allowed for each barrel ufed by the foreign or
Irilh exportation of the filh 5 but there is a duty of
I s. per band for home eo»fumption? and the fame
F I S
[ 653 ]
FIS
Fifliery.
for thofe fent to Ireland. The barrels are made of oak
flaves chiefly from Virginia; the hoops from feveral
parts of our own ifland, and are either of oak, birch,
hazel or willow ; the lall from Holland, liable to a du-
ty. The barrels coft about 3s. each, they hold trom
coo to 800 fhh, according to the fize of the filh 5 and
are made to contain 32 gallons. The barrels are in-
fpedted by proper officers; a cooper examines if they
are ftatutable and good > if faulty, lie deftroys them,
and obliges the maker to Hand to the lofs.
“ Loch Broom has been celebrated for three or four
centuries as the refort of herrings. They generally
appear here i» July; thofe that turn into this bay are
part of the brigade that detaches itfelf from the weft-
ern column of that great army which annually deferts
the vaft depths of the ardic circle, and comes, heaven-
direfted, to the feats of population, offered as a cheap
food to millions, whom walteful luxury or iron-hearted
avarice hath deprived, by enhancing the price, of the
wonted fupports of the poor, ^Ihe migration of thefe
fiffi from their northern retreat is regular j their vifits
to the Weftern ifles and coafts certain j but their at¬
tachment to one particular loch extremely precari¬
ous. All have their turns : that which fwarmed with
filh one year, is totally deferted the following; yet
the next loch to it may be crowded with the ffioals.
Thefe changes of place give often full employ to
the buffes, who are continually Ihifting their harbour
in quell of news refpefling thefe important wanderers.
They commonly appear here in July ; the latter end
of Augult they go into deep water, and continue
there lor fome time, without any apparent caufe :
in November, they return to the lhallows, when a new
filhery commences, which continues till January . at
that time the herrings become full of roe, and are ufe-
lefs as articles of commerce. Some doubt, whether
thofe herrings that appear in November are not part
of a new migration ; for they are as fat, and make
the fame appearance, as thole that compofed the firft.
The figns of the arrival of the herrings are flocks of
gulls, who catch up the fiffi while they Ikim on the
furface, and of gannets, who plunge and bring them
up from confiderable depths. Both thefe birds aie
clofely attended to by the fiffiers. Cod fiffi, haddocks,
and dog filh, follow the herrings in valt multitudes .
thefe voracious filh keep on the outlides of the co¬
lumns, and may be a concurrent reafon of driving the
ffioals into bays and creeks. In fummer, they come
into the bays generally with the warmeft weather,
and with eafy gales. During winter, the hard gales
from north-weft are fuppofed to affift in forcing them
into ffielter. Eaft winds are very unfavourable to the
fiffiery.” .
Herrings are cured either white or pickled, or red.
Of the firjl, thofe done by the Dutch are the
moil efteemed, being diftinguiffied into four forts, ac¬
cording to their lizes ; and the bell are thofe that are
fat, fleffiy, firm, and white, failed the fame day they
are taken, with good fait, and well barrelled. The
Britiffi cured herrings are little inferior, if not equal,
to the Dutch : for in fpite of all their endeavours to
conceal the fecret, their method of curing, lafting, or
c^ficing the herrings, has been difcovered, and is. as
follows. After they have hauled in their nets, which
they drag in the ftern of their veffels backwards and
forwards in traverfing the coaft, they throw them upon
the ffiip’s deck, which is cleared of every thing for
that purpofe : the crew is feparated into fundry divi-
fions, and each divifton has a peculiar talk; one part
opens and guts the herrings, leaving the milts and
roes ; another cures and falls them, by lining or rub¬
bing their infide with fait; the next packs them, and
between each row and divilion they fprinkle handfuls
of fait; laftly, the cooper puts the finiffiing hand to all,
by heading the calks very tight, and ftowing them in the
hold.
Red herrings muft lie 24 hours in the brine, in-
afmuch as they are to take all their fait there ; and
when they are taken out, they are fpitted, that is,
ftrung by the head on little wooden fpits, and then
hung in a chimney made for that purpofe. After
which, a fire of bruffiwood, which yields a deal oi
fmoke, but no flame, being made under them, they
remain there till fufficiently fmoked and dried, and are
afterwards barrelled up for keeping.
5. Lobjler Fishert. Lobfters are taken along the
Eritiffi channel, and on the coaft of Norway, whence
they are brought to London for fale ; and alfo in the
frith of Edinburgh, and on the coaft of Northumber¬
land. By 10 and 11 W. III. cap. 24. no lobfter is to
be taken under eight inches in length, from the peak
of the nofe to the end of the middle fin of the tail;
and by 9 G. II. cap. 33- no lobfters are to be taken
on the coaft of Scotland from the ift of June to thfc
ill of September.
6. Mackerel Fishery. The mackerel is a fummer fifli
of paffage, found in large ffioals, in divers parts of the
ocean,, not far north; but efpecially on the French
and Engliffi coafts. The fiffiing is ufually in the
months of April, May, and June, and even July, ac¬
cording to the place. They enter the Engliffi chan¬
nel in April, and proceed up to the ftraits of Dover
as the fummer advances ; fo that by June they are on
the coafts of Cornwall, Suffex, Normandy, Picardy,
&.c. where- the fiffiery is moft confiderable. I hey are
an excellent food freffi ; and not to be defpifed, when
w^ell prepared, pickled, and put up in barrels ; a me¬
thod of preferving them chiefly ufed in Cornwall..
The fiffi is taken two ways; either with a line or
nets : the latter is the more confiderable, and is ufually
performed in the night-time. I he rules obferved in
the fiffiing for mackerel are much the fame as thofe
already mentioned in the fiffiery of herrings.
There are two ways of pickling them : the firft Is,
by opening and gutting them, and filling the belly
with fait, crammed in as hard as poflible with a ftick ;
which done, they range them in ftrata or row’s, at the
bottom of the veffel, ftrewing fait between the layers.
In the fecond way, they put them immediately into
tubs full of brine, made of frefti water and fait; and
leave them to fteep, till they have imbibed fait enough
to make them keep; after which, they are taken
out, and barrelled up, taking care to prefs them clofe
down.
Mackerel are not cured or exported as merchandiie,
except a few by the Yarmouth and Leoftoff merchants^
but are generally confumed at home ; efpecially ifl
the city of London, and the fea-ports between t e
Thames and Yarmouth, eaft, and the Land’s End ot
Cornwall, weft, „ .
' 7. Oy fieri
Fishery,.
Fifiiery.
13°e Of}ten.
Conchology
Index.
FIS t 654 ] FIS
7* Oyfler FisheryX. This fifhery is principally carried
on at Colchefter in Effex j Feverfham and Milton in
’ Kent 5 the Me of Wight j the Swales of the Medway j
and Tenby on the coait of Wales. From Fever (ham,
and adjacent parts, the Dutch have fometimes loaded a
hundred large hoys with oyflers in a year. They are
?.lfo taken in great quantities near Portfmouth, and in
all the creeks and rivers between Southampton and
Chichefter : many of which are carried about by fea
to London and to Colchefter, to be fed in the pits
about Wavenhoe and other places,
8. Pear/ Fishery. See Pearl, Conchology Index,
•and Ceylon.
9. Pilchard Fishery. The chief pilchard fifheries are
along the coafts of Dalmatia, on the coaft of Bretagne,
and along the coafts of Cornwall and Devonfhire. That
of Dalmatia is very plentiful: that on the coafts of
Bretagne employs annually about 300 (hips. Of the
pilchard fifhery on the coaft of Cornwall the following
account is given by Dr Borlafe: “ It employs a great
number of men on the fea, training them thereby to
naval affairs j employs men, women, and children, on
land, in faking, preffing, wafhing and cleaning j in
making boats, nets, ropes, cafks, and all the trades
depending on their conftruflion and fale. The poor
are fed with the offals of the captures, the land with
the refufe of the ffth and fait j the merchant finds the
gains of commiffion and honeft commerce, the fifher-
man the gains of the fifh. Ships are often freighted
hither with fait, and into foreign countries with the
fifti, carrying off at the fame time part of our tin. Of
the ufual produce of the great number of hoglheads ex-,
ported each year for ten years from 1747 to 1756 in-
clufive, from the four ports of Fowey, Falmouth, Pen¬
zance, and St Ives, it appears that Fowey has exported
yearly 1732 hoglheads ; Falmouth, 14,631 hogfheads
and two thirds j Penzance and Mounts-Bay 12,149
hogftieads and one third ; St Ives, 1280 hogfheads :
in all amounting to 29,795 hogftieads^ Every hogf-
head for ten years laft part, together with the bounty
allowed for each hogfhead exported, and the oil made
out of each hogfhead, has amounted, one year with
another at an average, to the price of il. 13s. 3d. $
fo that the cafti paid for pilchards exported has,
at a medium, annually amounted to the fum of
49>532^- t os.”—The numbers that are taken at
one {hooting out of the nets are amazingly great.
Mr Pennant fays, that Dr Borlafe affured him, that
on the 5th of October 1767, there were at one
time enclofed in St Ives’s Bay *joco hogfheads,
each hogftread containing 35,000 fifti, in all 245 millions.
The pilchards naturally follow the light, which con¬
tributes much to the facility of the fiftrery; the feafon
is from June to September. On the coafts of France
they make ufe of the roes of the cod fifli as a bait j
which, thrown into the fea, makes them rife from the
bottom, and run into the nets. On our coafts there
are perfons pofted afhore, wrho, fpying by the colour
of the water where the ftioals are, make figns to the
boats to go among them to caft their nets. When
taken, they are brought on fhore to a warehpufe,
where they are laid up in broad piles, {imported with
backs and fides *, and as they are piled, they fait them
with bay fait j in which lying to foak for 30 or 40 days,
-hey run out a deal of blood, with dirty pickle and
4
bittern : then they wafh them clean in fea water ; and, Fiiherf.
when dry, barrel and prefs them hard down to fqueezc
out the oil, which iffues out at a hole in the bottom of
the ca£k.
10. Sahnon Fishery. The chief falmon fifheries inf See
Europe are in England, Scotland, and Ireland, in the Ichtholoiy
rivers, and fea coafts adjoining to the river mouths.lT,d<!X'
Ihe moft diftinguifhed for falmon in Scotland are, the
river Tweed, the Clyde, the 1 ay, the Dee, the Don,
the Spey, the Nefs, the Bewly, &c. in moft of which
it is very common, about the height of fummer, efpe-
cially if the weather happens to be very hot, to catch
four or five fcore falmon at a draught. 1 he chief ri¬
vers in England for falmon are, the Tyne, the Trent,
the Severn, and the Fhames. I he fifhing is performed
with nets,, and fometimes with a kind of locks or wears
made on p'urpofe, which in certain places have iron or
’wooden grates fo difpofed, in an angle, that being im¬
pelled by any force in a contrary direction to the courfe
of the river, they may -give way and open a little at the
point of contact, and immediately fhut again, doling
the angle. The falmon, therefore, coming up into the
rivers, are admitted into thefe grates, which open, and
fuffer them to pafs through, but fhut again, and pre¬
vent their return, d he falmon is alfo caught with a
fpear, which they dart into him when they fee him
fwimming near the furface of the w^ater. It is cuftom-
ary likewife to catch them with a candle and lan-
thorn, or wdfp of ftraw fet on fire j for the fifh natu¬
rally following the light, are ftruck with the fpear, or
taken in a net fpread for that purpofe, and lifted with
a fudden jerk from the bottom.
“ The capture of falmon in the Tweed, about the
month of July (fays Mr Pennant f) is prodigious. In j Srit. Ztol
a good fhhery, often a boat load, and fometimes near ill. 389.
two, are taken in a tide : fome few years ago there were
above 700 fiih taken at one hawl, but from 50 to 100
is very frequent. The coopers in Berwick then begin
to fait both falmon and grilfes in pipes and other large
veifels, and afterwards barrel them to fend abroad, hav¬
ing then far more than the London markets can take
off their hands.
“ Moft of the falmon taken before April, or to the
fetting in of the warm weather, is fent frefh to Lon¬
don in bafkets : unlefs now and then the veffel is dif-
appointed by contrary winds of failing immediately j in
which cafe the fifh is brought afhore again to the coopers
offices, and boiled, pickled, and kitted, and fent to
the London markets by the ftime fhip, and frefh fal¬
mon put in the bafkets in lieu of the ftale ones. At
the beginning of the feafon, when a fhip is on the
point of failing, a frefh clean falmon will fell from a
fhilling to eighteen pence a pound j and moft of the
time that this part of the trade is carried on, the prices
are from five to nine {hillings per ftone j the value rxfing
and falling according to the plenty of fifh, or the pro-
fpeff of a fair or foul wind. Some fifh are fent in this
manner to London the latter end of September, wken
the weather grows cool $ but then the fifh are full of
large roes, grow very thin bellied, and are not efteem-
ed either palatable or wholefome.
“ The feafon for fifhing in the Tweed begins No¬
vember 30th, but the nfhermen w'ork very little till af¬
ter Chrillmas: it ends on Michaelmas day j yet the
corporation of Berwick (who are ccnfervators of the
river)
!
ri.liery-
FIS [ 655 1 FIS
river) indulge the tuhermen with a fortnight pafl that
time, on account of the change of the ftyle.
“ There are on the river 41 confiderable fifheries,
extending upwards about 14 miles from the mouth,
(the others above being of no great value), which are
rented for near 5400I. per annum : the expence at¬
tending the fervants wages, nets, boats, &c. amount
to coool. more; which together makes up the fum
10,400!. Now, in confequence, the produce mull
defray all, and no lefs than 20 times that fum of frfli
will effedt it j fo that 208,000 falmoxx muft be caught
there one year with another.
“ Scotland pofleffes great numbers of fine filhcries
on both fides of that kingdom. The Scotch in early
times had moll fevere laws againft the killing of this
fiih ; for the third offenc^'Vas made capital, by a law
of James IV. Before that, the oftender had power to
redeem his life. They were thought in the time of
Henry VI. a prefent worthy of a crowned head : for
in that reign the queen of Scotland fent to the duchefs
of Clarence 10 calks of faked falmon ; which Henry
direfted to pafs duty free. The falmon are cured in
the fame manner as at Berwuck, and a great quantity
is fent to London in the fpring j but after that time,
the adventurers begin to barrel and export them to fo¬
reign countries ; but we believe that commerce is far
lefs lucrative than it wras in former times, partly owing
to the great increafe of the Newfoundland fifnery, and
partly to the general relaxation of the difcipline of ab-
Ilinence in the Romifh church.
“ Ireland (particularly the north) abounds wdth this
filh : the moft confiderable frfhery is at Cranna, on the
river Ban, about a mile and a half from Coleraine.
When I made the tour of that hofpitable kingdom in
1754, it was rented by a neighbouring gentleman for
620I. a-year j who allured me, that the tenant, his
predeceffor, gave 1600I. per annum, and was a much
greater gainer by the bargain, for the reafons before
mentioned, and on account of the number of the poachers
who deftroy the filh in the fence months.
“ The mouth of this river faces the north ^ and is
finely fituated to receive the filh that roam along the
coaft in fearch of an inlet into fome frefh water, as
they do all along that end of the kingdom which op-
pofes itfelf to the northern ocean. We have feen near
Ballicaltle, nets placed in the fea at the foot of the
promontories that jut into it, which the falmon itrike
into as they are wandering clofe to Ihore j and numbers
are taken by that method.
“ In the Ban they-filh with nets 18 fcore yards
long, and are continually drawing night and day the
whole feafon, which we think laits about four months,
two fets of 16 men each alternately relieving one ano¬
ther. The bell drawing is when the tide is coming
in : we were told, that at a Angle draught there were
once 840 filh taken.
“ A few miles higher up the river is a wear where
a confiderable number of filh that efcape the nets are
taken. We were lately informed, that, in the year
1760, about 320 tons were taken in the Cranna filh-
ery.”
Curing Salmon. When the falmon are taken, they
open them along the back, take out the guts and gills,
and cut out the greateft part of the bones, endeavour¬
ing to make the infide as fmooth as polfible ; they then
fait the filh in large tubs for the purpofe, where they Fiftierr.
lie a confiderable time foaking in brine •, and about'
Oftober, they are packed clofe up in barrels, and fent
to London, or exported up the Mediterraneati. They
have alfo in Scotland a great deal of falmon faked in
the common wray, which after foaking in brine a com¬
petent time, is well prelfed, and then dried in fmoke :
this is called kipper, and is chiefly made for home con-
fumption j and if properly cured and prepared, is reck¬
oned very delicious.
Sturgeon f Fishery. The greatell fiurgeon filhery f See Jed*
is in the mouth of the Volga, on the Cafpian fea : penfer, Icb~
where the Mufcovites employ a great number of hands,
and catch them in a kind of enclofure,-formed by huge H e*‘
flakes reprefenting the letter Z repeated feveral times,
Thefe filheries are open on the fide next the fea, and’
clofe on the other 5 by which means the filh afeending
in its feafon up the river, is embarralfed in thefe nar¬
row angular retreats, and fo is eafily killed with a
harping iron. Sturgeons, when frelh, eat delicioully ;
and in order to make them keep, they are faked or
pickled in large pieces, and put up in cags from 30 to
50 pounds. But the great objedl of this filhery is the
roe, of which the Mufcovites are extremely fond, and
of which is made the cavear, or kavia, fo much elleem-
ed by the Italians. See Cavear.
Tunny Fishery. The tunny (a fpecies of Scom¬
ber), was a filh well known to the ancients, and
made a great article of commerce : And there are Hill
very confiderable tunny filheries on the coails of Sici¬
ly, as well as leveral other parts of the Mediterranean.
The nets are fpread over a large fpace of fea by
means of cables fallened to anchors, and are divided
into feveral compartments. The entrance is always
direfted, according to the feafon, towards that part of
the fea from which the filh are known to come. A
man placed upon the fummit of a rock high above the
water,-gives a fignal of the filh being arrived ; for he
can dilcern from that elevation what pafies under the
waters infinitely better than any perfon nearer the fur-
face. As foon as notice is given that the flioal of fifh
has penetrated as far as the inner compartment, or the
chamber of death, , the pallage is drawn clofe, and the
(laughter begins.
The undertakers of thefe filheries pay an acknow¬
ledgment to the king, or the lord upon whofe land
they fix the main flay or foot of the tonnara 5 they
make the bed bargain they can: and, till fucce^s has
crowned their endeavours,, obtain this leave for a fmall
confideration ; but the rent is afterwards raifed in pro¬
portion to their capture.
The tunny enters the Mediterranean about the vernal
equinox, travelling in a triangular phalanx, fo as to cut
the waters with its point* and to prefent an extenfive
bafe for the tides and currents to a£l againll, and impel
forwards. Thefe filh repair to the warm feas of Greece
to fpawn, fleering their courfe thither along the Euro¬
pean Ihores, but as they return, approach the African
coall 5 the young fry is placed in the van of the'fquadron
as they travel. They come back from the call in
May, and abound on the coaft of Sicily, and Calabria
about that time. In autumn they fleer northward, and
frequent the neighbourhood of Amalfi and Naples}
but during the whole feafon itragglers are occafionally'
caught.
When!
FIS [ 656 ] FIS
'Fifhery. When taken m May, the ufual time of their ap-
1 pearance in the Calabrian bays, they are full of fpatVh,
and their flefh is then efleemed unwholefome, apt to
occafion headachs and vapours j the milts and roes are
. particularly lo at that feafon. To prevent thefe bad
effects, the natives fry them in oil, and afterwards fait
them. The quantity of this fifti confumed annually
in the Two Sicilies almoft exceeds the bounds oi calcu¬
lation. From the beginning of May to the end of Oc¬
tober it is eaten freih, and all the reft of the year it is
in ufe falted. The moft delicate part is the muzzle.
The belly falted was called tarantallum, and accounted
a great delicacy by the Romans; its prefent name is
Surra. The reft of the body is cut into llices, and
put into tubs.
Turbot Fishery. Turbots grow to a large fize,
fome of them weighing from 23 to 30 pounds. They
are taken chiefly off the north coaft of England, and
others off the Dutch coaft. The large turbot (as well
as feveral other kinds of flat fifh) are taken by the hook
and line, for they lie in deep water; the method of
taking them in wears or flaked n^ts being very preca¬
rious. When the filhermen go out to fifti, each perfon
is provided with three lines, which are coiled on a flat
oblong piece of wicker work 5 the hooks being baited,
and placed regularly in the centre of the coil. Each
line is furnifhed with 14 fcore of hooks, at the diftance
of fix feet two inches from each other. The hooks are
faftened to the lines upon fneads of twifted horfe hair
27 inches in length. When fifhing, there are always
three men in each coble, and confequently nine of
thefe lines are faftened together, and ufed in one line,
extending in length near three miles, and furniftred
with 2520 hooks. An anchor and a buoy are fixed at
the firft end of the line, and one more of each at the
end of each man’s lines $ in all four anchors, which
are common perforated ftones, and four buoys made
of leather or cork. The line is always laid acrofs the
current. The tides of flood and ebb continue an equal
time upon our coaft, and, when undifturbed by wunds,
run each way about fix hours j they are fo rapid that
the filhermen can only flroot and haul their lines at the
turn of tide, and therefore the lines always remain
upon the ground about fix hours j during which time
the myxine glutinofa of Linnaeus will frequently pene¬
trate the fifh that are on the hooks, and entirely devour
them, leaving only the fkin and bones. The fame
rapidity of tides prevents their ufing hand lines!; and
therefore two of the people commonly wrap themfelves
in the fail, and fleep while the other keeps a ftrift
look-out, for fear of being run down by fhips, and to
obferve the wTeather. For ftorms often rife fo fuddenly,
that it is with extreme difficulty they can fometimes
efcape to the ffiore, leaving their lines behind.
Befides the coble, the fiffiermen have alfo a five men
boat, which is 40 feet long and 15 broad, and 25 tons
burden; it is fo called, though navigated by fix men
and a boy, becaufe one of the men is commonly hired
to cook, &c. and does not ftiare in the profits with
the other five. This boat is decked at each end, but
open in the middle, and has two large lug fails. All our
able fiffiermen go in thefe boats to the herring fiffiery
at Yarmouth in the latter end of September, and re¬
turn about the middle of November. The boats are
then laid up till the beginning of Lent, at which time
3
they go off in them to the edge of the Dogger, and Fiflicry.
other places, to fifh for turbot, cod, ling, fkates, &c.
They always take two cobles on board ; and when they
come upon their ground, anchor the boat, thraw out
the coble§, and fiffi in the fame manner as thofe do
who go from the faore in a coble ; with this difference
only, that here each man is provided with double the
quantity of lines, and inftead of Waiting the return of
the tide in the coble, return to their boat and bait their
other lines ; thus bawling one fet and fhooting ano¬
ther every turn of tide. They commonly run into har¬
bour twice a-week to deliver their fiffi.
The beft bait is freffi herring cut in pieces of a
proper fize ; the five men boats are always furnifhed
with nets for taking them. Next to herrings are the
leffer lampreys. The next baits in efteem are fmall
haddocks cut in pieces, fand worms, and limpets, here
called Jlidders; and when none of thefe can be had,
they ufe bullock’s liver. The hooks are two inches and
a half long in the thank, and near an inch wide between
the thank and the point. The line is made of fmall
cording, and is always tanned before it is ufed.
Turbots are extremely delicate in their choice of
baits ; for if a piece of herrring or haddock has been 1 2
hours out of the fea, and then ufed as bait, they will
not touch it.
Whale Fishery. See BaLjENA, Cetology Index.
Whales are chiefly caught in the north feas; the
largeft fort are found about Greenland or Spitzbergen.
At the firft difcovery of this country, whales not being
ufed to be difturbed, frequently came into the very bays,
and w!ere accordingly killed almoft clofe to the fliore ;
fo that the blubber being cut off was immediately boiled
into oil on the fpot. The ffiips in thofe times took in
nothing but the pure oil and the whalebone, and all the
bufinefs was executed in the country ; by which means
a ftiip could bring home the product of many more
whales than ffie can, according to the prefent method
of conducing this trade. The fiffiery alfo was then fo
plentiful, that they were obliged fometimes to fend
other ffiips to fetch off the oil they had made, the
quantity being more than the fiftiing Ihips could bring
away. But time and change of circumftances have
ffiifted the fituation of this trade. The ffiips coming in
fuch numbers from Holland, Denmark, Hamburgh,
and other northern countries, all intruders upon the
Engliffi, who were the firft difcoverers of Greenland,
the whales wrere difturbed, and gradually, as other fiffi
often do, forfaking the place, wrere not to be killed fo
near the ffiore as before ; but are now found, and have
been fo ever fince, in the openings and fpace among the
ice, where they have deep w’ater, and where they go
fometimes a great many leagues from the Ihore.
The whale fiffiery begins in May, and continues all
June and July; but whether the ffiips have good or
bad fuccefs, they muft come awTay, and get clear of
the ice, by the end of Auguft; fo that in the month
of September at fartheft they may be expefted home;
but a ffiip that meets with a fortunate and early fiffiery
in May may return in June or July.
But, for the manner of taking whales, and for a
farther account of the whale fiffiery, as a trade, fee Ce¬
tology.
FISHGARD, or Fisgard, a town of Pembroke-
fhire, fituated on a fteep cliff on the fea-ffiore, 254 miles
from
F I S
[ 657 ]
F I S
-Fifliing.
f See Cy-
prinus, leh
thynlogy
Index.
Sfntf. Did!
$ See Cy-
firinus, Ich
tbyology
Index.
from London, at the influx of the river Gwaine into
the fea, which here forms a fpacious bay. It is govern¬
ed by a mayor, a bailiff, and other othcers; and jeie
veflels may lie fafely in five or fix fathoms water. 1 he
inhabitants have a' good trade in herrings, and . an¬
nually cure, between Fifgard and Newport, above
1000 barrels of them. The town fends one member
to parliament.
FISHING, in general, the art of catching fifh,
whether by means of nets, of fpears, or of the line
and hook.
Fishing in the great, performed by the net, fpear,
or harpoon, for fifti that go in fhoals, has been explain¬
ed in the preceding article. That performed by the
rod, line, and hook, for folitary fifh, is ufually termed
Angling : See that article j and for the particular
manner of angling for the different kinds of fifh, fee
their refpeHive names, as Dace, Eel, Perch, under
Ichthyology.
Here we fhall give an account of the following :
1. The Barbel fo called on account of the barb
or beard that is under his chops), though a coarfe fifh,
gives confiderable exercife to the angler s ingenuity.
They fwim together in great fhoals, and are at their
worfl in April, at which time they fpawn,_ but come
foon in feafon j the places whither they chiefly refort,
are fuch as are weedy and gravelly riling grounds, in
which this filli is faid to • dig and root with his nofe
like a fwine. In the fummer he frequents the ftrongeft,
fwifteft, currents of water } as deep bridges, wears, &c.
and is apt to fettle himfelf among the piles, hollow
places, and mofs, or weeds } and will remain there im¬
moveable j but in the winter he retires into deep waters,
and helps the female to make a hole in the fands to
hide her fpawn in, to hinder its being devoured by
other fifh. He is a very curious and cunning fifh j for
if his baits be not fweet, clean, well fcoured, and
kept in fweet mofs, he will not bite ^ but well ordered
and curioufly kept, he will bite with great eagemefs.
The befl bait for him is the fpawn of a falmon, trout,
or any other fifh} and if you would have good fport
with him, bait the places where you intend to fifh
with it a night or two before, or with large worms
cut in pieces; and the earlier in the morning or the
later in the evening that you filh, the better it will be.
Your rod and line mull be both ftrong and long, with
a running plummet on the line } and let a little bit of
lead be placed a foot or more above the hook, to
keep the bullet from falling on it •, fo the worm will be
at the bottom, wrhere they always bite } and when the
fifh takes the bait, your plummet will lie and not choke
him. By the bending of your rod you may know
when he bites, as alfo with your hand you will feel him
make a ftrong fnatch ; then ftrike, and you will_rarely
fail, if you play him well 5 but if you manage him not
dexteroufly, he will break your line. I he belt time
for fifhing is about nine in the morning, and the moft
proper feafon is the latter end of May, June, July, and
the beginning of Auguft.
2. The Bleak J, is an eager fifh, caught with all
forts of worms bred on trees or plants •, as alfo with
flies, pafte, fheep’s blood, &c. They may be angled
for with half a fcore of hooks at once, if they can be
all faftened on ; he will alfo in the evening take a
natural or artificial fly. If the day be warm and clear,
VOL.YHI. Part XL
there is no fly fo good for him as the fmall fly at the Fiflnr.g, ^
top of the water, which he will take at any time of ~ v
the dav, efpecially in the evening •, but if the day is.
cold and cloudy, gentles and caddis are the beft j
about two feet under water. No fifh yields better
fport to a young angler than the bleak. It is fo eager,
that it will leap out of the water for a bait.
There is another way of taking bleak, which is by
whipping them in a boat, or on a bank fide in frefh
water in a fummer’s evening, with a hazel top about
five or fix feet long and a line twice the length of the.
rod. But the beft method is with a drabble, thus:
Tie eight or ten fmall hooks acrofs a line two inches
above one another; the biggeft hook the lowermdft,
(whereby you may fometimes take a better fifh)> and
bait them with gentles, flies, or fome fmall red worms,
by which means you may take half a dozen or more at
a time.
3. For the Bream ||, obferve the following direftions, y See Cy-
which will alfo be of ufe in carp fifhing.—Procure about prints, Ik-
a quart of large red worms *, put them into frefh mofs thydogy
well wafhed and dried every three or four days, feeding lnJex
them with fat mould and chopped fennel, and they
will be thoroughly fcoured in about three weeks.
Let your lines be filk and hair, but all filk is the
beft 5 let the floats be either fwan-quills or goofe-quills.
Let your plumb be a piece of lead in the fhape of 3
pear, y ith a fmall ring at the little end of it •, fallen the
lead to the line, and the line hook to the lead, about
ten or twelve inches fpace between lead and hook will
be enough ; arid take care the lead be heavy enough to
fink the float. Having baited your hook well with a
ftrong worm, the worm will draw the hook up and
down in the bottom, which will provoke the bream to
bite the more eagerly. It will be beft to fit up three
or four rods and lines in this manner, and fet them as
will be dire£fed, and this will afford you much the
better fport. Find the exa£l depth of the water if
poflible, that your float may fwim on its furface direftly
over the lead 3 then provide the following ground bait.
Take about a peck of fweet grofs-ground malt 3 and
having boiled it a very little, ftrain it hard through a
bag, and carry it to the water fide where you have
founded; and in the place where you fuppofe the fifh
frequent, there throw in the malt by handfuls fqueezed
hard together, that the ftream may not feparate it before
it comes to the bottom 3 and be fure to throw it in at
leaft a yard above the place where you intend the hook
fhall lie, othervvife the ftream will carry it down too far.
Do this about nine o’clock at night, keeping fome of
the malt in the bag, and go to the place about three
the next morning 3 but approach very warily, left you
fliould be feen by the fifh 3 for it is certain that they
have their centinels watching on the top of the water,
while the reft are feeding below. Having baited your
hook fo that the worm may crawl to and fro, the better
to allure the fifh to bite, caft it in at the place where
you find the fifh to flay moft, which is generally in the
broadeft and deepeft part of the river, and fo that it
may reft about the midft of your bait that is on the
ground. Caft in your fecond line fo that it may reft a
yard above that, and a third about a yard below it.
Let your rods lie on the bank with fome ftones to keep
them down at the great ends 3 and then withdraw your-
felf, yet not fo far but that you can have your eye
4 O up<m
FIS CM] FIS
Fifliing. upon all tlie floats j and when you fee one bitten and
carried away, do not be too hafty to run in, but give
time to the fifh to tire himfelf, and then touch him
gently. When you perceive the float fink, creep to
the water fide, and give it as much line as you can.
If it is a bream or carp, they wall run to the other fide}
which ftrike gently, and hold your rod at a bent a little
while; but do not pull, for then.you wall fpoil all;
but you muft firfl: tire them before they can be landed,
for they are very fhy. If there are any carps in the
river, it is an even w-ager that you take one or more of
them ; but if there are any pike or perch, they will be
fure to vifit the ground bait, though they will not
touch it, being drawn thither by the great refort of the
fmall fifh ; and until you remove them, it is in vain to
think of taking the bream or carp. In tills cafe, bait
one of your hooks with a fmall bleak, roach, or gud¬
geon, about two feet deep from your float, with a little
red worm at the point of your hook; and if a pike be
there, he will be fure to fnap at it. This fport is good
till nine o’clock in the morning ; and, in a gloomy day,
till night; but do not frequent the place too much, left
the fifh grow fhy.
and^C ^ile carP f* A Pei'fon who angles for carp muft
nus firm himfelf with abundance of patience, becaufe of its
extraordinary fubtility and policy ; they always choofe
to lie in the deepeft places, either of ponds or rivers,
■where there is but a fmall running ftream.
Further, obferve, that they wall feldom bite in cold
weather ; and you cannot be too early or too late at
the fpot in hot wreather; and if he bite, you need not
fear his hold; for he is one of thofe leather-mouthed
fifh that have their teeth in their throat.
Neither muft you forget, in angling for him, to
have a ftrong rod and line; and fince be is fo very wary,
it wall be proper to entice him, by baiting the ground
with a coarfe pafte.
He feldom refufes the red worm in March, the
caddis in June, or the grafliopper in June, April, and
September.
This fifh does not only delight in worms, but alfo in
fweet pafte ; of which there is great variety ; the beft is
made of honey and fugar, and ought to be thrown into
the water fome hours before you begin to angle; neither
will fmall pellets thrown into the water two or three
days before be worfe for this purpofe, efpecially if
chickens guts, garbage, or blood mixed with bran and
cow dung, be alfo thrown in.
But more particularly, as to a pafte very proper for
this ufe, you may make it in the manner following:
lake a fufhcient quantity of flour, and mingle it with
veal, cut fmall, making it up with a compound of
honey; then pound all together in a mortar till they
are fo tough as to hang upon the hook without wafhing
off. In order to effedl which the better, mingle whitifh
wool with it; and if you keep it all the year round,
add fome virgin wax and clarified honey.
Again, If you fifh with gentles, anoint them with
honey, and put them on your hook, with a deep fcarlet
dipped in the like, which is a good way to deceive the
fifh.
Honey and crumbs of wheat bread, mixed together,
make alfo a very good pafte.
In taking a carp either m pond or river, if the angler
intends to add profit to his pleafure, he muft take a
peck of ale-grains, and a good quantity of any blood Fiflung.
to mix with the grains, baiting the ground with it -y'—"
wrhere he intends to angle. This food will wonder¬
fully attract the feale-fifh, as carp, tench, roach, dace,
and bream.
Let him angle in a morning, plumbing his ground,
and angling for carp with a ftrong line : the bait muft
be either pafte or a knotted red worm ; and by this
means he will have fport enough.
Defcription of proper Baits for the feveral forts of Fisa
referred to in the annexed Table.
Flies.l. Stone fly, found under hollow ftones at
the fides of rivers, is of a brown colour, with yellow
ftreaks on the back and belly, has large wings, and is
in feafon from April to July. 2. Green drake, found
among flones by river fides, has a yellow body ribbed
with green, is long and {lender, with wings like a
butterfly, his tail turns on his back, and from May to
Midfummer is very good. 3. Oak-fly, found in the
body of an oak or afh, with its head downwards, is of a
brow-n colour, and excellent from May to September.
4. Palmer fly or worm, found on leaves of plants, is
commonly called a caterpillar, and when it comes to a
fly is excellent for trout. 5. Ant fly, found in ant hills
from June to September. 6. The May fly is to be
found playing at the river fide, efpecially againft rain.
7. Ihe black fly is to be found upon every hawthorn
after the buds are come off.
Pafies.~\ 1. Take the blood of fheep’s hearts, and
mix it with honey and flour worked to a proper con-
fiftence. 2. Take old cheefe grated, a little butter
fufficient to wrork it, and colour it with faffron : in
winter ufe rufty bacon inftead of butter. 3. Crumbs of
bread chewTed or wmrked with honey or fugar, moift-
ened with gum ivy w^ater. 4. Bread chewed, and
worked in the hand till ftiff.
IFonns.] 1. The earth bob, found in fandy ground
after ploughing ; it is white, with a red head, and big¬
ger than a gentle : another is found in heathy ground,
with a blue head. Keep them in an earthen velfel well
covered, and a fufticient quantity of the mould they
harbour in. They are excellent from April to No¬
vember. 2. Gentles, to be had from putrid flefh : let
them lie in wheat bran a few days before ufed.
3. Flag wTorms, found in the roots of flags; they are
of a pale yellow colour, are longer and thinner than a
gentle, and muft be fcowered like them. 4. Cowr-
turd bob, or clap bait, found under a cow turd from
May to Michaelmas; it is like a gentle, but larger.
Keep it in its native earth like the earth bob. 5. Caddis
worm, or cod bait, found under loofe flones in {hal¬
low: rivers; they are yellow7, bigger than a gentle, with
a black or blue head, and are in feafon from April
to July. Keep them in flannel bags. 6. Lob worm,
found in gardens; it is very large, and has a red head,
a ftreak down the back, and a flat broad tail. 7. Marlh-
w7orms, found in marihy ground ; keep them in mofs
ten days before you ufe them : their colour is a bluifli
red, and are a good bait from March to Michaelmas.
8. Brandling red w7orms, or blood worms found in
rotten dunghills and tanners bark ; they are fmall red
wmrms, very good for all fmall fi(h, have fometimes a
yellow tail, and are called tag-tail.
Fi/h ■
Fifliing.
FIS [ <559 ] FIS
Tijh and infers.} 1. Minnow. 2. Gudgeon. 3.
Roach. 4. Dace. 5. Smelt. 6. Yellow frog. 7.
Snail flit. 8. Grafliopper.
Fishing Fly, a bait ufed in angling for divers kinds
of fifli. See Fishing.
The fly is either natural ox artificial.
I. Natural flies are innumerable. The more ufual
for this purpofe are mentioned in the preceding pago.
The are two ways to fifli with natural flies ; ei¬
ther c?n the furface of the water, or a little under¬
neath it.
In angling for chevin, roach, or dace, move not
your natural fly fwiftly when you fee the filh make at
it : but rather let it glide freely towards him with the
ftream : but if it be in a ftill and flow water, draw the
fly flowly fidewife by him, which will make him eager¬
ly purfue.
II. The artificial fly is feldom ufed but in blufter-
ing weather, when the waters are fo troubled by the
winds, that the natural fly cannot be feen, nor reft up¬
on them. Of this artificial fly there are reckoned no
lefs than 12 forts, of which the following are the prin¬
cipal.
1. For March, the dun fly; made of dun wool, and
the feathers of the partridge’s wing ; or the body made
of black wool, and the feathers of a black drake. 2. For
April, the ftone fly ; the body made of black wool,
dyed yellow under the wings and tail. 3. For the
beginning of May, the ruddy fly ; made of red wool,
and bound about with black filk, with the feathers of
a black capon hanging dangling on his fides next his
tail. 4. For June, the greenilh fly ; the body made of
black wool, with a - ellow lift on either fide, the wings
taken oft' the wings of a buzzard, bound with black
broken [hemp. 5. The moorilh fly, the body made of
dulkifli wool, and the wings of the blackilh mail of a
drake. 6. The tawny fly, good till the middle of
June ; the body made of tawny wool, the wings made
contrary one againft the other of the whitilh mail of
a white drake. 7* •^'or wa^P ^7 ? body
made of black wool, call; about with yellow filk, and
the wings of drakes feathers. 8. 1 he fteel fly ; good
in the middle of July ; the body made with greennh
wool, call about with the feathers of a peacock’s tail,
and the wings made of thofe of the buzzard. 9- f01-
Auguft, the drake fly ; the body made with black
wool call; about with black filk ; his wings of the mail'
of a black drake, with a black head.
The beft rules for artificial fly filhing are, _
j. To filh in a river fomewfliat difturbed with rain :
or in a cloudy day, when the waters are moved by a
gentle breeze : the fouth wind is beft ; and if the wind
blow high, yet not fo but that you may conveniently
guard your tackle, the filh will rife in plain deeps; but
if the wind be fmall, the beft angling is in fwift ftreams.
2. Keep as far from the w^ater fide as may be ; filh
down the ftream with the fun at your back, and touch
not the water with your line. 3* Ever angle in clear
rivers, with a fmall fly and flender wings ; but in mud¬
dy places, ufe a larger. 4. Y'hen, after rain, the wa¬
ter becomes brownilh, ufe an orange fly ; in a clear
day, a light-coloured fly ; a dark fly for dark w7aters,
&c. 5. Let the line be twice as long as the rod, un-
lefs the river be encumbered with wrood. 6. For e¬
very fort of fly, have feveral of the fame differing in
colour, to fuit with the different complexions of feve- ^
ral w'aters and weathers. 7. Have a nimble eye, and
aftive hand, to ftrike prefently with the rifing of the
fifh; or elfe he will be apt to fpue out the hook.
8. Let the fly fall firft into the w7ater, and not the line,
which will fcare the fifli. 9. In flow rivers, or ftill
places, caft the fly acrofs the river, and let it fink a
little in the water, and draw it gently back with the
current.
Salmon flies fhould be made with their wings Hand¬
ing one behind the other, whether two or four. This
fifti delights in the gaudieft colours that, can be ; chief¬
ly in the wings, which muft be long, as well as the tail.
Fishing by means cf birds, a method peculiar to the
Chinefe, who train certain birds for the purpofe in the
fame manner as falcons are taught to purfue game.
For this purpofe they have trained a fpecies of pelican,
refembling the oommon corvorant, which they call the
Leu-tze, or fifhing bird. Sir George Staunton, who,
when the embaffy was proceeding on the fouthern
branch of the great canal, faw thofe birds employed,
tells us, that on a large lake, clofe to the eaft fide of
the canal, are thoufands of fmall boats and rafts, built
entirely for this fpecies of fifhery. On each boat or
raft are ten or a dozen birds, wThich, at a fignal from
the owmer, plunge into the water ; and it is aftonifliing
to fee the enormous fize of filh with which they return,
grafped within their bills. They appeared to be fo well
trained, that it did not require either ring or cord about
their throats to prevent them from fwallowing any por¬
tion of their prey, except what their mafter was pleafed
to return to them for encouragement and food. The
boat ufed by thefe filhermen is of a remarkable light
make, and is often carried to the lake, together with
the filhing birds, by the men who are there to be fup*
ported by it.
The fame author faw the filhermen bufy on the great
lake Wee-chaung-hee; and he gives the following ac¬
count of a very lingular method pradlifed by them for
catching the fifh of the lake without the aid of birds,
of net, or of hooks. iLo one fide of a boat a flat
board, painted white, is fixed, at an angle of about 45
degrees, the edge inclining towards the w’ater. On
moonlight nights the boat is fo placed that the painted
board is turned to the moon, from whence the rays of
light ftriking on the whitened furface, give to it the
appearance of moving water; on which the fifti
being tempted to leap as on their element, the boat¬
men raifing with a firing the board, turn the fifti into
the boat.
Water-fowl are much fought after by the Chinefe,
and are taken upon the lame lake by the following in¬
genious device. Empty jars or gourds are fuffered to
float about upon the wrater, that luch objefts may be¬
come familiar to the birds. The fiftierman then wades
into the lake w-ith one of thofe empty vefiels upon his
head, and walks gently towards a bird; and lifting up
his arm, draw's it dowm below the furface of the water
without any difturbance or giving alarm to the reft,
feveral of whom he treats in the fame manner, until he
fills the bag he had brought to hold his prey. Ihe
contrivance itfelf is not fo lingular, as it is that the fame
exa&lv Ihould have occurred in the newr continent, as
4 O 2 Ulloa
Fifliirg.
F I S
[ 660 ] FIS
Fifhing. Ulloa aSerts, to the natives of Carthagena, upon the
“■""V"—' lake Cienega de Telias.
Fishing Floats, are little appendages to the line,
ferving to keep the hook and bait lufpended at the
proper depth, to difcover when the fifh has hold of
them, &c. Of thefe there are divers kinds •, fome
made of Mufcovy duck quills, which are the belt for
flow waters 5 but for ftrong ftreams, found cork, with¬
out flaws or holes, bored through wflth a hot iron,
into which is put a quill of a fit proportion, is prefer- Fifliing.
able : pare the cork to a pyramidal form, and make it ^ “
fmooth.
Fishing Hook, a fmall inftrument made of fteel wire,
of a proper form to catch and retain fifti.
The fiflung hook, in general, ought to be long in
the fliank, fomewhat thick in the circumference, the
point even and ftraight j let the bending be in the
ftiank.
Sport/. Di£}>
Fi filing,
Fiffures.
Jacob's
Law Di£i
FIS [ 661
For fetting the hook on, ufe ftrong but [mall filk,
laying the hair on the inlide of your hooiv j for if it be
on the outfide, the filk will fret and cut it afunder.
There are feveral fizes of thefe fiftiing hooks, feme
big, fome little : and of thefe, fome have peculiar
names; as, i. Single hooks. 2. Double hooks ; which
have two bendings, one contrary to the other. 3. Snap¬
pers, or gorgers, which are the hooks to whip the artifi¬
cial fly upon, or bait with the natural fly. 4. Springers,
or fpring hooks ; a kind of double hooks, with a fpring,
which flies open upon being itruck into any fifti, and
fo keeps its mouth open.
FisHiNG-Line, is either made of hair twifled •, or filk $
or the Indian grafs. The beft colours are the forrel,
white, and gray •, the two laft for clear waters, the firft
for muddy ones. Nor is the pale watery green de-
fpifable •, this colour is given artificially, by fteeping
the hair in a liquor made of alum, foot, and the juice
of walnut leaves, boiled together.
Fishing Rod, a long flender rod or wand, to which
the line is fattened, for angling.—Of thefe there are
feveral forts j as, 1. A troller, or trolling rod, which
has a ring at the end of the rod, for the line to go
through when it runs off a reel. 2. A whipper, or
whipping rod} a top rod, that is weaK. in the middle,
and top heavy, but all flender and fine. 3. A dropper j
which is a ttrong rod and very light. 4. A fnapper,
or fnap rod 5 which is a ftrong pole, peculiarly uled
for the pike. 5. A bottom rod 5 being the fame as
the dropper, but fomewhat more pliable. 6. A fnig-
gling or procking flick ; a forked flick, having a fhort
ttrong line, with a needle, baited with a lob worm :
this is only for eels in their holes.
Fishing Frog, or Angler. See Lophius.
Right of Fishing, and property of fifh. It has beep
held, that where the lord of the manor hath the foil
on both fides of the river, it is a good evidence that he
hath a right of fifhing ; and it puts the proof upon him
who claims liber am pifeartam : but where a river ebbs
and flows, and is an arm of the fea, there it is common
to all, and he who claims a privilege to himfelf rnuft
prove it; for if the trefpafs is brought for fifhing phere,
the defendant may juftify, that the place where h bra-
chiutn mans, in quo unufquifque fubditus donum regis ha-
bet et habere debet liberam pifcariam. In the Severn the
foil belongs to the owners of the land on each fide }
and the foil of the river Thames is in the king, but the
fiftiing is common to all. He who is owner of the foil
of a private river, hath feparahs pifcana ; and he that
hath libera pifcaria, hath a property in the fifh, and may
bring a poffeffory aftion for them ; but communis pif¬
caria is like the cafe of all other commons. One that
has a clofe pond in which there are fiih, may call them
pifces fios, in an indiftment, &c. but he cannop call
them bona et catalla, if they be not in trunks, ffheie
needs no privilege to make a fifti pond, as there doth
in the cafe of a warren. See Franchise.
FISSURES, in Geology, certain interruptions, that
in a horizontal or parallel manner divide the feveral
ftrata of which t^e body of our globe is compofed.
See Geology Index.
Fissure of the Bones, in Surgen/, is when they are
divided either tranfverfely or longitudinally, not quite
through, but cracked after the manner of glafs, by any
external force. See Surgery.
] F I T
FISTULA, in the ancient mufic, an inftrument of Fiftufa
the wind kind, refembling our flute or flageolet. ' F;t2^Ste„
The principal wind inttruments of the ancients, were "
the tibia and" the fiftula. But how they were contti 
tuted, wherein they differed, or how they were played
upon, does not appear. All we know is, that the
fiftula was at firft made of reeds, and afterwards of other
matters. Some had holes, fome none j fome again
were {ingle pipes } others a combination of feveral,
witnefs the fyringa of Pan.
Fistula, in Surgery, a deep, narrow, and callous
ulcer, generally arifing from abiceffes.
It differs from a finus, in its being callous, the latter'
not. See Surgery Index.
Fistula, in Farriery, See Farriery Index.
FISTULARIA, or Tobacco-Pipe Fish ; a genus
of fifties, belonging to the order of abdominales. See
Ichthyology Index.
FIT. See Paroxysm.
Dr Cheyne is of opinion, that fits of all kinds, whe¬
ther epileptic, hyfteric, or apople£tic, may be cured
folely by milk diet, of about two quarts of cows milk
a-day, without any other medicine.
FITCHES, in Hufbandry, a fort of pulfe, more ge¬
nerally known by the name of chick-pea. See Cicer,
Botany and Agriculture Index.
Fitches are cultivated either for feeding cattle, or
improving the land. They make a wholefome and nou-
riftiing food, whether given in the ftraw or thralhed
out. When fown only to improve the foil, they are
ploughed in juft as they begin to bloffom, by which
means a tough ftiff clay foil is much enriched.
FITCHET, a name ufed in fome places for the
weafel, called alfo the foumart. See Mustela, Mam¬
malia Index.
FITCHY,in Heraldry, (from the French fifbe, i. e.
fixed') } a term applied to a crofs when the lower branch
ends in a lharp point : and the reafon of it Mackenzie
fuppofes to be, that the primitive Chriftians were wont
to carry croffes with them wherever they went j and
when they flopped on their journey at any place, they
fixed thofe portable croffes in the ground lor devotion’s
fake.
FITZ, makes part of the furname of fome of the na¬
tural fons of the kings of England, as Fit’Z-roy ; which
is purely French, and fignifies the “ king’s ion.”
FITZHERBERT, Sir Anthony, a very learned
lawyer in the reign of King Henry VIII. was defcended
from an ancient family, and born at Norbury in Der-
byftiire. He was made one of the judges of the court
of common pleas in 1523 *, and diftinguiihed himfelf by
many valuable works, as well as by fuch an honourable
difcharge of the duties of his office, as made him
efteemed an oracle of the law. His writings are, l he
Grand Abridgement; The Office and Authority of fufices
of Peace ; the Office of Sheriffs, Bailiffs of Liberties, Ef-^
cheators, Confables, Coroners, Ac.; Of the Droerfity of
Courts; The New Natura Brevium) Of the Surveying
of Lands , and The Book of Hujhandry. He died in
1538.
FITZ-STEPHEN, William, a learned monk of
Canterbury, of Norman extraction, but born of respect¬
able parents in the city of London. He lived in tne
1 2th century •, and being attached to the fervice of Arch-
biihop Becket, was prefent at the time of his murder.
In
FIX
t^'e y«ar 1174? he wrote in. Latin, i ne i^ije oj dt
Fixlmillner. ^ l0mas^ archbijhop and martyr; in which, as Becket
i  . Was a native r*f  I  i r •
I X
phiiofophy, he
vyas a native of the metropolis, he introduces a defcrip-
tion of the city of London, with a mifcellaneous detail
Oi the manners and ufages of the citizens : this is de-
lervedly confidered as a great curiolity, being the ear-
hell profefled account of London extant. Fitz-Stephen
died in 1191.
FIVES, or Vives. See Farriery.
JiXAIION, in Chemijlry, the rendering any vo¬
latile lubllance fixed, fo as not to fly off upon being ex-
poled to a great heat : hence,
FIXED bodies, are thofe which bear a confiderable
degree of heat without evaporating, or lofing any of
their weight. Some of the moll fixed bodies are dia¬
monds, gold, &c.
biXED,' or Fixable Air, an invifible and permanently
elaltic fluid, fuperior in gravity to common atmofphe"-
ric air and moll other aerial fluids, exceedingly deilruc-
tive to animal life 5 produced in great quantities, natu¬
rally from combuftible bodies, and artificially by many
chemical procefles. From its acid properties it has
obtained the name of aerial acid, cretaceous acid, and
carbonic acid; from its noxious qualities, it has been
called mephitic air ; or mephitic gas ; and, from the cir-
cumltance of being produced in vail quantities during
the combullion of charcoal, it firlt obtained from Van
Helmont the name of gas fylvcjlre. The term fixed air
has been given from its property of readily lofing its
elallicity, and fixing itfelf in many bodies, particularly
thofe of the calcareous kind 5 and though fome objecled
to the propriety of the term, the fluid in queftion is fo
well knovyn by the name of fixed air, that we choofe Hill
to retain it. See Chemistry Index. For an account
of the apparatus for impregnating water with fixed
air or carbonic acid, fee Materia Medica Index.
Fixed Stars,, are fuch as conllantly retain the fame
pofition and dillance with refpefl to each other ; by
which they are diftinguilhed from erratic or wandering
flars, which are continually Ihifting their fituation and
dillance. T.he fixed liars are properly called Jlars;
the reft have the peculiar denomination of planet and
comet. See Astronomy Index.
FIXITY, or Fixedness, in Chemiftry, is in a pe¬
culiar manner ufed for the alfeflion oppofite to volati¬
lity ; i. e. the property whereby bodies bear the a&ion
of the fire, without being dillipated in fumes.
FIXLMILLNER, Peacidus, an eminent aftro-
nomer, was born at Achleiten near Linz, in Aultria,
on the 28th of May, 1720. Fie received the rudiments
of his education in the monaftery of Kremfmunfter, of
■which his uncle Alexander was abbot. Here he ftu-
died during fix years, and delighted fo much in drawing
ilraight and curve-lined figures, that his mother called
him the almanack-maker. He went afterward to Salz-
burg, where he ftudied a regular courfe of phiiofophy,
and particularly turned his attention to mathematics,
under a profefibr Stuard, whofe method of teaching that
fcience was truly extraordinary, as he never made ufe
of any figures, and yet conveyed fuch a clear idea of
every propofition as, made it perfectly eafy. He was
admitted as a novice into Kremfmunfter in 1797, and
the next year he took the folemn vow in prefence of
his uncle. . After being two years in this monaftery,
..during which time he devoted every leifure hour to the
[ 662 ] f
The Life of St (iudy of mathematics and pMolophy, he went toFijtallW
Salzburg to finilh his ftudies in divinity and jurifpru-
dence, acquiring at that time a competent knowledge
of oriental and modem languages, hiftory and antiqui¬
ties. In the year 1745? he obtained the degree of D. D.
after which he received prieft’s orders in his own monaf-
t-F, and was created profeflbr of ecclefiaftical law.
whicn office he held for 40 years, difeharging the du¬
ties belonging to it till within a few days of his death.
He was alfo chofcn dean of the higher fchools, and re-
gent oi the young nobility, which he retained during
. hfe wrote a commentary on the fus Canonicum, not-
withftanding his extenfive epiftolary correfpondence,
and the management of the whole bufmefs of the mo¬
naftery; but this work was never publiihed. He was,
by the intreaties of his friends, induced to publith his
Reipub/icw facne origines divincc,feu Ecclejice ChriJH ex¬
terior junBura, imperium, et hierarchia, ex primigenia
ejus injlitutione eruta et demonjlrata. His commendable
diligence procured him univerfal efteem, but it was his
knowledge of aftronomy which rendered him illuftri-
ous. . His uncle Alexander fitted up an apartment for
containing the inftruments necelfary for the diflemina-
tion of mathematical knowledge, and he alfo erefled an
obfervatory, which was begun in 1748, and completed
m ■i758j under the direction of Anfielm Dering of Emf-
dorf, a celebrated architeft. While the obfervatorv
was building, Fixlmillner led a life of retirement and
fevere ftudy, his favourite fubjedl during thefe ten
years being aftronomy. When it was finifhed, one
Dobler, a celebrated mathematician, was appointed firft
aftronomer ; but the. fucceffors of Fixlmillner’s uncle
having difeovered his extenfive mathematical know¬
ledge, made him an offer of the aftronomical depart¬
ment, and the foie dire&ion of the obfervatory: This
place he accepted in the year 1762, ftill retaining
his chair as profelfor of ecclefiaftical law. He was not
yet mafter of the learning vrhich practical aftronomy
requires, to remedy which defeat he attentively perufed
Lalande s Expojition du Calcul AJlronomique, loon after
which he obtained the large aftronomical wrork of the
fame great man, and in 1766 he publilhed his Meridi-
anus fpecuhe AJlronomicce Cremifanenjis, by which he
acquired confiderable reputation. Ten years after this
period he gave the 'world his Decennium AJironomicum,
containing many curious and important particulars ref-
pefting the theory and praflice of aftronomy. His
ABa AJironomica Cremifanenjis, which did not appear
till after his deceafe, ftill farther increafed his aftro¬
nomical reputation; and he was a large contributor
to. many periodical publications in different coun¬
tries.
He made and collefted a number of obfervations of
the planet Mercury, which were at that period both
icarce and difficult, the importance of wThich ivas pub¬
licly acknowledged by Lalande, as they greatly affifted
him in conftrudling his tables of that planet. Fixlmill¬
ner was one of the firft aftronomers who calculated the
orbit of the new planet Uranus (Georgium Sidus), and
his tables refpefling it may be feen in the Berlin al¬
manack for 1789. Me alfo proved the truth of what
was formerly conjefture, that the 34th ftar of Taurus,
which flam (lead obferved in 1690, ivas the new planet.
It may be faid of moil philofophers, that they obferve a
great
%
FLA [ 663 ] FLA
flacru?, great deal, and calculate little, but the conduct of
Flag- Fixlmlllner was exa&ly the reverfe. He turned his at-
 tenlicn to the obfervation of the folar fpots more than
any of his predeceffors, which he noticed in the years
1767, 1776, 1777, i778> and ^Z8.2* from which he
deduced important inferences refpefting the revolution
of the fun on his axis.
He had a genius uncommonly adapted to the ftudy
of mechanics, by which he wras enabled to invent a new
micrometer, and a machine for grinding concentric
circles. As an additional proof of his profound inven¬
tive genius, he refided in the country, by which means
he was in a great meafure deprived of literary affiftance,
yet to the very clofe of life he was a Angular initance
of the moll indefatigable zeal, diligence, and perfever-
ance. He was little fubjedl to the influence of the tur¬
bulent paflions ;—perhaps lefs fo than moll other men.
Like the laws of nature which it was his chief delight
to Itudy, he was Ample, uniform and conllant; and fuch
wxre the mildnefs and integrity of his charadler, that he
could not fail to acquire the love and elleem of man¬
kind. His high reputation never infpired him with va¬
nity, and he rather wiflied to conceal than to propagate
what was written in his praife. It gave general joy to
his monatlic brethren to celebrate the anniverfary of
the Aftieth year of his reAdence in it, which he did not
long furvive. His health was very much impaired
by his intenfe application, and he Anilhed his career
on the 27th of Augull 1791, in the 71ft year of his <
age.
FLACCUS, Caius Valerius, an ancient Latin
poet, of whom we have very imperfedl accounts remain¬
ing. He wrote a poem on the Argonautic expedition •,
of which, however, he did not live to flnifli the eighth
book, dying at about 30 years of age. John Bap-
tillo Pius, an Italian poet, completed the eighth book
of the Argonautics *, and added two more from the
fourth of Apollonius j which fupplement was flrft ad¬
ded to Aldus’s edition in 1523.
FLAGS, in the army, are fmall banners of diflinc-
tion lluck in the baggage waggons to diftinguilh the
baggage of one brigade from another ; and of one bat¬
talion from another •, that they may be marlhalled by
the waggon-mailer general according to the rank of
their brigades, to avoid the confulion that might other-
wife arife.
Flag, in the marine, a certain banner or Aandard,
by which an admiral is diftinguilhed at fea from the
inferior Ihips of his fquadron •, alfo the colours by which
one nation is dillinguilhed from another. See Plate
CCXVIII.
In the Britilh navy, flags are either red, -white, or
blue *, and are difplayed from the top of the main-maft,
fore-mafl, or mizen-mall, according to the rank of the
admiral. When a flag is difplayed from the flag-ftaff
on the main-mafl, the officer dillinguilhed thereby is
known to be an admiral when from the fore-mall, a
vice-admiral j and when from the mizen-mall a rear
admiral.
The Aril flag in Great Britain is the royal ftandard,
which is only to be hoilfed when the king or queen are
on board the veflel : the fecond is that of the anchor
of hope, which charaflerizes the lord high admiral, or
lords commiffioners of the admiralty : and the third is
the union flag, in which the croffes of St George and-
St Andrew are blended. This lalf is appropriated to
the admiral of the fleet, w?ho is the Aril military officer
under the lord high admiral.
The next flag after the union is that of the white
fquadron at the main-mall head j and the lall, which
characterizes an admiral, is the blue, at the fame mall
head.
For a vice-admiral, the Aril flag is the red, the fe¬
cond the white, the third the blue, at the flag llaff
on the fore-mall.
The fame order proceeds with regard to the rear
admirals, whofe flags are hoifted on the top of the mizen-
mall : the lowell flag in our navy is accordingly the
blue on the mizen malt.
To Lower or Strike the Flag, in the marine, is to
pull it dowm upon the cap, or to take it in, out of
the refpefl, or fubmiffion, due from all {hips or fleets
inferior to thofe any way jultly their fuperiors. io
lower or ftrike the flag in an engagement is a flgn of
yielding.
The -way of leading a Ihip in triumph is to tie the
flags to the Ihrcuds, or the gallery, in the hind part
of the Ihip and let them hang down tow’ards the wa¬
ter, and to towr the veffels by the Hern. Livy relates,
that this wTas the tvay the Romans ufed thofe of Car¬
thage.
To Heave out the Flag, is to put out or put abroad
the flag.
To Hang out the White Flag, is to alk quarter; or
it fhows when a veflel is arrived on a coaft, that it has
no hoftile intention, but comes to trade, or the like.
The red flag is a flgn of defiance and battle.
Flag is alfo ufed for a fedge, a kind of rufli.
Corn-FLAG. See Gladiolus, Botany Index.
Sweet-fcented Flag. See Acorus, Botany Index.
pLAG-Officers, thofe who command the feveral fqua-
drons of a fleet; fuch are the admirals, vice-admirals,
and rear admirals.
The flag officers in our pay, are the admiral, vice-
admiral, and rear-admiral, of the wdnte, red, and blue.
See Admiral, Flag, and Fleet.
Flag-Ship, a ihip commanded by a general or flag-
officer, who has a right to carry a flag, in contradi-
ftinction to the fecondary vefiels under the command
thereof.
pLAG-Stone, a kind of fand-ilone of a flaty ftruflure,
on account of which it is much employed for the pur-
pofe of paving foot paths or the floors of apartments in
which wood is unfnitable.
FLAGELLANTES, a fet of wild fanatics who
challifed and difeiplined themfelves with whips in
public.
The fefl of the Flagellantes had its rife in Italy in
the year 1260 ; its author was one Rainier a hermit;
and it wras propagated from hence through almolt all
the countries of Europe. It was in all probability no
more than the effeft of an indifereet zeal. A great
number of perfons of all ages and fexes made procef-
fions, walking two by two with their Ihoulders bare,
which they whipped till the blood ran down, in order
to obtain mercy from God, and appeafe his indigna¬
tion againft the wickednefs of the age. They were
then called the devout; and having eftablilhed a fupe-
rior, he was called the general of the devotion. Though
the primitive Flagellantes were exemplary in point of
Has,
Flageilan-
tes.
FLA
Flageolet morals, yet they were joined by a turbulent rabble,
Flake. who w.e^e with the moft ridiculous and impi-
—_ ous opinions ; fo that the emperors and pontiffs thought
proper to put an end to this religious frenzy, by de¬
claring all devout whipping contrary to the divine law,
and prejudicial to the foul’s eternal intereft.
This fe£t revived in Germany towards the middle
of the next century, and rambling through many
provinces, occafioned great difturbances. They held,
among other things, that flagellation was of equal
virtue with baptifm and the other facraments j that
the forgivenefs of all fins was to be obtained by it
from God without the merits of Jefus Chrift; that the
old law of Chrift was foon to be aboliftted, and that a
,newr law enjoining the baptifm of blood to be admini-
ftered by whipping was to be fubftituted in its place :
upon which Clement VII. by an injudicious as well as
unrighteous policy, thundered out anathemas againft
the Flagellantes, who were burnt by the inquifitors in
feveral places; but they were not eafily extirpated.
They appeared again in Thuringia and Lower Saxony
in the 15th century; and reje&ed not only the facra-
ments, but every branch of external worftiip ; and pla¬
ced their only hopes of falvation 'in faith and flagella¬
tion, to which they added other flrange do&rines con¬
cerning evil fpirits. Their leader Conrad Schmidt and
many others were committed to the flames by German
inquifitors in and after the year 1414.
FLAGEOLET, or Flajeolet, a little flute, ufed
chiefly by Ihepherds and country people. It is made of
box or other hard wood, and fometimes of ivory j and
has fix holes befides that at the bottom, the mouth¬
piece, and that behind the neck.
FLAIL, an inftrument for thraftiing corn. It con-
flfts of the following parts. 1. The hand-ftaff, or piece
held in the thraftier’s hand. 2. The fwiple, or that part
which ftrikes out the com. 3. The caplins, or ftrong
double leathers, made faft to'the tops of the hand-ftaff
and fwiple. 4. The middle band, being the leather
thong or fifti Ikin that ties the caplins together.
FLAIR, in fea language. The feamen fay that
the v/ork doth flair over, when a fhip is houfed in
near the water, fo that the work hangs over a little too
mueh, and this is let out broader aloft than the due
proportion will allow.
FLAKE, in the cod fiftiery, a fort of fcaffold or
platform, made of hurdles, and fupported by ftanchions,
ufed for drying cod fifli in Newfoundland. Thefe
flakes are ufually placed near the ftiores of fiftiing har¬
bours.
Flake, in Gardening, a name given by the florifts
to a fort of carnations which are of two colours only,
and have very large ftripes, all of them going quite
through the leaves.
White Flake, in Painting, is lead corroded by means
of the prefling of grapes, or a cerufe prepared by
the acid of grapes. It is brought from Italy ; and
far furpaffes, both with regard to the purity of its
whitenefs and the certainty of its handing, all the ce¬
rufe or white lead made with us in common. It is
ufed in oil or varnifti painting for all purpofes where
a very clean white is required. The white flake fliould
be procured in lumps as it is brought over, and levi¬
gated by thofe who ufe it ; becaufe that which the co-
lourmen fell in a prepared ftate is levigated and mixed
1
[ 664 ]
FLA
and often with white lead,
up with ftarch, and often with white lead, and worfe Flambeau
fophiftications. H
1LAMBEAU, or Flamboy, a luminary made of
feveral thick wicks, covered over with wax, ferving to
burn at nights in the ftreets •, as alfo at funeral procef.
fions, illuminations, &c.
Flambeaux differ from links, torches, and tapers.—
They are made fquare, fometimes of white wax and
fometimes of yellow. They ufually conflft of four
wicks or branches near an inch thick, and about three
feet long, made of a fort of coarfe hempen yarn half
twifted. 1 hey are made with- the ladle much as torches
or tapers are 5 viz. by firft pouring the melted wax on
the top of the feveral fufpended wicks, and letting it
run down to the bottom. This they repeat twice.
After each wick has thus got its proper cover of wax,
then lay them to dry ; then roll them on a table and
lo join four of them together by means of a red hot
iron. When joined, they pour on more wax till the
flambeau is brought to the lize required, which is
ufually from a pound and half to three pounds. The
laft thing is to finiftt their form or outfide, -which they
do -with a kind of poliihing inftrument of wood by
running it along all the angles formed by the union of
the branches.
1 he flambeaux of the ancients were different from
ours. 7 hey were made of woods dried in furnaces or
otherwife. They ufed divers kinds of wood for this
purpofe ; the wood moft ufual was pine. Pliny fays,
that in his time they frequently alfo burnt oak, elm,
and hazel. In the feventh book of the Aineid, men¬
tion is made of a flambeau of pine •, and Se-vius on that
paffage remarks, that they alfo made them of the cornel-
tree.
FLAMBOROUGH HEAD, in Geography, a cape
or promontory on the eaftern coaft of Yorkftiire, five
miles eaft of Burlington, and 216 from London.—
E. Long. 20°. N. Lat. 54. 15.—This was the Fleam-
burg of the Saxons; fo called, as fome think, from the
lights made on it to direft the landing of Ina, who in
547 joined his countrymen in thefe parts with a large
reinforcement from Germany, and founded the king¬
dom of Northumberland. In the time of Edward the
Confeffor, Flamborough was one of the manors of
Harold, earl of the Weft Saxons, afterwards king of
England. On his death, the Conqueror gave it to
Hugh Lupus ■, who, in perpetual alms, beftowed it
on the monaftery of Whitby.—The town is on the
north fide ; and confifts of about 150 fmall houfes, en¬
tirely inhabited by filhermen •, few of whom, as is faid,
die in their beds, but meet their fate in the element
they are fo converfant in. The cliffs of the Head are
of a tremendous height and amazing grandeur. Beneath
are feveral vaft caverns 5 fome clofed at the end, others
pervious, formed with a natural artjh. In fome places
the rocks are infulated, and of a pyramidal figure,
foaring up to a vaft height. The bafes of moft are
folid, but in fome pierced through and arched. The
colour of all thefe rocks is white, from the dung of
the innumerable flocks of migratory birds, which quite
cover the face of them, filling every little projeftion,
every hole that will give them leave to reft.
FLAME, is a general name for every kind of lu¬
minous vapour, provided the light it emits hath any
confiderable degree of intenfity. The namefiame, bovv-
eyer.
L A F 665 ] FLA
Flame, ever, is moft generally applied to fuch as are of a coni-
—  ' cal figure, like thofe arifing from our common fires $
without this, they are commonly called luminous vapours,
or Amply lights. .
According to Sir Ifaac Newton, flame is only red-¬
hot fmohe, or the vapour of any fubftance raifed from
it by fire, and heated to fuch a degree as to emit
light copioufly. This definition feems to be t?ie moft
accurate and expreflive of any. It is certain, that
bodies are capable of emitting flame only in proportion
to the quantity of vapour that rifes from them. Thus
wood, coals, Sec. which emit a great quantity of
vapour, flame violently j while lead, tin, &c. which
emit but a fmall fume, can fcarce be perceived to flame
at all.
This rule, however, is by no means to be depended
upon in all cafes. Some vapours feem to be in their
own nature uninflammable, and capable of extinguifli-
ing flame $ as thofe of water, the mineral acids, fal-am-
moniac, arfenic, &c.: while others take fire on the
flighted: approach of a flaming fubftance } fuch as ether,
fpirit of wine, &c. Thefe laft mentioned fubftances
alfo exhibit a remarkable phenomenon j namely, that
they cannot be made to flame without the approach of
fome fubftance actually in flames beforehand. Thus,
fpirit of wine poured on a red-hot iron, though inftant-
ly diflipated in vapour, will not flame j but if a burn¬
ing candle touches its furface, the whole is fet in a flame
at once. The cafe is otherwife with oils, efpecially
thofe of the groffer kind *, for the vapours will readily
be changed into flame by the mere increafe of heat,
without the approach of any flaming fiibftance.
There is, however, no kind of vapour, perhaps, that
is incapable of being converted into flame, provided it is
expofed to a fufficient degree of heat. Thus the va¬
pour of water made to pafs through burning coals
produces an exceedhagly ftrong and bright flame.—
It is remarkable, that this kind of vapour feems to be
more powerful than almoft any other in abforbing heat,
and detaining it in a latent ftate. When any quantity
of aqueous vapour is condenfed, more heat will be fepa-
rated from it than would have been fuflicient to heat an
equal bulk of iron red-hot.—It is moft probably to this
property which all vapours have of abforbing heat, and
detaining it in a latent ftate, that we are to attribute
the phenomena of flame, and alfo the exceeding great
elafticity of fleam. It is certain, that vapours, of wa¬
ter at lead, have a much greater power of abforbing
and retaining heat, than the water from which they are
raifed. In open velfels, water cannot be heated more
than to 21 2 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer 5 but in
Papin’s digefter, where the vapour is forcibly confined,
it has been heated to 400 of the fame degrees 5 and, no
doubt, might have been heated a great deal more, had
the veffels been ftrong enough to bear the expanfile
force of the fleam. On opening the veffels, however,
the excefs of heat was found to have refided entirely in
the vapour j for the water in the veffel very foon funk
down to 212, while the fleam iffued forthwith great
violence.
From thefe experiments it appears, that the fleam of
Water, after it has abforbed as much heat in a latent
-ftate as it can contain, continues to abforb, or detain
among its particles, an unlimited quantity of fenfible
heat ; and if the fleam could be confined till this quan-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
tity became great enough to be vifible by its emiflion
of light, there cannot be the leaft doubt that the va¬
pour would then be converted into flame.
In what manner the heat is detained among the par¬
ticles of fleam, is perhaps impoflible to be explained j
but to this heat we mull undoubtedly afenbe the ^So-
lent expanfive force of fleam of every kind. It feems
probable, that when fmoke is converted into flame, the
latent heat with which the vapour had combined, or
rather that which made an effential part of it, breaks
forth, and adds to the quantity, of fenfible heat which
is already prefent. This feems probable, from the
hidden explofion with which all flames break out. If
a veffel full of oil is fet over the fire, a fmoke or vapour
begins to arife from it j which grows gradually thicker
and thicker ; and at laft begins to thine in fome places
very near the furface of the oil, like an eleclric light,
or liilphur juft kindled. At this time the oil is very
hot, as well as the fleam which iffues from it. But this
laft is continually giving off its fenfible heat into the at-
mofphere j fo that at the diftance of an inch or two
from the furface of the oil, the heat of the fleam will
not exceed 400 degrees of Fahrenheit, or perhaps may-
not be fo much ; but if a burning candle is held in the
fleam for a moment, the whole is- immediately con¬
verted into flame, with fomething like an explofion $
after which, the oil burns quietly until it is all con-
fumed. The flame, as foon as it appears, is not only
much hotter than the fleam from whence it was pro¬
duced, but even than the oil which lies below it.
Whence, then, has this hidden and great increafe of
heat arifen ? It could not be the fenfible heat of the va¬
pour, for that was greatly inferior ; nor could it be
communicated from the oil, for that could communi¬
cate no more than it had to itfelf. The candle, in¬
deed, would communicate a quantity of heat to the va¬
pour which touched its flame ; but it is impoflible that
this quantity fhould extend permanently over a furface
perhaps 100 times larger than the flame of the candle,
in fuch a manner as to make every part of that furface
equally hot with the flame of the candle itfelf; for this
would be to fuppofe it to communicate 100 times more
heat than really was in it. The heat therefore mull
have originally refided in the vapour itfelf} and as, in
the freezing of water, its latent heat is extricated and
becomes fenfible, and the water thereupon lofes its flui¬
dity *, fo, in the afeenfion of vapour, the latent heat
breaks forth with a bright flafti, and the vapour is then
totally decompofed, and converted into foot, afhes, or
water, according to the different nature of the fub¬
ftances which produce it, or according to the intenfity
of the heat.—Several other hypothefes have been in¬
vented to folve the phenomena of burning and flaming
bodies 5 for an account of which, fee IGNITION and
Heat, Chemistry Index.
Flames are of different colours, according to the fub¬
ftances from which they are produced. Thus, the
flame of fulphur and fpirit of wine is blue 5 the flame
of nitre and zinc, of a bright white ; that of copper, of
a greenifh blue, &c.-—Thefe varieties afford an oppor¬
tunity of making a number of agreeable reprefentations
in fireworks, which could not be done if the flame
produced from every different fubftance was of the fame
colour. See Pyrotechnics.
FLAMEN, in Roman antiquity, the name ol an
4 P order
Ftame.
Flameru
Fkmtn
'll .
Fiarai.'iins.
F L A [ 666 ] F L A
order of pnefts, inftituted by Romulus or Numa 5 au¬
thors not being agreed on this head.
They were originally only three, viz. the Flamen
Diahs, Flamen Martialis, and Flamcn ^uirinalis. The
Flamen Dialis was facred to Jupiter, and a perfon of
the highefl: confequence and authority in the ftate.
He difcharged feveral religious duties which properly
belonged to the kings, and was honoured with many
eminent privileges beyond all other officers, but was
obliged to obferve feveral fuperftitious reftraints. The
Flamen Martialis was facred to Mars, and was ordain¬
ed to infpect the rites of that god. The Flamen
Quirinalis was facred to, and fuperintended the rites
of, Quirinus Romulus. The Flamines laft mentioned,
though of high authority, were much inferior to the
Flamen Dialis. All three were chofen by the people,
and confecrated by the Pontifex Maximus.—In latter
times feveral priefts of the fame order and name were
added to them, but inferior in power. The whole
number at laft amounted to 15 : the three firft of
whom were fenators, and called Flamines majores ; the
other 12, taken from among the people, being deno¬
minated Flamines minores.—Some authors tell us the
Romans had a Flamen for every deity they worfhip-
ped. The greater Flamines wTore the robe edged with
purple, like the great magiftrates ; had an ivory chair,
and a feat in the fenate. They wore a little band of
thread about their heads, whence their name is faid to
be derived, quaji Filatnines.—The wife of the Flamen
Dialis was called Flaminica, and wore a flame-colour¬
ed habit, on which was painted a thunderbolt, and
above her head-drefs fhe had green oak boughs, to
indicate that fhe belonged to Jupiter the thunderer, to
whom the oak was facred. The Flamines wore each
of them a hat or cap called Flammeum or Apex.
FLAMINGO, in Ornithology. See Phoenicop-
terus, Ornithology Index.
FLAMINIUS, or Flamininus, T. £). a cele¬
brated Roman, raifed to the confullhip in the year of
Rome 554, though under the age of 30. He was trained
in the art of waragainft Hannibal j and he fhowed him-
felf capable in every refpeft to difcharge with honour
the great office with which he was intrufted. He was
fent at the head of the Roman troops againft Philip king
of Macedon, and in his expedition he met with uncom¬
mon fuccefs. The Greeks gradually declared themfelves
his firmeft fupporters; and he totally defeated Philip on
the confines of Epirus, and made all Locris, Phocis,
and Theffaly, tributary to the Roman power. He
granted peace to the conquered monarch, and proclaim¬
ed all Greece free and independent at the Ifthmian
games. This celebrated action procured the name of
Patrons of Greece to the Romans, and infenfibly paved
their way to univerfal dominion. Flaminius behaved
among them with the greateft policy j by his ready
compliance to their national cuftoms and prejudices, he
gained uncommon popularity, and received the name of
father and deliverer of Greece. He was afterwards
tent ambaffador to King Prulias, who had given refuge
to Hannibaly and there his prudence and artifice haften-
ed out of the world a man who had long been the ter¬
ror of the Romans. Flaminius w as found dead in his
bed, after a life fpent in the greateft glory, in which he
had imitated with fuccefs the virtues of his model
Scipio. • '
Flaminius or Flaminio, Mark Antony, one of Flaminius
the beft Latin poets in the 16th century, of Imola in II
Italy, fon and grandfon of very learned men. The
pope had chofen him fecretary to the council in 1545 ; v
but he refufed that employment, becaufe, favouring
the new opinions, he would not employ his pen in
an affembly where he knew thefe opinions were to be
condemned.—He paraphrafed 38 of the pfalms in Latin
verfe, and alfo wrote notes on the Pfalms ; and fome let¬
ters and poems which are efteemed. He died at Rome
in 1550.
ILAMSTED, a town of Hertfordfhire in England,,
five miles from St Albans and Dunftable, ftands on the
river Verlam and was of old called Verlamftede. The
land in the vicinity is a clay fo thickly mixed with
flints, that, after a fhower, nothing appears but a heap
of ftones ; and yet it bears good corn even in dry fum-
mers. This fertility is imputed to a warmth in the flint,
which preferves it from cold in the winter} and to its
clofenefs, which keeps it from the fcorching rays of the
fun in the fummer. Edwrard VI. when an infant, was
brought hither for his health j and, it is faid, the bed.
ftead he lay on, which is curioufly wrought, is ftill pre-
ferved in the manor houfe near the towm.
FLAMSTEED, John, an eminent Englifh aftrono-
mer, and the firft who obtained the appointment of af-
tronomer-royal, was born at Derby in the year 1646.
He was educated at the free fchool of Derby, where he
was head fcholar at 14 years of age, at which period his
conftitution, naturally tender and delicate, was much
tried by a fevere illnefs. When fome of his companions
went to the univerfity, the ftate of his health prevented
him from accompanying them. He afterwards met with
a book De Splicer a, written by John Sacrobofco, which
was perfectly fuited to the natural turn of his genius,
and therefore he perufed it with uncommon fatisfaftion,
tranflating as much of it into Englifh as he thought
would be neceffary for him; and from the Ajlronomia
Carolince of Strut he learned the method of calculating
eclipfes, and afcertaining the places of the planets. Mr
Hatton, a mathematician, lent him Kepler’s Tabulce Ru-
dolphincc, and Riccioli’s Almagejlum Novum, together
with fome other aftronomical works to which he was
as yet a ftranger. In 1669 he calculated an eclipfe of
the fun, which had been omitted in the Ephemerides
for the following year, together with five appulfes of the
moon to fixed ftars, and fent them to Lord Brouncker,
prefident of the Royal Society, who fubmitted them to
the examination of that learned body, by which they were
greatly applauded, and h« received a letter of thanks
from Mr Oldenburg the fecretary. He likewife receiv¬
ed a letter of thanks from Mr Collins, one of the mem¬
bers. In 1670 he was invited to come up to London
by his father, that he might become perfonally acquaint¬
ed with his learned correfpondents, of which he gladly
accepted, and had an interview with Mr Oldenburg
and Mr Collins, by the latter of whom he was intro¬
duced to Sir Jonas Meore, who became the warm friend
and patron of Mr Flamfteed. In confequence of this
journey he became acquainted with many aftronomical
inftruments, and was prefented by Sir Jonas Moore with.
Townley’s micrometer, who alfo aflifted him in pro¬
curing glalfes at a moderate rate for the conftruftion of
telefcopes. On his way home again he returned by
Cambridge, where he paid a vifit to the celebrated Dr
Barrow
FLA [
Fjlamftced, Harrow and Sir Ifaac, then Mr ISewton, and entered a
Flanders. flucJent Gf Jefus college.
jn tiie year 1672, lie made large extra&s from the
letters of Gafcoigne and Crabtree, by which his know¬
ledge of dioptrics was very much improved and during
the fame year he made a number of celeftial obferva-
tions when the weather would permit, which were af¬
terwards publiihed in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions.
In 1673 he compofed a treatife on the true and ap¬
parent diameters of the planets, when at their greateft
and lead diftance from the earth, which even the great
Newton did not fcruple to borrow, and made fome uie
of it in his Principia in 1685. He publilhed an Ephe-
meris in 1674, which he expofed the folly and ab-
furdity of aftrology, and the fame year he drew up a
table of the tides for the ufe of the king, with an aitro-
nomical account of their ebbing and flowing, which Sir
Jonas Moore affured him would be well received by his
„ majefty. Sir Jonas received from Mr Flamfteed a pair
of barometers, with diredlions how7 to ufe them, which
he prefented to the king and the duke of York, to whofe
notice he embraced every opportunity of introducing
Mr Flamfteed.
Having taken the degree of M. A. at Cambridge,
he formed the refolution of entering into holy orders,
W'hen Sir Jonas wrote to him to come to London,
where he had an appointment for him very different
from that of the church. But as he found that nothing
could make him abandon the refolution he had formed,
he obtained a fituation for him which was perfectly con-
fiftent with the character of a clergyman. This was
the new office of aftronomer to the king, with a falary of
look per annum. He received ordination at Ely-houfe
by Bilhop Gunning, in Eafter 1675 i a|ld on tlle I0th
of Auguft in the fame year the foundation ftone of the
royal obfervatory at Greenwich was laid, w'hich receiv¬
ed the defignation of Flamfteed houfe, in honour of the
firft aftronomer royal. 1 ill this edifice was erefted, he
made his obfervations in the queen’s houfe at Greenwich,
and in 1681 his Dodtrine of the Sphere was publilhed
by Sir Jonas Moore in his fyftem of the mathematics.
Notwithftanding his extraordinary merit, he never rofe
higher in the church than to the living of Burflow in
Surrey, although he was defervedly efteemed by the
greateft men in the nation. He correfponded with the
great Newton, Dr Halley, Mr W. Molyneux, Dr Wal¬
lis, and many others } and M. Caffini and he imparted
their difcoveries to each other with the utmoft confi¬
dence and cordiality. But none of his works contri¬
buted lo much to render his fame immortal as his Hif-
toria Caeleftis Britannica,” in three volumes folio. Mr
Flamfteed was fuddenly carried off by a ftrangury on
the 31ft of December 1719 J and notwithftanding the
extreme delicacy of his conftitution and mceflant la¬
bours, he reached the 73d year of his age.
FLANDERS, a province of the Netherlands, bound¬
ed by the German fea and the United Provinces on the
north, by the province of Brabant on the eaft, by Hain-
ault and Artois on the fouth, and by another part of
Artois and the German fea on the weft 5 being about
60 miles long and 50 broad.
667 ] FLA
Flanders is a perfectly champaign country, with not
a riling ground or hill in it, and watered with many
fine rivers and canals. Its chief commodities are fine
lace, linen, and tapeftry.
In this country fome important arts were invent¬
ed and improved. Weaving in general was greatly
improved, and that of figures of all forts in linen was
invented j alfo the art of dyeing cloths and fluffs, and
of oil colours ; the curing of herrings, &c. The ma-
nufadlures of this country are not now in the flounlhing
ftate they were formerly; yet lilk, cotton, and wool¬
len fluffs, brocades, camblets, tapeftry, lace, and linen,
are ftill manufadlured here in great quantities. This
province had counts of its own from the ninth century
to the year 1369, when it went by marriage to the
dukes of Burgundy, and afterwards from them, by-
marriage alfo, to the houfe of Auftria. France, in 1667,
feized the fouthern part 5 and the ftates general ob¬
tained the northern, partly by the treaty of Munfter,
and partly by the barrier treaty of 1715.
For a more particular hiftory of Flanders, with a
continuation down to the prefent times, fee the article
Netherlands.
FLANEL, or Flannel, a kind of flight, loofe,
woollen ftuff, compofed of a woof and warp, and wove
on a loom with two treddles, after the manner of
baize.
Dr Black affigns as a reafon why flanel and other
fubftances of the kind keep the body warm, that they
compofe a rare and fpongy mafs, the fibres of which
touch each other fo flightly, that the heat moves flowly
through the interftices, which being filled only with air,
and that in a ftagnant ftate, give little affiftance in con-
dufting the heat. From the experiments of Count
Rumford, it appears, that there is a relation betwixt the
power which the fubftances ufually worn as clothing
have of abforbing moifture, and that of keeping the
body warm. Having provided a quantity of each of
thefe fubftances mentioned below, he expofed them,
fpread out upon clean China plates, for the fpace of 24
hours to the warm and dry air of a room which had
been heated by a German ftove for feveral months, and
during the laft fix hours had raifed the thermometer to
85° of Fahrenheit; after which he weighed equal quan¬
tities of the different liibftances with a very accurate
balance. They were then fpread out upon a China
plate, and removed into a very large uninhabited room
upon the fecond floor, where they were expofed 48
hours upon a table placed in the middle of the room,
the air of which was at 45° of Fahrenheit. At the end
of this fpace they were weighed, and then removed in¬
to a damp cellar, and placed on a table in the middle
of the vault, where the air was at the temperature of
450, and which by the hygrometer feemed to be fully
faturated wdth moifture. In this fituation they were
fuffered to remain three days and three nights j the
vault being all the time hung round with wet linen
cloths, to render the air as completely damp as poffible.
At the end of three days they were weighed, and the
weights at the different times were found as in the fol¬
lowing table.
4 P 2 Sheep’s
Flanel.
/ i
FLA [ 668 ] FLA
Flanel.
Sheep’s wool
Beaver’s fur
The fur of a Ruffian hare
Eider down
f Raw fingle thread
Silk •< Ravellings of white
taffety
{Fine lint
Ravelling of fine
linen
Cotton wool
Ravellings of filver lace
Weight af¬
ter being
dried in the
room.
}
}
Parts
IOOO
Weight af-
er coining
mt of the
cold room.
1084
IO72
1065
1067
'osj
\Veight af¬
ter remain¬
ing 72 h.in
the vault.
1163
II25
ms
1112
IIO7
f°54
1046
1044
1043
1000
1103
1102
1082
1089
1000
On thefe experiments our author obferves, that though
linen, from the apparent eafe with which it receives
dampnefs from the atmofphere, feems to have a much
greater attra&ion for water than any other ; yet it
would appear from what is related above, that thofe
bodies which receive water in its unelaftic form with
the greateft eafe, or are moll eafily wet, are not thofe
which in all cales attraft the moifture of the atmo¬
fphere with the greateft avidity. “ Perhaps (fays he),
the apparent' dampnefs of linen to the touch, arifes
more from the eafe with which that fubftance parts
with the water it contains, than from the quantity of
water it aflually holds : in the fame manner as a body
appears hot to the touch, in confequence of its parting
freely with its heat 5 while another body wrhich is really
at the fame temperature, but which withholds its heat
with great obftinacy, affefls the fenfe of feeling much
lefs violently. It is well known that woollen clothes,
fuch as Hands, &c. worn next the Ikin, greatly promote
infenfible perfpiration. May not this arife principally
from the ftrong attraflion which fubfifts between wool
and the watery vapour which is continually iffuing from
the human body ? That it does not depend entirely on
the warmth of that covering, is clear 5 for the lame de¬
gree of warmth produced by wearing more clothing of
a different kind, does not produce the lame effedl. The
perfpiration of the human body being abforbed by a
covering of Hand, it is immediately diftributed through
the whole thicknefs of that fubftance, and by that
means expofed, by a very large furface, to be carried
off by the atmofphere j and the lofs of this watery va¬
pour which the Hand fuftains on the one fide by eva¬
poration, being immediately reftored from the other, in
confequence of the ftrong attraction between the Hand
and this vapour, the pores of the Ikin are difencumber-
ed, and they are continually furrounded by a dry and
falubrious atmofphere.”
Our author expreffes his furprife, that the cuftom of
wearing Hand next the Ikin Ihould not have prevailed
more univerfally. He is confident it would prevent a
number of difeafes y and he thinks there is no greater
luxury than the comfortable fenfation which arifes from
wearing it, efpecially after-one is a little accuftomed to
it. “ It is a miftaken notion (fays he), that it is too
warm a clothing for fummer. I have worn it in
the hotteft climates, and at all feafons of the year}
and never found the leaft inconvenience from it. It
is the warm bath of perfpiration confined by a linen
Hurt, wet with fweat, which renders the fumnier heats
of fouthern climates fo unfupportable 5 but Hand pro¬
motes perlpiration, and favours its evaporation} and
evaporation, as is well known, produces politive cold.
It has been obferved that new flanel, after fome time
wearing, acquires the property of Ihining in the dark,
but lofes it on being walked. Phi/ofophical Tranja&ions,
N° 483. § 7.
FLANK, or Flanc, in the manege, is applied to
the fides of a horfe’s buttocks, &c. In a ftridl
fenfe, the flanks of a horfe are the extremes of the
belly, where the ribs are wanting, and are below the
loins.
The flanks of a horfe ftiould be full, and at the top
of each a feather. The diftance between the laft rib
and hauch-bone, which is properly the flank, Ihoukl
be Ihort, which they term well coupled, fuch horfes be¬
ing moft hardy, and fit to endure labour.
A horfe is faid to have no flank if the laft of the
Ihort ribs be at a confiderable diftance from the haunch-
bone j as alfo when the ribs are too much ftraitene4
in their compafs.
Flank;, in War, is ufed by way of analogy for the
fide of a battalion, army, &c. in contradiftin&ion to
the front and rear.
To attack the enemy in flank, is to difcover and fire
upon them on the fide. See File.
Flank, in Fortification, is a line drawn from the
extremity of the face towards the infide of the work.
Or, flank is that part of a baftion which reaches from
the curtain to the face, and defends the oppofite face,
the flank, and the curtain. See Fortification.
Oblique or Second Flank, or Flank of the Curtain,
is that part of the curtain from whence the face of the
oppofite baftion can be feen, being contained between
the lines rafant and fichant, or the greater and lefs lines
of defence j or the part of the curtain between the
flank and the point where the fichant line of defence
terminates.
Covered, Low, or Retired Flank, is the platform of
the cafement, which lies hid in the baftion j and is other-
wife called the Orillon.
Fichant Flank, is that from whence a cannon play¬
ing, fires dire&ly on the face of the oppofite baf¬
tion.
Rafant or Raxant Flank, is the point from whence
the line of defence begins, from the conjunction of
which with the curtain, the fhot only rafeth the face
of the next baftion, which happens when the face can¬
not be difcovered but from the flank alone.
FLAT, in fea-language, denotes a level ground ly¬
ing at a fmall depth under the furface of the fea, and
is alfo called a Jhoal or fballow.'
FhAT-bottomed Boats are fuch as are made to fwim in
fhallow water, and to carry a great number of troops,
artillery, ammunition, &c. They are conffcruCted with
a 12 pounder, bow-chafe, and an 18 pounder, ftem-
chafe 5 their keel is from 90 to 100 feet, and from 12
to 24 feet beam: they have one maft, a large fquare
main-fail, and a jib-fail; are rowed by 18 or 20 oars,
and can carry 400 men each. The gun takes up one
bow, and a bridge the other, over which the troops are
to march. Thofe that carry horfes have the fore-part
of the boat made to open when the men are to mount
and ride over a bridge.
FLATS, in Mufic. See- Interval.
Flank
Flat'.
FLATUS,
FLA [669
Flatus FLATUS, FLATULENCE, in Medicine ; vapours ge-
il nerated in the ftomach and inteftines, chiedy occafion-
riax- , ed by a weaknefs of thefe parts. They occafion diften-
lions, uneafy fenfation, and licknefs, and often a con-
liderable degree of pain. See Medicine Index..
PLAVEL, John, an eminent non-conformift mi-
nifter, was educated at Univerfity-college, in Oxford j
and became minilter firlt of Deptford, and afterwards of
Dartmouth in Devonlhire, where he refided the great-
ell part of his life, much refpe&ed and admired for his
preaching y although he was perfecuted on account oi
his principles, when in 1685, feveral of the aldermen of
the town, attended by the rabble, carried about a ridi¬
culous effigy of him, to which were affixed the Bill of
Exclulxon and the Covenant. Upon this occalion, he
thought it prudent to withdraw from the town j not
knowing what treatment he might meet with from a
riotous mob, headed by magillrates who were tnem-
lelves among the lowed; of mankind. Part of his Drary,
printed with his Remains, mud give the reader a high
idea of his piety. He died in 1691, aged 61 *, and af¬
ter his death, his works, which confided of many pieces
of praftical divinity, were printed in two volumes folio.
Among thefe, the mod famous are his “ Navigation
Spiritualized, or a New Compafs for Seamen, confiding
of 32 points of pleafant obfervations and ferious reflec¬
tions,” of which there have been leveral editions in
8vo ; and his “ Hulhandry Spiritualized, &c. with oc-
calional meditations upon beads, birds, trees, flowers,
rivers and feveral other objects,” of which alfo there
have been many editions in octavo.
FLAX, in Botany. See LlNUM, Botany Index.
The following particulars with regard to the manner
of railing flax, have been fome years pad warmly re¬
commended by the trudees for fifheries, manufailures,
and improvements in Scotland.
Of the choice of the Soil, and preparing the Ground for
Flax. A Ikilful flax-raifer always prefers a free open
deep loam j and all grounds that produced the preced¬
ing year a good crop of turnip, cabbage, potatoes,
barley, or broad clover, or have been formerly laid
down rich, and kept for fome years in padure.
A clay foil, the fecond or third crop, after being
limed, will anfwer well for flax j provided, if the
ground be dill fliff, that it be brought to a proper
mould, by tilling after harved to expofe it to the win¬
ter frods.
AH new grounds produce a flrong crop of flax, and
pretty free o? weeds. When a great many mole heaps
appear upon new ground, it anfwers the better for flax,
after one tilling.
Flax feed ought never to be fown on grounds that
are either too wet or dry } but on fuch as retain a na¬
tural moidure : and fuch grounds as are inclined to
weeds ought to be avoided, unlefs prepared by a care¬
ful dimmer fallow.
If the linfeed be fown early, and the flax not al¬
lowed to dand for feed, a crop of turnip may be got
after the flax that very year } the fecond year a crop
of bear or barley may be taken , and the third year,
grafs feeds are fometimes fown along with the linfeed.
This is the method modly pra£lifed in and about the
counties of Lincoln and Somerfet, where great quanti¬
ties of flax and hemp are every year raifed, and where
thefe crops have long been capital articles. Those, old
] FLA
ploughed grounds are never fown with linfeed, unlcfs
the foil be very rich and clean. A certain worm, called
in Scotland the coup worm, abounds in grounds newly
broken up, and greatly hurts every crop but flax. In
fmall enclofures furrounded with trees or high hedges,
the flax, for want of free air, is fubjecl to fad before
it be ripe j and the droppings of rain and dewT from
the trees prevent the flax, within the reach of the ttees,
from growing to any perfection.
Of preceding crops, potatoes and hemp are the bell
preparation for flax. In the fens of Lincoln, upon
proper ground of old tillage, they fow hemp, dung¬
ing well the firll year j the fecond year, hemp without
dung $ the third year, flax without dung j and that fame
year, a crop of turnip eaten on the ground by Iheep j the
fourth year, hemp with a large coat of dung j and fo
on for ever.
If the ground be free and open, it ffiould be but once
ploughed j and that as {hallow as poffible, not deeper
than 2^ inches. It ffiould be laid flat, reduced to a fine
garden mould by much harrowing, and all Hones and
fods fliould be carried off.
Except a little pigeons dung for cold or four
ground, no other dung ffiould be ufed preparatory fox
flax} becaufe it produces too many weeds, and throws
up the flax thin and poor upon the ftalk.
Before fowing, the bulky clods Ihould be broken, or
carried off the ground} and Hones, quickenings, and
every other thing that may hinder the growth of the
flax ffiould be removed.
Of the choice of Linfeed. The brighter in colour,,
and heavier the feed is, fo much the better; that
which when bruifed appears of a light or yeilowilh
green, and frefh in the heart, oily and not dry, and
fmells and tafles fweet, and not fufiy, may be depend¬
ed upon.
Dutch feed of the preceding year’s growth, for the
moH part, anfwers befl 5 but it leldom iucceeds if kept
another year. It ripens fooner than any other foreign
feed. Philadelphia feed produces fine lint and few
bolls, becaufe fown thick, and anfwers befl in wet
cold foils. Riga feed produces coarfer lint, and the
greateH quantity of ieed. Scots feed, when well win-
ned and kept, and changed from one kind of foil to an¬
other, fometimes anfwers pretty well} but fliould be
fown thick, as many of its grains are bad, and fail. It
fprings well, and its flax is fooner ripe than any other t,
but its produce afterwards is generally inferior to that
from foreign feed.
A kind has been lately imported called Memmelfeed;
which looks well, is ffiort and plump, but leldom grows
above eight inches, and on that account ought not to
be fown.
Of Sowing Linfeed. The quantity of linfeed {own
ffiould be proportioned to the condition of the foil}
for if the ground be in good heart, and the feed fown
thick, the crop will be in danger of falling before it is
ready for pulling. From n to 1 2 pecks Linlithgow
meafure of Dutch or Riga feed, is generally fufficient
for one Scots acre j and about 10 pecks of Philadel¬
phia feed, which, being the fmallefl grained, goes far-
thefl. Riga linfeed, and the next year’s produce of
it, is preferred in Lincolnlhire.
The time for fowing linfeed is from the middle ol
March to the end of April, as the ground and feafon
aniwers
Flax.
FLA C 670 ]
but the earlier the feed is fown, the lefs the other :
Fla*, anfwers
"”'v crop interferes with the corn harvefl.
Late fown linfeed may grow long, but the flax upon
the flalk will be thin and poor.
After flowing, the ground ought to be harrowed till
the feed is well covered, and then (fluppofing the foil,
as before mentioned, to be free and reduced to a fine
mould) it ought to be rolled.
When a farmer flows a large quantity of linfeed, lie
may find it proper to flow a part earlier and part la¬
ter, that in the future operations of weeding, pulling,
watering, and grading, the work may be the eafier and
more conveniently gone about.
It ought always to be fown on a dry bed.
Of Weeding Flax. It ought to be weeded when the
crop is about four inches long. If longer deferred,
t. e weeders will fo much break and crook the ftalks,
that they will never perhaps recover their ftraightnefls
again ; and when the flax grows crooked, it is more li¬
able to be hurt in the rippling and fwingling.
Quicken grafls Ihould not be taken up j for, being
flrongly rooted, the pulling of it always loolens a deal
of the lint.
If there is an appearance of a fettled drought, it
is better to defer the weeding, than by that opera¬
tion to expofe the tender roots of the flax to the
drought.
How foon the weeds are got out, they ought to be
carried off the field, inftead of being laid in the fur¬
rows, where they often take root again, and at any
late obftruft the growth of the flax in the furrows.
Of Pulhng Flax. When the crop grows fo ftiort
and branchy, as to appear more valuable for feed than
flax, it ought not to be pulled before it be thoroughly
ripe ; but if it grows long and not branchy, the feed
ihould be difregarded, and all the attention given to
the flax. In the lafl: cafe it ought to be pulled after
the bioom has fallen, when the ftalk begins to turn
yellow, and before the leaves fall, and the bolls turn
hard and (harp pointed.
When the ftalk is fmall, and carries few bolls, the
flax is fine j but the ftalk of coarfe flax is grofs, rank,
branchy, and carries many bolls.
When the flax has fallen, and lies, fuch as lies ought
to be immediately pulled, whether it has grown enough
Or not, as otherwife it will rot altogether.
♦ When parts of the fame field grow unequally, fo
that fome parts are ready for pulling before other
parts; only wThat is ready fliould be pulled, and the
reft ihould be fuffered to ftand till ready.
The flax-raifer ought to be at pains to pull and
keep by itfelf, each different kind of lint which he finds
m his field ; wLat is both long and fine, by itfelf;
what is both long and coarfe, by itfelf j what is both
ftiort and fine, by itfelf; what is both fhort and coarfe,
by itfelfand in like manner every other kind by it¬
felf that is of the fame fize and quality. If the differ¬
ent kinds be not thus kept feparate, the flax muft be
much damaged in the watering and the other fucceed-
ing operations.
What is commonly called under-growth may be ne¬
glected as ufelefs.
Few perfons that have feen pulled flax, are ignorant
of the method of laying it in handfuls acrofs each
3
FLA
which gives the flax fufficient air, and keeps the
handfuls feparate and ready for the rippler.
Of Stacking up Flax during the Winter, and Winning
the Seed. If the flax be more valuable than the feed,
it ought by no means to be Hacked up ; for its own
natural juice aftlfts it greatly in the watering • whereas,
if kept long unwatered, it lofes that juice, and the
haile adheres fo much to the boon, that it requires
longer time to water, and even the quality of the flax
becomes thereby hariher and coarfer. Befides, the flax
flacked up over year, is in great danger from vermine
and other accidents ^ the water in fpring is not fo
foit and waim as in harveft 5 and near a year is there¬
by loft of the ufe of the lint: but if the flax be fo Ihort
and branchy as to appear moft valuable for feed, it
ought, after pulling, to be flocked and dried upon the
field, as is done with corn 5 then flacked up for wrin-
ter, rippled in fpring j and after fheeling, the feed
fliould be well cleaned from bad feeds, &c.
Of Rippling Flax. After pulling, if the flax is to
be regarded more than the feed, it ihould be allowed
to lie fome hours upon the ground to dry a little, and
fo gain fome firmnefs, to prevent the fkin or harle,
which is the flax, from rubbing off in the rippling j an
operation which ought by no means to be negleCled,
as the bobs, if put into the water along with the flax,
breed vermine there, and otherwife fpoil the water. The
bolls alfo prove very inconvenient in the grafting and
breaking.
.In Lincolnfture and Ireland, they think that rip¬
pling hurts the flax j and therefore, in place of rip-
pling, they ftrike the bolls againft a ftone.
The handfuls for rippling fhould not be great, as
that endangers the lint in the rippling comb.
After rippling, the flax-raifer will perceive, that he
is able to affort each fize and quality of the flax by it¬
felf more exaftly than he could before.
Of Watering Flax. A running ftream waftes the
lint, makes it white, and frequently carries it away.
Lochs, by the great quantity and motion of the wa¬
ter, alfo wafte and whiten the flax, though not fo much
as running ftreams. .Both rivers and lochs water the
flax quicker than canals.
But all flax ought to be watered in canals, which
ftiould be digged in clay ground if poflible, as that
foil retains the water beft: but if a firm retentive foil
cannot be got, the bottom or fides of the canal, or
both the bottom and fides, may be lined with clay or
mftead of lining the fides with clay, which might
fall down, a ditch may be dug without the canal, and
filled with clay, which will prevent both extraneous
water from entering, and the water within from run¬
ning off.
. A canal of 40 feet long, fix broad, and four deep,
will generally water the growth of an acre of flax.
It ought to be filled with frefti foft wTater from a
river or brook, if poflible, two or three weeks before
the flax is put in, and expofed all that time to the heat
of the fun. The greater wray the river or brook has
run, the fofter, and therefore the better, will the w’ater
be. Springs, *>r ftiort runs from hills, are t6o cold,
unlefs the water is allowed to ftand long in the canal.
Water from coal or iron is very bad for flax. A little
of the powder of galls thrown into a glafs of water,
' . will
Flax.
F* L A [ 67
Flax, will immediately difcover if it comes from minerals of
““"v ' 1 that kind, by turning it into a dark colour, more or
lefs tinged in proportion to the quantity of vitriol it
contains.
The canal ought not to be under fhade : which, be-
fides keeping the fun from foftening the water, might
make part of the canal cooler than other parts, and fo
water the flax unequally.
The flax-raifer will obferve, when the water is
brought to a proper heat, that fmall plants will be
rifing quickly in it, numbers of fmall infers and rep¬
tiles will be generating there, and bubbles of air rif¬
ing on the furface. If no fuch figns appear, the
water mull not be warm enough, or is otherwife unfit
for flax.
Mofs holes, when neither too deep nor too {hallow,
frequently anfwer well for watering flax, when the wa¬
ter is proper, as before defcribed.
The proper feafon for watering flax is from the end
of July to the end of Augufi.
The advantage of watering flax as foon as poflible
after pulling, has been already mentioned.
The flax being forted after rippling, as before men¬
tioned, fhould next be put in beets, never larger than
a man can grafp with both his hands, and tied very
flack with a band of a few ftalks. Dried rulhes an¬
fwer exceedingly well for binding flax, as they do not
rot in the water, and may be dried and kept for ufe
again.
The beets fhould be put into the canals flopewife,
or half {landing upon end, the root end uppermoft.
Upon the crop ends, when uppermoft, there frequent¬
ly breeds a deal of vermine, deftruftive of the flaXj
which is effectually prevented by putting the crop end
downmoft.
The whole flax in the canal ought to be carefully
covered from the fun with divots; the graffy fide of
which fliould be next the flax, to keep it clean. If it
is not thtos covered, the fun will difcolour the flax,
though quite covered with water. If the divots are
not weighty enough to keep the flax entirely under wa¬
ter, a few ftones may be laid above them. But the flax
fliould not be preffed to the bottom.
When the flax is fufficiently watered, it feels loft to
the gripe, and the harle parts eafily with the boon or
jhoWy which laft is then become brittle, and looks whit-
ifli. When thefe figns are found, the flax ftiould be
taken out of the water, beet after beet; each gently
rinfed in the water, to cleanfe it of the naftinefs which
has gathered about it in the canal •, and as the lint is
then very tender, and the beet flackly tied, it mull be
carefully and gently handled.
Great care ought to be taken that no part be over¬
done •, and as the coarfefl: waters fooneft, if different
kinds be mixed together, a part will be rotted, when
the reft is not fufficiently watered.
When lint taken out of the canal is not found fuffi¬
ciently watered, it may be laid in a heap for 12, 18,
or 24 hours, wdiich will have an effeCl like more water¬
ing ; but this operation is nice, and may prove danger¬
ous in unskilful hands.
After the flax is taken out of the canal, frefti lint,
flvould not be put a fecond time into it, until the former
water be run off, and the canal cleaned, and fupplied
with frefh water.
1 ] FLA
Of GraJJing Flax. Short heath is the beft field for Flax,
graffing flax ; as, when wet, it fallens to the heath,—\r—
and is thereby prevented from being blown away by
the wind. The heath alfo keeps it a little above the
earth, and fo expofes it the more equally to the wea¬
ther. When fuch heath is not to be got, links or
clean old lea ground is the next beft. Long grafs
grounds fliould be avoided, as the grafs growing
through the lint frequently fpots, tenders, or rots it j
and grounds expoied to violent winds fhould alfo be
avoided.
The flax, when taken out of the water, muft be
fpread very thin upon the ground $ and being then
very tender, it muft be gently handled. The thinner
it is fpread the better, as it is then the more equally
expofed to the weather. But it ought never to be
Ipread during a heavy Ihower, as that would waftr and
wafte the harle too much, which is then exceflively
tender, but foon after becomes firm enough to bear the
rains, which, with the open air and funftiine, cleans,
foftens, and purifies the harle to the degree wanted,
and makes it blifter from the boon. In ftrort, after the
flax has got a little firmnefs by being a few hours
fpread in dry weather, the more rain and funftiine it
gets the better.
If there be little danger of high winds carrying off
the flax, it will be much the better of being turned
about once a week. If it is not to be turned, it ought
to be very thin fpread. The fpreading of flax and
hemp requires a deal of ground, and enriches it
greatly.
The fkilful flax-raifer fpreads his firft row of flax
at the end of the field oppofite to the point from
whence the moft violent wind commonly comes, pla¬
cing the root-ends foremoft y he makes the root-ends
of every other row overlap the crop ends of the former
row three or four inches, and binds down the laft row
with a rope j by which means the wind does not eafily
get below the lint to blow it away; and as the crop
ends are feldom fo fully watered as the root ends, the
aforefaid overlapping has an effedl like giving the crop
ends more watering. Experience only can fully teach
a perfon the figns of flax being fufficiently grafted : then
it is of a clearer colour than formerly j the harle is blif-
tered up, and eafily parts with the boon, which is then
become very brittle. I he wdrole ftiould be fufficiently
grafted before any of it is lifted j for if a part be lifted.
fooner than the reft, that v/hich remains is in great
danger from the winds.
A dry day ought to be chofen for taking up the
flax ; and if there is no appearance of high wind, it
ftiould be loofed from the heath or grafs, and left loofe
for fome hours, to make it thoroughly dry.
As a great quantity of flax can fcarcely be all equal¬
ly watered and grafted, and as the different qualities
will beft appear at lifting the flax off the grafs ; there¬
fore at that time each different kind ihould be gathered
together, and kept by itfelf} that is, all of the lame co¬
lour, length, and quality.
The fmaller the beets lint is made up in, the better
for drying, and the more convenient for Hacking, houi-
ing, &c. and in making up thefe beets, as in every
other operation upon flax, it is of great confequence
that the lint be laid together as it grew, the root ends
together, and the crop ends together.
Follows
FLA
FLA
F'a, ' C ^72 ]
F‘i*- , „ Flat.
Foiiows an ejlimate of the Expence, Produce, and Profit of a Scots Acre of Flax,—-fuppofing the feafon favourable,
that no accidental Ioffes happen, and that the farmer is neither unjkilful nor negligent.
I A medium crop.
Ground rent, labouring the ground, and leading the flax L. 2 10 o
Linfeed from 2I. to 4I. per hoglhead, the medium
3s. 4d. per peck — — 1 16 8
for 11 pecks.
Clodding and fowing —   020
Weeding — — — o 12 o
Pulling, rippling, putting in, and covering in the
water —    
Taking out of the water, grafling, and Hacking
Breaking and fcutching,, at 2$. per Hone —
Total expence
Produce at 10s. per Hone.
Linfeed fold for oil at is. per peck  
The chaff of the bolls is well worth the expence of
drying the feed j as it is good food, when boiled
and mixed with bear, for horfes.
Total produce
Balance for profit    
o 14 o
080
300
for 30 ftones.
L.
A great crop.
L. 3 10 o
I 10
for 9 pecks.
020
080
0 *5
o 12
4 o
for 40 ftones.
8
L. 15 o o
for 30 ftones.
016 o
L. 10
*7
L. 20 o o
for 40 ftones.
0180
An extra crop.
L. 5 o o
1 6 8
for 8 pecks.
020
nothing.
100
018 o
600
for 60 ftones.
L. 14
8
L. 30 o o
for 60 ftones.
L. 15 16 ojL- 20 18
L. 6 14 4 L. 10
L. 31
L. 16 13
The above eftimate being made feveral years ago,
the expence and profit are now different j but the pro¬
portions of each are probably the fame. There is
nothing ftated here as expence of the canal in which
the flax is watered j becaufe that varies much according
to circumftances.
It is a certain fa<ft, that the greater the crop is, the
better is the quality of the fame kind of flax.
The advantage of having both a crop of flax and a
crop of turnip the fame year—or of fowling grafs feeds
along wTith the linfeed—and of reducing the ground to
a fine garden mould, free of weeds, ought to be attend¬
ed to.
For Cambric and fine Lawn. The ground muft be
a rich light foil, rather fandy, but cannot be too rich.
. It ought to be ploughed in September, or the be¬
ginning of Oftober, firft putting a little hot rotten
dung upon it. In January it ought to have a fecond
ploughing, after a hard froft $ and when ybu intend
to fow it, plough it a third time, or rather hoe it, re¬
ducing the clods very fine j but make no furrows : the
land muft be made level like a garden j but never work
the land when wet.
"I he feed fliould be fown the beginning of April,
and about double the quantity that is generally fown
by our farmers; if the land be very rich, it will require
rather more than double.
As foon as fown (if the weather be dry) it wall be
neceflary to roll the ground.
I he lint muft be weeded very clean when about
three inches high *, dire&ly after which you muft fet
forked flicks, of about one and a half inch thick (which
ought to be prepared before), every four or five feet
according to the length of the poles you are to lay upon
them.} they ftiould be well fixed in the ground, the
4
forked part to receive the poles about fix or feven inches
above the lint} each row of poles fliould be two, three, or
four feet afunder, according to the length of the brufli-
■wood you are to lay upon them.
The poles ought to be from 10 to 15 feet long,
and ftrong enough to fupport the brufli acrofs the
poles} take the longeft brufhwood you can get, the
more branchy the better, very thick, filling up the va¬
cancies with fmaller brufti, and any of the branches
that rife higher than 18 o: 20 inches ought to be
lopt off to make the brufh lie as level as poflible :
any fort of brufli will do except oak, as that tinges the
lint.
Your lint muft be pulled as foon as the feed is fully
formed, which is a few days after it is out of the bloom,
before the lint turn yellow.
It muft be pulled above the bruftiwood, and every
handful laid upon it as foon as poflible : if it is fine
weather, leave it four or five hours in that manner-; then
carry it to a fcreen near a barn, to put it under cover
in cafe of rain ; there it muft be fpread four or five
days, and ahvays put in the bam at night, or when it ap¬
pears to rain : the bundles muft be opened in the bam, or
made hollow, to prevent it from heating.
Thefe operations muft be performed until the lint is
perfectly dry, and out of danger of heatingj j taking '
care all the time to keep the roots as even as poflible,
and if poflible keep it from rain or wet: if you cannot
prevent it from being w'et, it will be better to leave it
on the grafs till dry } becaufe when once wet, the put¬
ting it under cover before dry will make it turn black }
a thing which muft be prevented at all events.
If any of the lint upon the border, or through the
piece of ground, be coarfer than another, it muft be fe-
parated from the reft.
The
FLA [ 073 ] FLA
The utmofl care muft be taken to preferve the fint
entire or unbroken 5 for this reafon they beat off the
feed with a round mell or bittle.
The moil proper ground is fummer fallow, or after
potatoes or lea ; if poffible near a wood, to prevent the
expence of carrying brufh.
As foon as the feed is off, if you intend to water it
that feafon, it muft be tied in bundles about as large as
you can grafp with your two hands.
The water proper for it, is a very fmall rivulet or
foft fpring free of any metellic ore 5 taking care that
no flood or foul water enters your pit} which muft be
at leaft five feet deep, about nine or ten broad at the
top, and feven or eight at the bottom j the length
will depend on the quantity of flax you have to water.
A very fmall ftripe of water, when clear, ftiould always
be running in and off from your pit when the lint
is in it.
The pit ought to be made three or four months before
it be ufed.
You muft drive poles about four inches thick, with
a hook inclining downwrards, in this form 7, all along
the fides of the pit, above five feet afunder. The hooks
muft be level with, or rather under, the furface of the
water. A long pole, the w'hole length of the pit, muft
be fixed into thefe hooks on each fide 5 and crofs poles
put under that, to keep the lint under water; but the
crofs poles are not ufed till the lint is put in. You
muft order it fo, that all the lint ftiould be three or
four inches under water. You next bring your lint to
the fides of the pit •, then put your (heaves head to
head, caufing each to overlap the other about one-third,
and take as many of thefe as make a bundle of two or
two and a half feet broad, laying the one above the
other till it is about four or four and a half feet high 5
then you tie them together in the middle, and at each
root end: after this you wrap your bundle in ftraw,
and lay it in the water, putting the thin or broad fide
undermoft, taking care that none of your lint touch the
earth 5 after it is fully preffed under water, put in your
crofs poles to keep it under. The bundles ought to
lie in the pit a foot feparate from each other. This
renders it eafy to take out j for, if the bundles en¬
tangle, they will be too heavy to raife.
The time of watering depends fo much upon the
■weather, and foftnefs or hardnefs of the water, that it
is impoflible to fix any certain time. This muft be left
to the ikill of the farmer. If the flax be intended for
fpinning yarn foft and fit for cambric, it ought to be
fpread upon fhort grafs for four or five days before you
put it into the wrater 5 but if for lawns, lace, or thread,
it is beft to dry it outright. In either cafe, avoid as
much as poiftble to let it get rain; as much rain blanches
and walhes out the oil, which is neceffary to preferve
the ftrength.
The great property of this flax is to be fine and
long. Thick fowing raifes all plants fine and (lender ;
and wdien the ground is very rich, it forces them to
a great length. Pulling green prevents that coarfe
hardnefs which flax has when let (land till it be full
ripe, and gives it the fine filky property. The brufti-
wood, when the flax fprings up catches it by the middle,
and prevents it from lying down and rotting ; infallible
confequences of fowing thick upon rich ground. It
likewife keeps it ftraight, moift, and foft at the roots j
Vox,. VIII. Part II.
and by keeping it warm, and (haded from the fun,
greatly promotes its length. The keeping it from
rain, heating, taking proper care of your water, pre-
ferves the colour, and prevents thofe bars in cloth fo much
complained of by bleachers.
FLAx-DreJJing. For many ages it was the praftice
to feparate the boon or core from the flax, which is the
bark of the plant, by the following Ample hand me¬
thods. Firft, for breaking the boon, the (talks in fmall
parcels were beat with a mallet j or, more dexteroutly,
the breah (Plate CCXVI11. fig. 1. and 2.) was ufed thus:
The flax being held in the left hand acrofs the three
under teeth or /words of the break (X?, fig. 1. and a
fig. 2.), the upper tecthi (J5, fig. 1. and b. fig. 2.) were
with the right hand quickly and often forced down up¬
on the flax, which was artfully drifted and turned
with the left hand. Next, for clearing the flax of the
broken boon : the workman with his left hand held
the flax over the/och (fig. 3. and 4.), while with his
right hand he (truck or thraftred the flax with the
fcutcher (fig. 5.)
Thefe methods of breaking and fcutching the flax
being (low and very laborious, a water-mill was invent¬
ed in Scotland about the year 1750 ) which, with fome
improvements, makes great defpatch, and in (kil-
ful and careful hands gives fatisfaction. It has been
generally conftrufted to break the boon by three dent¬
ed rollers, placed one above the other. The middle
one of which, being forced quickly round, takes the
other two along with it, and one end of the handfuls of
the flax being by the workmen directed in between
the upper and middle rollers, the flax is immediately
drawn in by the rollers j a curved board or plate of
tin behind the rollers directs the flax to return again
between the middle and undermoft rollers \—and thus
the operation is repeated until the boon be iiifficiently
broke. Great weights of timoer or done at the ends
of levers, prefs the upper and under rollers towards the
middle one.
The fcutching is next carried on by the mill in the
following manner: Four arms, fomething like the
hand-fcutchers before defcribed, projedl from a per¬
pendicular axle ; a box around the axle enclofes thefe
projecling fcutchers 5 and this box is divided among
the workmen, each having fuflicient room to (land and
handle his flax, which, through flits in the upper part
and fides of the box, they hold in to the ftroke of the
fcutchers 5 which, moving round horizontally, (trike
the flax acrofs or at right angles, and fo thrafti out or
clear it of the boon.
The breaking of the flax by rollers is (carcely fub-
je£t to any objection, but that it is dangerous to work¬
men not fufticiently on their guard, who fometimes
allow the rollers to take hold of their fingers, and
thereby their whole arm is inftantly drawn in : thus
many have loft their arms. To avoid this danger, a
break, upon the general principles of the hand-break
before defcribed, has been lately adapted to water-
machinery, and ufed in place of rollers. The hori¬
zontal ftroke of the fcutchers was long thought too
fevere, and wafteful of the flax *, but very careful ex¬
periments have difcovered that the wafte complained
of muft be charged to the unfldlfulnefs or negligence
of the workmen, as ijj good hands the mill carries
away nothing but what, if not fo fcutched off, muft
4 Q
FLA [ 674 ] FLA
Flax, be taken off in the heckling, with more lofs both of
v time and llax. But to obviate this objection of the
violence of the horizontal /catchers, an imitation of
hand-fcutching has lately been applied to water. The
fcutchers then projeft from a horizontal axle, and
move like the arms of a check reel, linking the flax
neither acrofs nor perpendicularly down, but Hoping
in upon the parcel exactly as the flax is Itruck by the
band-fcutcher. This Hoping ftroke is got by raiflng
the fcutching flock feme inches higher than the centre
of the axle ; and by raiflng or lowering the Hock over
wdflch the flax is held, or fcrewing it nearer to or far-
. ther from the fcutchers, the, workman can temper or
humour the ftroke almofl as he pleafes.
A lint mill, with horizontal fcutchers upon a per¬
pendicular axle, requires a houfe of two llories, the
rollers or break being placed in the ground Hory, and
the fcutchers in the loft above 5 but a mill writh verti¬
cal fcutchers on a horizontal axle, requires but one ground
flory for all the machinery.
Another method of breaking and fcutching flax,
more expeditioqs than the old hand methods, and
more gentle than water mills, has alfo been invent¬
ed in Scotland, It is much like the break and
fcutcher, giving the Hoping flroke lafl defcribed, moved
by the foot. The treddle is remarkably mng, and
the fcutchers are fixed upon the rim of a fly wheel.
The foot-break is alfo afliiled in its motion by a fly.
Thefe foot machines are very ufeful wdiere there are no
water mills, but they are far inferior to the mills in
point of expedition.
The next operation that flax undergoes after fcutch-
xng is heckling. The heckle (fig. 6.) is firmly fixed
to a bench before the workman, who Itrikes the flax
upon the teeth of the heckle, and draws it through the
teeth. To perfons unacquainted with that kind of
Work this may feem a very Ample operation 5 but, in
fa6l, it requires as much praflice to acquire the flight
of heckling well, and without wafting the flax, as any
other operation in the whole manufacture of linen.
They ufe coarfer and wider teethed heckles, or finer,
according to the quality of the flax •, generally putting
the flax through two heckles, a coarfer one firft, and
next a fine one.
Flax for Cambric and fine Lawn, Thread, and Lace,
is dreffed in a manner fomewBat different. It is not
fcutched fo thoroughly as common flax ; which from
the fcutch proceeds to the heckle, and from that to
the fpinner: whereas, this fine flax, after a rough
fcutching, is fcraped and cleanfed with a blunt knife
upon the workman’s knee covered with his leather
apron j from the knife it proceeds to the fpinner, who,
with a bruih made for the purpofe, ftraights and dreffes
each parcel juft before Hie begins to fpin it.
The following obfervations on this fubjeCl, firft pub-
liflied in the Gentleman’s Magazine for June 1787, feem
worthy of particular attention.
O f the watering of Flax by a new ?nethod, fib as to
fhorten labour, to add probably to the firength of
the flax, and to give it a much finer colour, which
would render the operation of bleaching fafor and lefs
tedious.
“ Though the following reflexions have for their
objeCt an improvement in the very effential article of Flax,
watering of flax, yet I muft advertife the reader, that
they are only theory, and muft depend entirely for
their truth and juftification upon future experiments,
fkilfully and judicioufly made. Should repeated trials
prove the advantage of the new method propofed, wo
may venture to affirm, that it would be an improve¬
ment that would increafe the national income in the
agricultural branch many thoufand pounds annually,
would add greatly to the perfeCHon of the linen manu¬
facture, and over and above would fupprefs a very dif-
agreeable nuifance, which the prefent method of water¬
ing flax occafions during fome part of the fummer in every
flax-growing country.
“ The intention of watering flax is, in my opinion,
to make the boon more brittle or friable, and, by foak-
ing, to diffolve that gluey kind of lap that makes
the bark of plants and trees adhere in a fmall degree
to the wmody part. The bark of flax is called the
harle; and when feparated from the ufelefs woody part,
the boon, this harle itfplf is called flax. To effed this
feparation eafily, the praClice has long prevailed, of
foaking the flax in water to a certain degree of fer¬
mentation, and afterwards drying it. For this foak¬
ing fome prefer rivulets that have a fmall current, and
others ftagnant water in ponds and lakes. In both
methods the water ads as in all other cafes of infufion
and maceration ; after two or three weeks it extraCls
a great many juices of a very ftrong quality, which in
ponds give the water an inky tinge and offenfive fmell;
and in rivulets mix in the ftream and kill ‘the fifli.
Nay, if this maceration be too long continued, the
extraffed and fermented fap will completely kill the
flax itfelf. For if, inftead of two or three weeks, the
new flax were to lie foaking in the water four or five
months, I prefume it would be good for nothing but
to be thrown upon the dunghill; both harle and boon
would in time be completely rotted •, yet the harle or
flax, when entirely freed from this fap, and manufac¬
tured into linen, or into ropes, might lie many months
under water without being much damaged ; as linen,
it may be waftied and fteeped in fcalding water twenty
times without lofing much of its ftrength j and as pa¬
per, it acquires a kind of incorruptibility.
“ It appears then effential to the right management
of new flax, to get rid of this pernicious vegetative
fap, and to macerate the boon 3 but from the com¬
plaints made againft both the methods of watering now
in ufe, there is reafon to think that there is ftill great
room for improvement in that article. In rivulets, the
vegetative fap, as it is diffolved, is carried off by the
Current, to the deftruClion of the fifli. This prevents
the flax from being ftained 3 but the operation is te¬
dious, and not complete, from the uncertainty of
knmving when it is juft enough, and not too much,
or perhaps from negleCt. In ponds, the inky tinge of
the water often ferves as a kind of dye to the flax,
which imbibes it fo ftrongly, that double the labour-
in bleaching will hardly bring the linen made of fuch
flax to an equality in whitenefs with linen made of
flax untinged. This feems to be equally unwife as
though we were to die cotton black firft, in order to
whiten it afterwards. Thefe ponds, befides, become
a great nuifance to the neighbourhood 3 the impreg¬
nated water is often of fuch a pernicious quality, that
cattle,
Plate ccxvnr.
^ /. - S'/*IaT Aatvc/
r:- lip'j ,;,y
^/ye.y. sy1 //*<•-’«f/sYvt'/e.
'■ 'Ay.*. ■/';/'
, SStma/1- f/;sv/Zrv4^“/*.
iS/./xW/ . //«/•' /oW.
F L A f 675 ] F L .A
nax. cattle, hoxvever thirfly, will not drink of it; and the
effluvia of it may perhaps be nearly as infe&ious as it
is offenfive. If this effluvia is really attended with
any contagious effedts in our Cold climate, a thing
worth the inquiring into, how much more pernicious
muft its effedls have been in the hot climate of Egypt,
a country early noted for its great cultivation of
flax ?
“ I have often thought that the procefs of watering
might be greatly improved and fhortened by plunging
the new flax, after it is rippled, into fcalding water j
which, in regard to extracting the vegetative fap, would
do in five minutes more than cold water would do in
a fortnight, or perhaps more than cold water could do
at all, in refpect to the clearing the plant of fap.
Rough almonds, when thrown into fcalding water, are
blanched in an inftant •, but perhaps a fortnight’s ma¬
cerating thofe almonds in cold water would not make
them part fo eaflly with their {kins, which are the fame
to them as the harle is to the flax. Were tea leaves
to be infufed in cold water a fortnight, perhaps the
tea produced by that infuflon would not be fo good to
the tafte, or fo ilrongly tinged to the eye, as what is
effedted by fcalding water in five minutes. By the
lame analogy, I think, flax or any fmall twig would be
made to part with its bark much eafier and quicker by
being dipped in boiling water than by being fteeped
in cold water. ^
“ This reflection opens a door for a great variety
of new experiments in regard to flax. I would there¬
fore recommend to gentlemen cultivators and farmers,
to make repeated trials upon this new fyflem, which
would foon afcertain whether it ought to be adopted
in praCtice or rejected. One thing, I think, we may
be certain of, that if the Egyptians watered their flax
in our common manner, they undoubtedly watered it
in very warm water, from the great heat of their cli¬
mate, which would probably make them negleCt to
think of water heated by any other means than that
of the fun. A good general praCHce can only be efta-
bliflied upon repeated trials. Though one experiment
may fail, another with a little variation may fucceed ;
and the importance of the objeCt defired to be obtain¬
ed will juilify a good degree' of perfeverance in the
profecution of the means. In this view, as the Chi-
nefe thread is faid to be very ftrong, it would be worth
while to be acquainted with the praCHce of that diflant
nation, in regard to the rearing and manufacturing of
flax, as well as with the methods ufed by the Flemings
and the Dutch.
“ Boiling water perhaps might at once clear the
new flax from many impurities, which when not re¬
moved till it be fpun into yarn, are then removed with
difficulty, and with lofs of fubftance to the yarn. Why
fliould not the longitudinal fibres of the flax, before
they be fpun into yarn, be made not only as Jine but
as clean as poflible ? Upon the new fyftem propofed,
the aft of bleaching would begin immediately after the
rippling of the flax *, and a little done then, might per¬
haps fave much of what is generally done after the
fpinning and weaving. To fpin dirty flax wdth a view
of cleaning it afterwards, appears to be the fame impro¬
priety as though we wore to referve part of the drefling
given to leather till after it is made into a glove.
u -Should the plunging of the flax into the boiling
water not fuffice to make the boon brittle enough, as 1
am inclined to think it would not, then the common
wateving might be added; but in that cafe probably
half the time ufually given to this watering would fuf¬
fice, and the flax might then be laid in clear rivulets,
vritholit any apprehenfion of its infefting the wrater
and poifoning the fifli, or of being difcoloured itfelf 5
for the boiling wTater into which it had been previouf-
ly put, would have extrafted all the poifonous vegeta¬
tive fap, which I prefume is what chiefly difcolours'the
flax or kills the fiffi.
“ On the fuppofition, that the ufe of boiling water
in the preparation of flax may be found to be advan¬
tageous and profitable, I can recoiled at prefent but
one objeftion againfl: its being generally adopted.
Every flax-growler, it may be faid, could not be ex-
pefted to have conveniences for boiling water fuffi-
cient for the purpofe; the confumption of w^ater
wrould be great 5 and fome additional expence would
be incurred. In anfwer to this, I {hall obferve, that
I prefume any additional expence would be more than
reimburfed by the better marketable price of the flax ;
for otherwife any new improvement, if it will not quit
coil muff be dropt, w7ere it even the fearching after
gold. In a large caldron a great deal of flax might
be dipt in the fame water, and the confumption per¬
haps would not be more than a quart, to each fheaf.
Even a large houfehold pot wTould be capable of con¬
taining one (heaf after another j and I believe the
whole objeftion would be obviated, were the praftice
to prevail with us, as in Flanders and Holland, that
the flax-gnwver and the flax-dreffer fliould be tw'o di-
ftinft profeflions.
“ I fliall conclude with recommending to thofe who
are inclined to make experiments, not to be difcou-
raged by the failure of one or tw'o trials.—Perhaps the
flax, inftead of being juft plunged into the fcalding
water, ought to be kept in it five minutes, perhaps a
quarter of an hour, perhaps a whole hour. Should five
minutes or a quarter of an hour, or an hour, not be
fufficient to make the boon and harle eafily feparate,
it might perhaps be found expedient to boil the flax
for more than an hour 5 and fuch boiling when in this
{fate might in return fave feveral hours boiling in the
article of bleaching. It is not, I think, at all probable
that the boiling of the flax writh the boon in it ivould
prejudice the harle 3 for in the courfe of its future ex¬
igence, it is made to be expofed 20 or 40 times to
this boiling trial; and if not detrimental in the one
cafe, it is to be prefumed it wxmld not be detrimental
in the other. Perhaps after the boiling, it w?ould be
proper to pile up the flax in one heap for a whole day,
or for half a day, to occafion fome fermentation 5 or
perhaps, immediately after the boiling, it might be
proper to wTaih it with cold water. The great objeft,
W’hen the flax is pulled, is to get the harlc from the
boon with as little lofs and damage as poflible 3 and if
this is accomplifhed in a more complete manner than
ufual, confiderable labour and expence will be faved in
the future manufafturing of the flax. On this ac¬
count I think much more wTould be gained than loft,
were the two or three laft inches of the roots of the
Hems to be chopped off, or dipt off previous to the
flax being either wTatered or boiled. When the flax is
watered, care fliould be taken not to fpread it out to
4 Q 2 dDi
FLA [ 676 ] FLA
Has. dry-j when there is a hazard of its being expofed in its
wet f};ate t0 froft.”
To what we have now faid we fhall add the follow¬
ing Ihort account of the flax hufbandry of Ireland, in a
letter which appeared in the Farmers Magazine, vol.
vii. page 35.
“ Having for feveral years (fays the writer) been enga¬
ged in the culture of flax, I devoted a part of laft fummer
to a tour through the manufadluring diflrifts of Ireland.
Here that branch of hufbandry has long been eflablifhed
over a large extent of the country, and conducted with ve¬
ry confiderable fuccefs. As feme of the proceffes in this
culture, which are followed with advantage, are either
unknown to the Scots farmers, or are performed in a
very awkward and inefficient manner, it might, I con¬
ceive, prove of no fmall benefit, were fome of your in¬
telligent correfpondents induced to lay before them a
plain fketch of the peculiar management obferved by
the Irifh peafantry in this important article. I am the
more defirous it ffiould appear in your pages, becaufe a
periodical work on hufbandry, conduced by a practical
farmer, appears before the public with manifeit advan¬
tage, and is received with that fort of deference which
is due to experience and authority. The difeuffions of
adlual cultivators regarding the objedls of their own
profeffion, however new they may as .yet be in the an¬
nals of agriculture, are far more likely to prove ufeful,
than the writings of thofe volunteers in this .favourite
fcience, who are merely fpeculative and theoretical. I
freely confefs to you, Sir, that I found with pleafure
your work widely circulated in the fillet kingdom j and
that the caufe uniformly given for its popularity, was a
degree of confidence placed in the pradlical fkill of its
conductor.
“ During my progrefs through Ireland, the feveral
proceffes oijleeping, dryuig, and fkiitching, were in hand,
and I think I found a peculiarity of management in
thefe fufficient to affecl the fuccefs of the whole bufinefs,
and to confer a decided fuperiority on the produce of
an acre of flax in Ireland over that in Scotland, both
in quantity and value. It is no uncommon thing for a
farmer in this country, who wifltes to make up a fum
, for his rent, to fell a part of his lint, on the foot, as it is
termed 5 and for this he will commonly receive from
30 to 40 guineas per acre.
1 • The Method of Steeping—As foon as the crop has
attained the proper degree of ripenefs, (which is fome-
what below your ftandard of maturity), the flax is pul¬
led, and carried to a ilagnant pool, dug for this pur-
pofe, moderately deep. It is allowed to remain there
only from five to /even days, according to the tempera¬
ture .of the weather. After the fermentation in the
fteeping procefs has been carried to a degree fufficient
to produce the requifite laxity of fibre, the flax is taken
out of the pool, and fpread venj thinly on the ftubble
of the hay meadow. There, inltead of remaining till
it is merely dried, it is continued for three or four
w-eeks, till the grower conceives it ready for Ikutching.
This blenching procefs, if I am allowed to call it lo,
which, m Scotland, is either unknown, or continued
merely till the crop is dried, has many advantages; the
molt obvious one is, that it enables the farmer, every
time he examines it, to afeertain exadlly (by rubbing
on his hand) the precife point at which the fermentation
has arrived, and thus to perceive the tenacity and ftrength
of his flax j while the adhefion of the fibre has been fuf- Flas.
ficiently weakened, to admit of the Ikutcher cleanfingit v—
completely of the woody parts. It is, I am apprehen-
five, only the practical flax farmer who is able to judge
of the importance and delicacy of this part of the huf¬
bandry. It is fo remarkable, that of twro acres of flax,
under precifely the fame feed and culture, and of equal
fertility, it frequently happens that the one fliall yield
a produce thrice the value of the other, merely from
fuperior accuracy in afeertaining the proper line of con¬
tinuing the fteeping and blenching proceffes. In Scot¬
land, therefore, 1 fufpect the practice is faulty and de¬
fective 5 becaufe there the whole procefs of fermentation
is completed by fteeping alone ; whereas, in Ireland, it
is begun only in the fteep, and completed by blenching
on the meadow, to that precife point which the fafety
of the produce requires.
“ 2. Smoking and Drying.—The Irifh peafant feems
to poffefs another advantage, almoft equally decifive, in
his mode of drying the flax, before he fubmits it to the
fkutcher or beater. After the lint has remained a fuf¬
ficient length of time on the blenching green, it is ga¬
thered up a fecond time into flieafs, (beats, provincial-
ly), and feems tolerably dry. In this ftate it is deemed
by the Scots growers fully prepared for the flax-mill j
but far otherwife by the Irifh farmer, wffio never fub-
mits it to the hands of the beaters till it has undergone
a thorough fmoking over a peat fire. For this purpofe,
he raifes, at the back of a ditch, a fmall hurdle thinly
wrought with offers, and places it on four polls of wood,
at the height of four feet above the level of the ground.
A pretty ftrong fire of peats being kindled belowq the
heat and fmoke pervade every part of the flax, which
is placed perpendicularly above the hurdle. This pro¬
cefs is continued, and freffi quantities of flax regularly
added, till the wffiole crop is brought to a ftate of dry-
nefs, wffiich, in this moift climate, can never be effect¬
ed by the fun and the weather alone : by this operation
a degree of brittlenefs and friability is produced on the
ftraw, which greatly facilitates the enfuing work, and
admits of an eafy feparation of the fibre from the wood.
It is evident, that the lefs fri&ion required in Ikutching,
the lefs wafte or diminution mull be occafioned in clear¬
ing the flax ; and confequently, the greater muft be
the grower’s produce from the mill. This part of the
procefs is equally delicate wdth that deferibed above,
and requires, if poffible, ftill greater attention on the
part of the workmen, fince it is clear that, by a care-
lefs management of the fire, the whole crop may be de-
ftroyed.
“ 3’ Cleanftig and Drejfmg.—The flax hufbandry of
Ireland derives no Imall benefit from the application of
hand-labour in the beating apd fkutching of lint, thus
luperfeding the ufe of the mill. The moft careful and
expert workmen are not always able to temper the ve¬
locity of machinery fo exaftly, as to preferve flax that
has been overfteeped or blenched to excefs : wffiile the
fteady and regulated impetus of the hand-fkutch can
eafily be modified, as the circumftances of each cafe
may require ; a matter of obvious advantage, becaufe
the beft flax-mills feldom produce an equal quantity of
lint, nor equally clean, with that which is obtained by
the hand. Befides this, the price of labour, in this
part of the united kingdom, ftill continues fo moderate,
as to preclude any confiderable degree of faving in ex¬
pence
FLA [677] FLE
Fla*, pence by the ufe of machinery. In proof of this, the
’ flax millers in Scotland, I find, are charging this fea-
fon from three to four (hillings for dreifing a (lone of
dax } while, at the place I am now writing, the fame
quantity is dreffed by the hand for thirteenpence, or one
Britifh (hilling. In Scotland, where hands are fcarce,
and the price of labour confequently high, I certainly
would not recommend the difufe of the flax-mill; on
the contrary, I am per funded that it is chiefly owing to
our fuperior machinery, and excellent implements of
hufbandry, that we are at all enabled to maintain a
competition with our neighbours in the prefent (fate of
our (kill in flax hulbandry, and fubje&ed to the difad-
vantage of paying double price for our labour.
“ q, Prefervation of Flax-feed.— Ihe lad peculiarity of
management, which I ihali at prefent notice as advan¬
tageous to the (lax hufbandry of Ireland, is the inven¬
tion of a flax barn for the prefervation of feed. Enjoy¬
ing a climate perhaps dill more mold and unfleady than
that of Great Britain, the farmers here were for a long
feries of years, unable to fupply themfelves with this
article, and were obliged to commiflion feed annually
from America and the Baltic, to fupply the increafed
demands of an extending culture, to the large amount
of 200,000!. derling. This annual expenditure of cadi
long continued to operate as a drain on the dock of the
laborious farmer, and prevented the accumulation of
his capital j an evil of the mod ferious magnitude, un¬
der which the Irifh peafantry dill labour, and from
which, till very lately, they had not even a profpeft of
relief. By the practice in univerfal ufe, if the farmer
dored up his lint in the barn-yard with the red of his
crop in harved, he might, it is true, preferve his feed
but in doing fo, he uniformly lod his flax to a tax-
greater value from overdryne(s, when wrought in the
ipring.
“ If, on the other hand, he attempted to feparate his
feed during the lint harved by means of the rippling-
comb, he had no means of preventing it from being al-
mod invariably dedroyed by the wTetnefs of the climate.
Various methods had been attempted to overcome this
difficulty, but without fuccefs ; till Robert lennant,
Efq. of Strangmore, linen-infpeclor, near Dungannon,
contrived the plan of a (lax-barn, which feems perfedl-
ly competent to the prefervation of feed. It has al¬
ready been erefted, and has proved fuccefsful on a fmall
fcale •, the feed cured in it remained during the winter
perfectly frelh, and nothing feems wanting to complete
this improvement in our flax hufbandry, but a larger
capital in the hands of a few of our farmers. This flax
barn is conflru&ed on wmoden pods, roofed on the top,
but left perfectly open at each fide } it is fupplied with
various flages of floors of ba(ket-work, placed regu¬
larly at two feet didance above each other. Thus,
the air, having free accefs to the feed on all (ides,
preferves it frefli and well-coloured for any length of
time.
“ This contrivance was fuggeded to Mr Tennant, it is
faid, almod cafually, by noticing the great effe£f pro¬
duced on cloth, by drying-houfes in bleachfields. He
had in fail been employed by the Linen Board of Ire¬
land, in teaching the new procefs of bleaching to tne
manufacturers, by means of the oxymuriate of lime j
and, in the courfe of feven or eight years, this method
of whitening linen has been eflabliflied over the whole
kingdom, with the exception of hardly a Angle field. Flax.
Lord Northland and Mr Foder, who invited this, F1^a'_
gentleman from Scotland, and patronized him in this
part of the kingdom, have enjoyed the fatisfa&ion of
beholding a more effential improvement effected in
the linen manufacture, in the (hort fpace already
mentioned, than had ever taken place in a century
before.
“ It was my intention, when I began this letter, to
have prefented you a more minute defcription of a flax
farm, and to have laid before your readers, a more de¬
tailed account of the flax hulbandry of Ireland in gene¬
ral. I find, however, that I have already exceeded
the ordinary bounds prefcribed to the contributors to
your ufeful work} therefore conclude, with exprefling
a hope, that the few hints already offered, will incline
fome of your correfpondents to treat of a (ubjeft certain¬
ly of fufficient importance to merit attention, bor a
branch of hulbandry cannot be deemed contemptible,
which affords fuflenance to upwards of two millions of
people and w-hich, at the fame time, adds to the ge¬
neral refources of the empire, no lefs a (urn than feven
millions fterling annually. Thefe circumftances, too,
I truft, will plead my excufe for holding up a portion
of Iriflx hulbandry to the imitation of your numerous
readers among the cultivators of Scotland, who are at
prefent juftly celebrated for their agricultural know¬
ledge in every part of the world.”
Flax made to refemble Cotton. In the Swedifh Tranf-
aCtions for the year 17475 a method is given of pre¬
paring flax in fuch a manner as to refemble cotton in
whitenefs and foftnefs, as wrell as in coherence. For
this purpofe, a little fea water is to be put into an
iron pot or an untinned copper kettle, and a mixture
of equal parts of birch allies and quicklime ftrewed
upon it : A fmall bundle of flax is to be opened and
fpread upon the lurface, and covered with more of the
mixture, and the ((ratification continued till the veffel
is fufficiently filled. The wThole is then to be boiled
with fea water for ten hours, frelh quantities of water
being occafionally fupplied in proportion to the eva¬
poration, that the water may never become dry.^ The
boiled flax is to be immediately walked in the (ea
by a little at a time, in a balket, with a fmooth flick
at firft while hot ; and when grown cold enough to
be borne by the hands, it muft be well rubbed,
wafhed v/ith foap, laid to bleach, and turned and
watered every day. Repetitions of the wafhing with
foap expedite the bleaching j after which the flax is
to be beaten, and again well waflied j when dry it
is to be worked and carded in the fame manner as com¬
mon cotton, and prefled betwixt two boards for 48
hours. It is now fully prepared and fit for ufe. It
lofes in this procefs near one half its weight, which is
abundantly coinpenfated by the improvement made in
its quality.
The filamentous parts of different vegetables have
been employed in different countries for the fame me¬
chanic ufes as hemp and flax among us. See Fila¬
ment.
Earth-FiAx. See Amianthus, Botany Index.
New Zealand Flax Plant. See Phormium, BorANY-
Index.
Toad-pLAx. See Linaria, Botany Index.
FLEA. See Puecx, Entomology Index.
Flu a-
: Fleam
!!
.Fleet.
F L E [
Fisa-Bane. See Conyza, Botany Index.
FiEA-Bitten, that colour of a horfe which is white
or gray, fpotted all over with dark reddilh fpota.
FLEAM, in Surgery and Farriery, an inftrument
for letting blood of a man or horfe. A cafe of fleams,
as it is called by farriers, comprehends fix forts of in-
llruments 5 two hooked ones, called drawers, and ufed
for cleanfing wounds j a pen knife 3 a ftiarp-pointed
lancet for making incifions j and two fleams, one (harp
and the other broad pointed. Thefe lafl: are fomewhat
like the point of a lancet, fixed in a flat handle, and no
longer than is juft neceffary to open the vein.
f LECHIER, Esprit, bifliop of Nifmes, one of the
moft celebrated preachers of his age, and the publiiher
of many panegyrics and funeral orations, was born at
Perne. in Avignon in 163 2. He was nominated to
the bifhopric of Lavaur in 1685, and tranflated to
Nifmes in 1687- At this latter place he founded an
academy, and took the prefidentfhip upon himfelf:
his own palace was indeed a kind of academy, wdiere he
applied himfelf to train up orators and W'riters, who
might ferve the church, and do honour to the nation.
He publifhed, befides his panegyrics and funeral Ora¬
tions, 1. A Hiftory of the Emperor Theodofius, that
of Cardinal Ximenes, and that of Cardinal Commendon.
2. Several Sermons. 3. Mifcellaneous Works. 4. Let¬
ters, &c. He died in 1710.
FLECKNOE, Richard, an Englifh poet in the
reign of Charles II. more remarkable for Mr Hryden’s
fatire on him than for any works of his own. He is
laid to have, been originally a Jefuit, and to have had
good Englifh connexions in the Catholic intereft.
When Dry den loft the place of poet laureat on the Re¬
volution, its being conferred on Flecknoe, for wdiom
he had a fettled averfion, gave occafion to his poem
entitled Mac Flechnoe ; one of the beft written fatires in
our language, and from which Pope feems to have ta¬
ken the hint for his Dunciad. Flecknoe wrote fome
plays; but could never get more than one of them a<ft-
ed, and that -was damned.
FLEECE, the covering of wool (horn off the bodies
of fheep. See Wool.
'Go/den Fleece. See Argonauts, and Golden
Fleece.
FLEET, commonly implies a company of (hips of
war, belonging to any prince or ftate : but fometimes
it denotes any number of trading fhijfs employed in a
particular branch of commerce.
Fhe admirals of his Britannic majefty’s fleet are di¬
vided into three fquadrons, viz. the red, the white, and
the blue. When any of thele officers are in veiled with
the command or a fquadron or detachment of men of
war, the particular (hips are diftinguiflied by the colour
of their relpedive fquadron : that is to fay, the (hips
of the red fquadron wear an enfign whofe union is dif-
played on a red field ; the enfigns of the white fqua¬
dron have a white field 3 and thofe of the blue fqua¬
dron a blue field 3 the union being common to all three.
The (hips of war, therefore, are occafionally annexed
to any of the three fquadrons, or fliifted from one to
another. t
Of whatfoever number a fleet of (hips of war is com-
pofed, it is ufually divided into 'three fquadrons 3 and
thefe, if numerous, are again feparated into diviiions.
The admiral, or principal'officer, commands the centre 3
2
678 ] F L E
the vice admiral, or fecond in command, fuperintendsFIeetwoofi,
the van guard ; and the operations of the rear are di- Fien*in-
redled by the rear admiral, or the officer next in rank. gians*
See the article Division.
Ihe difpofition of a fleet, while proceeding on a
voyage, will in fome meafure depend on particular sir-
cumftances 3 as the difficulty of the navigation, the
neceffity of difpatch, according to the urgency or im¬
portance of the expedition, or the expectation of an
enemy in the paffage. The moft convenient order is
probably to range it into three lines or columns, each
of wdiich is parallel to a line clofe hauled according to
the tack on which the line of battle is defigned to be
formed. This arrangement is more ufeful than any 3
becaufe it contains the advantages of every other form
without their inconveniences. The fleet being thus
more enclofed will more readily obferve the fignals, and
with greater facility form itfelf into the line of battle,
a circumftance which (hould be kept in view in every
order of failing. See Naval Tactics.
Fleet, is alfo a noted prifon in London, where
perfons are committed for contempt of the king and his
laws, particularly of his courts of juftice 3 or for debt,
wffiere any perfon will not or is unable to pay his cre¬
ditors.
There are large rules and a warden belonging to
the Fleet prifon 5 which had its name from the float
or fleet of the river or ditch, on the >fide whereof it
(lands.
FLEETWOOD, William, a very learned Engliffi
biffiop in the beginning of the 18th century, of an an¬
cient family in Lancaffiire. He diftinguilhed himfelf
during King William’s reign, by his Infcriptionum An-
tiquarum Syl/oge, by feveral fermons he preached on
public occalions, and by his Effay on Miracles. He
wras defigned by King William to a canonry of Wind-
for. The grant did not pafs the feals before the king’s
death 3 but the queen gave it him, and he w-as inftalled
in 1702. In 1703, he took a refolution to retire; and
in 1707, publiihed, without his name, his Chronicon
Pretwfum. In 1708) he was nominated by the queen
to the fee of St Afaph. The change of the queen’s
miniftry gave him much regret. In 1715, he publiffi-
ed a pamphlet entitled, “ The 13th chapter of the Ro¬
mans vindicated from the abufive fenfes put upon it.’’
In 1714, he was tranflated to the biffiopric of Ely;
and died in 1723, aged 67. He publiihed feveral other
fermons and trafts, and was a man of great learning
and exemplary piety.
FLEMINGIANS, or Flandrians, in ecclefiafti-
cal hiftory, a feft of rigid Anabaptifts, who acquired
this name in the r6th century, becaufe moft of them
were natives of Flanders, by wyay of diftindlion from
the Waterlandians. In confequence of fome dif-
fenfions among the Flemingians relating to the treat¬
ment of excommunicated perfons, they were divided
into twTo fedts, diftinguiflied by the appellations of
Flandrians and Friejlanders, who differed from each
other in their manners and difeipline. Many of thefe
in procefs of time came over to the moderate commu¬
nity of the Waterlandians, and thofe who remained fe-
parate are ftill known by the name of the old Flemin¬
gians or Flandrians; but they are comparatively few
in number. Thefe maintain the opinion of Menno with
relpedl to the incarnation of Chrift 3 alleging, that his
/ body
Fletcher.
F L E [679
Flemifn body was produced by the creating power of the Holy
II Ghoft, and not derived from his mother Mary.
FLEMISH, or the Flemish tongue, is that which
' we otherwife call Low Dutch, to diftinguifti it from the
German, whereof it is a corruption and a kind of dia-
le<5L See German.
It differs from the Walloon, which is a corruption
of the French language. The Flemiih is ufed through
all the provinces of the Netherlands.
Flemish Bricks, a neat, ftrong, yellow kind of bricks,
brought from Flanders, and commonly ufed in paving
yards, ilables, &c. being preferable for fuch purpofes
to the common bricks. See the article Bricks.
FLESH, in Anatomy, a compound fubffance, con¬
fiding of the various fofter folids of the animal body,
and fo denominated in contradiftin&ion to bones. See
Anatomy, pajfim. ^ _
Flesh is alfo ufed, in Theology, in fpeaking of the
myfteries of the incarnation and euchanlt. “ The word
was made'/&?/£,” Verhum c&xofaSium ejl.
' The Romanifts hold, that the bread in the facrament
of the fupper is turned into the real tiefh of Jefus
Chrift. See Transubstantiation.
Flesh is fometimes alfo ufed by botanifts for the
foft pulpy fuhflance of any fruit, enclofed between the
outer rind or fkin and the feeds or done 5 or for that
part of a root, fruit, &c. fit to be eaten.
FiESH-Colour. See Carnation.
FLETA, the name given to an unknown writer
who lived about the end of the reign of Edward II.
and beginning of Edward III. and who being a pri-
foner in the Fleet, wrote there an excellent treatife on
the common law of England.
FLETCHER. See Beaumont and Fletcher.
Fletcher, Andrew, of Salton, a celebrated Scots
patriot and political writer, was dofcended from an an¬
cient family who trace their origin to one of the fol-
loweis of William the Conqueror. He was the fon of
Sir Robert Fletcher of Salton and Innerpeffer, and
born in the year 1650. The tuition of our author was
committed by his father, on his deathbed, to Mr (af¬
terwards Biihop) Burnet, then his parifh minider 5 by
whole care he received a pious, learned, and polite
education. Endowed with uncommon genius, and pof-
feded of virtues and abilities peculiarly fuited to the
times in which he lived, Mr Fletcher quickly Ihone
forth the ornament of his country, and the champion
of its freedom. Having in the courfe of his claffical
ftudies and hidorical reading been impreiTed with an
enthufiadic admiration both of ancient and modern
republics, he had early contracted an ardent love of
liberty, and an averfion to arbitrary rule. Hence his
fpirit the more readily took alarm at certain meafures in
the reign of Charles II. Being knight of the diire for
Lothian to that parliament where the duke of York
was commiffioner, he openly oppofed the defigns of
that prince and the bill of acceflion. He had a lhare
with lord vifcount Stair in framing the ted aft, by
which the duke of York complained that he lod Scot¬
land. On thefe accounts he became peculiarly ob¬
noxious to the duke •, and was at lad obliged to llee to
Holland, to avoid the fatal confequences of profecutions
which on various pretences were commenced againd
him. Being cited before the privy council and judiciary
] F L E
courts, and not appearing, he was declared traitor, and < Fietihfr.^
his edate confifcated.
In Holland, he and Mr Baillie of Jervifwood were
the only perfons whom the earl of Argyle. confulted
concerning the defigns which were then in agitation.
In 1681 they came over to England, in order to con¬
cert matters with their party in that country; and
were the only two who were intruded lo far as to be
admitted to the fee rets of Lord Ruffell’s council of fix.
Mr Fletcher managed his part of the negotiation with
fo much addrefs, that adminidration could find no
pretext for feizing him •, nor could they fix upon him
thofe articles on account of which Mr Baillie ivas con¬
demned to whofe honour let it be remembered, that
although odered a pardon on condition of his accufing'
his friend, he perfided in rejefting the propofal with
indignation.
Mr Fletcher having joined the duke of Monmouth
upon his landing, received a principal command under
him ; but the duke was deprived of his fervices on
the following occafion, as related by Sir John Dal- Memoir 1 cf
rymple. Being lent upon an expedition, and not ^reat Bri~
edeeming “ times of danger to be times of ceremony,
he had feized for his own riding the horfe of a country
gentleman [the mayor of Lynne] which dood ready
equlpoed for its mader. The mader, hearing this, ran in
a padion to Fletcher, gave him opprobrious language,
diook his cane, and attempted to drike. Fletcher,
though rigid in the duties of morality , having been -
accudomed to foreign fervice both by fea and land, in
which he had acquired high ideas of the honour of a
foldier and a gentleman, and of the affront of a cane,
pulled out his pidol, and diot him dead on the fpot.
The aftion was unpopular in countries where fuch re¬
finements were not underdood. A clamour was raifed
againd it among the people of the country : in a body
they waited upon the duke with their complaints 3 and
he was forced to defire the only foldier, and almod the
only man of parts, in his army, to abandon him. With
Fletcher all Monmouth’s chance of fuccefs in wmr left,
him.” But, in a manufeript memoir belonging to the
family, we have the following notice concerning Mr
Fletcher’s Conneftion with Monmouth, in winch his
feparation from that prince is very differently accounted
for : “ To Lord Marifchal Mr Fletcher explained the
motives which fird induced him to join, and afterwards
abandon, the duke of Monmouth. The former he
aferibed to the duke’s manifedo in Scotland relating to
religion, and in England to liberty. For the latter he
accounted by the difguff produced in his own mind and
that of his affociates, when the duke declared himfelf
king, and broke faith with all who embarked with him
on his principles. He complained heavily of the ac¬
count commonly given of the death of the mayor of
Lynne 5 and mentioned to Lord Marifchal, in proof of
the contrary, that he did not leave the duke till he came
to Taunton, where he was proclaimed king, feveral
weeks after the death of the mayor of Lynne.”
Seeing all the efforts of himfelf and his friends in
favour of liberty frudrated at Taunton, he endeavour--
ed to fecure his own perfonal freedom by taking his
paffage in the fird ffiip bound to a foreign country. It
was his misfortune to land in Spain j where he was
immediately arreded, cad into prifon, and guarded by
F L E [ 680 ] F L E
t Fletcher, tliree different bands of foldiers, till a veffel fliould be
t~’“ v prepared to carry him a vidlim in chains to the court
Mcmtirs of 0£ London. But on the morning before the (hip could
‘cf lal’ton whilft he looked penlive through the bars that
MS. ' Secured the window of his room, he was hailed by a
venerable perfonage who made figns to fpeak with him.
The prifon doors he found open j and whilft his
friendly conduftor wraved to him to follow him, he
paffed through three different guards of foldiers all faff
alleep. Without being permitted to offer his thanks
to his deliverer, he found himfelf obliged to profecute
with all fpeed the journey, in which he was diredted by
a perfon concerning whom he could never colledt any
information 5 and in difguife he proceeded in fafety
through Spain. He felt a peculiar pleafure in relating
to his friends inftances of the care of Providence which
he had experienced during his exile ; and entertained
them often with narratives of this kind, which he always
mingled with religious refledtions. Of thefe, another
may be here mentioned. Happening in the evening to
pafs the ikirt of a wood at a few miles diftance from a
city where he intended to lodge, he came to a place
where two roads met. After he had entered upon the
road on the right, he was accofted by a female of a
refpedtable figure, who warned him to turn back, and
take the road on the left •, for that in the other there
was danger which he could not efcape if he continued
to proceed. His friendly monitor fuddenly retired into
the wood, out of which the had ilfued no lefs unexpect¬
edly. Having arrived at the city, the inhabitants were
foon after alarmed by an account of the robbery and
murder of feveral travellers who that evening had fallen
into the hands of a banditti upon the very way in
%vhich he had intended to travel. From theie and other
inftances of prefervation from dangers, the devotion of
his mind, habituated from his infancy to an intercourfe
with heaven, led him to conclude that he was in a pe¬
culiar manner the care of Providence, and that in cri¬
tical cafes his underftanding received its diredlion from
a fupernatural impulfe.
During his exile, he maintained a frequent and ex-
tenfive correfpondence with the friends of liberty at
home ; and he partly employed himfelf in making a
curious colleftion of books, which compofe the beft
private library in Scotland. But his genius alfo
prompted him to engage in more aftive employments.
He repaired to Hungary, and ferved feveral campaigns
as a volunteer under the duke of Lorrain with great
reputation. At length, underftanding that the great
defign then projedting in Holland, and upon the iffue
of which he confidered the liberties of Britain to be
fufpended, had attained a confiderable degree of ma¬
turity, he haftened thither *, where his councils and ad-
drefs were of eminent fervice. He came over with
King William ; and in zeal, a&ivity, penetration, and
political Ikill, proved inferior to none of the leaders in
the Revolution.
Such, however, was his magnanimity, that from a
furvey of King William’s papers it appears, that while
others laboured to turn this grand event to the emo¬
lument of themfelves and the aggrandifement of their
family, Mr Fletcher allied nothing. His eftate had
been forfeited, and his heufe abandoned to military
difcretion •, his fortune was greatly lhattered, and his
family reduced to circumftances of diftrefs. Nothing
I
was given him in recompenfe of all his fuflerings. On
the contrary, he, together with the duke of Hamilton,
was diftinguilhed by marks of royal and minifterial
diftike. Still, whatever private refentment he might
entertain, it appeared that his ruling principle was the
good of his country; and that to tbis grand objedt of
his heart he was willing to facrifice all perfonal confi-
derations. For wdien, in 1692, the abdicated king
meditated an invafion, Mr Fletcher addreffed a letter
("preferved in Sir John Dalrymple’s colledtion) to the
duke of Hamilton, in which every argument is em¬
ployed with Hull and energy to engage his grace to
forget his injuries, and in the prefent crifis to employ
the extenfive influence and authority he then poffeffed
in the caufe of freedom and of his country. This
letter produced its full effedt \ and the duke returned
to his duty, from which he had in part begun to
deviate.
To follow our author through all the mazes of his
political life fubfequent to the Revolution, is beyond
our purpofe, and would exceed our limits. One or
twm circumftances more (hall therefore fuffice. Being
eledted a member for the parliament 1683, he fliowed
an uniform zeal for the intereft of his country. The
thought of England’s domineering over Scotland was
what his generous foul could not endure. The indig¬
nities and oppreflion which Scotland lay under galled
him to the heart 5 fo that in his learned and elaborate
difcourfes, he expofed them with undaunted courage
and pathetical eloquence. In that great event, the
Union, he performed effential fervice. He got the
adt of fecurity paffed, which declared that the two
crowns fhould not pafs to the fame head till Scotland
wras fecured in her liberties civil and religious. There¬
fore Lord Godolphin was forced into the Union, to
avoid a civil war after the queen’s demiie. Although
Mr Fletcher difapproved of fome of the articles, and in¬
deed of the whole frame of the Union ^ yet, as the adl
of fecurity was his own work, he had all the merit of
that important tranfadlion.
We mult not omit mentioning, that in the ardour of
his political career Mr Fletcher forgot not the intereits
of the place that gave him birth. He efteemed the
education of youth one of the nobleft objedts of go¬
vernment. On this fubjedt he wrote a treatife, ftill
extant, moft charadteriftic of himfelf j and he eftablilh-
ed at Salton a foundation for the fame purpofe, of
great utility while it lafted.
This great man died at London 1716, aged 66.
His remains were conveyed to Scotland, and depofited
in the family vault at Salton.
That Mr Fletcher received neither honours nor emo¬
luments from King William, may perhaps be in part
attributed to himfelf •, a circumftance, however, which
muft add greatly to the luftre of his charadler. His
uncomplying virtue, and the fternnefs of his principles,
were ill calculated to conciliate courtly favour. He
was fo zealous an affertor of the liberties of the people,
that he w'as too jealous of the growing power of all
princes \ in whom he thought ambition fo natural, that
he was not for trufting the beft of kings with the
power which ill ones might make ufe of againft their
fubjedls j he wras of opinion that all princes were made
by, and for the benefit of, the people ; and that they
fhould have no power but that of doing good. This,
• which
Fletcher.
F L E [ 681 ] F L 1
which made him oppofe King Charles and invade King
James, led him alfo to oppofe the giving fo much power
to King William, -whom he rvould never ferve after his
eilablilhment. So we are told by the author of Short
Political Characters, a MS. in the library of the late
T. Rawlinfon, Efq.—Mr Lockhart, in his Memoirs,
p. 72. exprefles a belief that his averfion to the Eng-
lith and to the Union was fo great, that, in revenge to
them, he was inclined to fide with the abdicated fa¬
mily : “ But (adds he) as that was a fubjeft not fit to
be entered upon with him, this is only a conjefture
from fome inuendos I have heard him make 5 but fo
far is certain, he liked, commended, and converfed
with high-flying Tories, more than any other fet of
men j acknowledging them to be the bell country¬
men, and of molt honour, integrity, and ingenuity.”
It feems difficult to reconcile this wdth Mr Fletcher’s
avowed principles and the general tenor of his con-
duCt. May we fuppofe, that, chagrin, if not at the
negleCt or the ill treatment which he had himfelf re¬
ceived from government fince the Revolution, yet at
the public meafures relating to his native country,
might have occafioned him to relent in his fentiments
with regard to the exiled family ?*—In the family me¬
moirs already quoted, wre are informed, That “ Lord
Marifchal held Mr Fletcher’s character in high admi¬
ration $” and that, “ when governor of Neufchatel,
where Rouffeau refided about the year 1766, he pre¬
vailed with this very extraordinary genius to wrrite the
life of a man whofe charafter and aftions he wiffied to
have tranfmitted to pofterity with advantage. For
this purpofe, his lordffiip applied to an honourable re¬
lation of Mr Fletcher’s for materials •, which by him
were tranfmitted to Lord Marifchal j but the defign
failed through Roufleau’s defultory and capricious dif-
pofition.” This anecdote mull appear incompatible
with the known loyalty and attachments of the Earl
Marifchal, unlefs we fuppofe him to have been privy
to fome fuch fentiments of Mr Fletcher as thofe al¬
luded to by Mr Lockhart j for how could w^e fuppofe
him anxious to promote a compofition, in which the
. talk would be to celebrate principles diametrically op-
pofite to his own, and to applaud aftions fubverfive of
that royal family in whofe caufe he had ventured his
life, and forfeited his fortune, and foregone his coun¬
try !—But however thefe circumftances may be recon¬
ciled, as the integrity, difintereftednefs, and public
fpirit of Mr Fletcher, have been univerfally acknow¬
ledged, there is reafon to believe, that all his fentiments
and actions were founded in honour, and that he never
once purfued a meafure further than he judged it to be
for the intereft of his country.
Mr Fletcher was mafter of the Engliffi, Latin,
Greek, French, and Italian languages 5 and well verfed
in hiftory, the civil law, and all kinds of learning. In
his travels, he had not only acquired confiderable
knowledge in the art of war, but alfo became verfant
in the refpeftive interefts of the feveral princes and
ftates of Europe. In private life, he was affable to his
friends, and free from all manner of vice. He had a
penetrating, clear, and lively apprehenfion 5 but is faid
to have been too much wedded to opinions, and im¬
patient of contradiclion.—He poffeffed an uncommon
elevation of mind, accompanied with a warmth of
Semper, which would fuffer him to brook from no rank
Vql. VIII. Part II.
among men, nor in any place, an indignity. Of this Fletewood
he exhibited a Angular proof in the Scots parliament. J!
The earl of Stair, fecretary of ftate and minifter for , Hight. ^
Scotland, having in the heat of debate ufed an im¬
proper expreffion againfi: Mr Fletcher, he feized him
by his robe, and infifted upon public and immediate
fatisfaftion. His lordffiip was obliged inftantly to beg
his pardon in prefence of parliament.
Mr Fletcher was by far the fineft fpeaker in the
parliament of Scotland ; the earl of Stair alone rivalled
him. The latter was famed for a fplendid, the former
for a clofe and nervous, eloquence. He formed his
ftyle on the models of antiquity j and the Imall volume
of his wrorks, Sir John Dalrymple obferves, though
imperfedlly collefled, is one of the very few clafficai
compofitions in the Engliffi language.
FLETEWOOD, William, an eminent Engliffi
lawyer and recorder of London, in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth. He was very zealous in fuppreffing mafs-
houfes, and committing Popilh priefts; but once ruffl¬
ing in upon mafs at the Portuguefe ambaffador’s houfe,
he was committed to the Fleet for breach of privilege,
but foon releafed. Mr Wood fays, “ He was a learned
man, and a good antiquary, but of a marvellous merry
and pieafant conceit.” He was a good popular fpeaker,
and wrote well upon fubjefts of government. His prin¬
cipal works are, 1. Annalium lam regum Edwardi V,
Richardi III. et Henrici VII. quam Henrici VIII. 2. A
Table of the Reports of Edmund Plow’den. 3. dhe
Office of a Juftice of Peace. He died about the year
I593-
FLEVILLEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dioecia clafs. See Botany Index.
FLEURI, Claude, an able French critic and hifto-
rian, wras born at Paris in 1640. He applied himfelf
to the law, was made advocate for the parliament of
Paris, and attended the bar nine years j he then entered
into orders, and was made preceptor to the princes of
Conti. In 1689, the king made him fub-preceptor to
the dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berry j and in
1706, when the education of thefe young princes was
completed, the king gave him the priory of Argente-
ville belonging to the Benedi&ines in the diocefe of
Paris. In 1716, he wTas chofen counfellor to Louis
XV. and died in 1723. He was the author of a great
number of efteemed French works 5 the principal of
which are, 1. An ecclefiaflical hiftory, in 20 volumes,
the laft of which ends with the year 1414. 2. The
manners of the Ifraelites and Chriftians. 3. Inftitutions
of ecclefiaftical law. 4. An hiftorical catechifm. 5*
On the choice and method of ftudy. 6. The duties of
mafters and fervants, &c.
FLEXIBLE, in Phyfics, a term applied to bodies
capable of being bent or diverted from their natural %
figure or dire£lion.
FLEXOR, in Anatomy, a name applied to feveral
mufcles, which are fo called from their office, which is
to bend the parts to which they belong ; in oppofition
to the extenfors, which open or ftretch them. See
Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
FLIGHT, the a£l of a bird in flying; or the manner,
duration, &.c. thereof.
Almoft every kind of bird has its particular flight j
the eagle’s flight is .the higheft ; the flight of the fpar-
row-hawk and vulture is noble, and fit for high enter-
4 R. prife
F L I [ 683 ] FLO
Flight, prife and combat. The flight of fome birds is low,
, weak, and traniient j the flight of the partridge and
pheafant is but of ftiort continuance ; that of the dove
is laboured ; that of the fparrow undulatory, &c.
The augurs pretended to foretel future events from
the flight of birds. See Augury.
Flight. In melting the lead ore in the works at
Mendip, there is a fubflance which flies away in the
fmoke which is called the flight. The workmen find it
fweetifh upon their lips, if their faces happen to be in the
way of the fmoke, which they avoid as much as poffible.
This, falling on the grafs, kills cattle that feed thereon j
and, being gathered, and carried home,kills rats and mice
in their houfes j that which falls on the fand, they gather,
and melt upon a flag hearth into fhot and llieet lead.
FLINT, a fpecies of Ample Hones, chiefly compofed
of filiceous earth. See Mineralogy Index.
Breaking of Flints. The art of cutting, or rather
breaking, flint ftones into uniform figures, is by fome
fuppofed to be one of the arts now loft. That it was
known formerly, appears from the ancient Bridewell
at Norwich, from the gate of the Auguftin friars at
Canterbury, that of St John’s Abbey at Colehefter, and
the gate near Whitehall, Weftminfter. But that the
art is not loft, and that the French know it, appears
from the platform on the top of the royal obfervatory
at Paris j which, inftead of being leaded, is paved with
flint cut or broken into regular figures.
Gun Flints. For the method of manufacturing, fee
Mineralogy Index.
Flints, in the glafs trade. The way of preparing
flints for the niceft operations in the glafs trade is this.
Choofe the hardeft flints, fuch as are black and will
refill the file, and will grow white when calcined in
the fire. Cleanfe thefe of the white cruft that adheres
to them, then calcine them in a ftrong fire, and throw
them while red-hot into cold water; wafh oflF the alhes
that may adhere to them, and powder them in an iron
mortar, and lift them through a very fine fieve ; pour
upon this powder fome vreak aquafortis, or the phlegm
of aquafortis, to diffolve and take up any particles of
iroi^it may have got from the mortar; ftir this mix-
* ture feveral times, then let it reft, and in the morning
pour off the liquor, and walh the powder feveral times
with hot water and afterwards dry it for ufe. You
will thus have a powder for making the pureft glafs as
perfeftly fine and faultlefs as if you had ufed rock-
cryftal itfelf.
The walking off the ferruginous particles with aqua¬
fortis is not neceffary when the glafs intended to be
made is to be tinged with iron afterwards j but when
meant to be a pure white, this is the method that will
fecure fuccefs.
t Flint, the chief town of Flintlhire, in North Wales.
It is commodioully feated on the river Dee ; and is but
a fin all place, though it fends one member to parlia¬
ment. It was formerly noted for its caftle, where
Richard II. took Ihelter on his arrival from Ireland j
but having quitted it, he was taken prifoner by the duke
of Lancafter. I he caftle now is in a ruinous condition.
This caftle Hands clofe to the fea on a rock, which
in various parts forms feveral feet of its foundation.
It covers about three quarters of an acre. The aflizes
are ftill held in the town. B is 195 mil.es north-weft
of London,
FLINTSHIRE, a county of Wales, bounded on Flint/hite
the north-eaft and call by an arm of the fea, which is II
properly the mouth of the river Dee ; on the north-weft Floating
by the Irifli fea •, and on the fouth-fouth-weft and weft . <
by Denbighlhire. It is the leaft of all the counties in
Wales, being but 33 miles in length and 9 in breadth.
It is divided into five hundreds •, in which are two
market towns and 28 parilhes, with 32,400 inhabi¬
tants. The greateft part of this county lies in the
diocefe of St Afaph, and the reft belongs to that of
Chefter. It fends two members to parliament, one for
the county and one for Flint; and pays one part of the ,
land tax. The air is cold, but healthful. It is full of
hills, intermixed with a few valleys, which are very
fruitful, producing fome wheat and plenty of rye. The
cows, though finall, yield a great quantity of milk in
proportion to their fize, and are excellent beef. The
mountains are well ftored with lead, coal, and mill-
ftones. This county alfo produces good butter, cheefe,
and honey j of which laft the natives make metheglin,
a wholefome liquor much ufed in thefe parts.
FLIP, a fort of failors drink, made of malt liquor,
brandy, and fugar mixed.
FLOAT, a certain quantity of timber bound to¬
gether with rafters athwart, and put into a river to be
conveyed down the ftream j and even fometimes to carry
burdens down a river with the ftream.
FioAT-Boards, thofe boards fixed to water wheels
of under-ftiot mills, ferving to receive the impulfe of the
ftream, whereby the wheel is carried round. See the
articles Wheel and Mill.
It is no advantage to have too great a number of
float-boards j becaufe, when they are all ftruck by the
water in the beft manner that it can be brought to
come againft them, the fum of all the impulfes will be
but equal to the impulfe made againft one float-board
at right angles, by all the water coming out of the
penftock through the opening, fo as to take place on
the float-board. The beft rule in this cafe is to have
juft fo many, that each of them may come out of the
water as foon as pofiible, after it has received and
a fled with its full impulfe. As to the length of the
float-board, it may be regulated according to the
breadth of the mill. See Mill.
Floats for Fifhing. See Fishing Floats.
FLOATAGES, all things floating on the furface
of the fea or any water; a word much ufed in the
commiflions of water bailiffs.
FLOATING bodies are thofe which fwim on
the furface of a fluid, the moft interefting of which are
fhips and veffels employed in war and commerce. It is
known to every feaman, of what vaft moment it is to
afcertain the liability of fuch veffels, and the pofitions
they affume when they -float freely on the furface of the
water. To be able to accomplilh this, it is neceffary to
underftand the principles on which that liability and
thefe pofitions depend. This has been done with great
ingenuity by Mr Atwood, of whofe reafoning the fol¬
lowing is a fummary account, taken from the Philofo-
phical Tranfa£lions for 1796.
A floating body is preffed downwards by its own
weight in a vertical line palfing through its centre of
gravity j and it is fupported by the upwTard preffure of
a fluid, which ails in a vertical line that paffes through
the centre of gravity of the part which is under the
water j
Floating
Bodies.
FLO [
water*, and without a coincidence between thefe two
lines, in fuch a manner as that both centres of gravxty
' may be in the fame vertical line, the fohd will turn on
an axis, till it gains a pofition in which the equilibrium
of floating will be permanent. From this it is obvioufly
neceffary to find what proportion the part immerfed
bears to the whole, to do which the fpecific gravity ot
the floating body tnuft be known, after which it muft
be found by geometrical methods, in what pofitions the
folid can be placed on the furface of the fluid, fo that
both centres of gravity may be in the fame vertical line,
when any given part of the folid is immerfed under the
furface. Thefe things being determined, fomething is
ftill wanting, for pofitions may be affumed in which the
circumftances now mentioned concur, and yet the ioli
will affume fome other pofition wherein it will perma¬
nently float. If the fpecific gravity of a cylinder be to
that of the fluid on which it floats as 3 to 4, and its
axis to the diameter of the bafe as 2 to I : if it be
placed on the fluid with its axis vertical, it will fink to
a depth equal to a diameter and a half of the bale } and
while its axis is preferved in a vertical pofition by out¬
ward force, the centres of gravity of the whole lolid
and immerfed part will remain in the fame vertical line j
but when the external force is removed, it will deviate
from its upright pofition, and will permanently float
with its axis horizontal. If we fuppofe the axis to be
half the diameter of the bafe, and placed vertically, the
folid will fink to the depth of three-eighths of its dia¬
meter, and in that pofition it will float permanently.
If the axis be made to incline to the vertical line, the
folid will change its pofition till it permanently fettles
with its axis perpendicular to the horizon.
Whether a folid floats permanently, or overfets when
placed on the furface of a fluid, provided the centre of
gravity of the folid and that of the immerfed part be in
the fame vertical line, it is faid to be in a poiition o
equilibrium, of which there are three kinds •, the equi¬
librium of liability, in which the folid permanently floats
in a given pofition; the equilibrium of inftability, in
which the folid fpontaneoufly overfets, if not fupported
by external force $ and the equilibrium of indifference,
or the infenfible equilibrium, in which the folid refts on
the fluid indifferent to motion, without tendency to right
itfelf when inclined, or to incline farther.
If a folid body floats permanently on the furface of a
fluid, and external force be applied to turn it from its
pofition, the refiftance oppofed to this inclination is
termed the Jlability of floating. Some (hips at fea yield
to a given impulfe of the wind, and fuffer a greater in¬
clination from the perpendicular than others. As this
refiffance to heeling, duly regulated, has been confidered
of importance in the conftruclion of veffels, many emi¬
nent mathematicians have laid down rules for afcertain-
ing the liability of flips from their known dimenfions
and weight, without recurring to actual experiment.
Bouguer, Euler, Chapman, and others, have laid down
theorems for this purpofe, founded on the fuppofition
that the inclinations of flips from their quiefcent pofi¬
tions are evanefcent, or very fmall in a practical point
of viewr. But flips at fea have been found to heel IO ,
20°, or 30°, and therefore it may be doubted howT far
fuch rules are applicable in practice. If llatics can be
applied to naval architecture, it feems neceflary that the
rules ftiould be extended to thofe cafes in which the
683 ] F L 0 . .
angles of inclination are of any magnitude, likely to
occur in the praftice of navigation. A folid body ^
placed on the lurface of a lighter fluid, at fuch a depth
as correfponds to the relative gravities, cannot alter its
pofition by the joint action of its own weight and the
preffure of the fluid, except by turning on fome horizon¬
tal axis palling through the centre of gravity $ but, as many
axes may be drawn .through this point of the floating
body, in a diredtion parallel to the horizon, and the
motion of the folid regards only one axis, this mull be
determined by the figure of the body and the particular
nature of the cafe. When this axis of motion is afcer-
tained, and the fpecific gravity of the folid found, the
pofitions of permanent floating will be determined, by
finding the feveral pofitions of equilibrium through
which the folid may be conceived to pafs, while it turns
round the axis of motion *, and by determining in which
of thefe pofitions the equilibrium is permanent, and m
which of them it is momentary.
The whole of Mr Atwood’s valuable paper relates to
the theory of naval architefture, in fo far as it is de¬
pendent on the laws of pure mechanics. It the pro¬
portions and dimenfions adopted in the conllruclion o.
individual veffels arc obtained by exa£l geometrical
meafurement, and obfervations are made on the per¬
formance of thefe veffels at fea *, a fufficient number ot
experiments of this nature judicioufly varied, are the
proner grounds on which theory may be effeaually ap¬
plied, in reducing to fyftem thofe hitherto unperceived
caufes, which contribute to give the gireatelt degree ot
excellence to veffels of every defcription.. Naval ar-
chite&ure being reckoned among the practical branches
of fcience, every voyage may be viewed in the light ot
an experiment, from which ufeful truths are to he de¬
duced. But inferences of this nature cannot w^ell be
obtained, except by acquiring a thorough knowledge of
of all the proportions and dimenfions of each part ot the
Floating
Bodies.
fliip, and by making a fufficient number of obfervations
on the qualities of the veffel, in all the varieties of fitua-
tion to which a ihip is commonly fubje£t in the practice
of navigation. . . , _
The following is an ingenious inveftigation ot the tame
fubiea by Mr Englifli, which we give in his own words.
« However operofe and difficult (Tays he) the calcu¬
lations neceffary to determine the liability of nautical
veffels may, in fome cafes, be, yet they all depend, lays
this author, upon the four following fimple and obvious
theorems, accompanied with other well known llereome-
trical and llatical principles,
“ Theorem T. Every floating body difplaces a quan¬
tity of the fluid in which it floats, equal to its own
weight; and confequently, the fpecific gravity of the
fluid vrill be to that of the floating body, as the magni¬
tude of the whole is to that of the part immerfed.
“ Theorem 2. Every floating body is impelled down-
ward by its owm effential power, acting in the direclion
of a vertical line palling through the centre of gravity
of the whole j and is impelled upward by the re-aftion
of the fluid which fupports it, aaing in the direfhon
of a vertical line palling through the centre of gravity
of the part immerfed •, therefore, unlefs thefe two lines
are coincident, the floating body thus impelled mull
revolve round an axis, either in motion or at relt, until
the equilibrium is reftored. ,
“ Theorem 3. If by any power whatever a veffeUie
F L O
FBodi« fr°m ai1 uPright portion, the perpendicular
11.,, ^ i i Cildance between two vertical lines palling through the
centres of gravity of the whole, and of the part im-
merfed refpeftively, will be as the liability of the vefl'el,
and which will be politive, nothing, or negative, ac¬
cording as the metacentre is above, coincident with, or
below, the centre of gravity of the veffel.
“ Theorem 4. The common centre of gravity of any
iyftem of bodies being given in pofition, if any one of
thefe bodies be moved from one part of the fyftem to
another, the correfponding motion of the common
centre of gravity, effimated in any given direftion, will
ue to that of the aforefaid body, eftimated in the fame
dire (‘•lion, as the wreight of the body moved is to that
of the whole lyltem.
From whence it is evident, that in order to afcer-
tam the liability of any veflel, the polition of the
centres of gravity of the whole, and of that part im-
merled, mull be, determined ; with which, and the di-
menfions of the vefiel, the line of floatation, and angle
o clefiedbon, the liability or power either to right itfelf
or overturn^ may be found.
“ ^P8 of war and merchandife, the calculations
neceilary for the purpofe become unavoidably very
operole and troublefome j but they may be much facili¬
tated by the experimental method pointed out in the
New Tranfaftions of the Swedilh Academy of Scien¬
ces, hrll quarter of the year 1787, page 48.
”v.er and canai boats, the regularity and fim-
plicity of the form of the veffel itfelf, together with the
compact dilpolition and homogeneal quality of the
burden render that method for them unneceflary and
make the requifite calculations become very eafy. Vef-
lels of this kind are generally of the fame tranfverfe
lec.ion throughout their whole length, except a fmall
part m prow and Hern, formed by laments of circles
or other Ample curves j therefore a length may eafily
be affigned fitch, that any of the tranfverfe feftions be-
the^by, the produft will be equal to
the whole fohdity of the velfel. The form of the fec-
tion ABCD is for the moft part either rectangular,
as m fig. 1. Plate CCXVIII.-trapezoidal as in fig^.or
mixtilmeal asm fig. 3. in all which MM reprefents the
line ot floatation when upright, and EF that when inclin¬
ed at any angle MXE ; alfo G reprefents the centre of
merfed ° ^ W lole veffel» and R that of the part im-
? ^ be loaded quite up to the line AB,
and the fpecific gravity of the boat and burden be the
.ame, then the point G is Amply the centre of gravity
t /t T AB5D'’ butif"«. ‘he centres of ciu-
nty “f‘he boat and burden muft be found feparately,
and reduced to one by the common method, namely by
dividing the fum of the momenta by the fum of weight-7
or areas, which m this cafe are as the weights. The point’
v le.Centl? of gravity of the fedion MMCD
of drifferent figures, muft alfo be found
by dividing the fum of the momenta by the fum of the-
weights as common. Thefe two points being found
he next thing neceffary is to determine the arfa of the
two equal triangles MXE, MXF, their centres of gra-
vity« 0, and the perpendicular projefted diftance « «
of theie points on the water line EF. This beimr
done, through R and parallel to EF draw RT=a
[ 684 ] FLO
fourth proportional to the whole area MMCD, either Floatinr
triangle MXE or MXF, and the diftance « * • through liod.es.5
T, and at right angles to RT or EF, draw TS meet-   
in the vertical axis of the velfel in S the metacentre :
P01nts G’ and parallel to ST, draw
NGW and BV - moreover through S, and parallel to
Ef, draw WSV, meeting the two former in V and
•n u Cn as.tbe ftability of the veflel, which
wall be pofitive, nothing, or negative, according as the
point S is above, coincident with, or below, the point
G. It now w7e fuppofe W to reprefent the weight of
the whole veffel and burden (which will be equal to
the fedhon MMCD multiplied by the length of the
veflel), and P to reprefent the required weight applied
at the gunwale B to fuftain the veffel at the given
angle of inclination j we fhall always have this propor¬
tion : as VS : SW : : W : P ; which proportion is ge-
neial, whether SW be pblitive or negative j it muft
omy in the latter cafe be fuppofed to aft upwrard to
prevent an overturn.
“ 1']t1ne yftangular veffel, of given weight and dimen-
lions, the whole procefs is fo evident, that any farther
explanation would be unneceffary. In the trapezoidal
veflel, after having found the points G and R, let AD
BC be produced until they meet in K. Then, fmce
the two feftions MMCD, EFDC are equal: the two
triangles MMK, EFK are alfo equal; and therefore the
rectangle EK X KF =r KM X KM = KM*; and
iince the angle of inclination is fuppofed to be known
the angles at E and F are given. Confequently, if a’
mean proportional be found between the fines of the
angle at E and F, we fhall have the following propor¬
tions : ore
“As the mean proportional thus found : fine AE ::
, : and tfi6 ^id mean proportional : fine
A .. KM : KE j therefore ME, MF become known:
from whence the area of either triangle MXE or MXF.
t e diftance « and all the other requifites, may be
found.
. mixtilmeal feftion, let AB ~ ^ feet 108
inches, the whole depth = 6 feet — 72 inches, and
t he altitude of MM the line of floatation 4 feet or 48i;
inches 5 alfo let the tw7o curvilinear parts be circular
quadrants of two feet, or 24 inches radius each. Then
the area of the two quadrants 9047808 fquare
inches, and the diftance of their centres of gravity from,
the bottom = I3’8i77 inches very nearly} alfo the
area of the included reftangle abie ~ 1440 fquare
inches, and the altitude of its centre of gravity 12 ■
inches 5 in like manner, the area of the reftangle AB >
c ^ will be found = 5184 fquare inches, and the alti¬
tude of its centre of gravity 48 inches ; therefore we
lhall have
Momentum of 7
the two quad, y ~ 904‘7So7 X = J2^oi-gSp66oi6
I44°'
Moment, of the 7
re<ftan.ai/, ^
Moment, of the 7 __
reft an. AB cd. $ ~ 5lS4•
Xl 2 = 17*80*
X 48 = 248831*
•j^zS-j&qS 2'jS6iy^S^6ozn6
“ Now the fum of the momenta, divided by the fum
of the areas, will give 989660— o7.006
’ 6 7528*7808 — 37 006
inches, the altitude of G, the centre of gravity of the
feftion
floating
Bodies
* Phil.
Mag.'.WZ
FLO [6
fe&ion ABCD above the bottom. In like manner,
the altitude of R, the centre of gravity of the fedhon
i 2^o93,9896ooio
1S1MCD, will be found to be equal 
~ 24-0:4 inches \ and confequently their difference,
or the value of GR = 1 2-072 inches will be found.
Suppofe the veffel to heel 150, and we {hall have the
following proportion ; namely, As radius : tangent of
j r° ; : MX = 54 inches : I4’4S9 mchps — ML. or
MF * and ccnfequently the area of either triangle MXE
or MXF — 390*663 fquare inches. Therefore, by
theorem 4th, as 4936-7808 : 390-663 : :J2 — n n —
•i AB : 5-6975 inches rr RT ; and, again, as radius .
fine of 1 50 : : 1 2-072 zz GR : 3*1 245 inches zz RN >
confequently RT—RN zz 5'^975 3*I245 2 573
inches zz SW, the {lability required.
“ Moreover, as the fine of 15* • radius • • 5 ^975 ■
RT : 22-013 zz RS, to which, if we add 24-934, the
altitude of the point R, we (hall have 46-947 for tue
height of the metacentre, which taken from 72, the
whole altitude, there remains 25-053 ", from which, and
the half width zz 54 inches, the diftance BS is found
eg-r 29 inches very nearly, and the angle SBv —
go* 06'—42"-, from whence SV zz 58-645 inches.
Again : Let us fuppofe the mean length of the vef¬
fel to be 40 feet, or 480 inches, and we ftiall have the
w-eight of the whole veffel equal to the area of the (fic¬
tion MMCD zz 4936-7808 multiplied by 480 zz
2369654-784 cubic inches of water, which weighs ex-
adlly 85708 pounds avoirdupoife, allowing the cubic
foot to weigh 62.5 pounds.
“ And, finally, as SV : SW (/. f.) as 58-645 : 2-573 '
:: 85708 : 3760 +, the weight on the gunwale which
will fuftain the veffel at the given inclination. There¬
fore a veffel of the above dimenfions, and weighing 38
tons 5 cwts. 28 lbs. wall require a weight of 1 ton -
13 cwts. 64 lbs. to make her incline 15*.
“ In this example the defleffing power has been iup-
pofed to a£f perpendicularly on the gunwale at B bat
if the veffel is navigated by fails, the centre vehque
muff be found 5 with which and the angle of deflec¬
tion, the projected diftance thereof on the line SV may
be obtained j and then the power calculated as above,
n'eceffary to be applied at the projeded point, will be
that part of the wind’s force which caufes the. veilei to
hfcel. And converfely, if the weight and dimenfions
of the veffel, the area and altitude of the fails, the di-
reefion and velocity of the wind be given, the angle of
deflexion may be found.”*
Floating Bridge. See Bridge.
Flock Paper. See Paper. _
FLOOD, a deluge or inundation of waters, bee
Flood is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the tide. When
the water is at lowreft, it is called ebb; when riling,
young flood; when at higheft, high flood; when begin¬
ning to fall, ebb water. '
Fioon-mark, the mark which the fea. makes on the
ftiore at flowing water and the higheft tide 5 it is alio
called high-water mark.
FLOOK of an anchor. See ANCHOR.
FLOORING, among miners, a term ufed to ex-
prefs a peculiarity in the load of a mine. . The load
or quantity of ore is frequently intercepted in its courfe -
85 ] FLO
by the eroding of a vein of earth or ftone, or fome dif¬
ferent metallic fubftance ; in which cafe the load is
moved to one fide, and this tranfient part of the land
is called a flocking.
FLOOR, in building, the underfide of a room, or
that part we walk on.
Floors are of feveral forts 5 fome of earth, fome 01
brick, others of ftone, others of boards, &e.
For brick and ftone Floors, fee Pavement.
For boarded Floors, it is obfervable that the car¬
penters- never floor their rooms writh boards till the
carcafs is fet up, and alfo enclofed with walls, left the
weather Ihould injure the flooring. - Yet they general¬
ly rough-plane their boards for the flooring before
they begin any thing elle about the building, that they
may let them by to dry and feafon, which is done, in
the moll careful manner. The belt wood for flooring
is the line yellow deal wTell feafoned, which when well
laid, wall keep its colour for a long while j whereas the
white fort becomes black by often walking, and looks
very bad. The joints of the boards are commonly
made plain, fo as to touch each other only 4 but, when
the Hull is not quite dry, and the boards Ihrink, the
water runs through them w-henever the floor is. waih-
ed, and injures the ceiling underneath. For this rea-
fon they are made with feather edges, fo as to cover
each other about half an inch, and fomethnes they aie
made with grooves and tenons : and fometimes the
joints are made with dove tails -, in which cafe the
lower edge is nailed down, and the next drove into it,
fo that the nails- are concealed. I he manner of mea-
furing floors is by fquares of 1 o feet on each fide,, fo
that taking the length and breadth, and multiplying
them together and cutting off two decimals, the con¬
tent of a floor in fquare will be given. Ihus 18 by
16 gives 288 or zTquares and 88 decimal parts.
Earthen Floors, are commonly made of loam, and
fometimes, efpecially to make 'malt on, of lime, and
brook fand, and gun dull, or anvil dull from the forge.
Ox blood and fine clay, tempered together, Sir Hug 1
Plat fays, make the fineft floor in the world.
The manner of making earthen floors for. plain.-
country habitations is as follows : Take- two-thirds ol
Inne, and one of coal allies well fifted, with a ImaL
quantity of loam clay, mix the whole together and '
temper it well with water, making it up into a heap :
let it lie a week or ten days, and then temper it over
again. After this, heap it up for. three, or four days,
and repeat the tempering very high, till it become
fmooth, yielding, tough, and gluey. The ground^ be¬
ing then levelled, lay the floor therewith about 2T of
3 inches thick, making it fmooth with a trowel : the
hotter the feafon is, the better 4 and when it is tho¬
roughly dried, it will make the bell floor for houles,
efpecially malt houfes. .
If any one would have their floors look better, let
them take lime made of rag Hones, well tempered wit
whites of eggs, covering the floor about half an inch
thick with it, before the under-flooring is too dry. II
this be well done, and thoroughly dried, it will look
when rubbed with a little oil as tranfpar.ent as metal
or glafs. In elegant houfes, floors of this nature are
made of ftucco, or of plafter of Paris beaten an 1 te ,
and mixed with other ingredients.
Fioor
Flocr.’
F L O
Ftor^, Tioor of a Ship, ftriftly taken, is only fg much of
' ■- loriilrs. |}er bottom as flie refts on when aground.
Such fhips as have long, and withal broad floors, lie
on the ground with moft fecurity, and are not apt to
heel, or tilt on one fide j whereas others, which are
narrow in the floor, or in the fea phrafe, cranked hij
the ground, cannot be grounded without danger of be¬
ing overturned.
Floor Timbers, in a flap, are thofe parts of a fhip’s
timbers which are placed immediately acrofs the keel,
and upon which the bottom of the flap is framed j to
thefe the upper parts of the timbers are united, being
only a continuation of floor timbers upwards.
FLORA, the reputed goddefs of flowers, was, ac¬
cording to Laftantius, only a lady of pleafure, who
having gained large fums of money by proftituting
herfelf, made the Roman people her heir, on condition
that certain games called Floralia might be annually
celebrated on her birth day. Some time afterwards,
however, fuch a foundation appearing unworthy the
majefty of the Roman people, the fenate, to ennoble
the ceremony, converted Flora into a goddefs, wdiom
they fuppofed to prefide over flowers j and fo made it
a part of religion to render her propitious, that it
might be well noth their gardens, vineyards, &c. But
Voflius [de Idol. lib. i. c. I 2.) can by no means al¬
low the goddefs Flora to have been the courtezan
above mentioned : he will rather have her a Sabine
deity, and thinks her wmlhip might have commenced
under Romulus. His reafon is, that Varro, in his
fourth book of the Latin tongue, ranks Flora among
the deities to whom Tatius king of the Sabines of¬
fered up vows before he joined battle with the Ro¬
mans. Add, that from another paffage in Varro it
appears, that there were priefts of Flora, with facri-
fices, &c. as early as the times of Romulus and
Numa.
The goddefs Flora was, according to the poets, the
wife of Zephyrus. Her image in the temple of Caftor
and Pollux was drefled in a clofe habit, and {he held
in her hands the flowers of peafe and beans : but the
modern poets and painters have been more lavilh in
fetting off her charms, confidering that no parts of na¬
ture offered fuch innocent and exquifite entertainment
to the fight and fmell, as the beautiful variety which
adorns, and the odour which embalms, the floral crea¬
tion.
FLORA LES ludi, or Floral Games, in anti¬
quity, were games held in honour of Flora, the god¬
defs of flowers—They were celebrated with fhamefiil
debaucheries. The moll licentious difcourfes were not
enough, but the courtezans were called together by
the found of a trumpet, made their appearance na
ked, and entertained the people with indecent fhows
and poftures : the comedians appeared after the fame
manner on the ftage. Val. Maximus relates, that Cato
being once prefent in the theatre on this occafion,
the people were afhamed to afk for fuch immodeft re-
prefentations in his prefence ; till Cato, apprifed of
the refervednefs and refpedl with which he infpired
them, withdrew, that the people might not be difap-
pointed of their accuftomed diverfion. There were fe-
veral other forts of fhows exhibited on this occalion •
and, if we may believe Suetonius in Galba, c. 6. and
F t 0
Vopifcys in Curlnus, thefe princes prefented elephants FIoralL,
dancing on ropes on thefe occafions. Florence.
The ludi florales, according to Pliny, lib, xviii, c. 29, ’-v—-J
were inftituted by order of an oracle of the Sibyls,
on the 28th of April *, not in the year of Rome
ixxvi. as we commonly read it in the ancient editions
of that author •, nor in loxiv. as E, Hardouin has
corredted it, but, as Voflius reads it, in 513 : though
they were not regularly held every year till after 580.
1 hey were chiefly held in the night time, in the Pa¬
trician flreet: fome Mill have it there was a circus for
the purpofe on the hill called Hortulorumu
FLORALIA, in antiquity, a general name for the
feafts, games, and other ceremonies, held in honour of
the goddefs Flora. See Flora and Florales Ludi.
FLORENCE, the capital of the duchy of Tufcany,
and one of the fined; cities in Italy. It is furrounded
on all fides but one with high hills, ■which rife infen-
fibly, and at laft join with the lofty mountains called
the Apennines, Towards Pifa, there is a vafl plain of
40 miles in length ; which is fo filled with villages and
pleafure houfes, that they feem to be a continuation of
the fuburbs of the city. Independent of the churches
and palaces of Florence, mofl: of which are very
magnificent, the architedhire of the houfes in general
is in a good tafte } and the flreets are remarkably clean,
and paved with large broad ftones chifeled fo as to
prevent the horfes from Aiding. The city is divided
into two unequal parts by the river Arno, over wdiich
there are no lefs than four bridges in fight of each
other. That called the Fonte della Trinita, which is un¬
commonly elegant, is built entirely of white marble,
and ornamented with four beautiful flatues reprefent-
ing the Seafons. The quays, the buildings on each
fide, and the bridges, render that part of Florence
through which the river runs by far the fineft. Eve¬
ry corner of this beautiful city is full of wonders in
the arts of painting, ftatuary, and architedlure. The
ftreets, fquares, and fronts of the palaces, are adorned
with a great number of ftatues 5 fome of them by the
beft modern mafters, Michael Angelo, Bandinelli, Do¬
natello, Giovanni di Bologna, Benvenuto Cellini, and
others. Some of the Florentine merchants formerly
were men of vafl: wealth, and lived in a mofl; magni¬
ficent manner. One of them, about the middle of the
fifteenth century, built that noble fabric, which, from
the name of its founder, is ftill called the Pala%%o Pint.
The man was ruined by the prodigious expence of this
building, which was immediately purchafed by the
Medici family, and has continued ever fince to be the
refidence of the fovereigns. The gardens belonging
to this palace are on the declivity of an eminence. On
the fummit there is a kind of fort, called Belvedere.
From this, and from fome of the higher w’alks, you
have a complete view of the city of Florence, and the
beauteous vale of Arno, in the middle of which it
Hands. This palace has been enlarged fince it wras
purchafed from the ruined family of Pitti. The fur¬
niture is rich and curious, particularly fome tables of
Florentine work, which are much admired. The
mofl; precious ornaments, however, are the paintings.
The walls of w hat is called the Imperial Chamber, are
painted in frefco, by various painters ; the fubjedfs are.
allegorical, and in honour of Lorenzo of Medicis di-
ftinguifhed
f 686 ]
FLO
ftinguiflied by the name of the Magnificent
mous gallery attrafts every ftranger One of the moft
interefting parts of it, m the eyes of many, 15 the fe-
ries of Roman emperors, from Julius Cadar to Gal-
lienus, with a confiderable number of their empreffes,
arranged oppofite to them. This fenes is almoft cpm-
plete • but wherever the buft of an emperor is wanting,
the place is filled up by that of fome other difhnguilh-
ed Roman. The celebrated Venus of Medici, which
has been removed to Paris, is thought to be the ftandard
oftafte in female beauty and proportion, and ftood tor-
merly in a room called the Tribunal. The infcnption oil
its bafe mentions its being made by Cleomenes an Atheni¬
an, the fon of Apollodorus. It is of white marble, and
furrounded by other mafterpieces of fculpture, fome ot
which are faid to be the works of Praxiteles and other
Greek matters. In the fame room are many valuable
curiofities, befides a collection of admirable pictures
by the beft matters. There are various other rooms,
whofe contents are indicated by the names they bear j
as, the Cabinet of Arts, of Aftronomy, of Natural
Hiftory, of Medals, of Porcelain, of Antiquities 5 the
Saloon of the Hermaphrodite, fo called from a ftatue
which divides the admiration of the amateurs with
that in the Borghefe villa at Rome, though the ex¬
cellence of the execution is difgraced by the vilenefs
of the fubjeft j and the Gallery of Portraits, which con¬
tains the portraits of the moft eminent painters (all exe¬
cuted by themfelves) who have ttourilhed. in Euiope
during the three laft centuries. Our limits will not
admit of a detail of the hundredth part of the curio¬
fities and buildings of Florence. We mutt not how¬
ever omit mentioning the chapel of St Lorenzo,^ as
being perhaps the fineft and moft expenfive habitation
that ever was reared for the dead ; it is incrufted mth
precious ftones, and adorned by the workmanftnp o
the beft modern fculptors. Mr Addifon remarked,
that this chapel advanced fo very flowly, that it is not
impoflible that the family of Medicis may be extinCt
before their burial place is finilhed.. This has aftually
taken place : the Medici family is extinfl, and the
chapel remains ftill unfinifhed.
Florence is a place of fome ftrength, and contains
an archbifhop’s fee and an univerfity. The number of
inhabitants is calculated at 80,000. 1 hey boaft of the
improvements they have made in the Italian tongue,
by means of their Academia della Crufca •, and feveral
other academies are now eftablilhed at Florence. 1 houg 1
the Florentines affeft great ftate, yet their nobility and
gentry drive a retail trade in wine, which they fell from
their cellar windows, and fometimes they even hang out
a broken flafk, as a fign where it may be bought. 1 hey
deal, befides wine and fruits, in gold and filver fluffs.
The Jews are not held in that degree of odium, or fub-
iefted to the fame humiliating diftmaions here, as in
moft other cities of Europe; and it is laid that fome
of the richeft merchants are of that religion. _
As to the manners and amufements of the inhabit¬
ants, Dr Moore informs us, that “ befides the con-
verfaxioms which they have here, as in other towns ot
Italy, a number of the nobility meet every day at a
Jioufe called the Cxiftno. This fociety is pretty much
on the fame footing with the clubs in London. 1 he
members are elefted by ballot. _ They meet at no J>ar-
ticylar hour, but go at any time that is convenient.
[ 687 ] FLO
The fa- They play at billiards, cards, and other games, or con¬
tinue converfing the whole evening, as they think pro¬
per. They are ferved with tea, coffee, lemonade, ices, _
or what other refrelhments they choofe 5 and each perfon
pays for what he calls for. I here is one material dif¬
ference between this and the Englilh^ clubs, that wo¬
men as well as men are members. The company of
both fexes behave with more franknefs and familiarity
to ftrangers as well as to each other, than is ^cuftomary
in public affemblies in other parts of Italy. Ihe opera
is a place where the people of quality pay and receive
vilits, and converfe as freely as at the Cafmo above
mentioned. This occafions a continual palling and re¬
pairing to and from the boxes, except in thofe where
there is a party of cards formed \ it is then looked on
as a piece of ill manners to difturb the players. From
this it may be gueffed, that here, as in fome other
towns in Italy, little attention is paid to the mufic by
the company in the boxes, except at a new opera, or
during fome favourite air. But the dancers command
a general attention: as foon as they begin, converfa-
tion ceafes} even the card-players lay down their cards,
and fix their eyes on the ballette. Yet the excellence of
Italian dancing feems to confift in feats of ftrength,
and a kind of jerking agility, more than in graceful
movement. There is a continual conteft among the
performers, who ftiall fpring higheft. You fee here
none of the fprightly alluring gaiety of the French
comic dancers, or of the graceful attitudes and fmooth
flowing motions of the performers in the ferious opera
at Paris. It is furpriling that a people of fuch tafte
and fenfibility as the Italians, Ihould prefer a parcel of
athletic jumpers to elegant dancers. On the evenings
on which there is no opera, it is ufual for the genteel
company to drive to a public walk immediately without
the city, where they remain till it begins to grow
dulkifh.” E. Long. 12. 24. N. Lat. 43. 34.
Florence, an ancient piece of Englifti gold com.
Every pound weight of ftandard gold was to be coined
•  ^„ 1— of* -fiv fhillmcrc parVi i
Florence
11
Florida.
JUjVVXJT »» O    0 n .11 • 1
into 50 Florences to be current at fix {hillings each;
all which made in tale 15 pounds 3 or. into a propor¬
tionate number of half Florences, or quarter pieces, by
indenture of the mint: 18 Edw. III.
FLORENTIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Etruria, on the Arnus 5 of great note in Sylla’s wars.
Now called Floren%a or Fircnz-a by the Italians ; Flo¬
rence in Englifti. E. Long. 11. Lat. 43. 30.
FLORENTINE marble. See Citadanesca.
FLORESCENTIA (from florefco,. “ to flourifti or
bloom”) *, the a£t of flowering, which Linnaeus and
the fexualifts compare to the act of generation in ani¬
mals , as the ripening of the fruit in their opinion re-
fembles the birth. See Flower.
florid STYLE, is that too much enriched with
figures and flowers of rhetoric..
FLORIDA, the moft foutherly province of the
Britifti empire in America before the laft war, bound¬
ed on the fouth by the gulf of Mexico, on the north
by the Apalachian mountains, on the eaft by the pro¬
vince of Georgia, and on the weft by the river Miffif-
fippi. It was firft difcovered, in 1497, by Sebaftian
Cabot, a Venetian, then in the Englifti fervice j whence
a right to the country was claimed by the kings of
England •, and this province, as well as Georgia, was
included in the charter granted by Charles II.
T L Q [ 683 ] FLO
tJ'lofida. rolina. In 1512, howeV'er, Florida was more fully
11* ' difcovered by Ponce de Leon, an able Spanilh naviga¬
tor, but who undertook his voyage from the moft ab-
furd motives that can be well imagined.—T. he Indians
of the Caribbee illands had among them a tradition,
that fomewhere on the continent there was a fountain
whofe waters had the property of reftoring youth to all
old men who tailed them. The romantic imaginations
of the Spaniards were delighted with this idea. Many
embarked in voyages to find out this imaginary foun¬
tain, who were never afterwards heard of. Their fu-
perftitious countrymen never imagined that thefe peo¬
ple had periihed. They concluded that they did not
return, only becaufe they had drunk of the immorta¬
lizing liquor, and had difcovered a fpot fo delightful,
that they did not choofe to leave it. Ponce de Leon
fet out with this extravagant view as well as others, and
fully perfuaded of the exiftence of a third world, the
conqueft of which was to immortalize his name. In
the attempt to difcover this country, he redifcovered
Florida ; but returned to the place from whence he came,
vifibly more advanced in years than when he fet out.
For fome time this country was negledfed by the Spa¬
niards, and fome Frenchmen fettled in it: But the new
colony being neglected by the miniftry, and Philip
II. of Spain having accuftomed himfelf to think
that he was the foie proprietor of America, fitted out
a fleet at Cadiz to dellroy them. His orders were exe¬
cuted with barbarity. The French intrenchments were
forced, and moft of th^ people killed. The prifoners
were hanged on trees *, with this infcription, “ Not as
Frenchmen, but as Heretics.”
This cruelty was foon after revenged by Dominic de
"Gourgues, a ikilful and intrepid feaman of Gafcony,
an enemy to the Spaniards, and paflionately fond of
hazardous expeditions and of glory. He fold his eftate $
built fome fliips j and wdth a feledl band of adventurers
like himfelf embarked for Florida. He drove the
Spaniards from all their polls with incredible valour
and activity ; defeated them in every rencounter: and
by way of retaliation, hung the prifoners on .trees,
with this infcription, “ Not as Spaniards, but as
Aflaflins.” This expedition was attended with no
other confequences; Gourgues blew up the forts he
had taken, and returned home, where no notice w7as
taketi of him. It was conquered in 1539 by the
Spaniards under Ferdinand de Soto, not without a
great deal of bloodlhed $ as the natives were very war¬
like and made a vigorous refiftance. The fettlement,
however, was not fully eftablilhed till the year 1565 5
when the town of St Auguftine, the capital of the
colony while it remained in the hands of the Spaniards,
was founded. In 1586, this place was taken and
pillaged by Sir Francis Drake. It met with the fame
fate in 1663, being taken and plundered by Captain
Davis and a body of bucaniers. In 1702, an at¬
tempt was -made upon it by Colonel More, governor
of Carolina. He fet out with 500 Englilh and 700
Indians: and having reached St Auguftine, he be-
fieged it for three months 5 at the expiration of which
trie Spaniards having fent fome fhips to the relief of
the place, he was obliged to retire. In 1740 another
attempt was made by General Oglethorpe j but he be¬
ing outwitted by the Spanifh governor, was forced to
A
raife the fiege with lofs j and Florida continued in the Flon'e^
hands of the Spaniards till the year 1763, when it ?g>urn
wTas ceded by treaty to Great Britain.—During the -pjJrjfl.
American war, which terminated in 1783, it was again ^ ‘
reduced by his Catholic majefty, and was guaranteed
to the crown of Spain at the peace.
FLORILEGIUM, Florilege, a name the La¬
tins have given to -what the Greeks call weoXoyiov, an-
thologij ; viz. a collection of choice pieces, containing
the fineft and brighteft things in their kind.
Florilege, is alfo particularly ufed for a kind of
breviary, in the Eaftern church, compiled by Arcadius,
for the conveniency of the Greek priefts and monks,
who cannot carry with them, in their travels and pil¬
grimages, all the volumes wherein their office is dif-
perfed. The florilegium contains the general rubrics,
pfalter, canticles, the horologium, and the office of the
feriae, &c.
FLORIN, is fometimes ufed for a coin, and fome-
times for a money of account.
Florin, as a coin, is of different values, according
to the different metals and different countries where it
is ftruck. The gold florins are moft of them of a very
coarfe alloy, fome of them not exceeding thirteen or
fourteen carats, and none of them feventeen and a
half. See Money Table.
Florin, as a money of account, is ufed by the Italian,
Dutch, and German merchants and bankers, but admits
of divifions in different places. Ibid.
FLORIN IANI, or Floriani, a fe£t of heretics,
of the fecond century, denominated from its author
Florinus, or Florianus, a prieft of the Roman church,
depofed along with Blaftus for his errors. Florinus
had been a difciple of St Polycarp, along with Iren sens.
He made God the author of evil 3 or rather afferted,
that the things forbidden by God are not evil, but of
his owm appointing. In which he followed the errors
of Valentinus, and joined himfelf with the Carpocra-
tians. They had alfo other names given them. Phi-
laftrius fays, they were the fame with the Carpophorians,
He adds that they were alfo called foldiers, mi/ites, quia
de militaribus fuerunt. St Irenaeus calls them Gnq/iics;
St Epiphanius Phibionites ; and Theodoret, Barborites,
on account of the impurities of their lives. Others
call them Zaccheans ; others Coddiansy &c. though for
what particular reafons, it is not eafy to fay, nor per¬
haps would be worth while to inquire.
FLORIS, Francis, an eminent hiftorical painter,
w7as born at Antwerp in 1520. He followed the pro-
feffion of a ftatuary till he was twenty years of age 5
when preferring painting, he entered the fchool of
Lambert Lombard, whole manner he imitated very v,
perfe&ly. He afterwards went to Italy, and completed
his ftudies from the moft eminent mafters. The great
progrefs he made in hiftorical painting, at his return
procured him much employment; and his countrymen
complimented him with the flattering appellation of
the Flemifh Raphael. He got much money, and might
have rendered his acquaintance more worthy of the at¬
tention of the great, had he not debafed himfelf by
frequent drunkennefs. He died 1570, aged 90.
I LOR I STL, a perfon curious or {killed in flowers 5
their kinds, names, charaders, culture, &c. It is alfo
applied to an author who writes what is called the
' flora
FLO [ 689 ] FLO
Floras flora of any particular place, that is, a catalogue of the
II plants and trees which are found fpontaneoully grow-
Flotlon. *ng
FLORUS, Lucius Annaeus, a Latin hiftorian, of
the fame family with Seneca and Lucan. He flou-
rifhed in the reigns of Trajan and Adrian j and wrote
an abridgment of the Roman hiftory, of which there
have been many editions. It is compofed in a florid
and poetical ftyle j and is rather a panegyric on many
of the great adlions of the Romans, than a faithful
and corredf recital of their hiftory. He alfo wrote
poetry, and entered the lifts againft the emperor Adri¬
an, who fatirically reproached him with frequenting
taverns and places of diflipation.
jFLORY, Flowery, or Fleury, in Heraldry, a
crofs that has flowers at the end circumflex and turn¬
ing down j different from the potence, in as much as
the latter ftretches out more like that which is called
patee.
FLOS, Flower. See Flower, Botany Index.
Fcemineus Flos, a flower wdiich is fumilhed with the
pointal or female organs of generation, but wants the
ftamina or male organ. Female flowers may be produ¬
ced apart from the male, either on the fame root or on
diftindl plants. Birch and mulberry are examples of
the firft cafe, wallow and poplar of thefecond.
Mafculas Flos, a male flower. By this name Lin¬
naeus and the fexualifts diftinguifh a flower which con¬
tains the ftamen, reckoned by the fexualifts the male
ergan of generation •, but not the ftigma or female or¬
gan. All the plants of the clafs dioecia of Linnaeus
have male and female flowers upon different roots $ thofe
©f the clafs monoecia bear flowrers of different fexes on
the fame root. The plants, therefore of the former
are only male and female : thofe of the latter are an¬
drogynous ; that is, contain a mixture of both male
and female flowers.
Flos, in Chemi/lry, the moft fubtile part of bodies
feparated from the more grofs parts by fublimation in a
dry form.
FLOTA, or Flotta, j&Wy a name the Spaniards
give particularly to the fhips which they fend annually
from Cadiz to the port of Vera Cruz, to fetch thence
the merchandifes gathered in Mexico for Spain. It
confifts of the captains, admiral, and patach, or pin¬
nace, which go on the king’s account j and about 16
ftups, from 400 to 1000 tons, belonging to particular
perfons. They fet out from Cadiz about the month
of Auguft, and are 18 or 20 months before they re¬
turn. Thofe fent to fetch the commodities prepared
in Peru are called galleons.
The name jlotilla is given to a number of ftiips, which
get before the reft in their return, and give informa¬
tion of the departure and cargo of the flota and gal¬
leons.
FLOTSON, or Flotsom, goods that by (hip-
wreck are loft, and floating upon the fea •, which,
with jetfon and lagan, are generally given to the lord
admiral: but this is the cafe only wdiere the owners
of fuch goods are not known. And here it is to be
obferved, that jetfon fignifies any thing that is caft
out of a ftiip when in danger, and afterwards is beat
on %he (bore by the water, notwithftanding which the
ihip perifties. Logan is where heavy goods are thrown
Vol. VHL Part XL
overboard, before the wreck of the ftiip, and fink to Flounder
the bottom of the fea.
FLOUNDER, Fluke, or But. See Pleuronectes, > ,^-lL.
Ichthyology Index.
Flounders may be fiftied for all day long, either in
a fwdft ftream, or in the ftill deep wTater ; but beft in
the ftream in the months of April, May, June, and
July : the moft proper baits are all forts of worms,
wafps, and gentles.
FLOUR, the meal of wheat-corn, finely ground and
lifted. See Meal.
The grain itfelf is not only fubjeft to be eaten by
infers in that ftate but, when ground into flour, it
gives birth to another race of deltroyers, who eat it
unmercifully, and increafe fo fail in it, that it is not
long before they wholly deftroy the fubftance. The
fineft flour is moft liable to breed thefe, efpecially when
ftale or ill prepared. In this cafe, if it be examined
in a good light, it will be obferved to be in continual
motion, and on a nicer infpedtion there will be found
in it a great number of little animals of the colour of
the flour, and very nimble. If a little of this flour „
is laid on the plate of the double microfcope, the in¬
fers are very diftimftly feen in great numbers, very
brilk and lively, continually crawling over one ano¬
ther’s backs, and playing a thoufand antic tricks to¬
gether •, whether in diverfion, or in fearch of food, is
not eafy to be determined. Thefe animals are of an
oblong and (lender form j their heads are fumiftied
wdth a kind of trunk or hollow tube, by means of
which they take in their food, and their body is com¬
pofed of feveral rings. They do vaft mifehief among
magazines of flour laid up for armies and other pub¬
lic ufes. When they have once taken poffeflion of a
parcel of this valuable commodity, it is impoflible to
drive them out 5 and they increafe fo fail:, that the
only method of preventing the total lofs of the parcel
is to make it up into bread as foon as can be done.
The way to prevent their breeding in the flour, is to
preferve it from damp : nothing gets more injury by
being put up damp than flour j and yet nothing is
more frequently put up fo. It (hould be always care¬
fully and thoroughly dried before it is put up, and
the barrels alfo dried into which it is to be put j then,
if they are placed in a room tolerably warm and dry,
they will keep it well. Too dry a place never does flour
any hurt, though one too moift almoft always fpoils it.
Flour w'hen carefully analyzed, is found to be com¬
pofed of three very different Jubilances. The firft and
moft abundant is pure Jlarch, or white fecule, info-
luble in cold, but foluble in hot water, and of the
nature of mucous fubftances j which, when diffolved,
form wrater-glues. The fecond is the gluten, moft of
whofe properties have been deferibed under the article
Bread. The third is of a mild nature, perfe&ly fo¬
luble in cold wrater, of the nature offaccharine extrac¬
tive mucous matters. It is fufceptible of the fpirituous
fermentation, and is found but :n fmall quantity in the
flour of wheat. See Bread, Gluten, Starch, and
Sugar-, Chemistry Index.
FLOWER, Flos, among botanifts and gardeners,
the moft beautiful part of trees and plants, containing
the organs or parts of fruftification. See Botany
Index.
4 S Flowers,
FLO [ 690 ] FLO
Flowers. Flowers, defigned for medical ufe, fliould be pluck-
V ed when they are moderately blown, and on a clear
day before noon : for conferves, rofes muft taken in
the bud.
Flowers, in antiquity. We find flowers in great
requefl: at the entertainments of the ancients, being pro¬
vided by the mailer of the feaft, and brought in before
the fecond courfe 5 or, as fome are of opinion, at the
beginning of the entertainment. They not only a-
dorned their heads, necks, and breads, with flowers, but
often beftrewed the beds whereon they lay, and all parts
of the room with them. But the head wras chiefly re¬
garded. See Garland.
Flowers were likewife ufed in the bedecking of
tombs. See Burial.
Eternal Flower. See Xeranthemum,
Everlajling Flower. See Gvaphalium,
FLoirER-Fence. See Poinciana, -d
Suh-Flower. See Helianthus, . 0TANY
Sultan-FLOWER. See Cyanus,
Trnmpet-Flower. See Bignonia,
Wind-Flower. See Anemone,
Flow ER-de-lis, ox Flower-de-luce, in Heraldry, a bear¬
ing reprefenting the lily called the queen of flowers, and
the true hieroglyphic of royal majelly } but of late it
is become more common, being borne in fome coats
one, in others three, in others five, and in fome fe-
mee or fpread all over the elcutcheon in great numbers.
The arms of France are, three flowers-de-lis or, in a
field azure.
FlowER-de-Luce. See Iris, Botany Index.
Flowers, in Heraldry. They are much ufed in
coats of arms 5 and in general fignify hope, or denote
human frailty and momentary profperity.
Flowers, in Chemijlry. By tins name are general¬
ly underllood bodies reduced into very fine parts, ei¬
ther fpontaneoufly, or by fome operation of art ; but
the term is chiefly applied to volatile folid fubftances,
reduced into very fine parts, or into a kind of meal by
fublimation.—Some flowers are nothing elfe than the
bodies themfelves, which are fublimed entire, without
luifering any alteration or decompofition ; and other
flowers are fome of the conftituent parts of the body
fubjecled to fublimation.
Colours of Flowers. See the article Colour (of
Plants'). ,
Colours extraBedfrom Flowers. See Colour-MoI-
ing.
Preferving of Flowers. The method of preferving
flowers in their natural beauty through the whole year
has been much . fought after by many people. Some
have attempted it by gathering them when dry and not
too much opened, and burying them in dry fand ; but
this, though it preferves their figure well, takes off
flora the livelinefs of their colour. IVTuntingius pre¬
fers the following method to all others. Gather ro¬
les, or other flowers, when they are not yet thorough¬
ly open, in the middle of a dry day j fill the vcflel up"to
the top with them ; and when full fprinkle them over
with fome good French wine, with a little fait in it •
then fet them by in a cellar, tying down the mouth
oi the pot. After this they may be taken out at plea¬
sure ; and, on fetting them in the fun, or within
reach of the fire, they will open as if growing natural¬
ly j and not only the colour, but the fmell alfo will be Flowers,
preferved. —y—-j
The flowers of plants are by much the moll difficult
parts of them to preferve in any tolerable degree of
perfedlion ; of which we have inftances in all the col-
ledtions of dried plants, or horti fwci. In thefe the
leaves, ftalks, roots, and feeds of the plants, appear
very wrell preferved ; the ftrong texture of thefe parts
making them always retain their natural form, and
the colours in many fpecies naturally remaining. But
where thefe fade, the plant is little the worfe for ufe as.
to the knowing the fpecies by it. But it is very much
otherwife in regard to flowers \ thefe are naturally by-
much the moft beautiful parts of the plants to which
they belong ; but they are fo much injured in the com¬
mon way of drying, that they not only lofe, but change
their colours one into another, by which means they
give a handle to many errors j and they ufually alfo
wither up, fo as to lofe their very form and natural
fliape. The primrofe and cowflip kinds are very emi¬
nent inftances of the change of colours in the flowers
of dried fpecimens} for thofe of this clafs of plants ea-
fily dry in their natural ffiape ; but they lofe their yel¬
low, and, inftead of it, acquire a fine green colour,
much fuperior to that of the leaves in their moft per-
fe61 ftate. The flowrers of all the violet kind lofe their
beautiful blue, and become of a dead white : fo that
in dried fpecimens there is no difference between the
blue-flowered violet and the wdiite-flow^ered kinds.
Sir Robert Southwell has communicated to the world
a method of drying plants, by which this defedl is
propofed to be in a great meafure remedied, and all
flowers preferved in their natural ftiape, and many in
their natural colours.—For this purpofe two plates of
iron are to be prepared of the fize of a large half ftieet
of paper, or larger, for particular occafions; thefe
plates muft be made fo thick as not to be apt to bend j
and there muft be a hole made near every corner
for the receiving a fcrew to faften them clofe together.
When thefe plates are prepared, lay in readinefs feve-
ral ftieets of paper, and then gather the plants wdth
their flowers wffien they are quite perfeft. Let this be
always done in the middle of a dry day •, and then lay
the plant and its flower on one of the Iheets of paper
doubled in half, fpreading out all the leaves and petals
as nicely as poffible. If the ftalk is thick, it muft be
pared or cut in half, fo that it may lie flat 5 and if it
is woody, it may be peeled, and only the bark left.
When the plant is thus expanded, lay round about it
fome loofe leaves and petals of the flower, which may
ferve to complete any part that is deficient. When all
is thus prepared, lay feveral flieets of paper over the
plant, and as many under it 5 then put the wffiole be¬
tween the iron plates, laying the papers fmoothly on
one, and laying the other evenly over them j fcrew
them clofe, and put them into an oven after the bread
is drawm, and let them lie there two hours. After
that, make a mixture of equal parts of aquafortis and
common brandy ; fhake thefe well together, and wffien
the flowers are taken out of the preffure of the plates,
rub them lightly over with a camel’s hair pencil dipped
in this liquor; then lay them upon frefti brown paper,
and covering them with fome other Iheets, prefs tltem
between this and other papers with a handkerchief till
the
FLO [69
Viewer?, the wet of tliefe liquors is dried wholly auay. When
Flowering. the piant }s thus far prepared, take the bulk of a nut-
  ^ meg of gum dragon j put this into a pint of fair wa¬
ter cold, and let it Hand 2q. hours ^ it will in this tun^
be wholly diffolved: then dip a fine hair pencil in this
liquor, and with it daub over the back fides of the
leaves, and lay them carefully down on half a iheet of
white paper fairly expanded, and prefs them down
with fome more papers over thefe. Wrhen the gum-
water is fixed, let the preffer and papers be removed,
and the whole work is finilhed. The leaves retain their
verdure in this cafe, and the flowers ufually keep
their natural colours. Some care, however, mull; be
taken, that the heat of the oven be not too great.
When the flowers are thick and bulky, fome art may
be ufed to pare off their backs, and difpofe the pe¬
tals in a due order j and after this, if any of them
are wanting, their places may be lupplied with fopie
of the fupemumerary ones dried on purpofe 5 and it
any of them are only faded, it will be prudent to take
them away, and lay down others in their Head . the
leaves may be alio difpofed and mended in the fame
manner.
Another method of preferving both flowers and fruit
found throughout the whole year is alio given by the
fame author. Take faltpetre, one pound } Armenian
bole, two pounds j clean common fand, three pounds :
mix all well together. Then gather fruit of any kind
that is not fully ripe, with the ftalk to each } put thefe
in, one by one, into a wide-mouthed glafs, laying
them in good order. Tie over the top with an oil¬
cloth, and carry them into a dry cellar, and fet the
whole upon a bed of the prepared matter of four inches
thick in a box. Fill up the remainder of the box with
the fame preparation •, and let it be four inches thick
all over the top of the glafs, and all round its lides.
Flowers are to be preferved in the fame fort of glalies,
and in the fame manner} and they may be taken up
after a whole year as plump and fair as when they were
buried.
Artificial Flowers of the Chinefe. See Tong-
TSAO.
Flowers, in the animal economy, denote women’s
monthly purgations or menles.—Nicod derives the
word in this fenfe, from Jluere,<\. d.Jluors. Others wall
have the name occafioned hence, that women do not
conceive till they have had their flowers \ fo that thefe
are a fort of forerunners of their fruit.
Flowers, in Rhetoric, are figures or ornaments of
difeourfe, by the Latins called flqfculi.
FIsOVIFIKING of Bulbous Plants. Thefe plants
will grow and flower in water alone, without any earth,
and make a very elegant appearance. We daily fee
this praftifed in Angle roots } but there is a method of
doing it with feveral roots in the fame veflel. Take a
common fmall garden pot j flop the hole at the bot¬
tom with a cork, and lute in the cork with putty, that
no wTater can get through j then fit a board to the top
of the pot, and bore fix or feven holes in it at equal
diflances, to place the bulbs in j and as many fmaller
ones near them to receive flicks, -which will ferve to
tie up the flowers. Then fill up the pot with water to
the board *, and place tulips, jonquils, narciflufes, and
the like plants in the root upon the holes, fo that the
bottom of the xoots may touch the water: thus will
i ] FLO
they all flower early in the feafon, and be much more Flower
beautiful than any pot of gathered flowers, and will r
latt many weeks in their full perfection. After the
feafon of flowering is over, the roots will gradually .
flu-ink through the holes of the board, and get loofe in¬
to the water : but, inftead, of being fpoiled there, they
will foon increafe in fize •, fo that they cannot return
through the holes, and will produce feveral oftsets. It
is natural to try from this the confequence of keeping
the roots under water during the whole time of their
blowing j and in this way they have been found to
fucceed very well, and flower even flxonger and more
beautifully than when in the ground. They may thus,
alfo, with proper care in the degree of heat in the
room, he kept flowering from before Chriftmas till
March or April. It is not eafy, in this laft manner,
to manage the keeping the boards under water, for
which reafon, it is better to procure fome Iheet-lead of
about four pounds to the foot, and cut this to the fize
of the mouth of the pot. In this there Ihould be bo¬
red holes for the bulbs, and other holes for the flicks ;
and, in order to keep the flicks quite firm, it is pro¬
per to have another plate of lead fhaped to the bottom
of the pot, with holes in it, anfwering to thofe of the
upper plate made for the flicks. Ihe flicks will by
this means be always kept perfe&ly fleady j and the
roots, being kept under water by the upper plate of
lead, wall flower in the moft vigorous and beautiful
manner imaginable. Some have thought of adding to
the virtues of the water by putting in nitre in fmall
quantities, and others have added earth and fand at the
bottom but it has always been found to fucceed bet¬
ter without any addition.
It may be more agreeable to fome to ufe glafs jars
in this laft method with the leads, inftead of earthen
pots. The bulbs fucceed full as well in thefe 5 and
there is this advantage, that the progrefs of the roots
is feen all the while, and they are managed better as to
the fupply of water.
By repeated experiments in this way on dried bulbs,
and on thofe taken frelh out of the ground, the former
have been found to fucceed the beft. for thofe taken
frefh out of the ground being full of moifture, will not
fo foon, upon changing their element, be nouriftied
fully by a new- one *, and the fibres which they had
ftruck in the ground, always rot when put into the
water, and new ones muft be formed in their places j
fo that it requires more time for them to come to flow¬
ering. The bulbs themfelves will not rot in this man¬
ner 5 but they will never be fo ftrong as thofe which
were put into the water dry, which gradually fill
themfelves with moifture from it, and regularly plump
up. The beft method of managing the whole pro-
cefs is this: Place the bulbs at firft only on the
furface of the water j for thus they will ftrike out
their fibres moft ftrongly. When they have flood
thus fix weeks, pour in the water fo high as to cover
them entirely, and keep them thus till they have done
flowering.
Sometimes the roots will become mouldy in feveral
parts while they ftand above the wrater, and the clean¬
ing them of it is to no purpofe j for it will eat and
fpread the farther, and frequently eat through two or
three of their coats. In this cafe they muft be imme¬
diately covered with water j when the mould will be
4 S a flopped*
FLO [ 692 ] FLO
Flowering flopped, and the roots become found, and dower as
' well as thofe which never had any fuch diftemper. If
the roots are fuffered to remain in water all the year,
they will not decay: but will flower again at their
proper feafon, and that as vigoroufly as thofe which
have been taken out and dried. The old fibres of
thofe roots never rot till they are ready to pufh forth
new ones. It is found by experience, that the hya¬
cinth, and many other plants, grow to a greater de¬
gree of perfection when thus in water than when in
the ground. There is a peculiar fpecies of hyacinth
called Keyfer's jewel; this never, or very rarely, pro¬
duces feed-veffels in the common way of flowering in
the ground •, but it will often produce fome pods when
blown in rvater.
Mr Millar has intimated, in the Philofophical Tranf-
actions, that bulbs fet in glafies grow weaker, and
Ihould be renewed every other year : but it is found,
that, when managed in this manner, and kept under
water, at the time of taking them up, they are as large,
and fome of them larger, than when planted j and if
thefe be dried at a proper feafon, they will flower, year
after year, as well as frefh ones.
Ranunculus and anemone roots have been found to
ihoot up their ftalks very well in this way 5 but the
flowers are ufually blafted, which feems to arife from
want of free air. Pinks will flower very wTell in this
manner ; auriculas alfo may, with care, be brought to
flowTer, but not ftrongly. Rofes, jeflamines, and honey-
iuckles, may alfo be made to flower this way, and will
thrive and fend out fuckers 5 the beft pieces to plant,
are fuckers cut off about three inches under ground,
\ without any fibres. The fucculent plants may alfo be
railed this w’ay ; for inftance, the opuntia or Indian
fig. If a fragment of a leaf of this plant be cut, and
laid by to dry for a month till it is an abfolute £kin,
as foen as it is put in this manner into w^ater, it be¬
gins to plump up, and foon fends out fibrous roots,
and produces new leaves as quickly as it would do in
the ground.
, This is the more Angular in thefe forts of plants,
becaufe in their natural ftate in the ground, they
cannot bear much water. I his method of growing
in W'ater is not peculiar to the bulbous-rooted ones,
biit others may even be raifed from feed by it. A
bean or pea, let in this manner, will grow up to its
proper ftandard, and wdll flower and produce pods
which will ripen their feed. The fmaller feeds may be
alfo raifed in this manner, by the help of wool to fup-
port them.
No vegetable tranfplanted out of the earth into wa-
ter will thrive kindly ; but any plant, whether raifed
from the root or feed in water, may be tranfplanted to
the earth, and will fucceed very well. It may be pof-
fibie, therefore, from this method of raifing plants in
water, to come at a better way than is ufually pradlif-
ed el raifing fome roots in the earth which are fub-
Je j it0 ro\ there ’ fucl1 as anemonies, ranunculufes,
and hyacinths. A bulb dropped by chance upon the
ground, will ftnke out both ftronger and more numer¬
ous fibres than thofe which are planted in the ufual
way in the ground. On this principle, it may be
proper to take out the earth of the bed where the
bulbs are to ftand at the time of planting them, to
luch a depth as they are to be placed under it when
fet for flowering. The bulbs are then to be fet in their Flowering,
places, on the furface of this low ground j and to —
itand there till they have Ihot out their fibres and their
head : then the earth is to be added over them by de¬
grees, till they are covered as high above the head as
they are in the ufual manner of planting them ; thus
they would be preferved from the danger of rotting j
and their fibres wTould be much ftronger, and conle-
quently they wrould draw more nourilhment, and
floiver better, than in the common way. The com¬
mon method of planting thefe roots renders them li¬
able to be deftroyed by either extreme of a wet or a
dry feafon. In the firft cafe, they immediately rot by
the abundant moifture they receive 5 and, in the fe-
cond, they become dry as a flick and mouldy, fo that
they are infallibly rotted by the firft rain that falls af¬
terwards.
The diredtions neceffary to the fuccefs of the bulbs
planted in wrater are thefe. When the leaden falfe
bottoms are fixed down tight within two or three
inches of the bottom of the veffel (which is only de-
figned to hold the flicks fteady which are to fupport
the leaves and ftalks), then lay pn the lead upon which
the bulbs are to reft, placing the notched part oppo-
fite to that in the faife bottom, as near as the flicks,
when placed, will fuffer it ; then place the bulbs one
in each hole, and fill up with water to the upper lead.
The bottom of the bulb will then touch the water j
and as the wrater diminilhes in quantity, keep it fup-
plied with more up to the fame height for a month or
fix wTeeks j in which time the bulbs will have (hot
ftrong fibres. Then fill up the wTater about half an
inch above the furface of the lead ; and, by degrees, as
the fibres ftrengthen, and the plume flioots from the
head, keep the w7ater higher and higher, till at
length the whole bulb is covered. The water is to be
kept at this ftandard till the feafon for drying them re¬
turns.—At the time of planting the bulbs, they muft
be carefully cleaned from any foulneffes at the bot¬
tom, by fcraping them with the point of a knife till
the found part of the bulb appears j clear them like-
wife from any loofe fldns, and even take off their brown
ikin till they appear white ; otherwife this brown fkint
will tinge the water, and the growth will not fucceed
fo well.
The notches in the fide of each lead are intended to
give eafy paffage to the water, that, if there fliould be
any foulnefs or fediment in it, on (baking it a little it
may all run through, and frefti water be put in its
pl^ce. But this (hifting the water need not be done
more than once or twice in a winter, as there may be
occafion from the foulnefs j and when this is done,
the fides of the veffel (hould be cleaned with a paint¬
er’s brufti, and rinfed out again, and the bulbs them-
felves w7a(hed, by pouring water on them at a little di-
ftance.
At any time when the outer (kins of the bulbs dry,
they are to be peeled off, that they may not occafion
foulnefs in the wrater; and if any dull; or foul matter
be at any time obferved fwimming on the furface, the
method is to fill up the pot or veffel to the rim, and
let it run over : this will carry off that light foulnefs,
and the water may aftenvards be poured away to the
proper ftandard.
Bulbs of equal bignefs (hould be pltunted together in
the
P L U [69
the fame pot, that they may all have the lame benefit
of the water. Narciffufes and hyacinths do well toge¬
ther ; as alfo tulips and jonquils, and crocufcs and fnow-
drops.
FLUDD, Robert, a philofopher and phyfician ot
fome celebrity in his time, was the fon of Sir Thomas
Fludd, treafurer of war to Queen Elizabeth ; and was
born at Milgate in Kent, in the year 1574. He re¬
ceived his education at St John’s college, Oxford, and
afterwards fpent fix years in travelling through Europe.
He acquired a itrong attachment to the Rofycrufian
phjlofophy, which chiefly confided of myfticifm and
jargon, and fuch as were admitted among them had
certain fecrets analogous to thofe of free mafonry. On
his return home, he took the degree of M. D. fettled
in the city of London, and was chofen a fellow of the
college of phyficians. His piety was of an enthufiaftic
nature, and the feeming depth of his knowledge pro¬
cured him much admiration, and gave him a temporary
fame. It is faid that he employed a kind of unintel¬
ligible cant when fpeaking to his patients, which fome-
times contributed to their recovery, as it operated on
their faith. He is chiefly known as a feftary in philo-
fophy, and not as a phyfician. He blended the incom-
prehenfible reveries of the Cabalifls and Paracelfians,
forming a new phyfical fyifem replete with myftery and
abfurdity. He believed in two univerfal principles, the
northern or condenfing, and the fouthern or rarefying
power. Innumerable geniufes he conceived to prefide
over thefe, and committed the charge of difeafes to le¬
gions of fpirits collefted from the four winds of heaven.
In his eftimation, a harmony fubfifted between the ma-
crocofm and the microcofm, or the world of nature
and of man. All his fancies and whims it is impofuble
to enumerate, yet they attracted the notice of the phi-
lofophers of that age, being fupported by myftenous
gravity and the fhadow of erudition. Even Kepler
himfelf thought his extravagant jargon worthy of refu¬
tation, and GafTendi for this purpofe wrote his Examen
Philofophice Eluddiarue. One of Fludd’s performances,
entitled Nexus utrmfque Cofmi, is illuflrated by fome
prints of a very Angular and extraordinary nature.
FLUENT, or Flowing Quantity, in the doc¬
trine of fluxions, is the variable quantity which is con-
fidered as increafmg and decreafing : or the fluent
of a given fluxion, is that quantity whofe fluxion
being taken, according to the rules of that doftrine,
fhall be the fame with the given fluxion. See
Fluxions.
FLUID, an appellation given to all bodies whofe
particles eafily yield to the leaf! partial preffure, or force
imprefled. For the
Laws and Properties of Fluids, fee Hydrosta-
TICS*
There are various kinds of animalcules to be dii-
cerned in different fluids by the microfcope. . Of many
remarkable kinds of thefe, a defcription is given under
the article Animalcule. All of thefe little creatures
are eafily deftroyed by feparating them from their na¬
tural element. Naturalifts have even fallen upon fhorter
methods. A needle point, dipped in fpirit of vitriol,
and then immerfed into a drop of pepper water, rea¬
dily kills all the animalcules : which, though before
frifking about with great livelinefs and a£livity, no
fooner come within the influence of tlje acid particles,
3 ] FLU
than they fpread themfelves, and tumble down to all ^
appearance dead. The like may be done by a folution
of fait; only with this difference, that, by the latter
application, they feem to grow vertiginous, turning-
round and round till they fall down. . Tinfture ot
fait of tartar, ufed in the fame manner,, kills them ftill
more readily } yet not fo, but there will be apparent
marks of their firft being fick and convulfed. Inks de-
ftroy them as fall; as fpirit of vitriol, and human blood
produces the lame effect. Urine, lack, and fugar, all
deftroy them, though not fo fall 3 befides, that there is
fome diverfity in their figures and appearances, as they
receive their deaths from this poifon or that. The
point of a pin dipped in fpittle, prefently killed all the
kinds of animalcules in puddle water, as Mr Harris
fuppofes it will other animalcules of this kind.
All who are acquainted with microfcopic oblerva.-
tions, know very well, that in -water, in which the
beft glafles can difcover no particle of animated mat¬
ter, after a few grains of pepper, or a fragment of a
plant of almoft any kind, has been fome time in it, ani¬
mals full of life and motion are produced 3 and thofe
in fuch numbers, as to equal the fluid itleli in quanti¬
ty. When we fee a numerous brood of young fiihes
in a pond, we make no doubt of their having owed
their origin to the fpawn, that is, to the eggs of the
parents of the fame fpecies. What are we then to
think of thefe ? If we will confider the progrefs of na¬
ture in the infeft tribes in general, and elpecially in
fuch of them as are molt analogous to thefe, .we ih'fll
find it lefs difficult to give an account of their origin
than might have been imagined.
A Imall quantity of water taken from any ditch in
the fiimmer months, is found to be full of little, worms,
feeming in nothing fo much as in fize to differ from
the microfcopic animalcules. Nay, ivater, without
thefe, expofed in open veflels to the heat of the. wea¬
ther, will be always found to abound with multitudes
of them, vifible to the naked eye, and full of life and
motion. Thefe we know., by their future changes,
are the fly worms of the difterent fpecies of gnats, and
multitudes of other fly fpecies 3 and we. can eafily de¬
termine, that they have owed their origin only to the
eggs of the parent fly there depofited. Nay, a cloler
obiervation will at any time give ocular proof of this 3
as the flies may be feen laying their eggs there, and
the eggs may be followed through all their changes to
the fly again.- Why then are w-e to doubt but that the
air abounds with other flies and animalcules as minute
as the worms in thofe fluids 3 and that thefe laft are on¬
ly the fly worms of the former, which after a proper
time fpent in that ftate, will fuffer changes like thole
of the larger kinds, and become flies like thofe to
whofe eggs they owed their origin ? Vid. Reaumur,
Hift. InfeB. xol. iv. p.-qji.
'The differently medicated liquors made by infufions
of different plants, afford a proper matter for the
worms of different fpecies of thefe fmall flies : and there
is no reafon to doubt, but that among thefe fome. are-
viviparous, others oviparous 3 and to this may be, in a
great meafure owing the different time taken up.for
the production of thefe infefts in different fluids.
Thofe which are a proper matter for the worms of the
viviparous fly, may be fooneft: found full of them 3 as,,
probably the liquor is no fooner in a ftate to afford.
* them -
FluiA.
FLU [ 694 ]
Thuu. them proper nourifhment, than their parents place Thefe
v " ’ them there : whereas thofe produced from the eggs of
the little oviparous flies, muft, after the liquor is in a
proper Hate, and they are depoiited in it in the form
of eggs, have a proper time to be hatched, before they
can appear alive.
It is eafy to prove, that the animals we find in thefe
vegetable infufions were brought thither from elfe-
where. It is not lefs eafy to prove, that they could
not be in the matter infufed any more than in the wa¬
ter in which it is infufed.
Notwithilanding the fabulous accounts of falaman-
ders, it is now well known, that no animal, large or
fmall, can bear the force of fire for any confiderable
time ; and, by parity of reafon, we are not to believe,
that any infect, or embryo infe£t, in any Hate, can
bear the heat of boiling water for many minutes. To
proceed to inquiries on this foundation: If feveral
tubes filled with water, with a fmall quantity of Vege¬
table matter, fuch as pepper, oak bark, truffles, &c.
in which, after a time, in feels wTill be difeovered by
the microfcope ; and other like tubes be filled with
fimple water boiled, with water and pepper boiled to¬
gether, and with water with the two other ingredients
all feparately boiled in it j when all thefe liquors come
to a proper time for the obfervation of the microfcope,
all, as well thofe which have been boiled as thofe
which have not, will be found equally to abound with
infedts, and thofe of the fame kind, in infufions of the
fame kind, whether boiled or not boiled. Thofe in the
infufions which had fuftained a heat capable of deftroy-
ing animal life, muft therefore not have fubfifted either
in the water or in the matters put into it, but mufl
have been brought thither after the boiling 5 and it
feems by no way fo probably, as by means of fome
little winged inhabitants of the air depofiting their eggs
or worms in thefe fluids.
i it is natural to afk, how it comes to pafs,
that while we fee myriads of the progeny of thefe
winged jnfe&s in water, we never fee the°mfelves ? The
anfwer is equally eafy, viz. becaufe we can always
place a drop, of this water immediately before the fo¬
cus of the microfcope, and keep it there wdiile we are
at leifure to examine its contents; but that is not the
cafe with regard to the air inhabited by the parent
lues of.thefe wmrms, which is an immenfe extent in
proportion to the water proper for nourifhing thefe
worms 5 and confequently, while the latter are cluf-
tered together in heaps, the former may be difperfed
and fcattered. Nor do we want inflances of this, even
in mfe&s of a larger kind. In many of our gardens
we frequently find veffels of water filled with worms
of the gnat kind, as plentifully, in proportion to their
fize, as thofe. of other fluids are with animalcules,
xtvery cubic inch of water in thefe veflels contains
many hundreds of animals : yet we fee many cubic
inches of air in the garden not affording one of the pa¬
rent flies. r
But neither are we pofitively to declare that the pa-
.ren.t,,'I1es °* animalcules are in all ftates wholly
invifible to us j if.not fingly to be feen, there are fome
rong reafons to imagine that they may in great cluf-
ters. Ev^ry one has feen in a clear day, when look-
ing fledfaflly at the Iky, that the air is in many places
- 1 ur°en by motions and convolutions in certain fpots.
FLU
cannot be the effe&s of imagination, or of
fruits in our eyes, becaufe they appear the fame to all;
and if we confider what would be the cafe to an eye
formed in fuch a manner as to fee nothing fmaller than
an ox, on viewing the air on a marfh fully peopled
wdth gnats, we muft be fenfible that the clouds of
thefe inlefts, though to us diftinftly enough vifible,
would appear to fuch an eye merely as the moving
parcels of air in the former inftance do to us : and
furely it is thence no rafh conclufion to infer, that the
cafe may be the fame, and that myriads of flying in-
fefts, too fmall to be fingly the obiefts of our view,
yet are to us what the clouds of gnats would be in the
former cafe.
Nervous Fluid. See Anatomy Index.
Ela/iic Fluids. See Chemistry Index.
FLUIDITY, is by Sir Ifaac Newton defined to
be, that property of bodies by which they yield to any
force impreffed, and which have their parts very eafily
moved among one another.
To this definition fome have added, that the parts
of a fluid are in a continual motion. This opinion is
fupported by the folution of falls, and the formation of
tinftures. If a fmall bit of faffron is throwm into a
phial full of water, a yellow tinflure will foon be com¬
municated to the wrater to a confiderable height,
though the phial is allowed to remain at reft j wdffch
indicates a motion in thofe parts of the fluid which
touch the faffron, by which its colouring matter is car¬
ried up.
With regard to water, this can fcarce be denied $
the conftant exhalations from its furface (how, that
there muft be a perpetual motion in its parts from the
afeent of the fteam through it. In mercury, where in- '
fenfible evaporation does not take place, it might be
doubted ; and accordingly the Newtonian philofophers
in general have been of opinion, that there are fome
fubftances effentially fluid, from the fpherical figure of
their conftituent particles. The congelation of mer¬
cury, however, by an extreme degree^ of cold, de-
monftrates that fluidity is not effentially inherent in mer¬
cury more than in other bodies.
That fluids have vacuities in their fubftance is evi¬
dent, becaufe they may be made to diffolve certain bo¬
dies without fenfibly increafing their bulk. For ex¬
ample, w’ater will diffolve a certain quantity of fait}
after which it will receive a little fugar, and after that
a little alum, without increafing its firft dimenfions.
Here we can fcarce fuppofe any thing elfe than that
the faline particles were interpofed between thofe of
the fluid 5 and as, by the mixture of fait and wrater, a
confiderable degree of cold is produced, wre may thence
eafily fee. why the fluid receives thefe fubftances with¬
out any increafe of bulk. All fubftances are expand¬
ed by heat, and reduced into lefs dimenfions by cold *
therefore, if any fubftance is added to a fluid, wiiich
tends to make it cold, the expanfion by the bulk of
the fubftance added will not be fo much perceived as
if this effedi had not happened ; and if the quantity
added be fmall, the fluid will contradl as much, per¬
haps more, from the cold produced by the mixture,' than
hftwill be expanded from the bulk of the fait. ’ This
alfb may let us know with what thefe interftices be¬
tween the particles of the fluid were filled up ; namely,
the element of fire or heat. The faline particles, up¬
on
Fluid,
Fluidity
FLU [ 695 ] FLU
Fluidity, on their folution in the fluid, have occupied thefe fpaces j
Fluke. an(j now the liquor being deprived of a quantity of this
■—■v ' element equal in bulk to the fait added, feels fenflbly
colder.
As, therefore, there is fcarce any body to be found,
but what may become folid by a fuflicient degree of
cold, and none but what a certain degree of heat will
render fluid ; the opinion naturally arifes, that fire is
the caufe of fluidity in all bodies, and that this ele¬
ment is the only eflentially fluid fubftance in nature.
Hence we may conclude, that thofe fubftances which
we call fluids are not eflentially fo, but only alfurne that
appearance in confequence of an intirnate union with
the element of fire j juft as gums aflume a fluid appear¬
ance on being diitolved in fpirit of wine, or falts in
tvater.
Upon thefe principles Dr Black mentions fluidity
as an effeft of heat. The different degrees of heat
which are required to bring different bodies into a
ftate of fluidity, he fuppofes to depend on fome par¬
ticulars in the mixture and compofition of the bodies
themfelves : which becomes extremely probable, from
confidering that we change the natural ftate of bodies
in this refpedf, by certain mixtures ; thus, if two
metals are compounded, the mixture is ufually more fu-
fible than either of them feparately. See Chemistry
Index.
It is certain, however, that water becomes warmer
by being converted into ice ; which may feem con¬
tradictory to this opinion. To this, however, the doc¬
tor replies, that fluidity does not confift in the degree
of feniible heat contained in bodies, which will affect
the hand or a thermometer 5 but in a certain quantity
which remains in a latent ftate. This opinion he
fupports from the great length of time required to melt
ice 5 and to afeertain the degree of heat requifite to
keep water in a fluid ftate, he put five ounces of water
into a Florence flafk, and converted it into ice by
means of a freezing mixture put round the flaik. Into
another flafk of the fame kind he put an equal quan¬
tity of wTater cooled down nearly to the freezing point,
by mixing it with fnow, and then pouring it off. In
this he placed a very delicate thermometer j and found
that it acquired heat from the air of the room in
w7hich it wras placed : feven degrees of heat veere gain¬
ed the firft half hour. The ice being expofed to the
fame degree of heat, namely, the air of a large room
without fire, it cannot be doubted that it received heat
• from the air as faft as the water which was not fro¬
zen ; but, to prevent all poflibility of deception, he put
his hand under the flafk containing the ice, and found
a ftream of cold air very fenfibly defeending from it,
even at a confiderable diftance from the flafk ; which
undeniably proved, that the ice was all that time ab-
forbing heat from the air. Neverthelefs, it was not
till 1 1 hours that the ice was half melted, though in
that time it had abforbed fo much heat as ought to
have railed the thermometer to 140° 5 and even after
it was melted, the temperature of the water was found
fcarce above the freezing point: fo that, as the heat
which entered could not be found in the melted ice,
he concluded that it remained concealed in the water,
as an effential ingredient of its compofition.
FLUKE, or Flounder. See Pleuronectes, Ich¬
thyology Index.
Fluke Worm. See Fasciola, Helminthology Fluke
Index.
Fluke of an Anchor, that part of it which faftens in   1
the ground. See Anchor.
FLUMMERY, a wholefome fort of jelly made of
oatmeal.
The manner of preparing it is as follows. Put three
large handfuls of finely ground oatmeal to fteep, for
24 hours, in two quarts of fair water : then pour off
the clear water, and put two quarts of frefti water to
it \ ftrain it through a fine hair iieve, putting in two
fpoonfuls of orange flower w'ater, and a fpoonful of
fugar : boil it till it is as thick as a hafty pudding, ftir-
ring it continually while it is boiling, that it may be '
very fmooth.
FLUOR, in Flnjf.es, a fluid 5 or, more proper¬
ly, the ftate of a body that was before hard or folid,
but is now reduced by tufion or fire into a ftate of
fluidity.
Fluor Acid. See Fluoric Acid, Chemistry Index.^
Fluor Alhus, a flux incident to women, commonly
known by the name of whites. See Medicine Index.
Fluor Spar, or Blue John, called alfo fluxing fpars,
vitrefeent or glafs fpars, are minerals compofed of cal¬
careous earth united with fluoric acid. See Mineralo¬
gy Index.
FLUSHING, a handfome, ftrong, and confiderable
town of the United Provinces, in Zealand, and in the
ifland of Walcheren, with a very good harbour, and a
great foreign trade. It was put into the hands of
Queen Elizabeth for a pledge of their fidelity, and
as a fecurity for the money fhe advanced. It is
one of the three places which Charles V. advifed
Philip II. to preferve with care. E. Long. 3. 32»-
N. Lat. 51. 26.
FLUTE, an inftrument of mufie, the fimpleft of
all thofe of the wind kind. It is played on by blowing
it with the mouth •, and the tones or notes are changed
by flopping and opening the holes difpofed for that pur-
pofe along its fide.
This is a very ancient inftrument. It was at firft call¬
ed the flute a bee, from bee an old Gaulifh word figni-
fying the beak of a bird or fowl, but more efpecially of
a cock ; the term flute a bee muft therefore fignify the
beadedflute ; which appears very proper, on comparing
it with the traverfe or German flute. The word flute
is derived from fluta, the Latin for a lamprey or fmall
eel taken in the Sicilian feas, having feven holes im¬
mediately below the gills on each fide, the precife num¬
ber of thofe in the front of the flute.
By Merfennus this inftrument is called the fiflula dul-
cis, feu Anglica ; the loweft note, according to him,
for the treble flute, C fa ut, and the compafs of the
inftrument 15 notes. There is, however, a flute known
by the name of the concert flute, the loweft note of
which is F. Indeed, ever fince the introdudlion of the
flute into concerts, the loweft note of the inftrument,
of what fize foever it is, has been called F ; when in
truth its pitch is determinable only by its corre-
fpondence in refpedl of acutenefs or gravity with one
or other of the chords in the fcala maxima or great
fyftem.
Befides the true concert flute, others of a lefs fize
were foon introduced into concerts of violins \ in which
cafe the method was to write the flute part in a key
correfpondcnt
FLU [ 696 ] FLU
Flute, correfpondent to its pitch. This pra&ice was introdu-
—Y—- ced in 171 o by one Woodcock, a celebrated performer
on this inftrument, and William Babell organift of the
church of All-hallows, Bread Street, London. They
failed, however, in procuring for the flute a reception
into concerts of various inftruments 5 for which reafon,
one Thomas Stanefby, a very curious maker of flutes
and other inftruments of the like kind, about the year
-1732, adverting to the fcale of Merfennus, in which
the loweft note was C, invented what he called the new
fijjlem; in which, by making the flute of fuch a fize
as to be a fifth above concert pitch, the loweft note be¬
came Cfolfa ut. By this contrivance the neceflity of
tranfpofing the flute part was taken awray j for a flute
of this fize, adjufted tb the fyftem above mentioned, be¬
came an oftave to the violin. To further this in¬
vention of Standby’s, one Lewis Merci, an excellent
performer on the flute, publifhed, about the year 1735,
fix folos for this inftrument, three of wdrich are faid to
be accommodated to Mr Standby’s new* fyftem 5 but
the German flute was now become a favourite inftru¬
ment, and Standby’s ingenuity failed of its effe£f.—
One great objection indeed lies againft this inftrument,
which, however, equally affecls all perforated pipes ;
namely, that they are never perfectly in tune, or can¬
not be made to play all their notes with equal exadft-
Jiefs. The utmoft that the makers of them can do is
to tune them to fome one key ; as the hautboy to C,
the German flute to D, and the Englifh flute to F 5 and
to effedf this truly, is a matter of no fmall difficulty.
The Euglifh flutes made by the younger Standby came
the neareft of any to perfection *, but thofe of Breflan,
though excellent in their tone, are all too flat in the
upper oftave. For thefe reafons fome are induced to
think, that the utmoft degree of proficiency on any
of thofe inftruments is not worth the labour of attain¬
ing it.
German Fiute, is an inftrument entirely different
from the common flute. It is not, like that, put into
the mouth to be played *, but the end is ftopt with a
tompion or plug, and the lower lip is applied to a
hole about two inches and a half or three inches di-
flant from the end. This inftrument is ufually about
a foot and a half long j rather bigger at the upper end
* than the lower ; and perforated with holes, befides that
for the mouth, the loweft of which is flopped and open¬
ed by the little finger’s prefling on a brafs or fome-
times a filver key, like thofe in hautboys, balloons, &c.
Its found is exceeding fweet and agreeable $ and ferves
as a treble in a concert.
Flute, or Fluyt, is a kind of long veflel, with
flat ribs or floor timbers, round behind, and fwell-
ed in the middle ; ferving chiefly for the carrying of
provifions in fleets or fquadrons of ftiips j though it is
often ufed in merchandife. The word flute taken for
a fort of boat or veffel, is derived, according to Borel,
from the ancient flotte, a little boat. In the verbal
procefs of the miracles of St Catharine of Sweden, in
the x 2th century, we read Gnus equum fluum una cum
mercibus magni ponderis introduxitfuper in/irumentum de
lignis fabricatum, vulgar iter diRumfluta. Upon which
the Bollandiits obferve, that in fome copies it is read
flotta, an inftrument called by the Latins rat is; and
that the word flutta or flotta arofe from flatten or vlotten
V to float.”
J '
Flutes, or Flutings, in ArchiteRure, are perpen- Flux,
dicular channels or cavities cut along the ftiaft of a co-
lumn or pilafter. They are fuppofed to have been firft
introduced in imitation of the plaits of women’s robes j
and are therefore called by the Latins flriges and rugee.
The French call them cannelures, as being excavations j
and we, flutes or fluting s, as bearing fome refemblance
to the mulical inftrument fo called. They are chiefly
affefted in the Ionic order, in which they had their
firft rife ; though they are alfo ufed in all the richer
orders, as the Corinthian and Compofite j but rarely
in the Doric, and Icarce ever in the Tufcan.
FLUX, in Medicine, an extraordinary ifiue or evacu¬
ation of fome humour. Fluxes are various, and vari-
oufly denominated, according to their feats or the hu¬
mours thus voided j as a flux of the belly, uterine flux,
hepatic flux, falival flux, &c. The flux of the belly is
of four kinds, which have each their refpeftive deno¬
minations, viz. the lienieru, or fluxus lientericus ; the cce-
hac, or fluxus chylofus ; the diarrhoea ; and the dyfente-
ry, or bloody flux. See Medicine Index.
Flux, in Hydrography, a regular periodical motion
of the fea, happening twice in 24 hours; wherein the
water is raifed and driven violently againft the ftiores.
The flux or flow is one of the motions of the tide $
the other, whereby the water finks and retires, is called
the reflux or ebb. There is alfo a kind of reft or cef-
fation of about half an hour between the flux and re¬
flux ; during which time the water is at its greatejft
height, called high-water. The flux is made by the
motion of the water of the fea from the equator to¬
wards the poles ; which, in its progrefs, ftriking againft
the coafts in its way, and meeting with oppofition from
them, fwells, and where it can find paflage, as in flats,
rivers, &c. rifes up and runs into the land. This mo¬
tion follows, in fome meafure, the courfe of the moon j
as it lofes or comes later every day by about three quar¬
ters of an hour, or more precifely by 48 minutes j
and by fo much is the motion of the moon flower than
that of the fun. It is always higheft and greateft in
full moons, particularly thofe of the equinoxes. In
fome parts, as at Mount St Michael, it rifes 80 or 90
feet, though in the open fea it never rifes above a foot
or two j and in fome places, as about the Morea, there
is no flux at all. It runs up fome rivers above 120
miles. Up the river Thames it only goes 80, viz. near
to Kingfton in Surry. Above London bridge the wa¬
ter flows four hours and ebbs eight j and below the
bridge, flows five hours and ebbs leven.
Flux, in Metallurgy, is fometimes ufed fynony-
mouily with fuflon. For inftance, an ore, or other
matter, is faid to be in a liquid flux, wdien it is com¬
pletely fufed.
But the word flux is generally ufed to fignify cer¬
tain faline matters, which facilitate the fufion of ores,
and other matters which are difficultly fufible in ef-
fays and reductions of ores j fuch are alkalies, nitre,
borax, tartar, and common fait. But the word
flux is more particularly applied to mixtures of different
proportions of only nitre and tartar •, and thefe fluxes
are called by particular names, according to the pro¬
portions of thefe ingredients, as in the following ar¬
ticles.
White Flv%, is made with equal parts of nitre and
of tartar detonated together, by which they are alka¬
lized.
FLU [ 697 ] FLU
Flux. Hzed. The refiduum of this detonation is an alkali
-■V-—J compofed of the alkalies of the nitre and of the tartar,
both which are abfolutely of the fame nature. As the
proportion of nitre in this mixture is more than is fuffi-
cient to confume entirely all the inflammable matter
of the tartar, the alkali remaining after the detonation
is perfectly white, and is therefore called white flux ;
and as this alkali is made very quickly, it is alfo called
extemporaneous alkali. When a fmall quantity only of
white flux is made, as a few ounces for inftance, fome
ftitre always remains undecompofed, and a little of the
inflammable principle of the tartar, which gives a red
or even a black colour to fome part of the flux j but
this does not happen when a large quantity of white
flux is made j becaufe then the heat is much greater.
This fmall quantity of undecompofed nitre and tartar
which remains in white flux is not hurtful in moft: of
the metallic fufions in which this flux is employed : but
if the flux be required perfectly pure, it might eafily
be difengaged from thofe extraneous matters by a long
and ftrong calcination, without fuflon.
Crude Flux. By crude flux is meant the mixture of
nitre and tartar in any proportions, without detonation.
Thus the mixture of equal parts of the two falts ufed
in the preparation of the white flux, or the mixture of
FLUX
one part of nitre and two parts of tartar for the pre- Flux,
paration of the black flux, are each of them a crude *——v*—
flux before detonation. It has alfo been called white
flux, from its colour ; but this might occafion it to
be confounded with the white flux above defcribed. The
name, therefore, of crude flux is more convenient.
Crude flux is detonated and alkalized during the
reductions and fufions in which it is employed ; and is
then changed into white or black flux, according to
the proportions of which it is compofed. This de¬
tonation produces good effedts in thefe fufions and re¬
ductions, if the fwelling and extravafation of the de¬
tonating matters be guarded againit. Accordingly,
crude flux may be employed fuccefsfully in many ope¬
rations •, as, for initance, in the ordinary operation for
procuring the regulus of antimony.
Black Flux. Black flux is produced from the mix¬
ture of two parts of tartar and one part of nitre deto¬
nated together. As the quantity of nitre wdiich enters
into the compolition of this flux is not fufficient to con-
fume all the inflammable matters of the tartar, the al¬
kali which remains after the detonation contains much
black matter, of the nature of coaJ, and is therefore
called black flux.
IONS.
Introduc¬
tion.
INTRODUCTION.
nPHE branch of mathematical analyfis which is called
in this country the Method of Fluxions, but on the
continent the Differential and Integral Calculi, was in¬
vented near the end of the 17th century ; and Sir Ifaac
Newton, and Mr Leibnitx, two of the greateft philofo-
phers of that age, have both claimed the difcovery.
It will appear very poflible that two fuch men ftiould
both fall upon this method of calculation nearly about
the fame time, if it be confidered, that from the begin¬
ning of the 17th century its principles were gradually
coming into view, in confequence of the united labours
and difcoveries of a number of mathematicians, fuch as
Napier, Cavallerius, Roberval, Fermat, Barrow, Wallis,
and others. And confidering the number of men of
the firft abilities engaged at that time in the ftudy of
mathematics, we may reafonably fuppofe, that the flux-
ional, or differential calculus would very foon have
been found according to the ordinary progrefs of human
knowledge, even although a Newton, or a Leibnitz-, had
not by the force of fuperior genus anticipated perhaps
bv a few years that event. The firfl: intimation that
was given of the difcovery of the calculus was in the
year 1669, when, through the intervention of Dr Bar-
row, a correfpondence was begun between Sir Ifaac
Newton (then Mr Newton)-, and Mr Collins, one of the
fecretaries to the Royal Society. Dr Barrow commu¬
nicated to the latter a paper by Newton, which had for
its title, De analyf per cequationes numero terminorum
inf nit as. In this paper, befides ihewing how’ to refolve
equations by approximation, Newton teaches how to
fquare curves, not only wdien the expreflion for the or¬
dinate in terms of the abfciffa is a rational quantity,
Vol. VIII. Part II.
but alfo when it involves radical quantities, by firfl: re- Introdue-
folving thefe into an infinite feries of rational terms by tion.
means of the binomial theorem, a thing which had ' v
never before been done. Newton in this paper gives
fome rather obfcure indications of the nature of his cal¬
culus, which however ferve to Ihew, beyond all doubt,
that he was then in poffeflion of it; and indeed there
is good reafon to believe that he knew it as early as
the year 1665, or even fooner.
Thefe analytical difcoveries of Newton wTere immedi¬
ately circulated arpong mathematicians both in this
country and abroad, by Dr Barrow, and by Collins
and Oldenburg, the twro fecretaries to the Royal So¬
ciety.
About the end of the year 1672, Newton communi¬
cated to Collins, by letter, a method of drawing tan¬
gents to curve lines, illuftrated by an example, from
which it again plainly appears, that he now poffeffed his
method of fluxions.
In the courfe of the following year, Leibnitz came
to London, and communicated to feveral members of the
Royal Society, fome refearches relating to the theory of
differences. It was however fliewn to him, that this
fubjedl had been previoufly treated by Mouton, an aftro-
nomer of Lyons j upon this Leibnitz, directed his atten¬
tion to the docfrine of feries, wdiich was now confider-
ably advanced, in confequence of the difcoveries of the
Englilh mathematicians.
The firfl: direct communication that paffed between
Newton and Leibnitz, was by a letter, which the former
addreffed to Oldenburg, about the middle of the year
1676. In the beginning of this letter, wdfich was in¬
tended to be fhewn to Leibnitz, Newton fpeaks of him
with much refpeft. The letter itfelf chiefly refers te
4 T the
698 FLUX
Introduc- the theory of infinite feries. In a fecond letter, written
, tI"n‘ , alfo with a view to its being communicated to Leibnitz*^
Newton, after bellowing deferved commendation on him,
proceeds to explain the Heps by which he was led to the
difcovery of the binomial theorem. He afterwards,
among other things, delivers feveral theorems which
have the method of fluxions for their balls j but he does
not give their demonllrations, and only obferves, that
they depend on the folution of a general problem,
the enunciation of which he conceals under an ana¬
gram of tranfpofed letters, but the meaning of it is
this : Nn equation being given containing any number of'
fowing quantities, to find their fluxions ; and the contra¬
ry. This letter affords ^mother proof that Newton was
now in full polfeflion of his calculus.
In the end of June 1677, Leibnitz, fent to Oldenburg,
for the purpofe of being communicated to Newton, a
letter containing the firlt effays of his Differential
Calculus. The death of Oldenburg, which happened
foon after, put an. end to the correspondence, and in
the year 1684, Leibnitz, publifhed his method, in the
Leipfic Acts for the month of Odlober 1684. The title
of the memoir which contained it was, Nova methodus
pro maximis et minimis, itemque tangentibus, quce nec
fradlas, nec irrationales quantitates moratur, et fingulare
Pro Hits calculi genus. Thus, in whatever way Leibnitz
came by his calculus, whether he difcovered it folely
by the force of his own genius, or founded it on the
method of fluxions, previoufly invented by Newton, both
of which hypothefes are poffible, his method was cer¬
tainly publilhed before Newton's, which, except what
tranfpired in confequence of the circulation of his
letters and manufcripts, became only known to the
world in general for the firll time, by the publication
of the Principia in the end of the year 1686.
It feems at firll to have been allowed, that Leibnitz
had invented his calculus, without having any previous
knowledge of what had been done by Newton ; for in
the firft edition of the Principia, Newton fays, “ In the
courfe of a correfpondence which ten years ago I carried
on with the very learned geometrician Mr Leibnitz,
having intimated to him that I pofieffed a method of
determining maxima and minima, of drawing tan¬
gents, and refolving fuch problems, not only when the
equations were rational, but alfo when they were irra¬
tional j and having concealed this method, by tranfpo-
fing the letters of the following fentence—An equa¬
tion being given, containing any number of flowing
quantities, to find their fluxions ; and the contrary ; this
celebrated man anfwered that he had found a fimilar
method, which he communicated to me, and which dif¬
fers from mine, only in the enunciation, and in the no¬
tation.” To this, in the edition of 1714 is added,
u and in the manner of conceiving the quantities to be
* Principia, generated. ” *
There is reafon to fuppofe that Leibnitz might have
continued to enjoy undifturbed the honour of being
confidered as one of the inventors of the fluxional, or
differential calculus, if he had not manifefted a difpofi-
tion to attribute the invention too exclufively to him-
felf. This called forth fome remarks refpebling the
priority of Newton's claim to the difcovery. In parti¬
cular M. Facio afferted, in a treatife on the Line of
fwiftefi defcent, publifhed in 1699, “ that he was obli¬
ged to own Newton as the firfl inventor of the diffe-
lib. ii, lem.
fchol.
IONS.
rential calculus, and the firfl by many years; and that
he left the world to judge whether Leibnitz, the fecond
inventor had taken any thing from him.”
On the other hand, when Newton's treatife on the
quadrature of curves, and on the enumeration of lines
of the third order was publiflied, which was in 1704,
the Leipfic journalifls infinuated, in a very illiberal ac¬
count which they gave of the work, that Leibnitz was
the firfl inventor, and that Newton had taken his method
from Leibnitz's, fubftituting fluxions for differences.
In confequence of this attack on Newton, Dr John
Keill afferted, in the Philofophical Tranfactions for
1708, that Newton was beyond a doubt the firfl: invent¬
or of the arithmetic of fluxions, and that the fame
arithmetic, having its name and notation changed, was
afterwards publifhed by Mr Leibnitz in the Leipfic
A bis. In anfwer to this, Leibnitz replied, in a letter
to Hans Sloane, fecretary to the Royal Society, that no
one knew better than Newton himfelf, that the charge
againfl him implied in Keill's affertion was falfe 5 and
he required Keill to retraft what he had faid. To this
requefl however Keill would by no means accede j but
on the contrary, he wrote a long letter to the fecretary
of the Royal Society, in which he endeavoured to prove,
not only that Newton had preceded Leibnitz in the in¬
vention, but that he had given to the latter fuch indi¬
cations of the nature of his calculus, as made it eafy for
him to fall upon the fame. This letter was lent to
Leibnitz, who replied, that Keill, although learned, was
too young a man to be fit to judge of what had paffed
between him and Newton, and he requefled the Royal
Society to put a flop to Keill's clamours.
The Royal Society being thus appealed to as a judge,
appointed a committee to examine all the old letters,
papers, and documents, which had palled among the
feveral mathematicians, relating to the queflion. The
judgment of the committee was to the following ef¬
fect. “ That Mr Leibnitz was in London in 1673,
and went thence to Paris, where he kept a correfpond¬
ence with Mr Collins, by meams of Mr Oldenburg, till
about September 1676, and then returned by London
and Amflerdam, to Hanover $ and that Mr Collins was
very free in communicating to able mathematicians
what he had received from Newton. That it did not
appear, that Mr Leibnitz knew any thing of the differ¬
ential calculus before his letter of the 21ft of June 1677,
which was a year after a copy of Newton's letter of the
loth of December 1672 had been fent to Paris, to be
communicated to him, and above four years after Mr
Collins began to communicate that letter to his corre-
fpondents j in which letter, the method of fluxions was
fufficiently defcribed to any intelligent perfon. That
Newton was in poffeflion of his calculus before the year
1669, and that thofe who had reputed Leibnitz the firft
inventor, knew little or nothing of his correfpondence
with Mr Collins, and Mr Oldenburg, long before, nor of
Newton's having that method above 15 years before
Mr Leibnitz began to publifh it in the Leipfic A£ls.
That for thefe reafons, they reckoned Newton the firft
inventor, and were of opinion, that Mr Keill in affert-
ing the fame had been in no ways injurious to Mr
Leibnitz."
It is deferving of remark, that the committee deliver¬
ed no opinion upon the advantage which Leibnitz was
aecufed of having taken of the bints furniihed to him,
in
Introduc¬
tion.
   >
fluxions.
Introduc- Jin the courfe of his correfpoudence with Newton ; they
tion. ieft decifxon of this point to the world in general •,
1 * and to enable every one to judge for himfelf, the Royal
Society ordered the opinion of the committee to be
printed, together with all the documents upon which
ft was founded. Thefe appeared in 1712 under the
title of, Commercium Epiftolicum de Analyji promota*
This work was carefully circulated over Europe, to vin¬
dicate the title of the Englifh nation to the difeovery.
The Commercium Epijlolicum having appeared, Leib¬
nitz, expreffed great diffatisfa&ion, and threatened ^ to
reply in fuch a manner as to confound his adverfaries.
There feems no reafon however to fuppofe, that any
thing he could have faid, would have affefted Newton's
claim to the honour of being the firft inventor } for on this
point there cannot be any doubt. With refpe£f, however,
to the other queftion, whether Leibnitz took his calcu¬
lus from Newton, or found it himfelf, it is impoffible
to decide with fuch certainty. Mr Montucla, in his
* Vol. ii. p. Hiftory of Mathematics, ♦ fays, “ There are only three
381. places of the Commercium Epijlolicum, which treat of
the principles of fluxions in fo clear a way, as to prove
that Newton had found it before Leibnitz, but too^ ob-
fcurely, it feems, to take from the latter the merit of
the difoovery. One of thefe is in a letter from Newton
to Oldenburg, who had fignified to him, that Slujius and
Gregory had each found a very Ample method of drawr-
ing tangents. Newton replied, that he conjectured what
the nature of that method wras j and he gave an example
of it, which Ihews it to be in effe& the fame thing as
thofe geometricians had found. He adds, that it is on¬
ly a particular cafe, or rather a corollary to a method
much more general, which, without a laborious calcu¬
lation, applies to the finding of tangents to all forts of
curves, geometrical or mechanical, and tnat without
being obliged to free the equation from radicals. He
repeats the fame thing without explaining himfelf far¬
ther, in another letter, and he conceals the principle of
the method under tranfpofed letters. T he only place
where Newton has allowed any thing of his method to
tranfpire, is in his Analyfis per ceyuationes numero ter¬
minus injinitas. He here difclofes, in a very concife
and obfcure manner, his principle of fluxions, but there
is no certainty of Leibnitz's having feen this eflay.. His
opponents have never afferted that it was communicated
to him by letter, and they have gone no farther than to fuf-
peft, that he had obtained a knowledge of it in the inter¬
view wThich he had with Collins, upon his fecond journey
to London. Indeed, this fufpicion is not entirely deftitute
of probability, for Leibnitz admitted, that in this inter¬
view, he faw a part of the Epijlolary Correfpondence of Col¬
lins. However I think it would be rafli to pronounce upon
this circumftance. If Leibnitz had confined himfelf to
a few- effays of his new calculus, there might have been
fome foundation for that fufpicion •, but the numerous
pieces he inferted in the Leipfic Acls, prove the calcu¬
lus to have received fuch improvements from him, that
probably he owed the invention of it to his genius, and
to the efforts he made to difcover a method, which put
Newton in poffeflion of fo many beautiful truths. 1 his
is fo much the more likely, as, from the method of tan¬
gents difcovered by Dr Barrow, the tranfition to the
differential calculus was eafy, nor was the ftep too great
for fuch a genius as that writh which Leibnitz appears
to have been endowed.” Such is the opinion of Mon-
699
tucla, who being a foreigner, cannot be fuppofed have Introduc-
been too partial towards Newton, an Englifhman. The t^n‘ .
Eritilh mathematicians have hitherto, with few excep¬
tions, entertained an opinion ftill more decidedly in fa¬
vour of the claims of their celebrated countryman.
It has been faid that Newton took no fliare in the con-
troverly } this however leems not to have been exa£lly
the cafe, for befides fupprefling in the third edition of
his Principia (printed in 1726) the paffage we have
already quoted, which feems to admit that Leibnitz in¬
vented his calculus for himlelf, he is known to have
written the notes which accompany the edition of the
Commercium Epijlolicum, printed in 1722. Leibnitz
had alfo begun to prepare a Commercium Epijlolicum,
but he died before it was completed.
Befides the difputes that have happened refpe&ing
the inventor of the method of fluxions, the accuracy ot
the method itfelf has been the fubjeft of controverfy,
both in Britain and on the continent, ihe differential
calculus w-as attacked abroad by Nieuwentiit, a writer
of little or no reputation as a mathematician, and by
Rolle, who was an expert algebraift, and an indefatiga¬
ble calculator, but ralh, and too confident of the juffneis
of his owTn opinions, and jealous of the inventions of
others. To the firit of thefe writers Leibnitz himfelf
replied, and afterwards Bernoulli and Herman ; the at¬
tack from Rolle was fuccefsfully repelled by Varignon,
who was as zealous and intelligent, as his adverfary
was warm and impetuous.
The very concife manner in which the great inventor of
the method of fluxions thought proper to explain its prin¬
ciples, gave occafion to the celebrated Dr Berkley bithop
of Cloyne to call in queftion, not only the logical accuracy
of the reafoning employed to eftablifti the theory of flux¬
ions, but alfo the faith of mathematicians in general, in re¬
gard to the truths of religion. The biftiop commenced
the controverfy firft in a fmall work entitled L he Mi*
nute Philojopber j but his principal attack made its ap¬
pearance in 1734, under the title of “ The Analyfl, or
A Difcourfe addre(Jed to an Injidel Mathematician"
(underftood to be Dr Halley) “ wherein it is examined
whether the objetl, principles, and inferences op ihe mo¬
dern Analyfis are more difinftly conceived than religious
myfleries and points of Jaith.'n One of the beft anfwers
which was made to this work came from the pen or
Benjamin Robins, and is entitled, “ A difcourfe concern¬
ing the nature and certainty of Sir Ifaac Newton's methods
of fluxions, and of prime and ultimate ratios." Other
mathematicians likewife attempted to defend Newton,
and the method of fluxions, againft the very cogent and
well-direfted arguments of the bifliop but the moft la*
tisfaftory way o. removing all objections to the method,
was to abandon thofe obicure and inaccurate modes of
expreflion, of which Berkley had, not without fome rea¬
fon, complained, and to fubftitute in their place, others
more intelligible, and more confonant to the common me¬
thods of mathematical reafoning. This was accordingly
done by the celebrated Maclaunn, who, in the year 1742,
publifhed his Treatife of Fluxions,which, although
in fome refpe&s rather diffufe, placed the principles of
the method beyond controverfy, by eftabliftiing theta
on the firm bafis of geometrical demonftration.
It would extend this introduction to too great a
length were we to enter into a detailed account of. the
various improvements which the calculus has received
4 T 2 fr0H1
/
JOO - F L U X
Direct from its firft invention to tlie prefent time. We fha'il
, Method- joft briefly obferve, that among thofe who contributed
the firft and the moft effe&ually to its improvement, we
may reckon Newton and Leibnit% themielves, the two
illuftrious rivals for the honour of its difeovery j thefe
were followed by the two brothers James and John
Bernoulli, by the Marquis de DHopital, and many
other foreign mathematicians; and in this country wre
may reckon Craig, Cheyne, Cotes, Taylor, and De
Moivre, as among the earlieft of its improvers. It is to
Cotes in particular that we are indebted for the difeovery
of the method of finding the fluents of certain rational
fraClions, a difeovery which was extended by De Moivre,
lb as to form one of the moft beautiful and complete
branches of the theory of fluxions.
Befides innumerable memoirs on particular branches
of tne fluxional calculus, which are to be found in aca¬
demical collections, many diftinCt treatifes have been
written on the fubjeCt. Some of the moft valuable of
thefe are as follow. The Method of Fluxions and In¬
finite Series, by Sir Ifaac Newton. This work was
written in Latin, but was not publifhed till the year
J7365 when it v'as tranflated into Englilh, and given to
the world, along with a comment, by Mr Colfion. Har¬
monic Menfurarum, by Coles, a moft valuable and ori¬
ginal work, pubiilhed in 1716. M Treatife on Fluxions,
in two books, by Mauclaunn, publiflied in 1742. Many
parts of the writings of the celebrated Filler have a re¬
ference to the theory of fluxions, or the differential and
integral calculi. He has, however, three works in par¬
ticular that relate to that fubjeCt \ tire firft is his Intro-
duclio in Analysin Infinitorum, the fecond his hfiitutiones
Calculi Differentialis, and the third his Infiitutiones Cal¬
culi Integralis.
There is a work on this fubjeCt which deferves to be
particularly mentioned, both on account of its excellence,
and the Angular circumftance of its being compofed by
a lady. Its title is, Analytical Infiitutions, in four books,
originally written in Italian, by Donna Maria Gaetana
Agnefi. ft his lady was Profeffor of Mathematics and
I nrlofophy in the Univerfity of Bologna j her work was
IONS. Part I.
©riginally pubiilhed in 1748, and has been flyled by Dircdl
her countryman Frifi, Opus nitidifjimum, ingeniojijjimum, Method.
et certe maximum quod a dime ex jiemime alicujus c alamo ~ ''r~ *
prodierit. A part of this work has been pubiilhed in
the French language by Boffut. An Englilh tranfla-
tion was prepared for the prefs many years ago by the
late Profejfor Coif on; it remained, however, unpublilhed,
and might ftill have continued fo, but for the liberality
of Baron Maferes, who, after fatisfying fome pecuniary
claims upon the manufeript, caufed it, in 1801, to be
pubiilhed (we believe at his own expence), in two vo¬
lumes quarto. The Doclrine and Application of Fluxions,
by Thomas Simpfon, is a work defervedly in high efti-
mation. The DoBrine of Fluxions, by Emerfon, is alfo
very generally read by the Britilh mathematicians.
We are fbrry, however, to obferve, that there is no work
in the Englilh language that exhibits a complete view of
the theory of fluxions, with all the improvements that
have been made upon it to the prefent time. We
cannot at prefent acquire any tolerable acquaintance
with the fubjeft, without confulting the writings of the
foreign mathematicians. There are feveral excellent
works in the French language •, we may mention in
particular a Traite de Calcul Different id et de Calcul
Integral, by Coufin, in 2 vols. qto. 5 another by Boffut,
in 2 vols. 8vo,; and another by La Croix, in 3 vols.
qto. This laft deferves particular notice, as the author
intended it to comprehend the fubftance of the various
valuable treatifes by Euler, as well as of the moft im¬
portant academical memoirs that relate to this fubject.
The author has alio pubiilhed an abridgment of his
work, in one volume octavo. Principiorum Calculi
Differentials et Integralis, by U Hut Her,. pubiilhed
in 1795, contains a very clear expofition of the prin¬
ciples of the calculus. The writings of our country¬
men Landen and Waring, and of thefe foreign mathe¬
maticians La Grange, Le Gendre, La Place, and many
others, abound with improvements in the calculus.
Having given this Iketch of the hiftory of this very
important branch of mathematical fcience, we proceed
to explain its principles.
PART I. THE DIRECT METHOD OF FLUXIONS.
Sect. I. Principles and Definitions.
2. In the application of algebra to the theory of
curve lines, ws find that fome of the quantities which
are the fubjeft of conlideration, may be conceived as
having always the fame magnitude, as the parameter of
a parabola, and the axes of an ellipfe or hyperbola}
v/hile others again are indefinite in refpebl of magni¬
tude, and may have any number of particular values,
mch are the co-ordinates at any point in a curve line.
This difference in the nature of the quantities which
are compared together, has equally place in various
other theories, both in pure and mixed mathematics,
and it naturally fuggefts the divifion of all quantities
whatever into two kinds, namely, fuch as are conftant,
and fuch as are variable..
2, A confiant quantity is that which retains always
the fame magnitude, however other quantities with
which it is connected may be fuppofed to change; and
a variable quantity is that which is indefinite in relpeft
of magnitude, or which may borfuppofed' to change its
value. Thus, in the arithmetic of fines, the radius is a
conftant quantity, while the co-fine, fine, tangent, &.c,
of an arch, alfo the arch itfelf, are variable quantities j
and in the conic fedftions the axes and the parameters
of the axes are conftant quantities, and any abfeiffa and
its correfponding ordinate are variable quantities.
Conftant quantities are ufually denoted by the firft
letters of the alphabet a, b, c, &c. and variable quanti¬
ties by the laft letters 2, y, x, &c.
3. Any expreflion of calculation, containing a va¬
riable quantity, along wifh other conftant quantities, is
called a FunBion of that variable quantity. Thus, fup-
pofing .v to be variable, and the other quantities conftant,
any
part T.
Direcfl „
L Metnod. any one 0£ exprefiions ax,
F L
7 T‘
ci —|— b x
U X I O N S.
a’Jog.x,
n 7 $
C X —1~ (1 x
cor. X, Rn. *, &c. is a funaion of * ; and in any fuch
equation as y=a x+b x+bf +cx\ the quant.ty y .s
called a futiaion of *. Even although the variable
quantities * and y, Ihould not be feparated as in the aft
example, but fhould be related te each other as in the-
following
ax'y+bxy'+y'—o,
as fetting afide the confideration of the conftant quan¬
tities, the value of y depends on that of * and on the
contrary the value of depends upon that oi y, the
quantity y is faid to be a funaion of and on the Other
hand x is faid to be a funftion of y.
4. If a variable quantity be fuppofed to change its
value, then a correfpondirig change will take place m
the value of any fuaftion of that quantity. Let us
examine the nature of this change in the magnitude of
a fun&ion. , . •11
Firft, let us fuppofe that, x denoting any variable
quantity, the function to be confidered is any integer
power of that quantity, as or x’, or x4, &c; *, then,
x being fuppofed to be increafed by an indefinite quan-
tity and thus to become *+*, the funa.on will
change its value ; if it be v> it will become (*+/<) , or
xi-\-2 x h+h1 j
and if it be x' it will become («+^03 or
3 * h1 -f/13 j
and if it be it will become (x-J-^)4, or
x* /iI+4.'v /i3+^4 j
and fo on, for other integer powers. .
If we compare the new value of the fumflion in each
of thefe cafes with its former value, it will immediately
appear, that the new value may be refolved into two
parts, one of which is the original value of the funaion,
and, therefore, the other is the increment which the
funaion has received, in confequence of the change m
the value of the variable quantity x. Ihns^the funaion
being x*, we have found its new' value to be x +2x h + ,
of which expreffion, the firft term x’ is the original value
of the funaion •, therefore the other part of the expreffion
viz. 2 xh4-h* is its increment. In like manner the ex-
preflion x3-h3 x1 h+ 3 x ^ -f A3, which is the new va ue
of the funaion x3, may be refolved mto x^theoriginal
value of the funaion, and 3 x /i + 3 xh -f-//3 its incre¬
ment •, and x4 + 4^^ + 6xX/f+V// ♦ nZ
value of the funaion x4, may be refolved mto x , the
funaion itfelf, and 4.x3^4-6x^ + 4 ^ incre-
ment.
c. Having feen that, by conceiving the variable
quantity x to receive the. indefinite increment /q the
funaions x% x3, x4 receive the increments
2 x
3 xz /^-{-3 x /zl -}-/i3,
^x* h+ 6 x2h2 xh} 4- h\
reipeaively, we next obferve that each increment is ex-
preffed by a feries, the firft term of which is the firit
power of the indefinite quantity h multiplied by fome
funaion of the variable quantity x as a co-efficient.
The fecond term of the feries confifts 01 the second
power of /?, multiplied alfo by a funaion of x as a co¬
efficient j and, in like manner, the third and following
terms are compofed of the third and higher powers of ,0
(the exponents forming the arithmetical feries I, 2, 3,
4, &c.j each multiplied by a funaion of x, as a coeffi¬
cient j and it appears, that the particular form of the
funaion which conftitutes the coefficient of any affigned
term of the feries depends entirely upon the particular
form of the original funaion. I bus, when the original
funaion is x% the funaion which is the coefficient ot
the firft term is 2 x 5 when the original funaion is x3,
the co-efficient of the firft term is 3 x1; when the ori¬
ginal funaion is x4, the coefficient of the firft term is
4 x3, and fo on. It alfo appears that the funaions of x,
which are the coefficients of the. powers of h, are com-
pofed only of the variable quantity x and given quanti¬
ties, fo that they are entirely independent of the inde¬
finite increment h.
6. Thefe obfervations may be extended to a funaion
that is any power whatever of a variable quantity, by
the application of the binomial theorem. Let x be
fuppofed to become x-f/z, then x* will become (x+/;)"•,
but by the binomial theorem, (fee AiXxEBRA, Sect,
xvii.) (x-f-/$)n when expanded into a feries, is
‘ I ‘ 1*2
„(„-!) 0-_^ ^-3 ^ +&c.-
'r 1 • 2 * 3
where it appears, that the firft term of the ieries is the.
original value of the funaion, and the following terms
are the firft, fecond, and following powers of the incre¬
ment h, each multiplied by a new funaion of x, that is
independent of the increment. Let us denote the
’ 1-2 ’ I ’ 2 ' 3
7or
Diredt
Method.
funaions n x
x 3 , &c. by />, y, r, &c. refpeaively, and it is to be
obferved that, in the prefent cafe, as well as in the cafe
of any other funaion of x we may hereafter coniider,
by the letters />, y,.r, &c. or the fame letters with ac¬
cents over them, or laftly the capital letters P, £), K,
&c. we do not mean to denote funaions of x 01 any
particular form, but funaions of x in general, that con-
fift only of x and given quantities. This being kept m
view, it appears that the variable quantity x being fup¬
pofed to change its value, and to become x+h, the
funaion x” changes its value, fo as to become
xn +ph+qh*+rh}+sh*+i &c.
a feries, the terms of which_ have the properties already
explained in the two preceding feaions..
7. Every rational and integer funaion of a variable
quantity x is neceffarily of this form
Ax“ +Bx/3 _|_Cx*+&c.
where A, B, C, &c, and *, y, are fuppofed to denote
conftant quantities. r r .
Let m examine what is the form wh.ch the funa.on
air.in-.es when the variable quantity x changes its value
70*2 FLUXIONS.
Method. t0*+^' and to avoid complicated expreflions, let us
fuppofethe funaion to confxft of thefe twoterms A^“+ f &c.
^ ^ therefore vn will become
™ . We have already found inlafi: feaion that x being
fuppofed to become x-\.h, xa will become
X ^ -f-t’&
(v+/> h+q /i*+r/ii -f&c.)”,
or, putting p/i-j-q +r h* + &c. — M,
vn will become
Parti
Diredfe
Method.
tvhere />, qy r, &c. denote funaions of x independent of
//, as explained in the lart feaion, and confequently A Jt*
will become
A# -}-A/>^-j-A ^/^-J-Ar/t3-p&c.
In like manner B will become
B ^*+3^-f&c.
P i 91 r11 &c. denoting alfo funaions of x independent
of h j theiefore, taking the fum of the two feries, it ap¬
pears that, fuppofing * to change its value, and to be¬
come x~^-/if the funaion A#** -J-B x^ becomes
Ax* -f B^ +(A/>-f-B/>') /i+(Aq+Bq>)/?
-f- ( A r-f- B r7) /x3 &c.
f°w P and/)' being funaions of x, A/>+B/>' will alfo
be a funaion of at, and may be denoted more Amply by
P, and for the fame reafon A y 4- By', A r-f- B r7, &c.
which are funaions of may be denoted by O, R, &c.*
thus the expreflion for the new value of A -f-B is
Ax* +B^-f-P/5.f £)/i*+R/,3+&c.
a feries, the form and properties of which are in all
refpeas analogous to thofe of the feries that expreffes
the new value of the funaion *" j and although we have
iuppofed the funaion to conlift of but two terms yet it
is obvious, that whatever be the number of terms, Bill
the form of the feries and its properties will be the fame-
that is, it will confift of two parts, one of which is in¬
dependent of A, and is the original value of the funaion
and the other is a ferics, the terms of which are the fuel
cefiive powers of the increment //, each multiplied by a
funamn of the variable quantity * as a co-efficient
1 his conckfion may be expreffed in fymbols concifely
thus. Let u denote any rational and integer funaion
pt a variable quantity let * be conceived to change
its magnitude, and to become x+h, and let iP denote
the new value whielp the funaion acquires in confe-
quence of the change in the value of x, then
&c.
ft ^'d A r> &c* denote funaions of x as already
and this expreffion when expanded into a feries by the
binomial theorem is
vn+av,i~-1M-{-bv*—z'M.z+cvn—iM2,+ &c.
where a, b, c, &c. exprefs numbers.
Now from the form of the feries denoted by M, it is
mamfeft that its fquare, cube, or any power of it what¬
ever, will be a feries proceeding by the powers of A, and
having for the coefficients of its terms certain combina¬
tions of the quantities pt qt r, &c. which being func¬
tions of *, any combinations of them will alfo be func-
tions of Therefore, each of the terms of the above
lenes, expreffing the developement of ex
cepting the fiift term *«, will itfelf be a feries proceed-
mg by the powers of A, and having its terms multiplied
by funaions of x, and confequently their fum will be a
ienes «f the fame nature. Let us as before denote the
functions of#, which are the coefficients of the fuccef-
five powers of A by P, £, R, &c. and we have
upon the whole
V I / 17 ,L T ) '
expreffed by a feries of this form
v”+rA+QA'+RA*+&:c.
therefore, putting the fingle letter u for the funaion
a*, or for
(A B */3+c*r-f- &c.) «
and u' for the new value which u acquires by * chang¬
ing its value to J 6
a7=a-j-P /54-(^/*+r
a feries of the fame nature as before.
9. Let us now confider a fraaional funaion of
and let us fuppofe it to be
A7 .v^-j-B7#^-\-C,x^'+ &c.
A#“-f.B#^-j-C#y-f &c.
Where A7, A, B7, B, &c. alfo a7, «, /s7, fl, &c. de-
note conflant quantities. Let ^ denote the numerator
of the fraction, and w its denominator, then the func¬
tion is
v —1
or v iv .
w *
foim* Supp0^ next tlle ^nftIon of X to be of this
(A * * 4-B * 0-f C * O'.f &c.) * ?
that is, fuppofe it to be the «th power of a polynomial
coniiitmg of any number of terms whatever. Let the’
expreffion between the parenthefis be denoted by v
then we are to confider the funaion v”. Now when x
ecomes x+A, we have already found that v becomes
now when x becomes x-\-A, v becomes
V-j-p k~f-q Ax-f-r A^-f- &c.
and w—1 becomes
w ~I -f-/ A +4A* -f r7 4. &c.
and confequently v zv~* bec®mes
(v+p/i + q/i*+ &c.)(<ur-t+p' A+q' A*-}- Sec.)
* . and
Part I.
FLUX
Diredt
Method.
and the produft of thefe two fa&ors, by aflual multi¬
plication is
■y to 1 -j-'t' ft
+ to~I/>
Now, here as before, it appears that the coefficients of
the powers of h are functions of .v, therefore, denoting
thefe fun6tions by P, R, &c. and obferving that
v to 1 is —, we have the new value of — exprefled by
to to
by the feries
&c.
or, fubftituting the fingle letter u for —, that is, for
A' -f- B' x$+C,xy'+ &cc.
A -j- B ^ -j-C xv + &c.
and putting u1 for the value that u acquires when x be¬
comes x-\-hy
a feries in all refpe&s analogous to thofe already found
for the other fun&ions of ar.
to. In the functions which we have hitherto confider-
ed, the exponents of the powers of x were conftant quan¬
tities. Let us now confider a function in which the ex¬
ponent is the variable quantity x itfelf.
Suppofe then the fun£Hon to be a*, Where a de¬
notes a given number j then, by fuppofmg x to become
x-j-A, the fun&ion will become
fl*-f £ ~aKa&.
Now it has been ffiown in the article Algebra, §
295, that if A be put to denote the quotient arifing
from the divilion of a logarithm of a by the logarithm
of 2•7I828I8••• the exponential quantity a!3 is exprefled
"by the feries
A A* A3
14.—&c.
X I‘2 ’ I•2"3
therefore, , the new value of the fun£lion is
A A * A3
&c.)
V 1 J » j-2 * 1-2-3 1
this feries, by multiplying all its terms by a* , and put¬
ting />, y, r, &c. for that part of each term which is
independent of /z, becomes
ax -A-phJrqh'+rteJr &c.
IONS.
change that takes place in the magnitude of the variable
quantity from which the fun&ion is formed, we may
conclude the truth of the following general propofition
to be fufficiently eftablilhed.
Let x denote a variable quantity, and u any fun&ion
whatever of that quantity, let x be fuppofed to receive
any increment h, and thus to become x-j-h, and let u' be
the new value which the funBion acquires by the change
in the value of x, then, the new value of u may in every
cafe be expreffed thus :
u'zzu+p h+q h*-{-r /d-^- &c.
where p, q, r, &c. denote quantities that are quite inde*
pendent of\\, and confequently can only involve the vari¬
able quantity x, and given quantities.
12. Having examined what is the general form that
any funclion of a variable quantity acquires by a change
in the value of that quantity, and found it to be a feries,
the firft term of which is always the function itfelf, it is
evident that the remaining terms will exprefs the incre¬
ment that the fun&ion receives, in confequence of the
change in the magnitude of the variable quantity from
which the fun&ion is formed. Let us now compare
the limultaneous increments of a variable quantity and
its fun&ion with each other, and that we may at firft
avoid general reafoning, and fix the mind more com¬
pletely, let us fuppofe the fun&ions to have a determi¬
nate form, as x*, x}, x*, &c.
Putting u and u' as before to denote the two fucceed-
ing values of the fun&ion, firft let it be fuppofed that
u—x2, then x being fuppofed to receive the indefinite
increment A, and thus to become and u to change
its value to u'zz^x-^-A)1, we have
u'—x*-}-2 x A-}-A*,
or, u'zzu-{-2 x A-{-A2,
and confequently
u'—u—2 x h-\-Ax.
Thus it appears, that the fimultaneous increments of
x and x* (or u) are A and 2x A + A1, refpe&ively. Let
us now compare thefe increments, not in refpe& of their
abfolute magnitudes, but in refpeft of their ratio to each
other, thus we ffiall have the increment of u to the in¬
crement of .v, as 2 x h-^-A1 to A, that is, (dividing the
two laft terms of the proportion by A~) as Zx-±A to I.
Or, infttad of employing an analogy, let us, for the
fake of brevity, and in conformity to the algebraic no¬
tation, rather exprefs each of thefe ratios by the quo¬
tient arifing from the divifion of the antecedents of the
ratio by its confequents, and put the refults equal to
each other. Then, obferving that the fymbol u’—u,
which expreflfes the difference between the fucceeding
values of the fun&ion, may be employed to denote its
increment, we have
fo that denoting the fun&ion a? by u, and its new va¬
lue by u',
u'z=.u+p h+q A2-\-r A*-\- &c.
a feries of the fame form as the others.
II. From a due confideration of what has been
{hewn relating to the change that takes place in the
magnitude of a variable fim&ion, correfponding to the
u'—u 2 x A-\-Ax  ( j
Hence it appears that the expreffion for the ratio of
the increment of the fun&ion u to the increment of the
variable quantity x is made up of two parts, one of
thefe, viz. 2 a x, is quite independent of A, the incre¬
ment of x, and the other is in the prefent cafe that incre¬
ment itfelf. In confequence of this peculiarity in the
form
7°3
Diredl
Method.
/
704 FLUX
Diredt form of tile expreffion for the ratio, it is evident that
, Method. j£ inCrement h be conceivod to be continually dimi-
v nilhed, the part of the expreflion which conlifts of h
will continually diminilh, fo that the whole expreffion,
viz. 2 x-Jf-h, may become more nearly equal to its firid
term 2 x than by any affignable difference; therefore
2x may be confidered as the limit of the ratio
that is, a quantity to which -the ratio may approach
nearer than by any aflignable difference, but to which
it cannot be confidered as becoming abfolutely equal.
Let us next fuppofe that u—x*, then x being fuppof-
ed to become we have */—(<v-f-/z)3, -\-3 x* h
+ 3 x /z1-{-//3, or
z/—#-{-3 x^h + 'S x h'1 Jf-h*,
and confequently
u—u—3 A?1/z-j~3 x h'+h',
, u'—u , . . ^
and —=3
Here it is evident, as in the former cafe, that the ex-
prefhon for the ratio —is compofed of two parts,
one of thefe, viz. the firft term 3 % is a fun&ion of x
that is independent of the increment but the other,
viz. 3 or h (sar-f/z), is the produft of two
faftors, one of which is the increment itfelf. From the
particular form of this latter part of the expreffion for
the ratio, it is plain, that h being fuppofed to be con¬
tinually diminifhed, that part will alfo diminifh, and
may become lefs than any affignable quantity. There¬
fore in this cafe, as well as in the- former, the ratio
—has a limit, and that limit is the firft term of the
general expreffion for the ratio, namely the quantity
3 **•
Suppofe, next, that u—x*, and confequently
u!— (a?-\~K)‘,—x*-f-4•*'3 ti+6 x* A1-!-4x A' -}-li\
and
=« + 4 .v3^-f6 +/z4,
rrq zv3-f-/z (6 x1-\-4x h-\-h1').
Here, as in the two former cafes, we have only to in-
fpeft the general expreffion for the ratio to dif-
h
cover, that by fuppofmg /z to be continually diminifhed,
the latter part of the expreffion, viz. h +
and which comprizes all the terms except the firft, will
become fmaller than any affignable quantity ; and con¬
fequently, that the firft term qzt3 is the limit of the
ratio.
13. It is eafy to fee that the property which we have
found .o belong to the ratio of the fimultaneous incre¬
ments of a variable quantity, and its fundion in thefe
three particular cafes, is an immediate confequence
of the form of the expreffion for the increment of the
funftion, fo that it is not peculiar to the functions x'1
x', and x\ but belongs equally to all fun&ions what¬
ever.
For we have found, § 11, that u being fuppofed to
4
IONS.
denote any function of a variable quantity x,
ample, a xn , ox a xmb xn &c, or
Part I.
as for
axm-\-bxn -{- &c.
a' xm' -\-b'xn' &c.
and zz' being put for the new value which the function
acquires when x becomes x-^k,
u—u-^p h-^-q li1-\-r &c.
wffiere />, q, r, &c. denote fundtions of x that are inde¬
pendent of //, therefore,
u—u—p hJpq h*-\-r h* &c.
and
u'—" r 7. I
—^——p-\-qh-\-rP-{- &c.
or,
^-j^xzzpJfh (q+r/i+ &c.)
Thus it appears, that whatever be the form of the
function, the ratio —~ is always expreffed by a quan¬
tity which may be refolved into two parts; one of thefe,
viz. p, is independent of the;increment b, and the other,
viz. h (q-{-r ^-J- &.c.), is the product of ^ by a feries,
the firft term of which is a funftion of x, and the re¬
maining terms alfo fundtions of * multiplied by the firft,
fecond, third, and higher powers of b. Now from the
particular form of this laft part of the general expreffion
for the ratio, it is manifeft, that b being conceived to
be continually diminiftied, the quantity b (^-j-r/z-f-
&c.) wall alfo be continually diminilhed, and may be¬
come lefs than any affignable quantity ; therefore, the
limit of the ratio is fimply that is, the fun&Ion
of x, wrhich is the coefficient of the firft or fimple power
of b in the general expreffion for the increment.
14. From what has been juft ffiewm, w'e may infer the
truth of the following general propofition relative to
the fimultaneous changes that take place in a variable
quantity and its fundfion.
Let x denote a ’variable quantity and u any funBion of
that quantity^ let x be conceived to change its value and
become x-f-h, where h denotes an arbitrary increment,
and let u' denote the nev) value that the funflion acquires,
in confequence of the change in the magnitude of x. Then,
obfer ving that h and u/—u are the fimultaneous increments
of the variable quantity and its function, ifh.be con¬
ceived to be continually diminifhed, the ratio
will
continually approach to a certain Limit, which will be dif¬
ferent for different functions, but always the fame for the
fame function, and in every cafe quite independent of the
magnitude of the increments.
The ratio wffiich is the limit of the ratio of the in¬
crements, when thefe increments are conceived to be
continually diminiftied, may be called the limiting ratio
of the increments.
The a»alytical fadt contained in the preceding
propofition affords the foundation for a mathemati¬
cal theory of great extent, and which may be divided
into
Parti. FLUX
Diredt into two (lifting branches j one having for itsobje£t the
Method. refolution of the following problem. Having given the
relation of any number of variable quantities to each
other, to determine the limiting ratios of their increments ;
and the other the converfe of that problem, namely,
Having given the limiting ratios, to determine the t ela¬
tion* of the quantities themfelves.
The theory to which we have alluded conftitutes the
Method of Fluxions, and in explaining the founda¬
tion of the method, we have endeavoured to fhow, that
it refts upon a principle purely analytical, namely the
theory of limiting ratios and this being the cafe, the
fubje& may be treated as a branch of pure mathematics,
without having occafion to introduce any ideas foreign
fo geometry.
16. Sir Ifaac Newton, however, in firlt delivering the
principles of the method, thought proper to employ con¬
siderations drawn from the theory of motion. But he
appears to have done this chiefly for the purpofe of il-
luftration, for he immediately has recourfe .to the theory
of limiting ratios, and it has been the opinion of feveral
mathematicians of great eminence (a) that the con-
fideration of motion was introduced into the method of
fluxions at firfl: without neceflity, and that fucceeding
writers on the fubjedt ought to have eftablilhed the
theory upon principles purely mathematical, independent
of the ideas of time, and velocity, both of which feem
foreign to inveftigations relating to abftract quantity.
17. That we may conform to the ufual method of
treating this fubjeft, we proceed to fhow how the
theory of motion is commonly applied to the illuftration
of the nature of variable quantities, and of the relations
that refult from their being conceived to change their
Value.
As quantities of every kind, if we abftract from their
pofltion, figure, and fuch affe&ions, and confider their
magnitude only, may be reprefented by lines, we may
confider a variable quantity „r, and u any function of that
quantity, to be reprefented by two lines AP, B£), which
have A, B, one extremity of each given, and which
vary by the points P, £), their other extremities, moving
in the dire&ions AC, BD, while the equation exprefling
the relation between x and », or their reprefentative
lines AP, B£), remains always the fame.
A 1  C
P
B 1 D
&
18. The lines AP, BQ being thus conceived to vary,
file relation that is fuppoled always to fubfift between
them, in refpeft of their magnitudes, will neceffanly
give rife to another relation, namely, that which will
conftantly fubfift between the velocities of the moving
points P and by which the lines are generated.
With a reference to this particular mode of conceiving
variable quantities to exift, the quantities themfelves
have been called flowing quantities or fluents, and the
Vol. VIII. Part II.
IONS.
7°S
meafures of the velocities with which the variable quan¬
tities increafe have been called their fluxions.
Direct
Method.
19. To Amplify the hypothefis, we may fuppofe that
the point which generates the line AP, or x, moves uni¬
formly 5 thus the meafure of its velocity, or the fluxion
of x, will be a given quantity, with which the meafure
of the velocity of the point Qj or the fluxion of u, may
be continually compared. To determine then the flux¬
ions, or rather the ratio of the fluxions of a; a variable
quantity, and u, any function of that quantity, is in ef-
feft to refolve the following problem.
Having given an equation exprejflng the relation at
every inflant between the fpaces paffed over by two points,
one of which moves with an uniform velocity. It is re¬
quired to find an expreflien for the ratio that the mea¬
fures of the velocities have at every inflant to each
other.
20. Now it is a fundamental principle in the theory
of motion, refulting indeed from the very nature of a
variable velocity, that when two velocities arexompar-
ed together, whether they be both variable, or one of
them uniform, and the other variable, the meafures of
their velocities are any quantities having to each other the
ratio that is the limit of the ratio of the fpaces deferibed
in the fame time, when tbofe fpaces are conceived to be
continually diinmijhed. And hence it follovrs that the
ratio of the fluxions of two variable quantities is no other
than the limiting ratio of their fimultaneous incre¬
ments.
That the theory of motion may be applied to the
generation of variable algebraic quantities, wre have fup-
pofed them to be reprefented by lines j this however is
not neqeffary, if the variable quantities are themfelves
geometrical magnitudes ; for like as a line is conceived
to be generated by the motion of a point, fo a furface
may be confiderated as generated by the motion of a
line, a folid by the motion of a furface, and an angle
by the rotation of one of the lines which contain it;
and the fluxions of thofe quantities at any inftant, or
pofition, will be the meafures of the velocities, or de¬
grees of fwiftnefs, according to which they increafe at
that inftant or pofition.
But in every cafe the ratio of the rates of increafe, or
fluxions of two homogeneous magnitudes, will be the
limiting ratio of their fimultaneous increments.
21. Having thus found that by conceiving variable
quantities as generated by motion, and taking their ve¬
locities, or rates of increafe, as an objeft lor the mind
to contemplate and reafon on, we are in the end led to
the confideration of the limiting ratios of their incre¬
ments, a fubje£t which is purely mathematical, and in¬
dependent of the ideas of time or velocity, we ftiall ex¬
change the definition of a fluxion given in j 18, which
involves thofe ideas, for another that refts entirely upon
the exiftence of limiting ratios.
By the fluxions then of two variable quantities hav¬
ing any afligned relation to each other, we are in the
following treatife always to be underftood to mean any
4 U indefinite
(a) Such as Lagrange, Coufln, La Croix, &c. abroad, and Landen in this country.
FLUX
indefinite quantities which have to each other the limiting
ratio of their fimultaneous increments (b).
In conformity to this definition of fluxions it is evi¬
dent that vve are to confider them, not as abfolute, but
as relative quantities, which derive their origin from the
comparifon of variable quantities with each other in re-
fpe£l of their fimultaneous variations of magnitude.
22. Sir Ifaac Newton employed different fymbols at
different times t© denote the fluxions of variable quanti¬
ties. It is now however common in Britain to denote
them by the fame letters employed to exprefs the quan¬
tities themfelves, and each having a dot over it. Thus
x denotes the fluxion of the variable quantity expref-
fed by x, and in the like manner z/, v, z, denote
the fluxions of the variable quantities u, v, 2;, refpec-
tively.
23. Suppofe now that u is any function of a variable
quantity x, and that the limiting ratio of the fimultane¬
ous increments of u and x is the ratio of / to 1, where
p denotes fome other function of x, then, from the de¬
finition juft given of fluxions, we have
— —and u~p
x
Hence it follows as a confequence of the preceding
definition, that the fluxion of zz, any function of a vari¬
able quantity v, is the produci arijmg from the multipli¬
cation of that fundlion of x which is the expreffion for
the limiting ratio of the increments by the fluxion of the
•variable quantity x itfelf
Sect. II. Invefligation of the Rules of the Dire cl
Method of Fluxions.
24. The method of fluxions natsrally refolves itfelf
into two parts, as we have already obferved, $ 15.
We proceed to explain the firft of thefe, which is called
the Direhl Method, and which treats of finding the ratios
of the fluxions of variable quantities, having given the
relations of thofe quantities to each other.
25. We (hall begin with inveftigating the ratio of the
fluxions of two variable quantities in that particular
cafe, when one of them is any power of the other.
Let us fuppofe then, that u is fuch a function of a
variable quantity *, that u—.xn, where n denotes any
number whatever, it is required to determine the ratio of
the fluxions of u and x.
If we recur to the definition which has been given of
the fluxions of variable quantities in $ 21, it will appear
that we have in effect refolved the problem juft propofed
in three particular cafes, when treating of the limiting-
ratios of ttie increments of variable quantities. For it
lias been ftiown in $ 12. that when u~x*, and x is fup-
pofed to change its value, fo as to become x-\-h, where
10 N S.
h denotes an indefinite increment, and in confequence
of this change in the magnitude of x, u alfo changes its
value, and becomes z/, then, obferving that u'—u and
h are the fimultaneous increments of u and x, the limit¬
ing ratio of —^— is 2 x. Let this expreflion for the
limiting ratio be put equal to the ratio of the fluxions of u
and x, that is to thus we have % =2 .r, and u—2xx.
x x
Hence it appears that whatever be the magnitude of
the quantity that expreffes the fluxion of x, the fluxion
of 7/ or a?*- will be expreffed by the fluxion of x multi¬
plied by 2 x.
Again, when uxx'x, and if 7/—u and h denote the
fame as before, it has been fhown, $ 12, that the limiting
• r u'—u • 1 r <• «
ratio 01 —-j— is 3 at*, therefore, § 21, —. =3 a;2, and
1 x
z/—3 A'2 x ", that is, the fluxion of x* is expreffed by the
fluxion of x multiplied by 3 at2.
And when 11—x* it has been fhown, $ 12, that the
• • • • fj/ 21
limiting ratio of —is 4 aA Therefore, § 21,
It • .
— =4 A'3 and uzz^x^ x.
x
To relolve the problem generally, or when u—Xr-,
let us fuppofe x to become x-\-h, and u to become u\
then zz'—(A-f-Zz) But this laft quantity, when ex¬
panded into a leries by the binomial theorem (Algebra,
Sect. XVII.) is
xn -\-p h-\-q /dfi-r Id 4- &c.
or 14-^-p h-^-/d (y-f-^* ^ —f- Sec.),
where p, q, r, &c. denote funftions of x, indpendent of
/z. Therefore,
u'—u—p h-^h1 (y-j-r h-\- &c.),
and U—-j-——p-\-h (^-j-r/z-f- &c.)
Therefore, fuppofing h to be continually diminifhed,
the limit of —^— is p j but, whatever be the nature of
the exponent n,p is always/z xn I, (Algebra, $267.)*
therefore, the limit of —is n x" I, and confequent-
ly - ~n x , and u~n x x.
x
26. As we fliall have frequently occafion to employ
the refult of this inveftigation, it will be proper to ex¬
prefs it in the form of a praClical rule, thus.
To find the fluxion of any power of a variable quanti¬
ty. Multiply the fluxion of the variable quantity itfelf
by the exponent of the power, and by a power of the
quantity whofe exponent is Ifs by unity than the given
exponent, and the product will be the fluxion required.
27.
(b) We are here to be tmderftood to mean the ratio of the numerical values of the increments, which may always
be compared with each other, whether the variable quantities be of the fame kind, as both lines, or both furfaces*
ccc. or of different kinds, as the one a line, and the other a flu-face.
Part I.
Direzft
Method.
Part T.
Direct
Method.
/
fluxions.
707
27. In. determining the limit of the ratio of the fimul-
taneous increments of x and x , we have referred to the
binomial theorem, but the only application we have
had occafion to make of that theorem was to determine
the numeral coefficient of the fecond term of the deve-
Let both fides of this equation be raifed to the power
having firfl fubllituted M v for A ■y*-}- &.c* v
then
vy.
Now as we have juft found that m and n being integers,
Diredt
Method.
lopement of (x+h)h, when n is fuppofed to be any
number whatever, which is an inquiry of a more Ample
nature than the general inveftigation of the theorem.
We ihall now ftiow how that coefficient may be deduced
from the firft principles of algebra. Thusthe inveftigation
of the fluxion of xn wall be rendered independent of the
general demonftration of the binomial theorem ; and we
fiiall hereafter ftiow that the theorem itfelf is eafily in-
veftigated by the diretft method of fluxions.
28. Since x-\-h is equal to it follows that
^ n — xn (1 -f-) n ,thus the development of (.* -f/O n
h\ . h
is reduced to that of (l-J—ln, or putting ——v, to
( Now if we give particular values to «, and
iuppofe it to be 1, 2, 3* or —T» —^c* or
ly 4, 4, &c. we can find the feries that exprefs the
powers of 1 whofe exponents are thofe numbers, by
the operations of multiplication, divilion, and evolution,
and in every particular cafe we fhall find, that the
powers of i-j-'y are expreffed by a feries of this form,
1 -f-A “y-f-B v' + Cv'+D v*-\- &c.
Where A, B, C, D, &c. denote numeral coefficients
which depend for their value only on n the exponent
of the power, and not on the quantity v ; and as the
form of the feries will be found to be the fame what¬
ever particular values we may give to the exponent, we
may conclude that it is the fame, whether the exponent
be pofitive or negative, whole or fractional.
29. Firft let us fuppofe that the exponent is a whole
pofitive number, then, becaufe
(i_b<y)n=:i -j-A ‘y-f-B “y*-!- &c.
if we multiply both fides of this equation by 1-f-y, and
colled together the like powers of cy it will appear
that
(i-f‘y)”+1=i-f-A|^ +B
Hence it appears that the coefficient of the fecond term
of any power of i-\-v exceeds that of the next lefs
power by unity. Now in the cafe of the firft power of
1 -f-v, the coefficient of the fecond term is obyioufly 1,
therefore, in the fecond power it is 2, in the third power
3, and univerfally, in the tfth power it is n ; fo that n
being a whole pofitive number,
(1 -j-rt v-\- &c.
30. Let us next fuppofe the exponent to be a frac¬
tion denoted by —, fo that
(i-f-tO T =i-f-A ‘y-f-B y*-f- &c.
(1 —1 _j_my-b &C*
and (1 -f- M y)fl r= 1 -f « M y -j-
Here we flop at the fecond term, that being the only
one whofe coefficient is required. Subftitute now tor
M y fits value A y -f- &c. then, flopping again at the
fecond term, we get
(1 -f- My)* — 1 -f-^Ay-f- &c.
therefore,
1 -j- ^ f -f- &c. ~ 1 -f- ^ A y -f- &c.
and making the coefficients of y in each feries equal t«
each other,
m
n A — m, and A rr —.
n
31. In the laft place let us fuppofe that the expo¬
nent is a negative quantity either whole or fractional,
fo that
m /
(i_j-y) ’r = i4-A'y-}-B'y* + &c.
or ^—^=1 +A'y-f-B'y*-f- &c.
(i + y)"
m
then, multiplying both fides by (I -f-t') n we
m
1 = ^1-f-y)~(i-f-Ary -f-B'y*-f-&.c.)
or, fubftituting 1 -f- A y-f- B y* -}-&c. for (1 -f-y)n and
aCtually multiplying the two feries,
t — 1 -}-A l -f-B “1
-f-A' f ^ -f-A A'>y*-f-&c.
+ W 3
Now that this equation may fubfift, whatever be the
value of y, it is neceffary that
A-f A'—o,
B-fA A'-f-B'zro,
&c.
and by thefe equations we may determine A', B', C,
&c. It is however only required at prefent to find the firft
of thefe, viz A', now we have A1 — — A •, but A being
the coefficient of the fecond term of the feries expreffing
m ••it
(1 -f- y)% the exponent of which is pofitive, we have al¬
ready found it to be—, therefore, A'=r .
J n n
3 2. As we have found that the coefficients of the fe¬
cond term of the developements of (l-f-y)*, (1 -f- y)r
and(i-f-y)-^are?//,^-, and — ^ refpeCtively, it appears
that whatever be the number denoted by «, the two
firft terms of the feries expreffing (l-f-y)” are, 1-f-« y,
and therefore, fubftituting for y its value —, and multi¬
plying by .v”, the two firft terms of the feries expreffing
{x -f- li)n are xn -\-nxn*~xh., agreeing with what we
4 U 2 have
J
7o8 FLUX
Direct have aflumed in § 25 as given by the binomial theo-
^ Method. rem ^c).
33. The mode of reafoning employed to determine
the ratio of the fluxions of u and x, when the former
is a function of the latter of the form a;”, will apply
equally when the fundlion has any other afligned form.
But inflead of inveftigating in this manner the fluxion
of every particular fundfion, it is better to conlider a
complex fundtion as the fum, or difference, or produdt
or quotient, &c. of other Ample fundtions, and to invef-
tigate rules for each of thefe cafes, fuppofing that the
fluxions of the Ample fundlions are previoufly known.
34. Let us Arft fuppofe that «, a fundfion of a varia¬
ble quantity a?, is equal to the fum of v and w, two
other fundtions of x. It is required to And the fluxion
of u, having given the fluxions of v and
Let x be conceived to change its value, and to be¬
come A;-f-^> then, as v and u> will alfo change their va¬
lues, § xi, the one to
v'—v-\-p h-\-q h1 -\-r h*
and the other to
w'—w -\-p' 1? -\-r' h}-\- &c.
if 2/ as ufual denote the correfponding new value of ut
we have
,  tv-Jt-ph+q Jf-lr&Lc.
U [-\-w-\-p'h-\-q' h*
u'—w=(/,+/>')^+(?+?,y/Z+Sic*
U^p-=p-\-p'+{q+q')h^.^C.
If we now conceive h to be continually diminifhed, we
fhall have the limit of —%— exprefled by /> -j- p'. But
D —— V
p is the limit of —^—, §14, and in like manner p' is
the limit of ————, therefore,
IONS.
where b, c, denote any given numbers, poAtive or
negative, then, by reafoning as above, it is evident that
s zz. a u-f-bv ~j-c in -j- &c.
Therefore, to fnd the fluxion of the fum of any number
of funBions, each multiplied by a conflant quantity.
Multiply the fluxion of each funtlion by its conflant coeffi¬
cient, and the fum of the products is the fluxion required.
36. If c denote a conftant quantity, and u v, be
fundtions of x, fuch, that uz=c-\-v) then x being fup-
pofed to become a;-]-/*, and confequently ^ to become
v',oxv-\-ph-\-qhxffi&.c. and cffiv to become c-f-'y
-\-p h-\-q h1&.c. we have
u—c-\-v,
and u'zzc-\-vJrph-\-qht-\-&.c.
and hence u'—uzzzp h-\-q //-j- &c.
or u'—uzzv'—v,
therefore,
and thefe ratios being always equal, their limits muft al¬
fo be equal 5 therefore, fubltituting for the limiting ra¬
tios thofe of the fluxions, we haveand that
x x
is to fay, the fluxion of c-\-v is v, from which it appears,
That the fluxion of any variable funBion is the very
fame as the fluxion of the fame funBion, increafed or
diminifhed by any conflant quantity. This is a remark of
great importance in the theory of fluxions, as will ap¬
pear hereafter.
37. Let us now fuppofe that u, v, w, are fundlions of
x, fuch, that u=v w, it is required to And the fluxion
of u, fuppoflng the fluxions of v and w to be given.
By fuppoflng that x, u, v and vo change their values
as ufual, we have
u zzv w
u'—{y-\-ph-\-q ^* + &c.)(ao-j-/>Vz-f-y/^*-|-&c.)
. ru—u ... cv' — 't', . r'ur — w
limit of —— =z limit of —-— -4- limit of r .
h h h
Subftitute now the ratio of the fluxions inftead of the
limiting ratios, and we have
u v vo
XXX
therefore, u — v -j-un
35. If we fuppofe r to be a fundfion of x, and u, v,
11’, &c. other fundlions of x, fuch that
s—au-\-b v-\-cw-\- &c.
and this laft exprelflon by multiplication becomes
u'—v vo-\-vp* h-X-v q’h*~\ . 0
therefore
«' — u—{yp'+wp) h-{-(vq'-\.wq) /2*-{-&c.
dividing now by h, and taking the limit of U we
have that limit expreffed by vp'-\-wp; but p' is the li-
  'll)
mit of   § 14> and in like manner p is the limit of
; therefore
the
(c) In this invefligation we have fuppofed » to be a rational number. If, however, it were irrational, ftill the
reliilt would be. the fame 5 for, correfponding to every fuch number, two rational numbers, one greater and the
other lefs than it, may be found, which ftiall differ from each other by lefs than any affignable quantity/ There¬
fore, the general properties of thefe numbers muft belong alfo to the irrational number which is their Unlit.
Part 1.
Diredt
Method.
 v ’
Part 1.
Direct
Method.
r -r • cw —w
t 1 X llinit oi —^—
tli e limit cf -—= _ _ v< v
1 I X limit of —j
FLUXIONS. 7°9
that it is required to find the fluxion of u, having given
the fluxions of v and w. ■ ^ ■
From the given equation we have v=wu, and there'
Hence, by fubftituting for the limiting ratios the ratios
of the fluxions, we have
u v w m w v • • .
— — —;—{ r and U—V w -\-w v.
xxx
Therefore, to fnd the fluxion of the produB of any
two functions, multiply the fluxion of each function by
the other fun&ion, and the fum of thefe products is the
fluxion required.
38. We have juft now feen that when
«—-u w
then u — wv v w
Let each fide of the latter equation be divided by the
correlponding fide of the former, thus we get
U V w
u~ w'>
fuppofe now that the funclion w is the product of two
other fun&ions J-, t, fo that
u~v J t,
then, becaufe w~s t, from what has been (hewn it fol¬
lows that —= - +- ; therefore, fubftituting this value
W St'
'll) * . u v 'tv • 1
of — in the equation— =r — -j , it becomes
w u v w
u •y j* t
u-~ v' ~s^~ ~t
In general, if we fuppofe that
uzzv s t r &c.
by reafoning as above it will be found that
U V . S l 1 1 r l {l-r~
— ~ — -4- — “h ~ “h &Z-C.
U t^ r \
whatever be the number of faftors.
Suppofe the number of faftors to be three, fo that
u—v s t
u v s t
and _
u v s t
then fubftituting v s t for u in this laft equation, and ta¬
king away the denominators, we find
u— s t v +v t j’-j-'y s t.
And as a fimilar refult will be found, whatever be
the number of factors, we may cenclude that The
fluxion of theproduB of any number of funBions is equal
to the fum of the produBs of the fluxion of each funBion
hy all the other functions.
v
39. Let us in the laft place fuppofe that u——’, and
fore (j 37.) v—w « + » let —be fubftituted for u
. • v w ~ .
in this equation, and it becomes v — wu +_^"> irom
wThich we eafily obtain
• w v—y w
w* ’
Hence we have the following rule for finding the
fluxion of a fraction.
Multiply the fluxion of the numerator by the denomi¬
nator, and from the produB fubtraB the fluxion of the
denominator multiplied by the numerator, and divide the
remainder by the fquare of the denominator ; the refult is
the fluxion required.
40. It will now be proper to {hew the application
of thefe general rules for determining the fluxions 01
variable functions to fome particular examples.
Example 1. Suppofe uzzia-^bV x—“• Required
the fluxion of 7/. . . _
Here a being a conftant quantity, the fluxion o
a+bfx— C- is .the fame as the fluxion of b\/x—->
§ 36, or b x^—c x 1. Now, by § 26 the fluxion of
is \ x'—1 x, which expreflion is equivalent to
*x \v, or to —-—, and in like manner the fluxion
4 » 7 2\/fc
of*"1 is—x 1 1 * or—* Z x> or there¬
fore, multiplying the fluxion of by b, and the fluxion
of x 1 by c, and taking the fum of the produdls, agree¬
ably to the rule in § 35* we
. b x c x
or
“=(p7X+u)*'
^ O 0 , «
Ex. 2. Suppofe “=*+77^--^v^-tV*
By writing the funftion thus
a  4  j
utzia-fbx 3—c x i-\-d x
the application of the fame rules employed in the lull
example gives us
.5 .  7 .
X Xv-f-4 cx T.V—2 dx
—3
u-—\bx Tx+^cxi ^x—idx
or, exchanging the fractional indices for the rac ic.i
fign, and otherwife reducing,
• —2 b x a c x Oh dx
u~
q c x
3 X V^-1
I
7'ro
Dired:
Method.
FLUX
Ex. 3. Suppofez/rr: )”.
In order to find the fluxion of this fun£lion by the
rules already laid down, it will be neceflary to confider
it firfl as a funftion of a variable quantity that is itfelf
a fundtion of x. Let us then put a-\-b x™ equal to v,
and thus the propofed equation becomes u~v 5 then, u
being confidered as a fundfion of t/, we have by $ 26.
u— nv 1 v. Again, v being confidered as a fundlion
of .v, from the equation v—a-^bx”1, we find by § 36,
and $ 26, vzzmb x™ 1 x Let this value of v be fub-
ftituted in the expreflion for «, and it becomes
• . n—1 m—I •
u—m n a v x x,
which, by fubftituting for v its value a-^-b x\ is alfo
* z. m—I/ 1 z. n—1 *
u—mnbx {a-\-bx ) x.
Ex. 4. Suppofe u—\J {az—x1).
Here we arc to proceed as in the laft example, and
I
firft put a1—x1—v, then u—x/v—v* j and therefore
Again, fince
,t S‘\ * T i—I • v V
(S 26) u—~v v—   = .
^ 2vi£ 2\/y
’0—az—a?1, by § 26, we find v=—2xx. Subftitute
this value of v in the expreflion for u, and we have
'• 2 xx
2\/ V
which, by reftoring 1/ (zz*—v1) for v, and leaving
out the number common to the numerator and denomi¬
nator, becomes
•  -—x x
U~ v/O1—tf1)*
Ex. 5. Suppofe tt— y/ (a-\-b x-\.cx*).
By proceeding in the fame manner as in lafl: example
we find
• (b-\-2cx>)x
u— —    #
V (a-\-b x-\-c x1)
Ex. 6. Suppofe uz=x -f-x1) (zz2—.v1).
Here the propoied fundlion is the produdl of thefe
three fundlions, viz x, zz2-j-.v2, and \/ (zz2—xz).
'Therefore, its fluxion will be found by proceeding ac¬
cording to the rule in § 38.
Now the fluxion of x is a;, and the fluxion of a1-\-xl
is 2 x x, and the fluxion of \/ (zz2—a?2) has been found
in lall example to be ——L___ Therefore, multi-
V (zz2—x1)
plying the fluxion of each fundlion by the produdl of the
•other two fundlions, and taking the fum of all thefe pro-
dudls, we find
IONS* Part I.
and this equation, by reducing all the terms on the Diredl
latter fide of it to a common denominator, is more fim- Method,
ply expreifed thus,
• (zz4-J-zz*a:2—4 A4) x
f(zZ2-J-A?2) ZZ 2 A?1 A?
-}-2 a:2 V/ZZ2—a?2 A?
| a;2 (zz2 -J-a;2) a?
I
1/ (zz2—a;2)
2
Ex. 7. Suppofe u
_
"zz2 -f-A;2 ‘
Here wre employ the rule given in § 39, for finding th^
fluxion of a fradtional fundlion j thus w'e find
• _ (zz2 -f-v 2 ) x— 2 x (zz -|-a;) x
u~ (0'+^ ^’
which when reduced is
• (zz2—2a x—.v2) x
(tf*-|_.V2)2
Ex. 8. Suppofe
zz=v{(*—~ + V(c2—*2)2)']
1 o fimplify this expreflion we put
yV
Thus we have
-}h V (c1 x 2 )2
u— ^/(zz—y-f-is)3 = (zz—2/
Now as the fluxion of zz—is —y -{-2; ($ 35X
we find from $ 26, that by confidenng zz—y+x as a
Angle variable quantity,
u=\(a—y+%)^
=1 {a—y+*Y (—z/+%)
=i 'Ja—y+K (—'y -j- 2;)
but, fince y——j-z=. b x 2, we have, § 26,
_ j ^ — ▼ •
y=—\ b x 2 a-—-
b x
2 X \/x 7
and fince \\cz—.r2)2 = (c2 — Ar2)f,by confider-
ing c1—a:2 as a Angle variable quantity, and obferving
that its fluxion is —2 x x, we find by $ 26, that
* 1 r 1 r \ 3--—I * — 4 A A2
2=t )I * -« *=3-v(^)
Inilead of y, a, y, a, fubflitute now their values in the
expreffion for the fluxion of zz, thus it becomes
u=lx/(a-
*/ x
( b'x
XV 7“ “
'2 Xy/X
b +V(C2—.V2)2)
4 a a;
3
Ex. 9. Suppofe u=a vm y”, where ■n, and y denote
any fundlions of a variable quantity.
Then, $ 37,
* _ ^ y" X fluxion of vm 1
W I. vm X fluxion of yn J
But
Part I.
Dire# . m «—I * t n/r
Method. But fluxion of “z; ~mv “y, $ 20,
n n—l ' ' t
and fluxion of y —ny y
tTnerefore,
. n m—I • , m n—I *
u — am y v v an v y y,
m—I «—I . * . *'v
— (iv y (yny v -\-nv y).
Ex. 10. Suppofe u rr ■ where 2; and y denote
any functions of a variable quantity. Then, becaufe
fluxion O-j-s) = ^ + «, § 34> and fluxion y3 = 3 y* y,
§ 26, we have, § 39,
^(u-f *)—3O+20y’y
u — '   ~2 »
jr
_ y(v -{- g) —3(^+2;) y
“ y*
q.i. As when u denotes that particular function of x
which is x", we have ($ 25.)
u „ »
- — n xn 1 j
x
fo in general, whatever be the form of the funflion de¬
noted by ?/, we have always
F L IT X I o N s.
:A
71 r
where q denotes a new function of X, derived from />,
the former fundtion, by the fame kind of operation as .
that by which p was deduced from //.
Suppofe now q to denote the particular function
n{n — 1) x"-"2, then,
% —n —1)(«—2) .r"—3,
q
or . = r.
where r denotes a fun£lion of x derived from y, as q
was derived from y>, or p from the original function u.
And it is evident that we may proceed in this manner
as far as we pleafe, unlefs it happen that in Ending the
feries of fundlions />, y, r, &c. we at laft arrive at a re-
fult that is a conftant quantity, and then the feries of
operations will terminate. Thus if the fumflion was
a x4, we ihould have
u~a x4,
u ,
--=4 a x^—p,
x
P a
— =4-3 a x'zzq,
=4.3.2
. =4.3.2.i.«=2
x
where p denotes a new function of Xt refulting from the
analytical procefs employed to find the fluxion of the
funftion u, and depending for its form upon the par¬
ticular form of that funftion : juft as in involution, or
any of the other operations of algebra, a refult is ob¬
tained depending upon the particular nature of the ope¬
ration, and the quantities operated upon.
Let us put p to denote the particular fun&ion n
or the expreflion for — the ratio of the fluxion of u to
x
the fluxion of x when u—xn, then, fuppofing that n—1
is not equal to o, (for in that cafe n xn 1 would be Am¬
ply /?, a given number,) we may reafon concerning the
ratio of the fluxions of the variable quantities /> and x,
*n all refpects as concerning the ratio of the fluxions of
« and x ; and accordingly, from the equation
p — n xn~1,
we get, by taking the fluxions,
n {n—1) x"
or, confidering p as denoting generally the funflion of
x that refults from the operation of finding the fluxion
of the original function «, whatever be the form of
that function, we have
Here the expreflion for is a conftant quantity, which
x
has no fluxion.
Hence it appears, that relatively to any fun£tion of a
variable quantity, there exifts a feries of limiting ratios,
deducible from that function, and from each other, by a
repetition of the operation of finding the fluxion of a
variable function.
42. In treating of the fluxion of a function, we have
hitherto regarded the fluxion of the variable quantity x,
from which the function is formed, merely as one of
the terms of a ratio, without confidering whether it
was a conftant or a variable quantity.
Now as we may aflume any hypothefis refpecting the
nature of the fluxion of x, that is not inconfiftent .with
what has been already delivered, we fhall fuppofe it to
be conftant. This aflumption, if we confider the fluxions
of variable quantities as the meafures of their refpeftive
velocities, or rates of increafe, is in effeft the fame thing
as to fuppofe that the variable quantity x increafes uni¬
formly. Then, as in the expreflions
4=A £-=?> &c.
X X X
or thefe others, which follow from them,
u=px, p—qx, q—rx, &c.
the fymbol x is to be underftood as denoting a conftant
quantity, it follows that if p be variable, then p x, or
// will be variable ^ and if y be variable, then y..v, or
A-wiir
712
FLUXIONS.
Direct
Method-
/>, will be variable; and if r be variable, then r
q will be variable and fo on.
or
43. Let us now recur to the relation in which the
fucceeding fun&ions />, q, r, 8tc. Hand to the original
fundlion u.
By performing that particular analytical opera¬
tion upon the function which confifts in finding its
fluxion, we obtain /># as the expreflion for its fluxion,
that is, we get u—p x and by repeating the operation
on the fundtion />, we get p~qx ; .and therefore p x —
q x1 j but, x being regarded as a conflant quantity,
/> « is deduced from px, confidered as a fundlion of x,
juft in the fame manner as ptc is derived from the ori¬
ginal function a ; therefore the expreftion q x* is dedu¬
ced from the fundtion u by performing the operation of
taking the fluxion twice ; that is, firft upon the function
u itfelf, and then upon «, or p x, the expreffion for its
fluxion j and in this fecond operation x (or the fluxion of
the quantity from which the fun£tion is formed) is con¬
fidered as a conftant quantity.
The expreflion q #*, obtained in this manner from
the function w, is called the fecond fluxion of the func¬
tion 5 and to exprefs its relation to the fundlion «, it is
denoted by «, that is, by the letter denoting the func¬
tion itfelf with two dots over it. Thus, like as u—p x,
we have
u—qx1, and
Again, fmce q=rx, it follows that y .v* mr #J ; but,
as x is conftant, q x* is derived from q x*, by the ope¬
ration of finding its fluxion, confidering it as a func¬
tion of .r, juft in the fame manner as q x1, or u is de¬
rived from/nr, or u, and in the fame manner as //is de¬
rived from the original function u $ therefore, like as
px or //is the firft fluxion of the fun&ion, and q x*
or u is its fecond fluxion, fo r r3 is called its third
fluxion, and is denoted by «, that is by the letter ex¬
prefling the function itfelf, having three dots placed
over it, fo that
u —r x5 and u
fecond and higher orders of fluxions of a function, let
us fuppofe u to denote the particular funftion a xn ‘}
then, proceeding agreeably to what has been laid down
in laft fedtion, we obtain, by the rule for finding the
fluxion of any power of a variable quantity (§ 26)
u~n a xn rr,
uz=.n (//—1) axn 2rl,
u=n (//—1) (//—2) axn 3r?,
u —n (//—1) (//—2) (//—3) ax'1 4r4, &c.
Here we have exhibited the firft, fecond, third, and
fourth fluxions of the function a xH $ the law of con¬
tinuation is obvious, and it appears that when n is any
pofitive integer, the function a xn will have as many
orders of fluxions, as there are units in n, and no more 5
for if n were fuppofed 3, then, as the fourth fluxion,
and all the fubfequent ones, are multiplied by «—3, or
in that cafe by 3—3=0, they confequently would va-
nifh, and a fimilar obfervation may be made when n is
any other whole pofitive number.
45* That we might be able to apply the rules of
\ 26, § 34, &c. to the determination of the fluxion of
a complex funftion of a variable quantity, we have
found it convenient in fome cafes to confider fuch a
function as compofed of other more Ample fundtions of
the fame quantity, and we have exprefled its fluxion by
means of the fluxions of thofe other funftions. In find¬
ing the fluxion of any higher order than the firft of fuch
a complex fundlion by thofe rules, we muft keep in
mind, that it is only the fluxion of x, the variable quan¬
tity from which the fundlions are all formed, that is to
be confidered as conftant, and that the fluxions of the
funclions themfelves are in general variable quantities j
fo that each of them may have a fecond, third, &c.
fluxion, as well as the fundtion which is compofed of
them.
Let us fuppofe for example, that
z/= x1) ;
then, confidering //2-j-.\2 as a fundtion of x, and putting
v to denote it, we have a— flvzzv*, and u—^v—2, v
~ ; but fince vzzd1 + xz, it follows that v— 2x x ;
\/v
therefore, fubftituting for v and v their refpedlive va¬
lues, we have
The fourth fluxion of a variable fundtion u is denot¬
ed by //, that is by the letter u wdth four dots over it,
and is derived from the third fluxion, in the fame man¬
ner as the third is derived from the fecond, or the fe¬
cond from the firft, or the firft fluxion from the variable
iundtion itfelf 5 observing, that in repeating the opera¬
tion of taking the fluxions, the fymbol x (or the fluxion
of the variable quantity from which the fundlion is
formed) is confidered as a conftant quantity. And the
lame mode of notation and dedudlion is to be under¬
flood as applying to a fluxion of any order whatever of
a variable fundlion.
44. To illuftrate what has been faid refpedling the
• I
•_ xx
Now, to find Ihe fecond fluxion of //, we may either
x x
take the fluxion of this laft expreflion, viz. -- 2
v \a “T* )
and confider the fymbol x, which is found in it, as de¬
noting a conftant quantity ; or wre may reeur to the
equation u and take the fluxion of this other ex-
y-u
preflion for u; and in this cafe, we muft confider that
both v and v denote variable futidlions of x, and there¬
fore that the fluxion of —
V v
may be found by the rule
for
Part 1.
Diretft
Method.
I
Fart I. ' FLUX
Dircdl for finaing tlie fluxion of a fundion j obferving that v is
■ 5^: - to be fubftituted as the fluxion of v. Accordingly, pro¬
ceeding by this laft method, and confidering that the
• T V
fluxion of tlle denominator of the fra&ion is
find
u <
v
2 W 
Now from the equation v—a'+x*, we have v — 2 x x,
and (obferving that » is conftant) v=2x\ Let the e
values of v, v, and v, be now fubftituted m the expref-
fion for w, and it becomes
r y1—4^ At*
i  
The very fame expreflion for u would have been found
if we had employed the other method.
By proceeding as in this laft example, the rules a -
ready delivered for finding the firft fluxion of any func¬
tion of a variable quantity will apply to the finding o
the fluxion of any higher order.
Thus if we had u—V t, where v and t denote each a
fun&ion of another variable quantity x, and it were re¬
quired to find the different orders of fluxions of «, con-
lidered alfo as a function of x } then, by the rule of §
37, we have
uzzt v -{-“y t,
and u— fluxion of / ■u -}- fluxion of “y / j
but v and t being variable functions of v, we may con-
fider v and / as denoting alfo variable funftions of .r, the
the fluxions of which are to be denoted by v and t re-
fpe&ively j now by the rule in $ 37> we ^ave
fluxion ofj'y ~v t + tv,
and fluxion otv t — t v v t,
therefore, u— 2 v t t v v t.
By confidering v, v, v, alfo t, t as denoting each a dii-
tincl funftion of x, we may find the third fluxion of u
from the fecond, in the fame manner as the fecond has
been found from the firft, and fo on for the other orders
of fluxions of u. If it be now required to exprefs the
fucceflive orders of fluxions of u in terms of x and its
fluxion, we muft find the values of v, v, &.c. alfo of t,
t &.c. in terms of x and its fluxion, and thefe values,
alfo the particular funftions of x denoted by v and /,
being fubftituted in the expreflions found for u, u, &c.
will give to thefe expreftions the form required.
If for example we fuppofe that
VOL. VIII. Part II.
IONS.
v—a + b xm , t—:c-\-dx " ,
m—I • * , n—I
then v~ tn b.x x t~ n ax
7I3
Direcft
Method.
and, confidering x as conftant,
•• \1 "
v~m(rn—I )o x
&c.
-2 • 2
X ,
• 2
X
thefe values of v, t, v, t, &c. being fubftituted in the ex¬
preflions of u, u, &c. will give the fucceflive fluxions of
u in terms of x and x only.
46. If the fluxion of a variable quantity be confider-
ed as the meafure of its rate of increafe, if that rate be
uniform, then its meafure will be a conftant quantity j
but if it be variable, then its meafure will be a variable
quantity, which wall alfo have a certain rate of increafe
or decreafe j and the meafure of this rate will be its
fluxion, or will be the fluxion of the fluxion of the ori¬
ginal variable quantity j that is, it will be the fecond
fluxion of the original variable quantity. And if this
fecond fluxion is not a conftant quantity, then the mea¬
fure of its rate of variation will be its fluxion, or will
be the third fluxion of the original variable quantity,
and fo on. Thus a quantity will have a {ucceflive order
of fluxions till fome one fluxion become conftant, and
then it will have no more.
47. We have hitherto fuppofed the equation exprei-
fing the relation between a variable quantity, and a
function of that quantity, to be or fuch a form, that
the funftion was found alone, and of the firft degree on
one fide of the equation, and fome power, or combina¬
tion of powers, of the variable quantity on the other j
as in thefe examples,
u — axn,
x”1
c-\-d xn
In fuch cafes as thefe, u is faid to be an explicit^ function
of x. We are now to confider how the ratio of the
fluxions is to be found when the relation between the
variable quantity and its function is expreffed by an
equation, the terms of which involve different powers,
both of the function, and the variable quantity} as in
the following example,
y*—a x y-\-b x2—c~o,
where we are to confider y as a funftion of x ; but from
the particular manner in which its relation to x is ex¬
preffed, it is faid to be an implicit function of that quan¬
tity.
Now in this example, by the refolution of a quadra¬
tic equation, we find
a x rir: \/ (a* —4 -}-4 ^
?/ =
2
and as y is here an explicit funftion of x, its fluxion, or
the ratio of its fluxion to that of x, might be determi¬
ned by the rules already laid down. But it is to be
obferved that it is* only in the particular cafe of the
propofed equation being of the feCond degree that we
can effect the folution generally in this manner. If it
4 X
were
714
Direct
Method.
FLUX
were of a higher order, this particular mode of folutlon
t would be often imprafticable, for want of a general me¬
thod of refolving equations.
48. We may however in all cafes refolve the prob¬
lem, without a previous refolution of the equation, by
reaioning as follows.
Whatever be the degree of the equation, by giving
particular values to x, we, can, by the theory of equa¬
tions, obtain correfponding particular values of y ; there¬
fore, we may be allured that in every cafe y is expref-
fible by means of x in fome way or other, if not in
finite terms, at lead; in the form of a feries, the terms
of which lhall involve powers of x. Hence we may
infer, as in the cafe of explicit funftions, that when x
changes its value, and becomes x-J-Zz, y will alfo change
its value, and become
y-f p ii-j-y ii1 —
where />, y, &c. denote fun&ions of x, that are indepen¬
dent of the arbitrary quantity /z. Let us denote p h
+7 Zz* -4 &c. the increment of y, by the fmgle letter
h; then y-\~k is the new value of y, correfponding to
x -j- /?, the new value of x. Let thefe new values be lub-
ilituted inftead of x and y in the propofed equation
y*—a x y -\-b x1—c—o,
and as the refult mud dill be =0, wTe have
a(.x~\~h){y—c~o j
which equation, by actually involving its terms, fubdi-
tuting for k its value p h-\-q Zz2-j-&c. and arranging the
refult in the form of a feries proceeding by the powers
of h, becomes
y1—a x y^-b X'
(2py—a(px + y)+2b
-fQ^Zz*-fR/i3_}_&c.
—n
x)/l > — o
Here Q, R, &c. denote quantities independent of Zz,
and involving x,y,p, q, &c. that is to fay, *, and func¬
tions of x, and therefore Q^, R, &c. are* alfo funtdions
of x. Now as this equation mud lubfid whatever h
may be, w'hich is a quantity quite arbitrary and inde¬
pendent of the coefficients by which its powers are mul¬
tiplied ; it follows (as has been obferved when treating
of the method of indeterminate coefficients, Algebra,
§ 261.) that the coefficients of the different powders of
h mud be each equal to o.,
Therefore,
y*—a x y-\-b x*—c—o
y—a{p * +y)+2b x~o,
&c.
From the fird of thefe equations We can infer nothing,
as it is no other than the propofed equation itfelf j but
from the fecond we find
a y—2bx
P~~r •
2y—ax
iNow h, and k~ph-^q -f- &c. being the limulta-
neous increments of zv and y, we have ^-j—p+q Zz4- &c.
therefore, fuppofiiig h to be continually diminifhed, and
IONS.
putting equal to the limit of -^-^vehave^-zr/, there-
x 'L x
fore
y ay—2b x
x 2 y—a x ’
thus w’e have obtained an expreffion for the ratio of the
fluxions of y and x, from which we find
lyy—a (xy+yx)+2b XX—Oy
and this is precifely the expreffion we fliould have ob¬
tained, had wre taken the fluxion .of each term of
y2—a xy-\-b x1—c~o,
the propofed equation, and put the refult equal to o.
49. But to fee that this will always be the cafe,
whatever be the degree of the equation, we have only
to obferve, that, by the very fame procefs employed to
deduce from the original equation
y1—axy-\-b x1—c—.o,
thefe two others
21JP—a (*/>-j-y)-42£*=o,
2yy—a(x y-\-y x')-\-2b X x—Oy
if we fuppofe the equation to be generally expreffed
thus,
yl Jraymx” • • *-f xr-|-c=:o,
wrhere the exponents Z, ra, «, &c. r denote condant
quantities, we lhall obtain
!yl~lP+« (>»ym-1 xnP+n ymxn~l) 7 =0j
. . .+rxr~I J
and hence, by fubdituting for p its value 4, and bring-
x
ing x from the denominator,
ly~~ry+<i{mym~'1 x^y+ ny™ xn-~lx )J=0
. . . _|_r J
From which it appears that, when the relation be¬
tween x, a variable quantity, and y, a funftion of that
quantity, is expreffed by an equation, the terms of which
are brought all to one fide, fo as to produce an expref¬
fion —Q j tbe relation of the fluxions will be found, by
taking the fluxion of each term of the equation (conftder-
ing y as a function of x), and putting the fum of thefe
fluxions equal to o.
50. Having from the equation
y2—a xy-\-b x1—c—o„
found that
. (<zy—2bx)x
y~~ 2 y—a x 1
if it be required to find the fecond fluxion of y, w'e
have only to take the fluxion of the latter fide of this
equation.
Part I.
Dire#
Method.
  y— 1 ■ J
Fart L
FLUX
Direft equation, confidering x as conftant, and y as a funaion
Method. q£ ^ we ^ave
{^2 y—a x) {ay—'ibx')^ x 1
—(ay— 2bx) (iy—ax)x j
y {2y—axy
an equation which abbreviates to
V —
C4 /_{x y—yx) ^
(2 y—a x)1
and from which we may exterminate y by means of the
equation
• {ay—2bx)x
y 2 y—x
By the fame mode of proceeding we may determine
the third, or any higher fluxion of the funaion y.
$1. As far as we have yet gone in explaining the
principles of fluxions, we have had continually occafion
to employ the rule for finding the fluxion of the parti¬
cular funaion # , where x denotes a variable quantity,
and n any conftant number and we may therefore, in
refpea of other funaions confider xn as a Ample func¬
tion. Befides the funaion *", writers on Analyfis have
confidered each of the following as alfo conftitutmg a
Ample analytic funaion of a variable quantity •, viz.
ax, where a is conftant, and * is variable.
Log. at, that is the logarithm of x, a variable number.
Sin. .v, that is the fine of x, a variable arch of a circle,
radius being unity.
Cof. *, that is the cofine of xf a vanable arch ol a
circle, radius being as before unity.
c 2. We have already found the fluxion of a’”,and we
proceed to find the fluxions of the other fimple fun ft ions
of x j and, as in the inveftigation of thefe we ftiall have
occaiion to employ the binomial theorem, it will be
proper to fhow how that theorem may be deduced irom
the principles already explained. We are then to find
the feries that expreffes {a+x) ”, when « is any number
whatever. Or, fince («+«)” is equal to a” (1
where v denotes the fra&ion we may leave the quan¬
tity a” out of confideration, as has been formerly ob.
ferved $ 28, and feek the feries that expreffes {i+v)”'
As we have already pointed out ($ 28) the procefs of
induaion by which we may find the general form of the
feries, we fhall not here repeat it, but affume
(i-}-v)”=i-}-A^-}-B^+c‘y3+D®4-h
where A, B, C, D, &c. denote numbers that are in¬
dependent of 'y. . r CL’ n. u
Now, as the fluxion of a variable function mult be
the fame, whether that fundlion be expreffed by one
term,or developed into a feries of terms*, by performing
the operation of taking the fluxion on each fide of the
above equation, the refults muft be equal, that is, § 26.
IONS. 7T5
n{i -j-'y)” 1<i’= A^-J- 2B“y i>-j- 3 C Method.
or, leaving out the quantity v, common to each term,
r—A+2Bty-|-3C,y*+4Du3-'f- &c*
Let both fides of this equation be multiplied by I +?,
and divided by n, thus we fhali have
I CA4-2Bu-bsC^*+4Du34- &c. 7
(I+O =-{ + A"y+2By*+3Ci>}+&C. J
Thus, by performing on the quantities the analytical
procefs of taking their fluxions, we have obtained a
new expreflion for (I + y) ". Let the quantities that are
independent of v in each expreflion be put equal to
each other, and alfo the co-efficients of like powers o
v *, thus we obtain
I——-, and hence A=«
n
a-a+1? b=—a
n. 2
C=—B
n 3
D=”=-3C
n 4
Sec. &.C.
Or, fubftituting fucceflively the expreflion fot each
coefficient in that which follows it,
A=«,
„ O—1)
B—-T-'
^ 1)(«—2)
V/  1
a- 3
_ n («—i) («—2) {n—3)
JJ—    — >
2.3.4
Sec.
Hence it appears that
n n{n—1) . , n{n—1) (n—2) ,
(i+«) =i + »»+-1T-v+-i—2—^ 
I v , &c.
2 • 3 • 4
and therefore, fubftituting =^for u, and multiplying by
n
(„+*)" =«" +» *>
njn—l) ("—i)_ ^ „_3 j,, , &c_
2*3
where the law of continuation is evident.
53. We now proceed to inveftigate the fluxion of
the fun&ion uzza*, a being fuppofed conftant, and x
the variable quantity, to which the funSlion is reterred.
i6
Direct
Method.
FLUX
Let x be fuppofed, as formerly, to change its value,
and to become x-\-h, and put u' for the new value that
the funtlion acquires by this change in the magnitude
of .v, then we have
i xA-h x * . h
T Xa »
and, taking the difference between the two fucceeding
values,
u'—u=a* Xah — a*= a* ( /—i).
We rnufl now develope the expreflion a1—i into a
feries, the terms of which are arranged according to the
iucceflive powers of the increment h. To effedt this,
let us put l—a—i, fo that az=. I -\-b, and aJ~ (i ?
but by the binomial theorem, this laft expreffion may be
expanded into the following feries:
l h o
h (Ji-
h {h—i) (li—2)
b' -j- Sec.
Therefore,
^ 1 ; z. 1 ^ —T) n«. h —OC^—2)/t o
a =zl-\-fib-\—i '-b1 4 d  
2 2*3 1
As the terms of this feries are not arranged accord¬
ing to the powers of /q but according to the powers of
b, it is neceffary that we transform it into another having
the required form 5 now this may be effedted by adtually
multiplying together all the fadlors that conftitute each
term, and arranging the feries anew in fuch a manner,
that each of its terms may be a power of h, multiplied
by a coefficient compofed only of the powers of b, and
given numbers j
Accordingly we have
kb . . .
— bh,
b\ b\
—— T^*>
h{h-
&c.
2.3 3 2^6’
Therefore, by taking the fum of all the quantities ©n
each fide of thefe equations, we get the feries,
k{h—1) {k—2)
h(k—1).,
I 4f}ib-\   -b1
i>3 + &c.
IONS. part l;
than by a general fymbol. Therefore, we have now Direft
got Method.
nf‘
fl£ = i+A/z-f-B/zJ-fC&c.
and confequently,
i)=^(A /z-fB /z*-f-C/zJ-j- &c.)
and
—ax k-\-C a* k*&c.
Hence, when h is conceived to be continually di-
miniffied, we have the limit of texpreffedby Aa*,
and therefore ^21,
U \ x 1 * . 9C »
— —Aa , and u—A x,
x
54. In the preceding inveftigation, we have had oc-
cafion to develope the exponential expreffion ak into a
feries of this form,
1-j-A-J-B-j-C3&c.
that is, a feries the terms of which are the fucceffive
powers of the exponent, each multiplied by a coefficient,
which is independent of the exponent.
We have however only determined the coefficients of
the firft two terms of the feries, thefe being the only
ones we had occafion to employ.
T he relult of the inveftigation however may be ap¬
plied to determine all the coefficients by the very fame
kind of procefs as that which we have employed in
$53, to determine the coefficients of the terms of the feries
which conftitutes the other expanfion of a .
Inftead of denoting the exponent by let us con-
ftder it as a variable quantity, and exprefs it by #, then,
from what has been ftiewn it appears that
Ax + Btf’-j-C^+D^-f &c.
where A, B, C, &c. exprefs conftant quantities. Let
the operation of taking the fluxions be now performed
on both fides of this equation, (obferving that the flux¬
ion of c is A a* x) and let all the terms be divided
by .v, which is common to each, thus we obtain
otherwife expreffed thus,
i-J-A/S-f-B/Sa-f C/S3-f &c.
where A is equal to the infinite feries b-
b*
4
that is, ta
-f &c..
b1 Z>3
T+7
^—1 O—O* . O—Q3 (^—04 &c
i 2 3 4 + c*
and B, C, &c. are alfo quantities conqjpfed of the
powers of £, and confequently are independent of k ;
but as thefe are all to difappear in the courfe of the in-
veftrgation, it is not neceflary to exprefs them otherwife.
A tf*-A+2B*-j-3C**-MD*3-H&cO
and, dividing by A,
’ &c.
Let the coefficients of the fame powers of # in each of
the two feries expreffing ax be put equal to each other
then, ( *
2B
=A,
A
3C
A
4D__
A
&c.
= B,
=C,
hence, B~ —
2 ’
A3
. . . C=0__
2-3,
 d=A-,
2*3*4
&c.
Therefore,.
part I. F LrnU *
Direa Therefore, fubftituting thefe values of B, C, D, &c. m
Method original feries, we have
' v ' AJva . , A4*4 j_
the fame refult as has been found in the article Al¬
gebra, $ 293. by proceeding in a different manner.
55. If we fuppofe *=i, then the preceding equation
becomes
* A* A*
a—I+A+ +
A4
2.3 2.3.4
&c.
and if we fuppofe a=—, it becomes
flA=l4-I+^;+—+
2 '2.3 2.3.4
&C.
thus the quantity ahh equal to a conftant number
which is the value of a when A-1, and which, by
taking the fum of the lirft ten terms of the fenes is
found to be 2-7182818, or, by taking the fum of a
greater number of terms, more accurately
2-718281828459045 
We {hall, in the remainder of this treatife, denote this
number always by e, then aA=e and a=eA , and tak¬
ing the logarithms, log. fl=:Axlog- e> hence
log.fl
A=
log.e
56. If we now fubftitute this value of A in the ex-
preffion for the fluxion of uz=lci , found in § 53, it be¬
comes
• los;. a
log. e
Hence it appears, that the fluxion of the funBton
a* is equal to the fluxion of x multiplied by thejunBion
itfelf, ^and by the quotient ariflng from the diviflon
of the logarithm of a by the logarithm of e, where
j 1 1 1 1 1 1 I  ^ 1- &-c* a
e denotes 1+7+77-2-rj . • 2- 3 * 4
firu, who/efum is 2-7182818 nearly.
C7 Let us now confider the third fimple funfhon of
* namely »=log. »• Let u be the radical number of
the particular fyftem, in which u is a logarithm, and *
. the corresponding number; then from the nature of 1c
garithms (fee Algebra, § 277.) we have a —x. Now,
whether we confider w as a un ion o , ‘
fundionof u, the limiting ratio.of their fimultaneous
increments, and confequently the ratio o t^eir uxio
will be the very fame. But. by confidermg * as a
fun^ion of u, we have immediately, from what has been
{hewn in § 53, and.§ 55,
*-A«"=A*,
»
IONS.
and therefore, ?'-j- |, but as u is the radi
cal number of the fyftem, log. fl=i, therefore
. x
n=log. e -.
The number which we have denoted by <? occurs very
often in analytical inveftigations 5 it is the radical number
of the fyftem of logarithms firft invented by Baron Na¬
pier, and called by fome writers Hyperbolic logarithms,
but by others, with more propriety, logarithms.
The expreffion is called the modulus of the fyftem
of logarithms whofe radical number is a. In the Na-
r e——1, that is, the modulus is
pierean fyftem -log. 1 tu
unity j but in the common fyftem, or that in which
„=10, the<Wp/«r^=o-434«94482- The rule
for finding the fluxion of the logarithm of a variable
quantity may now be expreffed thus :
Multiply the fluxion of the variable q^ntily by the
modulus of the fyftem, and divide the produd by the va¬
riable quantity itfelf the refult is the fluxion required.
e8 By the application of the rule for finding the
fluxion of the logarithm of a variable quantity we may
readily find the fluxions of exponential functions in
general. Thus, for example, if * andJ bein§
both functions of any variable quantity x, then log,,
*/=7/Xl°g.*-, and taking ther flu^.lonS Cco"fi1dennS
,/vlog. 2; as the produft of two funaions y and log.
and proceeding by the rules of $ 37 and laft),
71?
Diredl
Method.
^=ylog.2+y;,
and hence
. . S5\
»= » (y\°Z'%Jry %y
=%yG 1°g-;z+^)'
59. We are next to confider the fundions w_fin. x 5
and «=cof. x.
Suppofe x to change its value, and to become x-\-h,
and u to become u', then, fmce
7/rrfin. x, and z/sifin.
u'.—wzzfin. —fin* x 1
but by the arithmetic of fines (fee Algebra, § 353)>
Z. (A+/0=fin* « cof. A-J-cof. x im. A, therefore,
«=cof. X cof. A+cof. x fin. A—fin. x
=cof. x fin. A—fin. x (1—cof. 70-
In this cale, as when treating formerly of other
funaions, we might confider the ,buve e^reffion for
u’—u, as refolvable into a {tries ph+q A + &c. pro
ceeding by the powers of the increment, and tbence we
718 FLUX
Direfl # ^ u> u
f Method. _ might find the limit of —j— as before. But we may dif-
cover the limit otherwife, by proceeding as follow's j
Becaufe
Sin.*/i—i—cof.* i -|-cof. K) (i—-cof. K)
therefore, I—cof. h— —m--- ■■;
i -j-col./S
Let this value of l—cof. /i be fubftituted in the ex-
prefllon for u'—«, and it becomes
fin. x fin.* /i
/—«=rcof. x fin. A~
I -j-cof. h
u'—u fin
h h
a
h
cof. x-
fin. h fin. .v
1. xl
rry
I -f-cof.
Conceive now A to be continually diminiftied, and we
«'■
lhall have the 'limit of ■
- equal to the limit of ^n’ ^
/i "'1 _  /i
multiplied by the limit of the following expreflion
_ fin. h fin. x
cof.*—
Now, the fine of an arch being lefs than the arch
fin Ji
itfelf, we have Again, the arch being lefs
. fin. h fin. h fin. h
than its tangent,—-L— j ; but tan. h——F-T,
° h tan. n cof. /i
fin. h . fin.h
—col. A j coniequently
i. n n
and therefore
tan.
-cof. //. Hence it appears, that the exprefiion for the
ratio 1-^-/ is lefs than I, or radius, but greater than
cof. h. But h being conceived to be continually dimi-
nilhed, cof. ^ continually approaches to I, and may
come nearer to it than by any aflignable difference;
therefore, the limit of is i. As to the other ex-
„ . fin. h fin. .v , . . .
prelnon, col. x 1 when " 18 foppofed to be
continually diminilhed,its fecond term, to wit,—
i -f-cof. h
may become lefs than any aflignable quantity 5 there¬
fore the limit of the expreflion is Amply cof. x: thus,
upon the whole, we have found that the limit of U-~~ s
h
cbf. .v, and therefore
—=cof. a;, and uzz. x cof. x.
x
The fluxion of the other function, arr cof. x, is
eafily deduced from that which we have juft found, by
proceeding thus : * „
Put c to denote a quadrant, then cof. A-rzfin. (c x)
and therefore
z/=: fin. (r—.v).
IONS.
Now, it has beenj’ufl: fhewn that
And hence, dividing by h, and arranging the terms
fo as to exhibit the ratio —we get
flux, of fin. (c—a;)—cof. (c—a1) X flux, of (c—r)
but cof. (c—A;)rrfin. at, and the fluxion of c—x is —*#,
therefore
— x fin. x.
T&us it appears, that the fluxion of the flne of a vari¬
able arch is equal to the fluxion of the arch multiplied by
its cofme; and that the fluxion of the eoflne is equal to the
fluxion of the arch (taken ’with a negative flgn) multiplied
by the flne. _
60. We can now very readily find the fluxion of any
other fundhon of an arch of a circle. Thus, fuppofe
it—.tan. x / then, becaule tan. x~ —, we have u~~
ml. v1
fin. x
*
cog x • 1 his expreflion being confidered as a fradtionaj
function of #, we have, by J 30, and what has been juft
now fhewn, J
•__x cof.* fin.* x
cof.* x 1
  ar (cof.* a:-j- fin.* a:)
cof.* X 3
or, fince cof.*A?-J- fin.* xzz i, and — - rrlecant A'
nni '
col.* X
cof. a;'
=x fee.* x.
Hence alfo wre have x z= — U
iec.* a;^: i -{-
In like manner, if we fuppofe u=fec. x, then, be-
caufcfec.*=-L-, we have «,= _i-, and
• x fin. x
cof.* X ’
_ fin . a? t
°r> fince S^=tan-*-andcrf^= fe-*.
u~x tan. x fee. x.
Proceeding in this manner, we find that when it
cotan. x, then
Part T.
Diredl
Methed.
tan.* a? cof.* a? fiu.*»
And when arzeofec. a;, then
•_—x cof. x
u— —x cotan. x cofec. x.
61. Let us now confider the fluxions of geometrical o?
magnitudes: And firft let it be required to find therrxtT
expreffion for the fluxion of BDPC the area bounded fig. 1.
by CP, a curve line, and by CB, PD, the ordinates at
its extremities, and BD, the portion of AE, the line of
the abfeiffas, which lies between thofe ordinates Let
the numerical meafures of AD and PD the co ordi
nates at the point P, be denoted by x and i/‘ and’
the numencal mealure of the area BDPC by s;
-then
Part I.
D:redl
Method.
FLUX
then y and s may both be confidered as fundlions of
| the abfciffa x.
Let x* or AD, be fuppofed to change its value, and
to become AD', and let D'P', and BD'P'C be the cor-
refponding new values of y and s j then DD, and
DD'P'P will be the geometrical expreffions for the
fimultaneous increments of the abfcifla and area. But,
as one of thefe quantities is a line, and the other, a
fpace, they cannot be compared in refpeft of their ratio.
Therefore, let us confider a as denoting a line whole
numerical value is unity, and then the numerical values
of the increments of the abfcifla and area may be
confidered as analogous to the geometrical quantities
DD'Xfl, and the area DD'P'P refipeftively, which
quantities being homogeneous may now be compared
with each other. We are now to inveftigate the limit
0f area h)D PJP ^ generai expreflion for the ratio of
a X DD'
the increments of J and x. Draw PM and P'N pa¬
rallel to AE, meeting the ordinates in M and N. Ihe
curvilineal area DD'P'P is greater than the re&angle
DD'MP, that is greater than PD X DD' •, but lefs than
the reftangle DD'P'N, that is, lefs than P'D'xDD',
therefore
area DD'P'P PDxDD'
 —^ *“
pn
IONS. 7'9
63. We proceed now to find the fluxion of an arch Direct
of a curve. Let APP' be a curve line of any kind, Meaiod' ,
and AB, BP any two co-ordinates at a point P in the 3,
curve. Put * for AB, the abfciifa, y for BP, the ordi¬
nate, and 55 for the curve line AP, then $5 and y may
be confidered as each a funftion of x. Draw P'B ano¬
ther ordinate, and draw PM parallel to AB, meeting
P'B' in M, and draw the chord PP' 5 then PM, MP'
and the arch PP' are the fimultaneous increments of #, y,
and % refpetdively. Now we have
arch PP'  arch PP' chord PP'
PM chord PP''*' PM.
MP'*\
But chord PP'rr/y/ (PM*-{-MP*)=PM v' C1 +Ym}) r
herefore,
arch PP' arch FF ^ , ,t , MP'*y
PM “ chord pp X ^ ^ PM*/
Suppofe now the increments to be continually diminifh-
z . -arch PP' , y* .. . -
ed, then, as — limit of —> an^ ~ — “mit ot
^ r ivj. x*
M P'1
PM*
(§ 21.),and i~limitof
arch PP'
chord PP
-(latl § ) we have
area DD'P'P P'D'xDD' P'D'
and"TxDD^^~0<DD' ^ « *
« = V&'+y' )•
Fig. 2.
But the increments being fuppofed to be continually
PD . . . P'D' . PD .
diminilhed,  is the limit of , therefore  is
a a ^
alfo the limit of
area DD'P'P
a X DD' ’
and hence (§ 21.)
s PD y , • •
— — -—ij, and rzry x.
x d 1
That is, the fluxion of a curvilineal area is equal to
the produtt of the ordinate, and the fiuxion of the ab-
fcifa.
62. Before we proceed to inveftigate the expreflion
for the fluxion of an arch of a curve, it is neceflary that
we ftiould inquire what is the limiting ratio of an arch
of a curve to its chord.
Let APB be any curve line, all the parts of which
are concave towards its chord AP. Let A£), QP be
tangents at the extremities of the arch, and let a p q be
a triangle fimilar to APQ, but having its bafe a/> of a
given magnitude, then
AQH-QP : AP :: a q+q/>: a/>.
Suppofe nowr the point P to approach to A, then the
angles at A and P, and confequently the angles at a
and fi, which are equal to them, will decreafe, and
may become lefs than any aflignable angles *, therefore,
the limit of the ratio of aq-fqp to ap\s evidently a
ratio of equality •, hence alfo the limit of the ratio of
A£)-f-QP to AP is the ratio of equality } and fince
the arch AP is lefs than AQ^-J-(hP, but greater than
its chord AP, the limit of the arch AP to its chord
AP muft alfo be the ratio of equality.
Hence it appears that the fquare of the fluxion of a curve
line of any kind is equal to the fum of the fquares of the
fluxions of the co-ordinates,
64. The expreflion for the fluxion of a folid may be
found by the fame mode of reafoning as that which we
have employed, § 61, to find the fluxion of a curviU-
neal area. Let AP^)/> be a portion of a folid generat-Fig 4*
ed by the revolution ot APB, a curve line, about AC, a
line taken in the plane of the curve, as an axis. Let
PDp, P'D'/>' be the lines in which BAZ», a plane paf-
fing along the axis AC, meets P£)/>, P'Q.'/>', the planes
of two circles formed by fe&ions of the folid perpendi¬
cular to its axis. Draw PM and P'N parallel to AD.
Put ADzrx, DPrrry, let s denote the folid AP£) />,
having y for the radius of its circular bafe, and x for
its altitude j put tt for the number 3•I4I59••• viz. the
circumference of a circle having its diameter =ri, and
let a denote an area, having its numerical meafure ex-
prelfed by unity j then, DD', or a xDD' being con¬
fidered as the increment of x, the portion of the folid
comprehended between the parallel planes PQ/>, P'Qp'
will be the correfponding increment of r, which wre are
s
to confider as a fundlion of x; hence (J 21.)— is
x
equal to the limiting ratio of the portion of the folid,
comprehended between the planes P£)/>, an^ P
to the folid a X DD'. But the former of thefe folids
being evidently greater than cylinder P m, having
the circle P£)/> for its bafe, and DD' for its altitude,,
that is greater than tt PD*xDD', and lefs than a cy¬
linder N/>', having the circle P'Q'/»' f°r hs bafe, and
DD' for its altitude, that is lefs than tP'D'*xDD'j
it
720
FLUX
Direct .it follows, that as Ion? as DD7 has an affienahle magni-
Mocl^tude, 5 S 6
^.PD-xDD'x^,
7T PD*
and ^^FD^xDD'x 
.v a X DD'»
^ cr P'D'a
I j
but the increment DD' being continually diminiftied,
L__—, the greater limit of 4*, approaches continual¬
ly to its leffer limit
PD*
(becaufe fl=ri) -ry1,
fo as to come nearer to it than by any affignable differ-
J* • •
ence, therefore — zr^ry*, and s—ny'1 x. Now, if we
x
obferve that wy* is the area of the circle P£)/>, it will
appear, that the fluxion of a folid generated by the revo¬
lution of a curve about its axis is equal to the fluxion of
the axis multiplied by the general expreflion for the area
of a circle formed by fuppoflng the folid to be cut Ip* a
plane perpendicular to its axis.
rig. 5.
65. To find the fluxion of the furface of the folid,
let us denote that furface by s, and let x and y denote
as before j then the furface contained between the
circles PQji and P'£)'/>' will be the increment of x,
correfponding to DD' the increment of x. Draw the
chord PPr j then, the curve line PP' being fuppofed to
revolve about the axis AC, and thus to generate the
increment of the furface of the folid, the chord PP'
will generate at the fame time the convex furface of a
fruftum of a cone $ now the limiting ratio of the curve
line PP' to its chord PP' being the ratio of equality,
the limiting ratio of the furfaces generated by the revo¬
lution of thofe lines will alfo be the ratio of equality }
J*
therefore —, which is equal to the limit of
x
furf. gener. by arch PP'
1 X DD'
will alfo be equal to the limit of
furf. gener. by chord PP'
DD'. ’
but the convex furface of a fruftum of a cone is equal
to the product of its flant fide into half the fum of the
circumferences of its two bafes (fee Geometry), and in
the prefent cafe thefe circumferences are equal to 2 PD
X^» and 2 P'D' x^> therefore 4- is equal to the limit
x
of
*■ (PD + P'D') PP'
DD'
-*-( PD + P'D')
PP'
DD'
but the point D' being fuppofed to approach to D, the
IONS.
limit of PD + P'D', will manifeftly be 2 PDrr2 yj and
r PP' (DD'* + P'M*) .. , P'M*\ , (
mceDD'~ DD' -V O + dD'*)’thel1'
mit of this expreflion (if, we confider that P'M and
DD' are the fimultaneous increments of y and a) is evi¬
dently equal to y' (i+v-V therefore
x1 J
4-= 2*^(1+i-V
x x* 1
and confequently
s ~ 2 7r y\/ (A,* + y*).
If we now obferve that 2 Try is the circumference of
the circle P£)/>, and y' (a;* + y*) is the fluxion of the
curve line AP, $ 63, it will appear, tha't the fluxion of
the furface of a folid generated by the revolution of a
curve about its axis is equal to the fluxion of the curve
line multiplied by the general expreflion for the circumfe¬
rence of a circle formed by fuppoflng the curve to be cut
by a plane perpendicular to itsjixis.
Sect. III. The Application of the Dire El Method of
Fluxions.
Having explained the principles of the direcl me¬
thod of fluxions at as great a length as we think fuitable
to the work of which this treatife forms a part, we pro¬
ceed to fhew how the calculus may be applied to the
refolution of fome general problems in Analyfis and
Geometry.
Invefligation of a general formula for expanding a Func¬
tion into a Series.
66. In treating of the principles of the method of
fluxions, we have from an examination of particular
functions, inferred by induftion, that u being any func¬
tion of a variable quantity v, which was either actually
expreffed, or capable of being expreffed by a combina¬
tion of the powers of v, then, x being fuppofed to change
its value, and to become x-{-//, the new value 'which
the fundlion u will acquire when x-\-h is fubftituted in
it inftead of x will always be capable of being expanded
into a feries of this form,
«+/> ^ + y /i*+r /z3+&c.
where />, q, &c. denote fundlions of x that are quite in¬
dependent of h.
We have fhewn that, from the particular form of
this developenaent, it happens that the jatio of p h-\-
q hi + r 7^+&c. the increment of the fundlion, to h the
increment of the variable quantity x itfelf, admits of a
limit, which is always expreffed by />, the coefficient of
its fecond term •, and as we have defined this limit to
be the expreffion for the ratio of the fluxions of u and v,
fo that />—4-, the new value of the function may alfo
x
be expreffed thus
tt+—/$+y 7i*+r&:C,
x
And
Part T.
Direct
Method.
Part I. FLUX
Dire# And this exprcflion may be confidered as indicating not
Method. oniy. general form of the feries, but alfo the particu-
' ^ lar relation fubfifting between «, the original funtlion,
and />, the coefficient of the fecond term of the feries,
the latter being in every cafe that funftion of x which
refults from the operation of taking the fluxion of the
former, and dividing by x.
We are now to invefligate the relation that fubfifls
between each of the remaining coefficients and the ori¬
ginal function.
67. Firfl: let us fuppofe the fun£lion u to have the
particular form n being a conftant number. Then
/v changing its value to x-\-h, u changes to
therefore, by the binomial theorem (§ 52.)
u'zzzx' + nx*-1 hJ^-0- xn-% h'
; (rr-lL(.,^2 *»-3 /,. + &c. -
2-3
But fince u—Xn, by taking the fucceflive fluxions of u,
and confidering * as conftant, we have,
IONS. 721
operation as that coeflicient was derived from the
original funflion, namely by taking the fluxion of — , v ’
u r . \ n—%
r-~n («—i)x ,
iL. —n («—x) («—2) x
u — 3
n — 4
-r- =« O—-O («*—2) («—3) X
x*
Sac.
Let w,&c. be now fubftituted for x”, nxn~’t,
X x%
71 {?i—1) x ", &c. refpeiftively, in the feries for u\
and we have
, . u 1 , 11 h* it h^ tth*
x x* 2 x3 2,3 x4 2’3m4
68. This manner of exprefling the developement of
or (x-\-Ii)n, indicates directly the relation that each
of the coefficients of the fucceflive powers of h has to the
original fundtion.
The firft term of the feries is the original function
7/, or a?”, itfelf, or it is what the function be¬
comes upon the fuppofttion that /^no. The fecond
term is //, or —, multiplied by the coefficient which
1 ' x
coefficient is a fundtion of x derived from the original
function by the operation of taking its fluxion, and di-
. h*
vidmg the refult by x. The third term is  multi-
J 1.2
plied by the coefficient 4-, that is, by a fundtion of x
x1
derived from the preceding coefficient by the fame
conftdering a; as conftant, and'dividing by x. The
u •
fourth term is multiplied by —, that is, by a
I,2*3 a;3
fundtion of x deduced from the third coefficient by the
very fame operation as that by which the third was de¬
rived from the fecond, or the fecond from the firft.
And fo on with refpedl to all the other terms of the
A” 1
feries, the «th term being the produdt of — ——-y
and the («—i)th fluxion of the fundtion u divided by
• a—I
K
69. Let us now fuppofe that u denotes any other
fundtion of x, then, whatever be its nature, it may al¬
ways be conceived as capable of being exprefled by a
feries, the terms of which are powers of x, in this
maimer j
Axa+B xi+CxC +D /-b&c.
where A, B, C, &c. a, b, c, &c. denote conftant num¬
bers. Thus we have
»= A xa -f-B -j-C xc -f- &c.
Then, x being fuppofed to become jc-f-/?, and (in con-
fequence of the change in the value of a;) u to become
u', we have
u'zzA (at + ZO^ + B (x-\-h)b + C (x-f &c.
Let us now denote Axa by P, B a/" by £), C xC
by R, Sec. then by laft §
A (A-f/i) —P+ — h-\- -r- — -T- &C.
x x1 2 x3 Z’d
B (.v+/,)t=s+ 4 T + 4 r,+ &c-
X X1 2 X3 Z’J
C (A:-f~ — b + &c.
a; ‘ x1 2 ^ 2.3^
&c.
Therefore, fubftituting thefe developements in the
feries expreffing u\
f p-fQ/fR +
1 + (k + k + ?-+ &c.) /,
XXX
+4+4+4+&c.)£
x x* x* 2
+ (4+4+4+&co/"
. -f &c.
X3
2.3
4Y
But
Vol. VIII. Part II.
722
FLUXIONS.
Diredi
Method.
But
«r= P+Q.+R-j* ^cc‘
^ P Q R o
— — ~r~ ~j- ^z' -j~ t— -j~ &C.
X X X X
~=:i + -R + i + &c.
AT* #C* A* A*
&C.
Therefore, fubftituting &c. for the feries to
x
which they are refpeftively equal, .
, u h ii h1 u h1 , q
u'zzuA--. f-   U    — + &c.
AT 1 X* 1,2 A3 I*2-3
Hence it appears that u being any funftion of x
whatever, \£ x-\-h be fubftituted in that fun&ion in-
ftead of x, the feries expreffing the developement of
this new value of the fundlion will have the general
properties which have been (hewn, in laft $, to’ be¬
long to it in the cafe of the function having the parti¬
cular value xn.
The very general theorem which we have juft now
inveftigated is one of the moft elegant and important in
analyfis. It was firft publilhed by Dr Brooke Taylor in a
work entitled Methodus Incrementorum, which made its
appearance about the year 1716. The theorem itfelf
is generally known by the name of Taylor's theorem.
It is more general than the celebrated B/«o?«/h/theorem,
inafmuch as this laft, and innumerable others, are com¬
prehended in it as particular cafes.
70. We (hall now give fome examples to (hew the
manner of applying Taylor’s theorem, as well as its great
utility as an inftrument of analylis.
Example 1. Suppofe u—aX, a being conftant and x
variable. Then x becoming x-\-hy « becomes u'—aX^i>.
Now from the equation u=aX\ve derive (§ 56.)
— zzAa" (here A denotes Again,confider-
x log.e 0
a/l =i-f-A/z4-— D+ &c.
2 1 2.3
A3
Fart L
Direct
Method.
or, exchanging h for x
* , . , A1** A3*3 0 1
a zri+AAJ } -f&c*
2 ' 2.3 ^
the fame refult as we formerly obtained in § 54.
Ex. 2. Suppofe z/rrlog. x. Then, x becoming
x-\~h, u becomes w'=log. {x-\-K). Now from the
equation w=log. a?, we find (by \ 57.) ~
x ^
Here M denotes the modulus of thefyftem. Again, fup-
pofing x conftant, we find by $ 26, —— —,
X* xZ A3
2 M •• 2.q]VI
— ~P'iu———“4— &c. Therefore, fubftituting as
before the values of z/, v, -v-, &c. in the general for-
x
tt ii hz
mula u'—u-\- h^. — 1_ &.c. it becomes
x x1 2
log. (alog. A-f-— h—h1-\-—hi— &C.
0 * x 2x* 3^}
If we fuppofe x— j, and change h into 7/, we have,
becaufe log. A:zz:log. j — o,
log- (i+y) = M(y— ~ +y—
2 3
&c.)
For the particular method of applying thefe two
feries to the calculation of logarithms, fee Algebra
§ 285 to J 291. See alfo Logarithms,
Ex. 3. Suppofe now x. Then 77'=fin.
(aFrom a—fin. x, by the application of the
rule in § 59, we deduce — rrcof. x, ~ ——fin. .v, 4—
X X* A3
rr^-cof. x, ~ zrfin. x, Sec. Therefore, fubftituting
ing x as conftant, and repeating the operation of taking for u, -r-, Sec. their values in the general formula as
u ~ a x
the fluxion on = Afl%we get— — Ala*, and hence before, we have
U
again — =:A3 a*, Sec. Therefore, fubftituting for
fin. (A,4~^) = fin* «’4"co^
' u u c 1 • • »
u > ui &c. their values xn the general theorem
x x* b
—cof. X •
4-fin. x
- fin. x. ■
D
J-2-3-4
D
1.2
’ 4- Sec,
, , 77 7 ii D
u-—"4-   4“ &-c* becomes
x x* *
x-t-£ *> A% A3
=77 (14-A^-f-—/d4- _/534- Sec.)
2 2.3
Suppofe now, that xzzo, then, as in this c^fe — 1,
we have
■Sec.,
1.2.3
or fin, (a 4-^) is equal to
fin. x (1  
v 2 1.2.3.4
+cof. ^ (4-— + — Sec.)
If we fuppofe a=o, then, as in that cafe fin. a=o,
the preceding fon»u)a becomes
fin.
Part I.
Direct
Method.
fin. hzzh-
, +
FLUX
hi
1.2-3 I • 2-3
■ &c.
or, fubftituting x inftead of h,
fin. x—X-~-
— &c.
I . 2-3 ~I . 2-3.4.5
Ex. 4. Suppofe tt=cof. Af, then K'rrcof. (a: + ^),
u r u
and fince «=cof. by § 59, =—im. -r, — —
x x
—cof. — —fin. X, &c. Therefore, fubftituting as
x'
U J
before thefe values in the general formula ?/=«+-v- A+
x
See. it becomes
, r /l r /l*
cof. (*;+//) =cof. *—fin. x - —col. .v —
4-fin..v
P
or cof. (x+h) is equal to
h*
Cof. A’ (l 
-fin k {Ji—
, 1 • 2* 3
h*
4- &c.
1.2 1.2.3.4
P P
&c.)
i • 2* 3
+ ■
&c.)
1.2.3.4.5
which expreflion, when X—Or and therefore cof. a;_i,
fin. ^=0, becomes Amply
P P o
cor. “ &c-
•r fubftituting x for h,
x*
cof. X~ I-
1.2 1. 2.3.4
&c.
u+u4+u»il
IONS. 723
7 Diredl
Now, being the'value that ailumes when .v + A Method,
is fubftituted in it inftead of if we fuppofe x—o, then u——»
u' becomes the very fame function of h, that u is of x.
Let us denote the values which each of the funftions
Uy ~r , &c. acquire, when O, by U, U', U" &c.
x x1
refpe&ively.
Then (f) u' (confidered as the fame function of h
that u is of *) is equal to
+ UW TT2T3 + &C*
Let x be now fuppofed to be fubftituted both in ?/>
and the feries which is its developement inftead of In
then u' becomes uy and we have
u=V+V> *- +U"^-2+U"'r-^-3 + &c.
and in this formula it is to be confidered, as already
ftated, that U, U', U", &c. denote the particular values
which the funaions u, &c. acquire refpec-
X X* X*
tively, by fuppofing that in each of them * is taken
zro.
72. As an example of the application of this feries
let us refume the equation u~a , then -r- —A.n
x
a 5.6.),-^ =A‘ =A’fl*, &c.
X* X*
Suppofe now that xz=o, then u, or aX becomes Pzzl,
^r- —Aa* becomes A,-^- =A* a* becomes A1, &c.
x x
fo that U=l, U'=A, U"=:A% &c. fubftituting there¬
fore thefe values in the general formula, it becomes
..l
—-1 A — 4- A*
+ A 3
+ &.C,
71. It may be remarked that in each of thefe ex¬
amples, from the developement of «' the new value of
the funaion k, we have been able to deduce a deve¬
lopement of u the funaion itfelf. But it is eafy to fee,
that by proceeding in the fame manner with the gene¬
ral formula as we have done in thefe particular ex¬
amples, we ftiall obtain a general expreflion for the de¬
velopement of any funaion whatever.
The general formula is
4* See.
Let us next fuppofe that « is an arch of a circle of
which the fine is * (radius being unity), then arnfin. u.
Now the ratio of the fluxion of u to the fluxion of x
will be the very fame whether we confider w as a
funaion of x, or x: as a funaion of ?/; therefore (§ 59.)
xz= u cof. u. and = -4—, but fince fin* x> cof*
x . col. u
«= V' (1—«*)» therefore,
u h U P . ii P
u'=zu-\-— - + — r; + ~
v1 I-2
I • 2 • 3
U   I 
t ~ v0—xiy
4 Y 2
Taking
(F) For the fake of illuftration let us take a particular example, Suppofe tt_(«4-*)n,then -f-*) ,
-!!=«(«—!)(*4-*)"*“*, &c. Suppofe now that x—o, then u becomes an, becomes n a ^ becomes
n(ji i)c" a, &c. fo fhat in this particular cafe we have Una", U'—n a , U n(n—i)a > Stc>
724
Direifl: m - i « •
Method. Taking now the fluxion or
— re^u|t gC(;> Wg }laVe
FLUX
, and the flux-
V (i—.rs)
x* (I—.*1)*’
+:
3 x
u _ 3-3 x
A4 (i—x'y y—x1)-
&c.
Suppofe now that x—o, then u becomes o, — becomes
i, —becomes o, becomes I, iL becomes o, &c. fo
xX Xi A4
that Urro, U'm, U"=ro, Uw=rl, &.C.
L'herefore, fubftituting in the general formula, we find
uz=x-\—  f- &c.
i--3
By profecuting the computations farther, we may find
i1#3 yxs y^x7
u=x-\ b   1 ^ — +&.C.
2.3 2.3.4.5 2.3.4.5.0.7
Application of the Method of Fluxions to the drawing of
Tangents.
73. The theory of tangents to curve lines furnifhes a
good illuftration of the truth of the principle which we
have confidered as the foundation of the method of
fluxions, namely, that whatever be the form of a func¬
tion, the ratio of its increment to the increment of the
variable quantity from which the fun&ion is formed, is
in every cafe fufceptible of a limit.
Let AB, the abfciffa of a curve, be the geometrical
expreflion of a variable quantity x, and let BP the cor-
refponding ordinate, be the expreflion for y, any func¬
tion of x } then the curve line itfelf is the locus of the
equation exprefiing the relation between x and y. Let
PT, a tangent to the curve at P, meet AB the abfcil-
£1 in T ; through P draw any llraight line meeting the
abfcifla in D, and the curve in p; draw the ordinate
p b, and from P draw P n parallel to the abfciffa, meet¬
ing the ordinate bpmn.
The triangles PBP, P«/> are fimilar ; therefore
/>* : n P :: PB : BD.
Now p w, and « P, or B b, are the increments of PB
and BA, or of y and x refpe&ively, therefore the ratio
of the fimultaneous increments of PB and BA, or y
and x, whatever be their magnitudes,, is equal to.the
ratio of PB to BD. Conceive now the point p to ap¬
proach continually to P, then the angle contained by
the ftraight line p PD, and the tangent PT', will de-
creafe, and the point D will approach to T j at the
lame time «/>, and n P, the increments of y.and « will
he continually diminilhedj ftill, however, they will have
IONS. Part L
to each other the ratio of PB to BD, but this ratio ap- Direft
proaches continually to the ratio of PB to BT, and be- Method.
comes at laft more nearly equal to it than any aflign- * " J
able ratio j therefore the ratio of PB to BT is the limit
of the ratio of PB to BD, and confequently is alfo the
limit of the ratio of p n, the increment of y to « P, the
increment of x. And as this conclufion does not de¬
pend upon the particular nature of the curve, or upon
any particular relation fuppofed to fubfift between x
and y, we may conclude, that whatever be the form of
the fun&ion, the ratio of the fimultaneous increments of
the function, and the variable quantity from which it is
formed, has a limit to which it approaches when the in.
crements are conceived to be continually diminifhed.
It is now eafy to fee how the method of fluxions may
be applied to the determination of tangents to curves,
for fince the ratio of the ordinate PB to the fubtangent
BT is always the limiting ratio of the increments of the
ordinate and abfciffa, it is equal to the ratio of their
fluxions, that is
y : x :: y : lubtan. BT.
Hence in any curve whatever, referred to an axis, the
fubtangent, (that is, the fegment of the abfciffa between
the ordinate and tangent) is equal to ~y where x de-
y
notes the abfciffa, and y the ordinate at the point of
contaft ; and the fubtangent being found, the pofition
of the tangent is thereby determined.
Let us apply the above general formula to fome ex¬
amples.
Example 1. Let the propofed curve be a circle. It
is required to determine the pofition of PT, a tangentFl£*
at any point P in its circumference.
Put 2 a for AE the diameter, alfo x for AB the ab¬
fciffa, and y for BP the ordinate at the point of coa-s
ta£h
From the nature of the curve, we hare
ABxBE=BPl, that is
x (z a—a;)=ry*.
Hence taking the relations of the fluxions of x and y,
we have
2 ax—2xxzz2 yy,
therefore ^—
y a——xy
and BT=iy=
y
from which it appears that BT the fub-tangert is a
third proportional to a—x and y, that is, to CB the
diilance of the ordinate from the centre, and BP the
ordinate, agreeing with what is known from the ele¬
ments of geometry.
Ex. 2. Let the curve be a parabola, required the p;™ 3
fame as before.
Put x for AB, the abfciffa, and y for BP the ordi¬
nate at P the point of contaft j alfo a for the parame¬
ter 3 then, from the nature of the curve
PBJ~<3 x AB, that is
a x~y
2
thenefor-Cj
Parti. FLUX
DM therefore, taking the fluxions, we get a *= 2yy, and
Method. ’ °
and
y a
BT=^y=-f=—=«»
from which it appears that the fub-tangent BT is double
the abfeiffa BA.
Ex. 3. Let the curve be an ellipie.
Put AB—v, BPzzy, AC, the femi-tranfverfe axis —a,
CH the femi-conjugate axisrz£.
The nature of the curve is fuch, that
AC* : CH* :: AB x BE : BP*
or «* : b1 : : (2 a—x) x : /
Hence fl* y'—b1 (2 a—.r) x,
and taking the relation of the fluxions,
IONS.
CT—tf-f-'V—
therefore CB : CA
2 a .v-j-.v*  o*
a-\-x
CA : CT.
725
Direift
Method.
rig. 9.
Fig. 10.
y y—b* (q^—x') X }
- x «* V r
Therefore j =
BT=iy=
-y b' {a—x)
But from the preceding equation exprefling the nature
•f the curve, “gr— (2 a—x) x >' therefore
y a x
To this expreflion for BT, let BCm?—x be added,
and we have
(2a—x) x a*
CT=a—.v -{-   = 7
1 a—x a—x
from wdiich it appears that CB : CA :: CA : CT.
Ex. 4. Suppofe the curve to be a hyperbola, and let
it be required to find, as in the preceding examples.
Put a and b as in the cafe of the ellipfe to exprefs the
femitranfverfe and femiconjugate axes, then the equation
©f the curve is
a?y*=b%
and taking the relation of the fluxions,
cfyyTzb* (fl-f-ar) x,
from which we find
x a* y1
BT=- y —-7— ■-—-
. • rz* y*
or, fubftituting (2i7-{-») x for ~~^z~7
Ex. 5. Suppofe the curve APD to be a cycloid, of Fig. xr.
which AE is the axis, and AQE a femicircle deferibed
on the axis as a diameter. Suppofe AC, the r^diusi to
be unity } put AB=.r, BP=y, and the arch AQ—^ ,
then, AB=:i—cof. iq and BQ,=rfin. v. Now, from
the nature of the curve, PB rr arch AQ-pBQ j hence
we have
xzzl 1—cof. vy
and taking the fluxions, by § 59,
X—V fin. v, y~v ^ >
therefore,
x v y fin. v y fin. v
BT~ —y —•——=
y d-}-^ col.u
_PBxJBQ_>
— EB ?
BT = 4-x/ =
y
(2 a-\-x') x
a-\-x
1 -|-col.‘y
Let this expreflion for BT be fubtrafted from the ex*
preflion for CB, that is from rz-f-v, and v,’e have
, , . , BO AB ,
but from the nature of the circle there¬
fore, BT = FE^,—, and confequently BQ^: BA ::
BP : BT, from which it appears that if the chord AQ.
be drawn, the tangent Pi is parallel to the chord
Q.A-
74. If PT be a tangent to the curve AP at thep;gi ^
point P, and PC be drawn perpendicular to the tan¬
gent, meeting AC the axis of the curve in C, then the
line PC is called a nort?ial to the curve at the point P j
and BC, the diftance between the ordinate and the ex¬
tremity of the normal, is called the fub-normal.
The triangles TBP, BPC being fimilar, we have
TB : BP :: BP : BC> or, fince TB : BP::x:y,(§ 73)
x \y \\y \ BC, hence in any curve, BC the fub-normal
is equal toand from this-expreflion, we may find the
x
fub-normal in the fame way as we have found the fub-
tangent in the examples of laft
75. As by plane trigonometry
TB : BP :: rad.: tangent of T,,
and from \ 73, TB : BP w x \y,
therefore x : y :: 1 : tan. T,
hence it appears that 4 expreffes the numeral tangent
x
of the angle T, that is the angle contained by a tangent
to the curve, and the axis of the curve., In like man¬
ner we have
y : » x.BP : BB :: CB : BP :: 1 : tan. C,
therefore * expreiTes the tangent of the angle C, that is
y
the angle contained by a normal to the curve and its
axis.. .
Application
726
Direct
, . /lethod. ^ Application of Fluxions to Problems relating to Maxi¬
ma and PvIinima.
76. If a variable quantity be fuppofed to change its
magnitude, then any fumiiion of that quantity will alfo
change its magnitude. When the variable quantity is
luppofed to increafe continually fo as to acquire fuccef-
fively all degrees of magnitude, there are fome fundtions
of fuch a form, that they either increafe continually, or
decreafe continually j but there are others again which
either increafe to a certain limit, after which they de¬
creafe ; or elfe they decreafe to a certain limit, after
which they increafe.
If, in confequence of the continual increafe of a vari¬
able quantity, a fundlion of that quantity firft increafes
to a certain limit, and afterwards decreafes, when it ar¬
rives at that limit it is then faid to be a maximum. Or
if it decreafe to a certain limit, and afterwards increafe,
when it arrives at that limit, it is then faid to be a mini¬
mum.
77. Let us confider the funftion y ~b — (.v — af.
If we fuppofe x~o, then y~b—«*. Suppofe now x to
be at firft very fmall, and to increafe j then as (a—a)*
will decreafe, y will alfo increafe, till x become —and
then y will become ~b, when it is a maximum ; for x
being fuppofed to become greater than <7, y will be lefs
than b. By fuppofing x to increafe till (a—af be¬
come equal to b, then y will decreafe to o j and x being
fhll fuppofed to increafe, y wall become negative.
Let us next fuppofe y—b-\-{x—a)2. In this cafe
when a=to, y—b-pd1 j as a increafes, (a—«)* decreafes,
and confequently y decreafes, till tx—a, and then y~b, a
minimum ; for a becoming greater than 77, y becomes
greater than b.
78. Every fundtion that either increafes or decreafes
continually has neither maximum nor minimurji; for
for whatever value fuch a fun diion may acquire, in the
one cafe it may always have a greater, and in the other
a lefs value.
The charadteriftic property of a maximum value of a
fundiion, by which it is made the objedi of analytical
inquiry, confifts in its being greater than the values im¬
mediately preceding, and alfo greater than the values
immediately following it 5 and that of a minimum con-
lilis in its being lefs than the values immediately prece-
ding, and alfo lefs than the values immediately follow-
ing it.
In fome cafes a fundiion may increafe to a certain li¬
mit and then decreafe, and afterwards increafe again in¬
definitely ; or the contrary. Hence it may happen that
fuch a fundiion may have values greater than its maxi¬
mum or lefs than its minimum as they have been here
defined. And indeed it is eafy to conceive that a func¬
tion may increafe and decreafe alternately feveral times j
in fuch a cafe it mull be confidered as having feveral
maxima and minima.
79. Since y any fundiion of a variable quantity a
may be confidered as the ordinate of a curve, of which
x is the abfcilfa, it is evident that to determine the
greatefl or lead value of fuch a fundiion, we have only
to feek the greateft or lead ordinate of the curve which
Part I.
is the locus of the equation expreffing the relation be- Dire<ft
tween a and y. Let us fuppofe this curve to be DPE, Method,
and that AB is the value of a, correfponding to BP the L v 9
maximum or minimum value of the ordinate y; it is evi-^'
dent, that in the cafe of a maximum, the curve mud be
concave towards AC, at lead to a certain extent, on
each fide of the point P, as in fig. 12, but that in the
cafe of a minimum it mud be convex towards AC, as in
fig. 13 ; and alfo, that in either cafe, if a draight line
be drawn through P parallel to AC, the curve mud be
wholly on one fide ot that line, to a certain extent on
each fide of the point P, and therefore, that the line
PQ mud be a tangent to the curve at the point P.
Now when P£> a tangent to a curve at P (fig. 8)
meets the axis in T, it has been diewn, § 75, that - is
A
the expreffion for the tangent of the angle T, radius be¬
ing unity 5 but this angle vanilhes, when PC,), indead of
meeting AC, is parallel to it, as in fig. 1 2, and fig. 13 j
therefore, as in this cafe the tangent of the angle is rro,
we have ^ — o.
x
Hence it appears, that to determine the maximum or
minimum of y, a fundiion of x, we mujl find the fluxion
of the fundi ion, and divide it by x, and put the refult
equal to o.
80. We proceed to illudrate this rule by fome exam
pies.
Ex. 1. To divide a given number a into two fuch
parts, that their product may be the greated podible.
Let a denote the one part, then a—x will be the
other part, and a {a—a) the produdl of the two parts.
Therefore, by the quedion
y—x{a—x)—ax—a1, a maximum,
hence, taking the fluxion of the fundion,
y~a x—2A a, and ^ —a—2 a,
A
therefore, a—2a=o, and x=l a.
Thus it appears that the produ£l of the parts will be
the greated poflible, when each is half the given num¬
ber
Ex. 2. To find the fra6tion which (hall exceed its
cube by the greated quantity poflible.
Let a denote the fradlion, then its cube is a3, fo that
we have
ij—x—a3, a maximum;
therefore, taking the fluxion of the fundiion,
y—x — 3 a* a, and = 1 ■*— 3 a1=o,
A
hence 3 Ai=i, and xzz \/y, the fradlion required,
Ex. 3. To determine the greated redlangle that can
be infcnbed in a given triangle.
Put the bafe A C of the triangle z=b, and its alti¬
tude B D—a, and let B n, the altitude of the redlangle Fig. 14.
p q r s, confidered as variable, be denoted by a, then,
becaufe
FLUXIONS.
Fart I.
Direct
Method.
Fig. 15.
FLUXIONS. 727
becaufe of the parallel lines it will be, as folid content c ^ j)p x hence ivEtho*
BD:AC::D«:/>^, that h a b a — x \ p q, b t v 
hence t> and the area of the re&angle, or C.ax.itllll is to be a maximum, therefore, leaving out
" ^ a ' b
^ X B /?, will be therefore y=——   the conftantmultiplier we have y—x^Q)—x)~bxl
—x}, a maximum ; taking now the fluxions, we get
• • * ll
y —ibxx—3.rJ.v, and-4-=2^«—3x*=o,
mull be a maximum, and hence y —
we have,
y ba— ibx
bax—zbxx
thus
o.
hence $x*zzibx, and x=~^y anc^ confequently HE
zndba—2b x—o, and x=i a', hence it appears that —|BH.
the grotett htfcribed reBangle is that whofe altitude is t])e .n ^ . when
half the altitude of the mangle. that part of tlle equation of ^ime whieh arifes from the
81. It is proper to obferve that the value of a quanti- obliquity of the ecliptic is a
ty when a or minimum rnay often be deter- Let Eft bf equator, EC the ecliptic, S the fun s rig .7.
j. ; ... , r, • . 1 •; OT1,r rmil place, and SA his decimation, then this part ot the
tiple, oTpLro^he^unSr'likewife Jny power or equation of time is the difference of the fun’s longitude
Jot of it, mull tlmn be alfo a ^
Thus in the preceding example, in which the funaion ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ for the of
to be a maximum is we may reje£l the con- the angle £=23° 28'. Then, by Spherical Trigono-
a metry, in the right-angled fpherical triangle EAS, we
ftant multiplier and then the funaion to be a maxi- have tan. EA=cof. E X tan. ES j therefore, to deter-
a _ mine x we have tan. v—a tan. x, and yz=.x—v, a maxi¬
mum. is y=(a—x)x—ax—x2, the fluxion of which be- mum
• * * j y
ina; taken, we have y —ax—2xx and rr —a —2 x—o,
0 x
hence x—\ a, the fame value as before.
From the fee on d of thefe equations we get
. . y v
y—x—v, and-V—1——r=ro,
x x
82. Ex. 4. Of all the right-angled plane triangles .n n n ^ /Crw
having the fame given hypothenufe, to find that whofe an rom e r ’ ^ $ *'
area is greateft.
Let A B C be the triangle j put A Brr.v, and A C,
the given hypothenufe, —a, then B Cr=v/(«J—an(l
• * ^ \ Cl ^ X
confequently the area of the triangle is - \/{a'1—x*), therefore, 1—7:—"—zzo, and fecdurrc icc.xx,
2 7 lec. v
oc*1 ci1 )
which being a maximum, its fquare   , alfo
„ . , r .y , ,\ M1 rf • r , tan.1 'v—a* tan.* x, therefore,
four times that fquare, or x*^'—jc*), will hkewiie be a
maximum, therefore,y—x1^*—x^—a'x1—x4, a max. 1tan.1 *=0-f a tan.a x,
hence y — za^xx—and
• . *1) si
v fee.*vzzaxkc* x, and —=*7—
x lec. v
or 1-J-tan.1 vz=a-\-a tan.1 x, but from the firft equation
^r—zaix—4xs:= o,
x
hence zx^—a1, and \/f.
or —1) tan.1 x~a—i,
1
hence tan. 1.04416, the tangent of 46° 14',
the fun’s longitude when this part of the equation is a
maximum.
Ex- 5. To determine the greatefl cylind«r that can be
inferibed in a given cone.
Put A C the bafe of the cone zzb, B H its altitude
—a, and D F, the diameter of the end of the cylinder
DIGF inferibed in the cone, =x. From the fimilar
triangles BAG, BDF, we have AC : BH :: DF : BE,
(IX
that is b : a :: x : BE, hence BEm-^—,and EH=:BH
— BE—Put c for the number
b b
,<78539, t^ien Bie area of the bafe of the cylinder
is (by the Elements of Geometry) c X DF1, and
83. We have deduced the rule of § 79. for deter¬
mining when- a function is a maximum, or minimum,
from the confideration of curve lines. The whole the¬
ory of maxima and minima may however be explained
in a manner purely analytical, as follows :
Let us fuppofe that y is any function whatever of x,
and that x has acquired the value that produces the
maximum or minimum of the function j then, if we fup¬
pofe x—h and x-\-ii to be fubftituted fucceffively in the
fundUon inftead of x, the two refulting values ought to
be both lefs than the maximum or both greater than
the minimum value. . 1
Let
7.28
FLUX
Direct Let us denote the value of the fun ft ion that refults
Viet hod. from t]ie fubftitution of ,v—h by ty and that which re-
fults from the fubftitution of x-\- h by ?/, then by the
theorem given in $ 69,
J X x'Z X* 2-3
y^y+lh + IL^i
h'
+ -r- 4- &C.
Xx 2 2.3
In each of thefe values, ~ , the coefficient of //, muft
X
either be equal to fome quantity, politive or negative,
or elfe it muft =0. Let us fuppofe, if poffible, that it
is equal to fome quantity, pofitive or negative) now as
y
h may be conceived to be fo fmall that the term -r b,
x
or any other term, fhall exceed the fum of all the terms
that follow it in each feries, (d) if we fuppofe /i to have
fuch a value, then, becaufe of the term having the
x
ftga — irt the one feries, and -}- in the other, it follows
that the one value of the funftion is greater, and the
other lefs than 1/, the maximum or minimum value : But
this concluiion is inconfiftent with the nature of a maxi¬
mum or minimum, therefore 4- cannot in the cafe of a
x
maximum or minimum be equal to any pofitive or ne¬
gative quantity whatever.
If however we affume ~~o, fo that the two values
are,
x' 2 *3 2,3
+!-— + &c.
y t?
then as the fecond term -4- —has the fame fign in both,
2
when that term is greater than all the terms that follow
IONS. Parti.
it, we ihall have both values greater than y when Diieit
'' Method.
is pofitive, and both lefs when it is negative, the firft ——v~*—
x%
cafe correfponding to a maximum, and the fecond to a
minimum.
Hence, to determine the maximum or minimum of the
funftion y, it appears that we muft take the fluxion of y,
and divide it by x, and put the refult equal to o, which
agrees with what was ffiewn in } 79.
\
84. Although in the cafe of a funftion admitting of
a maximum or minimum we have always ~~o, yet we
x
muft not conclude that converfely the one or the other
of thefe has place every time that ~—o. For if it
fo happens that the value of x that renders-!^-=:o,caufes
x
alfo ~ to vaniffi, without at the fame time making
x*
-4- to difappear, then we have
xl
y b*
y
,y=y—-
.v3 2-3 x* 2,3*4
y
&c.
, v y h* _
y'=y-\-4 + 4- J- &c.
J a-3 2-3 ^ 2-3-4
and as by giving a proper value to h, ]£_ 41 may be
a3 2-3
may be ren¬
dered greater than the fum of all the following terms in each
feries, it follows, that A. being fuppofed to be any quan-
A3
tity either pofitire or negative, becaufe of its fign being
different in the two values, the one of them wall be greater,
and the other lefs than y, the maximum or minimum
value, which refult is inconfiftent with the nature of a
maximum or minimum. If however be affumed
A3
—O, then
&-
(d) If this ffiould not appear fufficiently obvious, let
A/;-fB/ft-fC/z3-{-D/^-f &c.
be fuch a feries, where A, B, C, D, &c. denote quantities either pofitive or negative, but which are independent
of h. Then, writing the feries thus,
/;(A+B/SD/P-{- &c.)
it is obvious that if h be conceived to be continually diminifhed, and at laft to become —o, the part
B/; + C^ + D^3+ &c.
will alfo become =0, therefore before it vaniffies it will be lefs than A, or any other affignable quantity, therefore
B/ft-f-C//3-{-D/P-f- &c. may become lefs than Ah.
4
Part T.
Direft
Method.
F L U X I O
N S.
y ~
-729
Direct
Method.
X* *(! m ^
which equation, by putting inftead of k its value
ma
, y
y'-y+
h*
&C.
VC i-
—becomes
■m*)'
X* 2-3-4
here again, the coefficient of the fecond term having in
both values the fame lign, the conditions of the maxi-
y
mum or minimum are fulfilled, and the fign of -r- ffiews
X*
when the one or the other is to have place.
It muft now be fufficiently evident, without proceed¬
ing any further, that a funEhon can only admit of a
maximum or a minimum when the firjl of its fluxions
that does not vanifh, is of an even order (or is its fecond
or fourth fluxion, <b‘c.)t <tnd that the Jig n of that fluxion
is negative in the cafe of a maximum, but pofitive in the
cafe of a minimum.
85. We <hall conclude this theory by applying it
to an example. Let y be fuch a funftion of x that
aj(\—m*y
then by $ 49,
if—zmxy -f- x1—<2*=o,
(ij—mx^y—(my—x) x—o.
and hence
my—x
x y—mx
;=o.
'x
therefore my—x—o, and yzz\~.
To find the value of x, let this value of y be fubftituted
in the original equation, it thus becomes
 ** — fl*=30,
m*
hence we find
and as this refult is negative, we conclude that the value
which we have found for y is a maximum.
Of the values of frations, the numerators and deno¬
minators of which vanifh at the fame time.
86. There are fome fractional functions of fuch a
nature, that by giving a particular value to the variable
quantity, both the numerator and denominator of the
frattion vaniffi, and thus the fra&ion is reduced to this
form an expreffion from which nothing can be con-
o
eluded. We have an example of this in the fraftion
which, by fuppofing x—a becomes ~~ *
we muft not however conclude that the fraction has no
determinate value in this particular cafe, for if ve con-
fider that its numerator and denominator have a com¬
mon divifor, viz. x—a, it is evident that by taking this
divifor out of both, the fraftion (x'-fc) ’
becomes , an expreffion, which in the c»fe oix~a is
xfa
equal to —.
1 2a
87. In general, if we make x—a in an expreffion of
Pfv a\m o .
this form v 4-, it becomes - 5 however its true va-
—*0” 0 . .
lue is either nothing, or finite, or infinite, according as
m~y^’n, or m~n, or msZLn ; for by taking out the fac¬
tors common to the numerator and denominator, the frac-
ma , a
*”V(l—«**)’ a11 7J~ 1/(1—m'J
tion becomes
■p(x-.a')m-n .
in the firft cafe, — in the fe-
We mull now examine what is the nature of the ex-
y_
x1
y my—x
•T-rr >
x y—mx
preffion for 4V Taking the fluxion of the equation
x*
and confidering that x is conftant, we have
y _(i—m'Xxy—yx),
i ( y—mxfl
%
fherefore, dividing by xf
y _ *—S y x A
X1 (y—mxf i 'x Jy
but as in the prelent cafe o, and yzz—, this ex-
x m
preffion becomes limply
J VOL. VIII. Part II.
cond, and 777 r— in the third j here we fuppofe
—a)
that P and Q are luch functions as neither become no¬
thing, nor infinite, by the fuppofition of x—a.
88. Therefore, when by‘giving a particular value to
x a function of that quantity affumes the form —, to dif*
cover the true value of the function in this particular
cafe, we muft difengage the faftors which are common
to the numerator and denominator. This may be don«
in moft cafes by finding their common meafure (Alge¬
bra, § 49.) but the direft method of fluxions furnilhes
us with another method.
In the expreffion P (x—a), where P denotes any
fun&ion of x that is independent of x—a, if we fuppofe
X'zza, then the expreffion vanifhes ) the fluxion however
of the expreffion, viz. (x—~a') P -{- P v, is a quantity
wffiich does not vaniffi when x—a, but is then reduced.
to its laft term, that is to P x.
4 z
Again,,
73°
Direct
Method.
F L U X
Again, the function P (at—-<7)* vanhhes by ftippofing
x=a, but ir we take its fluxion, viz. (x—a)* P -{- 2 (x
—a) P x, and again the fluxion of this quantity we
get
(x—77),P-|-4(;r—a)Px-pj-2 P x2,
an expreflion which does not vanifli upon the hypothefis
of x=a, but is reduced to its lafl: term. viz. 1.2 P x*.
By proceeding in this manner, it is eafy to fee that by
taking the fluxion of a fundtion of the form P (x—a)m
vi times fucceflively (ni being a whole number) wre flrall
finally obtain an expreffion, all the terms of which, ex¬
cept the laft, vanilh by fuppofing that x~aand that
the lafl: term will be 1 . 2.3 ... w P an expreflion
free from the factor (.r—a)m^ and involving only the
function P.
IONS.
Part I
denominator is 2xx, neither of which quantities ranifh Birecfl;
when xz^. 1, therefore in this particular cafe, the value Meth°d.
of the fradtion is ^ X ■ —
2x 2
Ex. 2. Suppofe the fradlion to be —^ '^E-C. X..^~JLC\_
. bx1—ibc x-^-bcl'>
which vaniflies when x'zzc.
By taking the fluxions of the numerator and denomi-
2axx—2acx ax—ac
■r^Zb~c'afraai™.
nator we obtain
zb x x—2 b cx
the numerator and denominator of which fiill vanifli
upon the hypothefis of xzzcf we therefore take the flux-
2a x*
ions a fecond time, and get
the propofed fradlion in the particular cafe of x~c.
zbx2
'■-jr for the value of
89. It is not neceflarythat tve fliould know the num¬
ber n, nor that we fliould exhibit the fa&or {x «)»,
in order to determine when the expreflion P (v ay is
freed from that factor. We have only to afcertain after
each operation of taking the fluxion, whether the refult
yaniflies or not, when we fubftitute a inftead of x; for
in the lafl: cafe the operation is fimihed, and the refult
is the quantity I . 2.3 . . P ^ Suppofe for example
tr.e function to be x*—ax2 — a'x -ya^, which vanilhes
when x—a, its firfl: fluxion alfo vanifties when xzz:a, but
not its fecond fluxion, which is (6 x——2a') x2^ hence we
may conclude that the fundtion has the form P (x a)2,
which is befides obvious, becaufe
x*—a x2——a)2.
90. In applying thefe obfervations to the fradlion
P(x—a')Tn .
a)'!» lt; aPPears> ^hat by repeating the operation
of taking the fluxions of its numerator and denominator,
they will be freed at once from the fador x—a, if m~n.
If a refult, which does not vanifli, be obtained firft from
the numerator, then we may be aflured, that the fadlor
(v—a) is found in the numerator raifed to a lefs pow'er
than m the denominator, and in this cafe the fradion is
infinite wdien x—a. If on the contrary the firfl: refult
that does not vanifli is found from the denominator,
then the numerator contains a higher power of {x—a)
than the denominator, and in this cafe, when x—a, the
xradlion vanifties.
I he rule for finding the value of a fundion which
becomes - by giving a particular value to x may there-
forfc be expreffed thus. Tahe the fuccejive fluxions 0
■Onj t ie numerator and denominator until a refult vohia
does not vamfl, be obtained from either the one or th
ether or from both at the fame time; in the firft cal
• 6/ lpn lTl-fin 'lte' tn the fecond it is equal to o, am
in the laft cafe its value is finite.
91. We proceed to illuflrate this rule by a few ex¬
amples.
hx. I. I he value of the fundion —I is required
when a?~i.
I he fluxion of the numerator is ^x2x7 and that of the
Ex. 3. Suppofe the fradion to be
x1 —a x1 -{-a2x—a5
' x'—a2
w hich vaniflies when x—a. In this example, by taking
the fluxions of the numerator and denominator once, we
get
3 x2x—2 ax x—a2 x 3 x2—2 ax—a2
2 x x 2 x
an expreflion, of which only the numerator vanifties
upon the fuppolition of xz=a, hence we may conclude
the true value of the fradion in this cafe to be o.
The contrary happens in the fradion
ax—x2
a4—2aix-\-2axi—x* ’
we may therefore conclude that when x — a this laft
fradion becomes infinite.
92. The rule of § 90 can only be applied when the
fadors common to the numerator and denominator are
integer powers of x—a, for as by taking the fluxions
the index of {x—a)m is diminiflied by an unit at each
operation ; when m is a fradion we ftiall at lafl arrive
at a refult containing negative powers of * a, which
therefore, when x—a, will become infinite. The fol¬
lowing mode of proceeding will however apply to all
cafes whatever.
X
yr; be a fradion of which the numerator and de¬
nominator both, vanifli when x—a ; by fubftituting in it
a-\-h inflead of x, the fundions X and X' may be ex¬
panded into a feries of this form,
Ah +B ^-f&c. A'//6 -f B ^ -f-&c.
W'hich are afeending, that is, having the exponents of
the pmvers politive and increafing j becaufe the feries
mult become o, upon the hypothefis that /i=:0 We
have therefore '
A/i*4-B/-f.&c.
A'r'+B'/+&c.
inftead of the propofed fradion.
Now
#
Part T.
Dire&
Method.
FLUX
Now if ti a', by dividing the numerator and de¬
nominator of this expreffion by the factor h , which is
common to all the terms of each, it becomes
Ah
'+B /““'+&C.
A'+b/ "’’+&c.
a quantity which, by fuppofmg h = o, is reduced to
~, that is to o. If again the expreflion for the
fraction, after dividing the numerator and denominator
by hx} is
A4-B/~~*'-f&c.
A' -j- B -f &c.
which, by fuppofing h to be =ro, becomes limply —» a
finite quantity. If, however, a ^L. then the expref¬
lion for the fra£lion is
A4-B/_a+&c.
A//
t+B/”“+&c.
A.
which, when hzzo, becomes —, an expreflion which
7 o
may be considered as infinite. Thus it appears that in
each cafe the true value of the fraft5 on depends only on
A and A', the firll terms of the feries.
The following rule is applicable to every funflion
that can appear under the indeterminate form
Find the JirJl term of each of the afcetiding feries
which exprefs the developements of the numerator and
denominator when a-f-h is fuhjlituted in them injlead of
x. Reduce the new fun&ion formed of thefe frjl terms
to its mojl fimple form, and make h—o j the nfults Jhall
be the different values of the propofed funBion when x
is made equal to a.
Example. Suppofe the function to be
V x— V a-\-V (*—
which, when *=o, becomes^. By fubllituting a -{-h
inllead of x, and developing the refults into feries, the
numerator becomes&c* and the denomi-
-f. &c. Taking now the firll
_____ i
nator V2a+•
hi
2^ 2a
term of each feries, we have
fn
l\l za h--
:, an ex-
Fiff. x8.
2 V 2\^ 2 a
prellion in which h is not found j therefore the value of
the fun&ion is —7==:, when x—a.
v 2a
Of the Radii of Curvature.
93. Let HC'CF reprefent a material curve, or mould.
IONS. 731
Let a thread be fattened to it at H, and made to pafs Rived:
along the curve, fo as to coincide with it in its whole ^ttthod. ^
extent from H to F. Let the thread be now unlapped
or evolved from the curve, then its extremity F will de-
feribe another curve line FAPP'. The curve HCF is
called the Evolute of the curve FAP ; and the curve
FAP is called the Involute of the curve HCF.
94. From this mode of conceiving the curve to be
generated, wre may draw the following conclufions.
rft. Suppofe PC to be a portion of the thread de¬
tached from the evolute, then PC will be a tangent to
the evolute at C.
adly. The line PC will be perpendicular to a tan¬
gent to the curve FAP at the point P, or will be a
normal to the curve at that point. For the point P
may be confidered as deferibing at the fame time an
element of the curve FAP, and an element of a circle
y P whofe momentary centre is C, and which has PC
for its radius.
3dly. That part of the curve between F and P,
which is deferibed with radii all of wdiich are fliorter
than CP is more incurvated than a circle deferibed on
P as a centre, with a radius equal to C P. And in like
manner PP', the part of the curve, on the other fide of
P, which is deferibed with radii greater than PC, is left
incurvated than that circle.
4thly. The circle q P y\has the fame curvature as the
curve APP'itfelf has at P : hence it is called an Equi-
curve circle, and its radius PC is called the Radius
of Curvature at the point C.
95. We are now to inveftigate how the radius of
curvature at any point in FAP any propofed curve may
be found.
Let AB and BP be the co-ordinates at P any point
in the curve, and PC its radius of curvature j and let
PC meet AB in E. Put the abfeiffa ABzr.v, the or.
dinate BP=y, the arch APrrz, the angle AEP (that
is, the arch which meafures that angle, radius being uni¬
ty) —V, the radius of curvature PC=y. Take P' ano¬
ther point in the curve, and le^ P'C' be the radius of
curvature at that point. Let P'C' meet AB in E', and »
PC in D, and on D as a centre, with a radius =1, de-
Icribe an arch of a circle, meeting the radii PC, P'C'
in m and n. Then the arch PP' wall be the increment
of % ; and fince the angle PDP' is the difference of the
angles PEA, PE'A, the arch m n wall be the correfpon-
ding increment of v.
Suppofe now the point P' to approach continually to
P, then the points C' and D will approach to C, and
the ratio of the arch PP', the increment of %, to the
arch m n the increment of v, will approach to the ratio
of CP to C m, that is to the ratio of r to 1 5 therefore
the ratio of r to 1 is the limit of the ratio of PP' to mn,
PP'
or r= limit of ——, and patting to the ratio of the
m 11
fluxions, rrr ~, thus we have obtained a formula ex-
v
prefling the radius of curvature, by means of the fluxion
of the arch of the curve, and the fluxion of the angle
which a normal to the curve makes with the line of the
abfeiffas. We proceed to deduce from this formula
4 Z 2 other
732
FLUXIONS.
Part I.
Direft other expreflions which may involve the fluxions of x
Method. ancJ y only.
g6. Becaufe PE is a normal to the curve at E, the
tangent of the angle PEA or v is equal to - ($ 75.),
y
nut ~—t, then becaufe tan. v=zt, we have by taking
^ * • e
the fluxions (§ 60.), v fee.2 vzzt, but fec.^mi-(-tan.2®
— 1 -f-—=—7--——— (j 63.), therefore —.— = t
y1 . y1 y* yl
Subftituting now this value of v in the formula r— —
it becomes rz
.1 a*x
1 .  1
——la'1x1x *=:■
2 V'1
-a2x7
X • X a*K • Diredl
{ore, y=ia'1xx a= j-, and, making v conftant, Method. ^
2 V *  v—
.»
45CV
therefore, ssrrr-v/^-f-y1)
and, putting r for the radius of
2s5
curvature.
— xy
2 \/ a
y‘
If we now recollect that t——, and that %x — xx -f-
y
y2, it will appear that this other expreflion which we
have found for r involves in effect the fluxions of x and
y only.
97. In computing the values of t——, and —r we
y .. ^yl
may confider any two of the three quantities x, y, %,
as a function of the remaining quantity j and upon that
hypothefis compute their fluxions.
Thus if wre fuppofe that y and <z> are functions of x,
then, as in taking the fluxions of y, t, and 2, we mult
confider x as a given or conftant quantity, from the
equation t— — we have t — 39.), and fub-
y . y
.. g;3
ftituting this value of pin , the value laft found
. 1 yz
for r, it becomes
r_ ss3 __(v*+yO^
X Zj jy y
If again, initead of confidering y and % as fundtions of
x, we confider x and ss as fun ft ions of y, then from the
. X •
equation /rr-r- (as y mult now be reckoned conftant},
y
• X~ 52 ^
we. get t. thus the formula r=-7-r-becomes
y ^ y*
r__ _(v2-fy2-)|
x y x y
We fhall now apply thefe formulae to fome examples.
98. Example 1.—It is required to find the general
fxpreffion for the radius of curvature of a parabola.
If in this general expreflion, we put vr=o, we find
a’
———4# for the radius of curvature at the vertex of
2-v/ a
the curve.
Ex. 2. Suppofe the curve to be an ellipfe, required
as in the laft example.
Putting a and c to denote the two axes, the equation
of the ellipfe is a71 y*—c* {a x—x1). Hence taking the
firft and fecond fluxions, we have 2 cfyy—c1 x(a-~2x),
and 2 a2 y1 -f- 2 a2 y y~— 2 c2 v2 3 whence y =■
c2 x (a—2v) , •• a2y2-{-c2x2 ... «
   and — y——-—r , which exprei-
za2y ^ a2y
fions, by fubftituting the values of y and y become
« cx (a—2 v)
y 2a*J {ax—v2)
a2 c2x2 {a—2 v)1
—y=<i
4<?3c(tfv—v2) v/ {ax—v2)
cx*
a>J {a x—v2)
{a—2 *y+4 {a x—x2)
cx‘
a ^ 4 (« x—x2>)\Z {a x—v2)
c ax*
"4 (av—v2)!'
therefore,
a=^/(v*+y2)
_,(^(a-2Xy | ...\
V V4(ax—x*) ' /
_ X j lc2a2 {a2—c2) (4 a v—4 x2) V
2 a* V a x—v3 /
and
a x—x
• X
 {a2c2-f 4 (a2—ft) (a*—y2)*.
' 2 a* c
(A
which expreflion, when xzzo, becomes Amply —•, the
radius of curvature at the vertices of the tranfverfe
axis j but when xzz^^a, it becomes —, the radius of
The equation of the parabola is yzza * x%} there- curvature at the vertices of the conjugate axis.
PART
Part IT.
Inverfe
Method.
FLUXIONS.
part II. THE INVERSE METHOD OF FLUXIONS.
733
Inverfe
Method.
oo AS the Direct Method of fluxions treats of
fijimr the relation between the fluxions of variable
nthies having given the relation fubfiftmg between
r qStts thrives; fo the Inverse Method
treats" of finding the relation fubfiflmg between the var -
able quantities, having given the relation of the
^Whatever be the relation between variable quantities,
we can in every cafe aflign the relation of their fluxions i
therefore the direft method of fluxions may m this re
fpea be confidered as perfetf. But it is not the fame
with the inverfe method, for there are no dire ft and
general rules, by which we can in every cafe .deter™
from the relation of the fluxions, that of their flovmg
quantities or fluents. All we can do is to compare any
propofed fluxion with fuch flnxions as are derlvedJ™.f
known fluents by the rules of the direft -^od and i
we find it to have the fame form as one of theie, we
may conclude that the fluents of both, or at leail
variable parts of thefe fluents, are identical.
IOO In the direct method we have fliewn, that by
proper transformations, the finding of the fluxion of any
propofed fundion is reducible to the finding °f th
fluxions of a few Ample fundions, and of the funis, or
proSs; or quotients of fuch fundions In like man¬
ner in the inverfe method we muft endeavour to trans¬
form complex fluxionary expreffions into others more
Ample, fo as to reduce them, if poflible, to fome fluxion,
the fluent of which we already know.
Sect. I. Of the Fluents of Fluxions involving one
variable quantity.
inquiry in which the fluxional equation oc¬
curs. If it be known that y=0, when * acquires fome
known magnitude, which may be denoted by b, en
the general equation +C> becomes m that
particular cafe
i n-\-l
ab i r-
o=—, 
nfl- I
Hence, by fubtrading each fide of this laft equation
from the correfponding fide of the former, we get
y-
a (x
F I+”
)
fl “j" I
an equation that is independent of the conftant and ar*
bitrary quantity C.
103. By giving particular values to n in the fluxion¬
al equation x, and in that of the fluents
a (v"+I —b"^1) . we may obtain particular fluxional
equations)" and correfponding equations of the fluents.
There is, however, one cafe which requires to be no¬
ticed *, it is when « is =—1 j then the equation of the'
fluxions is 'y=a rt =and that of the fluents, ac
~a(x-'+'-b-f+'J
cording to the general formula y—  ^ j
  a(x°—^°) _- ff(I ——}hut from this expreflion it
to, As when v is fuch a funaion of a variable i3 manifeft, that nothing can be concluded. The value
v ti,at ,,— \xmA-0, where A, m and C de-
not^ conftant quantities, we find by the direa method
($ 36. and $ 26.) that A or (putting »
inftead of m A, and n inftead of tn—i), y~a x* » J f>
on the contrary, as often as we have the fluxional equa¬
tion
y—a xn x,
we may conclude that the relation of the fluents is ex-
preffed by the equation
y=-^+r+c’
for by fubftituting m A inftead of a, and m—l mftead
of n in this equation, it becomes '/= A+C, the fame
etjuation as that from which the fluxional equation was
derived.
102. The value of the conftant quantity C, which is
generally called by writers on fluxions, the correction
tf the fluent, is to be determined-from the particular
of the funaion in *= particular cafe
of «4-1=0 may be found by the rule given in § 90
for determining the value of a funaion when it affumes
the form —; but it may be otherwife found by pro-
o .
log. x ,
ceeding thus. Put « + and let/)-lo^, ana*
• then, by the formula of $ 54,
1 log. e
/>* mx
2
&Co
+ &c
2r
and therefore
Xm bm— (/>—q) "2+ {p%—'7*)^+ ^■C,
a„d£=^=(p_?)+(oW)-f+^
Thus
734
Inverfe
Method.
1 bus we rnive   , or
FLUX
exprefled ge«
m ' «-f-i
nerally by a feries, all tlie terms of which, except the
firft, being multiplied by tn or n~\-1, will vanifh when
n-j-i—O, or when «——I, hence it appears, that the
general equation y=—± ,  , becomes in the
/z-j-l
particular cafe of n=~j, y—a (/.—y), which, fubfti-
tuting for f> and q their values, and obferving that
log. x log. b
log, e log. e
"iog. e
i^x los- T’bccomcs
xi°g.T
IONS. Fart IT,
So on the contrary, if we have any iumonal equation of Inyerfe
this lafl form, we may conclude that Method.
y— at -\-bv+cu-\- §tc. -j-C.
And lince that when u—vt -f-C, where u, v and t de¬
note any funftion of a variable quantity, and C a con-
dant quantity, we have ^ $7j fo on the con*
trary, if
uz=.vt-\-tv^
we may conclude that
u~v r-}-C,
and in like manner if we have
X
where log. e, and log. — are to be taken according to the
fame fydem, which may be any fydem of logarithms
whatever. So that if we take the Napierean fydem, in
which log. <?=i, then
y—a 1.^=41.*—a 1. b—a 1. x~j~C,
where C denotes a condant quantity, and where the let¬
ter h in this formula, and in others in which it may oc¬
cur, is put as an abbreviation of the words Napierean lo¬
garithm, fo that by a 1. x is meant a multiplied by the
Napierean logarithm of x, &c.
This expredion which we have found for the value
u—-
tv V t
r t
we may infer from § 39. that
v
v v t
 7
t*
of y in the particular cafe of y zzax 1 x, or coin*
•
cides with what we might have found by confiderino-
that when y—l. x, it has been Ihewn 57*) that
V —that converfely, when y —we may
conclude thac y~a 1. a;-J-C where C denotes a condant
quantity, to be determined from the particular quedion
in which the fluxional equation may occur.
104. It mud now be evident that if
y—axmx + bxnx-\-cx?x-\- &c.
where m, n,p, &c. are condant numbers, then
<7Arm+I cxp-b-i
m-J-1 “ n+i
+ &c. -f C
here C denotes a condant arbitrary quantity that may
fee coniidered as the fum of the condant quantities which
ought to be added to the terms —**”+! &c
. , . “+1 ”+l ’
each being regarded as a didincl fluent.
105. In general, fince that when
y— at +bv+cu+ &c. -J-C,
where t, v, u, &c. denote any functions of a variable
quantity, and w a condant quantity, we have (§35. and
Jt &c.
“=7+c.
106. It is often convenient to denote the fluent of a
fluxional expreflion without actually exhibiting that
fluent. For this purpofe we fliall employ the flgn
putting it before the fluxion whofe fluent we mean to
denote. Thus, by the expreflionf ax nx,\s to be un¬
derflood the fluent o{ a xnx; and as this fluent has been
found to be —p--fC, we may exprefs this conclufiot*
in fymbols fliortly thus,
r • "+1
107. Suppofe we havey=:(tftf-J-£)»^ ^ may ex_
pand (ax+b)” into a feries, and multiply the feries by
x, and find the fluent of each term of the refult. But
we may alfo find the fluent of this expreflion without
employing the developement of (ax-f-b)m, by proceed,
ing thus. Put ax+b=z, then and x=~-
a a'
Subflitute now thefe values of ax+b, and !r, in the ex-
/T* X* * • * ^ 2$
predion for y, and it becomes  j hence we have
m-j-i
101.) y———  
dituting (ax-\-F) for
-C, and confequently, by fub-
V
_ | r
fl(m-J-i)
108. Suppofethatyrz(av”-f-b)mxn—1 x. Byputtingas
before ex'’’-J-^zris, we have —‘xrrzz, and xn—1 ^
~—? hence y —  and y——  _i_C snd
™ J na V na(m+i) + ’ and»
fubflituting for * its value ax n
3
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
fluxions.
735
(ax” +Z>)m+I
^ na(m-t-i)
-C.
place, we remark that the greateft exponent of the jjverfe^
powers of x in the numerator may be fuppofed to be , *
lefs than that of its powers in the denominator. For if
, it were not fo, by dividing U by V, and calling £)
109. Let us now confider fractional iuncnons, ana t^e qUOtjent} an(i R the remainder, we ihould have
to begin with a fimple cafe, let us iuppofe that rT ; u
A yW m - ■ ‘"b * 525
7/=:~——r Put 27X 4-^=2, then x~ > x= ~-
J (ax+by a a
and confequently,
A(x—by%
y am+Izn
We have now only to find the developement of b) ,
to multiply each of its terms by ss and divide it by z”,
and take the fluent of the refult.
Let us take for example the cafe of wz=3, and
»= 2, then
A(*—by*
^•=8.*’+^-. »nd
Now, O being a rational and integer fun&ion^Q^may
be found, as in $ 101, and it only remains to find
—an expreflion in which the higheft exponent of
the powers of x in R is lefs by unity than in V 5 fo that
1^. V i
the fraction —y— may he generally expreffed thus,
(A^n~1+B.vn~a4-Ca;"~3 hT)ar.
A r # . . -I (Ax” -|-i5.V” -j-\JX •> 
= — I ^ s’—3 bz -1-3 b1*— 'z—b**—**; | x” -yA^"-1 +Wxn-1 + C'xn-i ... +T'
Hence, taking the fluents of the feveral terms, as in
§ 105, we have
 3fe-h3^1.25+^J2;—1 |+C.
Let us now reftore the value of 52;, and then it appears,
that when
. Ax^x
^ (ax^-bY*
_ A ^\(ax-\-by—ib(ax-\-b) T
y a*' -}-3^Il.(flA;-{-^)-|-^3(o^-h^) 1 j
1 ro. If we fuppofe that
• A^x-pB#^*:-j--j- &c.
y~ (a+bx)" ’
then, we may write the equation tlius,
• Ax”x t Bx^x
y==(a+bx)m r (a-’rbx)m
, Cx*x , c,
+(i+sr+ &c-
and take the fluent of each term, in the fame manner as
we have found the fluent of -^ax_^~yT’
Of the Fluents of rational FraSiions.
in. Every fluxion that is a rational fra&ion is com¬
prehended under this general formula,
(Axm-j-Bx” -f- CxP -f-
A,xm'f- B'x +0x1”-f &c. ’
which, by putting U to denote the expreffion between
the parenthefes in the numerator, and V the denomina-
Ux
tor, may be' reprefented by —-y—• Now in the firft
The general method of finding the fluent of a
fra&ional expreflion of this form confifts in decompofing
it into a feries of other fra&ions, the denominators of
which are more fimple. Thefe fractions may be found
by proceeding as follows : By putting the denominator
of the propofed fra&ion equal to o, we get this equa¬
tion,
xn+A'xn_14-B'x”-1... +T'=o.
Suppofe now that the roots of this equation are found,
and that they are denoted by
—a, —a', —a", —a'", &c.
which quantities we {hall fuppofe in the firft place, are
all unequal. Then the expreffion which has been af-
fumed as equal too, may (Algebra, Seff. X.) be con-
fidered as the produ6! erf n fadlors
x-J-tf, x-\-a', x-f-tf", x-j-rf", &c.
Let the propofed fraction ~ be now affumed as equal
to the fum of the fimple fractions
N N' N"
x-f-a’xfl-r/'’ x-J-a"’
having for their denominators the fimple fa&ors of the
denominator of the propofed fraftion, and for their
numerators quantities which are conilant, but as yet are
indetermined.
That we may avoid complicated calculations, and
prefent a determinate object to the mind, let us fuppofe
that the fluxion of which we are to find the fluent is
( Ax* -f- Bx -f- C) x
x3 4- A'x* 4- B'x -f- C' ’
and that we have by the refolution of the cubic equa¬
tion xJ 4 A/x24B'x4C'uro found
x3 4 A'x* 4 B'x 40'= (x 4<r) (x (x
736 . FLUX
Inverfe ,J}ie fraftions
Method.
v N.v N'a,’ N"*
x-\-a x-\-a' ’ x-\-a''
when reduced to a common denominator are
(y-}-o)(y-f-«,)CA, + ^7,/), (-'f0
y a)-j—a^
The common denominator of thefe fraftions is the fame
as that of the propofed fraftion, and each of the nume¬
rators, as well as their fum, is a fundlion of y of a de¬
gree lower than the denominator, that is, in the prefent
cafe, it is a fundlion of the fecond degree. By taking
the actual products of the factors in the numerators,
and adding the refults, we find the fum of the fractions
equal to
r(N+N'+N">* T
l-j + |N(«'+a'0 + N'(a+«")+N"(‘*+‘<')}*['
■ (.+Na'<J"+N W' +N'W J
where V denotes the common denominator (y +*)
+ + Setting afide
the fadlor of the above exprefiion, we are now to
compare that part of it which involves the three inde¬
terminate quantities N, N', N'', writh A ya B y -J- C,
the numerator of the proposed fraction, thus wre obtain
thefe three equations
N+N'-f N"=:A,
N a' a a'-j-N" a a'=.C.
By thefe equations, which are all of the firft degree,
wre may determine the values of N, N7 and N", and thus
i ■> r a r ci- (Ay*-}-B y-4-C) y
we have the propoied traction    -r2———i
r v yJ-}-A'y*-f B'y+C'
equal to
Ny N'y N"x
x-j-a y—y —^
where N, N', N", and a, a\ a!\ are conftant and known
quantities.
Put y-f-crrs;, then y = 2s, and the fraction
Nz
Ny
x-\-a
transformed to , of wdiich the fluent is N1.5s=rN 1.
rN' x
(y-f-c) (§ 103). In like manner we find J ~ j^a,=
N' 1. (y-j-a'), and /——7, == N'T. (y-f-^'O? an<i confe-
1 k*'+c
quently
f (Aya-f
•/ .vS 1 A
ys-f-By-f C)y
I gy^-j-AV-f-B'y + C' \
2=N l.(y-f c)-j-N'l.(y-f «')-f N"l.(y-f o;/)
IONS. Part II.
, „ " Inverf?
= 1. { (.V +<0’V +‘>,f (*+0"f' 1 + conjt. , .
where by conjl. is meant a conftant quantity.
It is eafy to extend this mode of proceeding to the
general formula given at the beginning of this J ; and
it is obvious, that as often as the denominator of a ra¬
tional fraftion can be decompofed into real and unequal
factors, tho determination of the fluent of that fraftion
is attended with no other difficulty than this decompo-
fition, which requires the numerical refolution of equa¬
tions.
11 2. We have fuppofed that the factors of the deno¬
minator of the propofed fra£tion are unequal among
themfelves, and it is only when this is the cafe that the
fra&ion can be decompofed into others, having all this
N
form  . If we fuppofe that the denominator
y-frt rr
y”-bA'y'’ I-{-B'y* z... -f-T' has a faftor of the
form (y then the propofed fraftion
(A y” I-f- By” ^-f-Cy” 3. . +T)y
y” -f-A'y” 1 + B'y” ^-j-C'y” 3... +T
muft be aflumed equal to
(Px^+^^-fRy^—3 hY)y
{x + a)* j
t N' y f N" y
y-f-fl' "^"y-j-«"
where P, Q^, R ... Y, N', N", &c. denotes indetermi¬
nate but conftant quantities, and x-\-a', x-j-a", &c. are
the remaining factors of the denominator of the propo-
fed fradlion. To determine the quantities P, R ...
Y, N', N", &c. wre muft now proceed in all relpe&s as
in laft §, that is, wre muft reduce the fractions involving
thefe quantities to a common denominator, which will
be the fame as the denominator of the propofed frac¬
tion j then we muft add the numerators, and put the co¬
efficient of each power of x in the fum equal to the co¬
efficient of the fame power in the numerator of the pro¬
pofed fraction. Thus we fliall have as many equations
as indeterminate quantities, and by refolving thefe equa¬
tions, the values of thefe quantities will be found.
Having thus determined all the quantities P, Qj R,
... Y, which enter into the fraclion
(Px^-f Q  h Y>
{x+aY
its fluent may be found as ffiewn in J 109. But we
may alfo affume it equal to
My
M'.
M" y
(y-n/ 0+0/ 1 0+0/
M'" • • y
—a
...+
x4*a
and, it is eafy to fee, that by reducing thefe fractions to
a
A
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
FLUX
a common denominator and adding them, the numera¬
tor of their fum will have the fame form as that of the frac¬
tion whofe fluent we are feeking ; fo that the values of the
indeterminate quantities M, M', &c, will be found by
putting the coefficients of the fame power of * m both
numerators equal to each other. To find the fluent of
x we may affume x then x —iz, and
^ P
x-\-a)
‘M %
(x -{-«)
M
\—p
{P—P) (x+a)?'
In like manner
/
M'x
M'
(a+a/ 1 (2—/>) {x+a)p 2
IONS, 737
alfo thofe of the other indeterminate coefficients are to
be found as before. # » .-v —
If the denominator of the propofed fraction have e-
veral equal faftors of the fecond degree refulting from
its imaginary Ample faftors, fo that the product of thole
equal faftors is
then, correfponding to this product, we^ muft, among
the fradtions having indeterminate coefficients, anume
one of this form
rov^'+RV^.-. + Y')^
(£*-}- 2xx -f-a;1
where R/ ... Y' denote conftant and indeterminate
coefficients, the values of which will be found in all re-
fpefts as thofe of the others.
We are now to find the fluents of thefe two fluxional
expreffions, beginning with the firft, viz.
and fo on, all the fluents being algebraic, except the
laft /'MW -—which is M'"•••!.(*+«), a logarithmic
7 x-f-fl
funftion.
113. In refolving the equation
x” +• A'*"-1 +B'xn-2... +T=o,
it may happen that fome of its roots a, a> a", &c. are
imaginary quantities, and then fome of the Ample fac¬
tors x + a, x+7, *+«", &c. will be imaginary. Thefe
fadlors always occur in pairs (Algebra, § 179O an“
have this form
7—^1, * + «——1,
fo that their produft
x* -{- 2»x -f-x* -f-A*
is a real faaor of the fecond degree. As every corre¬
fponding pair of imaginary fimple faftors may be -united
in this manner into a real factor of the fecond degree,
if thefe fadors are all unequal, we may avoid introdu¬
cing imaginary quantities into the fluent of the propo¬
fed fraftion by proceeding thus. Let x-f-x-f-/^ 1
and x + x—/3 7—7, denote two correfponding imagi¬
nary fimple faftors of the denominator. Inftead of the
two fimple fractions
(Kx-[-L)zv
(Kx-|-L)x
x1 -\-2xX-\-x1
Put x-\-x=z, then it becomes
(Kss + L—Kx)z _
25* +A*
and this again, by putting L—K*=M, is refolved into
thefe two fluxions
Kssss Mss
We can immediately find the fluent of the firfi: of thefe,
by putting z'+pzzv, for then ss 2 = ^, and
Jz 4-fi V
With refpea to the other fluxion, if we put z—fi y, we
have
M v
Mz _   
x*+Pz ~ & 1+y1 ’
y
N x
N' x
which would have been affumed if the fa&ors had been
real, affume a Angle fraction
(Kx-{-L)a?
but we have feen (5 60.) that —is the fluxion of
1 -\-y
an arch of which the tangent is y, therefore
/•-
J *
—^ — — arc (tan. —y} -j- confL
l-fy1 H
M . ^ , n.
— — arc (tan. =-) -ficonft.
x*-}-
the denominator of which is a real funaion of x of the
fecond degree, viz. that which is the produa of the two
imaginary faaors. Here K and L denote two conftant
but indeterminate coefficients, the values of which, as
VOL. VIII. Part II.
It is proper to remark that if ~ be the tangent of an
arch, then the fine of that arch is ^ and iw
cofine is    thus we may exprefs the fluent
^ A under
>738 ' FLUX
Inverfe under different forms, by introducing the fine or cofine
Method. 0£ t’jje arch inftead of its tangent.
If inffead of ss we fubftitute in thefe two fluents x-f-ec
_ . , . n c (KA’-j-L)A?
we find that the fluent of ——   —r—7 rs
Kl. x/^X1
L Kei r x\ , n
_J   arc (tan. =:-)-}■ cortn.
114. To find the fluent of the expreflion
.. +Y'>
 _ ,
{x12ctx
we. firft transform it to
(Kiv-f- L) x
IONS.
Gs
C^+z^1)
ent of.
, and another fundion, which is the flu-
q—I ’ ’
f-
O’+zs’)
M
•, that is, let us affume
Gig
(sj^ZS1)3 (a1-!-/?1)7
r_-+/:
H:
wrhere G and H are conftant but indeterminate coeffi¬
cients. To determine thefe let the fluxion of each fide
of this equation be taken (obferving that the fluxion of a
quantity having the fign J prefixed to it is the fame
quantity only without that fign) j thus we have
Mz
G
( k*-f 2 « x<e*-fi ) 7
^ (K/AT-j-L/)*
(#* 2ocx + -f" fi*) ^
, (K'/,...*-f-Lw,...)je
‘ * * + x' + Zxx+x'+p’’
where K, L, K', L', &c. denote indeterminate but
conftant c oefficients, which may be determined by re¬
ducing thefe tractions to a common denominator, and
proceeding as in the two preceding § §. Then the whole
difficulty is reduced to the finding of the fluxion of the
expreffion
+
Hz
f—X
2(y—t)Gz1)c
(»*+«*)
^7—1
(K a?-|-L)a;
(Ka;-(-L)a?
(a?*+ ?«*+**-1-/3*)7 ((x + xy+py
where q denotes fome integer number. To Amplify this
expreffion put x-\-x—x,f and L—KtfrzM, then it be¬
comes which wre fhall now fhew may be
O’rf-ZS1/
reduced to P- —. To effeft this redudion
1
we decompofe its fluent into two parts
Kzz r Mz
and from this equation, by rejecting what is common to
each term, we find
M^GCz1^1)—a(?—OG^-fHO*4-}-^),
and hence
M=G/3l-f-H^1-f-(G—i^q—i)G-f H)*1 3
Therefore by comparing together like terms we find
M=G/3*+H3l, G—2(^—i)G-f-H=o 3
and from thefe equations we get
M
(2 q—2)^
H_(2y—3)M
(2y_2)/3t‘
Let thefe values of G and H be now fubftitiited in our
affumed equation, and it becomes
/;
M
M
/-
+y~
The fluent of the firft part may be immediately found
by putting zi-}-/3*=:vj for then zz=— and
(**+0*)? C2y~2)z3, (!6*+/8x/-1
M(2q—3) r
(2 q—2)p J ,
^7—i
r ivzz   r
(^+<3*)7
K.'y K t;
2
—j+i
Thus we have reduced the determination of the fluent of
M z . ^ *
to that of ■
2(1—7)’
nt of the
is equal to the fura of the algebraic function
Let us now fuppofe that the fluent of the fecond part
Mz
<*HZ3*)S
minatio:
—, and by proceeding;
<>*+£*/
in the fame manner with this laft fluxion, its fluent may
be made to depend on that of —  • but this
(*2+Z3l)?~a
will be more readily effeCled by limply fubftituting q 1
inftead of y, and fuppofing M=: I in the preceding equa¬
tion.
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
Thus
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
FLUX
Thus we (hall obtain
^ s   i 
Jrtf+py-1 ~ (2^—4)^ O1+ /!*)?-
_( ^—5l r 
Subftituting now this value of J' ^ t^ie
former equation, we have P-   equal to
1 J (js*
M «
(lq—2)P 1
O—3)m  2
(iq—l) (2q—4)P* (2;* + /3i)T~2'
(2?—3) (2?—5) M r  
~T' (2?—2) (2^—4>4-/ (S5»_j_/3*)S'—2
It is eafy to fee, that like as we obtained an ex-
preflion for the fluent of ~hy hibftituting
q X for q, and fuppofmg M=i, in the equation pre¬
ceding the lafl: j fo by fubftituting q—2 for y, we Ihall
obtain an expreflion for the fluent of
O*+£*)?-*
which expreflion will conflfl: of two terms, one an alge¬
braic fun&ion of 2, and the other C *—   multi-
plied by a conftant and given coefficient. This value of
 ? when fubftituted in the lafl; equation
will produce an expreflion for /  — confifting of
algebraic quantities and
ing this prc
— expreffed by a feries of algebraic quan-
o’+^r
By continu-
ing this procefs it is evident that we ffiall at lafl have
■‘)7
titles, and C—^7—, and here we muft flop, for if
Jh ^ -rA
we repeat the procefs with a view to make the fluent
depend on/ ^that is on f a, or z, we fhall find
(«Z+/S ) /
that the coefficient of this quantity becomes infinite. As
to the fluent of
we have exhibited the expreflion
for it in laft §.
In comparing together the refults which have been
obtained in the preceding articles, it mufl appear that
when a fluxion is expreffed by a rational fraction, if we
grant the refolution of equations, the fluent may always
I O N S. 739
be affigned either algebraically, or by means of arches bmsrfe
of a circle or logarithms; and that to prepare it for a , ‘ 0(:.; ,
folution, we mufl decompofe the fraction into others,
xvhofe denominators may be either binomial or trinomial
quantities. This decompofition may always be^ effe&ed
by the method of indeterminate coefficients. There are,
however, feveral analytical artifices by which the laoour
of calculation may be greatly fliortened. Thefe we now
proceed to explain.
115. Let us recur to the fraftion — and mppofe
that x-\~a is one of the unequal faftors of the denomi¬
nator V, fo that we have V= (a; 4-a) Qj Let us now
put —— -.4:- 4.—, A being fuppofed a conftant
r V x-\-a Q
quantity, and P an indeterminate function of x, but
fuch as not to be divilible by x-\-a. Then we have
U—AQ A D
U=A£+P CA?4-fl), and hence P= As P
is an integer funcfion with refpeel to x, it follows from
this equation that U—AQ, which is alfo a rational and
integer function of is divifible by x -f- a, and confe-
quently has x-^-a for a faftor j theresove, the funcfion
U—AQ will vaniflr when we fubftitute —a in it inftead
of a?, feeing that —a is the value of x that makes the
faflor x-j-<7=zo. Let us denote by u and q, what U
and Q become by this fubftitution, which however will
not affecf the indeterminate quantity A, becaufe it is
independent of x. We have therefore u—A <7=0, and
confequently A= —.
This value of A requires that we fhould know the
funftion Q given by the equation V= (x+a) Q, and
we may always find it by dividing V by a-\-x. The
direct method of fluxions affords alfo a very Ample
method of determining it. For by taking the fluxion
of the above equation we have
— = Q+ (*+«) J
X x
if in this refult we make x-\-a~0) or x——-tf, and de¬
note by v what becomes by that fubftitution, we
x
ffiall have v—q, and confequently A.~ —.
The expreflion A= — has always a finite value, for
q
the numerator and denominator can never become =0,
becaufe we fuppofe the fradlion reduced to its loweft
terms, and confequently, that the numerator U has not
for a fadfor x-\-a, which is a fa£for of the denominator,
but which being contained in it only once does not
enter into &
116. Let us now confider how the numerators of the
. U .
fractions, into which the propofed fraction is to be
decompofed, are to be found in the cafe of the denomi-
5 A 2 nator
740
FLUX
Tnverfe nator V having equal faflors of the firlf degree. In this
Method. care we have V—and we aflame
U
A
~ +
rB
+
N
x+a C4‘
By reducing to a common denominator, we find U
equal to
q ^ A-j-B (.v+rt) +C ix+ay \ 4-P('^4-fl)’,
( ...+N (x+c)” J
and P equal to
U_Q (A-fB(>+<04-Cfo + fl);,...+N (x+a')n~1)
(.r+<7)n
and as P ought to be an integer lunftion of x, the nume¬
rator of its value is neceffarily divifible n times fucceflive-
ly by x -{-a ; therefore, that numerator ought to be
equal to o, when —a is fubftituted in it inftead of x.
Now this fubftitution being made, each of the terms of
the numerator which is multiplied by x-\-a vanilhes,
fo that there remains only U—AQ^, but that this quan¬
tity may be divifible by x-\-a it is neceffary that
u—q A=o, where u and q denote the fame as in laft §,
hence A— —.
<1
Zl
This value of A changes U—QA into U— —
which muft be divifible by x-\-a. Let us, with a view
to'abridge, put U Q^U' (x-\-a), then, fubfti-
tuting this quantity in the value of P, and dividing both
numerator and denominator by x-\-a, we have P
squal to
U'—Q (B + C Q+a) ... 4-N (x-fay—*)
Now to obtain B we make x-}-tf=:o, then, putting
it’ to denote what Ur becomes by fubftituting —a in it
  ?/
in place of v, we have u'—q B=o, and B_ •
Inftead of B let its value be lubftituted in U'—Q^B,
it' . . •
and this quantity becomes U' Q, which vaniihmg
when x-\-azzzo, will have x-\-a lor a divifor ; therefore,
wTemay put U' Q^rrrU" (A-j-tf), then, fubftituting
this laft quantity inftead of the former in the value of
P, and dividing the numerator and denominator by
x+a, we have P^equal to
U"—Q(C+D ... -fN (A+<7)”~3)
By continuing the fame mode of reafoning, and the
u"
fame notation, we find u”—q Crro, and C= —, A':d
fp ®n with the remaining quantities.
IONS. Part II
The direft method of fluxions facilitates greatly the I^verfe
preceding operations. For the numerator of P being , Method.^
divifible by (v-f-tf)’1 is neceflfarily of this form X (c-pAr)”,
X being an integer funftion of a?, but which does not
contain the faftor x-\-a. Now agreeably to what has
been Ihewn in § 88, the fucceflive fluxions of this nume¬
rator, as far as the n—i order inclufive, vanifli when
x -ha is fuppofed =o. By giving to the numerator the
following form
-A—B —C (tf-J-fl)*
and obferving that the function £) does not contain the
fadlor x-f-a, it is manifeft that it is only the part of this
expreflion between the parenthefes which ought to be
n u
divifible by (v-4-tf) . Let us put Z, then the fuccef-
five fluxions of that part are
Z—Ba;—2 C (a;-pa)a;—3 D (a?-pa)* a? . . .
Z—2 C x*—2 . 3 D (A-Pg)a:* ...
Z—2.3 D a?3 ...
&c.
and thefe refults ’’’ought all to vaniih when we put
Ac-pazso. Thus we have
Z—A=o, and A=W,
Z—B.r=o, B=~
Z—2C?c*_o, C———,
2X*
Z—2.3Da;3~0, D~-
z
2-3
&c.
&c.
Z Z
obferving that in each of thefe functions —,  , we
x 2 x*
muft fubftitute —a inftead of x.
The moft Ample way to find the value of in this
cafe is to divide V by (tf-pu)", but we may alfo find
it by the direft method of fluxions, as in the preceding
§for, fince V:=:(4 (tf-pa)", if we take the fluxioru
of each fide of this equation « times, and then make
x-\-a—c, wTe (hall find, § 88, the /zth fluxion of y
equal to I . 2.3 . . . « and confequently
^ «th flux, of V
117. Let us now confider how w?e are to find the
U
umerator of the fraftion which forms a part of —
hen it has this form
Aac + B
Afllim:
Part II.
Inverie
Method.
FLUXIONS
74‘
Affitme
U_
V
A
-A
v\,' ■
2 /»
Invsrfe
Method.
+'
~ X12 st XP?' ‘
then, reducing the latter part of this equation to a
common denominator, we find
U=Q, ( A *-f B)-f P OJ + 2 * x + -f/33).
Hence we deduce
U—Q (Ay+Bl
X* -\-2 otX -j-tft3, -f-fi*
As P is fuppofed to be an integer funcHon with
relpeft to x, it follows that U—Q_(A^+B) is divifi-
ble by x*-j-2 ctx+x1-)-/!1; therefore, the former of
thefe two quantities mull contain among its factors.thofe
of the latter, and the quantities, which, being fubfiituted
for x, caufe the latter to vanifli, mull alfo make the
former vanilh. But the faftors o^jr1-!-2 «.r + ce1-f/J*
are x+ct+PV—h and x+x—Px/—i, and thefe, being
put eachzro, give us x=—0, and «=.—
(x jS^/ZTi), therefore, each of thefe values of * being
fubftituted in U—Q,(A*-f-B) ought to_make that
quantity vanifh. Let us denote by —i, and by
yz+ryV^ what U and refpedtively become when
 is fubfiituted in each inftead of x, then,
after this transformation, we have
Hence, by putting the real part of each fide of this
equation equal to each other, and alfo the imaginary
parts equal to each other, we find
2=-
v'
'Tp
7—-
118. If the faclor r1 -f- 2 « x * is found feveral
times in the denominator of V, fb that
YmOX*1 -f 2a*-f +>3,)B, then, § 113, we affume
in this cafe ^ equal to
Ax-{-B
Hr
A!x B;
(Ar24-2av-f*1+i31)” + +
+'
A"x+B
+
0.
(a;2 -\-2 1* x -j- +i31)
reducing this expreflion to a common denominator, and
fo ordering the equation as to bring P to Hand alone on
one fide, we find P equal to
U
, ^ tAx+B+(A'x+W)(x' +2*x+*'+?)!
—U. j +(A"x + B'') Q* + 2xX+xl+P*)?.,... S
—(y—^ V— 0\—A{xz
UZ±Zl/ v/—; T
^y/^+Bj
:0.
This equation is twofold, becaufe of the fign r±: with
Vv’hich feveral of its terms are affebled, and it is equiva¬
lent to thofe which would be formed by putting the
real part equal to o, and the imaginary part =0 5 from
this confideration we have
* U -\-q x A—q' li A—q B~O,
z/-j-y £ K.~\-q' x A—y'BzrO,
two equations which give us the values of A and B.
The fundlion may be found as in $ 115* For, if
we take the fluxions of each fide of the equation
Qj>*-f 2 * * + *1 + 0*)=V,
and afterwards make
xz -\-2x x-{-x2
we find Q(2x x-\-2 x x)=zV and hence
V
-}- 2xX-j-x~
By reafoning in this as in the preceding cafe, it may
be concluded that the numerator of this . expreffion
ought to vanifh when —(azt/S y7—1 is fubfiituted in it
inflead of therefore, putting and
q=*=q' \/^i to denote the fame things as before, we
deduce from that fubflitution
uz±zu! \/—1
-A (eerht^y/—1) -f- B)
}
&=- 1
2X X-\-2 XX
Let the two values of x, to wit —(*:
^       , x =/3v/—1), be
fubftituted inftead of it in this equation, then, putting
r-4-ri' y'^TT to denote what the xpreffion — becomes
'x
by that fubftitution, and writing q-±-q' \/—1 inftead of
Q^, we have
?=t9y-,rr^^,
which, by multiplying the terms of the fraction on the
latter fide of the equation by \J~t , becomes
—{q2±zq'V—i) (-
the very fame equation for the determination of A ancf
B,^ as we have already found in laft J.
Having found the values of theie quantities, they may
be fubftituted in the numerator of P, and the terms
U (£(Atf-j-B) becoming divisible by x*-{-2x x-\-x%
-1-/31, the whole, expreffion becomes divifible by the
fkme’ quantity. Calling therefore U' the quotient
arifing from the divifion of U — £) (A * -j- B) by
x* -j- 2 x tf + ad-b/S1, we have P equal to
IP—Q[A'x-f-B'-}-(A"ft.'’+ B") (.v1 -f-2<g.v-|-Q!.3-f-/33)...]
(x* -\-2XX -f-
If in this numerator we fubftitute inilead of x its va¬
lues deduced from the equation x2 + 2x v+a 2 -f,S2=:o,
and put the refult —o, we may determine A and B in
the very fame way that we have already determined
A and B, and by proceeding, in this manner we ihall
find the remaining coefficients A", B", &c..
This cafe is quite analogous to that which has been
already treated in <ji 116, and the direct method of
fluxions applies to it in'the fame manner as to the otnfer.
For fince (^does not contain the ladlor fl-A
if the numerator of P be divided by the fundion the
refult, which may be denoted by r, ought to be oi.tnis
743
Inverfe
Method.
FLUXIONS.
form r~X ( v1-f-2«*4-*1.f/32)” and confequently
ought to vatnlli, as well as all its fluxions, from
the firfl order to the n—I order, inclufively, Avhen
x*-\-z a x-ir-a'1) this being the cafe, we have
thefe equations
;~c, r =0, r~o, .. .
and fo on to the n—i fluxion of which ought alfo to
be =0 •, each of thefe equations becomes twofold when
we fubftitute inftead of x, the values of which it is fuf-
ceptibie in confequence of the equation -J- 2 « x -\-ccz
o. By putting the real and the imaginary parts
feparately =o, we fhall obtain as many equations as
are fufficient to determine A, B, A', B', &c.
It may alfo be remarked, that from the equation
Vrr£)
we find Q equal to the quotient arifing from the divi-
fion of the «th fluxion of V by the ffth fluxion of
x12 x x-\-x* -{-&*, obferving to aflume
.V*-f-2 « .V-f «*-f/31 = O.
119. We (hall now give fome applications of wdiat
has been faid relative to the fluents of rational fractions.
Suppofe the fradtion to be
Part It*
y Inverfe
—-X*—X3, therefore —— 8 7 X<S—4 x! —3 **• If in , Method.
this expreflion we fubflitute -f* 1 inflead of x (viz. the
value of x deduced from the equation x—l=ro) w'e find
the refult to be 8, therefore ^=8. So that
^ u  1 ^   1 1
v 8 ’ " x—1 8 x—-1'
Let us next invefligate the values of B and C in the
B C
fractions —- . ,, and  , by means of the rule of
(jr-fi)2’ tf-fi’ J
§ 116, and that we may make the fymbols exprefling
the quantity under conlideration agree with thofe em¬
ployed in that formula, let us exchange the letters B
and C for A and B, fo that we are to confider
B
0-M)4
x-j-I
In the fir ft place we have
x9-\-x'1-
■ ZX1X6 Xs -j-AU
.3 .
Xs + X1 X*-~X 5 ’
The fadlors of its denominator are eafily found, for it
may be put under this form
x3 (xS-\-x*—.v—(.v-j-x) (at4—1),
the fadlor a;4—1 may be decompofed into jc1—1 and
a?1-}-!, or x—1, #4-1, and a;2-]-!, thus w’e have the
denominator equal to
x3 (a;—1) (x-j-l)2 (a;1-}- 1)
therefore 111, § 112, and § 113.) the propofed
fradlion is to be decompofed as follows
0+0;
Put a?-|-I—o, then Arm i ; fubftituting now this value
of x in the value of & the refult is 4=y, therefore
A:=—=r —. Let this value of A be fubftituted for A
? 4
in the expreflion for U' in the § above cited, and we have
^T/ U AO 4 A^-j-A;5 AT4 -j-AT3
— x -J— i 4‘(a'4-i)
 Xs-j- 2 A'4 3 X 3 -f-4 x* 4 AT4~4
4
Hence putting —I inftead of a; in the expreflion for U',
we have uf—— and B——— . Thus the two frac-
2 ^ o
tionsunder confideration are found to be —- • -—^——and
4 (x + i)1
9 . 1
A A?
8 x 4“ 1
. We might have deduced the value of B from
B X C A?
x—I (at-J-i)1 rA;4-l
Bx Ex Fat (Gx4-H)x
.v 3 v1 v ^
i4-x2
By reducing thefe fra£tIons to a common denominator,
and comparing the numerator of their fum with that of
the propofed fraction, wTe might determine the unknowm
quantities A, B, C, &c. we fhall, however, rather em¬
ploy the methods that have juft been explained.
By comparing this particular example
the formula B= ?, $ 116, where Z is put for
x ic
for we have
7 ’
C,)^ A^5 XS4’A:'1
-X ■
x8 4-A:7— x4—X3
with the general expreflion ——it appears that U
3. Firft let us inveftigate the
A
,and V=x8-j-x7.
numerator of the fradion and for this purpofe
we employ the formula A—(§ 115.). As we have
U=i, it is evident that «=! 5 and fince V=rA:a4-x7
Z  6xs—5x44-4x3—3X1
^ (x«—a34"A?4—a:5)*
If in this expreflion wre fubftitute —1 inftead of at, it
18 o
becomes —=z , the fame value for B as before.
16 8
Let us now confider the fra61 ions — 4- —.4- iL or
x3 1 x2 1 x
exchanging the fymbols D, E, F for A, B, C,
A B C
L’ + P’+T'
The numerators A, B, C may all be found from thefe
formulas of § 116.
A~
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
FLUXIONS.
743
a=5-=z, b=^, c=_^,
X 1.2Xx
obfcrving that in this cafe Q=tfs+-'v4—x~-l j and that
we muft fubftitute o inftead of x in each formula, alter
taking the fluxions. Now we have
U i
z=
z
x
xs-\-xA—x—i’
5 A?4+4a;3—i
:"“(xs + a:4—
Z 20 «3-j-12 a;1
*5--“ (arS+^—a;—Ox
The union of all the algebraic terms produces the ^rfe
fraaion 2—2xS * and that of the logarithmic
4a:1 (14-*)
quantities gives
.l-i.(*-i)+41-(*+0+i-(*+U
— —1. (ar* + l)—1-x
=i_L (llnlW 1. (*-±l).
- 8 Ul + i/T \ x J
p x
We have therefore upon the whole
4-2 (5«44-4a?3—i)a .
(^4-»4—»—?
Hence putting ar=o, we find
An:—I, B=4-i, C=—I,
fo that
A , B C __i JL___±
a; x'^ x% x
Ga;-4-H A»4-B
There yet remains the fraftion , or
be confidered. It may be found by fubtrachng the fum
of all the others from the propofed fraftion*, we proceed
however to find it direftly by the formulas of §117.
In the firft place we have 0=^4-**—« —* ? n^l»
the fador ** + l being put =0 gives
u—o, 5=0. Hence we find
2=t= 2^—1, «=i, and «'=0.
The equations which determine A and B thus become
14-2 A4-2B=o, 2 A—2B=o,
therefore A=B= , and
4
A*4-B__ f x+i
x'+l ~ 4 ’ X* + l
Thus upon the whole, the propofed fraction
 — is decompofed into the following
vi _j-.r7—x4—x3
1 Jr  1 x 9 x 
8* AT—i + 4’(j<:+i)*’+"8;v+i
H X X I (#4-0
„ 3 *1" v 1 X A
equal to
2—2x—5#1 I , fx*—1\
4 #1 (14-0 + 8 ■ \x'+i)
-J-1. ^ ~*arc (tan.=#J4_con^:*
120. When a fluxion is a rational fra&ion having
either of thefe forms
.r XmX
xn
' z±z2p a" xn -\-an
x‘
4 ^+1
The manner of finding the fluent of each of thefe has
been already explained, and the refult of taking all the
fluents is
1 N 1 1
1. (*—0— —
^ 4 x+l
8
+ Xl.(*+0 +
■1. X
2 XJ
__ x ) — I arc (tan. = .v) 4- confl.
we can always, by the application of a particular theo¬
rem in analyfis, refolve its denominator into real fadtors
of the firft and fecond degrees. The theorem to which
we allude is this. Let n be any pofitive integer, and
let 2; denote any arch of a circle, of which the radius is
unity, then
(cof. zzi=-v/~ zy=co£ n«=t=\/—1 fm. we.
We proceed to prove this theorem. Becaufe
(cof. z4-\/—1 fin. ») (cof. e—V—I fin. e)
=cof.* k4-fin.l*=l.
If we put cof. zzfcy'—I fin. z~v}
Then cof. ez+z v/—1 ^n’ *——’
<v
Therefore taking the fum of thefe two equations,
2 cof. *=H .
Now by the arithmetic of fines (Algebra, § 358*)
2 cof. 2 z= 2(2 cof. a X cof. a—1),
2 cof. 3 a=2 (2 cof. aXcof- 2»—cof. a),
2 cof. 4 a= 2 (2 cof. a Xcof. 3 a—cof. 2 a),
2 cof. 5 a=2 (2 cof. a X cof. 4 a—cof. 3 *)•
&c.
Therefore, fubftituting in the firft of thefe equations
®-4-~ inftead of 2 cof. z, we have
’ v
2 coC
744
Inverfe
Method.
FLUX
2Cof.
v1
In like manner, fubftituting in the fecond equation,
inftead of 2 cof. z, and ^24--L inflead of 2
' v v
cof. 2 z, v\Te have
2 cof. 3 z=(v+~yv'+~')— (^ + ^-)
=‘yJ 4-"T‘
vi
Proceeding in the fame way with the third and follow-
ing equations, we find
2 cof. 4 *—!y4+-
2 cof. C  r',
J Vs
fo that we may conclude in general that
2 cof. n z—v* -4 ;
v
IONS.
Part II.
from that in which it is odd, we {hall write for the firft Inverfe
2 m, and for the fecond 2 zra-f-i j we therefore make t Method.
n z~i m or, and n %— (2 rn-f-i') it.
By the firft hypothefis, we find
„ . 2 mv   2 m 7t
y =4-^ y- cof. —- + -/—i fin. —,
and by the fecond
yn — * >
y=cof.^ ”,+ 1if+
n n
i 22. By means of the indeterminate number n, each
of thefe expreflions for y furnifhes all the values of
which this quantity is fufceptible, for we may take fuc-
ceflively
m—o, &c.
The firft formula gives
yrrcof. o.*—i
y=cof. ~+^ fin.
n n
Hence we have this quadratic equation
Vyn 2 cof. « Z X ‘y’’ + 1=0,
from which, by completing the fquare, we find
cof. (cof.1 nz—i)j
therefore, by fubftituting for v the quantity it was put
to reprefent, and obferving that yj (cof.1 n z—l)
r= v' (—fin.1 ?i%)——i fin. nz, we have
(cof. z=t: V—i fin. z)" —cof. n zdtz\/—i fin. n *,
as was to be proved.
I2i. The funftion x" c±r is transformed to
«”(y”=t;i) by putting x—ay, and to difcover its
faftors, we muft refolve the equation
The expreflion yrrcof. z-j-V—I fin. % fatisfies this
equation, by a very fimple determination of the arch
for we have yn — (cof. z-f-V'.—I fin. %)" rr cof. n z
fin. nz, and as by putting % to denote half
the circumference, and m any whole number, we have
( Algebra, $ 352)
fin. 771 it—o, cof, m n— ~dri,
where the fign -{- is to be taken, if 7n be an even num¬
ber, but — if it be odd, we have only to fuppofe n «
771 it, in order to obtain y” 4-j
^Lhat we may diftinguifti the cafe in which m is even,
4 .
yncof.—4. y'—1 fin. --
&c.
It is evident that we ftiall always have different refults
as far as m—n—1. If, however we fuppofe m—n,
then we have yrrcof. 2r=i *•, which is the fame as the
firft of the values already obtained, and if we fuppofe
m—n-\-\, then (Algebra, $ 25.)
Co£ „= cof. (2^ + LrUcor.
n K 1 n J n'
Sin. (2»+ir)=
n K ' n J n ’
which is the fame as the fecond value, and fo on with
refpeft to the others.
By this mode of proceeding we {hall not only obtain
the n roots of the equation y”—1, or yn irzo, but,
with a little attention, we ftiall difcover that thefe roots
may be arranged in pairs, by bringing together thofe
that only differ in the fign of the radical v/—1} for
fince
Cof. (2it—•/>)=: cof./>, and fin. (2:r—/>) ——fin./>.
it follows that
r(2«—2»zV , .— r (271—2mV
y— col. f-\/—1 hn. .JL
n n
r 2V25T   2m7T
n ' n '
Hence it appears that we may comprehend all the roots
of the equation yn— i=0 in the fingle espreftions
y—
r
>
Part IT.
Inverfe
Method.
y—Co{. V—1 f111 * „
J n 11
by giving to m only tliefe values
O, I, 2, . • •
if n is even, and thefe values
O, I, 2, • . •
flux
Vn-x
n—i
if n is odd ; and it may be obferved that in the for¬
mer cafe the lait value of y is
y—cof. tt— — i,
becaufe that then the equation yn— 1=0 has two real
roots. , - .
The two values comprehended in the tormula,
_ 2W7T , .— - 2WW
y— cof. \- V —i nn. ——
J n n
give for factors of the firft degree of the quantity y”—I,
the two imaginary expreffions
y — (cof. —+ \/—i fin- —y
y — (cof. — V—I fin- — j »
and the product of thefe is the expreflion
y*—2ycof. —+i,
which comprehends all the real factors of the lecond
degree.
As an example of the formula
. WlTC . ,  c 2WT
7/rzcof.  =±=v—inn.—»
J n n
the fimple factors, or thofe of the firft degree, contain¬
ed in the function y6—I will be
y—r»
y—(cof. v/—i
<r
y— (cof- »
IONS. 745
The firft and the laft of the faftors of the fecond de- _
gree are the fquares of y—i, and y-j-i, factors of the —.i
firft degree each of which only enters once into the pro-
pofed funftion •, it will therefore be neceffary, when we
employ the factors of the fecond degree, to reject the
firft and laft, and take inftead of them
(y—0(y+0=y—I-
The faftors of the firft degree of the fundion ys L
are
y—
, r 27r ■ / r 2yi:
y—(cof. —\/—i nn. —
y—(cof. £)
Thofe of the fecond degree are
y*—2y+1>
ITT
)
y* 2y COf. —-j- I,
cof. 45T J
y*—2y —-—h1 *
but it is to be obferved that the firft fador of the fecond
degree is the fquare of y—x, which enters only once in¬
to the propofed fundion.
123. When the fundion to be decompofed into fac¬
tors is y' +the formula
‘(2w + iV 1 / /- (2wz-(-i)',r
?/=cof. ^^/_I fin.- ,
“ n n
which correfponds to that cafe(§i2r.) is alfo fufcep-
tible of the double fign =±=, provided we flop at the
value of m which gives
2/72-|-1=«, or 2772-j-1 ~n—1,
according as n is odd or even j hence it follows that
n—1
772—-
y-b1.
The formula
27777T
r & r/171
y*—2y Cof. —+ *
gives as fadors of the fecond degree
y*—2^-j-x,
y>_2y cof.—+ 1,
y1—2ycof. ^+1,
y,+2y+I*
VOL. VIII. Part II.
2 ' 2
the fadors of the firft degree are
y—(cof. V=I£n.^±i>),
and thofe of the fecond
- (27«-f i)?r K2
y* 2y cof.   ^ b I.
When among thefe laft there is found fome which are
fquares, we muft take only one of their fimple fadors,
in the fame way as in the two preceding examples.
When the fundion is ys -|-1,
the fadors of the firft degree are
y—Ccof.
5
3^
y—(cof. y =±V—I
’—i fin.
37r
)
y+J ?
5B
and
746
F
Inverfe and tliofe of the iecond,
Method.
f—2ycoS. --f i,
y'—w cof. Y+1,
^+^+I-
L U X I O N S.
and we immediately find
y”“ — cof. ^dry'ZT^ fin. ? j
we now afliime as in § r 21,
y— cof. »=±rv/—! fin, a ;
then we find ($ 120),
yn— cof. « fin. n
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
The fundlion +1 has for fa&ors of the firfi: de¬
gree
S'—(cof. fin.
V—(cof. fin.
S'—(cof. 2l+V=~x fin.
and thofe of the fecond,
which expreflion for j*n, being compared with its other
value, gives
cof. « zrrcof. fin. n a—fin.
Thefe relations will be fatisfied if we fuppofe « »
m being any whole number w-hatever, for
cof. (2^5r-f-^)=cof. fin. (2/ra*--{-£);= fin. § j
ws have therefore
2r«5r4-5
2= —,
S'—2j'C®f. ~+j,
y'—zy cof. I, ory*-j~I,
if—2y cof. ^ + 1.
r Zrnv-l-d _    „ 2m*4-$
y=col.~ ~r±:v/_i fin. X-.
«
The fa£tors of the firfl; degree of the fundion
yin + 2yn cof. 2-f 1
will confequently be comprehended in this formula
1 24. Such fun&ions as are of this form ara’I-|-2^x,w
-f y may be treated in the fame manner as thofe which
confift of only two terms. By putting the funftion —p,
and refolving the equation wdiich is thus produced, in
the fame manner as if it w^ere of the fecond degree, wre
find the factors to be
*"+(/>±V(/>s—?));
if/)* exceed y, the fecond term of thefe faftors is real,
and by making
=*=«" =/>=i=V/(/>s-^),
we have funftions of the form
x *
to decompofe into factors.
When p'^q, then we put p—tT, <qzzbin, xzzbyi
and the function becomes
binyin 4- 2anbnyn -\-bln
=^'?(S',n4-^s^4-i).
but the condition p^^Lq, or makes a”^Lbn,
an a*
ancl 1 > therefore^ may be reprefented by the
cofine of a given arch and the propofed function will
be reduced {o
b'Xr+Wcot ^4-1),
we have then only to refolve the equation
f'+zy7' cof. ^ 4-1=0,
La a J
Up the coefficient of the fecond term of the propofed
fundtion be negative, the only change necelfary is to
make />=—a”, and to take the arch 5 greater than a
quadrant. *
Of the F/uents of Irrational Fimclions.
125. When a fluxionary expreffion involves irrational
fundlions, we. mult endeavour either to transform it into
another that is rational, or to reduce it to a feries of
irrational terms of this form *, and then, in either
cafe its fluent may be found by the rules already de¬
livered.
Let us take for example the fluxion — ^
. . 14-V* *
It is evident that by putting x—<zP, all the extradlions
indicated by the radical figns may be effedled, and the
fluxion may be transformed towhich
i4-»* ’
by dividing the numerator by 1 4-2;*, may be otherwife
exprefied thus,
—% —z,5 z -4-z4z—z* z 4- z——-— 1
The fluent of which is
a8 z7 z6 it5
T-J-T+J
4-*—arc (tan.
4- corf.
J26*
Part 11 PLUS
Inverfe i 26. We Hr all fir ft confitler fuch fluxions as contain
Method. the irrational funSion + + and which
  Y ' have neceffarily one or other of thefe forms
X*v/(A-f £*+£**), v/( ,\-f B.y+Cv')’
X being put for any rational function of m 5 and il may
be remarked, that the latter form comprehends the for¬
mer, which may be written thus
X*X(A+ Ex4-Cv-Xx v^A+Bv-f Cy»)
VCA+Bv-t-Cv")
X( A-j-B*: +C^)x
^A.-f-BA? -j-Cv1)
and here the numerator of the fluxion is a rational func¬
tion oftf. a -d 1 r1 i'v
Before we transform the exp re (lion t/ ( A-f-B v-fUr )
into another that is rational with refpeCt to the va¬
riable quantity i% contains, we ftiall put the quantity
A + Bx + C** under this form
IONS.
Let us now affume
747
Inverfe
Method.
-V/ —a) —;v) — (__x—x) z,
then, fquaring both fides of *e equation it become*
diviliblc by x—*, and v/c hnve *'—(sc—sc) a , from
which we find
*= —XT’VCf, -
•values which
Xx
i-f-i ’v
• 2 (x—et') zz
render the propofed
rational.
fluxion
C(r + U" ’
and, in order to abridge, we (hall put
^ , A B
C—c ’ ~c —a’ C — s
then we have
Let us now aflume y/(a-\-b zz x-E#, then,
Squaring both fides of the equation, we find a-\-bxzz
2cVk4-z1, hence we get xzz. ——and confequent-
!y
l/(A+B^+Cx*)=c O+s) '2%_Zb )
1/ (A + Bx—Cxl)
127. Let us now take for example the fluxion
 f    ; by applying to it the firft of the
*7ca+b*+ca;>)’ y 5
. . —22; ,
preceding transformations it becomes T^'I~LTy tnc
fluent of which is     1. (2»—b) -f conjl. Subfti-
c
tuting now for z its value —x-f \/ (a + b x+x*), and
for a, b, and c, the quantities they feverally repreient,
the fluent becomes
VP L 1 -Tc(~ YC “21 ^C . ){ + cmJ>-
•v/C 'V/^V_(.2v/(A4-Bv-}-C»*) ^ j
a refult to which we may alfo give this form
}
• 2 (tf—b %-\-z1)
x= (2z—by
X’x
By means of thefe values the fluxion ^ ^A+B^-l-Cv1)
is transformed into another fluxion Z. z, where Z de¬
notes a rational function of z, which is real when C or
c* is pofitive j but as when C is negative c becomes
imaginary, the fluxion Z z which involves c becomes
alfo imaginary.
In this cafe we have to confider (A-f-B#—Lx ),
and making
A
B
C—f1, Q —a> Q
*• •< 2\/C
v C L + v/CA+Bv+Cv1)
+1. ^ 4* conJ?-
By uniting the conftant quantities into one, and ob •
ferving that the radical quantity ^/C may have the fign
-t- prefixed to it, we have at laft
f" A- —— equal to
J A-j-B -J-C ^ )
-l- 1. I 4 ^ -^x^C +V (A-f Ba?+C v1)!
VC L , n j
4- conn.
12*. Let us fake for the fecond example
 ^   Bv employing the latter trans--
VTA+Bv-C^) y ^ ; 8
of which tb?
-2 z
it becomes c y/ (a-\-b x—x1}. The quantity x* bx a
may always be decompofed into real factors of the fiift
degree *, let us reprefent thefe fa6tors by x—a, and
M—then it is evident that
a -^-b x—.Y1—■— (sc1"—b x—a)
— (v—x) {«!—x).
formation of § 126 we have
fluent is
— - arc (tan. r=z) + conjl.
c
Subftituting now inftead of z its value
y (0L~y). deduced from the equation xl—xzz (v—«)**»
■V/(v—<*) ,
3 B 2 and
748
FLUXIONS.
Part II.
Invert
Method, and putting y'C for we get /’' ^ —
equal to
without affefling the generality of the expreflion. Inverfe
Method.
7c—
(\/ ( ot!— .r) \
tan-=V(^)) +^-
« and ot! being the roots of the equation
, B A
‘r“ c" ^ c-:=0-
Let us fuppofe that A=:C= land B=:o,then the propofed
and
tluxion becomes in this particular cafe —~  ,
, ^ - v/(i—^)’
the preceding formula gives for its fluent —2 arc.
/ V (i—^)\
^tan. — Cory*' ^or * anc^ ^ being the
roots of the equation x*—i=o, we muft take «=—i,
and «'=i.
We may, however, give this fluent another form by
proceeding thus j Let v be the arch whofe tan.
  V' C1—x) ^ ^ , I—x , i — tan.* t;
— —77-;—r, then tan.* v=z——, and.r=: 
^(1+*) I + tan.* v
- r+r^ji —'■ = teh, -I=2coq,,-i> bu*
2 cof.* v—1—cof. 2t» (Algebra, § 358.) therefore,
a—cof. 2 v. Put r for the arch whofe fine is x, and ot
for half the circumference, then a—cof. (i ot—j-),
therefore 2 v—^-*—s, and fince it has been fliewn that
fvu=j) + therefor,/’
=s—i*+con/?. or, by including the arch i or in the
For if we had x (#-{-£ wTemayafiume x=zz6,
then x=z6x,sz, and the fluxion becomes 6 »7 *
t
(p-\-b . We may alfo fuppofe n to be pofitive, for
if it were negative, fo that the fluxion were oT 1 x
£
(a-{-bx ”)?- we have only to alfume x=z —, and the
£
fluxion is transformed to —z ' z (a-j-b z”)7.
Let us inquire in what cafe the fluxion x™ 1 x
£
(«+ b xny may become rational. Affume a-j-bx^—z7’
- 1 / 1 s’!
i « .ct p n z —a I z —a \
then (a -\-b x y —zr,x —-—, xm— y—-—jny
and xr‘
q xm
nb b ' a ;
ss j hence the
propofed fluxion is transformed to
this expreflion is evidently rational as often as — is a
n
whole number.
There are yet other cafes in which the fluxion may
become rational, and which may be determined by af-
confiant quantity, /ttAz —yzzs-y.conjl. This conclu- fuming a-\-b x •=. x u , thus we have
V (1 — x J
fion agrees with what has been fliewn in $ 59.
Inftead of finding the fluent of
dm an
X = , x — ™ ,
u? —b 1 ’■*
(A-|-B a—.C a*) c^{a-\-bx—a*)
by fir ft transforming it to a rational expreflion, we may
reduce it direftly to an arch of a circle by proceeding
as follow's. Put a — —z, then a—z, and the fluxion
is transformed to   — ■ acrnin nut ^ * 1 A*
c/ (rt+^*_2i*) 7 s ’ put a-r^b
=g*, and z=g u, then z=g u, and this laft fluxion is
transformed to  —, the fluent of which is
^ V v1^ )
— arc (fin. conjt.
Of the fluents of Binomial Fluxions.
129. Let us now confider fuch fluxions as have this
form
x(a+bxny,
and w'hich are fometimes called binomial fluxions. We
may here fuppofe m and n to be W’hole numbers,
{i£—b')n
— q—I
, i • —q an u u
A1"—  t     
x" ~ x— —  —— , and becaufe that (a-\.bxn') ?
n (a^ —’* *rI
L
.  T . —
—   —the fluxion x x(^a-^bxnf is tranf-
(f—bf
formed to
2L 1 r
n'q p\q 1 *
-q a * Ur * 11
n (a?—F)
an expreflion which is rational if —■ -f- is a whole
number.
130. As it is not poflible, in every cafe, to exprefs
£
in finite terms the formula f x* 1 x (a fb x ) , we
may try to reduce it to its moft Ample cafe, as we have
done
part II.
Inveife _ r n. f
Method, dene with reipea toy
fluxions.
(., N f x”—' x(a+bx"y
in § 114, which we ^ T^pjr\)n)J
749-
Inverfe
Method.
have
C*+P ^    Sxm-n^+bx)PA-1 n 1
fucceeded in reducing toj'• 1 0 tlllS (P+l)ni? (__« (m—n) x{a +bx )f S
1 a 1 » ttIa ^ *» / O ^ 1 ii (~* TV _
reduction, we remark, that, nnce when « and v denote jience at ia^ we get
any’ functions of a variable quantity, the fluxion of «*>
(A)
m 1 x -\-b x” ) ^ —
i<iu'v+Vu,(Sir')'i*K{onf,‘i=u'’-f'v'u- No" y,
if we can decompofethtexpreffion*”-1 *(«+**”> f+I
into two fadlors fuch, that we can find the fluent of one Kl‘r‘+m) \_a(m_„) f xm—’—1i(a+ix’)
of them, then, denoting that factor by v, and the other , .. .
by u the fluent of the propofed fluxion will be made to  r-* - r- llOTro hv tn,Q fnt
i.-O .. in fnrno rafes will be
s
It is eafy to fee that, as wTe have, by tnis formulaj
depend on that of u «, which in fome ^ reduced the determination of the fluent of xm x
more Ample than the propofed fluxion. 1 hat we may V , ,
rl11 . • n. 1 (a-\-b xn^ to that of x x^a-^-bx ) vvemayie-
nbridp-e a little the refults, we fliall write/»inftead of-, ^ ‘ , . . .
abridge . q . m—a«—1 ^"V bv wnt-
ahn-ido-e a little the remits, w?e Ilian wme/>inncdu ui, ' ■
^ _ . , r^, duce this lafl to that of x7n .r x,")? by writ-
fo that p will reprefent any frachon j tiie pro^o.c jng m—n jn place of m in equation (A), then by^
flnvinn time fimnlifled m ns toim is changing ni into tn—lti we may reduce the fluent or
m—In—I *
and fo on.
10 tnar p wm —- -
fluxion thus Amplified in its form is
xm^~l x (a-j-b xn y.
x"' ~ x {a -\~b xny to that of,**7 1x{a-\-bxn}r,i
r . . . , . ana 10 on. . ,
Among the different ways of refolvmg this fluxion jn general, if r denote the number of redu«51ions, we
into two factors,- we fliall choofe that which dlminiflies , at come to
the exponent of x without the parenthefes, we therefore
write the fluxion thus (a-\-bxn)p, and the laft formula wall be
x^” X 1 « (a+b x‘ )
now the fluent of the faBor xn ‘ i (u+y")/> may
always be determined, whatever be the value of/», by
§ 108let us denote this faftor by v, then
^±bxnf^_ and
{/> + *) nb
thus the formula f uv=uv—f v u gives nsfxm-1 x
(a + bx'1)? equal to
m—n. , »y4-t
x (a-^bx )
f-
-{r—1)«—-I
x (a -\-b xny =
b(pn-*rm—(r—1)«)
a (in—r «)
xm—rn~1x(a\bxry
m—n
(p+i^nb
z!L- rxm-n-x x(a+bxny+i.
l)n bj
But J'xm~n~l x (a+bxn)f^rl —
Jxm^n-~J- x(a + bxny(a+bxn} —
afxm-n-' x(a+bx”Y
+ b1 x(aJrbxn)i‘-,
Subflituting now this lafl; value in the preceding
equation, and collecfing into one the terms involving
the fluent J xm~~^ x(a\bxn y, we find
b(p n-\-m—(r—1) «)
It appears by this lafl; formula, that if m is a multiple
of «, then J"xm~~1 ^(f?-f-^n)?will be an algebraic quan¬
tity, for in that cafe the coefficient m—r a. will be =0,
and therefore the term containing j"xm~rn~v x
(a-\-b xn)p will vanilh. This refult coincides with what
we have already found, § 129.
131. We may alfo obtain a reduction, by which the
exponent p fhall be diminiflied by unity. For this pur-
pofe it is fuflicient to obferve thatxm~l x (a-i-b xn)f
is equal to
J'x”1—1 x(a+b x» y—1 (a+b xK)~
a J'xTn 1 x(d-\-b x^y 1
-f b rxm^n—1 X ( a 4-Z> xn
and that the foimufa (A) by changing m into /??-(-«,
and./ into p—x gives
/ <*•
750
Jnverfs
Method.
FLUX
fxm+n-'' x (a^b t-1-
xm (/2 -j- Z> x"y~^a m j'x,n 1 x (a-\-b x"') & 1
£ (/»n-\-tii)
Subftitute now this value in the preceding equation,
v.* have
(B)
J* m 1 x (a-\-b xny—
x* (ji~\-b xny+pnaj'xm 1 x {p-\-b x'1'/
p n-\-m
By. means of this general formula we may take away
fucceflively from p as many units as it contains, and by
the application of this formula, and formula (A), we
may caufe the fluent J'xm~z x (a-\-b x''')” to depend on
J^xm~rn 1 x (a*\-bxn} P~~\ rn being the greatefl
' multiple of r ^contained in tn—i, and s the greateft
whole number contained in p.
The fluent J' (a-J-^-v3)1, for example, may, by
the application of formula (A) be reduced fucceflively
to
j'x'x (a-^bx^y, andy^x\x (a-Jrbxiy,
and by formula (B) J'x x *'3)^ is reduced fuccef-
iively to
x x {a-\-bx^y, & J'xx (a-ybx* y.
132. It is evident, that if tn and n were negative,
the formula^ (A) and (B) w^ould not anfw’er the pur-
pofe for which they have been inveftigated, becaufe, in
that cafe they would increafe the exponents inftead of
diminifhing them. If, however, we reverfe them, we
ftiall find that they then apply to the cafe under confi-
deration.
From formula (A) we get
IONS.
v'-"
Part II.
Tnverfe
Method.
b (jn-\-n-Artip) ^Km'n 1 x (a-\-b xny
a m
This formula diminifhes the exponents without the
parenthefes^ becaufe m-f-n—1 becomes —tn-j-n~—i,
wThen —tn is fubftituted inflead of tn.
To reverfe formula (B) we firfl; take
J*xm 1 x *”) ^ I =
—xm (a-\-bxny
pn a
m—I'
[m-\-np) j'x x {a-\-b xn f
P n a
Then, writing/>-f. 1 inttead of />, we find
m
n \p
V —
/
x x[a-\-bx J —
*n , ,7 n\P^~1
x {a-Jf-bx f v
(p+i)na
[tn-^n^n p^J* xm x(a^.bxn,y
f*
m n 1 x (a-\-b xny-
/>+i
{p+i)na
This formula anftver’s the purpofe we have in view,
becaufe />+i becomes —/»+I when p is negative.
Thefe formulas (A), (B), (C), (D) are inapplicable
when their denominators vanifh. This is the cafe with
formula (A) ; for example, when m——np; but, in
every fuch cafe the propofed fluxion may have its fluent
determined either algebraically or by logarithms.
r- m—l •
133. Let the fluent be^/^j^——, m being a whol&
pofitive number. Formula (A) immediately applies to
this cafe, fo that by putting a—\,b——1, «=2,
we have
xm ” #’’)
a {m—n)
b (tn-\-np~) J'xm x x{a•{‘b x^y
a {rn—«) J
Sijbftitiite now m-\-n in place of w, and it becomes
(C)
f*'—1x<<a+bxMY=
f-
m—x
X X
m—a //
X I—AT*)
   — *{ m—% •
y { I X* ) I , f" X V
I ' m—1^ y ( 1—x1
or, fubftituting tn in place of m—1,
/m •
XX   l
y(TZ~;y^ j
I x y (1—x1)
tn
t m-
1 +
y-r
tn y ( V—X1 )
3
L«t
Part IT.
Inverfe
Method.
FLUXION S.
Let us fuppofe, for example, that tnzz i, then
f-
or otherwife thus, put I—then
751
Inverfe
Method.
Let us next fuppofe that w—3, then
C  y x* ( I d?1)
f X* X _ ^ XX
J V ( l_^) ^ + T/ ^ (i_^)
or, fubftituting for f ^ts va^ue*
f x——-- — +-W ^—x^ + conjl.
J v/ (x—a;*) V3 3/
If we fuppofe tn— 2, then
f—ir* V/ (1—)
r X* X _ 3 r X
J V l +
But we have already found, § 128. that
Therefore
x\/(i—x1) 1—z1 i+z
I—2
Sr,
— arc (fin.=v).
^/( x_^*)
therefore, putting A for arc (fin. = a-),
f--±L?L-r)-—lxV (!-*■)+{ A+cbnJ.
In the very fame way we find that
r is equal to
— + §*V(I—^O-fl J±\conJ1.
The fluent of the right hand fide of this equation
is evidently ($ 103.)
_il. (l+^)+U-(l—*)=—il- (t~) i
\m\*Z C■! i| 15^^^
or, fince the fame fluent may be ex*
1—z 1—z*
prefied thus
r, , I+«
T 1—21 ~ ^/(I—2i)‘
therefore, by fubftituting -y/(i—v1) for 2, and x for-
/^/( 1—21) we have
, r J ,,=-1. +co„jt.
J Xx/(i—v1) \ x / ' J
If we fuppofe m— 2, the formula becomes
r    x/ji—x1)
Vv*\/(l V*) X
-com.
If we fuppofe ///—3, then
v/Ci—V1)
f-
X^k/^X V*)
r v y ■ —~ )
l 2 V1
L+'f x^/(l—-X
)
134. In the cafe of m, a negative number, we muft which expreflion, by fubftituting for
have recourfe to formula (C), from which we find
1 
V (I X*)
X \/(l—X*)
+
-/
—»»H-r •
X X
 77 —r- its value, becomes
x^/{\—v1)
f 4/(1 V*)
ax2
which formula, by writing —m inftead of —m—1
becomes
f-
>/(i—v1)
tnftea!
v/Ci—v1)
(tn—1) x
t -\-conJl.
Of Finding Fluents bij Series.
135. We can always eafily find an expreflion for the
fluent J'Xx, Vvhere X denotes any function of xj when
that funttion is expanded into a feries, each term of
We cannot here fuppofe m=zi, for that value would which is fome power of * multiplied by a conftant quan-
jender the denominator —o ; therefore, before we can 5 thus fuppofe
-apply this formula, it is neceflary to inveftigate the
; _ X=A*w+B*w+"^-C*w+a', + &c.
fluent of —— yr. We may eafily find it from $126, , v •.
. ^v l1—x) J s > then Xa? is equal to
A«^
xm^/^i—x1) | (1 5. 
- ' m—a
V (I—V1)
[FLU
Ax^x+X xm+”x+C xm+2nx+ &c.
and taking the fluent of each term by $ roi,
/?, • A . E ^+"+I
/ Ax~
S L ^
X I 0 N S.
Part IT.
x^
d —|— X
-- -d &c.
1 a a^'a* o’ ^
+
m-\- i
C xm+2n+i
m -[- in -f-1
f- &c, -{- conft.
If in the developement of k there be any term of this
^0rm ^Uent corre^Ponaing t° that term will be jf we to deduce from this equation, the value of
Hence, multiply both {ides by w, and taking the fluent
of each term, we get
fax . x\
arc (*“•=-;+^- =
X X1 X* x^ ..
—— —yd  ;+ &c.-f-co«/?.
a 3«3 7 «T J
A 1. AT (J IO3).
the leaft arch whofe tangent is — it is neceflary to fup-
136. The moft fimple function of x that can be ex- pnds the arbitrary conftant quantity, for when that arch
panded into a feries is , which becomes,
a+x
a
Hence we find
x x
&c.
a-\-x a a
and taking the fluents
y" x
a-\-x'
J~~h
x* x
a3
3a 4«4
&c.
&c.
4- con/?.
Now we know that C1. (fl-f a?)(§ 57.) therefore
ci ■*!_ oc
1 /• I n ^ X1 X3 X*
1. (« + «)= H r -4- &C.
a 2 a? 3 o3 4 '
con/?.
To find the value of the conftant quantity we have only
to make at=o, for then the equation becomes ba¬
con/?. therefore
1. (/3-|-a:)—\.a-\—   ;— &c.
zzo, then x—o, thus we have the arch whofe tangent
X
is — exprefl'ed by the infinite feries
X X3 Xs X7 „
 __|  -4- See.
a $ a3 $ a* 7 o7
Let * denote the circumference of a circle whofe dia¬
meter is unity, or half the circumference of a circle
wdrofe radius is unity, then, as the fine of 30 degrees,
or is 4, and its cofine i/ (i-—3, we have
‘tt fin 1 sr*
tan. —rr i/ Let \/-t be fubftituted inftead
6 coi. ^ it
of x in the above feries, and a be fuppofed ~l, thus
we get
-=v'4XCi—A+ 1
3-3 5-3 7-3
See.)
and therefore
a 2c1
3 a
* v j2X (—
by taking the fum of about fifteen terms of this feries,
we (hall find ;5-=3.1415927. The determination of
this number is of great importance in every branch of
mathematics.
heAce, if we fubtraft 1. a from each fide, and obferve
that 1. (x-\-a/—1. #~1. 1- (1 -) ^ we get
(i+t)- 7-77‘ + JT>-J7<+ &c;
From this conclufion we may deduce rules for comput¬
ing the logarithms of numbers.
137. Let the fluxion be ------, which may be putun
138. By proceeding wdth the fluxion
fame manner as wTe have done wdth
a
an^-xn
, in the
/x x
1
a1
,, we get
an-\.xn (m-\-\')an {m-\-n-\-i')a,ln
 See.
der this form
1 -f-xz
a7
-, and which conlequently belongs
(/» -f- 2 « -f-1) "
This feries proceeds by the pofitive powrers of x, or
is an afeending feries, but w^e may alfo expand
. . f 1 • , , ^ . x ,! t \ -n into a feries proceeding bv the negative powders of x,
to the arch of whtch the tangent=- (§ 60). By re- and whkh ^ there4e b, calledSa def?endmg feries.
ducing
Or-JfX7
into a feries, we find
Thus becaufe
4
xn+a‘
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
' v—
"FLUXIONS.
753
Xn -f-tf”
,1 n n „
 f_ + &C.
3«
we have, after multiplying both fides by a x and tak¬
ing the fluents
j-xmx
a;" 4-0” («—m—0*” m 1
n^ n
(2«—m—i)^2" m 1 (3 w—m—0 ^ ^ ” m
-j- &c. + conft.
This laft feries will be convergent when x is greater
than r?, and at the fame time and n~pF\. But
beftdes, that it may contain algebraic terms only, it is
neceffary that none of the divifors n—tn—1, 2 n ni ■!,
3 n—m—i, &c. become =0 j this circumftance will
take place as often as m 4- 1 is a naultiple of «, and in
which cafe
We may eafily find an expreflion for the fluent of ^j-rfe
the rational fraftion^- (§ in.)by expanding the
quantity into a feries, but the refult thus obtained
is in general very complicated, and ieldom convergent;
befides, this manner of finding the fluent is hardly o
any ufe, fince it may be expreffed by means of arches
of a circle and logarithms, both of which are readi y
obtained from the common trigonometrical tables.
120. The fluent of x**—1 x (a+bxn)q is eafily ob-
tained by firfi: expanding the quantity {a-\-b xn Jl into
a feries by the binomial theorem, then multiplying each
term of that feries by xm 1 a?, and taking the fluents of
the refults by $ 101. Thus we hwt fx™""1 x
a x
In—m
&c. which is the develope-
the fenes   —
n—m
XX '
ment of the fluxion will contain a term of this form
, Y-
xn JV —
a ^ m ' qa «
V-\-H
p (/>—q^b* xw+aw
Jl_,the fluent of which is a n La;.
m+n ' 1.2 q1 az
P (/>—?)(/>—2 q)b3 xm+$n
1.2.3 q' a3 w+3 n
f &c. >4- conjl.
X
If in this refult we put m—o, n—2, and azzi we
get
r x  
* 14-v*~
S+-L-^-s+ &c.
x 3 a; 3 5 x5
4- conjl.
This is an afcending feries, but to get a defcendmg
\P_ Zt
feries we muft divide {a-\-b xn )q by x q and multi¬
ply xm—1 x, the remaining part of the fluxional expref-
fion by the fame quantity, thus the fluxion is transform¬
ed to
But although the expreflion yqp-? is the fluxion of
the arch having x for its tangent, we muft not conclude
that this feries is the developement of that arch, for x
being fuppofed =0, each of the terms of the feries
becomes infinite.
The confideration of the conftant quantity added to
the fluent will remove this apparent difficulty, if we re¬
mark, that to know the true value oi a feries,_ it is al¬
ways neceffary to begin with the cafe in which it is con¬
vergent. Now the feries
-.±+J——s+ &c.
X * 3A;3 53c5
converges fo much the fafter as a; is greater, and it va-
niffies when x is infinite ; but in this extreme cafe the
equation
arc (tan.=A;)=—^-4-^1—&c-
4“ conjl-
becomes Amply arc —— conjl. where tt denotes half
the circumference of the circle ; therefore, fubftituting
this value of the conftant quantity, we have
xm~^ 9 x(b-\-ax—»/
the fluent of which, by proceeding as in the former
cafe, is
± f m+J
f *
)qx_
imq
pa qx
(p—q)n
mq+np qb tnq-\- (/•—q)n
arc (tan.=A;)3r7r—
VOL. VIII. Part II.
-4- A— 1i+ &c-
a; 5A;3 5 a 5 1
(fi—1q)n 1
p {p—q)a* qxm^ 1 Sec. f 4- conjl.
1.2 q1 b1, niq-\-{p—iq)n *
either of thefe feries may be employed if a and b are
both pofitive, or q an edd number, but xi q be an even
number, the firft formula becomes imaginary on ac-
count of the fa&or a 9 if / be negative, and the fame
thing happens to the fecond formula if a? be nega¬
tive.
140. Let it be required to exprefs by a feries the
fluent of    . That we may develope the radi-
1/ (I—*2)
cal quantity —we Put it under this form
P c
X
754
Inverfe — £
Method (i—) , an expreflion which when expanded by
the binomial theorem is
i -j——xi + — a;4 + x64-8cc.
2 2.4 2.4.6
therefore, multiplying each term of this feries by x,
and taking the fluent, we get
FLUXIONS. Part II.
fary that the terms of the feries fliould be each limply Inverfe
a power of x multiplied by x and conftant quantities.
If for example we have this fluxion
Method.
A
. i.x’3 . i.a.A;5
:^ + ~~r +
2.'-
2.4.5
+
*-3-S-x
2.4.6.']
-j- conji.
If we fuppofe x to denote the line* of an arch, then
v (1—A,’1) is its cofine, and —r> ^^ is the fluxion
of the arch itfelf 59-) j therefore the feries which we
have jurt found, exprefles the length of the arch
of a circle, radius being unity, and the fine of the
arch x. It wTe fuppofe the feries to exprefs the final-
left arch that correfponds, to the fine xy then, as when
the fine of that arch =0, the arch itfelf ~o, the feries
exprefling the arch muft vanifli wdien x~o, therefore
wre muft fupprefs the conftant quantity added to com¬
plete the fluent j or fuppofe it —o. The fame feries
has already been found by the diredt method of fluxions
in $ 72.
Let denote the fame as in J 137, then, as the fine
of 30 degrees, or of -J w, is 4? we have, by fubftituting
4 inftead of x in the preceding feries, and multiplying
both ftdes by 6,
»=3 (* +
1-3-5
232* " 245 2^ " 2467 2^ ^ Stc.^
by means of this feries, which involves only rational
numbers, we may compute (but with more labour), the
value of 7T as before.
Suppofe the fluxion to be Xy/(ax—a:*), which may be
otherwife exprcfled thus, xa ~x
nomial theorem (1——y —
r(x—y
a
By the bi-
2a
■ &c.
2.4a* *.4.6/23
Let each term of thi^ feries be multiplied by a^x^x, and
the fluent taken by ^ ioi, thus we get jlxx/(ax—x')=
V 3
^ 2X 1.1 2X7,
2 5« 2.4 AA
1.1.3 2x2
2.4,6 9/2^
.— &c.) -j- co/i/r.
14I; By refolving a fluxion into an infinite feries, the
the object in view is to transform it into a feries of
other fluxions, each of which may have its fluent deter¬
mined by known methods 3 but it is not always necef-
\/(i—x1) ’
in which e is fuppofed to denote a final 1 conftant quan¬
tity, we may expand 1—fV) or (1—e\xz)T into a
feries, which will thus become
1 eax*— — e4A?4— e6x6.— §rc
2 2.4 2.4.6
X \/ f X
and the fluxion —   will be transformed to
vT!—*)
VC
x r 1 * , r-i
 p cj6xrj — &c. \
2.4.6 3
the feries will converge very fail when e is fmall, for
that 1/ (1—x2) may be a real quantity, x2 muft be lefs
than 1. We muft now multiply each term of the feries
by the common fadlor
and take the fluents.
\/(l~~X2)
which being all contained in the general cxpreffion
/#’” x
~/y Wl11 be found by § 133. Thus, putting
A to denote an arch of which x is the fine, we have
A
r x x/( 1 —e2x2)
J ^/(i—x2) ~
.t -' {yr h—1a J
2.4
+l-±y
2.4.6
-}- &c.
G 4.6 X'+ V(i—^)]
-1*4 A
2.4.6
-f cow/?.
f
Of the Fluents of fitch Fluxions as involve Logarithmic
and Exponential functions.
142. Let it be required to find the fluent of xmx{\.x')r
where 1. x denotes the Napierean logarithm of x. In
this cafe, as well as in fome following examples, wc
fhall have recourfe to the principle already employed in
§ 130, namely, that if v and z denote any functions of
a variable quantity .r, then
J*Z V= V Z f V z.
Let us therefore affirme xmx — v, and l. x z, then,
xrn+i ’x
(§ ^1.)-—=^ and (§ 5J.),y=z, therefore,
fubftituting
Part II. .F L U X
In.erfe fubftitutmg tliefe values of t>, 3, i>, a in the formula it
Method. kecomes
755
ax Inverfe
If we fuppofe «=!, then, nhferving that fa* x* ^
xm x
IONS.
If we
{§ 56-)»
r , l.Af   f
J xm x (1. x) - —^jpr J m + i
rXm X Xm+\ n
or-fincv ■^+r-(^H)>+"-/7-
Let us next fuppofe that the propofed fluxion is ^uft £ound? thus it becomes
xm 'x (\.xyi. Put xmx=v, and (1. x)n=^t then (§ ioi.)
and (§ 570^"—therefore,
fubftituting as before thefe values in the formula
f*x**=a£-£z)'JrCOnJl-
If «=2, then
In this expreflion we fubftitute the value ^fa*x x
f Z i'—vz—fv z, we get
xm-\-1 (1. « ) « Cn x"ix (1.x) 1
fm ^C1* J-
„ . f X* 2X
f*x*'«=aX{r<rw
—?—T -I- con/l.
CM3 3
7«-|- I
Proceeding in this way we may find the fluent when
„=o or when «=:4, or in general, when n is any in¬
teger number whatever, the number of terms in the
fluent being in this cafe always finiteit is not io how*
It is evident that by this formula the determination ever wben n is either negative or fractional,
of i-bf. fluent ofxmx n. xV is reduced to that of - • r n
(1. V) which we have already found and in Of ,he Tlu^s of fuchjl~^ ‘
like manner that the determination of the fluent ot
ynix (1. xy is reduced to that of xmx (1. x)% and fo on, ^ us fupp0fe that « is an arch whofe fine is x,
from which it appears that the fluent ofx-x(l x)« and^bat it is required to find the fluent of s» x*x. Put-
is expreflible in finite terms when « is a whole pofitive ana tnat n. is 4u
number. The formula however will not apply when *n x—V, tnen
m— j, becaufe of the denominator/;/ -}-1 = — I -f I __ o.
But in this cafe wTe have
1
■ Cl. x) *+1-f-
Tl I
If n be negative or fra&ional the fluent of xmx (1. x);
can only be exprefled by an infinite feries.
J%xn 'x—f!z v-zv—fv * 1
but fince v-xnx, we have v— § ioi, and finfce
x= fin. 2;, we have x=ss cof. —^*) 59-)»
and therefore 2;“
\/(i—**) ’
• thus we have
143. As an example of an exponential funftion, let
it be required to find the fluent of a* x* x. Here we f ^ ^ _%x”+T i___ 1* .
may put v for W, and k for a*, then w^e have J % w+i «+1‘/ t/(1—
11——7—, §ioi, and 2S=:(1. a>*x, (§ 56.) therefore, bence the determination of the propofed fluent is re-
fubftituting thefe values of ’v^<aiv,z in the formula duced to J ———which we have already confidered
f % v=v 25—f vz we get ^ ^1 '
/’ . i}XXn+i /* (l. (l)axXn+lX
therefore, fubftituting «—1 every where inftead of n,
/axxn r(\. a)axxnx
a*x n—1 x—   — /   )
ti y n
hence, bringing f axxnx to ftand alone one fide of the
-equation
f • 0*xn n r
Jaxxnx——. ,— / axxn— ix.
1. a i.a''
\/(i—x1)
i» § 133. By the fame mode of reafoning we may de¬
termine the fluent when x denotes the cofine of the
afch 2;.
145. It appears from § 59. that n 2; being put to
denote any arch of a circle to radius unity, the fluxion
of the fine of that arch is « a cof. n % j therefore on the
contrary,
J % cof. « 2 =3 fin. nz conji.
n
In like manner from the formulas of $ 59- and 5 6o*
we find
5 C 2 / ^ fin.
756
Inverfe
Method.
FLUX
f* fin. n z rr—- cof. nz conji.
Inverfe
Method.
f-
cof.2«a n
— tan. « s; -J- conji.
f % —1 ' . «
lin.* nz n t •/
f z fin. n z i .
'/-a?^r=:»fec-,’s+ro”-/?-
cofec. „ » + conji.
u fin.* nz n ~ J
146. By the fecond of thefe expreflions we find the
fluent of
z (A-f-B fin. ss-J-C fin. 2554" &.c.)
to be
As—B cof. z—4 C cof. 2 z— &c. conji.
and from the firft expreflion we find the fluent of
z (A-f-B cof. s-f-C cof. 2 s -{- &c.)
to be
A s-f-B fin. :s-j-4 C fin. 2 z-f- &c. -f- conji.
147. It has been (hewn in the Arithmetic of fines,
(fee Algebra, § 556.) that
fin.* s=:4(—c°fi 2 21-I-1)*
therefore, by what has been fhewn in § 145.
J % fin.* z—\ J'(—z cof. 2 z -f- s)
=4(—4 fin- 2 2; + ») -j- conji.
It has alfo been ftiewn that
fin.3 z=4(—fin* 3 2 +3 fin* *)>
therefore, multiplying each term of this expreflion by
2;, and taking the fluents,
J* % fin.3 5S =4(4 cof. 3 %—3 cof. %)
-f- conji.
In the fame manner may the fluent of z fin.» z be
found, « being any politive integer number whatever.
Again, it has been fhewn (Algebra, J 356.),
that
cof.* z =4(c°f* )
therefore
J% (% cof. 2 % -f'z )
=4 (4 fin. 2z -}- 55 ) _j_ co/Jl.
and becaufe
, cof.3 2; =|;(co.f. 3 2; -f 3 cof. 2;)
IONS. part n.
therefore, multiplying by 2;, and taking the fluents,
J'z cof.3 ss =r4( ] fin. 32 -f-3 fin.»)
4- conji.
and proceeding in this way we may find the fluents of
» cof." $3, n being any pofitive integer number.
148. The fluents of 2; fin. ”z,and2;cof.”zmaybeexpref-
ed under another form, by proceeding as in $ 142. Thus,
beginning with » fin.^zs, and refolving it into 2; fin. 2; x
fin.®—1 2;, if we put % fin. %—v, and fin.«—1 2;=/, we
have by \ 145, v~— cof. », and (by J 26 and § 59)/=
(«—1)2: cof. z fin.®—2 2;, therefore, fubflituting in
the formula^’t zi—v t—v t we have
J'zUm.n <3—— cof. 2! fin. ®—x 25
4* (®—1 )/':2 c°f.i:2fin.” z z j
but cof.*25~ 1— fin.* therefore J'z fin.®a is equal to
— cof. 25 fin. n—i 2:4- («. 1) J*25 fin.w ^ z
— («—1) J'25 fin. n z
which expreflion, by bringing together the terms con-
tainingy"'z fin.® z becomes
f z fin. ® z = — cof. z. fin.”--1 z,
« *
n— 1 p-
4 —J z fin.®—a z,
By giving particular values to n we have
J'z fin.* 2;=—L cof. 2; fin. 254- —J" ss
= ^ cof. 25. fin. 25 4—L <2 JLconfl.
f z fin.3 25= — cof. 25 fin * z4- ~ /z fin. 25
^ 3 3^
— cof. 2; fin.* 2;—— cof. 25 4- con/l.
3 3
We may proceed in this way as far as we pleafe, dedu¬
cing the fluent of 2; fin.4 2; from that of z fin.* and
the fluent of 53 fin.1 z from that of z fin.3 z, and fo on:
If in the general formula we fubftitute every where
2—« inftead of n, it becomes
/W fin.* ” z——~ cof. z fin.
J n—2
an'
L U
—n
X
z or
Part II. .
Inverfe an exprefliou which, by bringing C^ h
Method. r ^
" f * t0 ftand on one fide of the equation, becomes
J iin.” z
r z ___ i c°nz
J iio." a — (n—l) fin. ■" 1 %
IONS
7S7
Inverfe
f % - we fubftitute i w—» inftead of z, (where 4 ^
denotes a quadrant), and obferve that
fin. ft ^-a)= cof. cof. (| 7r--«)=fin.«,
and that the fluxion of (^ is we (hall imme¬
diately obtain
n—2 r 
—iJ {In.
This formula is not applicable to the cafe of «_ i, be-
Jaufe E each of the terms of the fluent is divided by
n i —o, and therefore becomes infinite. In order to
obtain the expreflion for the fluent m this particular
cafe, we proceed thus. It is evident that ^T^.—
f z cof.” Z—— fin. £ cof. *
J n
n—i f • r n—z „
i  / % cob z
‘ n %/
~ x _ i fin, z
J cof.” z'~ «—1 cof.”—Iz
n—2, p 2
^ n—I*/cof/
-az
but
,-cLo177" 2 0-*)+2(i+“f.*)
as wUl be found by reducing the fraftons to a com-
j im. z
xnon denominator, therefore % —c0{.
—- and confequently,
1 (i-j-cof. z) . .
i I r% fin, z irzfa-*..
J fin. z ‘iJx—cof. 2! 2*/ 1-fcoi.z
but if it be confidered that the fluxion of cof. z is —z
, _ Z fin. Z
fin. z (§ 59.) it will appear by $ 103 that J z
= 1. (.-cof. *), and that/i^?-=-!-C+co^).
therefore
and in like manner from the formula exprefling the flu-
z
ent of we deduce
fin . z
* _ / lOj-fin^z \ conji.
li-fin.z;^
_ 1 v (i-ffio- , conji'
^ (1—fin. z)
ico. It has been (hewn in Algebra, \ 357» tiiat
16 cof.2 z fin.3=:—fm. 5 z-f-fin. 3 z -f 2 fin. z, there¬
fore
JZ cof.* z fin.3 z= co^ -5 %—r~^“ C0^' 3 54
__2 cof. z) -f- conji.
The fame mode of finding the fluent will apply to any
fluxion of this form z fin."1 z cof.” z j or by refolving
the fluxion into two parts, the determination of its
fluent may be reduced to that of a fluxion in which the
exponents m and n are lefs than in the propofed fluxion,
by the method of proceeding already employed in $
148.
131. Let us now denote fin. z by #, then cof. z_~
J (1—**) and fince z cof.z=^ (J 59.) therefore z
  J - thefe values being fubftituted in any
“ (1—a:*) ’
funaion involving z, fm. z and cof. z will immediately
   cotan. z-4- conji. which agrees reduce it to an algebraic form. thus for example, we
fin. z - - - '
f * - JLi. (1—cof. z)—— 1. (1 + cof. z) + conji.
J fin. z 2 2
=tc(5S-!)+“-'-
-1 VC—..),  )
~ ’ 1/ (l 4-col. Z)^
Tf in the general formula for JjYY^"wefuppol*e ”"2
we have
2 cof. z
Jin.* z
/fin.* z fin- z . /r ^ j -r fiiall have z fin.”1 Z cof.”z transformed to
with what has been already obferved (J 14S-), and if ‘tall have
we fupppfe «=3, then
r^~=-
J fin.J z
cof.
2 fin.
cof. z i r %
2~iin.* z ‘ 2J fin. z
1—cof.
XXm (1 «*) *
an expreflion which may have its fluent determined by
the formulas of $ 133 and § 134.
Sect. II. Application of the Inverfe MethoJ of Flux-
'ions to the Refolution of Problems.
To fnd the Areas of Curves.
152. It has been fhewn in § 61, that if the abfciffa
1491 If in the general formulas for f z fin.”z and 0f a curve be denoted by x, the ordinate by y, an
■JL + ±l +
i.*z~ 4 \i4-col. zy
In this way we proceed as far as we pleafe, deducing
f-F— from —•> and fo on.
J fin.4 z J fin.1 z
FLUXIONS.
758
Method. area s—y x- Therefore the general for-
,i mula expteffing the area of any curve will be
Part IL
-f
Fig. 19.
1.
J—fij x—a n Jx
na'
m-\-n
+c,
where C denotes the conftant quantity that may be re¬
quired to complete the fluent. As in the prefent cafe
it is required to find the area of the portion of the curve’
next its vertex, fo that when rirro, then .r~o, there-
. ‘ i m+n_
fore, alfo C=o, and the area is Amply —x ”
m-\-n
If it be required to find the area comprehended be¬
tween two ordinates PB, p b, put AB—</, then when
j—o, we have *=</, therefore the general expreflion
-- rn-\-n X *»-[-«
n an —  
«f  X -L.l''1 I— . 1 ’ r 71 On
m-^-n
+c becomes in this cafe o~-"—d
m-\-n
+c,
hence Crr———d »
m-\-n
+n
I r M+n
”a x n —d~y.
tn+n L J
and confequently the area BP/> b, or r, is equal to
tn-\-n «-(-«■
m-\-i
When n is an even number, the expreflion for the
n a~ m~\-n
area, viz. m+nx n may be confidered as negative as
well as pofitive, on account of the radical quantity
f " ’ «r/V xm+ny which has then a twofold value, it
it may therefore have the fign rt prefixed to it 5 but in
1 .c a e t‘ie farne abfciiTa AB belongs to two branches
ot the curve APp and AP'p1 as in fig. 19. N° 1, there-
I m-\-n
for# the two values of the expreflion z±z~^-x " may
be ^onfidered as indicating the two areas APB, AP'B
on each fide of the axis, correfponding the one to the Inverfe
pofitive, and the ether to the negative ordinates. Method.
Hence, to find the area of any curve, we mull either
find from the equation of the curve the value of 7/ in
terms of x1, or elfe the value of x in terms of y, andy,
and either the one or the other of thefe being fubflituted
the above formula, and the fluent found by the methods
already explained, we {hall have a general expreilion
for the curvilineal area as required.
Ax. 1. Let it be required to find the area of any
curve of the parabolic kind, of which, putting the ab-
fcilla AB—#, and the ordinate BP—y, the equation is
yn —axm.
X m
Then we have y=a ~x ”, and
When the exponents m and n are both odd numbers,
m-\-n
the quantity x " has only one fign and remains always
pefitive whatever be the fign of aq but in this cafe one
or thp two branches of the curve has its abfeiflas and its
ordinates negative at the fame time (as in fig. 19.N® 2.)
it folloivs therefore that the areas correfponding to the ne-
gati\e abfcilTas and ordinates ought to be regarded as
pofitive. b
m-\-n
If ti alone is odclj tuen tlie cpiantity x n becomes
negative at the fame time as v, but in this cafe the two
branches of the curve are on the fame fide of the line
in which the abfeiflas are taken (as in fig. 19. N° 3.)
and the ordinates remain always pofitive.
Upon the whole it may be concluded, that the area
9f a curve is pofitive when the abfcijjas arid the ordinates
nave the fame fgn, and negative when they have contrant
ftgtis.
If we fuppofe w—1, and «=r 2, then the curve is the
•common parabola, the area of which from the general
formula is found to be - a V — *— x y j hence it
3 3
appeals that the parabola is —of its circumfcribing
parallelogram.
Lx. 2. Suppofe the curve to be a circle. Put pin-
AB=x, BP—y, the diameter ADrra, the area ABP=r. b’
From the nature of the circle y*=^ .v—x*, therefore
y= f {a x—.va), and
SZ=1J'y x~ J'x V {ax—x*) j
In this cafe the fluxion is not of fuch a form as to
admit of an algebraic fluent in finite terms, we muft
thereiore have recourfe to the method of feries, but we
have already found the fluent in this way in $ 140
therefore, from the feries there brought out we have
\ 3 2 5a 2.47a1
1.1.3 2 x4
2.4.6 9a*
— &c.)
this expreflxon does not require a conftant quantity to be
added to it, becaufe when x=o we muft alfo have
s=0.
If fuppofe the arch AP to be -f of the quadrant
AE, then it is known that PB=| the rad. A'C=La,
therefore, if we fuppofe the radius —I, we have in this
cafe BC—41/3, and AB=;i—f ^3 = 0*1339746
nearly. If this number be fubftituted inftead of x1, and
a few terms of the feries computed, we ftiall find the
area ABP = •0452931 j to this add the triangle
UBPrr^x v^zro-2165063, and we have the fe&or
ACP =*2617994, which number when multiplied by
3 gives *7853982 for the area of the quadrant. This
number alfo exprefles the area of a circle of which the
diameter is 1.
3- Suppofe the curve to be an ellipfe. Put?316
the®6-1'-
Part II. F L U X
Inverfe tlie tranfvcrfe axis ADmtf, the conjugate axis
, Mf .hod 2CE=/t, alio AB—at, j then by the nature ot
^ •• b DC '
the curve y— - \/(a x—v1), and s—yx —z —-
^/(ax xz) j ^ut ^ a c*rc^e t*6 defcribed on AD as a
diameter, and BP the ordinate of the ellipfe be produced
to meet the circle, it appears from lafl example that
x ^/(a x—v*) is the fluxion of AQB the fegment of
the circle correfponding to the elliptic area APB or s ;
therefore, putting v for the fegment AQB, we have
— and s— —, here the conftant quantity c
a a
muft be fuppreflfed becaufe .r and v mufl; vanifh to¬
gether. Hence it appears that the area of any legment
of an ellipfe is to the area of the correfponding legment
of its circumfcribing circle as the lefler axis of the
ellipfe is to the greater : therefore the whole ellipfe mult
be to the wdiole circle in the fame ratio.
Ex* 4. Let the curve be a hyperbola, of which C is
the centre. Put the femi-tranfverfe axis CA=a, the
the femiconjugate axis —b, CBr=^, BP=?/, the area
b
K¥E—s. From the nature of the curve yzz —
y^(xs—a3), therefore
s~ J'y x — —X(a;1—a1}.
But it appears from formula B (§ 131O that
fx \/(«*■— a*) =4x-\/(x2 a2) J" ^ j
IONS. 75$
b . ab , rv4-v/(v*—Inv(rfe,
_ xJ(x*—a2)—s— — 1. 4 —    Method-
2a y ^ ) 2 (_ a j t v—
but if a ftraight line be drawn from C to P fo as form
° h
the triangle CBP, it is manifeft that — x\/ (x*—a2) is
equal to ^CBxBP, that is to the triangle CBP,
therefore the excefs of the triangle CBP above the
area s, that is the hyperbolic fe&or CAP is equal to the
logarithmic fundlion
a b ^ ^x-|— \/^x —a j ^
Ex. 5. Suppofe the curve to be an equilateral pig. 2«y-
hyperbola, that is a hyperbola whofe axes. are equal,
and that it is required to find the curvilineal area
DC BP comprehended between DC, a perpendicular
from D (a given point in the curve) to one of the
afymptotes, and PB, a perpendicular from any other
point in the curve to the fame afymptote.
Let A be the centre, put AC—a, CD—/>, AB—v,
BP=y, the area DCBP=j-. From the property of
ab
the afymptotes we have x y—a b, and therej-ore y~ —,
hence ($ 103.)
/• • ^ ab x . . .
y X— j    —a b\. x-\-t.
To find the value of c, let us fuppofe x—a, then s~o
and the general formula becomes in this cafe
o-=za b 1. rt-f-c, and hence c——a b 1. a,
therefore
and again by J 127,
therefore
r- — xs/ix'—a2)— — 1. v/(^~«s)]-
2a 2 j
To difeover the value of the conftant quantity c we
muft confider that when x—ar then j—O, and in
this extreme cafe the general equation juft found be¬
comes
Ozr-
ab
1. # c
he»ce c— — 1. a, and confequently, obferving that
2
__ ab^ raf-f-y/(y*—a2)
~~ 2 i a
we get
,= L *,/(*._*>)_ Si+yA'-zlll
It immediately follows from this formula that
s~a b 1. x—a b 1. a—a b 1. —.
n
If we fuppofe a—b—i, then ml.a:, from which it
appears that in this cafe the hyperbolic area DCBP re-
prefents the Napierean logarithm of the number x}
it was from the confideration of this propeity that the
logarithms originally invented by Napier were called
hyperbolic logarithms.
But the logarithms of any other fyftem may alfo be
reprefented by areas of the fame hyperbola j for this
purpofe it is only neceffary to determine the magni- -
tudes of #, and b, fo that — — M, where M denotes
the modulus of the fyftem, thus we (hall have a b—a2 IVI,
and s—a2 M 1. —, or, putting am, j'rrMl. w, an
a
expreflion for the logarithm of x according to any
fyftem whatever of wThich th$ modulus is i\I ( Algebra^
§ 287.).
Ex. 6. Let the curve be the cycloid of which AE F;g ^
is the axis and A the vertex, let a femicircle be de¬
fcribed on AE as a diameter, draw AG perpendicular
to the axis, and from any point in the curve draw PB
perpendicular to AG and PD perpendicular to AE,
meeting the circle in Q, and draw QC to C the centre
of the circle. Put AC=a, AB=:*, BP=y, the area
ABP~r, and put v for the angle ACQ, that is lor
the arch of a circle which meafures AC Q, the rad us
T L U. X
Inverfe of tlisit circle being unity, then ADzrtf (l—cof. u),
Method, and arch A0^~<7 and fince from the
"'' nature of the curve, PD= arch AQ^-(--DQ.> therefore
PD—rt fin. vz=a(y-{-{in. v) ; hence
xzza{v-\-fm. t’), x—a •u (i -f-cof. v), (§ 59.)
y—a (1—cof. t')
s—J'xy— J*a* i-cof.11))
~a'lJvkn.1-v—\arv—|fl*fin. i»cof. v (f 148.)
=1 AC x arch AQ-4CDxD£i
and here no conftant quantity is wanted to complete
the fluent; becaufe upon the fuppofition that AQpzo
both fides of the equation vaniflr as they ought to do 5
now it is obvious that AC X AQrr area of fetdor
AC£), and CD X DQ.= area of triangle DCQ^, there¬
fore
area of circ. feg. ADQ.
Let AG be the greatefi: value of x ", complete the
parallelogram AGFE, then from the general expreflion
for the cycloidal area, it follows that the whole cycloi¬
dal fpace APFG is equal to the femicircle A£> E j but
from the nature of the curve, EF is equal to AQE,
half the circumference, therefore the rectangle EG is
equal to four times the femicircle A£) E; from thefe
equals take away the external cycloidal fpace AGF,
and the femicircle AQE, which have been fhewn to be
equal, and the remainders, viz. the internal cycloidal
fpace APFE, and three times the femicircle AQE are
equal to each other.
153. In fome cafes it is more convenient to refer a
curve line to a fixed point than to an axis. Thus in-
fiead of exprefling the nature of the circle by the equa¬
tion yz—a x—x*, where y denotes a perpendicular from
any point of the curve upon a the diameter, and x the
diftance of that perpendicular from one end of the
diameter, we may otherwife exprefs it by the equa¬
tion zzrr'y, where ss denotes a variable arch of the
circle reckoned from one end of its diameter, r its
radius, and ft the angle contained by a line drawn from
the centre of the circle through the extremity of which
angle is meafured by an arch of a circle having its radius
unity.
Fig. 25. ^ he: nature of the different conic fe&ions may be de¬
fined in the fame manner. Let P be any point in a
conic fe&ion, of which F is one focus, and FA a part
of the axis j let DC the dire&rix of the fe&ion meet
FA in C, join PF, and draw PB perpendicular to the
axis, and PD to the dire&rix j then from the nature of
the curve (Conic Sections) PF has a given ratio to
PD, that is to FC—FB j put FC—«, FP—r, the angle
PFC=ft, and fuppofe PF : PD : : « : i, then PF=r
^•PD—«.FC—n.FB, hence, obferving that FB—FP
X cof. v. we get r—a n—n r cof. ft, and r~ —~—-—
i-\-n col. v
which equation expreffes generally the nature of a conic
Action.
*54. The formula which we have found for the flux-
1
IONS.
Part II.
ion of a curvilinear area, in £ 61, is not immediately Inverfe
applicable when the nature of a curve is expreffed in
this wray, we lhall therefore inveftigate another formula
fuited to this particular manner of confidering curves.
Let us fuppofe that APR is a curve the pofition of pig. 2$,
any point P of which is determined by PF, its diftance
from a given point F, and the angle which PF makes
with AF a line given by pofition. Let a circle be de-
fcnbed on F as a centre with a rad.—1, then FP, as
alfo the area FAP may be confidered as funilions of
BD the arch of that circle which meafures the angle
PFA. From F draw FP' to any other point P' of
the curve meeting the circle BD in D'. Put FP=r,
the area FAP—j*, the angle AFP, or the arch BDzrft,
then the area PFF, and the arch DD' will be the cor-
refponding increments of j and ft, therefore J 21,
—= limit of
area FPP'
DD' x FD,
here DD' the increment of v is multiplied by FDm,
to render the terms of the ratio homogeneous. On F
as a centre, with FP as a radius, defcribe an arch of a
circle meeting FP' in Q^, then, as the lectors FDD',
FPQ^ are fimilar, we have
FD1 : FP1 :: FDxDD' : FPxPQ=2 fett. FPQ,
*2 FD* 9
hence DD'xFDzr^^- fed. FPQ=:-f-fe6t. FPQ
. j r3 area FP'P
andT=7x KTiTQ.5
but the point P' being fuppofed to approach continually
• • • • 3.TC3,
to P, it is manifeft that the limit of > - is unity,
1CCl« X XT
or 1, therefore
S T* • I •
-7-——, and s —■—r* ft.
ft 2 2
155. By means of this formula we may find the
areas of that clafs of curves called fpirals. Let us take
for example the fpiral of Archimedes, which may be
defined thus. Conceive a ftraight line FR to revolve p;gt
about F the centre of a given circle, departing from
a given pofition FB j conceive alfo a point P to move
in the revolving line, fo that PF its diftance from the
centre may be to BD the arch of the circle paffed over
by the revolving line, as m to «, then the point P will
generate the fpiral.
Put BF=:«, the angle BFRzrft, the line FPrrr,
and the area generated by the line FPrrj-, then the
arch BDzra ft, and fince from the nature of the curve
r \ a v w m \ n. therefore and ftzr^—, hence
am am
the general formula !•— —rx ft becomes s~-^-——,
& 2 z am
therefore,
_ Cn rxr nr*
^ 2 a m 6am
this fluent does not require a conftant quantity to be
added,
FLUX
Inverfc added, as both, s and r evidently vanifli at the fame
M^nd. timCt
Fart IT.
/
Tnverfe
Fi-. 28. 156. As the general expreflion for a curvilineal area
BCPD is Jy 'x-> where a?=:AB the abfciifa reckoned
from a given point A in the axis and 3/—BC the ordi¬
nate, it follows that X being put to denote any fun&ion
of a variable quantity v, the fluent of X a; may always
be exhibited by means of a curvilineal area. Thus let
CP a be a curve of fuch a nature that AD and DP the
co-ordinates being denoted by x and y, the equation of
of the curve is y—X, then, afluming any ordinate LC
as given by' pofition, we have evidently
/
X a?= area CBDP.
I O N S.
invent;
X x taken between the limits of .tzi AD and x—-- ]\iethod.
and the infcribed figure muft be lefs,^ it follows that it
we compute the areas of the circumfcribed and infciibed
figures w’£ lhall obtain two limits, the one greater, and
the other lefs than And as by increafing tne
number of equal parts into which D is divided we may
bring the circumfcribed and infcribed rectilineal figures
as near to a ratio of equality as we pleafe, it is always
poflible to find two limits which (hall differ from eacu
other, and confequently from J' X x (which lies be¬
tween them) by lefs than any aflignable quantity.
158. If we join P, P, P", />, the tops of the ordinates,
the reftilineal fpace formed by the trapeziums DPP'D ,
D'P'P'D", D"¥"pd w’ill be more nearly equal to the
curvilineal area, than the circumfcribed rectilineal figure
formed by the parallelograms DE, D E', D'E" j there¬
fore the fum of thofe trapeziums being found, it will
be equal to the fluent J'Xx nearly.
Suppofe, for example, that it is required to find the
As the ordinate BC (which is affumed as given by po¬
fition) may be taken any where, the fluxion of the area
being the fame wherever it is taken, it appears, as has
been already obferved (J. 101) that the fun&ionf ^ x
may be confidered as indeterminate, for it admits of in¬
numerable values correfponding to any particular value of ^ _  
x, and in this refpeft it differs from an algebraic func- value of A-—- between the limits of X—O, and x~i.
tion, which for a given value of has always a determi- J ^ + x
nate number of values. If however x be fuppofed to
increafe from any determinate magnitude a, to any other
determinate magnitude a', then, taking the abfciffa AD
= 0, and A d^za', and drawing the ordinates DP, <//>,
we have
when x—a,J~X a? = area CBDP,
and when x—a\J'X x— area CB dp,
fo that the equation of the
’ i+a:*’
—^—: let us fuppofe D d the diflance
iT-*1
between the extreme ordinates to be divided into ten
equal parts, then putting o, *l, ’2, &.c. to I inftead of a?
In this cafe X r
curve P/> is y =
in the formula y ==
1 -\-x
we obtain eleven fucceffive
values of y, or eleven equidiffant ordinates, the numeral
—1 f u T,7:n -- wn 
Fig. 29.
therefore, while x increafes from a to a', or receives the
increment q'—q, the funftion^^'X x increafes from area
CBDP to area CB and thus receives the increment
area PD dp, which is of a determinate magnitude as
the ordinates PD,/>^have both a determinate pofition.
Hence it appears that in afligning the fluent of X x, wm
only determine the change that takes place in the va¬
lue of'the funaiony'X x while a? paffes from one par¬
ticular value to another particular value.
157. As there are general and known methods by
which an approximate value of any curvilineal area may
be found, when a fluent is exprefied by fuch an area,
thofe methods may be applied to find an approximate
value of the fluent. Let dp be a curvilineal area,
fuppofed to reprefent the fluent^'x x between the li¬
mits of a;—AD and x=Ad. Conceive D</ to be di¬
vided into a number of equal parts DD', D'D", D d, and
the ordinates P'D', P"D" drawn, and the two fets of
parallelograms DE, D'E', D"E" and D'e, D'V, de" to
be completed, the former conftituting a reftilineal figure
circumfcribed about the curvilineal fpace DPP'P"/>*/,
and the latter a recfilineal figure infcribed in that fpace j
then as the circumfcribed figure muft neceffarily be
greater than the curvilineal fpace, that is, greater than
Vol. VIII. Part II.
The firft = 1-ooooo
the 2d zz -99010
the 3d rz -96154
the 4th = -91743
the 5th zr -86207
the 6th zz *80000
the 7th zz -73529
the 8th zz-67114
the 9th zz -60975
the loth zz -55249
the 1 ith zz -50000
By the elements of geometry the area of the refti¬
lineal figure formed by the trapeziums is found by
adding together all the ordinates except the firft
and laft, and half the fum of the firft and laft, and
multiplying that fum by the breadth of one of the tra¬
peziums -, now the fum of the ordinates, with the ex¬
ception of the firft and laft, together with half the fum
of the firft and laft, is 7-84981, and the common breadth
of the trapeziums is *i, therefore^-—7,84981 X
•izz*785 nearly, as required. It is evident from § 137,
that ^— taken between the limits of Arzzo, and *z=I,
J1 +**
is accurately equal to an arch of 45*j rac^us being uni¬
ty, which arch being -J tt will be found zz *7854 nearly.
If we recur to the feries which has been found to ex-
prefs the above fluent in § I37> an<^ an(I
aczz 1, we fliall have C- z taken between the prefcri-
’ Ji+a;*
bed limits equal to
5 D i-f
7^2
FLUX
Inverfe
Method.
1 T 4* T ~~ T 4" & c •
It is impoflible however to compute the fluent Amply
by the addition of the terms of this feries, on account
of the flownefs of its convergency.
IONS.
+y)=yv (+^)
Part II
Inverfe
Method.
Fig. ip.
159. As the curvilineal area D'Ppd is the limit of
the fum of the parallelograms DP', D'P^, &c. which
conftitute the reftilineal figure infcribed in that area j as
alfo the limit of the fum of the parallelograms DE,
D'E', &c. which conftitute the circumfcribed figure,
the number of parts into which D d is divided being in
either cafe conceived to be increafed indefinitely, fo
that each may be continually diminifhed (and this being
the cafe it is of no confequence whether thofe parts be
conceived as all equal or as unequal) fo from analogy
we may conclude that if x', x'\ x"r, . . . be put to
denote fucceflive values of a variable quantity x, and X',
X", X'", ... X^ 'the correfponding values of X any
function of x, the limit of the fum of the products X
(x'—v), X'(x".—x'), X"(*"'—x"), &c. when the num¬
ber of fucceihve values of x and X is continually in¬
creafed, fo that the difference between any two of them
immediately following each other may be continually
diminifhed, is equal to^X x, the fluent to be taken be¬
tween the two extreme values of x.
160. It was in this manner that the firft writers on
the differential calculus conceived a fluent 5 as the dif¬
ference between any two of its fucceeding values is the
product of the fundtion X by x'—x the increment of x,
they called that produdt (when xr—.v was conceived
to be infinitely diminifhed) the Differetitial of the fluent 3
and as the fluent is the fum of all the products, or diffe¬
rentials, inftead of calling it a fluent they called it an In¬
tegral; the procefs by which an integral is found from
its differential or fluxion they called Integration. The
terms Integral and Integration are fometimes employed
by writers in applying the method of fluxions to ma¬
thematical enquiries.
To find the Lengths of Curves.
161. It has been ftiewn in § 63, that if the abfciffa of
a curve be denoted by .v, the ordinate by y, and the
curve line by 2, then » ^(x1-f-y1), hence the ge¬
neral formula for finding the length of a curve is
» =yl/ (x’-fy2).
Therefore, if from the equation exprefling the nature
of a curve we find the value of y in terms of x and x,
or elfe the value of x in terms of y and yq and fubftitute
the one or the other in the above general formula, we
ihall obtain a fluxion the fluent of which will be the
length of the curve.
Ex. 1. Suppofe the curve to be a parabola, and that
ABzta:, BPmy, the arch APrzrz, the parameter —a,
then the equation of the curve being ax—y*, we have
By comparing this expreffion with formula (B) in f
131, we find
again by § 127,
therefore
2a
To determine the value of C, we muff confider that
when ?/—o, then 2=0, fo that then the general formula
will become Amply
o ~ — 1. o-j-C, and hence C— — ~1. a,
4 4
therefore, fubftituting the value of C, and bringing to¬
gether the logarithmic quantities,
^ ■_.yy'(a1+4y*)
2a
Ex. 2. Suppofe the curve to be a circle, and that C Fig. zo.
is its centre, and AE a quadrant of the circle. Put
CB=rx, BP=ry, the arch EP—z, the radius of the
circle ~a, then and y~.fi(a2—x2), and
• —x x
^ 1/ {a2—x2')’’
hence
-f VC*2 +-t">)
r ax
—J fi{a2—x2) '
This fluent can only be expr^effed by an infinite feries,
under which form it has been already exhibited in §
140, the radius being there fuppofed unity.
Ex. 3. Let the curve be an ellipie, and let it be re-j-lg 2r<
quired to find the length of the curve between E the
vertex of the leffer axis, and P any point in the curve.
To Amplify the calculation, let us fuppofe that the femi-
tranfverfe axis ACtri 3 put the femi-conjugate axis
CErzZ', the excentricity (that is ^(1—Z>2))=:e,the ab¬
fciffa CB—x, the ordinate PBrr^, the arch EPrrs ;
then, the equation of the curve being y2~b2fi—x2), we
» have
F L
■b x x
Part II.
Inverfe _ ^ y , • «.»
Method, have an£l y—x*)
far.e
U X
and there-
Flg. it.
=/ v/(*,+y')=y ^y+4^”)
'^^(1—e*xi)
=/-
a/(i—
r(l e:
K 2.2
IONS. 763"
but it is evident from $ 62, that the limiting ratio of Invsrfe
thofe arches mull be the fame as that of their chords, ii-._. ^ i .
therefore,
z r chord PP'
T~limlt °f chord DO'
‘This fluent can only be expreffed by means of an infi¬
nite feries, and it has been already given in this form in
§ 141. .... r •
If we take x=i, then all the quantities m that leries
wliich are multiplied by \/(1—v2) will vanifh, but in
this particular cafe z is the elliptic quadrant E A, and A
is a quadrant of the circumfcribing circle, or ^ *■, there¬
fore the elliptic quadrant is equal to
i±3 ,* i±m^_&c.)
2.24.4 2.2.4.4.0.6
This feries converges very fall if e be a fmall fraftion.
£x. 4. Suppofe the curve to be a cycloid. Let a
circle be deferibed on its axis meeting the ordinate PB
in Q, and draw CQ to the centre of the circle. Put
ABrrx, BPirry, the cycloidal arch AP”«, the radius
AC=a, the angle ACQrrt’, then AB=tf(i—cof.-y),
BQ = a An. *y, the circ. arch AQ^= a v, fo that x=:a
(1 cof. 1;), and from the nature of the curve y=ra
(•y-J- fin. v), therefore (§ 59)
x=av{in.v, y—4y(i + cof. w),
x1 -j~y2=:a1 v1 ^-{-(i+cof. y)1 ^
1 “y1 (2 -{- 2 cof. t))
but 2+2 col. v=4 cof.14r ^ (Algebra, § 356.),there¬
fore
*=/ v'(*1+y*)=2afv cof*^v
= 4 <7 fm.-j -y + C, (§ 145.)
but as when -y=o, then a=o, therefore C=0, and *
—40 fin. v} but if the chord AQ^be drawn, 2 a hu. 4 v
—chord AQ, therefore z~2 chord AQ.
162. The formula a=yV +^) not bemg ap¬
plicable In its prefent form to curves of the fpiral kind,
we fliall here inveftigate another fuited to that particu-
✓ lar clafs ef curves. . . _
Let APR be a curve of fuch a nature that the poli-
r,g' 3°‘ tion of any point P in the curve is determined by PF,
its diftance from a given point F, and by the angle
which PF makes with AF a line given in pofition.
We {hall employ the fame conftru&ion and notation
here ms in § 1 ^4, with the addition of drawing the
chords BD', PQ, PF, and putting the arch APir:* ;
then it is mariifeft that the fimultaneous increments oi
<v, z, and r will be the arches DD', PP', and the
ftraight line P'Q refpe&ively. Hence
* . . , arch PP
—limit or ■
now the limit of the angle PQD being evidently a
right angle, we have
.. PF V(PQl+&?'*)
km. ^r-wT= lim. ■  
DD
DD'
_r /rpQ.a , i
“"km. \/ |DIyx +DD'1 I
but
FP'
PQ2
DD'1 ” FD:
P'Q1 r~
-r\ and Urn. j£jj7T= T:»
fore
4- = +/^+^-), and * =:\/( r^v* + r1 V
v \ v*' v 7
Let us apply this formula to the fpiral of A?chimedes,Flg‘ 27.
the equation of which (§ 155.) is « w v=n r, and there-
fore
,'=T£'-andi':=^5 henc,:
+r'>y= I/r
This fluent may be found by formula B, $ 131, and it
is worthy of remark that the fluxion has the lame form
as that which we have found in § 161 for an arch of a
parabola; thus the length of any portion of the fpiral
of Archimedes may be exhibited by means of an arch
of a parabola.
To find the Content of Solids.
16 3. If AD the abfeiffa of a curve be denoted by x, pig. 4.
and PD the ordinate by y, and the folid generated by
the revolution of the curve APD about AD as an axis
by r, it has been fhewn, in § 64, that r =*-y\v, there¬
fore the general formula for finding the content of a fo¬
lid is
!y1*-
Ex. 1. Suppofe the folid to be a paraboloid, or that
which is generated by the revolution of a parabola about
its axis j in this cafe y%=a and taking the fluent fo
that when x—O, then rzro,
TrJ'y'x z=tt aj'x xzz\tv ax1.
arch DD'
or s—l*xy2 j but «xy2 is the content of a cylinder
having y for the radius of its bafe and x for its altitude,
therefore the content of a paraboloid is half that of a
cylinder having the fame bafe and altitude. .
" Ex. 2. Suppofe the folid to be a parabolic fpindIe,Fig. 3t(
which is generated by the revolution of APB an arch
of a parabola about AC an ordinate to its axis. In this
cafe let AD=x, DP=y, AB=&, the parameter of the
5 D 2 < w*
7f)4
Inverse
Metllod.
fog- 32-
and. 33.
FLUX
axis —tf, then from the nature of the parabola AD X DB
—a x PD, that is x(b—#):=# y, hence y—— —and
taking the fluent, fo that s and x may vanifli together j
j y1 x — i f'x*(b—^’)1 x
— -j f (bi x1 x — 2 bx^x -J-a4^)
  7T / k1
a1 \ '
or, fince a% —
3 2
{b—x^x
+ '
)
y
*y
{b—a)
fb1x bx1 x31
■11 r+yi’
which expreflion (by fuppofing x—AC~\b, and put¬
ting d for CE, the greateft value of y) gives ^ or
the content, of half the folid generated by the curve
AEB, therefore the entire fpindle is ——, or (by ob-
ferving that 7id1b is the content of a cylinder having d
for the radius of its bafe and b for its length) it is -j-j of
the circumfcribing cylinder.
'Bx. 3. Suppofe the folid to be a fpheroid produced
by the revolution of an ellipfe about either of its axes j
put a for i AB the axis round which the curve revolves,
£ for 4- E F the other axis, x for AD the height of any
fegment made by a plane perpendicular to the axis of
the folid, y for PD the radius of its bafe, and s for its
b*
content. Then, from the nature of the curve yaz=—-
(2 a x—xi), therefore, taking the fluent upon the fup-
pofltion. that s and x vanifh together,
‘-tt J'y' x— -^—J'^2axx—x* x)
7tbx , x3\
{a* •
a* ' 3 /
To find the content of the whole fpheroid rve have
only to take x — 2 a, thus the formula becomes
sz=~~ , and as Zitb'a expreffes the content of a cy¬
linder having 2b for the diameter of its bale, and 2a for
its height, it follows that the content of a fpheroid is
j that of its circumfcribing cylinder.
It is obvious that what has been found for the
fpheroid will apply alfo to the fphere, by fuppofing
the axes equal, or azzb.
Fig. 4. 164. If inflead of fuppofing the folid APQ/> to be
formed by the revolution of a curve round its axis (in
which cafe it is called a folid of revolution) we had fup-
pofed it to have any figure whatever, then by referring
the folid to fome ftraight line AC, given by pofition,
as an axis, and in which A is a given point, and fup¬
pofing P£)/> to be a fe&ion of the folid made by a plane?
IONS. Part XL
perpendicular to that axis, meeting it in D, and put- Inverfe
ting ADrrA, and the variable folid APO p (confidered Method. ^
as a function of a) =.r, by proceeding as in § 64, wre *
would have found the limit of-:
increment of r
increment of x
, and con-
fequently —, equal to the area of the fedlion of the folid
made by the plane ?£)/>; therefore, putting V for that
funflion of x which expreffes the area of the fedtion, we
have j- ~Vx, and j —J'Vx.
Let us fuppofe for example that AEFG is a folid Fig. 34.
bounded by any plane figure EFG as a bafe, and by
the furface which will be generated if we fuppofe a
ftraight line drawn from A any given point above that
plane to revolve in the circumference of the bafe.
Let AC be a perpendicular drawn from the vertex
of the figure to its bafe, and let P£)/> be a fedtion of
the folid by a plane parallel to the bafe, meeting the
perpendicular in D. Put a— the area of the bafe of
the folid, V— the area of the fedfion P£)/>, Z>=:AC the
altitude of the whole folid, AD the altitude of the
part cut off by the plane PQ/>, and >r= the content of
that part; then, as from the nature of the folid it is
pretty evident that the part of it cut off by the plane
PQA is fimilar to the whole, and as the bafes of fimilar
folids are as the fquares of their altitudes, we have
a :Y:: b* : x*y hence V—-Tr, and
b
s=fvx= £-/»*
this expreflion for s does not require the addition of any
conffant quantity, for by putting xzzo, we have j-=o as
it ought to be. Suppofe now x—b, then s~^-^—^aby
from which it appears that the content of the whole
folid is y of the produdl of the bafe by the perpendi¬
cular. It is evident that pyramids and cones are folids
of the kind we have been confidering.
To find the Surfaces of Solids.
165. The altitude AD of a folid, generated by re-p;- c
volution of a curve about AD as an axis, being as be¬
fore denoted by xy and PD the radius of its bale by yy
let us nowr put s to denote the curved furface of the
folid, then, as it has been ftiewn, § 65, that szz 2ny
■v/(**+ y*), we have
s~2zf yv
as a general formula for the furface of a folid.
Ex. 1. Suppofe the folid to be a fphere, generated by
the revolution of a circle about its diameter AB, put 3S
the radius of the fphere =a, then, AD being denoted
by x, and PD by y, we have from the nature of the
curve yl=:2 a x—xxy therefore
y=\ (zax—xy, and y=-~—-L-- and
V(2fl*—■#)
AT*
Fart II.
Inverfe
Method.
Fig. £.
flux
. . • (a—*)* \
a1 x  
a1 a:
2a x —
and taking the fluent,
y
therefore, y x,
fo that when x—o, then j-=o,
fy\f(^Jryi)-27raxy
now if it be confidered that 2 n a \s the circumference
of a great circle of the fphere, it will immediately ap-
pear that the furface of a fegment of a ^re 18 equa
to the circumference of a great circle of the fphere
multiplied into the height of the fegment. _ Hence it
follows that the whole furface of the fphere is equal to
four times the area of one of its great circles.
Ex. 2. Suppofe the curve to be a parabola, then put¬
ting AD=x, DP=y, the parameter of the axis
we have ($ 161. example i.)
+y )=i yv,("‘+4y‘)< *«efore
IONS.
(having weight,) of which the centre of gravity is re¬
quired, and that PB, PD are co-ordinates drawn from
any point in the curve perpendicular to AB, AD two
axes at right angles to each other j let the arch AP re¬
ceive any increment P />, let C be the centre of gravity
of AP, G the centre of gravity of P/>, and C the centre
of gravity of AP^. From C and G draw CE, CF,
GH, GK perpendicular to the axes AB, AD. Put
PD^v PB=y, CF=X, CE=Y, AP=2, alfo let the
arch AP/>=%', and let the diftances of C' its centre of
gravity from the axes AD, AB be denoted by X ,
and Y' refpeclively •, then, obferving that the arch
P ji—'z1 by the propofltion in laft §,
7^5
Inverfe
Method.
hence
* X -f O'—*) X GK=X'
^ X' —2iX
:GK
s—2 n JyV
f yyV C^+4^)
= JL(fl>+4ys)4+c,by § 108.
6a
To dilcover the value of the cooftant
muft obferve that "’h'“ f=f°; dbove equa’
therefore, putting O inftead y ^ ^
tion becomes o =-7—6 ’
If we now fuppofe the arch P/> to be continually di-
miniflred, and obferve that a' X'—K X, and *'—« are
the fimultaneous increments of z X and z, it will ap¬
pear 23.) that
- limit of GK.
z
By the very fame way of reafoning we find
S2i£1A2) = limit of GH,
z
but the point /> approaching to P, it is mamfeft that
the point G will alfo approach to P, fo that the. limit
of GK is PD or aq and the limit of GH is PB
or y, hence
flux. (2; X)
=zx.
flux, (z Y)
—-A— =y,
z
r = 7T ^
(^1+4y)a—a3
6 a
}
flux. (2! X) =x Z flux. (2sY) =y 25
Taking now the fluents of each fide of thefe equation^
and dividing by 2s,
Fig. 36-
Fig- 37'
Tofindth, Centre of Gravity of any Line, Surface, or Solid.
166. It belongs to the theory of Mechanics to ex-
plain what is meant by the centre of “nd “ ^
monftrate its eeneral properties, and here it only
“C to (hew how the method of fluxions may, be ap.
plied to deduce from feme one of thofe properties rules
for finding that centre in any propofed cale.
'The property of centres of gravity which we (hall
employ as the foundation of the application of the
meLd of fluxions touts determination may be enun-
ciamd fhordythuSentre of gravity 0f a
denoted by M, and c the centre of gravny °f ano*
mafs tn, and D the centre of gravity of the two ma
M and m, from thefe points let perpendiculars CA,ca,
DE be drawn to any ftraight line PC^ then
MxCA+^X cfl=(M+w)xF)E.
,6,. Let us now fuppofe that APIs any curve line
fxz fy*
J Y  ;
X=
% *
It is evident that by thefe two equations the pofition or
C the centre of gravity is determined.
168. Let us next fuppofe that it is required to find C Fig, 37.
the centre of gravity of the plane area APB. As the
arch AP was in lall § fuppofed to receive the incre¬
ment P p, fo let the area APB now receive the incre¬
ment BPp K ^d let C,.C' and G (which in the former
cafe were fuppofed to be the centres of gravity of the
arches AP, AP/>, and P/> refpe&vely; now be fup¬
pofed to be the centres of gravity of the areas APB,
Apb, and BP/>£; put the area APB=x, the area
Apb=s\ and let X, Y, X', Y' denote as before,
Then, reafoning exadlly as in laft cafe, we have
(by ) 166.),
lX+(d-iOxGK:=/X',
1V + (d—1) X V'
hence-»
FLUXIONS.
706
Inverfe
Method.
hence
37-
[s'X’—sX
:GK,
' Y'—s Y
:GH j
and the point p being fuppofed to approach to P, To
that s' X1—s X, / Y'—j- Y, and s'—s, the fimul-
taneous increments of X, Y and r, may be continually
diminilhed,
!2f4iX)=Um.GK, =Um. GH;
s s
but as the ordinate p b approaches to PB, it is manifell
that the ultimate polition of G the centre of gravity of
the area BP p b will be the middle of PB, therefore
the limit of GK is xt and the limit of GH is -J- y, thus
we have
* flux. (VX) flux. frY)
 7 — r— — \y>
s s
and confequently,
x=
f*s ,r ./V
Y=
or lince s—y x, and J'y x 61.),
J'yx x ^ ffx
J'yx 2 J'yx
x~
169. Let it next be required to find the centre of
gravity of the furface of a folid generated by the revolu¬
tion of the curve AP about AB as an axis. Let the
furface of the folid be conceived to receive an incre¬
ment generated by P/> an arch of the curve. In this
cafe it is evident that the centres of gravity of the fur¬
face generated by the curve AP, the furface generated
by the curve AP/>, and the furface generated by the
arch P/>, will each be in AB, the axis of the folid j
fuppofe them to be at E, E' and H refpe&ively. Put
AErrX, AE'rrX', alfo put s for the furface generated
by AP, and s' for the furface generated by AP/>, then
as before (from § 166.) we have
•t X+ (/—r) AH=/X',
s' X'—r X
hence
and
s'—s
flux. (jX)
x
= AH,
= lim. AH.
but the point p approaching to P, the limit of AH is
manifellly AB or x, therefore
flux. (.rX) fx*
 : zzx, and X= 
s s
®r fince s~2%y% 650*
X^
'InJ xy% j'x y 2:
2*fy* fy*
Part IT.
Inverfe
170. If inftead of the centre ox gravity of the fur-, Method,
face generated by AP, the centre of gravity of the
folid generated by the revolution of the plane figure
A-PB about AB as an axis be required, the reafoning
will be the very fame as in laft J, fubftituting the
folid generated by the plane figure inliead of the fur¬
face generated by the curve line j fo that putting x
for the content of the folid, and X for AE the di-
ftance of its centre of gravity from the vertex, we have
alfo
X~
f*
but in this cafe s—vry1 x (^ 64.), therefore
nf y* XX J\j' Xx
X=
yx ^ JY*
171. We ftiall now apply thefe formulas to fome ex¬
amples.
Example. 1. Let it be required to find the centre of^g- 37.
gravity of AP an arch of a circle. Suppofe AB to
be a part of the diameter, and in addition to the nota¬
tion off 167. put a for the tadius of the circle, then
from the nature of the curve, if—2ax—x', hence
13 (proceeding as in $ 165. Ex. 1.) we have
a x
and
V *
therefore '^y-ax, and 3 but from the equa¬
tion tf—lax—a?*, by taking the fluxions we get
yy=ax—xx, and hence ~
y y J
therefore xx—a (2—y) 5 fubftituting now the values
of 55# and in the formula of $ 167 we have
fxx
X- —Vcs-jO
S5 ‘ZJ V
= ~ (x—y+c)
fy %
Y=r ‘Lf ^
= C^ + O-
To difcover the values of the conftant quantities
c, we have from the equations in which they
occur, •'
<7 errX a—a% +ay, a c'~Y z—a x ;
but when *=0, then *, y, X and Y are each rro
therefore c=o, and c'=o, thus we have Amply
X-aix—y) y__
ax
» ’
Ex. 2.
Fig- 37-
Part II. FLUX
Inverfe Ex. 2. Let it be required to find the centre of
Method, gj-^vity of APB an area bounded by AP an arch of a
^ circle and PB, BA its fine and verfed fine. Let a de¬
note the radius, and let the remaining notation be as
in § 168. Then, becaufe sz=ijx we have jv s =y x x,
but from the equation y* z=2ax—x1 (which expreffes
the nature of the curve), we find
xx —ax—yy, therefore
x sz=ay x—yx y—as-—y1y.
We have alfo y s—yx x — { 2 a x—x*') x} therefore,
fxs f {as—y'y)
IONS.
fy1 x x
767
y*x (^2a
rnverfe
Method*
Fig* 37*
J'y'x fx {2 a x—xz)
_ 4^
X = '
= — (e j—\y%+c')
Y =
fy's f{2ax—x')x
2 s
2 s
2sk
By proceeding as in the laft example we find c and c1
each =0, thus we have
X = e— 2-,
3s
T 3 a x*—ff3
6 r
Ex. 3. Suppofe now the figure to be the furface
generated by the revolution of AP an arch of a circle
about the diameter AB, and that the centre of gravity
of the generated furface is required. Then becaufe
from the nature of the circle 2;=  we havey«=fliv,
y t
and xy % — a x x, therefore, fubftituting thefe values in
the formula of § 169 it becomes
X =
X V %
fy*
J*XX
afx
x-\-c'
To find the values of the conftant quantities f, c', we
have
X (.v-fc') —£»*,
X
but as when x = o, then X = o, it is manifeft that c and
d are each =.0, thus we have
X — ^ x.
Fig- 37-
Ex. 4. Let us now fuppofe that it is required to
find the centre of gravity of the folid generated by the
revolution of AP an arch of a circle about the diame¬
ter. In this cafe, becaufe y — x—x1, we have
from § 170,
-a Xs—^x*-\-c
~ ax1—\x*-\-c' ’
and reafoning as in the laft example, wc find c — 0, and
c' and therefore
 %ax—3 xx
12 a—4 x
If the fegment be a hemifphere, in which cafe xzza,
then Xr=|-«.
Sect. III. Of Fluxional Equations. .
172. It has been (hewn, (§ 49*) h°w> from an c(lua'
tion being given, exprefling the relation between x a
variable quantity, and y a fun61 ion of that quantity, we
may deduce the equation that exprefles the relation ow'
their fluxions. ^Ve are now to ihow how from the lat¬
ter, or fluxional equation, we may return to the equa¬
tion of the fluents, which, relatively to the other, may
be called its primitive equation.
173. As any primitive equation and the fluxional
equation derived from it both hold true at the lame
time, and as the conftant quantities which enter into
the former retain the lame values in the latter, it fol¬
lows that by means of the two equations we may exter¬
minate any one of the conftant quantities, and thus from
any propofed primitive equation deduce a fluxional equa¬
tion, in which one of the conftant quantities contained
in that primitive ftiall not at all be found.
For example let the primitive equation ^be y ^ a x
-p.^—0, by taking the fluxions we have y+ o, a
fluxional equation in which b is not found } if however
it be required to find an equation in which a Ihall be
wanting, we have only to eliminate a by applying the
common rules of algebra (Algebra, Se6t. vii.) to the
two equations
y-\-a xfl-b—O, yJf-ax—O,
and hence we have y x—xy-\-b x—o, thus it appears that
from the primitive equation^ y+a x+b—o we may de¬
duce a fluxional equation which may be exprefied under
either of thefe forms
y-\~ax—o, yx—x y-\-b x~o ",
thefe hold true at the fame time as the primitive equa¬
tion, they are alike related to it, and any two of the
three being given the other neceflarily follows trom
them. ...
As a fecond example, fuppofe the primitive equation
to be xx—2ay—ax—b-o, by paflfmg to the fluxions we-
immediately find x x—a y—O an equation in which b is
not found. If, however, it be required that the fluxion¬
al equation ftiall want a, we have only to apply the
common rules of elimination to the two equations j t.iua
from the fecond we get a~ ——, and this being fubfti-
V
tuted in the firft it becomes t
7 $8
Inverfc
Method.
F L U X
t fxyx
y y'
from which we have
(a?1-—b)yz—2xyyx—a1 x'^zd
^nd taking the fquare root, having previoufly reduced
the equation to a proper form,
)yV{.xlJry*—b') —yy—x x —o.
174. It is evident that by proceeding in this manner
<vve fhall^dn fome cafes, arrive at a fluxional equation in¬
volving the fecond and higher powers of and when
N
• V
.this happens wre can only find the value of ~ by the re-
x
folution of an equation 5 but this may be avoided by
preparing the primitive equation in fuch a manner, that
the conftant quantity to be eliminated may be entirely
feparated from the variable quantities, fo as to form one
of the terms of the equation, then, upon taking the
fluxions, this term being conftant will vanifh, and thus
we fhall obtain an equation entirely free from the con¬
stant quantity contained in that term. Thus the primi¬
tive equation y-\-a x-^b—o has already fuch a form that
by taking the fluxions we get y-\-ax~o an equation in
which b is not found. If it be required, that upon ta¬
king the fluxions, a fhall vanifh j we muft put the equa¬
tion under this form'^"—Ttf—o,
x
fluxion, we find immediately
xy—(y+b)x
and then taking the
an expreflion in which a is not found, and which by
rejefting the divifor jc* becomes y x—x y + bx — o, and
thefe two forms of the fluxional equation are the very
fame as have been found in the laft §. In the fecond
example, viz. x1-—lay—a*—b—o, the equation has
already the form fuited to the elimination of b, for the
.fluxional equation is x x—ay~o, but in order that a
may vanifh, we muft refolve the equation with refpedt
to <7, fo as to give it this form
y— v/O*+y'—b) -{-«=o j
puffing now to the fluxional equation, a difappears, and
we have
y v' (V+y*—b)—y y—x x
Vix'+y'—b) “°
It is evident that we have only to rejefl the denomina¬
tor to give the equation this form
y V —yy—* x—o
the fame as was found in the conclufion of laft ^.
I75* what has been now fhewn we may infer
that as from, any propofed primitive equation we can
deduce a fluxional equation that fhall contain one con¬
stant quantity lefs than the primitive contains, fo on the
I O N S. PartIL
contrary any fluxional equation being given, its primitive Inverfe
equation may contain one conftant quantity more than Method. ^
the fluxional equation, but it can contain only one, for 'r~~
no more than one conftant quantity can be made to dif-
appear by returning from the primitive to its fluxional
equation.
176. The fluxional equation exprefling the value of
which is derived from any primitive equation in-
x
volving x, and^y a funflion of x, may be called a flux¬
ional equation of the firjl order ; and as from this equa¬
tion confidered as a primitive, we may in like manner
derive an equation that fhall involve ^ (§ 50.), this laft
x%
may be called a fluxional equation of the fecond order,
and the fluxional equation from which it is derived may
be called its primitive equation of the firjl order, to
diftinguifh it from the abfolute primitive equation, from
which all the others are conceived to be derived. A
fimilar mode of definition is to be applied to the higher
orders.
177. As any primitive equation and the fluxional
equations of the firft and fecond orders derived from it
muft all hold true at the fame time, it is evident, that
by means of the three equations, we may exterminate
any two of the conftant quantities contained in them
that we pleafe, and thus produce a fluxional equation of
the fecond order that contains two conftant quantities
lefs than the primitive equation. There are however
twm other ways by which w7e may arrive at the very
fame fluxional equation of the fecond order. For as
from the given primitive equation wTe may deduce twm
different fluxional equations of the firft order, one
of which fliall contain one only of the two quantities to
be eliminated, and the other fhall contain the other
quantity only, we may confider each of thefe equations
in its turn as a primitive, and, by proceeding in the
manner explained in § 173 and $ x 74, derive from it a
fluxional equation, in which that particular conftant
quantity which remained in its primitive, but which was
to be finally eliminated, fhall not be found ; thus, from
each of thefe primitives wre fhall deduce the very fame
fluxional equation of the fecond order, that fliall be
freed from two of the conftant quantities contained in
the abfolute primitive equation.
Let us take for example the equation
a*—2 a y-\-b*—o j
by proceeding as explained in $ 173, or § 174, We find
thefe two fluxional equations of the firft order,
xx—ay—o, y—ixyxzzo,
in the one of thefe, the conftant quantity a is wanting,
and in the other b is wanting. Taking the firft equa¬
tion a a—ay—O, and proceeding as in $ 50 (obferving
that x is conftant) wre find a*—ay—o, if from this equa¬
tion wx now eliminate a by putting inftead of it -----
y
(deduced from the equation xx—ayzz.6) we find after
proper reduction
y*
Part II*
Inverfe
Method.
FLUX I O N S.
769
Inverfe
yx—xy-O,
a flux tonal equation of the fecond order, in which both
a and b are wanting, and having — iay-\-b'L for its
abfolute primitive equation.
Let us now take the other fluxional equation of the
firft order which involves b, viz. (x1+^'1)y—ixyx
—q ■ by proceeding with this as with the former we
find (x*b2) y — 23/x1 = o ; from the firft of thefe
equations wTe find x1~j-b2—  —, and from the fe-
y • •
lux* . . 2X1/X 27/«* J
cond x* -\-bx =—v.—; therefore, —i— =—an^
y ' y y
hence we have
yx—x y~0
the fame equation as before j and as WTe have arrived at
the very fame conclufion by confldering each of thefe
equations
xx—ay=0, (x1 +b1)y—2xyx=o
as a primitive, it foIlowrs that both thefe are to be con-
fidered as primitive equations of the firft order of the
fluxional equation 37 a;—xy.
178. In general, every fluxxonal equation of the fe¬
cond order has two primitive equations of the firft or¬
der, and all three may be confidered as originating
from one and the fame abfolute primitive equation •, and
as a fluxional equation of the fecond order may contain
two conftant quantities lefs than its abfolute primitive
equation, and one lefs than either of its primitive equa¬
tions of the firft order 5 fo, on the contrary,a primitive equa¬
tion of the firft order may contain one conftant quantity
more than the fluxional equation of the fecond order de¬
rived from it, and the abfolute primitive may contain
two conftant quantities which are not found in the
fluxional equation of the fecond order derived from it j
and fimilar conclufions may be drawn relating to flux¬
ional equations of the third or any higher order.
Of Fluxional Equations of the firjl order.
179. When it is required to find the primitive equation
correfponding to a propofed fluxional equation of the firft
order,we may endeavour to feparate the variable quantities,
that is, to bring the equation to fuch a form, that it may be
compofed of two parts, one of which confifts of x multi¬
plied or divided by a fun&ion of x only, and the other of y
multiplied or divided by a fun&ion ofy only. When this
reparation of the variable quantities can be effected, wTe
have only to take the fluents according to the methods
explained in SECT. I. and put their fum =0, and we im¬
mediately have the primitive equation required.
Ex. Suppofe the fluxional equation to be
my xy—Q
divide the terms of the equation by x y, and it becomes
m x ny
 f- — =0.
Now the fluent of —— is m 1. x+c' (§ 103.) and in , Method,
like manner the fluent of —— is n 1. y-j-c"t therefore
y
m\. x -|-771.y O,
or, tranfpofing c-f-c", and putting a Angle conftant
quantity for their fum, wdiich, to be homogeneous with
the logarithmic quantities may be —log. c, or — 1. c,
m 1. x-f-n \.y=\.c, or 1. (xm)-fl. (y«)=:l. cy
or 1. (xmyn) rrl.c, and hence xmyn=c,
which laft is the primitive equation required.
180. When a primitive equation is homogeneous,
is when the fum of the exponents of the variable quan¬
tities x and y is the fame in each term, as in this exam-
Ple’ ....
axx-\-byx-\-dxy +eyy—0
or (d x -f£ y) x -}- (Vx -f*’ y) y—o
in which the variable part of each term is of the firft
degree, as alfo in this equation
, j=!
zy'Vy 3
(a x%-\-b x y-\-dif
fiex'+f xy-\-gyx)y
in which the variable part of each term is of the fecond
degree, fuch an equation may be always transformed
into another which will admit of the variable quantities
being feparated. To take a particular example, let us
fuppofe the equation to be x x-\-yy~ny x, or(x—«y)x
-f- y y—O. We aflume y~x •z (and the fame affumption
is to be made for any other homogeneous equation,) then
y—zx-fxi, thus the equation becomes transformed
to
(x—nx %)x-\-x % (zx + x %)=o,
but as the terms of this equation have a common faftor
x, by leaving out that faftor, it becomes
(1—nz^x-^z (25X+X»)=0
which alfo admits of being expreffed thus
(1—«
and, by divifion
x , z z
+- —=0.
x 1 i—n z-f-z* ’
and taking the fluents
/X p zz   
x "t/ i—//z4-zl ’
+ ■
where C denotes a conftant quantity, or, fince J' f
— 1. x,
1. X
VOL. VIII. Part II.'
, /• ^ —r
+y x—rtz+z1 ’
5E
now
77° FLUX
Tnverfe . ss i
Method, now the particular form J* —— depends upon
the value of the number « ; for if
'i, it will be a
logarithmic fun&ion, and if —<tZL I, it will be expref-
fible by means of a circle, but if — =r i, then it is an al¬
gebraic funftion, and in each cafe it may be found by
the methods delivered in Sect. I. for finding the fluent
of a rational frd&ion. It may however, be fimplified in
its form, by obferving, that fince
■ x> >0   t 2 2iz—n z t * nz
i—nz + z? * i—wss-J-ss1"^" 1i—/iz-bs* ’
therefore (§ 103.) /* ^ n
i- l.(x_wz+gxHf
./ 1—nz-{-z*
if we limit our enquiry to the cafe of «=2, we have
r. n z _x» 2z _ 2
J1—nz+z1 J (x—2;)1 1—
let the terms be now collefled into one expreflion, then
obferving that i 1. (1—2x;4-2;z) = 1. (i—“zVr:
l.(l—2;), we have
l.a,+l.(M)+_i_=C;
and, fubilituting inftead of 55,
0 x ’
l.,+l.(^) + -^_=c,
\ X / ' X—7J ’
or, fubfiituting 1. c mftead of C, and colle6Hng the lo¬
garithmic functions into one,
1 •Y—y_ —f
c x'—y
therefore, pafling from logarithms to numbers, by ob¬
ferving that, as when a=\.p, we have by the nature of
logarithms e =:/, where e denotes the number of w^hich
the Napierean logarithm is 1, fo in the prefent cafe we
X
X—y x—-y
nave —= e , and hence the primitive equation
is found to be
IONS.
from which we get-
x z
and taking the fluents of the terms, obferving that each
being a logarithm function, their fum may be put equal
to a conftant logarithm,
1. x 1. y'O+fc1) j = l.c,
which expreflion, by fubftitutmg for z its value —.
x 1
becomes
1. *=1. c+1. | #
If wTe now confider that
(y~t~ Vx1 -j-z/1 )(y'—V/ar2-f-y2)——
and therefore that
y+ v/(xl+yz)_ —^ 
^ y—v'(x2+y1) ’
it will appear, that the above equation may be other-
wife expreffed thus :
1. x=l c-f 1. I ^ — 1
I y—v y
from which, by pafling from logarithms to their num¬
bers, we find y—y (V+y2)——c, and hence, by fo
ordering the equation that the radical may difappear,
we get xi=ct -f 2 c y, w'hich is the primitive equation
required.
181. An equation which is not homogeneous, may in
fome cafes, by proper transformations, be rendered ho¬
mogeneous j this is the cafe in particular with the equa¬
tion
(a+mx+ny) x + (6-l-/>x+y y)y=o,
which is general of its kind j for this purpole we afiume
and yzra-j-/3, then xzzt, and y~u j by fubfti-
tuting thefe values of xf y, x, y, in the propofed equa¬
tion it becomes
t^-n ii) t
-f.
Let us nowr fuppofe «, and /3 fuch that
a-^-m «-}-«/3rr o,
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
As a fecond example let the fluxional equation be
XlJ~y X— X y/ (fl^-j-y1)
which is alfo homogeneous. Affume as before y—.v 2;,
then y and fubftituting thefe values of y
and y in the propofed equation, it becomes
* V ( 1 xx;—o,
by thefe two equations the values of « and $ are deter¬
mined, and the transfoimed equation is reduced to
(m t-\.nu) /-f (/> /-fy //) lt—0,
an equation which is homogeneous, and therefore may
be treated in the manner explained in lafl: J.
This transformation will not apply however, when w y
—np~o, becaufe then the values of * and /3 would be
infinite.
/
Part 11. FLUX
Method, infimte. In this cafe we h.ve <,=-£, and therefore
px + qy—~ (mx+ny), hence the original equation
may be expreflfed thus,
a x-\-by
-f (/»*+«
" * 771 ' 4-L
affume now mx-\-ny—'Z,, then y—~ —~x > the %a*
lues of mx-\-ny and y being now fubftituted in the
equation, and the whole reduced to a proper form, it
becomes
* +  ^z=o,
‘ am ii—b mx (m n—P 25
The fluent of the fecond term of this expreflion will in¬
volve logarithms, except that tn n—p m—Q, in which
cafe the primitive equation is
* ib m%-\-p z* „
v-j   r—7\
1 2 [amn—bin )
182. When a fluxional equation has this form
y + Py
where P and denote any fanclions of the variable
quantities may be feparated in the following manner.
Affume y=Xz, then, taking the fluxions, we have
y—zX+X z, and by fubllitution, the propofed equa¬
tion becomes
• sX-|-Xz + PXz j
now as in this equation X and z may be fuppofed to
denote indeterminate fim&ions of x, we may divide it
into two others, fuch, that the variable quantities in
each may be feparable $ to effedt this we affume
Xz + PXz^zro, zXrrQ^vj
hence, dividing the flrft equation by X, we have
z +pz x~o, and — +p.;=o, and taking the fluents,
l.Z+fPi=0, and hence, by pafling from logarithms
to their numbers,
here no conftant quantity is introduced, it being fufh-
cient to add it at the end of the operation j let this
value of z be fubftituted in the fecond equation, then
by deducing from it the value of X we have
*=/>* g*
and x=/
and'fince y = X z, therefore
•>
IONS
771
Let us take a particular cafe, and fuppofe the equa-
tion to be y-fy x zz xn xf then we have P= 1, () = v" ,
andj'P xzzpc, hence in this cafe the general formula
becomes
y = e-*\fe*x'x+c\.
The fluent f ex xn x may be found by § 143 j let
us fuppofe for example that n—2, then we have
f ex x*x =zex (x*—2 x-j- 2),
fo that the fluxional equation being
y+yxzzx'
the primitive equation is
yzz.x%—2x-\-2-\-c e x.
The general equation yft-P y which involves
the Ample powyer only of the variable quantity y, and its
fluxion, .has been called a linear equation of the flrft
order j it has alfo, with more propriety, been called
a fluxional equation of the JirJl degree, ,and of the
flrft order.
183. The equation
y + Py* = £y*
where P and £) as before denote any fun&ions of x, is
eafily reduced to the form we have been confidering j
for affume y1-” = (1—n) z, then y~n y=z, and
y—% yn, and y=(i—«)zy” j if we now fubftitute the
values of y and y in the equation, it becomes
yn z-f- (1—n) P zyw#=£) yw x j
let the terms of this equation be divided by yre, then,
including the faftor (1—n) in the indeterminate func¬
tion P, the refult is
z-f-Pz x—Qx
an equation of the very fame form as that which has been
confidered in laft j.
184. The moft general form that can be given to a
fluxional equation of the firft order, and conflfting of
three terms only, is
y k2 z^ z-h/3 UZZMUe z- f u i
to give this equation a more Ample form let all its
terms be divided by y u1 zfy it then becomes
z 4- — a£"—* z* f u— — u* * u.
y y
Suppofe now
k—f • y
z J z=  
’ u=-
i—f+1* “ ” g—l+l'
then =yy =«,
5 E 3
and
772
Inveife
Method.
' V—
F L
iUi<1y+^-±4^>/y 7 *
_ r —k*'x-,
(g—i+iy,
Let us in order to abridge put
(£—/+l)/3 _b (Z>—
{g—lJr l)y y is—Z+I)v
U X
^—j +1
e—g
g—i-'r1
m.
tlien the equation becomes
y J^-b yn x — a xm x.
If we fuppofe «=1, the refulting equation y+bijx
— axmx may have its variable quantities feparated by
the method explained in $ 183 ; but if we go only
one Hep farther, and luppofe n—2 fo that the equa¬
tion is
yjfby* x — a xm x,
the difficulty of feparating the variable quantities gene¬
rally is fo great as to have hitherto baffled the utmofl
efforts of the moft expert analyfts. This equation is
commonly called RiccaTi’s equation, on account of its
having been firft treated of by an Italian mathematician
of that name, who fucceeded in feparating the variable
quantities in fome particular cafes, namely, when m is
equal to where p denotes any whole pofitive
^ 2/>c±ri
number.
185. If the feparating of the variable quantities
generally be a problem of infurmountable difficulty when
the equation confifts of only three terms, its folution
can much lefs be expefted, when the equation corffifts
of four, or any greater number. There are, however,
particular cafes in which fome of the moft fkilful
analyfts have, by employing happy and peculiar artihces,
lucceeded in refolving the problem, but the methods of
proceeding are, generally fpeaking, not reducible to
any determinate rules.
186. When the expreffion which conftitutes a fluxional
equation is fuch as would be produced by taking the
fluxion of fome fundlion of x and y, in which cafe it
may be faid to be a complete fluxion, then, without
attempting to feparate the variable quantities, we have
only to add a conftant quantity to that ftnnftion, arid
the refult put = o, will evidently be the primitive
equation required.
If, for example, the equation be xy-\-y x~0, it is
obvious that the expreffion xy-\-y x is immediately pro¬
duced by taking the fluxion of the fun61ion x y \y being
alfo confidered as a function of a), therefore the primi¬
tive equation is x y+crro.
From the view7 which has been given in § 174. of the
origin of ftuxional equations it appears, that in palling
from a primitive equation to its fluxional equation, the
terms of the latter in many cafes will not conftitute a
complete fluxion, by reafon of fome multiplier, or di-
I O N S.
Part IP
vifor, which was common to them all, having difap-
peared. In fuch cafes, however, if wre can by any
means difcover that faftor, by reftoring it we lhall im¬
mediately have a complete fluxion, the fluent of which,
wdth the addition of a conftant quantity, when put =0,
will be the primitive equation.
For example, if the equation be xy—-yx—O, here
xy—y x cannot be immediately produced by taking the
fluxion of a fundtion of x and y j but, if we divide the
Inverfe
Method.
equation by x* lo as to give it this form
xy—yx
we obtain the expreffion X'^- J'- which is a complete
• V V
fluxion, viz. that of the fra&ion — therefore--fccro, or
x x
c x—o, is the primitive equation.
In like manner, the equationa a—o, which
does not in its prefent form exprefs a complete fluxion,
yet becomes fo wffien multiplied by a” X y™ f°r
then it is
m—1 • n—1
m xn y y-^n x ym x~o
from which it appears that the primitive equation in
this cafe muft be xnym-\-c~o.
187. That wre may be able to difcover whether the
terms of any propofed fluxional equation conftitute a
complete fluxion, and alfo from what expreffion fuch a
fluxion has been derived, wre muft attend to the procefs,
by wfflich we find the fluxion of an expreffion compofed
ot two variable quantities, one of which is a fundtion of
the other.
To avoid very general reafoning, we {htftl take for
granted what is evidently poffible, that any fundtion of
x and y may be generally expreffed by a formula of this
nature.
Axm A^y^+C xrys-\- &c.
where A, B, C, &c. denote conftant quantities, and
the exponents m, n, &c. given numbers, the number of
terms being fuppofed either finite or infinite. Now
the fluxion of the w hole expreffion is the fum of the
fluxions of its terms, but in taking the fluxion of each
term, beginning with the firft Axmyn, the fluxion of
wriiich is
?n Ax'1 1 yna+« A xmyn 1 y,
it is evident that the refult is compofed of two parts,
one of wfflich is the expreffion we would find for its
fluxion, if a only were confidered as variable, and y as
conftant, and the other is the expreffion for its fluxion,
if y only were confidered as variable and a as conftant j
hence it follows, that the fum of the fluxions of all the
terms will have the very fame property ^ fo that, if u
be put for the whole expreffion, we fflall in every cafe
have
A+Ny
where M a denotes the refult that will be found if the
fluxion of u be taken upon the hypothefis that a alone,
is
Part II.
fluxions.
f tllL XX •
Inverfe is variable, and N y is the fluxion of fuppofing y alone
Method. t0 variable.
hence Mrr-
2x-\-y
d —J-A?
188. Refuming the confideration of the general ex-
preflion
A xm yn-\-^> y'i-YCx’' ^+&c.
let the fluxion of every one of its terms,_ for example
A yn, be taken, fuppofmg » alone variable, and
xefult is m A.xm~~1yl x. Again, let the fluxion of this
refult be taken, fuppofmg y alone variable, and we find
it to ht mn A x-' y ^i- Now,
the fluxion of Ax™!/", fuppofing y variable, we g
n Ax' y ’_1 y, and then, the fluxion of this refult, con-
f,dering x alone as variable, we get mnAx”~'J *
which is the very fame expreffion as found by pro¬
ceeding in a contrary order; and as the fame mt^ hold
true of all the terms, we may conclude, that if the fluxion
of * any funaion of ^ and y be taken confidermg ^ only
as variable, and then the fluxion of that refu ^confider-
ing y only as variable, the very fame final refult w 1 be ob
tamed as if we were firft to take the fluxion of « ^ppofing
y variable, and then the fluxion of that refuk, fuppofmg
v variable j but the fluxion of « being expreffed thus,
M v + Ny, it has been Ihewn that Ux is the fluxxon of «
if » only be fuppofed variable, and Ny is its fluxion, i
y only be variable, therefore, it we take the fluxion o
W upon the fuppofition that y only is variable, alfo
the fluxion of Ny upon the fuppofition that * only is
variable, the refults mull be identical. 1 his property
affords the following rule, by which we may always
determine whether any propofed expreflion conftitute
an exaft fluxion or not. Let the^exprejfion he put
under this form Mx+Ny-, let M' y he^ the fluxion of
M, fuppofing y alone variable, and N' \^e°*
K fuppofing l alone variable, then, if M' and N fir,
identical, Mx + Ny is a complete fluxion; and if they are
not, M x'+Ny is not a complete fluxion.
189. It is eafy to fee, how, from a complete fluxion
»=M.v -f-Ny we may determine u its fluent ^ for as
M x has been deduced from u by confidering # as va
liable, and y as conftant, on which account all the term
of u that involved y only muft have vamlhed it follows
on the contrary, that if we put Y to denote thofe term.,
we fhall have
2\/Oy-K+*30’ ^ 2 ^/(fly+»i+^y)’,
the fluxion of M, fuppofing' y only variable, gives us
773
Inverfe
Method.
u—f Mx+Y
the fluent of Ux being taken, regarding^ « only as
riable. The fundion Y may be determined, by com¬
paring the fluxion of the expreflion thus obtained with
the given fluxion M .v-f-Ny.
, a y-\-2x x+y x-\-x y tp-a
Ex. I. Let the fluxion be -2 y+X* Jfl^y) ’
expreflion wlien reduced to the form wmMx'-f-Ny is
(2x-\-y)x , y
. - . (ay-\-xy—2ax~)y
M=M^=iwq^)r’
and in like manner the fluxion of N, fuppofing x only
variable, gives
(ay+xy—Tax') x
N=N,x= -\-xy%'
hence it appears that M'=N', and therefore that the
propofed expreflion is an exad fluxion. 10 determine
its fluent, the formula «=/'Ma:+Y gives us
»= v/(>y+*1+*.?)+Y
the fluxion of this expreflion taken, upon the fuppofition
that both x and y are variable, is
J 2 \/(^a y-\-x%-\-x y^)
this refult, compared with the original fluxion, {hews
that Y=o, and Y=c, a conftant quantity.
Ex. 2. Suppofe the fluxion to be
. _ . (fl*-fA?y+2y*)
xflia'+yf+y ^(a'+y')
a7’ -\-x y4-2 y7 , ,
Here M=v/U-+3',I. N=17K+?P ^ by
proceeding, as in laft example, we ihall find M'=N'=
  l hence it follows that the expreflion is a
Vi**1 "hy1) . /» .
complete fluxion, and the formula «=/ Mv+Y (hews
that uz= f xxKa* +yi) + Y
z=x\L{a1 -\-y1)+y^’
To determine Y, we take the fluxion °f this ex¬
preflion, fuppofing * and y both variable, and find
to be
. . .x . xyy 1 <r
and this compared with the original fluxion
(a7+xy + 2if)y
u=xfl(a -fy )+ ’
. f^ + ^yQy
{hews that Y= ffl^a'+y7) ’
hence
it—-
\ \/{ay-\-xx ^ 2\l fly-\-xy')
Y=c-^±i%=yVc-,+3'-)
J \/C« + y )
therefore the fluent required is
774
Inverfc
Method.
FLUX
u=x +y1) +3' ^(a1 +3/1)+C
—y) v/(<3l+3/:s) + C,
where C denotes a conftant quantity.
190. It may be demonftrated, that as often as a
fluxional equation does not conftitute a complete fluxion,
there is always an infinite number of factors, fuch, that
if the equation were multiplied by any one of them,
the refult would be a complete fluxion. A general
method of determining fome one of thefe fa6tors, how¬
ever, feems to be a problem of fuch difficulty, that its
folution, except in lome particular cafes, is not to be
expedited.
191. When a fluxional equation involves the fecond
or higher powers of x and y, as in this example
y*—d* #*=:o,
which may be put under this form,
t-a'=o,
id*
we may, by the theory of algebraic equations, deduce
y
from it the values of t , confidering this quantity as a
x
root of the equation j thus, in the prefent example, by
refolving the quadratic equation ~~—rt1—o, we have
x*
■t- ~ — fo that y—axzzo, and y-^a xzzo, hence
x
y—a x -f- £•—o, y-\-a x -j-c'zro,
-are two primitive equations, from either of which the
fluxional equation#2—a* x*=o may be derived, and it
may alfo be deduced from their product
(y—ax+c) (y+ax+c')—').
192. As often as the equation contains only one of
the two variable quantities, for example at, by the refo-
lution of the equation we may obtain ~ —X (where X
^ x
denotes fome function of t), and hence f X*, but if
it be more eafy to refolve the equation with refpeft to
y
x than to t- which we {hall denote by p, then, inftead
of feeking the values of p from the equation, we may
find that of at, thus we fliall have A=rP, fome fundlion
of and hence a ~P, and fince ^ a, therefore,
y-P L and y~f P=P p—fvp- The relation be¬
tween x and y is now to be found by eliminating p by
means of the two equations
Inverfe
Method.
IONS. Part II.
= p we find
X l
x—b ^/( I -f p^—a/=rP,
V-bp 1 +P1)—ia p1—bf /»V( 1 +/,2)
the fluent of may be found by the formulas
given in § 130 and §131.
193. When we cannot by any means find an eS*
preflion for the relation between x and y in finite terms
then we muff, as a laft refource, have recourfe to ap¬
proximation, that is, we muff exprefs the value of y in
terms of x by means of a feries.
When the form of the feries is knowm, we may de¬
termine the coefficients of its terms, by fubftituting the
feries and its fluxion inftead of y and y in the propofed
equation.
Suppofe, for example, that the equation is
we may affume
• • •
y+yx—mx x~Qi
y=A».“+B*'+I +C*“+,+&c.
then y—<tA.xU ^ -f- (« -|-1) B # “a
-j-(«-}-2)CA;<e ^'I A-p&c.
Subftituting now the values of y and y in the equa¬
tion, and dividing the whole by a, it becomes
, Aa* +(* +
n ,
—mx
x*1'4Ca+2)c7
Aj + Bj
+(*+3)DJx.+»+&c=o.
This equation becomes identical, if we affume
=r«, or tt~n 1, and
A b=.
D:
e(*+0’
Cr=-
*(*+1)(*+2)(*+3)
+ 2)
, &c.
Hence we have
r «+i
A1  
»-f-a
»+3
te
4* ( « _j_ 1)(«-|-2)(« *f-3 )
-&C
1
x=-p,
y^Fp—J'Pp.
As a particular example, let us fuppofe the equation
£0 be x x-{-ay—bi/^x1 -\-y*), from which, by putting
2
In order that a primitive equation may be general, it
ought to contain an indeterminate conftant quantity
more than is found in the fluxional equation, therefore,
this feries which contains no fuch quantity, muft be
confidered as incomplete, or as exhibiting the value of y
upon the fuppofition, that, when x=zo, then #—o.
However, we may obtain a value of y that fhall be ge¬
neral.
Part II. FLUX
Inverfe neral, by proceeding as follows. Let us fuppofe we
Method- know that when xrrtz, then y—b; aflume and
 y—b-\-u, then it is manifeft, that, if the value of u be
found by a feries involving all the terms of the feries
ought to vanifh when t—o. From the aflumed values
of ^ and y the equation
y+yx—mx x~o
becomes
—-[-/)/ =o.
AfTume now
«=A/*+B/"+I+C/*+2-f&c.
then, proceeding as before, we find
4.A/*~I+(*+i)B/a+(*+2)C^'|'I+&c
» U
+ A/ +
~\-b
a 4-1 .
B/ -}-&c.
n n «—1 n(n—l) * 4 c
1—m—   a l—otc.
—m a —m -a /■
i
I . z
= 0.
It is neceffary, in this equation, to affume «—l=o,
or and hence we find
A.—m a —by Br=
n—i n ,
m n a —vvi -\-b
, x n—it n
mn(n—i) a —mn a -\-ma
2 • 3
&c.
If we now fubftitute x—a, and y—b for t and u
relpeftively, the refult will have all the generality that
belongs to a primitive equation, exprefling the relation
between x and y.
Of Fluxional Equations of the fecond or higher orders.
194. Whatever difficulties occur in finding the pri¬
mitive equation of a fluxional equation of the firll order,
it will eafily be conceived, that thefe difficulties muft
be greater and more numerous when we have to con-
fider fluxional equations of the fecond and higher
orders.
One of the moft Ample cafes of an equation of the
fecond order is this
y—Xx^zrO, or JLrsX,
x1
where X denotes a function of x, the variable quantity
whofe fluxion is fuppofed to be conftant j in this cafe,
becaufe 4—we have j* X#. Let P denote
x x
that function of which X x is the fluxion, and c, as
ufual,an indeterminate conftant quantity,thensrP-f-c,
. . . x
and y=P x-\-c'Xy and taking the fluents a fecond time
IONS.
yzz.J'V x-\-c x-{-c*
where c' denotes a fecond indeterminate conftant quan¬
tity.
As j* ¥ xzz¥x—J" ¥ x~xx—J Xxx
we have alfo
y=xfX x—J' X # w -|- c * d-c'.
Suppofe, for example, that the equation is y—axx%—<$,
fo that y —rx ■ here X.=zax, and therefore
x*
y=xfa xx—■J' a x7, x-\-c x-\-cJ
—\a y3—\ax3 -f c x -{-c1
x3 -\-c x• ,
In the very fame manner we may deduce from the
equation of the third order
y—X y3 —o, or Jf~X
i3
its primitive equation j thus we have
3L=Xy, ?-=/ Xx=z¥+c,
X1 *l
where P denotes fuch a function of x, that its fluxion is
X y, and c reprefents a conftant quantity. Again
^-—¥ x-\-cxy
x
^-r—f ¥x-\-cx-\-c’z=Q-{-cx-{-c' J
x J
>
here Q is put for J' P y, and c’ for a fecond conftanf
quantity. In like manner we have
y=Q X-\-C X X+c' Y,
and y~f Qx-Jf-lf c x1 •\-c> x-lfc"
and as P and £) are funftions of y, the fluents of P x
and £) y may be found by the. methods formerly ex¬
plained.
195. Let us next confider fuch equations as involve
only ~ and conftant quantities. In order to abridge
Y*’ Y
let us put />, then fuch an equation may be ge»e-
775
Inverfe
Method.
rally exprefled thus rr P, where P denotes fome
x*
known
fluxions.
776
Inverfe y
Method, known function of p j now as ~~ p, by taking tue
fluxions, and obferving that x is conftant, we have
y y i,——p — td oa v>—, ancj v /4i
Fart II.
Inverfe
• /* • Inverfe
y-J-r, hencep—%- —sj{c -f- 2 </ Y y) and Method.
1) p *
r^hence-^-^r P, and auu ^ _ y -p
xx ^
+<■'
the value of x be fubftituted inftead of it in the equa¬
tion y — p X) and it becomes y — and hence
y — CPJ*— y thus it appears that if we can And the
P
fluentsJ"—p- and^/^—- we {ball have the primitive
equation when we eliminate p by means of thefe two
equations
where c and denote the two indeterminate conftant
quantities that ought to enter into the primitive equa¬
tion.
Suppofe for example that the equation is
^[c+ifY y)
where c and c’ denote two conftant quantities.
To take a particular example let us fuppofe the equa¬
tion to bey —y^rra a-% or«-fy,hereY—fl+y,
xl
and 2J* Y y —lay* -f-y1, hence (and by § I27*)»
a
y
which, by putting/) for -t-,and-r-forbecomes
transformed to
0+/OX
fience we have
. —a p
(I+/H
ap
x~c-
* _ A • _ —app
},-c'+ 7o+/>‘)i
_ r  
= 1. + +c'-
107. When the equation contains-f-5 and x, it
y xx1
may be transformed to a fluxional equation of the firft
order by fubftituting in it p x, and/> inliead of y,
and y} if we can find the primitive of that fluxional
equation , and thence the value of p in terms of x, we
{hall have the value of y from the formula y=./jP x, or
if wTe have the value of x in terms of />, then, becaufe
yy x —f> x—J'x />, we (hall have
y— p x —J' x p.
Suppofe the equation to be
(Jl+i'X -x, or — =x,
—x y P
where X denotes any fundtion of v, then,
—p 1 rx —P
when by means of thefe equations wx eliminate p we
obtain (,v—<0* +(y—, ,, ...
The fluxional equation is evidently formed by putting
the general expreflion for the radius of curvature (given
jn J 97.) equal to a conftant quantity, and the primi¬
tive equation is accordingly an equation to a circle hav¬
ing that conftant quantity for its radius, as it ought
to be.
196. Suppofe now that the equation has this form
i=Y,
where Y denotes a fun&ion of y, then putting as before
y_—p we have hence the equation
* * V
1_— y becomes—=Y, and pp — Y y, and />* =
x3- y
1
x  p p x ~~~ P
x=(7+?H’ “V X =^7(T+rt
Let us reprefent by V, then/)—
V
and
y=j px-J
This equation evidently expreffes the nature of a
curve fuch, that its radius of curvature
— *y
0 97O, ^ equal to x a funaion of * one of lts C0‘
ordinates.
198. If the propofed fluxional equation of the fecond
order contains -£-> I- andy, to transform it we muft ex-
x x%
terminate x by means of its value ~ deduced from the
equation y =/ x, thus we ftiall have
Part II.
Inveri'e
Method.
FLUX
I O N S.
and the other
y. P
-LL
y
Av-
c'- A.\
and the refult v. ill be an equation of the firft order con¬
taining only />, p and y j when its primitive equation
can be found, and thence the value of p m terms oi y,
we may find x by the formula x — J'^ and by tbe
formula when y is expreffed br means
of p.
199. As an example of the manner in which fluxional
equations of the fecond order are to be refolved by ap¬
proximation, we (hall take the particular equation
y -\-a xny xl—z>.
If the value of y which fatisfies the equation be fup-
jtofed to have this form
A.va+B^+S+Cxa+^+ &c.
and that the feries of exponents goes on increafing, or
that £ is pofitive, we may, by fuppofmg * to be a very
fmall quantity, conceive that the expreffion for y is re¬
duced to its firft term, becaufe in that cafe each ot the
following terms will be inconfiderable in reipeift of that
term. According to this hypothefis we (hall have
y— Atf*, y —ct(ei— I) A# kx
and thus the propofed equation becomes
—i)A*
+aA*“+"=o.
It will not be poflible to give to at fuch a value that
the two exponents at—2 and at-f-^ fhall become equal,
except in the particular cafe of n—— 2 but if we iup-
pofe x very fmall the equation may be fatisfied in two
ways, namely, by taking atrrro, and atrri, becaufe upon
either fuppofition the term <st(ae—i^Ax* 2, which is the
greateft, vanifhes, and therefore A is left indeterminate j
thus we have two feries, one beginning with A, and the
other with Ax.
Affuming therefore fucceflively
y=rA + B^+C»l5-f &c.
y=A* + B*1+S+C*I+aS + &c. . ,
and fubftituting thefe values as well as their correfpond-
ing values of y in the propofed equation, we {hall find
by arranging the terms, that ^ ought to be ~ 2 5 after-
wards by determining the cofticients A, B, C, &c. in
the ufual manner ( Algebra, § 261.) we obtain two fe¬
ries, one of thefe is
’(72-f2)(«-j-3)"r f,? + 2X/z+3X2;*+4X2,z + 5)
   ^ A.r3w+7_ !_gcc>
(;/-t-2)C/z-t-3)(2/i-t-4)(2«-f-5X3'zX6)C3«-i-7)
As a primitive equation in its general form ought to
contain two conftant quantities which do not appear in
the‘fluxional equation of the fecond order derived front
it (§ 177.), the value of y to be complete ought to con¬
tain two arbitrary conftant quantities, but as each ot
thefe feries contains only one fuch quantity, namely A,
it muft be confidered as exprefling only a particular
value of y. The fluxional equation y‘~\-a x»yx1=:o is
however of fuch a nature that from two particular values
of y we may deduce its general value j for let us denote
thefe values by •z and Z, then, as each of them muft
fatisfy the fluxional equation, we have
z+a xnz x1 ~o, Z-{-a xr,Z x*=zo
let c and C denote two arbitrary conftant quantities,
then we have alfo
c i’-j-c a xn % xz=o, CZ-j-C a xn Zx*=o,
and as each of thefe equations is identical, their fum
muft alfo be identical, that is
cz CZ-\-a xn(cz-\-CZ)xz=o 5
but the very fame refult will be obtained if we fubfti-
tute c a-j-CZ inftead of y in the propofed fluxional
equation, therefore c z-J-CZ is alfo a value of y, and as
it involves two arbitrary conftant quantities c and C, it
poffeffes all the generality of which the value of y is
fufceptible. Hence it follows that that if c be put in¬
ftead of A in one of the two feries which we have found
for the value of y, and C inftead of A in the other feries,
the fum of the two refults will be a general expreflion for
the value of y.
200. Having now explained the theory of fluxional
equations at as great length as we conceive to be com¬
patible with the nature of this work we {hall conclude
this treatife by refolving a few problems which produce
fluxional equations.
Prob. 1. Having given any hyperbolic, or as it may
more properly be called Napiercan logarithm, it is re¬
quired to find a general expreflion for its correfpond-
ing natural number.
Let the number be denoted by 1 -\-x, and its lo-
A-
aAx
,«+a
a* Ax
~C»+l)(«+2) {n+l)(n + 2)(2n + 3)(2r2 + 4)
 aiAxrnPG 
*+0(A+2) ( 2/2+3) (2,7+4) ( 3^ + 5) f SH-6)
Vol. VIII. Part II,
+ &c.
• X
garithmbyy, then yzz—j— ($ 57.)? or
y+x y—x=°y
and the problem requires that from this equation we
deduce an expreflion for x.
As when y=o, then x—a, we may aflume
«= Ay-j-B^-f-Cy3-{- &c.
then » = Ay-f-2Byy-f3Cy*y-j-&c.
and our equation becomes
5F y+Ayy
X
778
Inverfe
Method.
FLU
Fig- 3s*
Fig- 3>
:0.
y+Ay y+% 33/+cy i
—Ay—iRi/y—iOf y—/\Dy' y—&c.
Hence, by comparing the coefficients of the like terms
it appears that A=:i, 2B~A, ^C—B, 4DzrC, &c. fo
1
that A:
2-3
,D.z
2.3.4
, &c.
y* y^
therefore ,;tf—^ 23 234”^ ^'C‘ ancl
V
y
y*
I 4-x= I + V 4- — + — 1   h &c*
Prob. 2. Let AB, AC be two ftraight lines given
by polition meeting each other at right angles in A,
let C be a given point in AC one of the lines, and let
a ftraight line PQ^ meet them in P and £), and cut oft
from them equal fegments AP, C^) adjacent to the
given points A,C, it is required to find the nature of
the curve to which PQ is a tangent.
Let D be the point in wffiich the tangent PQ^ meets
the curve, draw DE perpendicular to AC, and DF to
AP, put CA—a, CE—* EDzry, then AE or DF
—a—X, and fince EOzz1^- (§ 73.) and EQ^:ED::
y
DF : FP, therefore FP= hence PA =
x
(PF+FA=)(^=^ +y, and CQ=(CE—E£=)
x
x — and as by hypothefis APrrtCQ, therefore
y
(<j—x) y yx
y+L__ 
^ s y
This expreffion belongs to a clafs of fluxional equations
wffiich have the Angular property of being more eafily
refolved by firft taking their fluxion, confidering the
fluxion of one of the variable quantities as conftant;
thus, in the prefent cafe, making x conftant, we find
• xy—{a—x)y _• * y'—y * y
y'
or
(„ _ x)y _ yx y
IONS. Part II.
equation/)«w=:y”, where x denotes the abfcifta AB, Inverfe
and y the ordinate PB, and /> an indeterminate quanti- Method,^
ty which is the fame for the whole of any one of the ’"v""'
parabolas, but different for different parabolas j it is re¬
quired to find the nature of a curve that ftvali interfedit
them all in a given angle.
Let the curve whofe nature is required meet any one
of the parabolas in P, let PT, P t tangents to the tw'O
curves meet the axis in T and /, then, from the nature
of the problem, the lines PT, P t muft contain a given
angle, let a denote its numerical tangent.
Becaufe PT touches the parabola, the tangent of the
V
angle PTB will be equal to -r- ($ 75.) the value of
x
this expreffion being fuppofed deduced from the equa¬
tion p xm^zyn'j but taking the fluxion of this equation,
and eliminating the indeterminate quantity p by means
of the two equations, we find ■4-—
therefore tan.
n x
Again, by confidering x and y as the abfeiffa and
ordinate of the curve whofe equation is fought, and to
which P r is a tangent, we have the tangent of the
y
angle / equal to;-v-($ 75-). Now the angle TP/
x
being the difference of the two angles PTB, P/Bit
follows from the formula for finding the tangent of the
difference of two angles, (Algebra, § 368.) that
y my
‘v n x
1 +
'yy
n x x
X ..
hence dividing by y, the equation is eafily reduced to
j _ 'x 
Vy //(*—*)
and taking the fluents
Vy=c— — *)
but when x—o, then y—Of therefore c=r ^/a, and
\/y~ \/a — y/{a — x), or x—2\/Ty —y^
which equation belongs to the common parabola.
Prob. 3. Let APQ be one of any number of curves
of the parabolic kind, having the fame vertex A, and
axis AE} and the nature of which is defined by the
hence w'e have
a{nxx + myy')-\-myx—-nx y=o,
a fluxional equation expreffing the nature of the curve,
which being homogeneous may be treated according to
the method explained in J 180.
If the curves be fuppofed to cut each other at right
angles, then, a being infinite, the part of the equation
which is not multiplied by a vanilhes in refpedl of the
other, which is multiplied by it j hence we have
n x x-\-m y y ~o
and taking the fluents
n x*-\-m y'~c
where c is put for a conftant quantity. This equation
fhews that the curve is an ellipfe the centre of which is
at A the common vertex of all the parabolas. .
The problem which we have here refolved is only a
particular cafe of one more general, and which has for
its objeft To determine the nature of the curve 'which
interfefts all other curves of a given hind in a given
angle. The problem thus generalifed is known by the
name of the Problem of TrajeBories ; it was originally
propofed by Leibnitz, as a challenge to the Englifti
mathematicians, and refolved by Newton, on the day he
received ft,
FLY,
f l r x r o x s.
’Plate (' (' XX.
FLY
[ 779 1
F L Y
FLY, in Zoologij, a large order of infers, the di
ftinguifiring charaaeriftic of which is, that their wings
are °tranfparent. By this they are diflinguifhed from
beetles, butterflies, grafhoppers, &c. Flies are fubdi-
vided into thofe which have four, and thofe which have
two wings. Of thofe with four wings there are feveral
genera or kinds •, as the ant, the bee, the ichneumon,
&c. Of thofe with two wings, there are likewife fe¬
veral kinds, as the gad-fly, gnat, houfe-fly, &c. For
their claflification and natural hiftory, fee ENTOMO¬
LOGY.
Houfe Fly. See Muse a.
Pejfi/ential Fly. See Abyssinia.
Fly, in mechanics, a crofs with leaden weights at
its ends *, or rather, a heavy wheel at right angles to
the axis of a windlafs, jack, or the like j by means of
which, the force of the power, whatever it is, is not
only preferred, but equally diftributed in all parts of
the revolution of the machine. See Mechanics.
Flies for Fijhing. See Fishing Fly.
Vegetable Fly, a curious natural production chiefly
found in the "Weft Indies. ii Excepting that it has no
wings, it refembles the drone both in fize and colour
more than any other JBritifh infedt. In the month of
May it buries itfelf in the earth, and begins to vegetate.
By the latter end of July, the tree is arrived at its full
growth, and refembles a coral branch} and is about
three inches high, and bears feveral little pods,, which
dropping off become worms, and from thence flies, like
the Britifh caterpillar.”
p/ji/. Tran/. Such was the account originally given of this extra-
for 1763* ordinary produClion. But feveral boxes of thefe flies
having been fent to Dr Hill for examination, his re¬
port was this : “ There is in Martinique a fungus of
the clavaria kind, different in fpecies from thofe hitherto
known. It produces foboles from its fides; I .call it
therefore clavaria fobolifera. It grows on putrid ani¬
mal bodies, as our fungus ex pede equina, from the. dead
horfe’s hoof. The cicada is common in Martinique •,
and in its nympha flate, in which the old authors cad
it tettigometra, it buries itfelf under dead leaves to wait
its change ; and when the feafon is unfavourable, many
perifh. The feeds of the clavaria And a proper bed on
this dead infeft, and grow. The tettigometra is among
the cicadse in the Britifh mufeum •, the clavaria is juft
now known. This is the faft, and all the faft; though
the untaught inhabitants fuppofe a fly to vegetate, and
though there is a Snanifh drawing of the plant’s growing
into a trifoliate tree, and it has been figured with the
creature flying with this tree upon its back.” See
Edwards’ Gleanings of Natural Hiftory.
Fly-Boat, or Flight, a large flat-bottomed Dutch
veffel whofe burden is generally from 600 to 1200
tons.’ It is diftinguifhed by a very high ftern, re-
fembling a Gothic turret, and by very broad buttocks
below. ^
Fly-Catcher, in Zoology. See Muscicapa.
Venus's Fly Trap, a kind of fenfitive plant. See Dio-
nma Mufcipula, Botany Index. .
Fly-Free, \n Natural Hiftory, a name given by the
common people of America to a tree, whofe leaves,
they fay, at a certain time of the year produce fies.
On examining thefe leaves about the middle of fum-
mer, the time at which the flies ufe to be produced,
there are found on them a fort of bags ol a tough
matter, of about the fize of a filbert, and of a dulky | fib'e
greenifh colour. On opening one of thefe bags n ith
a knife, there is ufually found a Angle full grown fly,
of the gnat kind, and a number of fmali worms, which
in a day or two more have wings and fly away in the
form of their parent. I he tree is of the mulberry
kind, and its leaves are ufually very largely^flocked
with thefe infect bags } and the generality of mem are
found to contain the infects in their worm ftate •, w hen
they become winged, they foon make their way out.
The bags begin to appear when the leaves are young,
and afterwards grow with them } but they never rumple
the leaf or injure its fhape. I hey are ct the kind^Oi
leaf-galls, and partake in all refpects, except fize, or a
fpecies we have frequent on the large mapie, 01, as it
is called, the fycamore.
FLYERS,'in architecture, fuch flairs as go ftrai.ght,
and do not wind round, or have the fteps made tapering £
but the fore and back part of each flair and the ends
refpe6tively parallel to one another : So that if one
flight do not carry you to your defigned height, there
is a broad half ipace •, and then you fly again, with
fteps everywhere of the lame breadth and length as
before. < ....
Flyers, the performers in a celebrated exhibition
among the Mexicans, which was made on certain great
feftivals, and is thus deferibed by Clavigero in his Hiftory
of that people. “ They fought in the woods for an
extremely lofty tree, which, after {tripping it of its
branches and bark, they brought to the city, and fixed
in the centre of fome large fquare. ihe.y caied the
point of the tree in a wooden' cylinder, which, on ac¬
count of fome refemblance in its lhape, the Spaniards
called a mortar. From this cylinder hung four ftrong
ropes, which ferved to fupport a fquare frame. In the
fpace between the cylinder and the frame, they fixed
four other thick ropes, which they twilled. as many
times round the tree as there were revolutions to be
made by the flyers. Thefe. ropes were drawn through
four holes, made in the middle of the four. planks of
which the frame confifted. 1 he four principal flyers,
difguifed like eagles, herons, and other birds, mounted
the tree with great agility, by means of a rope which
was laced about it from the ground up to the ^rame •,
from the frame they mounted one at a time fucceflively
upon the cylinder, and after having danced there a
little, they tied themfelves round with the ends of the
ropes, which were drawn through the . holes of the
frame, and launching with a fpring from it, began their
flight with their wings expanded. I he. ablion. of their
bodies put the frame and the cylinder in motion ; the
frame by its revolutions gradually untwifted the cords
by which the flyers fwung j fo that as the.ropes length¬
ened, they made fo much the greater circles in their
flight. Whilft thefe four were flying, a fifth danced
upon the cylinder, beating a little drum, or waving a
flag, without the fmalleft apprehenfion of the danger
he was in of being precipitated from fuch a height.
The others who were upon the frame (10 or 12 perfons
generally mounted), as foon as they faw the flyers in
their laft revolution, precipitated themfelves by the
fame ropes, in order to reach the ground at the fame
time amidft the acclamations of the populace. I hofe
who precipitated themfelves in this manner by the ropes,
that they might make a ftill greater difplay of their
5 F 2 agility,
F L Y [ ?8o ] F L Y
agility, frequently paffed from one rope to another,
at that part where, on account of the little diliance
between them, it was poflible for them to do fo. The
mod eiTential point of this performance confided in
proportioning fo jullly the height of the tree with the
length of the ropes, that the flyers fhould reach the
ground with 13 revolutions, to reprefent by fuch
number their century of 52 years, compofed in the
manner wTe have already mentioned. This celebrated
diverfion is dill in ufe in that kingdom 5 but no parti¬
cular attention is paid to the number of the revolutions
of the flyfers $ as the frame is commonly hexagonal or
oidagonal, and the flyers fix or eight in number. In
fame places they put a rail round the frame, to prevent
accidents, which were frequent after the conqued} as
the Indians became much given to drinking, and ufed
t o mount the tree when intoxicated wdth wane or brandy,
and weye unable to keep their dation on fo great a
height, which rvas ufually 60 feet.
FLYING, the progredive motion of a bird, or other
winged animal, in the air.
The partfr of birds chiedy concerned in dying are
the wings and tail 3 by the fird, the bird fudains and
wafts himfelf along ; and by the fecond, he is adided,
in afcending and defcending, to keep his body poifed
and upright, and to obviate the vacillations thereof.
It is by the fize and drength of the peftoral
mufcles, that birds are fo wrell difpofed for quick,
drong, and continued dying. Thefe mufcles, which
in men are fcarcely a 70th part of the mufcles of the
body, in birds exceed and outweigh all the other
mufcles taken together 5 upon which Mr Willoughby
makes this reflexion, that if it be podible for a man to
dy, his wungs mud be fo contrived and adapted, that he
may make ufe of his legs, and not his arms, in managing
them.
The tail, Meffrs Willoughby, Ray, and many others,
imagine to be principally employed in deering and
turning the body in the air, as a rudder j but Borelli
has put it beyond all doubt, that this is the lead ufe of
it, which is chiefly to aflid the bird in its afcent and
defcent in the air, and to obviate the vacillations of the
body and wings 5 for, as to turning to this or that fide,
it is performed by the wings and inclination of the
body, and but very little by the help of the tail. The
dying of a bird, in efleff, is quite a different thing
from the rowing of a veffel. Birds do not vibrate their
wings towards the tail, as oars are druck towards the
deni, but wTaft them dowmvards •, nor does the tail of
:he bird cut the air at right angles as the rudder does
the water y but is difpofed horizontally, and preferves
the fame fituation wdiat way foever the bird turns. In
effecl, as a veffel is turned about on its centre of gravity
to the right, by a briik application of the oars to the
left j fo a bird, in beating the air with its right wing
alone, towards the tail, will turn its fore part to the
left. Thus pigeons changing their courfe to the left,
would labour it with their right wing, keeping the
other almod at red. Birds of a long neck alter their
courfe by the inclination of their head and neck j
which altering the courfe of gravity, the bird will pro¬
ceed in a new dyreclion.
T/ic manlier Fixing, is thus. The bird fird bends
his legs, and fprings with a violent leap from the
grpund y then opens and expands the joints pf his
wings, fo as to make a right line perpendicular to the Fly
ddes of his body : thus the wings, with all the feathers
therein, conditute one continued lamina. Being now
railed a little above the horizon, and vibrating the
wings with great force and velocity perpendicularly
againd the fubjeft air, that fluid refids thofe fuccuf-
fions, both from its natural inaftivity and eladicity, by
means of which the whole body of the bird is pro¬
truded. The refidance the air makes to the with¬
drawing of the wings, and confequently the progrefs
of the bird, will be fo much the greater, as the wraft or
droke of the fan of the wing is longer : but as the
force of the wing is continually diminidied by this re¬
fidance, wiien the twTo forces continue to be in equi¬
libria, the bird will remain fufpended in the fame place j
for the bird only afcends fo long as the arch of air the
wing defcribes makes a refidance equal to the excels
of the fpecific gravity of the bird above the air. It
the air, therefore, be fo rare as to give way with the
Ip me velocity as it is druck withal, there will be no re-
lidanee, and confequently the bird can never mount.
Birds never dy upwards in a perpendicular line, but
always in a parabola. In a dire£t afcent, the natural,
and artificial tendency wmuld oppofe and dedroy eacli
other, fo that the progrefs wmuld be very down In a
direct defcent they wmuld aid one another, fo that the
fall W'ould be too precipitate.
Artificial Fixing, that attempted by men, by the
affidance of mechanics.
The art of dying has been attempted by feveral per-
fons in all ages. The Leucadians, out of fuperdition,
are reported to have had a cudom of precipitating a
man from a high cliff into the fea, fird fixing feathers,
varioudy expanded, round his body, in order to break
the fall.
Friar Bacon, who lived near 500 years ago, not only
adirms the art of dying podible, but affures us, that
he himfelf knew how to make an engine wherein a man
fitting might be able to convey himfelf through the
air like a bird y and further adds, that there wras then
one wdio had tried it with fuccefs. The fecret con¬
fided in a couple of large thin hollow7 copper globes,
exhauded of air •, which being much lighter than air,
would fudain a chair wdiereon a perfon might fit. Father
Francifco Lana, in his Frodromo, propofes the fame
thing, as his own thought. He computes, that a round
veffel of plate brafs, 14 feet in diameter, weighing
three ounces the fquare foot, will only weigh 1848
ounces •, whereas a quantity of air of the fame bulk
will weigh 2x55^ ounces ; fo that the globe will not
only be fudained in the air, but wall carry with it a.
weight of 373 *d ounces 5 and by increafing the bulk of
the globe, without increafing the thicknefs of the
metal, he adds, a veffel might be made to carry a much
greater wTeight.—But the fallacy is obvious : a globe
of the dimenfions he defcribes, Ur Hook diovvs, would ,
not fudain the preffure of the air, but be cradled inwards.
Befides, in whatever ratio the bulk of the globe were
increafed, in the fame mud the thicknefs of the metal^
and confequently the w eight he increafed : fo that there
would be no advantage in fuch augmentation. Sec
Aerostation.
The fame author defcribes an engine for flying, in¬
vented by the Sieur Befnier, a fmith of Sable, in the
county of Maine. Vid, Fhilofoph. Collect, N° 1.
The
F O E
[ ?8
FTying
ISridge
I!
Foetus.
The philofophers of King Charles the fecond’s reign
were mightily bufied about this art. ihe tamcus
B'ihop Wilkins was lb confident or fucceiS m it, that
he favs, he does not queftion but in future ages it vvul
be a/ufual to hepr a man call for his wings, when he is
going a journey, as it is now to call for his boots.
Flying Bridge. See Bridge.
Firusa Fifh, a name gi^en to feveral fpecies ot hih,
which, bv means of long fins, can keep themfelves out
^f the water for feme time. See Exocoetus, Ichthy¬
ology Index. , , . n c
Flung Pinion, is part of a clock, having a ibr or tan
whereby to gather air, and fo bridle the rapidity oi the
clock’s" motion, when the weight defeends m the
ilriking part.
FO or FOE ; an idol of the Chinefe. He was ori¬
ginally worthipped in the Indies, and tranfported from
thence into China, together with the fables with which
the Indian books were filled. He is faid to have per¬
formed moft wonderful things, which the Chinefe have
deferibed in feveral volumes, and reprefented by cuts.
Seci of To. See China, N° 104.
Fo-Kien. See Fokien. r -
FOAL, or Colt and Filly; the young of the norie
kind. The word colt, among dealers, is underftood ot
the male, as filly is of the female. See Colt. _
FOCUS, in Geometry and Conic Sections, is applied
to certain points in the parabola, ellipfis, and hyperbola,
where the rays refleaed from all parts of theie curves
concur and meet. See Conic Se&ions.
Focus, in Optics, a point in which any number ot
rays, after being refleaed or refraaed, meet.
FODDER, any kind of meat for horfes or other cattle.
In fome places, hay and ftraw, mingled toghether, is
peculiarly denominated fodder.
Fodder, in the civil law, is ufed for a prerogative
that the prince has, to be provided with corn and other
meats for his horfes, by the fubjeas, in his warlike ex¬
peditions.
Fodder, among miners, a meaiure containing ^2
hundred and a half weight; in London the fodder is
only 20 hundred weight.
FODDERING a {hip. See Fothering.
FOENUGREEK, See Triconella, Botany
Index.
FOENUS nauticum. Where money was lent to
a merchant, to be employed in a beneficial trade, with
condition to be repaid with extraordinary intereft, in
cafe fuch voyage was fafely performed. The agreement
was fometimes called ficenus nauticum, fometimes ufiura
maritima. But as this gave an opening for ufunous and
gaming contrafls, 19 Geo. II. c. 37. enafts, that all
money Ipnt on bottomry, or at refpondentia, on veilels
bound to or from the Eaft Indies, fiiall be exprefsly
lent only upon the {hip or merchandife ; the lender to
have the benefit of falvage, &c. BlacIJl. Com. ii. 459"
Mol. de Jur. Mar. 361.
FOETOR, in Medicine, fetid effluvia arifing from
the body or any part thereof.
FOETUS, the young of all viviparous animals
whilft in the wemb, and of oviparous animals before
being hatched : the name is transferred by botanifls to
the embryos of vegetables.
Stridlly, the name is applied to the young after it
r ] F G G
is pcrfeclly formed ; previous to which it is ufually called •'
Embryo. See Anatomy Index. _ _ .
In the human foetus are feveral peculiarities not to
be found in the adult; forne of them are as follow.
1. The arteries of the navel firing, which are cont.nu-
ations of the hypogaftrics, are, after the bi’jh,
firriveiled up, and form the ligamenta umbilic. inter.
2. The veins of the navel firing are formed by tne
union of all the venous branches in the placenta, and-
piffling into the abdomen become the falciform ligament
of the liver. 3. The lungs, before being in dated with
air, are compaft and heavy, but atter one infpiiation
they become light, and as jt were fpongy ; and it may
be noted here, that the notion of the lungs finking in
water before the child breathes, and of their iwimming
after the reception of air, are no certain proofs that the
child had or had not breathed, much lefs that it was
murdered : for the uninflated lungs become fpecifically
lighter than water as foon as any degree of putrefaftion
takes place in them ; and this foon happens after the
death of the child ; befides, where the utmoft care hath
been taken to preferve the child, it hath breathed once
or twice, and then died. 4. The thymus gland is very
large in the foetus, but dwindles away in proportion as_
years advance. 5. The foramen ovale in the heart ot
a foetus, is generally clofed in an adult.
FOG, or Mist, a meteor, confifting ot grefs vapours,
floating near the furface of the earth.
Mifts, according to Lord Bacon, are imperfea con-
denfations of the air, confifting of a large proportion
of the air, and a fmall one of the aqueous vapour ; ana
thefe happen in the winter, about the change of Ae
weather from froit to thaw, or from thaw to iroft; but
in the fummer, and in the fpring, from the expaniion
of the dew. #
If the vapours, which are raifed plentifully from the
earth and waters, either by the iolar or fubterraneous
heat, do at their firft entrance into the atmofphere-
meet with cold enough to condenfe them to a confider-
able degree, their fpeeific gravity is by that means
increafed, and fo they will be flopped from amending ;
and either return back in form ot dew or of drizzling
rain or remain fufpended fome time in the form ot a
fom Vapours may be feen on the high grounds as
well as the low, but-more efpecially about marfliy
places. They are eafily diflipated by the wind, as
alfo by the heat of the fun. They continue longed
in the lowed grounds, becaufe thefe places contain
moft moifture, and are lead exnofed to the action of
the wind. . .
Hence we may eafily conceive, that mgs are only
low clouds, or clouds in the lowed region of the air;
as clouds are no other than fogs raifed on high, bee
Cloud. . . ,
When fogs flink, then the vapours are mixed with,
fulphureous exhalations, which fmell fo. Objefts view¬
ed through fogs appear larger and more remote than
through the common air. Mr Boyle obferyes, that up¬
on the coaft of Coromandel, and moft maritime paits of
the Eaft Indies, there are, notwith[landing the heat
of the climate, annual fogs 1b thick, as to occafion peo¬
ple of other nations who refide there, and even the more
tender fort of the natives, to keep their houfes dole Ihutup*1
Fogs are commonly llrorigly eledrified, as appears
0 from.
F O K [ 782 ] F O L
' Fogage from Mr Cavallo’s obfervations upon diem. See Elec-
•>. TRICITY.
, ^^n.' , FOGAGE, in the forefl law, is rank grafs not eaten
up in fummer.
FOGO, or Fuego. See Fuego.
FOHI. See Fe; and China, N° 7.
FOIBLE, a French term, frequently ufed alfo in
our language. It literally lignifies weak; and in that
fenfe is applied to the body of animals and the parts *
thereof, as foible reins, foible fight, &c. being derived
from the Italian fevole, of the Latin febilis, to be “ la¬
mented, pitied.”
But it is chiefly ufed with us fubftantively, to denote
a defeft or flaw in a perfon or thing. Thus we fay,
Every perfon has his foible ; and the great fecret con-
fifts in hiding it artfully : Princes are gained by flatte¬
ry, that is their foible. The foible of young people is
pleafure ; the foible of old men is avarice •, the foible of
the great and learned is vanity 5 the foible of women
and girls, coquetry, or an affeflation of having gallants :
You fliould know the forte and the foible of a man be¬
fore you employ him : We fliould not let people per-
ceive that we know their foible.
FOIL, in fencing, denotes a blunt fword, or one that
has a button at the end covered with leather, ufed in
learning the art of fencing.
Foil, among glafs-grinders, a fheet of tin, with
quftkfilver, or the like, laid on the backfide of a look-
ing-glafs, to make it refledt. See Foliating.
Foil, among jewellers, a thin leaf of metal placed
under a precious (tone, in order to make it look tranf-
parent, and give it an agreeable different colour, either
deep or pale : thus, if you want a Hone to be of a pale
colour, put a foil of that colour under it 5 or if you
would have it deep, lay a dark one under it.
Thefe foils are made either of copper, gold, or gold
and lilver together. The copper foils are commonly
known by the name of Nuremberg or German foils;
and are prepared as follows : Procure the thinneft cop¬
per plates you can get: beat thefe plates gently upon
' a well-polifhed anvil, with a poliftied hammer, as thin
as poflible •, and placing them between two iron plates
as thin as writing paper, heat them in the fire j then
boil the foil in a pipkin, with equal quantities of tartar
and fait, conftantly ftirring them till by boiling they
become white } after which, taking them out and dry¬
ing them, give them another hammering, till they are
made fit for your purpofe : however, care muff be taken
not to give the foils too much heat, for fear of melting ;
nor muff they be too long boiled, for fear of attratting
too much fait.
The manner of polifliing thefe foils is as follows :
Take a plate of the belt copper, one foot long and about
five or fix inches wide, poliflied to the greateft perfedtion;
bend this to a long convex, fallen it upon a half roll,
and fix it to a bench or table •, then take fame chalk,
walked as clean as poflible, and filtered through a fine
linen cloth, till it be as fine as you can make it j and
having laid fome thereof on the roll, and wetted the
copper all over, lay your foils on it, and with a polifli¬
ing ffone and the chalk poliffi your foils till they are as
bright as a looking-glafs 5 after which they muff be
dried, and laid up fecure from duff. _
FOKIEN, a province of China in Afia, commodi-
oufly fftuated for navigation and commerce, part of it
3
bordering on the fea, in which they catch la: *e quan¬
tities of fifn, which they fend falted to otuer parts of
the empire. Its fhores are very uneven, by reafon of
the number and variety of its bays ; and there are many
forts built thereon to guard the coaft. The air is hot,
but pure and wholefome.
The mountains are aim oft everywhere difpofed into
a kind of amphitheatres, by the labour of the inhabi¬
tants, with terraces placed one above another. The
fields are watered with rivers and fprings, which iffue
out of the mountains, and which the hulbandmen
conduct in fuch a manner as to overflow the fields of
rice when they pleafe, becaufe it thriven bert in watery
ground. They make ufe of pipes of bamboo for this
purpofe.
They have all commodities in common with the reft
of China j but more particularly mulk, precious ftones,
quickfilver, filk, hempen cloth, callico, iron, and all
forts of utenfils wrought to the greateft perfe£tion.
From other countries they have cloves, cinnamon, pep¬
per, fandal wood, amber, coral, and many other things.
The capital city is Fou-tcheou Fou j or, as others would
have it written, Fucherofu. But as for Fokien, which
moft geographers make the capital, Grofier informs us
there is no fuch place.
FOLARD, Charles, an eminent Frenchman, fa¬
mous for his fkill and knowledge in the military art,
was born at Avignon in 1669, of a noble family, but
not a rich one. He difcovered an early turn for the
fciences, and a ftrong paflion for arms \ which laft was
fo inflamed by reading Csefar’s Commentaries, that he
enlifted at 16 years of age. His father got him off,
and ftmt him in a monaftery : but he made his efcape
in about two years after, and entered himfelf a fecond
time in quality of cadet. His inclination for military
affairs, and the great pains he took to accomplifh him¬
felf in that way, recommended him to notice $ and he
was admitted into the friendftiip of the firft rate offi¬
cers. M. de Vendome, who commanded in Italy in
1720, made him his aid-de-camp, having conceived the
higheft regard for him ; and foon after fent him with
part of his forces into Lombardy. He was entirely
trufted by the commander of that army j and no mea-
fures were concerted, or fteps taken, without confult-
ing him. By purfuing his plans, many places were
taken, and advantages gained } and fuch, in Ihort, were
his fervices, that he had a penfion of 400 livres fettled
upon him, and was honoured with the crofs of St
Louis. He diftinguifhed himfelf greatly, Auguft 15.
1705, at the battle of Caflano ; where he received a
wound upon his left hand, which deprived him of the
ufe of it ever after. It was at this battle that he con¬
ceived the firft idea of that fyftem of columns, which
he afterwards prefixed to his Commentaries upon Poly¬
bius. The duke of Orleans fending De Vendome again
into Italy in 1706, Folard had orders to throw himfelf
into Modena to defend it againft Eugene : where,
though he acquitted himfelf with his ufual ffdll, he was
very near being affaflinated. The defcription rvhich
he has given of the condu£l and charafter of the go¬
vernor of this town, may be found in his Treatife of
the Defence of Places, and deferves to be read. He
received a dangerous wound on the thigh at the battle
of Malplaquet, and was fome time after made prifoner
by Prince Eugene, Being exchanged in 1711, he was
made
Folard.
F O L [ 78
FoIc-lands, made MVemor of Bourbourg. In 1714, he went to
Folcmote, ]\/[alta to afliit in defending that iiland againi^ the
' ^ Turks! Upon his return to France, he embarked for
Sweden, having a paflionate deiire to fee Charles XII.
He acquired the efteem and confidence of that amous
general, who fent him to France to negotiate the re-
eftablifiiment of James II. upon the throne ot Fng-
land ; but that projeft being dropped, he returned to
Sweden, followed Charles XII. in his expedition to
Norway, and ferved under him at the liege of Frede-
ricklhall, where that prince was killed, Dec. n. 1718.
Folard then returned to France •, and made his lalt
campaign in 1719, under the duke of Berwick, in qua¬
lity of colonel. From that time he applied himfelf in-
tenfely to the ftudy of the military art as far as it
could be ftudied at home ; and built his theories upon
the foundation of his experience and obfervations on
fa&s. He contra fled an intimacy with Count Saxe,
who, as he then declared, wTould one day prove a very
great general. He was chofen a fellow of the Royal
Society of London in 1749? and, in 1751, made a
journey to Avignon, wdiere he died in 1752, aged 83
years. He was the author of feveral works, the princi¬
pal of which are ; 1. Commentaries upon Polybius, in
fix volumes, 4to. 2. A Book of New Difcovenes m
War. 3. A Treatife concerning the Defence of Places,
See. in French. Thofe who would know, more of this
eminent foldier, may confult a French piece, entitled,
Memoires pour fervir a PHiftoire de M. le Chevalier de
Folard. RatiJboney 1753? 1 2tno.
FOLC-lands, (Sax.) copyhold lands lo called m
the time of the £axons, as charter-lands w7ere called
boc-lands, Kitch. 174. Falkland was terra vulgi or
popularis ; the land of the vulgar people, wdio had no
certain eftate therein, but held the fame, under the
rents and fervices accuftomed or agreed, at the will
only of their lord the thane *, and it was therefore not
put in writing, but accounted prcedium rufticum et igno-
bile. Spelm. of Feuds, c. 5.
FOLCMOTE, or Folkmote, (Sax. Folcgemote,
i. e. conventus populi), is compounded oi folk^ populus,
and mote, or gemote, convenire ; and. fignified originally,
as Somner in his Saxon Dictionary informs us, a gene¬
ral affembly of the people, to confider. of and order
matters of the ccmmonw'ealth. And Sir Henry Spel-
man fays, the folcmote was a fort of annual parliament
or convention of the bilhops, thanes, aldermen, and
freemen, upon every May-day yearly ; where the lay¬
men were fworn to defend one another and the king,
and to preferve the laws of the kingdom ; and then, con-
fulted of the common fafety. But Dr Brady infers
from the lawTs of the Saxon kings of England, that it
was an inferior court, held before the king’s reeve or
fteward, every month, to &o folk right, or compofe
finaller differences, from whence there lay appeal to the
firperior courts } G/ojf. p. 4^* Squire feems to think
the folcmote not diilinfl from the Jhiremote, or common
general meeting of the county. See his Angl. Sax. Gov.
155. n.
Manwood mentions folcmote as a court holden m
London, wherein all the folk and people of the city did
complain of the mayor and aldermen, for mifgovern-
ment within the faid city } and this word is Hill in ufe
among the Londoners, and denotes eelebrem ex tota ci~
vitate ccnventum. Stow's Survey. According to Ken-
5 ] F O L
net, the folcmote was a common council of all the inha- Foie ng 16
bitants of a city, town, or borough, convened often Foli
by found of bell, to the Mote Flail, or Floufe ; or it was , ■—v
applied to a larger congrefs of all the freemen within a
county, called the fhiremote, where formerly all knights
and military tenants did fealty to the king, and eleiled
the annual fheriff on the iff of Oflober; till this popu¬
lar eleflion, to avoid tumults and riots, devolved to the
king’s nomination, anno I3,5> 3 Udw. I. After which
the city folkmote was fwallowed up in a feleft commit¬
tee or common council, and the cownXxy folkmote in the
fheriff’s tourn and aflizes.
The word folkmote was alfo ufed for any kind of po¬
pular or public meeting ; as of all the tenants at the
court leet, or court baron, in which fignification it was of
a lefs extent. Paroeh. Antiq. 120.
FOLENGIO, Theophilus, an Italian poet, was a
native of IVIantua. He was known alfo by the title ot
Merlin Coccaye, a name which he gave to a poem, and
which has been adopted ever fince for all trifling per¬
formances of the fame fpecies, confifting of buffoonery,
puns, anagrams, wit without wifdom, and humour without
good fenfe. His poem was called The Macaroni, from an
Italian cake of the fame name, which is.fwreet to the talle,
but has not the leaf! alimentary virtue, on the contrary
palls the appetite and cloy« the flomach. Fhefe idle
poems, however, became the reigning tafte in Italy and in
France j they gave birth to macaroni academies and,
reaching England, to macaroni clubs 5 till, in the end,
every thing infipid, contemptible, and ridiculous, in the
charafter, drefs, or behaviour, of both men and. wo¬
men, is now fummed up in the defpicable appellation of
a macaroni. Folengio died in 1544’
FOLIA, among botanifts, particularly fignify the
leaves of plants ; thofe of flowers being exprefled by the
word petals. See Botany.
FOLIAGE, a clufter or affemblage of flowers, leaves,
branches, &c.
Foliage, is particularly ufed for the reprefentations
of fuch flowers, leaves, branches, rinds, &c. whether
natural or artificial, as are ufed for eni'ichments on ca¬
pitals, friezes, pediments, &c.
FOLIATING 0/Looking-glasses, the fpreading
the plates over, after they are polifhed, with quickfil-
ver, &c. in order to refleft the image. It is performed
thus : A thin blotting paper is fpread on the table, and
fprinkled with fine chalk } and then a fine lamina or
leaf of tin, called foil, is laid over the paper ; upon
this is poured mercury, which is to be diftributed equal¬
ly over the leaf wTith a hare’s foot or cotton j over this
is laid a clean paper, and over that the glafs plate,
which is preffed down with the right hand, and the pa¬
per gently drawn out with the left : this being done,
the plate is covored with a thicker paper, and loadea
with a greater weight, that the fuperfluous mercury
may be driven out and the tin adhere more clofely to
the glafs. When it is dried, the weight is removed,
and the looking-glafs is complete.
Some add an ounce of marcafite, melted by the fire ;
and, left the mercury ftiould evaporate in fmoke, they
pour it into cold water j and when cooled, fqueeze
through a cloth, or through leather.
Some add a quarter of an ounce of tin and lead to
the marcafite, that the glafs may dry the fooner.
Foliating of Globe lookmg-glafes, is done as fol¬
lows ■; :■
F O L [ 7
o lotvs : Take five ounces of quickfilver and one ounce of
bifrnutli j of lead and tin, half an ounce each : firft put
, the lead and tin into fufion, then put in the bifmuth j
and when you perceive that in fufion too, let it hand
till it is alrnofl cold, and pour the quickfiiver into it :
after this, take the glafs globe, which muh be very
clean, and the infide free from dull : make a paper fun¬
nel, which put into the hole of the globe, as near the
glafs as you can, fo that the amalgam, when you pour
it in, may not fplafh, and caufe the glafs to be full of
fpots •, pour it in gently, and move it about, fo that the
amalgam may touch everyv.here : if you find the amal¬
gam begin to be curdly and fixed, then hold it over a
gentle fire, and it will ealily flow again •, and if you find
the amalgam too thin, add a little more lead, tin, and
bifmuth to it. The finer and clearer your globe is, the
better will the looking glafs be.
Dr Shaw obferves, that this operation has confider-
able advantages, as being performable in the cold ; and
that it is not attended with the danger of poifonous
fumes from arfenic, or other umvholefome matters,
ufually employed for this purpofe : befides, how far it
is applicable to the more commodious foliating of the
common looking glaffes, and other fpeculumS', he
thinks, may deferve to be confidered.
FOLIO, in merchants books, denotes a page, or ra¬
ther both the right and left hand pages, thefe being ex-
preffed by the fame figure, and correfponding to each
other. See BoOK-KEKPIN.G,
Folio, among printers and bookfellers, the largeft
form of books, when each fheet is fo printed that it may
be bound up in two leaves only.
FOLIS. See Follis.
FOLIUM, or Leaf, in Botany. See Leaf.
FOLKES, Martin, a philofopher and antiquarian
of confiderable eminence, wras born in Wefiminfter
in the year 1690. A Mr Cappel, once profeflbr of
Hebrew at Saumur, was his private tutor. When 17
years of age, he was fcnt to Ciare-hall, Cambridge,
where he fuccefsfully applied himfelf to the ftudy of
philofophy and the mathematics; and when only twenty-
three years of age lie was chofen a fellow of the
Royal Society. His ingenious communications acquired
him fo much applaufe, that he was frequently chofen
into its council. Fie was in habits of friendihip with the
illuflrious Newton, at that time prefident, and by his
influence was elecled one of the vice-prefidents in the
year 1723. Mr Folkes became a candidate for the
chair on the death of Sir Ifaac Newton ; but the fupe-
rior intereff of Sir Hans Sloane rendered his application
ineffectual. In 1733, an<^ t^le two fubfequent years,
his refidence was for the moft part in Italy, with the
view of improving himfelf in the knowledge of claffical
antiquities. To afcertain the weight and value of an¬
cient coins, he carefully confulted the cabinets of the cu¬
rious } and on his return home he prefented to the Anti¬
quarian Society, of which he was a member, a differtation
on this fubjeCt. He read before the fame learned body,
a differtation on the meafurement of Trajan’s and Anto¬
nina’s pillars, together with other remains of antiquity.
The fruits of his obfervations he prefented to the Royal
Society ; and, in particular, “ Remarks on the ftand-
ard meafure preferved in the Capitol of Rome,” and
the model of an ancient globe in the Farnefian palace.
He vifited Paris in 1739, w1nere l*e was received with
4,
84 ]
F O L
!f.
Foilis.
great refpecl, and honoured with the company of the Folkedofte
moll: eminent literary chara&ers in that metropolis. This
refpeCI indeed he was entitled to by his unwearied appli¬
cation to many branches of knowledge which were both
curious and ufeful. His valuable work, entitled “ A
table of Englifh filver coins, from the Norman Conqueff
to the prefent time, with their weights, intrinfic values,
and fome remarks upon the feveral pieces,” was printed
in the year 1745. Among the many honours conferred
upon Mr Folkes, he was created doCfor of law's by both
univerfities, and chofen prefident of the Antiquarian
Society. He continued to furnilh the Philofophical
TranfaCIions with many learned papers, till his career
was flopped by a paralytic ftroke, which terminated his
ufeful life in the year 1754. He w'as a man of very ex-
tenfive knowledge and great accuracy j but the chief
benefit to fcience wdrich refulted from his labours, was
his treatife on the intricate fubjeft of coins, weights,
and meafures. His cabinet and library were large and
valuable, and expofed to public fale after his death. His
private charafter w'as diftinguifhed for politenefs, gene-
rofity, and fiiendfhip.
FOLKESTONE, a town of Kent, betw'een Dover
and Hythe, 72 miles from London, appears to have
been a very ancient place, from the Roman coins and
Britifh bricks often found in it. Stillingfleet and Tan¬
ner take it for the Lapis Tituh of Nennius. It was
burnt by Earl Godwin, and by the French in the reign of
Edward III. It had five churches, now reduced to one.
It is a member of the town and port of Dover : and has
a weekly market and an annual fair. It is chiefly noted
for the multitude of fifhing-boats that belong to its har¬
bour, which are employed in the feafon in catching mac¬
kerel for London ; to which they are carried by the
mackerel boats of London and Barking. About Mi¬
chaelmas, the Folkeftone barks, with others for Suffex,
go away to the Suffolk and Norfolk coafts, to catch
herrings for the merchants of Yarmouth and Leofloff.—
Folkeffone gives the title of Vifcount to William Henry
Bouverie, whofe grandfather, Jacob, was fo created in
1747. It has been obferved of fome hills in this neigh¬
bourhood, that they have vifibly funk and grown lower
within memory.
FOLKLAND, and Folkmote. See Folclanb.
FOLLICULUS, (from follis, “ a bag,”) a fpecies
of feed-veffel firft mentioned by Linnaeus in his Deline-
atio Blantce, generally confifting of one valve, which
opens from bottom to top on one fide, and has no future
for faftening or attaching the feeds within it.
FOLLICULI are likewife defined by the fame au¬
thor to be fmall glandular veffels diftended with air,
which appear on the furface of fome plants; as at the
root of water-milfoil, and on the leaves of aldrovanda.
In the former, the veffels in queftion are roundifh, and
furnifhed with an appearance like tw7o horns j in the lat¬
ter, pot-fhaped, and femicircular.
FOLLIS, or Folis, anciently fignified a little bag
or purfe j whence it came to be ufed for a fum of mo¬
ney, and very different fums wrere called by that name :
thus the fcholiaft on the Bafilics mentions a follis of cop¬
per which w'as worth but the 24th part of the miliaren-
fis ; the gloffae nomicae, quoted by Gronovius and o-
thers, one of 125 miliarenfes, and another of 250 de¬
narii, which was the ancient fertertmm 5 and three dif¬
ferent fums of eight, four, and two pound of gold, were
each
F O N I 7
eacti called follh. According to the account of the
fcholiaft, the ounce of filver, winch contamed five m,
liarerifes of 60 in the psund, was worth 120 foUs of
copper- The gloffographer, defcnbmg a folhs of 250
denarii, fays it was equal to 312 pounds 6 ™'«s 0
copper , and as the denarius of that age was the 8th
par. of an ounce, an ounce of .filver muft have been
worth 120 ounces of copper-, thc,refore t,hetofc^;
liaft’s follis was an ounce of copper, and equal to tne
cloffograuher’s nummus. But as Conftant.ne’s copper
money weighed a quarter of a Roman ounce, the fcho-
liafi’s follis and the gloffographer’s nummus contained
four of them, as the ancient nummus contamed lou
^rOLLY, according to Mr Locke, confifts m the
drawing of falfe conclufions from juft principles •, by
which ft is diftinguiftied from madnefs, which draws
iuft conclufions from falfe principles. _ , .
But this feems too confined a definition •, folly,
moft general acceptation, denoting a weaknefs ot mte -
left or apprehenfion, or fome partial abfurdity m fenti-
ment or conduft. . r
FOMAHAUT, in Aflronotny, a ftar ot the tint
magnitude in the conftellation Aquarius.
FOMENTATION, in Medicine, is a fluid exter
Bally applied, ufually as warm as the patient can bear
it, and in the following manner. Two flannel cloth
are dipped into the heated liquor, one of which
wrung as dry as the neceffary fpeed will admit, then
Mediately applied to the part affefted V it hes on un¬
til the heat begins to go off, and the other is m readi-
nefs to apply at the inftant in which the firft is remov¬
ed : thusthefe flannels are alternately applied, fo as to
keep the affefted part conftantly fupphed with them
warm. This is continued 15 or 20 minutes, and re¬
peated two or three times a-day.
Every intention of relaxing and foothmg by ^men¬
tations may be anfwered as well by warm water alone
as when the whole tribe of emollients are boiled m it ,
but when difeutients or antifeptics are required fuch
ingredients muft be called in as are adapted to that
^The degree of heat (hould never exceed that of pro¬
ducing a pleafmg fenfation •, great heat produces effefts
very oSpPofite to that intended by the ufe of fomenta-
tl0FONG-YANG, a city of China, in the province of
KiANG-Nan. It is fttuated on a mountain, which hangs
over the Yellow river, and enclofes with its walls feve-
ral fertile little hills. Its jurifdiaion is very extenfl^'
for it comprehends 18 cities-, five of which are ot the
fecond, and 13 of the third clafs. As this was the
birth-place of the emperor Hong-vou, chief of the pre¬
ceding dynafty, this prince formed a defign of rendering
it a famous and magnificent city, m order to make it
the feat of empire. After having expelled the Weftern
Tartars, who had taken poffeflion of China, he trans er¬
red his court hither, and named the city Fong-yang
that is to fay, “ The Place of the Eagle s Splendour.
His intention, as we have faid, was to beautify and en¬
large it but the inequality of the.ground, t e carci y
of frefli water, and above all the vicinity of his father s
tomb, made him change his defign.. By.the unanimous
advice of his principal officers, this, prince eftabhlhed
his court at Nan-king, a more beautiful and commodi-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
8-1 F O N
' L place. When he had formed this refolution, a flopFong-Chaa.
as put to ihe intended works : the imperial pa ace ponta;ne-
was tn hive been enclofed by a triple wall, the 
was put to I lie micnucu. ‘ 1
which was to have been enclofed by a triple wall, tin
walls of the city to which a circumference ol nine
leagues were affigned, and the canals that were begun
all were abandoned and nothing was fimffied but three
monuments that ftill remain. Ihe extent and magm--
cence of thefe fufficiently ffiow what the beauty of this
city would have been, had the emperor purfued his ori¬
ginal defign. The firft is the tomb of the father of
Hong-vou, to decorate which no expence was fpared >
it is called Hoan-lin, or the Royal Tomb. The fecond
is a tower built ^ mHd^o^xit^^of
^ficfnftTmpk ereS S\he fed To, At firfi it
waf only a pagod, to which Hong-vou retired after
ving loft his parents, and where he was admitted as an
infenor domeftic j but, having foon become weary of
this kind of life, he enlifted with the chief of a band of
banditti, who had revolted from the Tartars. As he
was bold and enterprifmg, the general made choice of
him for his fon-in-law j foon after he was declared h s
fucceffor by the unanimous voice of the troops. 1 -
new chief, feeing himfelf at the head of a large party,
had the prefumption to carry his views to the throne.
The Tartars, informed of the progrefs of his arm , fent
a numerous army into the field j butf ^ v^re
attacked them with fo much impetuofity, that they v\e e
obliged to fly j and, though they feveral times returned
to the charge, they were ftill defeated, and at length
driven entirely out of China. As foon as he mounted
the throne, he caufed the fuperb temple 'vhlch ^
mentioned to be raifed out of gratitude to the Bonzes,
who had received him in his diftrefs, and affigned them
a revenue fufficient for the maintenance of 300 perions
under a chief of their own feft, whom he conftituted a
mandarin, with power of governing them, independent
of the officers of the city. This pagod was fupported
as long as the preceding dynafty lafted but that of the
Eaftern Tartars, which fucceeded, fufiered it to fall to
FoNG-Choui, the name of a ridiculous fuperftition a-
mong the Chinefe. See China, N° 105.
FONT, among ecclefiaftical writers, a large ba.oi
in which water is kept for the baptizing of infants or
°^Font, in the art of printing, denotes a complete
affortment of letters, accents, &c. ufed m printing.
See Fount. . , . T, , .
FONTAINE, John, the celebrated Trench poet,
and one of the firft-rate geniufes of Ws age was bom
at Chateau-Thierri in Champagne, the 8th of July
1621, of a good family. At the age. of 19 he en¬
tered amongft the Oratorians, but quitted that order
18 months after. He was 22 years of age. before he
knew his own talents for poetry j but hearing an ode
of Malherbe read, upon the affaffination of Hmry ..
he was fo taken with admiration of it, that the poeti¬
cal fire, which had before lain dormant within him,
feemed to be enkindled from that of the. other great
poet. He applied himfelf to read, to meditate, to re¬
peat, in fine to imitate, the works of Malherbe. The
firft effays of his pen he confined to one of his re a-
tions who made him read the beft Latin autho ., -
race, Virgil, Terence, Quintilian, &c. and then he
Fontaine
L
F O N
^ comppfitions in French and Italian. Fie applied
himlell likewife to the ftudy of the Greek authors, par¬
ticularly Plato and Plutarch. Some time afterwards
his parents made him marry a daughter of a lieutenant-
general, a relation of the great Racine. This young
lady, befides her very great beauty, was remarkable
for the delicacy of her wit, and Fontaine never com-
pofed any work without confulting her. But as her
temper was none of the bed, to avoid diilenfion, he fe.
parated himfelf from her company as often as he well
could. The famous duchefs of Bouillon, niece to Car¬
dinal Mazarine, being exiled to Chateau-Thierri, took
particular notice of Fontaine. Upon her recal, he fol¬
lowed her to Paris j where by the intereft of one of
his relations, he got a penfion fettled upon him. He
met with great friends and protestors amongft the moit
diflinguifhed perfons of the court, but Madame de la Sa-
bliere was the mod particular. She took him to live
at her houfe, and it was then that Fontaine, diveded
of domedic concerns, led a life conformable to his
difpodtion, and cultivated an acquaintance with all the
great men of the age. It was his cudom, after he was
fixed at Paris, to go every year, during the month of
September, to his native place of Chateau-Thierri, and
pay a vidt to his wife, carrying with him Racine, Def-
preaux, Chapelle, or fome other celebrated writers.
When he has fometimes gone thither alone by himfelf,
he has come away without remembering even to call
upon her 5 but feldom omitted felling fome part of his
lands, by which means he fquandered away a confider-
able fortune. After the death of Madame de la Sa-
bhere, he was invited into England, particularly by
Madame Mazarine, and by St Evremond, who promi-
ied him all the fweets and comforts of life } but the
difficulty of learning the Englilh language, and the
liberality of the duke of Burgundy, prevented his
voyage.
. -About the end of the year 1692 he fell dangeroufly
ill j and, as is cudomary upon thefe occafions in the
Romiffi church, he made a general confedion of his
whole life to P. Poguet, an Oratorian 5 and, before he
received the facrament, he fent for the gentlemen of
the French Academy, and in their prefence declared
Ins fincere compunaion for having compofed his Tales;
a work he could not reflea upon without the greateft
repentance and detedation ; promidng that if it ffiould
pleafe God to redore his health, he would employ his
talents only in writing upon matters of morality or
piety. He furvived this illnefs two years, living in
the mod exemplary and edifying manner, and died the
13th of March 1695, being 74 years of age. When
they dripped his body, they found next his fkin a hair
fhiit; which gave, room for the following expreffion
of the younger Racine :
Et l"1 Auteur de Jaconde ejl orne d^un Cilice.
Fontaine s charaaer is remarkable for a dmplicity, can¬
dour, and probity, feldom to be met with. He was of
an obliging difpofition; cultivating a real friendfhip
with his brother poets and authors ; and what is very
rare, beloved and edeemed by them all. His converfa-
tion was neither gay nor brilliant, efpecially when he
was not amongft his intimate friends. One day being
invited to a dinner at a farmer general’s, he ate a great
deal, but did not fpeak, Ridng up from tabic very
786 J , F O N
early, under pretext of going to the academy, one of
the company reprefented to him thaV it was not yet a
proper time : “ Well (fays he), if it is not, I will day
a little longer.” He had one fbn by his wife in the
year 1660. At the age of 14, he put him into the
hands of M. de Harley, the firft preddent, recommend¬
ing.to him his education and fortune. It is faid, that
having been a long time without feeing him, he hap¬
pened. to meet him one day vidting, without recollect¬
ing him again, and mentioned to the company that he
thought that young man had a good deal of wdt and
undemanding. When they told him it was his own fori,
he anfwered in the moft tranquil manner, “ Fla ! truly
I am glad on’t.” An indifference, or rather an ab-
fence of mind, influenced his whole conduct, and ren¬
dered him often infendble to the inclemency of the wea¬
ther. Madame de Bouillon going one morning to Ver-
failles, faw him, abftrafted in' thought, fitting in an ar¬
bour ; returning at night, fhe found him in the fame
place, and in the fame attitude, although it was very
cold, and had rained almoft the whole5day.* He car¬
ried this fimplicity fo far, that he was fcarcely fenfible of
the bad effedls fome of his writings might occaffon,
particularly his Tales. In a great ficknefs, his confef-
for exhorting him to prayer and alms deeds : “ As for
alms, deeds (replied Fontaine), I am not able, having
nothing to give ; but they are about publifhing a new
edition of my Tales, and the bookfellerowes me a hun¬
dred copies ; you fhall have them to fell, and diftribute
their amount amongft the poor.” Another time P. Po¬
guet exhorting him to repent of his faults, “ If he has
committed any (cried the nurfe), I am fure it is more
from ignorance than malice, for he has as much fimpli¬
city as an infant.” One time having compofed a tale,
wherein he made a profane application of thofe words
of the Gofpel, “ Lord, five talents thou didft deliver to
me,” he dedicated it, by a moft ingenious prologue, to
the celebrated Arnauld, telling him, it was to ffiow to
pofterity the great efteem he had for the learned doftor.
He was not fenfible of the indecency of the dedication,
and the profane application of the text, till Boileau and
Racine reprefented it to him. He addreffed another,
by a dedication in fhe fame manner, to the archbifhop
of Paris. His Fables are an immortal work, exceeding
every thing in that kind, both ancient and modern, in
the opinion of the learned. People of tafte, the often-
er they read them, will find continually new beauties
and charms, not to be met with elfewhere. The def-
cendants of this great poet are exempted in France from
all taxes and impofitions; a privilege which the intend-
ants of Soiflbns to this day think it an honour to con¬
firm to therp*
FONTAINBLEAU, a town in the Ifle of France,
and in the Gatinois, remarkable for its fine palace,
which has been the place where the kings of France
ufed to lodge when they went a hunting. It was firft
embellifhed by Francis I. and every fucceffive king has
added fomething to it; fo that it may now be called the
fineft pleafure houfe in the wrorld. It ftands in the
midft of a foreft, confifting of 26,424 arpents of land,
each containing 100 fquare perches, and each perch 18
feet. E. Long. 2. 33. N. Lat. 40. 22.
FONTAINES, Peter Francis, a French critic,
was born of a good family at Rouen in 1685. At 15,
he entered into the fociety of the Jefuits; and at 30,
quitted
Fontaine
li
Fontaines,
F O N [ 787 ] F O N
Fontaines quitted it, for tlie fake of returning to the world. He
1) was a prieft, and had a cure in Normandy j but left it,
Tontarabia. anq was? as a man 0f wit and letters, fome time with
v ^ the cardinal d’Aufergne. Having excited fome at¬
tention at Paris by certain critical produttions, the
Abbe Bignon in 1724 committed to him the Journal
des Sgavans. He acquitted himfelf well in this depart¬
ment, and was peaceably enjoying the applaufes of the
public, when his enemies, whom by critical ftridlures
in his Journal he had made fuch, formed an accufation
againit him of a moll abominable crime, and procured
him to be imprifoned. By the credit of powerful
friends, he was fet at liberty in 15 days : the magiftrate
of the police took upon himfelf the trouble of jultifying
him in a letter to the Abbe Bignon} and this letter hav¬
ing been read arnidfi: his fellow labourers in the Journal,
he was unanimoufly re-eftablidied in his former credit.
This happened in 1725. But with whatever repute
he might acquit himfelf in this Journal, frequent dif-
gufts made him frequently abandon it. He laboured
meanwhile in fome new periodical works, from which
he derived his greateft fame. In 1731, he began one
under the title of Nouvellifte du Farnajje, ou RejleBions
fur les Ouvrages nouveaux : but only proceeded to two
volumes j the work having been fuppreffed by autho¬
rity, from the inceffant complaints of authors ridiculed
therein. About three years after, in 1735, he ob¬
tained a new privilege for a periodical produftion, en¬
titled, Obfervations fur les Ecrits Modernes ; which, af.
ter continuing to 33 volumes, was fuppreffed again
in 1743. Yet the year following, 1774, h* publilhed
another weekly paper, called, Jugemensfur les Ouvrages
nouveaux, and proceeded to 11 volumes : the two laft
being done by other hands. In 1745, he was attacked
with a diforder in the breaft, which ended in a drop-
fy that proved fatal in five weeks. “ He was (fays
M. Freron) born a fentimental perfon ; a philofopher
in conduct as well as in principle ; exempt from ambi¬
tion } and of a noble firm fpirit, which would not fub-
mit to fue for preferments or titles. In common con-
verfation he appeared only a common man : but ■when
fubje&s of literature, or any thing out of the ordinary
way, were agitated, he difcovered great force of ima¬
gination and wit.” Befides the periodical works men¬
tioned above, he was the author of many others : his
biographer gives us no lefs then 17 articles j many of
them critical, fome hiftorical, and fome tranflations
from Englilh writers, chiefly from Pope, Swift, Field¬
ing, &c. The Abbe de la Porte, publiftied, in 1757,
L'Efprit de F Abbe des Fontaines, in 4 vols. 1 2mo ; pre¬
fixed to which is the Life of Fontaines, a catalogue of
his works, and another catalogue of writings againft
him.
FONTANELLA, in Anatomy, imports the qua¬
drangular aperture found betwixt the os frontis and
offa lincipitis, in children juft born j which is alfo call¬
ed fans pulfatilis.
FONT ARABIA, a fea port town of Spain, in Bif-
cay, and in the territory of Guipufcoa, feated on a
peninfula on the fea ftiore, and on the river Bidaffoa.
It is fmall, but well fortified both by nature and art j
and has a good harbour, though dry at low water. It
1 is tuilt in the form of an amphitheatre, on the decli¬
vity of a hill, and furrounded on the land fide by the
lofty Pyrenean mountains. It is a very important Fenteneifr.
place, being accounted the key of Spain on that fide.
W. Long.-1. 43. N. Lat. 43. 23.
FONTENELLE, Bernard le Bovier DE,wasa
man of letters, born at Rouen in 1657, the moft uni-
verfal genius of the age of Louis XIV. in the eftima-
tion of Voltaire. He received his education in the
college of Jefuits at Rouen, wdiere the quicknefs of his
parts became confpicuous at a very early period. He
was capable of writing Latin verfes when only 13,
which were deemed worthy of being publiftied. He
ftudied the law at the defire of his father 5 but as he
loft the very firft caufe in which he wras employed as
an advocate, he became difgufted with his profeflion, and
devoted himfelf entirely to literature and philofophy.
He compoled a confiderable part of the operas of Pfyche
and Bellerophon, which were printed under the name
of his uncle Thomas Corneille. He wrote a tragedy
called Afpar, but as it did not fucceed, he configned
the manufcript to the flames, and never afterwards at¬
tempted that fpecies of compofition. His Dialogues of
the dead were publiihed in the year 1683, which wrere
well received, as a fpecimen of elegant compofition,
combining morality with the charms of literature. His
“ Lettres du Chevalier d’Her,” publiflied in 1685
without his name, difcovered much wit and ingenuity,
but at the fame time no fmall fliare of affedlation. His
“ Entretiens fur la Pluralite des Mondes,” has been
regarded as one of his ableft performances, com¬
bining fcience and philofophy with vivacity and hu¬
mour, a talent which may be faid to belong almoft ex-
clufively to the French. It w7as perufed by all, and
tranflated into feveral foreign languages.
In his “ Hiftory of Oracles,” he fupported the opi¬
nion that oracles wrere forgeries, in oppofition to thofe
who contended that they were fupernatural operations of
evil fpirits, put to filence by the appearing of Chrift,
and of confequence he expofed himfelf to clerical ani-
madverfion. His “ Paftoral Poems” appeared in the
year 1688, with a difcourfe on the nature of the eclogue,
which were very much admired for their delicacy
of fentiment, as was alfo his opera of “ Thetis and
Peleusbut his “ Aineas and Lavinia” was not fo fuc-
cefsful. In the year 1699, Fontenelle was chofen fe-
cretary of the Academy of Sciences, which office he
held during the long period of 42 years. He publifh-
ed a volume annually of the hiftpry of that learned
body, filled with analyfes of memoirs, and eulogiums on
deceafed members.
As a poet, he did not rife above elegance and in¬
genuity ; as a man of fcience, he rather excelled in
throwing light on the inventions of others, than in dif-
covering any new truth himfelf, and as a general writer,
lie united folid fenfe with the delicacy and refinement
of a man of wit. He ftudied his own happinefs as much
as moft men, but he never facrificed to the promotion
of it, the duties of a man of honour and virtue. He
had many friends, and towards the clofe of life, fcarce-
ly a fingle enemy. He was never married, and for
a man of letters he acquired confiderable affluence.
Although of a delicate conftitution, he reached the'
great age of 90 without any complaint but dullnefs oP
hearing. He died on the 9th of January 1757* being
almoft a hundred years of age. Wh^n alked by a Certain ‘
5 G 2 perfon
F O O [ 788 ] FOG
t'ornenoy prrfon how he could pafs To eafily through the world,
r !l , he replied, “ by virtue of thefe two axioms j All is pofii-
. ^or>u‘ , ole, and every one is in the right.”
v FONTENOY, a town or village of the Auftrian
Netherlands, in the province of Hainault, and on the
borders of Flanders } remarkable for a battle fought
between the allies and the French on the firft of May
174!;. The French were commanded by Marefchal
Saxe, and the allies by the Duke of Cumberland. On
account of the fuperior numbers of the French army,
and the fuperior generahhip of their commander, the
allies were defeated with great daughter. The Britilh
troops behaved with great intrepidity, as their enemies
themfelves acknowledged. -It has been faid, that the
battle was loft through the cowardice of the Dutch,
who failed in their attack on the village of Fontenoy,
. on which the event of the day depended. E. Long. 2. 20.
N. Lat. 50. 35.
Fontenoy, a village of France, in- the duchy of
Burgundy, remarkable for a bloody battle fought
there in 841, between the Germans and the French,
in which were killed above 100,000 men ; and the
Germans were defeated. E. Long. 3. 48. N. Lat.
47. 28.
FONTEVRAUD, or Frontevaux, Order of, m
ecclefiaftical hiftory, a religious order inftituted about
the latter end of the nth century, and taken under
the prote£lion of the holy fee by Pope Pafcal II. in
Iic6, confirmed by a bull in 1113, and invefted by his
fuccefibrs with very extraordinary privileges. The chief
of this order is a female, who is appointed to infpeft
both the monks and nuns. The order was divided into
four provinces, which were thofe of France, Aquitaine,
Auvergne, and Bretagne, in each of which they had
formerly feveral priories.
FONTTCULUS, or Fontanella, in Surgery, an
iffue, feton, or fmall ulcer, made in various parts of the
body, in order to excite irritation, or to produce the dif-
charge of matter.
FGNTINALIA, or Fontanalia, in antiquity, a
religious feaft held among the Romans in honour of the
deities who prefided over fountains or fprings. Varro
obferves, that it was the cuftom to vifit the wells on
thofe days, and to caft crowns into fountains. Scali-
ger, in his conjeftures on Varro, takes this not to be
a feaft of fountains in general, as Feftus infinuates,
but of the fountain which had a temple at Rome, near
the Porta Capena, called alfo Porta Fonttnahs : he adds,
that it is of this fountain Cicero fpeaks in his fecond
book De Legibus. The fontinalia were held on the
13th of Oftober.
FONTINALIS, WATER-MOSS, a genus of plants
belonging to the cryptogamia clafs, and to the order of
mufei. See Botany Index.
FOOD, in the moft extenfive fignification of the
jyord,. implies whatever aliments are taken into the
body, whether folid or fluid 3 but in common language,
it is generally ufed to fignify only the folid part of our
aliment.
We are told, that in the firft ages men lived upon
acorntf, berries, and fuch fruits as the earth fpontane-
eufiy produces 5 then they proceeded to eat the flefh
of wild animals taken in hunting : But their numbers
decreafing and mankind multiplying, neceffity taught
them the art of cultivating the ground, to fow corn,
&c. By and by they began to affign to each other, by Food,
general confent, portions of land to produce them their " " v
fupply of vegetables j after this, reafon fuggefted the
expedient of domefticating certain animals, both to af-
fift them in their labours and fupply them with food.
Hogs were the firft animals of the domeftic kind that
appeared upon their tables j they held it to be ungrate¬
ful to devour the beafts that afiifted them in their la¬
bours.—When they began to make a free ufe of do¬
meftic animals, they roafted them only: boiling was a
refinement in cookery which for ages they were ftran-
gers to j and fifh living in an element men were unufed
to, were not eaten till they grew fomewhat civilized.
Menelaus complains, in the Odyffey, that they had
been conftrained to feed upon them.
The moft remarkable diftin&ion of foods, in a me¬
dical view, is into thofe which are already aflimilated
into the animal nature, and fuch as are not. Of the
firft kind are animal fubitances in general j which if
not entirely fimilar, are nearly fo, to our nature. The -
fecond comprehends vegetables, which are much more
difficultly aflimilated. But as the nourifhment of all
animals, even thofe which live on other animals, can
be traced originally to the vegetable kingdom, it is
plain, that the principle of all nouriihment is in vege¬
tables.
Though there is perhaps no vegetable wrhich does Cullen on ilx
not afford nourifhment to fome fpecies of animals or Mat. Med,
other j yet, with regard to mankind, a very confider-et^t*
able diftin6tion is to be made. Thofe vegetables which
are of a mild, bland, agreeable tafte, are proper nou¬
rifhment ; while thofe of an acrid, bitter, and naufeous
nature, are improper. We ufe, indeed, feveral acrid
fubftances as food ; but the mild, the bland, and agree¬
able, are in the largeft proportion in almoft every ve¬
getable. Such as are very acrid, and at the fame time
of an aromatic nature, are not ufed as food, but as
fpices or condiments, which anfwer the purpofes of
medicines rather than any thing elfe. Sometimes, in¬
deed, acrid and bitter vegetables feem to be admitted
as food. Thus celeri and endive are ufed in common
food, though both are fubftances of confiderable acri¬
mony $ but it muft be obferved, that, when we ufe
them, they are previoufly blanched, which almoft to¬
tally deftroys their acrimony. Or if we employ other
acrid fubftances, we generally, in a great meafure, de¬
prive them of their acrimony by boiling. In different
countries, the fame plants grow with different degrees
of acrimony. Thus, garlic here feldom enters our
food •, but in the fouthern countries, where the plants
grow more mild, they are frequently ufed for that pur-
pofe. The plant which furnifhes caflada, being very —
acrimonious, and even poifonous, in its recent ftate,
affords an inftance of the neceflity of preparing acrid
fubftances even in the hot countries: and there are
other plants, fuch as arum root, which are fo exceed¬
ingly acrimonious in their natural ftate, that they can¬
not be fwallowed with fafety j yet, when deprived of
that acrimony, will afford good nouriihment.
The moft remarkable properties of different vege¬
table fubftances as food, are taken notice of under their
different names : here we lhall only compare vegetable
foods in general with thofe of the animal kind.
I. In the Stomach, they differ remarkably, in that
the vegetables always have a tendency to acidity, \yhile
animal
F O O
[ 789 ]
F O O
animal food of all kinds rather tends to alkalefcency and
putrefadion. Some animal foods, indeed, turn mam-
feitly acid before they putrefy j and it has been aflert-
ed that feme degree of acefcency takes place in every
kind of animal food before digeftion. I Ins acefcency
of animal food, however, never comes to any morbid
degree, but the difeafe is always or. the fide ot putref-
cency. The acefcency of vegetables is more frequent,
and ought to be more attended to, than the alkale -
cency of animal food j which laft, even in weak fto-
machs, is feldom felt*, while acefcency greatly affeds
both the ftomach and fyftem. . . . tt
With regard to their difference ot folution •—^.ea-
Vinefs, as it is called, is feldom felt from vegetables
except from tough farinaceous pafte, or the mold vi c
fubftances •, while the heavinefs of animal food is more
frequently noticed, efpecially when in any great quan¬
tity. Difficulty of folution does not depend fo much
cmfirmnefe of texture (as a man, from fiftt of all k nds
is more oppreffed than from firmer fubftances) as on
vifeidity ; and bence it is more frequent in animal food,
efpecially in the younger animals.
Wittfregard to mature .-—There is no tnftance of
difficult mixture in vegetables except.n vegetable ods;
while animal foods, from both vlfcld.ty and othnefs,
efpecially the fatter meats, are refradory m this re-
fped. Perhaps the difference of animal and vege
foods might be referred to this head of mixture. _ For
vegetable food continues long in_ the ftomach, giving
litfle ftiroulus : Now the fyftem is afteded m propor-
Ifen to the extent of this itimulus, which is .ncompa-
rably greater from the animal v.fcld oily f“od.
^ and more aaueous. Wow-
produce flow belly and coftivenefs, than animal flmiu-
lating food •, which, before it comes to the great^ guts,
where ftoppage’ is made, has obtained a putretachve
tendency, and gives a proper ftimulus: and thus
thofe who are coftive from the me ol vegetables *, when
they have recourfe to animal food are in this reiped
bC IIL In the blood-vejjels. They both give a blood of
the fame kind, but of different quality. Animal tood
gives it in greater quantity, being in great part, as the
expreffion is, convertible infuccvm et fanguinem, and ot
eafy digeftion ; whereas vegetable is more watery,
and contains a portion of unconquerable fahne matter,
which caufes it to be thrown out of the body by fome
excretion. Animal food affords a more denie ftimula-
tincr elaftic blood than vegetable •, ftretchmg and cant¬
ing0 a great refiftance in the folids, and again excit¬
ing their ftronger adion. It has been fuppofed that
acefcency of vegetable food is carried into the blood-
veffels, and there exerts its effeds •, but the tendency
of animal fluids is fo ftrong to alkalefcency, that the
exiftence of an acid acrimony in the blood ieems very
improbable. Animal food alone will foon produce
Foot!.
alkalefcent acrimony *, and if a perfon w 10
i r 1
lives
few
rably greater trom me anuuai ^ 'How- tains a greater proportion of oil, it will afford ooth
from the vegetable, firmer, and more aqueous. How- tarns a great r^ F ^aPtables.
5 S7t *$i
ever, tnere are certain   ' , f f
which have a tendency to bring on the fit °f .
ver independent of ftimulus, merely by their relnge
ration • and this oftener arifes from vegetables •, as w
fee in thofe hot countries where mtermittents prevail,
they are oftener induced from a furfeit of vegetable
than of animal food. A proof of this is, that when,
one is recovering of an intermittent, there is not i g
mo" aPt to caufe a telapfe than cold food e pecmlly f
taken on thofe days when the fit fiiould return, ana
particularly acefcer.t, fermentable vegetables as Mad^
Lions, cucumbers, &c. Wo-A/c«, &c. which
cording to Dr Cullen, are the moft frequent caules ot
epidemics *,-therefore, when an intermittent is to be
avoided, we <hun vegetable diet, and g.ve annual foods,
akhougb their ftimulus be greater. - . .
II. in the Intejlines. When the putrefeency of animal
food has gone too far, it produces an a&ve ft™ull'S,
caufmg dfarrhoea, dyfentery, &e. But thefe effeBs are
but rare; wherels from vegetable food and «s acid,
. thich, united with the bile, proves a pte«y ft-ng
ftimulus, they more frequently occur; but luckily,
are of lets confequence, if the refrigeratmn is not ve¬
ry great. In the autumnal feafon, when there a
tendency to dyfentery, if it is obferve ^t a ea
f^its brings it on, it is rathe? to be amnoed to
cooling than ftimulating the inteftmes.
As to ftool:—Wherever neither putrefaftion nor aci¬
dity has gone a great length,-animal food keeps the bel¬
ly more regular. Vegetable food gives a greater pro¬
portion of fucculent matter, and, when exficcated oy ne
ftomach and inteftines, is . more apt to ftagnate, and
entirely on vegetables were to take no food
days, his acrimony would be alkalefcent.
IV We are next to take notice of the quantity oj
nutriment thefe different foods afford. Nutriment xs
of two kinds: the firft repairs the wafte of the lolid
fibres; the other fupplies certain fluids, the chiel o
which is oil. Now, as animal food is eafier converted,
and alfo longer retained in the fyftem, and as it com.
greater proportion of oil, it will afford both,
uuf. ui nutriment more copioufly than vegetables. _
V Laftly, As to the different degrees of perfpirabi--
lity ’of thefe foods. This is not yet properly determined.
Sanaorius conftantly fpeaks of mutton as the moft
perfpirable of all food, and of vegetables as checking
perfpiration. This is a confequence of the different
ftimulus thofe foods give to the ftomach, fo that per-
fons who live on vegetables have not their perfpiration
fo fuddenly excited. In time of digeftion, perlpira-
tion is flopped from whatever food, much more fo from
cooling vegetables. Another reafon why vegetables
are lets perfpirable is, becaufe their aqueo-falme juices
determine them to go off by urine, while the more pe-
feaiy mixed animal food is more equally diffufed over
the fyftem, and fo goes off by perfpiration. Hence
Sanaorius’s accounts may be underftood 5 tor vege¬
table aliment is not longer retained m the body, but
moftly takes the courfe of the kidneys. Both are
equally perfpirable in this refpea, viz. that a pei-
fon living on either returns once a-day to his u ua
weight •, and if we confider the little nounffiment ot
vegetables, and the great tendency of animal food to
corpulency, we.muft allow that vegetable is more
quickly perfpired than animal food. , . ,
As to the queftion, Whether man was originally de-
figned for animal or vegetable food, fee. the artic e
Carnivorous. . ^ , •.
With, regard to the effects of thefe foods on men, it
mull be obferved, that there are no perfons who live
entirely on vegetables. The Pythagoreans themfelves
ate milk; and thofe who do lo moftly, as thefe Py¬
thagoreans, are weakly,, fickly, and meagre, labour-
F O O
!nS under a conftant diarrhoea^and feveral other dii-
eaics. None of the hardy, robuft, live; on thefe : but
c nelly fuch as gain a livelihood by the exertion of their
mental faculties,_ as (in the Eaft Indies) faftors and
brokers; and this method of life is now confined to
the hot climates, where vegetable diet, without incon¬
venience, may be carried to great excefs. Though it
be granted, therefore, that man is intended to live on
thde different foods promifeuoufly, yet the vegetable
hiould be in very great proportion. Thus the Laiv
landers are find to live entirely on animal food : but
tms is contradided by the bell accounts; for Linnseus
lays, that befides milk, which they take four, to ob¬
viate the bad effe&s of animal food, they ufe alfo cala-
menyarithes, and many other plants, copioufiy. So
mere is no inftance of any nation living entirely either
on vegetable or animal food, though there are indeed
iome who live particularly on one or other in the great-
. proportion.^ In the cold countries, g. the inha-
. tants live chiefly on animal food, on account of the
rigour of the feafon, their fmaller perfpiration, and little
tendency to putrefa&ion.
Of more importance, however, is the following than
the former queftion, viz. In what proportion animal and
vegetable food ought to be mixed?
x Animal food certainly gives moll llrength to
the fyftem. It is a knowm aphorifm of San&orius,
Xn-aX pondus addit robur ; which may be explained from
the impletion of the blood-veffels, and giving a proper
degree of tenfion for the performance of llrong ofcil-
mtions. Now animal food not only goes a greater
way in fupplying fluid, but alfo gives the fluid more
denfe and elaftic. The art of giving the utmoft llrength
to the fyllem is bell underllood by thofe who breed
fighting cocks. . Thefe people raife the cocks to a cer¬
tain weight, which mull bear a certain proportion to
the other parts of the fyllem, and wTich at the fame
time is fo nicely proportioned, as that, on lofing a few
ounces of it, their Itrength is very confiderably im-
paired. Dr Robinfon of Dublin has obferved, that
the force and weight of the fyllem ought to be deter¬
mined by the largenefs of the heart, and its proportion
to the fyllem : for a large heart will give large blood-
veffels, while at the fame time the vifeera are lefs par¬
ticularly the liver 5 which lall being increafed in’ fize
a greater quantity of fluid is determined into the cel-
ular texture, and lefr into the fanguineous fyllem.
Hence we fee how animal food gives llrength, by fill¬
ing the fanguiferous veffels. What pains we now be¬
llow on cocks, the ancients did on the athletse, by
proper nourilhment bringing them to a great degree of
llrength and agility. It is faid that men were at firll
fed on figs, a proof of which we have from their nu¬
tritious quality : however, in this refpedl they rvere
oon found to fall far Ihort of animal food ; and thus
we fee, that men, in feme meafure, will work in pro¬
portion to the quality of their food. The Englifh la¬
bour more than the Scots j and wherever men are ex-
pofed to hard labour, their food Ihould be animal 
Animal food, although it gives llrength, yet loads the
rlfx/ixt • I—1 1 -   _ i r 1 -i
l 790 1
F O O
body; and Hippocrfusi^g ago Skd tlnT degree of ftrength and vigour; and though
athletic habit, by a ftnall increafe, was expofed'to the
•' ' # -TT ^ o c*6vy VCLij LlJcit LHC
athletic habit, by a fmall increafe, was expofed to the
greatelt hazards. Hence it is only proper for bodily
labours, and entirely improper for mental exercifes ;
-or whoever would keep his mind acute and penetrat¬
3
ing, will exceed rather on the fide of vegetable food
Even the body is oppreffed with animal food : a full
meal alwas produces dulnefs, lazinefs, and yawning- •
and lienee the feeding of gamelters, whofe mind mull
be ready to take advantage, is always performed by
avoiding a large quantity of animal food. Farther
With regard to the tirength of the body, animal food,’
m the firll ftage of life, is hardly neceffary to give
urength : m manhood, when we are expoled to active
11 15 more allowable j and even in the decline
ol lire, iome proportion of it is neceffary to keep the
body in vigour. There are fome difeafes which come
on in the decay off life, at leall are aggravated by it •
among thefe the moll remarkable is the gout. This,
when it is in the fyllem, and does not appear with in-
riammation in the extremities, has pernicious effeds
there, attacking the lungs, llomach, head, &c. Now
to determine this to the extremities, a large proportion
ot animal food is neceffary, efpecially as the perfon is
commonly incapable of much exercile.
Animal food, although it gives llrength, is yet of
many hazards to the fyllem, as it produces plethora and
all its confequences. As a ilimulus to the llomach and
to the whole fyllem, it excites fever, urges the circu¬
lation, and promotes the perfpiration. The fyllem
however, by the repetition of thefe llimuli, is foon worn
out 5 and a man who has early ufed the athletic diet
is either early carried off by inflammatory difeafes or’
if he takes exercife fufficient to render that diet falutary’
fuch an accumulation is made of putrefeent fluids as in
his after life lays a foundation for the moll inveterate
chronic dillempers. Therefore it is to be quellioned
whether we Ihould defife this high degree of bodily
strength, with all the inconveniences and dangers at¬
tending it. Thofe who are chiefly employed in mental
relearches, and not expofed to too much bodily labour
Ihould always avoid an excefs of animal food. There
is a difeafe which feems to require animal food viz
the hyltenc, or hypochondriac ; and which appears to
be very much a-kin to the gout, affeding the alimen-
tary cana! AH people affeded with this difeafe are
much difpofed to acefcency ; which fometimes goes fo
lar that no other vegetable but bread can be taken in
without occafioning the worll confequences. Here then
we are obliged to preferibe an animal diet, even to thofe
of very weak organs ; for it generally obviates the
iymptoms.*, However, feveral inltances of feurvy in ex¬
cels have Ifeen produced by a long continued ufe of this
diet, which it is always unlucky to be obliged to pre¬
scribe ; and when it is abfolutely neceffary to preferibe
it fhould be joined with as much of the vegetable as
poliible, and when a cure is performed we Ihould gra.
dually recur to that again. &
. 2* N,ext> let us confider the vegetable diet. The chief
inconvemency of this is difficulty of affimilation; which
however, in the vigorous and exercifed, will not be li¬
able to occur. In warm climates, the aflimilation of
vegetable aliment is more eafy, fo that there it may be
more ufed, and when joined to exercife gives a pretty
tolerable degree of ftrength and vigour 5 and though
the p-enersl mlp I. •fnxrrMxr’ rvP ^/ J* . I* • •
Food.
llrength, yet there are many inllances of its being
remarkably produced from vegetable. Vegetable diet
has this advantage, that it whets the appetite, and that
we can hardly fuffer from a fhll meal of it. Befides
FOO C791]. FOG
, Food, the diforders it is liable to produce in the prittue via:,
an(i its falling Ibort to give ftrength, there feem to be
ho bad confequences it can produce in the blood vef-
fels 5 for there is no inftance where its peculiar acri¬
mony was ever carried there, and It is certainly lefs
putrefiable than animal food 5 nor, without the utmoft
indolence, and a fharp appetite, does it give plethora,
or any of its confequences : fo that we cannot here but
conclude, that a large proportion of vegetable food is
ufeful for the generality of mankind.
There is no error in this country more dangerous,
or more common, than the neglect of bread : for it is
the fafeft of vegetable aliments, and the belt corre&or
of animal food j and, by a large proportion of this
alone, its bad confequences, when ufed in a hypochon¬
driac date, have been obviated. The French appar¬
ently have as much animal food on their tables as the
Britilh ; and yet, by a greater ufe of bread and the
dried acid fruits, its bad effects are prevented 3 and
therefore bread fhould be particularly ufed by the
Englifh, as they are fo voracious of animal food. Ve¬
getable food is not only neceffary to fecure health, but
long life : and, as we have faid, in infancy and youth
we Ihould be confined to it moffly ; in manhood, and
decay of life, ufe animal food j and, near the end, ve-
table again.
There is another queftion much agitated, viz. IV/iat
are the effects of variety in food? Is it neceffary and al¬
lowable, or univerfally hurtful ? Variety of a certain
kind feems neceffary ; as vegetable and animal foods
have their mutual advantages, tending to correft each
other. Another variety, which is very proper, is that
of liquid and folid food, which Ihould be fo managed
as to temper each other ; and liquid food, efpecially of
the vegetable kind, is too ready to pafs off before it is
properly affimilated, while folid food makes a long ftay.
But this do<js not properly belong to the queftion,
whether variety of the fame kind is neceffary or pro¬
per, as in animal foods, beef, fifh, fowl, &c. It doth
not appear that there is any inconvenience arifing from
this mixture or difficulty of affimilation, provided a
moderate quantity be taken. When any inconvenience
does arife, it probably proceeds from this, that one of
the particular fubftances in the mixture, when taken by
itfelf would produce the fame effeEis ; and, indeed, it
would appear, that this effedl is not heightened by the
mixture, but properly obviated by it. There are few
exceptions to this, if any, e. g. taking a large propor¬
tion of acefcent fubffances with milk. The coldnefs,
&e. acidity, flatulency, &c. may appear ; and it is pof-
fible that the coagulum, from the acefcency of the
vegetables, being fomewhat ftronger induced, may give
occafion to too long retention in the ftomach, and to
acidity in too great degree. Again, the mixture of fifh
and milk often occafions inconveniences. The theory
of this is difficult, though, from uni-verfal confent, it
muft certainly be jult. Can we fuppofe that filh gives
occafion to fuch a coagulum as runnet ? If it does fo,
it may produce bad effects. Befides, fifties approach
lounjjvhat to vegetables, in giving little ftimulus \ and
are accufed of the fame bad effeeffs as thefe, viz. bring¬
ing on the cold fit of fever.
I hus much may be faid for variety. But it alfo
has its difadvantages, provoking to gluttony; this,
and the art of cookery, making men take in more than
they properly can digeft : and hence, perhaps veiy Food,
juftly, phyficians have univerfally almoft preferred fim- —\T“-
plicity of diet j for, in fpite of riiles, man’s eating will
only be meafured by his appetite, and fatiety is fooner
produced by one than by many fubftances. But this
is fo far from being an argument againft variety, that
it is one for it, as the only wTay of avoiding a full meal
of animal food, and its bad effedls, is by prefenting a
quantity of vegetables. Another mean of preventing
the bad effe&s of animal food, is to take a large pro¬
portion of liquid "j and hence the bad effe&s of animal
food are lefs felt in Scotland, on account of their drink¬
ing much with it, and ufing broths, which are at once
excellent corre&ors of animal food and preventives of
gluttony.
With regard to the difference between animal
foods, properly fo called, the firft regards their folubi-
lity, depending on a lax or firm texture of their different
kinds.
I. Solubility of animal food feems to deferve lefs
attention than is commonly imagined ; for there are
many inftances of perfons of a weak ftomach incapable
of breaking down the texture of vegetables, or even of
diffolving a light pudding, to whdm hung beef, or a
piece of ham, was very grateful and eafily digefted.
None of the theories given for the folution of animal
food in the human ftomach feem to have explained
the procefs fufficiently. Long-*ago has been difearded
the fuppofition of an adKve corrofive menftruum there ;
and alfo the dotftrine of trituration, for which, indeed,
there feems no mechanifm in the human body j and,
till lately, phyficians commonly agreed with Boerhaave
in fuppofing nothing more to be neceffary than a wa¬
tery menftruum, moderate heat, and frequent agita¬
tion. This wall account for folution in fome cafes, but
not entirely. Let us try to imitate it out of the body
with the fame circumftances, and in ten times the time
in which the food is diffolved in the ftomach w^e (hall
not be able to bring about the fame changes. Take
the coagulated white of an egg, which almoft every
body can eafily digeft, and yet no artifice ffiall be able
to diffolve it. Hence, then, we are led to feek another
caufe for folution, viz. fermentation j a notion, indeed,
formerly embraced, but on the introdu&ion of me¬
chanical philofophy, induftrioufty banilhed, with every
other fuppofition of that procefs taking place at all in
the animal economy..
Many of the ancients imagined this fermentation to
be putrefa&ive. But this we deny, as an acid is pro¬
duced ; though hence the fermentation might be rec¬
koned the vinous, which, however, feems always to be
morbid. Neither, indeed, is the fermentation purely
acetous, but modified by putrefcence ; for Pringle has
obferved, that animal matters rarfe and even expede the
acetous procefs. The fermentation, then, in the fto¬
mach is of a mixed nature, between the acetous and pu¬
trefactive, mutually modifying each other \ though,
indeed, in the inteftines, fomewhat of the putrefactive
feems to take place, as may be obferved from the ftate
of the feces broke down, and from the little difpofition
of fuch fubftances to be fo, which are not liable to the
putrefactive procefs, as the firmer parts of vegetables,
&c. Upon this view folution feems to be extremely
eafy, and thofe fubftances to be moft eafily broke down
which ,
See
F O O
Vocd. wliicli are moft fubjeft to putrefacHon.
My^ anc[ Gastric Juice.
But folution alfo depends on other circunaftances, and
hence requires a more particular regard.
i. There is a difference of folubility with refpeft to
the manducation of animal food, for which bread is ex¬
tremely neceffary, in order to keep the more llippery
parts in the mouth till they be properly comminuted.
From w’ant of proper manducation perfons are fubjeft
to emulations $ and this more frequently from the
firm vegetable foods, as apples, almonds, &c. than from
the animal, though, indeed, even from animal food,
very tendinous, or fwallowed in unbroken maffes, fuch
fometimes occur. Manducation is fo much connected
with folution, that fome, from imperfedlly performing
that, are obliged to belch up their food, remanducate
it, and fwallow it again before the ftomach can dif-
folve it, or proper nourifhment be extradled- Another
proof of our regard to folubility, is our rejedling the
firmer parts of animal food, as bull beef, and generally
carnivorous animals.
2. Its effects wnth regard to folubility feem alfo to
be the foundation of our choice between fat and /ean,
young and old meats. In the lean although perhaps
a fingle fibre might be fufficiently tender, yet thefe,
when colledted in fafciculi, are very firm and compact,
and of difficult folution *, w hereas in the fat there is a
greater number of veffels, a greater quantity of juice,
more interpofition of cellular fubftance, and confe-
quently more folubility. Again, In young animals,
there is probably the fame number of fibres as in the
older, but thefe more connefted : whereas, in the old¬
er, the growth depending on the feparation of thefe,
and the increafe of veffels and cellular fubftance, the
texture is lefs firm and more foluble *, which qualities,
with regard to the ftomach, are at that time too increaf-
ed, by the increafed alkalefcency of the animal. To
this alfo may be referred our choice of caftrated ani¬
mals, viz. on account of their difpofition to fatten af¬
ter the operation.
3. It is with a view to the folubihty, that w’e make
a choice between meats recently killed, and thofe
which have been kept for fome time. As foon as
meat is killed, the putrefaftive procefs begins ; which
commonly we allow to proceed for a little, as that
procefs is the moft effectual breaker down of animal
matters, and a great afliitance to folution. The length
of time during which meat ought to be kept, is pro¬
portioned to the meat’s tendency to undergo the pu¬
trid fermentation, and the degree of thofe circum-
ftances which favour it : Thus, in the torrid zone,
where meat cannot be kept above four or five hours,
it is uled much more recent than in thefe northern cli¬
mates.
4. Boiled or roafed meats create a difference of fo¬
lution. By boiling we extraft the juices interpofed
between the fibres, approximate them more to each
other, and render them of more difficult folubility j
, which is increafed too by the extraflion of the juices,
which are much more alkalefcent than the fibres : but
when we want to avoid the ftimulus of alkalefcent
food, and the quick fol«tion, as in fome cafes of difi-
eafe, the roafted is not to be chofen. Of roafted meat
it may be aiked, which are more proper, thofe which
are moft or leaft. roafted ? That which is leaft done is
4
f 792 1 F O 0
Anato- certainly the moft foluble: even raw7 meats are more ^
foluble than dreffed, as Dr Cullen was informed by a'
perfon who from neceffity wTas obliged, for lome time,
to eat fuch. But at the fame time that meats little
done are very foluble, they are very alkalefcent} fo
that, wherever we want to avoid alkafefcency in the
primce vice, the moft rcafted meats fhould be chofen.
Thofe who throw' away the broths of boiled meat do
very improperly 5 for, befides their fupplying a fluid,
from their greater alkalefcency they increafe the folu¬
bility of the meat. Here we ffiall obferve, that pure
blood has been thought infoluble. Undoubtedly it is
very nutritious 5 and though out of the body, like the
white of eggs, it feems very infoluble, yet, like that
too, in the body it is commonly eafily digefted. Mo-
fes very properly forbade it the Uraelites, as in warm
countries it is highly alkalelcent *, and even here,
when it was ufed in great quantity, the fcurvy was
more frequent r but to a moderate ufe of it, in tnefe
climates, no fuch objeftion takes place.
5. Solubility is varied from another fource, viz. vif-
cidity of the juice of aliment. Young animals, then,
appear more foluble than old, not only on account of
the compadfion and firmnefs of texture in the latter,
but alfo their greater vifcidity of juice. And nothing
is more common, than to be longer oppreffed from a
full meal of veal, than from the fame quantity of beef,
&c. Upon account, too, of their greater vifcidity of
juice, are the tendinous and ligamentous parts of ani¬
mals longer retained than the purely mufcular, as w'ell
as on account of their firmnefs of texture. Even fifties,
whofe mufcular parts are exceedingly tender, are, on
account of their gluey vifcofity, longer of folution in
the ftomach. And eggs, too, which are exceedingly
nouriffiing, have the fame effeft, and cannot be taken
in great quantity : For the ftomach is peculiarly fen-
fible to gelatinous fubftances; and by this means has
nature perhaps taught us, as it were by a fort of in-
ftindt, to limit ourfelves in the quantity of fuch nutri¬
tive fubftances.
6. With regard to folution, w7e muft take in the oils
of animal food *, which, when tolerably pure, are the
leaft putrefcent part of it, and, by diminiffiing the co-
hefion of the fibres, render them more foluble. On
this laft account is the lean of fat meat more eafily dif-
folved than other lean. But when the meat is expo-
fed to much heat, this oil is feparated, leaving the fo-
lid parts lefs eafily foluble, and becoming itfelf empy-
reumatic, rancefcent, and of difficult mixture in the fto¬
mach. Fried meats, from the reafons now given, and
baked meats, for the fame, as wTell as for the tenacity
of the pafte, are preparations which diminifti the folu¬
bility of the food. From wffiat has been faid, the pre¬
paration of food by fattening it, and keeping it for
fome time after being killed, although it may adminifter
to gluttony, wall yet, it muft be confeffed, increafe the
folution of the food.
II. The fecond difference of animal food is with re¬
gard to Alkalescency.
Of this we have taken a little notice already under
the head of Solubility.
1. From their too great alkalefcency we commonly
avoid the carnivorous animals, and the ferce ; and
choofe rather the granivorous. Some birds, indeed,
which live on infe£ts, are admitted into our food j but
no
F O O [79
Food, no man, without naufea, can live upon theie alone for
~v—- any length of time. Fifties, too, are an exception to
this rule, living almoft univerfally on each other. But
in thefe the alkalefcency dees not proceed fo far;
whether from the vifcidity of their juice, their want of
heat, or fome peculiarity in their economy, is not eafy
to determine.
' 2. Alkalefcency is determined by difference of age.
The older animals are always more alkalefcent than the
young, from their continual progrefs to putrefaftion.
Homberg always found, in his endeavours to extract an
acid from human blood, that more was obtained from
the young than from the old animals..
3. A third circumftance which varies the alkalefcen¬
cy of the food, is the wildnefs or tamenefs of the ani¬
mal ; and this again feems to depend on its exercife.
Dr Cullen knew a gentleman who was fond of cats for
food ; but he always ufed to feed them on vegetable
food, and kept them from exercife ; and in the fame
manner did the Romans rear up their rats, when in¬
tended for food. In the fame way the flefti of the
partridge and the hen feems to be much the. fame ;
only, from its being more on the wing, the one is more
alkalefcent than the other. Again, Tame animals are
commonly ufed without their blood ; whereas the wild
are commonly killed in their blood, and upon that ac¬
count, as well as their greater exercife, are more alka¬
lefcent. .
4. The alkalefcency of food may be determined from
the quantity of volatile fait it affords. The older the
meat is, it is found to give the greater proportion of
volatile fait. .
5. The alkalefcency of aliment may alio, in iome
meafure, be determined from its colour, the younger
animals being whiter and lefs alkalefcent. We alio
take a mark from the colour of the gravy poured out,
according to the rednefs of the juices judging of the
- animal’s alkalefcency.
6. The relifti of food is found to depend .much on its
alkalefcency, as does alfo the ftimulus it gives and the
fever it produces in the fyftem. Thefe effects are alfo
complicated with the vifcidity of the food, by w7hich
means it is longer detained in the ftomach, and the want
of alkalefcency fupplied. . .
Having mentioned animal food as differing in lolu-
bility and alkalefcency, which often go together in the
fame fubjeft, we come to the third difference, viz.
HI. Quantity of Nutriment. Which is either ab-
folute or relative : abfolute with refpect to the quanti¬
ty it really contains, fufticient powers being given to
extraft it; relative, with relpe61 to the aftimilatory
powers of thofe who ufe it. The abfolute nutriment
is of fome confequence ; but the relative, in the robuft
and healthy, and except in cafes of extraordinary
weaknefs, may, without much inconvenience, be cLf-
regarded. In another cafe is the quantity of nourifti-
ment relative, viz. with regard to its perfpirability^;
for if the food is foon carried off by the excretions, it
is the fame thing as if it contained a lefe proportion of
nouriftiment. For, giving more fluid, that which is
longer retained affords moft ; and, for the repair of the
folids, that retention alfo is of advantage. Nowr, gela¬
tinous fubftances are long retained ; and befides, are
themfelves animal fubftances diffolved : fo that, both
abfolutely and relatively, fuch fubftances are nutri-
Vol.VIII. Part II.
3 ] F O O
tious. Of this kind are eggs, (hell fffli, &c. In , FoJid
adults, though it is difputed whether.their folids need
any repair, ^ yet at any rate, at this period, fluid is
more required ; for this purpofe the alkalefcent foods
are moft proper, being moft eaftly diftolved. 1 hey arc,
at the fame time, the moft perfpirable ; on one hand
that alkalefcency leading to difeafe, while on the other
their perfpirability obviates it. Adults, therefore, as
writers juftly obferve, are better nouriftied on the al¬
kalefcent; the young and growing, on gelatinous
foods. All this leads to a companion of young and
old meats; the firft being more gelatinous, and the laft
more alkalefcent. This however, by experience, is
not yet properly afcertained. IVIr Geoffroy is the on¬
ly perfon who has been taken up with the analyfis of
foods. Sze. Memoires de PAcademic, 1’an. 1731 & I732,
His attempt was certainly laudable, and in . fome re-
fpefts ufefully performed; but, in general, his experi¬
ments were not fufficiently repeated, nor are. indeed
fufficiently accurate. He has not been on his guard
againft the various circumftances which affedt meats ;
the cow-kind liking a moift fucculent herbage, which
is not to be got in warm climates; while the ftieep are
fond of dry food, and thrive beft.there. Again, Some
of his experiments feem contradictory. He fays, that
veal gives more folution than beef, vdiile lamb gives lels
than mutton, which is much to be doubted. If both
he and Sandtorius had examined Englifti beef, tne re-
fult probably would have been very different as to its
perfpirability, &c. Befides, Mr Geoffroy has only ana¬
lyzed beef and veal when raw; has made no proper
circumftantial comparifons between quadrupeds attd
birds ; and has examined thefe laft along wTith their
bones, and not their mufcles, &c. by themfelves, as
he ought to have done, &c. If a fet of experiments
of this kind were properly and accurately perfoimed,
they might be of great ufe ; but at prefent, for the
purpofe of determining our prefent fubjedt, we muff
have recourfe to our alkalefcency, folubility, &c. ^
IV. The fourth difference of animal food is, The
Nature of the Fluids they afford. I he whole of this
will be underftood from what has been faid on alkalef¬
cency ; the fluid produced being more or lefs denfe
and ftimulating, in proportion as that prevails.
V. The fifth difference of animal foods is with re-
fpedt to their L r • j
Pjerspirability. The fum of what can be laid on
this matter is this, that fuch foods as promote an ac¬
cumulation of fluid in our veffels and difpofe to ple¬
thora, are the leaft perfpirable, and commonly give
moft ftrength \ that the more alkalefcent foods are the
moft perfpirable, though the vifeid and lefs alkaiefcent
may attain the fame property by long retention in the
fyftem. The authors on perfpirability have determin¬
ed the perfpiration of foods as imperfedtly as Mi Geof¬
frey has done the folubility, and in a few cafes .only.
We muft not lay hold on what Sandtorius has faid on
the perfpirability of mutton, becaufe he has . not exa¬
mined in the fame way other meats in their perfedt
ftate ; far lefs on w'hat Keil fays of oyfters, as he him-
felf was a valetudinarian, and confequently an unfit
fubjedt for fuch experiments, and probably of a pecu-
ar temperament.
As to the effeas of Food on the Mind, we have
ready hinted at them above. It is plain, that deli-
5 h cacy
Food
II
Fcoflit.
TOO L 794 ] FOG
cacy oi leelmg, livelinefs of imagination, qulrknefs of
apprehenfion, and acutenefs of judgment, more fre¬
quently accompany a weak date of the body. True it
is indeed, that the fame date is liable to timidity,
flu61 nation and doubt} while the ftrong have that
fteadinefs of judgment, and firmnefs of purpofe, which
are proper for the higher and more a&ive fcenes of
life. The moil valuable date of the mind, however,
appears to refide in fomewhat lefs firmnefs and vigour
of body. Vegetable aliment, as never over-didending
the veiTels or loading the lydem, never interrupts the
dronger motions of the mind ; while the heat, fulnefs,
and weight, of animal food, are an enemy to its vigo¬
rous^ efforts. Temperance, then, does not fo much con-
fid in the quantity, for that always will be regulated
by our appetite, as in the quality, viz. a large propor¬
tion of vegetable aliment.
A confiderable change has now taken place in the
articles made ufe of as food by the ancients, by fubdi-
tuting, indead of what were then ufed, particularly of
the vegetable kind, a number of more bland, agreeable,
and nutritive juices. The acorns and nuts of the pri¬
mitive times have given way to a variety of fweeter fa¬
rinaceous feeds and roots. To the malvaceous tribe of
plants fo much ufed by the Greeks and Romans, hath
fucceeded the more grateful fpinach : and to the blite,
tne garden orach. .The rough borage is fupplanted by
the acefcent forrel : and afparagus has banidied a num¬
ber of roots recorded by the Roman waiters under the
name of bu/bs ; but Linnaeus is of opinion, that the
parfnip has undefervedly ufurped the place of the Ikir-
ret. 1 he bean of the ancients, improperly fo called, be¬
ing the roots as Well as other parts of the nytnphera me-
htmbo, or Indian water-lily, is fjperfeded by the kidney
bean. The garden rocket, eaten wdth and as an antidote
againd the chilling qualities of the lettuce, is banidied
by the more agreeable crefs and tarragon ; the apium
by the meliorated celery; the pompion, and others of
the cucurbitaceous tribe, by the melon j and the fu-
mach berries, by the fragrant nutmeg. The filphium,
or fuccus Cyrenaicus, which the Romans purchafed
from Perfia and India at a great price, and is thought
by feme to have been the afafoetida of the prefent
time, is no longer ufed in preference to the alliaceous
tribe.
J o turn from the vegetable to fome of the animal
fubditutes, we may mention the carp among filhes as
having excluded a great number held in high edima-
tion among the Romans j the change of oil for but¬
ter ; of honey for fugar j of mulfa, or liquors made of
wine, wTater, and honey, for the wines of modem times $
and that of the ancient zythus for the prefent improv¬
ed malt liquors ; not to mention alfo the Callida of the
Roman taverns, analogous to our tea and coffee.
Food of P/ants. See Agriculture Index.
FOOL, according to Mr Locke, is a perfon who
makes falfe conclufions from right principles ; whereas
a madman, on the contrary, draws right conclufions
from wrong principles. See Folly.
Fooi-Stones. See Orchis, Botany Index.
FOOSHT, an ifiand in the Red fea j fituated, ac¬
cording to the obfervations of Mr Bruce, in N. Lat.
13° 59' 43,/. It is deferibed by him as about five miles
in length from north to fouth, though only nine in
circumference. It is low and fandy in the fouthern Fo&fht,
part, but the north rifes in a black hill of inconfider- Foot.’
able height. It is covered wdth a kind of bent grafs, '-““v—
which never arifes at any great length by reafon of
wTant of rain and the condant browzing of the goats.
There are great appearances of the black hill having
once been a volcano ; and near the north cape the
ground founds hollow like the Solfaterra in Italv.
There are a vad number of beautiful filh met with up¬
on the coads, but few fit for eating , and our traveller
obferved, that the mod beautiful wrere the mod noxious
when eaten j none indeed, being falutary food except¬
ing thofe which refembled the fidi of the northern feas.
There are many beautiful diell-fidi, as the concha ve¬
neris, of feveral colours and dzes j fea urchins, &c.
Sponges are likewife found all along the coad. There
are alfo pearls, but neither large nor of a good-water j
in confequence of which they fell at no great price.
They are produced by a fpecies of bivalve diells. Se¬
veral large (hells, from the fifh named bijfcr, are met
with upon dones of ten or twelve tons weight along
the coad. They are turned upon their faces and funk
into the dones, as into a pade, the done being raifed
all about them in fuch a manner as to cover the edtre
of the (hell; “ a proof (fays Mr Bruce) that this done
mud fome time lately have been foft or liquefied : for
had it been long ago, the fun and air would have worn
the furface of the (hell $ but it feems perfeflly entire,
and is fet in that hard brown rock as the done of a
ring is in a golden chafing.”—The water in this ifland
is very good.
The inhabitants of Fooflit are poor fidiermen of a
fwarthy colour \ going naked, excepting only a rag
about their waid. They have no bread but what they
procure in exchange for the fifh they catch. What
they barter in this manner is called feajan. But befides
this they catch another fpecies, which is dat, with a
long tail, and the (kin made ufe of for (hagreen, of
which the handles of knives and fwords are made.
There is a fmall town on the idand, confiding of about
30 huts, built with faggots of bent grafs or fpartum,
fupported by a few dicks, and thatched with grafs of
the fame kind of which they are built.
FOOT, a part of the body of mod animals whereon
they dand, walk, &c. See Anatomy.
Foot, in the Latin and Greek poetry, a metre or
meafure, compofed of a certain number of long and
(hort fyllables.
Thefe feet are commonly reckoned 28 : of which
fome are dmple, as confiding of two or three fyllables,
and therefore called diffy liable or trify liable feet; others,
are compound, confiding of four fyllables, and are
therefore called tetrafyllabic feet.
The diffyllabic feet are four in number, viz. the
pyrrhichius, fpondeus, iambus, and trocheus. See
Pyrrhichius, &c.
The trifyllabic feet are eight in number, viz. the
daftylus, anapaedutf, tribrachys, moloffus, amphibra¬
chys, amphimacer, bacchius, and antibacchius. See
Dactyl, &c.
The tetrafyllabic are in number 16, viz. the pro-
celeufmaticus, difpondeus, choriambus, antifpadus, di¬
iambus, dichoreus, ionicus a majore, ionicus a minore,
epitritus primus, epitritus fecundus, epitritus tertius,
epitritus
3
FOG [ 795 ] F O O
Foot, epitntus quartus, paion primus, pseon fecundus, paeon
x'oote. tertius, and paeon quartus. See ProcelEUSMATICUS,
 &c.
Foot is alfo a long meafure confining of i 2 inches.
Geometricians divide the foot into 10 digits, and the
digit into 10 lines.
Foor-Halt, the name of a diforder peculiar to fheep.
It is occafioned by an infeft, which, when it comes to a
certain maturity, refembles a worm of two, three, or
four inches in length. See Farriery Index.
Foot Square, is the fame meafure both in breadth
and length, containing 144 fquare or fuperficial
indies.
Cubic or Solid Foot, is the fame meafure in all the
three dimenfions, length, breadth, and depth or thick-
nefs, containing 17 28 cubic inches.
Foot of a Horfe, in the manege, the extremity of
the leg, from the coronet to the lowrer part of the
#.hoof.
Foot Level, among artificers, an inllrument that
ferves as a foot rule, a fquare, and a level. See Level,
Rule, and Square.
FOOTE, Samuel, Esq. the modern Ariftopha-
nes, was born at Truro, in Cornwall j and was defeend-
ed from a very ancient family. His father was member
of parliament for Tiverton, in Devonlhire, and enjoyed
the poft of commiflioner of the prize office and fine-
contrad. His mother wTas heirefs of the Dinely and
Goodere families. In confequence of a fatal mifunder-
ftanding between her two brothers, Sir John Dinely
Goodere, Bart, and Samuel Goodere, Efq. captain of
his majefty’s ffiip the Ruby, which ended in the death
of both, a confiderable part of the Goodere eflate,
which was better than 5000I. per annum, defeended to
Mr Foote.
He was educated at Worcefier college, Oxford,
which owed its foundation to Sir Thomas Cookes
Winford, Bart, a fecond coufin of our author’s. On
leaving the univerfity, he commenced ftudent of law in
the Temple; but as the drynefs of this ftudy did not
fuit the livelinefs of his genius, he foon relinquiffied it.
He married a young lady of a good family and fome
fortune j but their tempers not agreeing, a perfedl
harmony did not long fubfift between them. He now
launched into all the falhionable foibles of the age, gam¬
ing not excepted, and in a few years fpent his whole
fortune. His neceffities led him to the ftage, and he
made his firft appearance in the chara&er of Othello.
He next performed Fondlewife with much more ap-
plaufe ; and this, indeed, was ever after one of his ca¬
pital parts. He attempted Lord Foppington likewife,
but prudently gave it up. But as Mr Foote was never
a capital aftor in the plays of others, his falary was
very unequal to his gay and extravagant turn ; and he
contrafted debts which forced him to take refuge with¬
in the verge of the court. On this occafion, he reliev¬
ed his neceffities by the following ftratagem. Sir
Fr—s D—1—1 had long been his intimate friend, and
had diffipated his fortune by fimilar extravagance.
Lady N-ff-u P—let, who was likewife an intimate ac¬
quaintance of Foote’s, and who was exceedingly rich,
was fortunately at that time bent upon a matrimonial
fcheme. Foote ftrongly recommended to her to con-
fult upon this momentous affair the conjurer in the Old
Bailey, whom he reprefented as a man of furprifing
fkill and penetration. He employed an acquaintance Foote,
of his own to perfoncte the conjurer; who depifted *-
Sir Fr—s D—1—1 at full length j deferibed the time
when, the qfface where, and the drefs in which file
■would fee him. The lady was fo ftruck with the coin¬
cidence of every circumftance, that (lie married D 1 1
in a few days. For this fervice Sir Francis fettled an'
annuity upon Foote and this enabled him once more
to emerge from obfeurity.
In 1747 he opened the little theatre in the Hay-
market, taking upon himfelf the double charadler of
author and performer 5 and appeared in a dramatic piece
of his own compofing, called the Diverjions of the
Morning. This piece confifted of nothing more than
the exhibition of feveral chara&ers well known in real
life 5 whole manner of converfation and expreffion this
author very happily hit off in the diffion of his drama,
and fall more happily reprefented on the ftage, by an
exact and moft amazing imitation, not only of the man¬
ner and tone of voice, but even of the very perfons, of
thofe whom he intended to take off. In this perform¬
ance, a certain phyfician, Dr L—n, well known for
the oddity and fingularity of his appearance and con¬
verfation, and the celebrated Chevalier Taylor, who
was at that time in the height of his popularity, w>ere
made objects of Foote’s ridicule; the latter, indeed
very defervedly •, and, in the concluding part of his
fpeech, under the' chara&er of a theatrical diredlor,
Mr Foote took off, with great humour and accuracy,
the feveral ftyles of afting of every principal performer
on the Engliih ftage. This performance at firft met
with fome oppofition from the civil magiftrates of
Weftminfter, under the fan&ion of the aft of parlia¬
ment for limiting the number of playhoufes, as well
as from the jealoufy of one of the managers of Drury-
lane playhoufe j but the author being patronized by
many of the principal nobility, and other perfons of
diftinftion, this oppofition was over-ruled : and having
altered the title of his performance, Mr Foote proceed¬
ed, without further moleftation, to give Tea in a Morn¬
ing to his friends, and reprefented it through a run of
40 mornings to crowded and fplendid audiences. 
The enfuing feafon he produced another piece of the
fame kind, which he called yin Auction of Pictures. In
this performance he introduced feveral new and popu¬
lar charafters ; particularly Sir Thomas de Veil, then
the afting juftice of peace £or Weftminfter, Mr Cock
the celebrated auftionier, and the equally famous Ora¬
tor Henley. This piece alfo had a very great run.
—His Knights, which Was the produce of the enfuing
feafon, was a performance of fomewhat more dramatic
regularity : but ftill, although his plot and charafters
feemed lefs immediately perfonal, it was apparent that
he kept fome particular real perfons ftrongly in his eye
in the performance ; and the town took upon them-
felves to fix them where the relemblance appeared to
be the moft ftriking. Thus Mr Foote continued from
time, to time to feleft, for the entertainment of the
public, fuch charafters, as well general as indivi¬
dual, as feemed moft likely to engage their attention.
His dramatic pieces, exclufive of the interlude called
Piety in Pattens, are as follow : Tafte, the Knights,
The Author, The Englifhman in Paris, The Engliffi-
man returned from Paris, The Mayor of Garrat, The
Liar, The Patron, The Minor, The Orators, The
5 H 2 Commiffary,
F O O
[ 796 1
FOR
Foote. Commiffary, The Devil upon I wo Sticks, The Lame
 /— Lover, The Maid of Bath, The Nabob, The Cozeners,
The Capuchin, The Bankrupt, and an unfinifhed co¬
medy called The Slanderer. All thefe works are only
to be ranked among the petites pieces of the theatre.
In the execution they are fomewhat loofe, negligent,
and unfinifhed; the plots are often irregular, and the
cataftrophes not always concluiive : but, with all thefe
deficiencies, they contain more ftrength of chara&er,
more flrokes of keen fatire, and more. touches of
temporary humour, than are to be found in the writ¬
ings of any other modern dramatift. Even the lan¬
guage fpoken by his chara&ers, incorrecl as it may
fometimes feem, will on a clofer examination be found
entirely dramatical} as it abounds with thofe natural
minutiae of expreffion which frequently form the veiy
bafis of charaaer, and which render it the trueft mirror
of the converfation of the times in which he wrote.
In the year 1766, being on a party of pleafure with
the late duke of York, Lord Mexborough, and Sir
Francis Delaval, Mr Foote had the misfortune to break
his leg, by a fall from his horfe j in confequence of
which, he was compelled to undergo an amputation.
This accident fo fenlibly affeaed the duke, that he
made a point of obtaining for Mr Foote a patent, for
life j whereby he was allowed to perform, at the little
theatre in the Haymarket, from the 15th of May to
the 15th of September every year.
He now became a greater favourite of the town
than ever : his very laughable pieces, with his more
laughable performance, conftantly filled his houfe > and
his receipts were fame feafons almofl incredible. ar-
fimony was never a vice to be afcribed to Mr Foote j
his hofnitality and generofity were ever confpicuous *,
he was' viiited by the firft nobility, and he was lome-
times honoured even by royal guefts.
The attack made upon his charafter by one of his
domeftics, whom he had difmiffed for mifhehayiour, is
too well known to be particularized here. Suffice it
to fay, he was honourably acquitted of that charge :
but it is believed by fome, that the fhock which he re¬
ceived from it accelerated his death ; others pretend,
that his literary altercation with a certain then ducheis,
or rather her agents, much affe&ed him, and that from
that time his health declined. . It is probable, however,
that his natural volatility of fpirits could fcarcely fail to
fupport him again!! all impreflions from either of theie
quarters. .
Mr Foote, finding his health decline, entered into
an agreement with Mr Colman, for his patent of t e
theatre j according to which, he was to receive from
Mr Colman, 1600I. per annum, befides a ftipulated fum
whenever he chofe to perform. Mr Foote made his
appearance two or three times in fome of the molt ad¬
mired charaftersj but being fuddenly affefted with
a paralytic ftroke one night whilft upon, the ftage, he
was compelled to retire. He was advifed to bathe j
and accordingly repaired to Brighthelmftone, where he
apparently recovered his former health and fpirits, and
was what is called the fiddle of the company who refort-
ed to that agreeable place of amufement. A few weeks
before his death, he returned to London ; but, by the
advice of his phyficians, fet out with an intention to
fpend the winter at Paris and in the fouth of France.
He. had got no farther than Dover, .’'Vhen he was. *u4*
denly attacked by another ftroke of the palfy, which
in a few hours terminated his exiftence. He died on
the 21ft of Odfober 1777, in the 56th year of his age, _
and was privately interred in the cloifters of Weftmin-
fter abbey.
FOP, probably derived from the vappa of Horace,
applied in the firft fatire of his firft book to the wild
and extravagant Nawius, is ufed among us to denote
perfon who cultivates a regard to adventitious ornament
and beauty to excefs.
FORAMEN, in Anatomy, a name given to feveral
apertures or perforations in divers parts of the body j
as 1. The external and internal foramina of the cra¬
nium or Ikull. 2. The foramina in the upper and lower
jaw. 3. Foramen lachrymale. 4. Foramen membranae
tympani. ,
Foramen Ovale, an oval aperture or pafiage.through
the heart of a foetus, which clofes up after birth. It
arifes from the coronal vein, near the right auricle, and
pafies direftly into the left auricle of the heart, ferving
for the circulation of the blood in the fcetus, till fuch
time as the infant breathes, and the lungs are open :
in this the foetus differs from the aduit j although
almoft all anatomifts, Mr Chefelden excepted, affure
us, that the foramen ovale has fometimes been found in
adults. See Foetus.
FORBES, Duncan, Efq. of Culloden, lord prefi-
den of the court of feffion in Scotland, was born in
the year 1685. In bis early life,, be was. brought up
in a family remarkable for hofpitality j which, perhaps,
led him afterwards to a freer indulgence, in focial plea-
fures. His natural difpofition inclined him to the ar¬
my : but, as he foon difcovered a fuperior genius, by
the advice of his friends he applied himfelf to letters.
He dire&ed his ftudies particularly to the civil law 5 in
which he made a quick progrefs, and in 1709 was ad¬
mitted an advocate. From 1722 to i737> be rePrc*
fented in parliament the boroughs of Invernefs, Fortrofe,
Nairn, and Forres. In 1725, he was made king’s ad¬
vocate ; and lord prefident of the court of feffionin 1737.
In the rebellions which broke out in Scotland in 1715 an<^
1745 he efpoufed the royal caufe 5 but with fo much, pru¬
dence and moderation did he conduft himfelf at this de¬
licate conjuncture, that not a whifper was at any time
heard to his prejudice. The glory he acquired m advan¬
cing the profperity of his country, and in contributing to
re-eftablifti peace and order, was the only reward of his
fervices. He had even impaired, and almoft ruined,
his private fortune in the caufe of the public : but go¬
vernment did not make him the fmalleft. recompenfe.
The minifter, with a meannefs for which it is difficult
to account, defired to have a ftate of his diftmrfements.
Shocked at the incivility and rudenefs of this treatment,
he left the minifter without making any reply. I hrough-
out the whole courfe of his life he had a lively ienfe of
religion, without the leaf! taint of fuperfhtion j and his
charity was extended to every feCt and denomination of
religionifts indifcriminately. He was well verfed m the
Hebrew language ; and wrote in a flowing and orato~
rial ftyle, concerning religion natural and revealed*
fome important difcoveries in theology and philofophy,,
and concerning the fouRces of incredulity. He died m
1747, in the 62d year of his age * and his works hav*
finc'e been publiflied in two volumes oaavo.
FORCE, in Philofophy, denotes the caufe of the
' change
Fop
1!
Force.
change in the ftate of a body, when, being at reft, it
besrins to move, or has a motion which is either not
uniform or not dir eft. While a body remains m the
fame ftate, either of reft or of uniform and reclihnear
motion, the caufe of its remaining m fuch a ftate is in
the nature of the body, and it cannot be faid that any
extrinlic force has afted on it. This internal caule or
principle is called inertia.
Mechanical forces may be reduced to two forts : one
of a body at reft, the other of a body in motion.
The force of a body at reft, is that which we con¬
ceive to be in a body lying ftiH on a table, or hanging
by a rope, or fupported by a fpring, &c. and this is
called by the names of prejfure, tenjion, force, or vts
mortua, folicitatio, conatus movendiy conamen, &.c. To
this clafs alfo of forces we muft refer centripetal and
centrifugal forces, though they relide in a body in mo¬
tion } becaufe thefe forces are homogeneous to weights,,
preffures, or tenftons of any kind.
The force of a body in motion is a power refiding
in that body fo long as it continues its motion by
means of which it is able to remove obftacles lying
in its way 5 to leffen, deftroy, or overcome the force
of any other moving body which meets it in tin oppo-
fite direftion j or to furmount any dead preffure or re-
fiftance, as tenfity, gravity, friftion, &tc. for fome time ;
but which will be leffened or deftroyed by fuch re-
fiftance as leffens or deftroys the motion of the bo¬
dy. This is called moving force, vis matrix, and by
fome late writers vis viva, to dillingulfti it from the
vis mortua fpoken of before •, and by thefe appellations,
however different, the fame thing is underftood by all
mathematicians-, namely, that power of difplacing,
of withftanding oppofite moving forces, or of overcom¬
ing any dead refiftance, which refides in a moving
body, and which, in whole or in part, continues to
accompany it, fo long as the body moves. See Me-
We have feveral curious as well as ufeful obferva-
tions in Defaguliers’s Experimental Philofophy, con¬
cerning the comparative forces oi men and horfes, and
the beft way of applying them. A horfe draws with
the greateft advantage when the line of direction is le¬
vel with his bread; $ in fuch a lituation, he is able to
draw aoolb. eight hours a-day, walking about two
miles and a half an hour. And if the fame horfe is
made to draw 2401b. he can work but fix hours a-day,
and cannot go quite fo faft. On a carriage, indeed
where friclion alone is to be overcome, a middling
horfe will draw looolb. But the beft way to try a
horfe’s force, is by making him draw up out of a well,
over a fingle pulley or roller -, and, in fuch a cafe, one
horfe with another will draw 20olb. as already ob-
ferved. .
Five men are found to be equal in ftrength to one
horfe, and can, with as much eafe, pufh round the ho¬
rizontal beam of a mill, in a walk 40 feet wide;
whereas three men will do it in a walk only 19 leet
The worft way of applying the force of a horfe, is
to make him carry or draw up hill : for if the hill be
fteen, three men will do more than a horfe, each man
climbing up fafter with a burden of loolb. weight,
than a horfe that is loaded with 3001b.; a difference
which is owing to the pofition of the parts of the hu-
4.
man body being better adapted to climb than thofe of a
horfe.
On the other hand, the beft way of applying the
force of a horfe, is in a horizontal dire&ion, wherein a
man can exert leaft force j thus a mail weighing iqoib.'
and drawing a boat along by means of a rbpe coming’
over his (boulders, cannot draw above 2'jib. or exert
above one feventh part of the force of a horfe employed
to the fame purpofe.
The very beft and moft effeiftual pofture in a man,
is that of rowdng, in which he not only a£ts wdth more
mufcles at once for overcoming the refiftance, than in
any other pofition j but as he pulls backward, the
weight of his body aflifts by way of lever. See Defa-
guliers, Exp. Phil. vol. i. p. 241* where we have feve¬
ral other obfervations relative to force acquired by cer¬
tain pofitions of the body, from which that author ac¬
counts for moft feats of ftrength and adlivity. oee alfo
a Memoire on this fubjedt by M. de la Hire, in Mem.
Roy. Acad. Sc. 1629 ; or in Defaguliers, Exp. &c,
267, &c. who has publifhed a tranflation of part of it,
with remarks.
Citizen Regnier has invented an inftrument for afcer-
taining the relative ftrength of men and animals, for an
account of which, fee DYNAMOMETER j and for a fuller
defcription of the apparatus, the reader may confult the
original paper on the fubjedt in Jour. de l"1 Ecole Poly¬
tech. vol. ii. or the tranflation in Phil. Mag. vol. i.
Force, in Law, fignifies any unlawful violence of¬
fered to things or perfons, and is divided into fimple
and compound. Simple force is what is fo committed,
that it has no other crime attending it as where a
perion by force enters on another’s poffeflion, without
committing any other unlawful ad!. Compound force,
is where fome other violence is committed, with 'fuch
on oA whirh nf itfelf alnne is criminal ; a® >f
ters by force into another’s houie, and there kills a per-
fon, or ravifties a woman. There is likevvife a force
implied in law, as in every trefpafs, refcue, or diffei-
fin, and an adlual force with weapons, number of per¬
fons, &.c.—Any perfon may lawfully enter a tavern,
inn, or vidtualling houfe j fo may a landlord his te¬
nant’s houfe to view repairs, &c. But if, in thefe
cafes the perfon that enters commits any violence or
force, the lav/ will intend that he entered for that
purpofe.
FORCEPS, in Surgery, &c. a pair of fciffars for
cutting oft', or dividing, the flelhy membranous parts
of the body, as occafion requires. See Surgery.
FORCER, in Mechanics, is properly a. pifton with¬
out a valve. For, by drawing up fuch a pifton, the air
is drawn up, and the water follows j then pufliing the
pifton down again, the water, being prevented from de-
fcending .by the lower valve, is forced up to any height
above, by means of a fide branch between the two.
FORCIBLE entry, is a violent and adlual entry
into houfes or lands \ and a forcible detainer, is where
one by violence withholds the poffeflion of lands, &.c.
fo that the perfon who has a right of entry is barred, or
hindered, therefrom.
At common’ law, any perfon that had a right to en¬
ter into lands, &c. might retain poffeflion of it by
force. But this liberty being abufed, to the breach
of the peace, it was therefore found neceffary that the
fame ftiould be reftrained - Though, at this day, he
who
FOR [ 798 ]
FOR
Forcible, wlio Is wrongfully difpofielTed of goods may by force
retake them. By flatute, no perfons Avail make an en¬
try on any lands or tenements, except where it is given
by law, and in a peaceable manner, even though they
have title of entry, on pain of imprifonment: and where
a forcible entry is committed, juftices of peace are au¬
thorized to view the place, and inquire of the force by
a jury, fummoned by the Iheriff of the county ; and
they may caufe the tenements, &c. to be reftored, and
imprifon the offenders till they pay a fine. Likewife a
writ of forcible entry lies, where a perfon feifed of
freehold, is by force put out thereof.
Fo rcible Marriage, of a "woman of eflate, is felony.
For by the ftatute 3 H. VII. c. 2. it is enafted, “ That
if any perfons {hall take away any woman having lands
. or goods, or that is heir apparent to her anceftor, by
force, and againff her will, and marry ox defile her j the
takers, procurers, abettors, and receivers, of the wo¬
man taken away againft her will, and knowing the
fame, (hall be deemed principal felons; but as to
procurers and acceffories before the fad!, they are
to be excluded the benefit of clergy, by 39 Eli¬
zabeth c. 9. The indidlment on the ftatute H. VII.
is exprefsly to fet forth, that the woman taken away
had lands or goods, or was heir apparent j and alfo
that (he was married or defiled, becaufe no other cafe
is within the ftatute j and it ought to allege that the
taking was for lucre. It is no excufe that the woman
at firft was taken away with her confent : for if {he af¬
terwards refufe to continue with the offender, and be
forced againft her will, fhe may from that time proper¬
ly be faid to be taken againft her will j and it is not
material whether a woman fo taken away be at laft mar¬
ried or defiled with her own confent or not, if {he were
under force at the time ; the offender being in both
cafes equally within the words of the adl.
Thofe perfons who, after the fact, receive the of¬
fender, are but acceffories after the offence, according
to the rules of common law j and thofe that are only
privy to the damage, but not parties to the forcible
taking away, are not within the a£t, H. P. C. 119.
A man may be indidted for taking away a woman by
force in another country ; for the continuing of the
force in any country, amounts to a forcible taking
there. Ibid. Taking away any woman-child under
the age of 16 years and unmarried, out of the cuftody
and without the confent of the father or guardian, &c.
the offender ftiall fuffer fine and imprifonment 5 and if
the woman agrees to any contraft of matrimony with Forcin g
iuch perfon, Ihe {hall forfeit her eftate during life, to II
tne next of km, to whom the inheritance ihould ’de Fordvvic5'
fcend, &c. flat. 4 & 5. P. & M. c. 8. This is a force' 
againft the parents : and an information will lie for fe-
ducing a young man or woman from their parents, a-
gaxnit then contents, in order to marry them, &c. See
Marriage.
. FORCING, in Gardening, a method of producing
ripe fruits from trees before their natural feafon. See
Gardening Index.
Forcing, in the wine trade, a term ufed by the wine
coopers for the fining down wines, and rendering them
fit for immediate draught. The principal inconvenience
ot the common way of fining down the white wines with
ifinglafs, and the red with whites of eggs, is the flow-
nefs of the operation j thefe ingredients not performing
their office in lefs than a week, or fometimes a fort-
night, according as the weather proves favourable,
cloudy or clear, windy or calm : this appears to be
matter of conftant obfervation. But the wine merchant
frequently requires a method that ftiall, with certainty,
make the wines fit for tailing in a few hours. A me¬
thod of this kind there is, but it is kept in a few
hands a valuable fecret. Perhaps it depends upon a
prudent ufe of a tartarized fpirit of wine, and the
common forcing, as occafion is, along with gypfum,
as the principal; all which are to be w ell ftirred a-
bout in the wine, for half an hour before it is fuffered
to reft.
FORJpOUN, John of, the father of Scottiffi hifto-
ry, flouriftied in the reign of Alexander III. towards
the end of the 13th century. But of his life there is
nothing known with certainty, though there w^as not a
monaftery that poffeffed not copies of his work. The
firft five books of the hiftory which bears his name were
written by him : the reft were fabricated from materials
left by him, and from new colleftions by different per¬
fons. A manufeript in vellum of this hiftorian is in the
library of the univerfity of Edinburgh.
IORDWICH, a town of Kent, called in Doomfday
Book “ the little borough of Fordwich,” is a member
of the port of Sandwich, and was anciently incorpora¬
ted by the ftyle of the barons of the towm of Fordw ich,
but more lately by the name of the mayor, jurats, and
commonalty, who enjoy the fame privileges as the
cinque ports. This place is famous for excellent trouts
in its river Stour.
END OF THE EIGHTH VOLUME.
ERRATA in FLUXIONS.
Page. Col,
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708 2
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733 2
734 1
735 2
738 1
739 *
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Line.
27 for Mauclaurin read Maclaurin.
2 2 for read u~p x.
12 for read »J.
8 for u v, read u, v.
37 infert pp' /i* below u q h*.
38 for (y q'-\-w q')Iii, read (w 7'-{-/>/>'4-
I 2 for read .
1 for funRion, read fraffion.
3 2 prefix the fign -f- to the line.
5 for (4/—aJ), read (4 b—a1),
II readw—Art^x.
6 from bottom of page, for cof. x cof. h, read fin. x cof. //.
15 from bottom, for 2 a x, read 2 a x.
13 for *5—ax'+a'x—a*, read *4—ax1—o*a;-f-ah
23 for P, read c, and line 39 for y, read r.
2 read v/,(*z-f3'z)=’
5 from bot. read
7 from bottom, for ^—, read />—.
lalt line for y—»■, read y—.
9 for J 101, read § 104.
6 for (tan. =—^,read (tab. —^
12 for the laft, read the lajl but one.
24 add after B, fo as to include -—A.(ctz±zfiyt—between brackets,
11 for B read B".
9 for n read m, and line 21, for Cof. 2=i7r, read cof. 27t=i.
19 for x—r read xn—.
6 from bot. in the exponent of the denominator, for-—4-/&4- 1 read
n
6 for f m 1 ^ read Cx ^“I *.
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1 fo77(T^)= read/7(I=?7=:-
laft line, for tt read —•
2
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14 from bottom, for —A read —
4- 4-6
r j /. ... r 8 w
10 tor or, read/or; and hne 12, for,  read
+—+1'
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20 from bottom, infert a comma between x % and flux.
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ii readand line 13 read«
s
yv
z •
11 from bottom read X—  =: —-J ( ss—y).
—-J#4 +0'
2 read
19 read yx—x y ~o.
6 for every read any.
8 for 1 a x -j-, read 1 1
^ •
DIRECTION'S FOR PLACING THE PLATES OF Vol. VIII.
Part I.
cci.}toface
CCU.
CCIII.T
CCIV. /
CCV. f
CCVI.J
ccvii. 7
ccvm. y
CCIX. 3
cgx.
Page 10
122
238
322
Plate CCXI. 7
CCXII.
CCXIII.
CCXIV. *
CCXV.
CCXVI.
CCXVII.
CCXVIIL
CCXIX.l
eexx. 5
Part II.
?
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Page 568
628
<574
778
35°
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